ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 AT 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
Cornell University Library 
 QL S0.M26 1865 
 
 Zoological science; or, Nature in living 
 o -1904 nn3 393 315 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003393315 
 
FL I 
 
 EI.*B.CX»lli>«e. ''r 
 
 
ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE 
 
 QR 
 
 NATUM rir LrTirG forms, 
 
 ILIiUHEEATED. BY NUMES0U8 PliATESi 
 
 ASAFTED TO XLUCISAIE IBS 
 
 CHART OP THE ANIBiAL'IINGDOM, 
 
 BY a: M': RUDFiEiib, 
 
 AHO 
 
 DisaiaKED roR the higher seuinaries, common schools, libbabies, 
 
 AND THE f AMtLY CIRCLE. , ' 
 
 " Aik now the beasta, and they shall teach <bhee ; and the fowli of the air, and they ahall 
 
 tell thee ; or speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee ; and the fishes of the 
 
 ma shall declare unto thee. Who knoweth not in all these that 
 
 the band of the Lord hath inought this r> (Job zii. 1.) 
 
 B. B. & E: C. KEtLQGG, PtjBLISHEliS, 
 
 87 FULTOJf ST., NEW YORK, AND: 245 MAKf S%, HABTEOBD, CT. 
 
 1865. 
 
381375l)EDICATI0N. 
 
 This volume has with my aid been prepared by an esteemed and highly 
 competent friend, to whom I am also much indebted for valuable assistance 
 rendered in connection with the publication 6f the Chart which it is adapted 
 to elucidate. 
 
 Prepared, as it has been, with the utmost care and exactness ; with un- 
 usual regard to order aiid fullness of explanation a8 to the terms employed, 
 I am sanguine in the belief it will everywhere meet with a cordial welcome 
 as a suitable accompaniment of the Chart. Though both are capable of 
 being used separately, reach ;will be found to shed light} upon the other. 
 
 To Tea'ehers, io Parents and tteads of f'amilies, to all who are lovers of 
 Natural History and desire its advancement^ I humbly but respectfully ded- 
 icate this volume and the Chart.it is igitended to explain and illustrate. 
 
 AKS M. REDFIELD. 
 
 [Note.— Since the first edition of this work was issued, that " friend," the 
 Eev. E. D. Maltbie, of Syracuse, N. Yl, has been suddenly called away from aq 
 extended sphere of varied duty and usefnhiess on earth, to the exalted employ- 
 ments and contemplations of the heavenly state. Though in accordance with 
 his own desire, his name did not appear in that edition, aiero seems a propriety 
 
 In no longer withholding it t^m awork to the i)reparation of which the last two 
 years of his life were so largely devoted, that ft cannot but be regarded as an 
 
 induring memorial of his labi — -^ ' 
 
 xpected departure. 
 Syracuse, Febuary, 1869.] 
 
 ., _ „„ .».gwj uGTWbQu, biiab Ai> uauiiub uuii DB regaraeci as an 
 
 enduring memorial of his labors by a large circle of friends who mourn his un- 
 expected departure. 
 
 Entered according tp Act of Confess,, in the year ;858, by , 
 'E. B. &'e. C. kELLOCjG, ■ ••' ■ 
 
 ^fa the Clerk'» Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following TTOrk has been prepared as an accompaniment to the " Gen- 
 eral View of the Animal King6om " — a CfiABi which, in the beautiful and 
 harmonious arrangement of its several parts ; its lucid and Orderly Classifica- 
 tion ; its brief but comprehensite statements and explanations, — presents the 
 subject in an outline so full and consistent as to make it Valuable even to the 
 most scientific naturalist, both :^pi;onvenient private reference, and as a 
 help or guide in public lectures ; while the more -uninitiated, and such as are 
 . ;)ust setting out in the study of KatUral HiStOfy, becoming familiar with the 
 details of the Chart, will, it is beUeved, desire and be prepared the better 
 to appreciate additional 'information in relation to the subject ; such infor- 
 mation it is the aim of this work to impart. 
 
 The possessor of the Chart might have recourse to works of two 
 kinds— one purely scientific, like those of Cuvier and others, or the works 
 on Natural History published by State authority ; the other, of a strictly 
 popular, character, in which not a, single scientific Or technical term is em- 
 ployed. The array of unexplained technical language in the former class 
 of works, he would, perhaps, deem repulsive and discouraging; the .descrip- 
 tions of the latter class, he might, as related to the Chart, be often at a loss 
 to apply correctly, though presenting to him the appearance of more inter- 
 esting details than those which are found in works strictly scientific. The 
 present volume, being a sort of medium between these two kinds of works, 
 is adapted to meet the exigencies of such ^ case. It does not give the 
 " characters " and " descriptions " with the techniciality and minuteness of 
 the purely scientific treatise ; to do this was found to be incompatible 
 with the desired limits, as well as the general design of this publication ; 
 at the same time, it is far from ignoring these things', after the manner Of 
 some popular treatises. The " characters " of the Classes, Orders,, and 
 ramilies will here be found given with considerable fullness ; the main or 
 prominent ones of the genera and species are also usually glten; not in all 
 cases in a separate and formal manner, but occasionally are blended with 
 Other particulars relating to the general habits of animals, or interspersed 
 
iV FKEFACE. 
 
 with UIustratiTe anecdote. In most, if not all oasea, the reader will, from 
 the statements made, be able to form some correct and consistent ideas as 
 to the genera and species noticed. When more full discriminations are de- 
 sired, reference can be had to other and larger works. 
 
 The medium character of this volume, and its relation to the extremely 
 wide range of topics presented on the Chart, hare increased, the difficulty 
 of preparing it within limits so restricted. To have furnished an amusing 
 work composed chiefly or entirely of anecdotes or kindred material, would 
 have been, comparatively, an easy task. In its present form, this work will 
 perhaps not be unacceptable to such as are already somewhat acquainted 
 with Natural History in its scientific aspects and relations ; while others, 
 the young especially, may, from the use of this volume, pass, by an easy 
 transition, to the study of larger works and those more purely scientific. 
 To Teachers in particular, is this volume respectfully commended. Ques- 
 tions are added to each section with special reference to its use in Acade- 
 mies and Common Schools. 
 
 It is proper to remark that this work i%pot published as containing the 
 results of original observation, excepting to a limited extent : mainly it em- 
 bodies materials newly moulded and arranged, but derived from approved 
 standards, and some of the latest issues relating to the subjects of which 
 it treats. The range of reference and comparison has been extensive ; 
 the results of protracted investigation are sometimes condensed into a 
 single brief paragraph or sentence. This work will be found orderly and 
 harmonious in several respects in which some other publications betray , 
 confusion and inconsistency ; in the explanation of scientific terms, also, it 
 is unusually full. Neither on the Chart, nor in this volume has the aim 
 been to give all the different names which may have been applied by nat- 
 uralists to a particular object ; for this there was not room ; and besides, 
 in the case of some, such a course might have tended to confuse rather 
 than really enlighten. Many of the pictorial illustrations are original, and 
 with the accompanying explanations, will be found to add much to the in- 
 terest and intrinsic value of the work. 
 
 It is confidently trusted that the Chart, with this explanatory vol- 
 ume, will be welcomed in Seminaries generally ; and be accepted as valu- 
 able auxiliaries by all lovers of physical science. May they tend to 
 create and foster widely a taste for the study of nature; and by the 
 developments which they make, and the researches and meditations to 
 which they lead, awaken loftier and more worthy thoughts of the Infi- 
 nite Creator, U. 
 
 Stiucusi, llarghl, 1868. 
 
CLASSIFICATION OP THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 SUB-KINGDOMS, four: VERT'E-BRATES, AR-TIC'TJ-LATKS, MOL'- 
 LUSKS, RA'-DI-ATES. 
 
 ' YEBT'E-BBATES : Grand DiTisions : Wakic and Cold Bloodid : 
 
 The Warm Blooded Dmsion includes Mau-uals and BibsSi 
 
 1, UAM'MALS, three sub-classes nine orders. 
 
 First Sub-class, Vi(-aDic-CTLA''-TA, (with nails or claws). 
 
 (1.)' Bi-ua'na, (Two-handed) Man. 
 
 (2.) QcAD-Ru'-MA-NA, (Four-handed). Three families. 
 
 Bim'i-a-dce, Apes, Bab-oons', Monkeys of the Old World, 
 Ceb'i-da, Mpnk'eys , (American). 
 Le-tim'-ri-da, Le'-murs. 
 
 (S.) €AR-Siir'-o-RA (Flesh-eating. Quad'ru-peds). 
 
 Siib-ordcr, €hki-rop'-ter-a (Hand-winged) Bats._ 
 DlG-i-Ti-GRA-DA (walking on toes). Three funilies. 
 Fel'-i-da, €ats,' Li'-ous, Ti'-gers, &c. 
 Cm'-i-<l'«, Dogs, "Wolves, &c. 
 Vi-ver'-ri-dce, Civ-ets, Ge-nets', &c. 
 Mus-tel'-i-die, Wea'-sels, Ac. 
 Plant-i-gra'-da (walking on the soles of the feet.) Two fun- 
 Ur'-si-da, Bears, Bae-coons. [IBM. 
 
 Phoc'-i-dce, Seals, Wal'-ruses, &c. 
 Tritk In-skc-tit'-o-ra (Insect-eaters). Four families. 
 Er-i-na-ci'-a-da, Hedge'-hogs. 
 So-nc'-i-dct, Shrews, (Shru.) 
 Tal'pi-da, Msles. 
 
 Tu-pai'-a-da, Banx'rings (of the Indian Archipelago). 
 (4.) Mab-sC-pi-a'-li-a (Fouchsd Qnadrupeds). Four sections. 
 
 ■ Sar-eopk'-a-ga (Flesh-eaters). Dasy-u'-n. 
 - . . En-to-moph'a-ga (Insect-eaters). O-pos'-snms. 
 
 O-TO-vi-vip-ac-ous. car-poph'-a-ga (Fruit-eaters). Pha-lan'-gers. 
 
 Pd'cph'-a-ga (Grass-eaters). Kan"ga-roos. 
 ( Sub-order - Rhi-xoph'-a-ga (Root-eaters). Worn '-bats. 
 \ Mo»-0-TRSJt'-A-lA (Jlon'-o-tremes). Eehid'nte and Or-ni-tho- 
 * rhyn'-eus or Water-Mole. 
 
yi CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 (5.) E-DEN-TA'-TA (Toothless or without front teetlfflBp6ur families. 
 Brad'-y-pod-i-diB (Slow-footed) or Tar-dV^-da, Sloths. 
 Meg-a-the'-ri-a-dce (Great-beasts), fossil Sloths. 
 Mi/r-me-eo-phag'-a-dee (Ant'-eaters). 
 Ar-ma-dil'-ii-da (Ar-ma-dil'-los). 
 
 (6.) Ko-DEN'-TiA (Gfnawing Quad'-ru-peds). Nine families.^ 
 Sci-u'-ri-da (Squir'rels). 
 Are-tom'-y-dce (Mar'-mots). 
 6er-bil'-li-dts (Jer'-boas). 
 d/i£!^c/*3/''iJ-(fo (Chihrchil'-la8)i .^ 
 
 Cas-tor'-i-d<B (Bea'-vers). 
 Hys-tric'-i-die (Por'-cu-pines). 
 Mu'-ri-dui (Mioe and JBatg),- - 
 Ca-vi'-a-doe (€a'-vies or Guin'-ea-Pigs). 
 jU-por'-i-dce (Hares), 
 
 .. \SBO'-oin) ScB-oLASSf Ujs'-gd-la'-ta (with hoofs). 
 
 j^..} . ^j^ep-TrDEBu'-A-TA . (Thick-skinned Quad'rupeds). Three families. 
 
 El-e-phan' -ti-dm (or Pro-bos-eid'-e-ans,) El'ephants, &c. ' 
 
 Sit'-i'doB, Swine, Ehi-noc'-e-ros, &c. 
 
 ^y'-«W«, Horses, Ze'bras, &c. [^°'''-P^'s^oM-hoof^!*"''^"''? 
 
 (8.) Eu-jji-san'-tia (€iid-chewing Quad'rupeds). Eight families. 
 Ca-rmV -i-dce, €!am'-els, Ua^mas. 
 Ca-OTe^o-^a»-'-(?(»,,€a-mel'-o-pards or Gi-raffes'. 
 Moi'-ehi-dce, Musk'-Deer. 
 Oef'-vi-da, Deer or Stags. 
 Bmi'-i-da, Oxen, Bis'-on, (Buf'^faJo,) &c. 
 Ov'-i-da, Sheep. 
 Cap'-ri-dee, Goats. 
 An-ti-Iop'-i-^e, 4JQ'-te-lopeg. 
 
 Third SoB'CL ASS, Ma-rine' Mam'-mals. 
 (9.) Ce-ta'-ce-a (Whalef^tribe). Four families. 
 
 £a-lcen'-i-dce, Ba-leen or Whale-bone Whales. 
 Cat-o-don'-ti-dcB or ) t,, ci i. titv i 
 
 „ J-hve-e-ter'-i-dcf, \ ^'"""^ °'' Sper-ma-ce-ti Whales. 
 fiel-pkin'-i-da, Dolphins, Por'-poi-ses, &c. 
 Ma-nat'-i-dce or ) nr . , o /-i l 
 
 Her-biv'-o-rous Ce-ta'-cea, \ Man-a-tees' or Sea-Cows, &o. 
 
 I. Division op Warm Blooded Vert'-e-bratks. 
 
 Birds: Land Birds, five orders; Water Birds, two orders. 
 (1.) Rap-io'-res (Eav'-en-ers or Birds of Prey). Three families. 
 Fal-eoii'-i-ice, ral'reon tribe. Three families, 
 Si*b-famiUes, ^J'wi-M'-nffi, Ba\gles. 
 Jul-ilii-nce, Kites. 
 Bu-te-o-ni'-na, Buzz'-ards, 
 Ji'al-€a-ni'-nce, Fal'-«ons. 
 Ae-cip-i-tri'-iiCB,. Hawks, 
 Vul-tur'-i-da, Vul'-tures, 
 Btrig'-i-di^ Owls. 
 
va 
 
 (2.) In-sx3-3o'-rxs 4^eirefacirg_)('. Four Sub'Oirden. ' jyn>nia<f^^x8, 
 
 DkN-TI-ROS'-TEES, €0ll[-I'-lt03''TBSS) TlS-D-I-BOS'-TKXS. 
 
 1. Fis-si-Bos'-TREs Cleft-bills). -''Six iapiiliesi' 
 Oap-ri-mU' -gi-d<e. Nightjars, 
 jffi^nwi-rfire'-J-doB, SwaW(»#8.^ ^ 
 Mi^rop'-i-dce, Bee-eaters. 
 Tod'-i-dce, Todies. 
 i'S'(^^»h.'-JJ(f«j"!Trog6nB. 
 
 3, Psir-Ti^6s'-T&£s '(Toollied-bing). Mve families. 
 
 ■' ■'' fil^ra-ft-'^w, Warblers.' 
 
 Jft-M'-iwi* oi'^Wi^V^aB, 'Thrushes. 
 
 '■ jl»*r-*Sf'-f-afei<&i^t'-ter-ers. if 
 
 Z^'-fed^ySiHfces or Butoh-er-Birds. 
 '8. €on-i-r6^'-tbe3 (jGnnefbUledJi Seven families. 
 ; Cor''-virdi^,'^Tayiri, 'StftJisSn.'! ■p<i'-»tdii-j»«'-fl-(fe!, Bilds of Par- 
 
 ; Sl!«r%j^ae,- StarUnga. " -iK- - <'})i?ffise. 
 
 ' J^rin;^il!-lif-da, jFJnches. 
 Xox'~-i-a^f Crp^'-bills. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Miti-6'pKag''-i-flfe,' Plan'tain-eatera.- 
 
 4» T^-p-i-Ibos'-tres (thin-billed). Five famiUes. 
 \PrQin-e-rop'-i-c^ or. Z/-^'^^ja-(fc, Hoop^ is. 
 
 ^po^ri'Sfe' } Sun-birds, Honey-sucliirs or Nectar Birds. 
 Tro-chiV -i-clit, 'Exiip! ■fm\^§-\At^. 
 Mel-i-phag'-i-dc, Honey-eaters. 
 Cer-thi'-a-dhs, ^reep'-era. 
 
 (S.) SoAN-so'-REs (€lin)b'-er^). Four fop^lleB. " ' 
 
 JUiam-ph/Of'-tirdce^ Tpn-«an8. 
 
 Psit-tae' ■:inja,' Wax' -TOis.' - - 
 
 Pi'-ci-da, Wood'-peokprs. 
 : p, I .jCTw^mV^Ww €nck'-Qqs. 
 
 f(t.) IRa-so'-rks. or 6ai.-li'-nji, (Scratohers, FouItTT !Birds}i<nflftye^ 
 M f Co-ZaiK'-M-fte, Pig'-eoris, • [families. 
 
 Crac'-Uda, Cu-ras'-siws. 
 
 Meg-icL-po-di'-deB, "ULe^ -ai-paiei <a Grea^fodts. 
 
 .P^<M-»-«(»~«-ife, Pheas'-ants, 4o. »y a-i- 
 
 Tit-ra-on' -i^iie, Oroase. 
 , . , (J^i-oa'-t-ffe; -SSifisth'-bills. 
 
 2?-na7?i'-i-<fa„ Tin'-a-ipoiia. \ 
 (6.) CcR-so'-BEs (Runners). Oiifc family. &irurthi-an'-i-diB, Ostriches, 4c. 
 1(6.) '6kai-la-To'-res, CWa'rdersV Six &ij^li^.— ^quatic Birds. 
 
 Cliar-a-dri'-a-dce,7loy'-ets. 
 
 Ar-de'-i-da, Her'-ons. 
 
 Ros'-tri-dx, Spboa'-bUll. . 
 
 ran-<(ii'-i-(i«, I'-bises. 
 
 Btot-d-piu' -i-dd. Snipes. 
 
 B$t'-l(^t Baas. 
 
xm 
 
 CtASSIFICATIOHi 
 
 ,<;!un(Ti)>iiN'A-ii?To'-BM, (Swim-mers). Six faimlieg* 
 . ,.i.Tr-'i!nfl-. -A-*iat'-i-da, Dacia. ■ . 
 Co-lifin'-bi'ida, Dif;ers. , 
 Al'-ci-da, Auks. 
 Fro-cel-lar'4-da, Petrels. 
 Zar'-i-da, Gulls. ;,,; 
 
 Pel-e-ean'-irda, Pel'-i-eans. 
 The Cold Blooded Division includes B«piiai.«S and. Fishis. 
 I. Em'tileb, four orders, viz, : €he-lo'-ni-an3 (Turtles). 
 
 ■ Siij'-Tii-Ass (Lvs'-ards, Croe'^-o-dileB). 
 Oj-phid'-i-ans (Snakes). , n 
 
 ■ Am-phib'-i;ans (Frogs, Toads, kij. 
 
 l8t €hk-lo'-J«i-AHS, f Chs-Lo'-nijl,^) arranged by Agassia. _ 
 
 Sub-orders. Families. \ [Land 
 
 (Tes-tu-di-ni'-na, Tor-toi-ses. 
 
 1 
 
 brier, ife 
 
 2d. Sac'-bi-aks, 
 
 t. ji-my'-da, 
 
 2. Cherla-'ni-i, 
 
 ■ '-I -I'-' 
 
 : .nH ■• '.'■'■ 
 
 Staoul 'Cro6-a-dil'-i-da. 
 
 Mm-y-doi'-da, 
 
 Ci-nos-ter-noV-da, 
 
 Chel-y-droi'-da, 
 
 Hy-dras' 'pi-da, 
 
 Chel-j/-oi -dee, 
 
 Tri-o-nych'-i-da, 
 
 " (Jhe-lon-i-da, 
 
 ■ Sphar'-gi-dtB, 
 
 ' Al'-li-ga-tors orCai'-mans.Amer 
 
 €roc'-o-dilea of the Nile. pea. 
 
 Ca'-yi-als of the Ganges. 
 
 E-na-li-o-sau'-ri-a, (Fossil Fish- 
 
 Charme'-le-ons. [loz-ards). 
 
 Jtlarsh and 
 '■^ Biver 
 Tor'- 
 toises. 
 
 Sea 
 Turtles. 
 
 " Cha-mia' -U-on' 4-1 
 " 6eeh-6i'-hclt^^;GefiM.'-oa.. 
 " I-giian' -i-da, Ig-ila'-nas. 
 " Fa-ra»i'-j-&,'Ta'-ranS. 
 •' .' '2%'-t-&; Te-guli'-ins. ' 
 " ia-cer'-ri-dffi, True Liz'-ards. 
 " Chal'-ei-da-i Snake-like do; ' ' ' 
 " jScm'-ct-dof; Scinks. '' 
 
 im. Co-lv,'-hri-da\ (mostly) harmless Snakes. ) Sub-or. 
 "jo'iBj».'TiU(fe,.Bo'-as andPy'-thons. Vf.^LD- 
 
 " Hyd'-ri-da, Water (Venomous) Snakes. ) bbi'-ita. 
 " Vi-per'-i-dcB, Vipers. ) - Sub-order 
 
 '-' ,iCro''<a2-t-<fevRattle Shakes. j-Vrnfe-m'-NA. 
 4th. AHraiB'-i-AHS. Sub-order. €A-DU-ci-BiUitcB-t'-rA-TA, (Gills perish- 
 able in the tadpole state.' - -' >"' 
 'Fam. Cte-cil-i'-i'da,de-d,V-ia). Ap'-o-dous or without 
 
 Order, Bau'-bia.- 
 
 Order, Ophidia. 
 
 Order, Aufbibia. 
 
 ' Sdt-d-man'-<dn-3ce • 
 
 Land-Is ewts. ■ y$% 
 Tri'-tons,W4er-Newts. ) ^^ 
 Am phi-u'-ma, \ 
 Me-nop'-o-ma, or J. 
 
 Mud'deyil. y [giUa). 
 Sub-order PE-Ri!it-Ni'-BRAf(-CHi-A'./i;A, (with enduring 
 Pro-tt'-i-da, (Pro'-te-us, Ax'-o-lotl, Siren). T-,|> 
 
 Am-phi-u -mi-dee, ■ 
 
CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Vi 
 
 *II. F18BIS. Thbke Gbocps or DiTisioNS, based npon the distinctive 
 
 character of the fins, Tiz. : 
 Ac-a5-thop-te-btg'-i-i, (Spine-rayed fins). 
 Mal-a-cop-te-ryg'-i-i, (Sott-ra;£d fins). ' 
 €hon-dbop-te-eto'-i-i,, (Car'-ti-lage fins). ] 
 Agassiz bases the orders upon the scales and makes them four, 
 Cten'-oids', (tc-noid') (-Comb-like or jagged sc^es). 
 Oye'-loids, (Circle-Uke). 
 Giln'-oids, (Splendor-like). 
 Plae'-oids', (Plate-Uke)i 
 
 ■Family CPer'-ei-di^ (Pferch). 
 1st Obdeb. Trig'-li-dte, ^ur'-nards). 
 
 ACAS-THOP-TE-BTo'-i-i, Sci-en'-i-da, (Maig-res, Sheep's-heads, Bmm-fish, 
 Spar'-i-ife, Sfea-Breams). [&o). 
 
 GluB-ton'-tircUe, (Chse'-to-dobs, Moon-fish, Bazor- 
 
 (Spine-rayed,) 
 
 or 
 
 Cten'-oids, 
 
 (te'-noid). 
 
 2d Obdeb. 
 
 MAL-A-COP-TE-Rra'-I-l, 
 
 (Soft-rayed,) 
 
 or 
 Cro'-LoiDS. 
 
 Seom'-bri-dte, (Mack'-er-el). ' [fish). 
 
 An' -a-has' -si-da, (€limbing-Perehea).' ' 
 
 g.-porj& or Uibbon-fish. 
 
 Teu'-thi-dce, fSurgeon-fish). 
 Ath-e-rin'-ird(S, (Silver-sides). 
 Mtt-gil'-i-da, (Mul'-lets). 
 Ghb -i-dcE, (Gro'-bies). 
 Loph'-i-dcB, f Crested or Toad-fish), 
 iai'-ri-tfe, (Wras'-ses or Bock-fish). 
 
 r f/Si-W-ri-fte, (€at-fish). 
 
 Cy-prin'-i-da, (Carps). 
 M-SQc'-i-da, (Pikes). 
 jFis-iUrlar'-i-dtf, (Pipe-fish). 
 SfflZ'-Bibji'-i-Sffi, (Sal-mon). 
 Olii-pe'-i-dee, (Her'-ring). 
 r Oatf-i-dce, fCod'-fish). 
 
 OT Plan'.i-d„, '[fFIat-fish). 
 Eek-e-ne' -i-dtB, (Suck'-iug-fish^. 
 \^Otj€-lop^ter'-i-da, CLnmp-fish). 
 Ap'-o-des, without j Mu-reen'-i-da or ) /j, , . 
 ventral fins. j Aii-guW -li-dd, J l"*"/- 
 Lp-pho-braneh'-i-a on J [^oj. 
 
 io-pho-braneh'-i^,- > Syn-gnath-'i-da, (Sea-horse', 
 (Tufted-gills). -) [fish). 
 
 •„,._ J. / ti,; ( Gytn-HO-dmi'-ti-da, (Bal'-loon- 
 
 (flajtea jaws;, j Og.ira.ci-mi'-i.da, (Trunk-fish). | 
 
 Ab-dom'-i-nales 
 
 (Ventral fins 
 
 behind the 
 
 pectoral.). 
 
 Sub-bracV- 
 
 i-als, (Ventral 
 
 fins under the 
 
 pectoral). 
 
 •SMPigeecs. 
 
OLASSIFICATfOU. 
 
 Chon-1)rop-tk- 
 
 BTO'-l-I. 
 
 Bab'-ojbs. 
 
 PUO'-OIDS. ■ 
 
 Sau'-ri-Jait (Stti'iah, ko.) 
 'E-leu-the-rop'-o-mi, (gills free). 
 I • Chi-ma-ri-dce, (Sea Monsters). 
 
 Stii-ri-wi'-i-da, (Sturgeons). 
 Pla-gl'Os'-to-Tni, (transverse mouths). 
 
 Smal'-i-da, (Sharks). 
 Rai'-i-da, (Rays). 
 Cyelos'-to-mi, (Round fleshy mouth or Up). 
 
 Pet-TO-my-z<m'-i-d<e, (Lampreys). 
 
 (Braneh-i-os'-to-roa, (GilUmouth, i. e., having 
 eir'-ri or curled filamsats in the mouth). 
 [Am-phi-6x'-i-da, (Lapcclets). 
 Very anomalous, and sometimes included 
 ■ffith the Cy-elos'-to-mi. 
 
 jU;TI€!'-TT-LATES. 
 11 In'-sects. 
 
 Three classes. 
 
 Insects. 
 
 €!BrS-TA'-CK-ANS. 
 
 Worms or An-nel'-i-dans. 
 
 Twelve Or- 
 ders of 
 True In'- 
 sects. 
 
 With biting 
 mouths. 
 
 f 1 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 / 8. 
 
 9. 
 
 With Buck- J 10. 
 
 ing mouths. ' 11. 
 
 .12- 
 Sometimes flS. 
 
 called i 
 Siib-olasses. \. 14. 
 
 €o-LE-op'-TER-A (Sheath-wings), Bee'-tlcs, Hornbnga. 
 Stkep-sip'-teb-a (Twisted-wings), Wasp-flies. 
 Der-.«ap'-ter-a (Skin-wings), Ear-wigs. 
 Or-ihop'-teb-a (Straight-wings). 
 Sub-orders, €cR-so -ri-a (Runners), Cock-i'oaches. 
 
 Rap-to'-ri-a (Graspers), Mantises. 
 
 AM-er-iArio'-Bi-A (Walkers), Walking-sticks. 
 
 Sal-ta-to*-ri-a (Leapcrs), Grasshoppers, 
 
 [Crickets, &c. 
 Tri-ohop'-ter-a (Hair-\vings), €ad-dice-flie8, &o. [Ac. 
 Neu-^op'-teb-a (Nervp-winfts), White Ants, Dragon-flies, 
 HyM-EN-op'-iSR-A (Mem-bra -nous-wings), Bees, Wasps. 
 
 Lep-i-eop'-ter-a (Scale-wings), Moths, Butterflies, &c. 
 He-mip'-ter-a (Half-wings), Fruit-bugs, Bed-bugs, &c. 
 Dip'-TEE-A (Two-wings), Flies, Mug-qui'-toes, ^c. 
 Aph-a-nip'-teb-a (Invisible or Rudimental Wings), Fleas, 
 
 Jig-gers. 
 Ap'-ter-a (No wings). Lice, Le-pis'-ma. 
 
 Mtb-i-ap'-o-da (with innumerable feet). Thousand-leg- 
 ged Worms, Cen'-ti-pedes. 
 A-8ACH'-sr-DA, Spiders, Seor'-Ja-ons, Ticks, Mites. 
 
 2d. €BF9rTA'-ciWNS. Five orders (or sub-olasscs,) (Dana).. 
 
 1. De-eap'-O-da (Ten-footpd), -grabs, Lob'-sters, Shrimps, &o. 
 
 2. Tfet-ra-de-eap'-o-da (Fourteen-footed), So^-bugs, Sand-fleas, ke. 
 8. En-to-moS'-tra-ea (Shell insects), Cye'-lops, Daph'-ni-a, Cy'-pris 
 
 — Lim'-u-lus, (Sea-Spiders), and possibly..also.Jrjii'-LO-Bina. ' 
 4. Cir'-ri-pe-des (€url«d joiutftd-feet), Bar'-na-eles. 
 6. Ro-ta-to'-ri-a or Ro'-tif-e-ra — Wheel An-i-nial'-eules. 
 8d. Worms or An-nei,'-i-dak3. Four orders. 
 
 1. Tu-bu-li-braneh-i-a'-ta (Gills in tubes), Sorpula, Vcr-mil'-i-a &c 
 
 2. Dor-si-braneh-i-a'-ta (Gills on the back), Sea-Cen'-ti-pedes ' 
 8. , A-braneh-i-a'-ta (without gills). Leeches & Earth-worms 
 
 4. Bo-tozo'-a, (In^s'-ti-nal Wome,) or White-blooded WormB 
 
CX,A8S1FICATI0H. ^ 
 
 J °- Tbese.Bometiiii^s resemble worms foun^in fbe other classes 
 OF orders, mhiie differing froin 'ilieiil as tb thmwetUity. Ihej 
 . b*ve l^een.arranged, jftto the following sub-orders : 
 (I). Nem-a-roi'-de-a or ]Sf.(!ni;-a-to^4s,Rpun(H \Yorms, Thread 
 Wol-ms^ Pin Woriiia,,,GilJrica Worms. 
 
 f2V,!4r«a'J-tI\o-Q9^'-a-la, (Sjjkfc-headed,) Hooked Worms, 
 (3). Trerm9|t'-o-(i»j (from'.^f,. frmo^ idle, having. Snpker-] 
 
 inga,) iFliike Worms, &c. 
 (4).'.Ces-toi-dea;, (Gr. KistM, girdle;) Tape Worms. 
 
 (8)-'C: " " •■ "■ ■ ' 
 
 like open- 
 
 <ys'-tl-«a, (6r. Kustis, it bladder,) Byt'-a-tids or Bladder- 
 I like Worms, 
 
 MOL'-LTTSKS. Two 6ran& DrrasioKS. 
 
 "'-'■' Ceph-a-la'-ta ^with heads) or IT'-si-vaites. 
 .,, ■• A-ceph'-a-ia (without heads) or Bi'-VALTKS. 
 
 I I. Cktb-a-la'-ta: Three classes or sub-divisions, viz. 
 
 ■ (l)..toH'.^-to-PO»s,{5#-^^,^,,_[Twos 
 
 Pi-braneh-i-a'-ta, (Two braneh'-i-ie, Brank'-e-»,) fJotftle-flslj, 
 
 Tet-ra-^anch-i-a'-ta, (I'oiir braneh'4-a3,) Nau'-ti-lus, Am- 
 
 mon-ltes, &c. ,,", . ' ,-' i-'j' ".■,u.''7 '. 
 
 /ov T>«„.;' i ( Wing-footed, i. e., ) 
 
 ^'^ J^^S r>>ea'rms [ihre^ families. 
 V""' .Tw i~>">/ J for swimmmg. ) 
 
 Sy-a-lai'-i-dtB, Hy'-a-lae, €le-o-do'-ra. 
 
 Lim-a-cin' -i-dce, Lim-a-ci'-na, Spi'-ral-is. 
 
 Oli-on'-i-dce, Clio. 
 ,„. „ / » i Stomach-footed, i. c; ) Divided inti> laiie 
 
 (3). Gas -ter-o-pods, j j.^^,. .^^ ^^^ gtomaeh! \ famiUes. 
 
 (l)fc Pul-mo-braneh'-i/^a (Lung-like Gills). ' - . •. 
 
 Jti-OTac'-z-d(B, (from ii'-maa:,) Slugs. 
 Hf-lic'ri-dqe, (from ire'-?iK;)Sii8iils.' ' ; ^' 
 
 Au-rU-u'-U-dk, (from ulM-n«'-?«-fe,) Ear-ishaiped shells. 
 • Xi»B-jJce'-i-(f«e, (from ZJ»J-n<je'-a,) Aquatic Snails.'^ 
 
 (2j. Pee-tin-i-braneh'-i-a, (Comb-like gills.) (Nine families.) 
 : Troeh'-i dee, (from Trpelms,) Troehi, , 
 i Tur-bin' -i-dce, (hom Tur'-ho,) Tur'-bines,. Per'-i-wink-les. . 
 I Mu-rie' -i-dce, ( ',' Mn'-rex,) Mu'-ri-ces. 
 ^ , Strom' -bi-dcs, -( " Strom' rbuo,} Coneh-Shells. 
 
 Sue-em' -irdce, ( " ^gws'-ein-iim,) Harp-Siells, Whelks. 
 
 C!/-proe'-irdce,i " Cy'-prce-a,) €oyi'-nes, 
 
 Con'-i-dff, (from Co'-nus,) €ones. 
 
 Vo-lu'ti-da, {irom Vo-lu'-ta,) Volutes, Olives, Mitreg. 
 
 Qap-u-loi'-de-ce, {{rom Cap' -a -Za,)€up-Shaped Shells. 
 
 (3.) Braneh^i-fers, j . *;'"'^*g^J2f ■ 
 
 Sub-class, r |, ^yg.„^ 6^ ,^ , ^._^ 
 
 : JW6icZi-6ron«A'-t-fl, (Tu'-bus-lM-gillB,) Ver-yie'-tus, SU-i-qua'- 
 " , Satirti-braneh'-'i-a, or ( Gills shielded by ) ^al'-i-o^tis. ' 
 
 As-pi-do-brdneh'-i-ajl the shell, -.j :, 
 
 f Gills circular, i. e., ),£ii,i'.|on 
 Cherlo-yQ.Mh'^-a, \ droand the bodyof f xin*;***' - * 
 
 >' ' ( ^bestiitual. J> - *^' 
 
zu 
 
 eLASStFICAXION. 
 
 m .-t 11 • i €overed-rillfl, i. e., l M'-la or 
 Tee-lfbratuh -t-a, , -j ,,y the mantle. \ Bub'-ble. 
 
 ■1 
 
 PhyUid'-i-a, 
 Di-phyl-lid'-i-a. 
 
 f TJndei'-gills, i. e., 
 In-/er-o-bra7i€h'-i-a, -J under the edge 
 
 (of the mantle. 
 ( iTaiced-gfflSj i. e., ) Glau'-eus, 
 } Without Shells. J Do'-ris. 
 
 Other-footed, 1. e., feet ) €ar-l-na'-ri-a, 
 different from the others. jTi-ro'-la. 
 
 yu^di-braneh'-i-oi 
 Het-e-rop'-o-da, -j 
 
 ■my- 
 a;-ri-a, or 
 having one 
 muscle. 
 
 Ccar-di-a' -ce-ee, 
 
 Uantle closed behind. 
 
 Si'-phons united 
 or distinct. 
 
 II. A-Oeph'-a-la. Headless jkoLLUSKS. Foui- orders. [leaf-like gills.) 
 
 (1). €!oN-CHir'-ER-A (Shell bearing) or Lam-el-li-branfiV-i-a, (Plate or , 
 '(Oyster fam.) 0»-<m'-ce-e^Sub-fSiniiir-.4n-o»ii'-^<ilB,A-iio'-rai-a,1 jiQn^).n 
 ■ P/<i-«K'-n.i-<fe,Pla-eu'-na, 
 
 ,0s'-tre-4-d(B, Os'-trpa, 
 _ l^(«-tin'-i-dtB, Pee'-ten, 
 Av-i-€u'-li-diB,A-vii-'}i-h,, _ 
 
 (Fresh Water Mus'-sels) JVai'-a-des (Na'-ya-rdeez,) or U-ni-on'- 
 
 i-da, TJnio, An'-o-don, Al-as'-mo-don. 
 (Salt Water Mus'-sels) Myt-i-lae'-e-ce, Myt'-i-lus, Mo-di'-o-la, 
 ;. Pin'-na, €re-ner-la. 
 
 CKfl-mac'-e-a-sub-families. , 
 
 Tn-dae'-ni-da, Tri-dae'-na. 
 Cham'-i-da^ €ha'-ma. 
 'do. 0ar-dei'-i-rf<8, €ar'-di-ta. 
 Cy-tlad'-i-da, Cye'-las. 
 Tel-lin'-i-dte, 'fel-li'-na. 
 Jju-cin' -i-d<e, Lu-ci''na. 
 Ve-tier' -i-da, Ve'-nus. Di-my-a'- 
 
 ^ Ci'iM-si-ter-Zi-ffe, €ra3-si-tel'-la. f'ri-a(or 
 Sub-order In-elu'-sa (uiclosed, j. c., within the man- f having two 
 tie, which has but one opening for the passage , muscles), 
 of the foot. 
 Families Ma^' -tri-da, Mac'-tra. 
 
 My'-i-da, My'-a. ' 
 
 pol-e-My -i-da, Sol-e-My'-a. ; 
 
 Sitx-i-eav'-i-da, Sax-i-ea'-va. 
 Pan-dor' -t-da, Pani-do'-ra. 
 Sp-len'-i-da, So'-leU (Razor Shell). 
 Pho-lad'-i-dcs, Pho'-las. [Worm), 
 
 Ter-e-din'-i-da, Te-re'-do. (Wood or Ship 
 Enclos. in a tube ( Tttrbi-eol'-i-dce, As-per'-gil-luhi ) Watering- 
 but not attached. ( or Gas-tro-ehse'-na. J pot. ' J 
 
 f Arm-footed, i. e., having two long ) Ter-e-brat'-u-la, 
 (2). Bbacb-i-op'-o-da, i spiral arms on each side of the > ' Lin'-gu-la 
 i (Brak'-e-op-o-da.) ( mouth capable of protrusion. ) Or-bi^-U-Ia. 
 
 ■ ( €oated, i. e., body enveloped m an elastic ) . , ,. 
 (8). Tc-m-tJA'-TA, I ; ^ tunic or coat. j-— mcludmg 
 
 ( the As-cid'-i-mis (Mol'-lusks of a Leathern bottle-shape). 
 
 tt). Bbt-04o'-i. i''"- Moss-animals i. e., largely, aggregated like ) 
 , ' t «or-al-lig -e-BouB Zs'-o^pby-toS. ' J 
 
 l-'t 
 
CLASSIFICATION. xiu 
 
 Agafsix proposes the following classification, Contributions to Nat. Hist., 
 Vol. 1, page 185.) 
 
 1st Class. A-ceph'-a-la, (orders as already given.) 
 
 2d do. Gas-ter-op'-o-da, •:Fith three orders, Pter-op'-o-da, Het'-e- 
 
 rop'-o-da and Gas-ter-op'-o-da proper. 
 3d do, Ceph-a-lop'-o-da, with two orders, Tet-ra-branchri-a'-ta and 
 
 Di-branch'-i-a-ta. 
 KA'-DI-ATES. Four classes. 
 
 I. Ech-in'-o-derms, (Gr. Heh-i'-nos, Sea-urchin ; derma skin.) 4 orders. 
 (IV Ho-lo-thu-rid'-e-a, (Gr. Ho-lo-tlun^-riron,) Sea-slugs or Sea-eucum- 
 (2). Ech-in-id'-e-a, (Gr. Eeh-i'-noa). Sea-urchins. [bers. 
 
 hS. As-ter-id'-b-a, (Gr. Astir, a Star). Star^fish. 
 ,(4). €!ri-hoid'-e-a, (Gr. KrS-nmi, a lily, lily-like). En'-eri-nite. 
 
 n. Ao'-A-LEPHS, (Gir. Ak-a-h'-plie, a nettle). Three orders. 
 
 (1). Pul-mon'-i-grades, /)«foit), lungs; ciradior, to advance, i. e., con- 
 tracting or expanding their umbrella-shaped disk, thus showing 
 a resemblance to the motion of the lungs when breathing. 
 
 (2). Phys-o-gra'-da, (Gr. phusao, to inflate; gradior, i. e., supported 
 and moving in the water by means of one or more bladders, ca- 
 pable of being filled with , air at the will of the animal). Hy- 
 drostatic A^alephs of €!uvdcr. 
 
 (3). Cil-i-o-gea'-da, {cil'-i-a, vibratile hairs; gradior, i. e., moving by 
 means of vibratile cil'-i-a disposed on the surface of the body.) 
 The orders are otherwise named thus : 
 
 Dis-coph'-o-ra, (Disk-bearing) Me-du'-sse or Jelly-fish. 
 Siph-o-noph'-o-ra, (Si'-phon or Sucker-beariOg, i. e., having 
 
 aerial vesicles.) 
 Cte-noph'-o-ra, (€omb-bearing, i. e., moving by vibrating haira 
 J]te-noph'-ora.) resembling the teeth of a comb. 
 
 In. Pht-to-zo'-a of ( {plmton, a plant ; edoh, animal.) Plant-like animals. 
 Zo-o-pht' ta, \ Two orders. 
 
 p ,, I Ac'-TiN-oiDS, {akiin, a ray,) Kay-like animals. [animals. 
 
 • '^P^' |: Hy'-dboids, {httdn-a, a hydra or water-snake,) Hydra-like 
 rV. Pro-to-zo'-a, {protcm, first; zoon, animal: i. e., the lowest form of or- 
 ganized bodies. 
 
 [The last is a very numerous, but a very uncertain class. Linnseus placed 
 them all at the end of Worms, and called them Cliaos. So great is the 
 number of the Infcsories, that they have sometimes been arranged into 
 Legions, Some have been transferred to the Articulates ; others have been 
 removed to the Vegetable Kingdom. Prof. Agassiz is of the Opinion that 
 the entire class will soon be dispensed with.] 
 
NOTE. 
 
 An interesting and instructive use of the "Oliart of the Arfmil iKing- 
 dom " will be to Employ the method of Classification, whiph i^ embosJies, 
 in tracing an individual of any species, through the succftssi'^e graditicing, 
 to tb^£|ub'<Kingdom to which it bebag^^^ 
 
 " 1. In the Vertebrates, take, for example, the Common Dog, OarmfamiU 
 iaris; and it maybe traced as follows: The generic term (whicli is 
 always placed before the speciflcj or stands alone when the st^ecific 
 term is omitted) is Vanis ; familiafis is the specific tenn. (Jenera 
 are formed into families; the family. name is GwnidiB; families aire 
 formed into sub-orders or orders (the orders are in larger or capital 
 letters) ; Canida belongs to the' sub-order DiGliieiiAD^ ; to the order 
 Carnivora. Orders are formed into classes. Carnitora belongs to 
 the sub-class Ungciculata ; to the class Mammals.' Clksses (denoted 
 by larger letters) are formed into STJB-EINGDOMS. The ItAMMALS 
 belong to the Sub-Kingdom Vertebrates, denoted by letters next in 
 size to those of the "Animal Kihgdom." 
 
 2. In tlie Artiodlates, take the Lobster, Astaeun marinuK. Marinits de- 
 i^otes the species ; Astacus, the genus'— of the order (or sub-class) 
 Malaoosthaca, of the class Crustacea, Of the Sub-Kingdom ARiipn- 
 
 LATESi 
 
 8. In the Mollusks, take the Shell, MUra ephcopalis. JEpiscapalis is the 
 name of the species : Mitra, of the genus. This genus belongs to the fam- 
 ily Vbiiitidis. The family VotutiSa belongs to the order Fectinibran- 
 cBiA ; this order to the class Gasteropods ; this class to the Uni- 
 valves, the first grand division of the Sub-Kingdom Mollusks. 
 
 4. In the Radiates, take the Portugese Man of War, Phy salts petagica. 
 The generic term is PAysoKs ; the specific terra, pelagica ; Fhysalis 
 belongs to the order Siphonophohi, to the class Acalkphs, to the Sub- 
 Kingdom Radiates. 
 
 The above are given as specimens in the several sub-kingdoms, showing 
 
 ' the manner in which the species named in the Clvart, may in conforinity 
 
 with the system of Classification, be followed up to their respective places. 
 
 To aid both teachers and pupils in pronouncing terms, many of *hich 
 are uncommon, those foupd in the Classification and Index of this work, 
 have, with great ciire, been divided into syllables, and accentuated accorll- 
 ing to the best authorities. Por words purely English,' and such as have 
 become Anglicised, Webster has been chiefly followed ; for those strictly 
 classical, the pronunciation has been given in conformity with the rules of 
 Prof Andrews, now so generally adopted. It is however very apparent 
 that in regard to many of these terms, great differecco of opiuiou and usage 
 exists among intelligcut and scientific men. 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The, science of Natural History is truly vast in its extent, 
 including all bodies found on the earth, or of which its mass is 
 cornposed. Its most general divisions are Mineralogy, Botany 
 and Zoology. These divisions are founded upon the different 
 and distinguishing characters and states of the various objects 
 which they respectively include. Minerals are inorganic bodies ; 
 they are without life, and incapable of increase or diminution 
 except by means of some force outwardly applied. These are 
 earth, rock, metals, dsc. Organic bodies are divided into ani- 
 mate and INANIMATE. The former comprehend substances en- 
 dowed with sense and motion and belong to the department of 
 Zoology ; the latter are without the faculties of sense and mo- 
 tion, and included in Botany. Organized beings, whether ani- 
 mate or inanimate, differ from inorganic ones in having the power 
 of reproduction, or continuing the existence of beings like them- 
 selves. Animals derive their nourishment eithe'r directly or in- 
 directly from vegetables, of which hydi"ogen and carbon are 
 the principal ingredients. The latter derive their nourishment 
 from the soils of the earth and from the atmosphere. 
 
 In the survey of objects so numerous and.possessing such varied 
 characteristics as those of Natural History, classijicaiion is obvi- 
 ously of high importance. A union of several traits is almost 
 always required to distinguish .a single being from others 
 around it which have some, but not all of the same traits, or 
 have them in combination with others of which that single 
 being is destitute. In the work of classification a number of 
 neighboring beings are compared with each other ; and their 
 differences, which are supposed to be the leiist part of their for- 
 mation, are made indexes of their charactC'r. The union formed 
 by the comparison of objects which agree, but with certain 
 differences, is called a genus ; a union with fewer differences 
 
10 NATURAL HISTOKY. 
 
 is called a species. Genera are formed into orders, and orders 
 into classes. 
 
 The Chart of which this volume js explanatory, exhibits the 
 "Animal Kingdom " by means of a Tree having four branches, 
 each representing one of the four sub-kingdoms into which it is 
 divided, viz., Vertebrates, Articulates. Mollusks and Radi- 
 ates. Each branch puts forth other branches bearing subdivis- 
 ions — classes, orders, families, genera, &c., illustrated by nu- 
 merous and appropriate figures, and so variously lettered and 
 marked as to be easily distinguished. It was prepared with 
 great labor, and in the use of much research, in order to facil- 
 itate acquisitions in the department of physical science which it de- 
 lineates and with the hope of thus encouraging a more general in- 
 troduction of the Study of Natural History intoour Seminaries o( 
 learning, from the Common School to the College and University. 
 " Man," said Lord Bacon, " is the minister and interpreter of Na- 
 
 TURE." 
 
 More attention should Be given in the domestic circle, and in the 
 various schools of instruction to the businessof training the young 
 to be oJservers of nature. A fondness for the lessons and resear- 
 ches of natural history, implanted in the mind during the period 
 of youth, will, in all probability, last through life, affecting fa. 
 vorably the entire mental development. 
 
 None should neglect the investigations to which, by the "View 
 of the Animal Kingdom," they are invited. Such investigations, 
 it should be remembered, pertain neither to fict'ion nor hypothe- 
 sis — but to realities. They seem specially adapted to man's 
 endowments in his present state of existence ; but the facts and 
 impressions which he derived from an earnest contemplation of 
 the works of God, memory will embalm and render immortal. 
 " And as now the memory of home is pleasurable in proportion 
 to the vividness and distinctness of its image ; as we now attach 
 importance to the most insignificant object around the place of 
 our birth; as we regard with intense interest the ol'd elm, the 
 green lawn, the hawthorn bush, the rivulet because they are in- 
 separably connected with our developments of mind, even so 
 perhaps may we then, after millions of ages shall have elapsed, 
 recall with increasing pleasure the physical scenery of this 
 birth-place of our existence." 
 
 QUESTIONS ON SECTION I. 
 
 What does the science of Natural History include? What are its gen- 
 eral divisions? What are minerals? How are organic bodies divided? 
 Which belong to Zoology ? Which to Botany? How do organic bodies 
 
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 11 
 
 differ from inorganic? From what tlo animals derive their nourishment! 
 Of what do vegetables principally consist ? From what do they derive their 
 nourishment ? What is necessary to distinguish one being from another ? 
 How do you proceed in classifying objedts? What is a genus? What 
 is a species ? Of what are orders and classes formed? What is the defi- 
 nition of genus and species at the bottom of the chart on the left hand ? 
 What are minuter differences ; called ? Answer. Varieties. What does a 
 generic name signify or comprehend ? Ans. It comprehends all the species j 
 Canis, fbr example, is the generic name of animals of the Dog kin^, includ- 
 mg the Fox {Canis Vulpts,) the Wolf (C Lupus,) the Jackal (jC. aureus,) 
 and the domestic Dog {G. farhiliaria.) How are generic terms printed on 
 the chart? Ans. Always larger than the common name by which the ani- 
 m,a\ is^Jinown, and commencing with ai capital letter. How do you distin- 
 guish the specific from the generic name ? Ans. It fpllows the generic 
 term in letters of the same size, and should not commence with a capital, 
 unless it is derived from some person or place,. or is sometimes used in a 
 generic sense. Why is the name of the species bftera omitted on the chart ? 
 411s. For want of room, and fear of confusing the student by crowding too 
 much in a small space. . How are the families distinguished on the chart ? 
 Ans. By their terminating in idae, as muatelidae for the Weasel Tribe, or 
 Fariiily. How can you distinguish the orders ? Ans. They are printed in 
 CAPITALS, and the: number of orders is mentioned on the branch, as in 
 the Ungulata, or hoofed Mammals. Are there any other divisions or dis- 
 tipjqtiipns on the chart ? Ans. Several, as among the cud chewing some 
 have solid horns, some are hollow, and some are entirely without horns ; 
 some shed them annually as in the deer, in others they are permanent, as 
 in the Ox or 'sheep. Some birds are terrestrial, others aquatic'; some 
 insects and reptiles are venomous (poisonous ;) others are non-venomous, or 
 harmless. Wherever itlp,ei!e; is room, you will find these things noticed 
 on the branches, or as near the classes, ordpiis or figures as praqticable. 
 Dots are often added to make the- connection or relation still plainer; and 
 wheire there is but small space allotted to explanation or figures, the defi; 
 ciency will be Remedied as we proceed. How many ranks, or grades of 
 groups does Swainson enumerate ? Ans. Nine, commencing with the high- 
 est, and terminating with the lowest assemblages. 1. Kingdom; 2. Sub- 
 kingdom; 3. Class; 4., Order ; 6. Tribe; 6. Family; 7. Sub-family; 8. 
 Genus; 9. Sub-genus. N^ame the four great Classes, or Sub-Kingdoms 
 from the chart. 
 
 SECTION 11. 
 
 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 The system of Zoology places man. at the head of this King- 
 dom. As he is endowed with intellectual and moral faculties, 
 and fitted for responsible actiop, there is room for doubt whether, 
 in his pre-eminence, he should have a place among the tribes of 
 animals, , But as his, being is compound, he becomes the con- 
 necting link between them and brings purely spiritual. To the 
 former he is allied by his bpdily frame with its appetites and 
 passions; to the latter by his reason and mental :susoeplibilities. 
 Instinct distinguishes the lower animals — truly wonderful in 
 
J2 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 Some of its actings as will be shown hereafter ; but yet only a 
 mere internal impulse, and incapable of improvement. The 
 bird shows it in building its nest; the bee in constructing its cell?; 
 but both the nest and comb are made as skillfully' at the first as 
 in any subsequent trial. 
 
 There seems no occasion to mistake by referring to mineralogy 
 or botany what properly belongs to the Animal Kingdom ; and 
 yet in Such anitnals as the oyster we discern but little of the sen- 
 sibility and capacity for voluntary motion which are usually ad- 
 duced as characteristics of the animal tribes. ^ 
 
 Chemistry has ascertained that the substances found both in ani- 
 mals and vegetables arc chiefly formed of four elements, viz., car- 
 bon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These have, therefore, 
 been ca.lled organic elements. The opposite and distinctive 
 natures of plants and animals may be seen in the functions 
 which they perform dependently one on another. In animal 
 respiration, the oxygen of the atmosphere is combined with the 
 blood, forming carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off from the 
 entire surface of tiie body in some animals ; from the gills of 
 those that live in water, and the lungs of those that live in air.' 
 Animals thus consume oxygen— to them it is pabulum vitae — 
 the food of life. Plants, on the contrary, consume carbonic acid 
 and give off oxygen. They thus become able to furnish animals 
 with carbon. Animals, in their turn furnish food to plants. The 
 excretions which they throw off, yield ammonia (consistirig of 
 hydrogen and nitrogen,) from which substance vegetables princi- 
 pally derive their nitrogen. Tlje animal derives the constitu- 
 ents of its body from the vegetable kingdom ; the plant obtains 
 its elements from the mineral kingdom. The tissues qf the plant 
 change mineral into organic substances ; those of the anirnal 
 change organic substances into mineral. 
 
 A further contrast between plants and animals is presented in 
 the effects produced upon them, respectively, by light and heat. 
 Both of these are indispensable to the proper growth of plants. 
 The productions found in their tissues are but the expression of 
 the light and heat they' hav«, as it were, appropriated. Many of 
 the substances in this way formed, are takeil as food into the 
 systems of animals; but in them are again set free in the form 
 of " vital animal forces." 
 
 Differences of structure also constitute an important ground of 
 distinction between the animal and vegetable kingdbtns ; yet 
 sometimes, as in the sponge,' it is only by considering to which 
 there is the greatest general resemblance, it can be decided 
 
ANIMAL KINGDOM. 13 
 
 whether a particular being should be classed as an animal' or 
 vegetable. 
 
 The different piethods by which they receive food, and assim- 
 ilate it or convert it into their own substance, form another dis- 
 tinction between animals and plants. Vegetables imbibe their 
 nourishment through their outward surface, or through their 
 roots and leaves ; but animals, for the most part, have a stomach, 
 or internal cavity, into which the food k received, where it is 
 digested, and by appropriate vessels, absorbed into the body. 
 < The food of animals is generally in a solid' state, and must be 
 rendered fluid before it can be form^ into the tissues. , Taken 
 at intervals, and stored in the stoniach, it ^oes not hinder their 
 movempnts from p^aqe to place. During the intervals of its re- 
 ception, it is kept in contact with the absorbent vessels. Hence, 
 animals are said to "bear their soil about with them." The 
 earth is called " the stomach of plants." 
 
 The habits, and instincts of animals must also be considered 
 by th^ zoologist in making, up the account of the differences be- 
 tween them and plants. This is a field which affords a wide 
 scope for comparison and research in tracing analogies between 
 objects in many respects diverse, and one which teaches many 
 lessons concerning the Divine wisdom and benevolence. 
 
 The chart of "the Animal Kingdom " presents a view of that 
 branch of Natural History which is called Zoology, a term de- 
 rived from the Greek Zdon, an animal, and logos, a discourse. 
 This includes nine divisions, viz. ; I. Mammalogy, which treats 
 of the Mammalia, or animals that nurse their young ; II. Orni- 
 thology, which relates to Birds ; III. Erpetology, which includes 
 the Natural History of Reptiles ; IV. Ichthyology, which gives 
 the Natural History of Fishes ; V. Entomology, which gives 
 the Natural History of Insect? ; VI. Crustaceology, which treats 
 of Crabs, Lobsters, &c. ; VII. Helmintbology, which treats of 
 Worms ; VIII. Malacology, which includes Conchology, and 
 describes soft-bodied animals, with and without shells; IX.* Ac- 
 tinology, which treats of radiate animals, as the Star-fish, Sea- 
 Anemone, &c. The Animal Kingdom is divided, as on the 
 chart, into four sub-kingdoms, viz.: Vertebrates, Articulates, 
 Mollusks, and Radiates. 
 
 * We have ventured to introduce this new term, formed from the (Ireek 
 word aktin, a ray, (corresponding with the Latin radius,) and logos, a dis- 
 course, in order to have the names of the several branches alike as to their 
 termination and Greek derivation, though the terms actinia and actiniadee, 
 (generic and family,) refer distinctively to the Sea-Auemqpes. 
 
14 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 The Vektebrates, (from the Latin vertebra, a joint, which 
 comes from vertere, to turn,) have a jointed backbone, or inter- 
 nal bony skeleton. They are divided into Warm and Cold 
 Blooded ; the former, including Mammals, [Mammalia,) and 
 Birds, [Aves ;) the latter. Reptiles, (Reptilia,) and Fishes, (Pisces.) 
 The Whale tribe. (Cetacea,) inhabiting the sea, form one order of 
 the Mammalia. 
 
 Articulates, (from the Latin articulus, a ring or joint,) are 
 animals in which the body and legs are jointed, and the hardest 
 parts are outside. These are arranged into three classes, viz. : 
 Insects, Crustaceans, and Worms. 
 
 MoLLUSKS, (from the Latin mollis, soft,) are shell-fish whose 
 nervous system is composed of several scattered masses, or gan- 
 glions, united by means of nervous threads, and whose soft bod- 
 ies are generally protected by a shell. 
 
 Radiates, (from the Latin radius, a ray,) are animals whose 
 parts are disposed in the form of rays, tending to a common cen- 
 ter, where the mouth is placed, as in the Star-fish. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON SECTION 2. 
 
 Who is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom ? With what is he 
 endowed ? For what is he fitted ? What does his compound being consti- 
 tute him? How is he allied to animals ? How to spiritual beings ? What 
 guides the lower animals instead of reason ? Does the bird or bee con- 
 struct its last nest or comb with more skiU than the first ? Is there any 
 need of mistake in referring to Mineralogy or Botany, what properly belongs 
 to the Animal Kingdom ? How is it with the Oyster ? What are the four 
 elements both in vegetables and animals ? What name is given to these 
 elements? What shows the opposite natures of plants and animals? 
 When animals breathe, what is combined with the blood ? What gas is 
 thus formed ? How is this thrown off in some animals ? How in others ? 
 What is oxygen called ? On what do plants live ? What do they give off? 
 What do they furnish to animals? What do animals furnish plants? 
 What is obtained from animal excretions? What do vegetables derive 
 from it? Whence does an animal derive the constituents of its body, and 
 whence the plant its elementary ingredients? What is a further source of 
 contrast between plants and animals ? What additional ground of distinc- 
 tion is there between the animal and vegetable kingdoms? In some cases, 
 how is it determined to which of the two a particular being belongs? 
 What further distinction between plants and animals is referred to ? How 
 do vegetables take in their nourishment? How animals? What is said 
 about the food of spimals ? What are animals said to do ? What has the 
 earth been called ? What is said of the habits and instincts of animals as 
 relates to the diiferences between them and plants ? What benefits flow 
 from tracing the analogies between animals and plants ? Is this a wide field 
 and what does it teach ? 
 
 What does the Chart present ? From what is the term Zooloqt derived ? 
 Of which of the three kingdoms of nature is this Chart a general view f 
 
PL.H. 
 
 VERTEBRATES 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE 11. 
 
 ViBTEBBATES, ASTICnLATES, MoiLtTSKS ABD EaDIATES. 
 
 VEKTEBKATBS. 
 
 1. Homo sfipiens, Man. 
 
 2. Cebws, Monkey. 
 
 3. Camelua JDromedarius, Dromedary. 
 
 4. Atiis, Bird. 
 
 6. Ciconia Alba, White Stork. 
 
 6. Pisces, Fishes. 
 
 7. Ophis, Snake. 
 
 8. Sana ptpiens, Bull-frog. 
 
 9. Alligator lucius, Alligator. 
 
 ARTICtlLATES. 
 
 1. Astaeus marinus, Lobster. 
 
 2. Papilto, Butterfly. 
 
 3. Cfulex pipiens, Mosquitoe. 
 
 4. Musca domestica, Common House Fly. 
 
 6. Larva^ or Caterpillar of a Moth or Butterfly. 
 
 6. Tettigdriia verrucivora, Spotted Grasshopper of Europe. 
 
 7. Clems apiarius. Hive Beetle. 
 
 8. Lucanus cervus, Stag Beetle. 
 
 UOLLUSES. 
 
 1. Suceinum, Whelk. 
 
 2. Mi»a Episcopalis, Bishop's Mitre. 
 
 5. Tridatna gigv, Giant Tridacna. 
 4; Planorbis, Coil-shell. 
 
 5. Siliquaria. 
 
 6. Nautilus umbilicatus, TTmbilicated Nautilus. 
 
 7. Loligo vulgaris, Common Calamary. 
 
 8. Triton variegatus. Variegated Triton. 
 
 9. Physa fontinalis, Bubble-Shell. 
 
 Kg. 1. Corallvm, rubrum. Red Coral. 
 2. Apiocnnites rotundus. 
 ' 8. Mawardsia veMta. 
 4. J)iawBa, a Jelly-fish, or Medusa. 
 6. Tima Jlavilabris, Jelly-flsh. 
 
 6. Asieria^, Star-fish. 
 
 7. Zoanthus Sotanderi, Animal Flower, or Zoophyte. 
 
 8. Astraa angmas. Fine-apple Coral. 
 
Ig ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 How many divisions does it include ? Of what does Mammalogy treat ? 
 To what does Ornithology relate? What does Erpetology include? 
 What does Ichthyology give? What science treats of Insects? What 
 of Crabs, Lobsters, and Barnacles? Of what does Helminthology 
 treat ? What does Malacology include and describe ? Of what does 
 Aotinologyjtreat ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE CHART. 
 
 How is the Animal Kingdom divided on the Chart ? To which of these 
 four great Classes, or Sub-kingdoms, do the first four of the above nine 
 divisions belong? Point out each division of this right-hand branch. 
 Give the name of the science pertaining to or describing each. In what 
 particular do they all agree ? Ans. In having a backbone, or spinal 
 column. Define vertebra and give its derivation. Which are warm blooded ? 
 Which are cold blooded ? How cold or warm are they ? How many orders 
 of Reptiles? How. many of Fishes? How many of Mammals? Which 
 order ranks first, and is far above all others ? What is said of mah, near 
 the bottom on the right hand of the chart ? What is said of his btain ? 
 What of his birth ? What of his wants ? How does he compare with 
 others in regard to strength, speed, &c. ? Is his reason an improvable gift? 
 Does it supply the place of strength ? What order comes next to man ? 
 How do the Quadrupeds differ from Qdadrumana ? What marine animals 
 belong to the class Mammalia ? In what element do they live ? With what 
 organs do they move ? Is the laifgest living animal found in this class ? 
 What is its name and what are its uses ? Which of the TEKTEBKAtES live 
 in the water? Which on laud? Which in the trees? Which fly? 
 Which swim ? Which crawl ? Which are covered with feathers ? Which 
 with hair? Which with scales? Which are born alive, (viviparous?) 
 Which hatched from eggs, (oviparous ?) Which are entirely without limbs? 
 Which have but two ? 
 
 Ja which Sub-kingdom, or on what branch do you find Insects, Crusta- 
 ceans, and Worms or Annelidaiis? From what is the name 'Crustaceans 
 derived ? In what do they resemble one another ? Have they any internal 
 skeleton? Where are the hardest parts? Which is the largest of all 
 articulated animals? Ans. Lobsters. Name some of the worms on the 
 chart. Of what use is the leech? Of what use is the earth or angle worm, 
 (Lumbricus terrestris ?) Aiis. This despised creature is of great use in 
 loosening the earth, so that air and water can pass through it freely, and in 
 covering barren tracts of land with their w^rm casts, thus rendering them 
 productive. Mention some of the Insects and Crustaceans. Name the 
 sciences describing them. Are Insects a numerous class? Ans. They out- 
 n;imber all other (passes together. There are 80,000 species-of the beetles 
 alone, (order GoUcptera.) Here you find the CurcaZjo,' or weevil, death- 
 watch, lightning-bug, horn-buga, &c., &c. , 
 
 I -: . 
 
 ' From what is the name of the third branch, (Mollusks,) derived? How 
 are these soft bodies protected ? How are Mollusks divided ? Which have 
 heads ? Which none ? To which division do snails and slugs belong ? On 
 which branch do you find Oysters and Clams? Which move about, (are 
 free?) Which are fixed, (stationary f) Is the Oyster lilways attached to 
 other substances? Ans. No. Which branch of the MoUuaks are entirely 
 aquatic, or never leave the water? Are the Tdnioata, or Asoiduns pro* 
 
VERTEBRATES, 19 
 
 tected by shells? Kame from the chart the largest genus of known shells. 
 Is ita tiiraive', (bf two pieces,) or a univatve, (of one piece?) 
 
 Which is the four(ih,i last and lowest branch of the Animal Kingdom? 
 Define Radiate. How are the parts disposed ? Where is the mouth,? From 
 what is the term derived? Are they aquatic? What is said of these ani- 
 mals near the bottom of the fihart, on the left hand? Are they leas per- 
 fect Of their kind than those on the right branch ? Why, then, are they ' 
 said to be the lowest in the scale of aiimal life? Wnich anuhals are 
 always lowest in organization in the class, division, or order to which they 
 belong ? Which rank next in the ascending scale ? Which raiik highest 
 of all? Which is the lowest prder of land animals which nurse their young? 
 Aus. The MoNOTREMATA. and Marsupials. Why are the branches of the 
 orders Marsupialia and Rodentia, (gnawers,) bent and^arried around next 
 the Jtiarine mammals ? . Aus. To show that though having nails, they come 
 next the order Cetabea, (Whales, Dolphins,r &c.,) in organization. Which 
 is the, lowest or most simply organized class of animals.? How many 
 ol-dei-s does it contain? What do^es proto signify? Is it a well 
 established class ? What is said of it ? What animals are found on the 
 chart among the Radiates? Which are microscopic? Which fossil? 
 Which used as fqod? What is said of Sponge? Where doesAgassiz class 
 it ? , Are Animalcules, Infusories, and ' Microscopic or very minute animals 
 common ? .^ns. They are, dispersed like seed through all nature. Are 
 Animalcules 'teniaciOus of life? Ans. It is so difficult to kill them that 
 they can be repeatedly dried and kept for a. long time, and will revive 
 or come again to life, as soon as put into water. 
 
 FIRST BRANCH OP ZOOLOGY. 
 
 MAMMALOGY, (Gr. fid/i/M, mamma, a breast; %os, logos, 
 : >; .1 a diseoiirse.) 
 
 [. GRAND DIVISION OF TERTEBBATES, (Wam-BIooded Animals.) 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 VERTEBRATES. 
 
 (Lat. Vertebrata, possessing Vertisbrae, or jomts in the backbone.) 
 
 The first class of the Vertebrates consists of the Mammals,' or 
 Mammalia, (Gt. Mamma, a breast,) a term first used by Linnasus 
 and designating all animals which nurse their young. The 
 highest positioa in the Anitpal Kingdom is given to this class, 
 composed as it is of beings whose faculties are the most numer- 
 lOus, which are most perfect in their structure and capable of the 
 most varied movements, and whose intelligence is most largely 
 developed. A large part of the Mammals are formed for walk- 
 ing ; some can Sy in the air, and water is the element in 
 which others five and move. Their skeletons are all constructed 
 
30 VERTEBRATES. 
 
 after the same general pi ah, changted, however, and modified in 
 certain parts or organs, to fit them for the.stations which they are 
 designed to occupy. (See Plates III. and XII.) All of them are 
 viviparous, (born alive.) The young, as the name of the class 
 denotes, are, for a longer or shorter time, nourished by the milk 
 of the mother. Sometimes they are born with their eyes open, 
 and able immediately to move about and seek their own food.; 
 but not a few of them are born with their eyes closed, and 
 in a state of extreme helplessness. 
 
 The leading characters of the Mammalia are founded on the 
 number and kind of their teeth, (see Plate IV.) and the construc- 
 tion of their hands and feet. (See Plates HI. and VI.) The 
 expertness of these animals is closely connected, with the per- 
 fection of the organs of touch. The nature of their food and 
 their digestive functions may, in great part, be inferred from the 
 number and structure of thfeir teeth. (See Plates III. and VI.) 
 
 Tliey are divided into three sub-classes, viz. : Unguiculata, 
 (lat. Vtigui cuius, a soft, small nail,) animals with nails or claws; 
 and Ungulata, (lat. unguld, a hoof,) animals with hoofs; and 
 Cetacea, with fins, (Gr, Ketos, a whale, or sea monster.) 
 
 The Mammals are, (on the. Chart,) arranged , into nine orders, 
 after the plan of Cuvier, that arrangement. being, depmedj^on the 
 whole, the most satisfactory The number of Well established 
 species, according to Dr. Hitchcock, is somewhat more than 
 2000. = . - 
 
 The names of the nine orders are, I. Bimana ; II. Quad- 
 eumana; III. Carnivora; IV. Marscpialia; V. Edentata;, 
 VI. Rodentia; VII. Pachydermata ; VIII. Ruminantia ; !X.' 
 Cetacea. 
 
 ' Some naturalists have elevated the Cheiroptera, the Insec- 
 TivoRA, and the Monotremata to the rank of orders, making the 
 number XII ; but the first two of these are flesh-eaters, and 
 therefore properly included among the Carnivora, (or the Carnas- 
 siers of Cuvier;) and the Monotremes, including but two gen- 
 era, have such points of resemblance to the Maesupiaha, as 
 justify referring them to that order. 
 
 ^ QUESTIONS ON THE VERTEBRATES. 
 
 What is the first class of Vertebrates? Who first used the term? Wh9> 
 was Linnseus ? Ans. An eminent Swedish naturalist. He was the ^uthor 
 of the Linnsean, or artificial system of Botany. What does the term 
 Mammals, or Mammalia designate ? What position in the AnuiAt. 
 Kingdom does this class occupy? Of what beings is It composed? 
 For what are a large part of tbe Mammals formed? Pow do others; 
 of this class live and move? What is said of their Bkeletons? Are 
 
BIMANA. 21 
 
 all able at first to move about, use their eyes, and seek tbeir own food ? 
 Upon what are the prominent characters of the Mammaha founded ? What 
 distinguishes the three sub-classes into wliich all Mammals are divided? 
 Spoil, define and Rive the derivation of these words. Which have nails ? 
 Which hoofs? Which fins? Which have hair? Which live on land? 
 Which in the water? Under how many orders are the Mammals on the chart 
 arranged? WhoSe arrangement is tl'is, and why adopted? Who was 
 Cuvier ? Ans. An eminent French naturalist who could, like Prof. Owen, 
 of England, describe _ an animal by seeing a single bone, and the na- 
 ture of its' food, by looking at its teeth, or examining , its intestines. 
 Name the nine orders from the chart, giving fexariiples of each. Read 
 the explanations along the sides of the branches and limbs, as you trace 
 them up from the root or foundation of the tree. To what rank have some 
 naturalists elevated the Cheiroptera, Inseotitora, and Monotremata? 
 What animals on the chart belong to these sub-orders ? What reason is 
 assigned for giving them this rank? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 First Sob-Class. UNGUICULATA. 
 
 First Order. BimaNa, (Lat. bis, twice ; manus, hand ; two-handed.) 
 
 Man fills the first place in the animal series. In reality, he 
 stands alone, sole order, genus and species. His full zoological 
 relationsare: Sub-Kingdom, Vertebrata; class, Mammalia ; sub- 
 class, Unguiculata ; order, Bimana ; genus, Homo ; species, Sa- 
 piens. The position at the head of the Animal Kingdom, given to 
 man by the great body of zoologists, is, however, objected to by 
 some eminent naturalists, "who are not disposed to admit that 
 because he possesses certain zoological characters which are en. 
 tirely sec6ndary and subordinate, he should be classed with brutes, 
 when his noblest attribute, reason, destroys everj vestige of afRn- 
 ity, and places him immeasurably above them all."* 
 
 The most prominent of the characters by which man is 
 distinguished from the lowei" animals, are as follows : 
 
 Rational; endowed with speech; able to walk erect, two 
 handed ; -having a prominent chin; four incisor (cutting) teeth 
 above and below ; and all the teeth side by side ; the canine (eye) 
 teeth of the same length as the others ; the lower cutting teeth 
 erect; a peculiar relative proportion of the thighs and arms, and 
 wide soles to the feet. 
 
 Considering him in his higher or spirittfal nature, we may 
 name his sentiments, feelings, sympathies, internal consciousness 
 and purposes ; and the courses of action thence resulting as 
 among his proper and essential characteristics. Even physically, 
 he isjirst of all the living creatures on earth; not,. however, in 
 size, or in animal strength, in which respects many of the Ver, 
 
 * Zoology of New York, by Dr. Da Kay. 
 2 
 
nij BIMAKA. 
 
 tebrates excel him. — but in the plan or model after which he is 
 constructed 
 
 The eagle, for example, has a more powerful vision ; the 
 hare is more keenly sensible to sound ; the dog and vulture are 
 more ready to catch the scent which is borne upon the breeze ; 
 but in man is found a nice adjustment, a "peculiar and felicitous 
 accuracy " of the senses, which, while ministering to his enjoy, 
 ment, enables him to cultivate a more thorough and pleasing 
 acquaintance with the objects by which he is surrounded. In 
 the power of speech, and the various exercises of this power by 
 which he makes known his wants, his desires, and his most ab- 
 stract mental conceptions ; in his processes of reasoning and in 
 his susceptibility of endlessly progressive improvement, he rises 
 high above every other animal existence. 
 
 The several parts of the living human frame are suited to the 
 erect allitiule for which it is distinguished. (See Plate III.) Man's 
 structure fits him for moving in an erect posture, and unfits him 
 for moving with ease in any other. He has, however, tlie ability 
 to imitate almost every motion but that of flight. As aids to such 
 imitation, he possesses, when in maturity and health, sixty bones 
 in his head, sixty in his thijihs and legs, sixty-two in his arms and 
 hands, and sixty-seven in his trunk,* and he has also four hun- 
 dred and thirty-four muscles. His foot is, in proportion to his 
 whole body, larger, broader, and stronger than that of any other 
 animal. The muscle called "flexor longus policis pedis," (the 
 muscle of the great toe,) terminates in a single tendon, and its 
 force is centered in the great toe, the chief point of resistance in 
 raising the body upon the heel. In the Orang-outang, the cor- 
 responding muscle terminates in three tendons, 'separately and 
 exclusively inserted in the three middle toes, to enable him to 
 grasp an object more forcibly in climbing, and thus more fully 
 meeting the wants of an animal that makes its home in the trees. 
 "Surely," says Professor Owen, " it is asking too much to be. 
 heve that "in the course of time, these three muscles should, un- 
 der any circumstances, become consolidated into one, and that 
 one implanted in a toe to which none of the three tendons were 
 before attached." The teeth, bones and muscles of the monkey 
 decisively forbid the conclusion that he could by any ordinary 
 natural process, ever be expanded into a Man. Man alone is 
 two handed; in him the faculty of opposing the thumb to the 
 other fibers is carried to the highest perfection. In his " Bridse- 
 water Treatise" Sir Charles Bell' says: "The structure ^of 
 
 tl.^T^ r ffi '° '""''^ T""^ complicated, and suited to so 
 many different offices, we ought to define the hand as belonging 
 
 13 
 
II,..!]!. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE in. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Human Skeleton divided into three principal parts ; the Head 
 (1,) the Trunls (2,) and the extremities (3 and 4.) Physiologists enu- 
 merate as many as 260 bones ; but some of these bones, which are 
 separated in early life, are afterwards united, so as to admit of the fol- 
 lowing enumeration : Cranium, 8 ; Face, 14 ; Internal ears, 8 ; Verte- 
 bral column, 24; Chest, 26; Pelvis, 11; TTpper extremities, 68; Lower 
 extremities, 64 ; in the whole, 223, exclusive of 82 teeth. 
 
 1. The bones of the BliuU, dividedlnto two sets, viz., those of the Cranium, 
 
 or case for the brain, and those of the Face. 
 
 2. The Trunk, composed of the Spine, or Vertebral column, extending from 
 ^a to d, the Chest, including the Eibs, and Sternum or Breast-bone, (e;) 
 
 the Pelvis ; the circle of bones on which the Spine rests. 
 
 The Spine, extending from a to d, in the erect man, supports the head upon 
 its summit, (a,) while its base rests upon the sacrum (d.) It consists 
 of 24 bones, called Vertebras, (Lat. vertol, to turn,) because the trunk 
 is turned by their motion upon each other. It is the center about 
 which the limbs move, and the chief support of the skeleton. 
 
 The Cervical vertebrae, (the 7 bones of the neck,) extend from a to h; the 
 middle, dorsal or back vertebrae, from 6 to c, and the 5 lowest or lum- 
 bar vertebrae, from c to rf. 
 
 3. and 4. Are the last main divisions, consisting of the upper and lower 
 
 extremities. 
 8. The upper extremities (the arms) consist of the scapula, a, or shoulder- 
 blade, the Clavicle or collar-bone, b, the Humerus, or bone of the upper 
 arm, (o,) the Ulna, (d,) situated on the inner side, and the Radius, (e,) 
 on the outer side of the fore-arm, the Carpus, (Car;) the 8 small bones 
 of the wrist, the 5 bones of the metacarpus between the wrist, and the 
 bones of the fiiigers, (Met.,) and the bones of the fingers, called Pha- 
 langes, (Pha ,) of which the thumb has two, and the fiigers three each. 
 
 4. The lower extremities, or legs, consist of the Femur or thigh bone, (f,) 
 
 which is the largest bone of the, body, the Tibia or shin-bOne, (g,) on 
 the front and ipner part, and the Fibula, (h,) at the outer part of the 
 leg, the Patella or knee-pan, (i,) the Tarsus, the 7 bones forming the 
 heel and instep, (Tar.,) the metatarsus (Met.,) batween the instep and the 
 toes, and Phalanges of the toes similar in number and arrangement to 
 those of the fingers. 
 Fig. 2. Skeleton of a Chimpanzee. The ape that comes nearest to man. 
 3 and 4 show how the extremities terminating with long fingers, and a 
 small feeble thumb set far back, adapt it for climbing rather than walk- 
 ing, thus differing from those organs in man. 
 
 1. The Cranium, — showing none of the fine sweep of the forehead seen in 
 
 man and indicating a small cerebral development as compared with 
 
 2. The Vertebral column, without the pyramidal form seen in man, and not 
 
 adapted to an erect posture. 
 Pelvis narrow as compared with that of man. (See description in the 
 text.) The number of bones sometimes vary. .■,! ; 
 
26 BIMANA. 
 
 exclusively to man. The whole frame conforms to the hand, and 
 acts with reference to it." The human hand is not only power- 
 ful, but exquisitely susceptible of impressions, and possesses the 
 most delicate touch. Every finger, except the one called the 
 ring finger, is capable of independent movements, — a power 
 possessed by no other mammal. The thumb is lengthened so as 
 to meet readily the tips of any of the fingers ; the fingers them- 
 selves, and especially the pulpy tip at their ends, are supplied 
 with a nervous tissue endowed with a discriminating sensibility 
 that is peculiar to man. 
 
 " The difference in the length of the fingers serves a thousand 
 purposes, adapting the hand and fingers, as in holding a rod, a 
 switch, a sword, a hammer, a pen or pencil, engraving tool, etc., 
 in all which a secure hold and freedom of motion are admirably 
 combined. Nothing is more remarkable, as forming a part of 
 the prospective design to prepare an instrument fitted for the 
 various uses of the human hand, than the manner in which the 
 delicate and moving apparatus of the palm and fingers is 
 guarded. The power with which the hand grasps, as when a 
 sailor lays hold to raise his body to the rigging, would be too , 
 great for the texture of mere tendons, nerves and vessels ; they 
 would be crushed were not every part that bears the pressure 
 defended with a cushion of fat as elastic as that we have des- 
 cribed in the foot of the horse and camel. To add to this purely 
 passive defence, there is a muscle which runs across the palm, 
 and more especially supports the cushion on its inner edge. It 
 is this muscle which, raising the edge of the palm, adapts it to 
 lave water, forming the cup of Diogenes."* 
 
 The brain of man, in proportion to the residue of the human 
 system, surpasses in volume or extent that of every other mam- 
 mal, as is shown by the proportion which the cavities con- 
 taining the brain and face bear to each other. The size of the 
 brain is sometimes estimated by the facial angle,f which, in the 
 average of Europeans and their descendants on this continent, 
 is80o; but in the adult Chimpanzee is only 35o, and in the 
 Orang or Satyr is, according to Professor Owen, 30o. 
 
 The blood necessary for an organ so developed as the human 
 brain, is cjirried to it by arteries which do not subdivide as in 
 
 • Sir C. Bell's Bridgewater Treatise on the Hand. 
 
 " t The facial angle Is found by drawing a line from the most prominent 
 part of the forehead to that of the upper jaw bone, and observing the 
 angle which it forms with another line through the external auditory canal 
 to the base of the nose, or, (the head being in a vertical position,) with a 
 honzoutal line." 
 
BIMANA. 27 
 
 most quadrupeds, but allow of the full and free circulation which 
 its energies require. 
 
 The fine sweep of cranium and the smooth spherical surface 
 of the human skull, showing the volume of the interior brain, are 
 also noticeable, as contrasting striitingly with the heavy ridges, 
 the irregular prominences and the small capacity of the Moq- 
 key's skull. The face of the Monkey is an aid to him in pro- 
 curing food, and a weapon for attack and defence ; Man's face 
 bespeaks the workings of the inner mind. He uses his hands 
 to procure his food, and naturally unarmed, protects himself 
 with weapons which he has manufactured. His jaws and teeth 
 are both as small as could consist with the preservation of life. 
 Though at first weak and defenceless, he becomes able not only 
 to assert his dominion over animated nature, but to make the 
 very elements subserve his designs. No monkey or ape has 
 ever been able to make weapons of either attack or defence ; 
 nor can he procure fire or renew it, which the lowest of the hu- 
 man species readily does. The most benighted Hottentot can 
 form weapons with which he is able to destroy the ferocious 
 lion, the swift antelope, and the wary ostrich ;, " he constructs for 
 himself a hut by the side of his prey, strikes fire, fetches fuel, 
 and dresses his meat." There seems, as Buffon has intimated, 
 no anatomical reason why an ape should not speak ; but it has 
 no language, and cannot by the most patient labor, be taught to 
 speak. Articulate language, of itself, makes a difference, vast 
 in extent, betwefen man^ and every, other tribe of the Mammalia. 
 
 His physical system is peculiar in the readiness with which 
 it accommodates itself to the variations of climate, and in modes 
 of living. The Arctic explorations of Captains Ross and Parry, 
 of Sir John Franklin, and of our own lamented Dr. Kane, have 
 signally evinced the capacity of the human constitution for en- 
 during with safety, the intensest cold.. On the other hand, men 
 long accustomed to the air of the temperate zones, have pene- 
 trated far into the interior of Africa, and traversed other equato- 
 rial regions, without experiencing any serious evils from the heat. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE ORDER BIMANA. 
 
 What is the first order ? How is it spelled, defined, and from what 
 derived? Who is at the head, or fills the first place in the animal series? 
 What is said of him, and to what class, order, genus, and species docs he be- 
 long ? Are all Zoologists agreed as to the propriety of placing man with ani- 
 mals ? What places him immeasurably above them all? What are his most 
 prominent distinctions, or what is said of his speech, waJk, chin, teeth, ftc. ? 
 Contrast these with those of the inferior ammals. What is said of man, 
 physically? In what respect does he surpiss aJl other created beings? 
 
28 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 Ip what senses is he inferior, or in what way does the eagle, hare, dog, or 
 vulture surpass him ? What is found in man ? What does this enable him 
 to cultivate ? What elevates him so highly above other animal existences ? 
 To what are the several parts of the human frame suited ? For what does 
 a man's structure fit him ? For what does it unfit him ? Has he the power 
 of imitation? What aids this power or faculty? How many bones and 
 muscles has he ? What is said of his foot ? What is said of the muscle of 
 the great toe in man ? Give its technical name. What of the correspond- 
 ing muscle in the Orang Outang? What does Prof. Owen say in relation 
 to this, and how does this bear upon the develojmient theory? What do 
 the teeth, bones, and -muscles of the monkey forbid? What is said of the 
 hands, thumbs, and fingers of man ? What does Sir Charles Bell say in his 
 "Bridgewater Treatise?" What is further said of the human hand? 
 What of the ring finger? What of the thuml) and other fingers? Of 
 what use is the different length of the fingers? Does it evince design, or 
 did it occur by chance ? What is chance ? What is the cup of Diogenes, 
 and how is it formed ? Who was Diogenes ? Ans. A celebrated Cynic phi- 
 losopher, of Greece, who died in great misery and indigence, B. C. 324, at the 
 age of 96. What is'said of the human brain ? How is this shown ? How is the 
 size of the brain sometimes estimated ? How is this angle found ? What 
 is said of the arteries supplying blood to the human brain ? How does the 
 craniun^, or human skull, contrast with that of the monkey? What is said 
 of the monkey's face ? What of man's ? Which bespeaks the most intel- 
 ligence ? For what does he use his hands ? How does he protect himself? 
 What is said of his jaws and teeth ? What are monkeys unable to do ? 
 By whom are they surpassed ? Is there any anatomical reason why an ape 
 should not speak ? Have they ever been taught to speak ? What makes a 
 vast difference between man and all other mammals ? In what is man's 
 physical system peculiar? What have Arctic and African explorations 
 shown? 
 
 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 The variations of mankind, in respect to climate and modes of 
 life, are connected with changes in complexion and feature, with 
 differences in the skull, in the color and nature of the hair, etc- 
 The divisions of the race to which these differences have given 
 rise, are stated diversely by naturalists, some numbering more, 
 and others fewer varieties. The Caucasian, Mongolian, and 
 Nigritian tribes, are by some regarded as the three distinctly 
 marked types; and the other varieties as but a blending of 
 these and their peculiarities, and hence merely sub-typical. 
 
 The "Chart of the Animal Kingdom " exhibits thedivision of 
 Blumenbaoh, the one which has commonly been made, which, 
 separating the Malay and American varieties from the Mongolian, 
 one of the distinctly marked types, makes the number five, viz. : 
 1. The European or Caucasian; 2. The Asiatic, Mongo- 
 . LiAN, or Turanian, of Dr. Pritchard ; 3. The Malay or Aus- 
 TRALiAN ; 4. The American ; 5. The Ethiopian or African. 
 
 1. The Caucasian Variety was so called because it origi- 
 
VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN EACE. 20 
 
 nated among the tribes nf men found in the region of the Caiica- 
 sus. It is distinguished for general symmetry and regularity of 
 outline. The head is, in the Caucasian, almost round, the face 
 oval, the forehead much expanded, the features not very promi- 
 nent. The skin is white, the hair soft, long and brown, more or 
 less dark, and curled. The facial angle is from 80o to, 90o. 
 The entire conformation of the head shows a superior intellectual 
 organization. In respect both to mental power, and attainments 
 in art and science, the Caucasians have ever stood in the fore- 
 most rank. 
 
 2. The Asiatic or Mongolian Variety. — This variety is 
 remarkable for a feminine aspect in both sexes ; the color is, for 
 the most part, pale yellow or olive; the- head almost square; the 
 facial angle 80o ; the cheek bones are prominent ; the face broad 
 and flattened, and without a beard ; and the hair straight and 
 black. 
 
 3. In the Malav or Australian, the color varies from a clear 
 mahogany to dark chestnut brown; the hair is black and bushy; 
 the beard thin ; the nose broad, and the mouth wide ; the fore- 
 head slightly arched ; the upper jaw projecting ; the eye is more 
 sunken and piercing, and the lips less uniformly thick than in 
 the /negro. v 
 
 4. The American Variety is allied to the Malay and Mon- 
 golian varieties. It includes Indians, or native Americans, Tol- 
 tecans, &o. In these, the cheek bones are prominent ; the face 
 broad ; the forehead low ; the eyes deeply seated ; the hair black 
 and straight ; the sRin red or copper color. 
 
 5. The Ethiopian or Black Variety includes Negroes, 
 Africans, Hottentots, Bushmen, (Bosjesmans,) Bochmen, (Beoh- 
 uanas.) The color is black, with greater or less intensity ; the 
 lips extremely thick ; the nose flat and thick; the nostrils wide; 
 the hair black and frizzly like wool ; the head narrow ; the fore- 
 head convex ; the face projecting ; the facial angle 70o. Be- 
 tween this and the European or Caucasian variety, the differen- 
 ces are marked ; but there is no character in which the contrast 
 between the lowest negro and highest ape is not many times 
 greater than between the same negro and the highest European. 
 The differences in respect to structure between the Ethiopian 
 and the other varieties, would not be deemed sufficient to consti- 
 tute a specific character among the lowest animals. 
 
 In regard to the varieties above described, it will be seen that 
 one of the enumerated distinctions relates to the color and nature 
 of the hair. At a trial held in South Carolina, in which the 
 
30 VAKIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 point in dispute, property in a mulatto girl, rested on a question 
 of race, Dr. Gibbs stated, as a curious fact resulting from micro- 
 soopic observation, that in the mulatto cross the hair of one or 
 the other parent was present, and sometimes hairs of both, but 
 never a mongreZ . hair ; that no amalgamated hair existed ; that 
 the mulatto as often had straight hair as kinky. He stated that 
 the microscope revealed that the hair of the white race is, when 
 transversely divided, oval; that of the Indian, circular; and 
 that of the Negro, eccentrically elliptical with flattened edges ; 
 that of the Negro is not hair, but wool, and capable of being 
 felted ; that the coloring matter of true hair is in an internal tube, 
 while in the negro it is in the epidermis, or scales covering the , 
 shaft of hair. In corroboration of the statement that both white 
 and negro hair were sometimes found in the same head, a singu- 
 lar case was mentioned by Dr. Gibbs. He remarked that he once 
 attended a half-breed Indian and Negro, who had straight Indian 
 hair. He was ill and had his head shaved and blistered. On 
 his recovery, when his hair grew out, it was negro hair, crisped 
 and wiry. 
 
 The late Dr. Morton, of our own country, in a disquisition rela- 
 tive to the "Size of the Brain'-' in the different varieties, presents 
 the following results : 
 
 " The ancient Egyptians, whose civilization antedates that of 
 all other people, and whose country has been justly called 'the 
 cradle of the arts and sciences,' have the least sized brain of any 
 Caucasian nation, excepting the Hindoos. 
 
 The Negro brain is nine cubic inches less than the Teutonic, 
 and three cubic inches larger than that of the ancient Egyptians. 
 
 The brain of the Australian and Hottentot falls far below that 
 of the Negro, and measures precisely the same as the ancient 
 Peruvian." (See Silliman's Journal.) 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 With what are the variations of the Human Race connected ? Are nat- 
 uralists agreed as to the number of these varieties ? What three are by 
 some regarded as distinctly marlied types? What do they consider the 
 other varieties ? How many distinct types or races are named on the chart ? 
 Whose arrangement has been followed ? From what did the Caucasians 
 derive their name ? What nations belong to this variety ? [See the chart.] 
 For what are they distinguished ? What are their characteristics ? What 
 does the entire conformation of the head show ? What is said of their mental 
 attainments? For what is the Mongolian variety remarkable ? What na- 
 tions does it include ? How do you describe the Malay or Adstralian 
 variety ? Name the people or nations belonging to this variety. To which 
 variety is the American allied ? Name the tribes or people which it in- 
 cludes. [See on the chart.] What are their distinguishing peculiarities ? 
 
QUADRUMANA. 31 
 
 What does the Ethiopian or black variety include ? Deseribe their features, 
 color, hair, &c. Is there a greater contrast between the highest Ehlropean 
 and the negro, than between the same negro and the ape ? What is sftid 
 as to the difference in respect to structure between the Ethiopian and the 
 other varieties ? In what respect does the hair of the Caucasian, Indian, 
 and Negro varieties differ ? What cases corroborate this curious fact ? 
 What were the results arrived at by*Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia ? 
 
 Obs. Here is a good opportunity for a general exercise about the people 
 of the different varieties, tb@ countries they inhabit, their customs, religion, 
 degrees of civilization, &C'i showing the pupil how to apply his geographi- 
 cal Qr historical knowledge. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Second Order. QUADRUMANA.— FOUR HANDED. 
 (Lat. guatuor, four, and manusj hand.) 
 
 This order includes the Simiadae, (Lat. Simia, an ape, — ape. 
 kind;) Cebidae, (Gr. icrj^os, kebos, a. monkey,— ^monkey tribe;) 
 pronounced kebidae ; Lemuridae, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts, — 'ghost- 
 like.) 
 
 The Simiadae are spread over the tropical regions of Asia 
 and Africa, including the larger islands of the Indian Ocean ; 
 the Cebidae are found in South America ; the Lemuridae, in 
 Madagascar and the smaller adjacent islands. 
 
 The name " Quadbumana " is given to these animals because, 
 while hai^g two hands, resembling those of man, they have 
 feet which are also formed like hands, and can grasp branches 
 of trees. Like man, they have no natural means of defence ; 
 but they are endowed with a cunning, a quickness and agility 
 not often equaled and never surpassed by any other quadrupeds. 
 The peculiarities of their structure do not adapt them either to 
 an erect or a horizontal position, but to one that is diagonal or 
 sloping. Their great muscular strength, combined with the fac- 
 , ulty of climbing, enables them to escape from the carnivorous 
 quadrupeds which are found in the same forests with themselves. 
 " Leaping from' bough to bough, they pass through the most en- 
 tangled forests with greater swiftness than an ordinary horse 
 would tra,vel on a turnpike road. Thfe apes upon the rocks of 
 Gibraltar, (Barbary apes, which are the only ones found in Eu- 
 rope,) can never be approached by the most cautious sportsmen. 
 They climb, with the greatest facility, among frightful preci- 
 pices, where neither dags nor men can follow."* 
 
 The hand of the highest Quadrumana is greatly inferior to 
 that of man, both in respect to its structure, and the uses for 
 
 * "Swatnson's Habits and Instincts of AQimaJs," 
 
32 (JUADRUMANA. 
 
 which it is fitted. The thumb is a mere rudiment, and in some 
 species, entirely wanting. The fingers are very long, and fitted 
 for hooking an object, -but have but little power of separate 
 motion among themselves ; the palm, instead of being hollow, is 
 narrow and flat, and tapers from the wrist. All of them have 
 three sorts of teeth, like man, but the canine, (eye) teeth, are 
 more developed in the Quadrumana than in him, and there are 
 spaces between them and the other teeth. ' 
 
 The principal food of these animals is fruit, which Providence 
 furnishes them most plentifully in tropical countries, though occa- 
 sionally they prey upon the young and eggs of birds, also upon 
 lizards and insects. When captured and domesticated, they be- 
 come almost omnivorous, (Lat. omnis, all, and' voro, to devour.) 
 They are peculiar to tropical regions, and are useful there as 
 tending to diminish the annoyances which might otherwise arise 
 from the insects which they consume for food. In some coun- 
 tries these animals are themselves used for food, and their skins 
 converted into leather. 
 
 The SiMiADAE include three divisions : I. The Apes, without 
 tails ; II. the Baboons, with short tails and sometimes none ; 
 III. the Monkeys, with tails, which as connected with this fam- 
 ily are adroit, agile, and restless, but usually live only two or 
 three years. In this family, the tail has no prehensile, or grasp- 
 ing power. Their teeth, of which there are ten molar in each jaw,' 
 are thirty-two in number ; their nostrils separated by a very 
 narrow division. The larger portion have cheek pouches and 
 callosities, (hard parts,) on the hind parts of the body. Of the 
 Apes we name first the Tr<^lodytes, (Gr. r^ln, trogle, a hole ; 
 divta, duno, to creep, a creeper into holes.) 
 
 This is the Chimpanzee, (not to be confounded with the Orang- 
 Outang,) found rather commonly on the banks of the Gambia 
 and Congo. It is more man-like than any other animal, espe- 
 cially when young. When full grown, its height is at least 
 five feet, and according to some naturalists, six or seven. The 
 hair is black, long and coarse, falling down on each side of the 
 head, forming large whiskers on the cheeks; the eyes are hazel, 
 deep set and lively; the ears Itrge and spreading; the lips 
 covered with a thin white beard, .and large and wrinkled ■ 
 the face and hands, of a dark brown color; An officer in 
 the English navy, who saw the animal in 1838, says that in 
 Its natural state, "it mounts trees only for food or observa- 
 tion, has enormous- strength, easily snapping boughs from trees 
 which the united strength of two men could scarcely bend " 
 These animals reach their full growth when between eight and 
 nine years old. They travel in large baqds, armed with sticks, 
 
QUADMJMANA. «q 
 
 which they handle with great dexterity ; and sometimes are so 
 full of courage and fury that they drive the elephant and lion 
 from their haunts. As their name imports, they spend much of 
 their time in holes, or rocky caves. They are very watchful, 
 even when united in a herd ; and- the first one who notices the 
 approach of a stranger, utters a long drawn cry, which resem- 
 bles that of a human being in distress. This is done to notify 
 the herd of the stranger's coming. They then immediately 
 leave any place which, would expose them to danger, and betake 
 themselves to the bushes. It is said to be very difficult to obtain 
 them alive, owing to a superstitious notion of the natives that they 
 have the " power of witching." 
 
 Several young Chimpanzees have, at different tinies, been im- 
 ported into England and the United States. These appeared to 
 be mild and docile, but were short lived, being unable to endure 
 the changes to which they were subjected in respect t^. olirnate 
 and mode of living. Had they lived to full age, they would 
 probably have manifested the ape's naturally fierce and obstinate 
 disposition. One of them, which lived about a year in the me- 
 nagerie of the British Zoological Society, is described as appear- 
 ing like " an old, bent, and diminutive negro." Tlie appearance 
 of age was increased by its short white beard and wrinkled face, 
 though at the time not more than two and a half years old. All 
 its actions seemed child-like. It would " examine every object 
 within its reach with an air so considerate and thoughtful as to 
 create a smile on the face of the gravest spectator. When per- 
 fectly free and unconstrained, Tommy's usual mode of progression 
 was on all fours. His feet, and particularly his heels, were broader 
 and better adapted for the biped race than those of the Orang- 
 Outang, and this he adopted when occasion required. He fre- 
 quently indulged in a kind of rude, stamping dance ; would seat 
 himself in his swing with great good humor, when ordered to do 
 so, stretching out his foot to some of the company to' set him in, 
 motion ; and interpreting your wishes and intentions from your 
 looks, tones, and gestures, exhibited the most wonderful quick- 
 ness of apprehension." 
 
 Pithecus Satyrvs. 
 (Gr. nldiiitos, pitkeHos, ape ; aarvgis, saturos, satyr.) , 
 The Orang-outang, or wild man, (from Orang, the Malay 
 term for man, and Outang, wild.) , o 
 
 • The Orang-Outang is found in the islands of Borneo and Sum- 
 atra. Though called by this name, it is less man-like than the 
 
34 QUABBtrHlANA. 
 
 Chimpanzee. In the young animal, the foi-ehead and skull ap- 
 pear well developed and somewhat human ; in the adult, the 
 bones of the face are so increased in size that they throw the 
 skull backwards, which, combined in its effect with other differ- 
 ences, takes away the resemblance, which is seen in the young, 
 to the human face. The arms are so long that they reach the 
 ground, or nearly so, when the animal stands erect ; and the 
 palms of the hands show lines and papillae, like those of man. 
 The ears are small; the eyes dark and -round; the throat is 
 swollen, the skin about it being loose and folded, and enveloping 
 a double membranous sac, which connects with the larynx or 
 wind-pipe, and becomes inflated when the aniYnal expresses pleas- 
 ure or anger. The body is stoutly built and very muscular ; 
 the belly round and protuberant ; the hair is of a reddish brown 
 hue, long and coarse. The Orang has no tail or cheek 
 pouches. , A very marked characteristic is the disproportion be- 
 tween the size and length of the arms, as compared with the 
 legs, which, viewed in connexion with the long and .hooked hands, 
 indicates that the animal is, more than the Chimpanzee, formed 
 to live on trees. Among the branches, he moves with surprising 
 facility. By weaving these together, he constructs a sort of 
 rude but, which he seldom leaves, except when forced by the 
 calls of appetite. In Borneo, the natives call the two species 
 found there, mias-kassar and mias-pappan. Of these the latter 
 is much the larger and more powerful, and justly named Satyritsi 
 from his ugly face and disgusting callosities. Some naturalists 
 consider the Orang of Sumatra to be a distinct species. 
 ^ The Orang may be ranked as the largest of the apes. A 
 specimen from Borneo was in height five feet ten inches, and one 
 from Sumatra reached the enormous stature of seven feet six 
 ipches. Those animals are described by persons who have seen 
 .Jhem in their native climes, as "leading a solitary life, more than 
 |\yo or three never being found together ; " and as " roused from 
 their habitual dullness by nothing but hunger or the approach 
 of danger." Their strength is so great they can not be safely 
 encountered except with fire-arms. A female Orang snapped a 
 strong spear asunder, after receiving many wounds. Hence, 
 the natives of Borneo hold these animals in especial dread, and 
 carefully ajiroid ^em. The Gorilla is still more formidable. 
 
 Hylohates, (Gr."tii?, huh, a wood ; §aivm, haino, to traverse,) 
 Long Akmed Ape, or Giibon. H. Syndactulus, (Gr. Sw, Sun, 
 connected together; Saxivlos, daktulos, a finger.) 
 This species of Gibbons receives the name Sgndactylusi from hav- 
 
IJUADRUMANA. 85 
 
 il!!J!S '"'Tv!' *"u f'^ *°'f °*" ^''^ '^'""^ '■°°' ""'■'^'^ I'y "^ narrow 
 membrane the whole length of the first joint. As the generic 
 name, Hj/joiates, imports, this animal lives in the recesses of 
 dense woods, (m the East Indian islands and the Malay penin- 
 
 th!vl \ ♦ It T ^f'V^^^y powerful, and so long that 
 they reach to the heel, and their span extends from four to six 
 Z\ .^^'! greatly assist him in making his rapid movements 
 among the trees. The fur is longer and more abundant than 
 that of the Orangs. The animal is like the Orang in temper 
 and manners, but much Smaller, when standing upright, beine 
 but two feet four inches. It is a better walker than the Orang 
 but Its gait IS unsteady, and it frequently places its hands on the 
 ground to assist its position. An adult male of this species was 
 taken in 1830, but died while on its way to England. It fed on 
 vegetables, yet eagerly accepted animal food; fowls it especially 
 preferred. It appeared to be good tempered and affectionate; 
 when pleased, uttering a chirping note ; when frightened or 
 angry, uttering the loud guttural sounds of ra, ra, ra." It was 
 fond of play and became quite attached to a Papuan girl who 
 was on board the vessel— » would sit on the capstan with its long 
 paw around her neck, and lovingly eat biscuit with her." This 
 Gibbon is sometimes called the Siamang, ^nd is said to be cele^ 
 brated for the pains which it takes to wash the face of its you«g 
 which it does with maternal faithfulness, in spite of its screams 
 and struggles. 
 
 H. agilis. The AgiijE, or Silvery Gibbon, also called the 
 Uiigha, or Owngha. 
 
 This species is a native of Sumatra, deriving its name, agilis, 
 (active,) from its remarkable activity in leaping among the 
 branches. One of these animals, which was exhibited in Lon- 
 don some years since, " sprang with the greatest ease through 
 distances of twelve and eighteen feet ; and when apples or nuts 
 were thrown to her while in the air, she would catch them with- 
 out^ discontinuing her course. She kept up a succession of 
 springs, hardly touching the branches in her progress, continually 
 uttering a nrusical but afmost deafening cry. She was very 
 tame and gentle, and would permit herself to be touched or Ca- 
 ressed." This Gibbon is distinguished by its low forehead, as 
 well as its activity. The color varies a good deal, according to 
 the sex or age, but is usually brown. In the male, a white band 
 over the. eyes unites with the whitish whiskers. The hair is fine 
 except" about the neok, where it is rather woolly and curled. 
 
36 QUADRUMANA. 
 
 BABOONS. 
 
 The most striking peculiarity of these animals is the resem. 
 blance of their head and face to those of a large dog. Their 
 muzzles are long and truncated. They have cheek pouches, 
 short tails and sharp claws. The malignant expression of their 
 countenances, their gigantic strength and the brutal ferocity of 
 their manners, render them decidedly the most frightful and dis- 
 gusting of all the Quadrumana. Their home is Africa, where 
 tiiey frequent rocky ridges more than the forests. They live 
 mostly on scorpions, which they find under stones and deprive 
 of their stings by a skillful application of the thumb and finger. 
 In the Baboon, the facial angle is reduced to 30o. The name is 
 from the Italian Babbaino, from which comes the Latin word 
 Papio, applied to these animals especially in the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries. In brilliancy of color, they vie with the 
 gorgeous plumage of the tropical birds. 
 
 " They are distinguished from the Apes, by the equality of 
 their members, their cheek pouches and ischial callosities ; from 
 the Monkeys, by the short i-obust make of their bodies and extrem- 
 ities, their tubercular tails, too short to execute the functions usu- 
 all}^ assigned to that organ, and the mountain rather than silvan 
 ftateai which this conformation necessarily induces." 
 
 Cynocephalus, (Gr. Kicov, Kuon, a dog; KBtpaKf^, Kephale, a 
 head;) Dog-headed. C. Mormon, (Gr. Moguiiv, Mormon, a, hogie.) 
 This is the Mandril, or Great Variegated Baboon. 
 
 The Mormon resembles the dog and bear. It is a native of 
 Guinea and West Africa, has a short, erect and stumpy tail, by 
 which, and the enormous protuberances of its cheeks, it is read- 
 ily distinguished from the other species. This is not only the 
 largest of all the Baboons, but the most brilfiant in its colors, . 
 When upright, its height reaches five feet. The muzzle is of a 
 bright scarlet color ; a stripe of vermilion runs along the center 
 of the nose, and spreads over the lip; the cheeks are also of a rith 
 violet hue, and elevated on each side by a singular development 
 of ihe bone, which forms a socket for the roots of the immense 
 canine teeth: The hair is of a greenish brown color, caused by 
 alternate layers of yellow and black present in each hair. On 
 the temples it is directed upwards, so as to meet in a point on the 
 crown of the head. The brilliancy of the colors is connected 
 with the skin, and disappears when the animal dies or is sick. 
 The Mandril frequents forests filled with brHshwood, whence it 
 saUiea forth to plunder the nearest villages. Its bulk is great in 
 
QUADRUMANA 37 
 
 proportion to its height and strength, and its ferocity great, so that 
 it is a terror to the, natives. Cuvier says he has seen it expire 
 from the violence of its fury. 
 
 Semnopithecus, (Gr. ce/ivbg, Semnos, to be reverenced ; nlOijxos, 
 pithecos, Ape.) 
 
 This genus includes animals resembling^ in many points, the 
 Gibbons. As in the latter, their extremities are of great, length as 
 compared with the size of the body, which in its form is long 
 and slender. But they differ from the Gibbons in having the 
 hinder extremities longer than the front ones, which is the reverse 
 of what occurs in the Gibbons. They are distinguished by hav- 
 ing a very long, slender and muscular tail, terminated by a close 
 tuft of long hairs. ,The color of the adult animal is intensely 
 black, except the breast, the abdomen, and the root of the tail, 
 which are gray. The black hairs on the top of the head are 
 tipped with gray, and as age advances, the latter color is extended 
 to the upper parts of the body. The hair is long, soft, and silky. 
 The eye-brows consist of long stiff hairs, pointing forward. 
 The stomach is three fold, one of the divisions being puckered 
 into a number. of distinct sacs; and its teeth resemble, in some 
 degree, those of a ruminating animal. It evinces less restless- 
 ness, petulance and curiosity, but has more of real intelligence 
 than the common monkeys. The animals of this genus are 
 found in Cochin China, the East Indies and the neighboring 
 islands. 
 
 S. Maurus. (Gr. /lavgog, mauros, a fool ?) The Btjdeng. 
 
 This species abounds in the extensive forests of Java, and 
 forms its dwelling on trees. Troops of more than fifty individ- 
 uals are found together. When approached, they scream loudly, 
 and by their movements branches of decaying trees are often 
 thrown down upon the spectators. The natives chase them on 
 account of their fur ; attended by their chiefs, attacking them 
 with stones and cudgels, and often destroying them in great num- 
 bers. The furs of these animals are used both by the natives 
 and Europeans, in preparing riding equipages and military 
 ornaments. 
 
 S. Entellus. (Lat. the proper name of a Roman athlete.) 
 The Entellus, ok Cochin China Monkey. The Hoonuman 
 of the Hindoos. 
 ' This species is one of the most common in Hindoostan and the 
 Indian Archipelago, and in India is the object of a blind adora- 
 tion. According to the popular superstition, he who puts to 
 death an Entellus Monkey, will surely die within the year. Its 
 form is slight, the limbs 16og and slender, the length of the body 
 
38 QUADBUMANA. 
 
 . from the muzzle'to the tail is, in the full grown animal, four and 
 a half feet, and the tail is even longer than the body. When 
 young, they seem gentle and free from malice; but their charac- 
 ters do not improve by age. This animal is very active in the 
 capture of serpents, stealing upon the poisonous reptile when 
 asleep, and grinding'down the reptile's head until the poisonous 
 fangs are destroyed. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE QUADEUMANA. 
 
 What Is the second order of animals ? What three families does this 
 order include ? Give the derivation of the order and the families. Where 
 is their location or habitat? Why was the name Quadrwnana given to 
 these animals f Have they any weapons for defence ? With what are they 
 endowed ? For what does their peculiar structure adapt them ? Of what 
 benefit is their muscular strength ? What, is said of their leaping powers f 
 What of the Barbary apes ? Where are these found ? Are any other of 
 the Quadrumana found in Europe ? How does the hand of the most perfect 
 Qua,drumana compare with man's ? What ia said of the thumb ? Of the 
 fingers and qf the palm? What of the teeth and the hair? What is their 
 principal food ? What change occurs from domestication ? 
 
 Spell and define the following words, giving examples of each as you 
 proceed : Garnivorous, flesh-eating ; (Lat. caro, flesh, and voro, to devour.) 
 IPrugivorofUS, eating fruits, seeds or corn ; (Lat. fruge^, corn.) Oraniverotcs, 
 eating grain, or feeding on seeds; (Lat. granum, grain.) fferbivorous, eat- 
 ing herbs, feeding on vegetables ; (Lat. herba, herb.) insectivorous, eating 
 insects; Lat. insecta, insect, and voro, to devour.) Apivorous, bee eating; 
 (Lat. apis, a bee.) Apiary, a place where bees are kept. I'iscivoroua, fish 
 eating, living on fish ; (Lat. piscis, a fish. ) Reptilivorous, eating snakes, 
 toads, and other reptiles ; (Lat. reptilis, from repo, to creep.) Omnivorous, 
 eating everything, devouring all kinds of food ; (Lat. amnis, all.) 
 
 To what regions are quadrumanous animals peculiar ? In what respects 
 are they useful ? What divisions do the Simiadae include? How are these 
 divisions readily distinguished from one another? What is said of the 
 monkeys of this family ? Which is the genus first named, and from what 
 is the name derived? Where is it found, and what is said of its resem- 
 blance to man ? Describe its appearance, habits, &c. Why is it difficult 
 to obtain it alive ? Have attempts been made to Import these animals, and 
 with what success ? What is said of Tommy ? Describe him particularly. 
 What is the difference between a biped and a quadruped ? Ans. One is two- 
 footed, (Lat. bis, two, pes, afoot;) the other four-footed, (Lat. guatuor, four, 
 pes, foot.) What between a bimanous and a quadrumanous animal ? From 
 what language is the Orang-Outang derived ? From what are the generic and 
 specific names derived? Where is it found ? What is said of it ? Where 
 does it live? For what kind of a residence is it fitted by its long arms and 
 hooked hands? What does it construct among the branches of trees? 
 Does it often leave them, and for what? How many species are found in 
 Borneo? Which is the largest and most powerful? What is it justly 
 named ? Is the Orang of Sumatra of the same species ? What is said of 
 their, size, and what account do persons give who have seen them in their 
 native woods? Why do the Borncans dread them? What is the generic 
 term for the lon^ armed ape, or Gibbon? From what derived? What 
 
(JUADRUMANA. 39 
 
 does this name import? Give the derivation of syndcfciiilus. "Why was 
 it given to this species ? Where does It live and in what country is it found ? 
 Describe its habits, size, gait, food, sounds, &c. For what is it most cele- 
 brated ? What is said of the silvery or agile Gibbon, H. agilis ? 
 
 What is the most striking peculiarity of Baboons ? What do they resem- 
 ble ? Where are they found ? On what do they live V From what is the 
 name derived ? What is said of their colors ? How are they distinguished 
 from the apes ? Describe the Variegated Baboon, or Mandril. Gr^e the 
 derivation of the generic and speciiic terms. What is ssud of its size, 
 color, habitat, &c. How do the natives regard it ? From what is Semiio- 
 pithecus derived ? In what respect does this genus resemble the Gibbons ? 
 How do they differ from the Gibbons? By what are they distinguished? 
 What is said of their hair, eye-brows, stomach, disposition, inteUigence, 
 &o. ? What is said of the Budeng ? What of the Cochin China monkey ? 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 AMERICAN MONKEYS. 
 
 These are a very numerous division found in South America;^ 
 and arranged into two leading groups, viz. : the Sapajous and 
 Sagoins; the former having muscular, grasping tails ; the latter 
 feeble ones, unfit for grasping. They are sometimes called the 
 four-fingered monkeys, as the thumb is reduced to a mere rudi- 
 ment, and in some species is entirely wanting. They are with-^ 
 out cheek-pouches and callosities. 
 
 I. Sapajous. 
 
 These may be regarded as representing the Guenons, {Cerco- 
 pithecus, Gr. kerkos, a tail,)'of tiie Eastern Continent. The whole 
 of them are very active,, climb well, and are well formed for living 
 and moving among the trees. The fore-hands show a less per- 
 feet organization than is seen in the monkeys of the Eastern 
 Continent. The palms of both extremities are endowed with 
 exquisite sensibility. These monkeys are of small size and play- 
 ful disposition. Gathered in herds, they lead a merry life, feed- 
 ing mostly on insects and fruits. The facial angle is about 60o. 
 Among them we include the Howlers. (Myeetes.) as has been 
 done by other natuiSalists. The Howlers differ, however, from' 
 the other Sapajous in some respects, particularly in having a 
 facial angle of but 30o, but agree with them in having prehen- 
 sile tails. Of the numerous species of these and other South 
 American monkeys, we can notice only the most interesting and 
 prominent. 
 
 Myeetes, (Gr. iJ-vx^xrii, mukHes, a Howler.) 
 
 These are the largest monkeys of America, and: remarkable 
 for the development of the vocal organs. The bone at the root of 
 
40 QUADRUMANA. 
 
 the tongue, (theliyoid bone,) is, in these animals, very large, swell- 
 ing into a capacious drum which communicates with the larynx, 
 and gives a tremendous power and volume to the voice. They 
 howl in concert, especially at the rising and setting of the sun ; 
 but the night is often made dismal with their frightful yells. One 
 monkey begins the cry, and is immediately followed by the oth- 
 ers ; and their distressing, unearthly sounds have been heard at 
 two miles distance. The canine teeth are, according to Swain, 
 son, six times as large as the incisors or cutting teeth. The part 
 of the prehensile tail with which these animals lay hold of the 
 branch of a tree, is naked below, and of course has a higher sen- 
 sibility of touch. Their size is rather larger than that of the fox. . 
 In their dispositions they are fei'ocious and intractable ; in habits 
 social, and most of them have a thick beard. Their deep sono- 
 rous yells are supposed to be a call to their mates ; in other 
 words, a hideous love-song. 
 
 M. ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear.) The Ursine Howler, 
 or Arguato. 
 
 This animal is, exclusive of the tail, nearly three feet long. 
 The hair is of a golden color, and the thick beard is of a deeper 
 color than the rest. Humboldt counted above forty of these ani- 
 mals in a single tree, and says, "their eye, voice, and gait denote 
 melancholy." They feed upon fruit and the leaves of plants, 
 and in traveling follow an old monkey as their file leader. 
 This Howler has a membranous sack in the throat, connected 
 with the wind-pipe and capable of being inflated, giving the 
 power to utter terrific sounds. 
 
 AteUs, (Gr. &TeXTJg, ateles, imperfect.) 
 
 This and the preceding genus are " Ordinary Sapajous ; " (the 
 term Sapajous also including the genus Cebus, or the Sajous.) 
 This genus includes what are called the Spider Monkeys, so 
 called from their long slender tails, and sprawling movements, 
 which give them a spider-like appearance. It is termed ateles, 
 or imperfect, because in most of the species the thumbs on the 
 fore-arms are rudimental, or else entirely wanting ; (they are, 
 however, found on the hinder extremities, and large and opposa- 
 ble to the fingers.) They have four molar teeth more than man, 
 making the number of teeth thirty-six, and are distinguished for 
 their round heads and thick or corpulent bodies. The eyes are 
 far apart; the nostrils open laterally, (or sidewise;) the hair is 
 generally long, coarse, and of a glossy appearance. Trees are 
 their home ; on the ground they drag themselves along with their 
 fore-arms, 'using them as crutches, and resting upon their half 
 closed fists. Sometimes they crouch along on their hind legs. 
 
QUADRUMANA. 41 
 
 Troops of them are found together, and they are said to " exer- 
 cise a perfect tyranny over all the other arboreal mammals in 
 their neighborhood." Though living chiefly upon leaves and 
 fruit, they also hunt after insects and the eggs and young of birds, 
 and are even said to fish for crabs with their long tails. They 
 are uncommonly intelligent, •asily domesticated, and evince a 
 strong attachment for those who treat them kindly ; and they have 
 less of curiosity, mischief, and violent passion than the common 
 monkeys. They use their prehensile tails as a fifth hand, even 
 crossing streams by mounting to the topmost branches of some 
 over-hanging tree, and forming themselves into a long chain. 
 The last monkey keeps a good hold on the tree, while the living 
 chain swings to and fro, until by the impetus thus gained, the 
 foremost can reach a branch upon the opposite side, when the 
 rear animal lets go his hold, and the whole are rapidly drawn up. 
 The Indians esteem their flesh as an article of food, and it is said to 
 be "white, juicy, and agreeable."- It is related that the Spider 
 Monkey, when shot, fastens its tail so closely to the Ivranches 
 that it remains suspended even after death. Among the most 
 noted species are A. Paniscfis, [Uavlaxo;, Paniscos, dim. of Tlav, 
 Pan. a little Pan.) This is the Quata, or as the French write it, 
 the CoAitA, found in large companies in Guiana and Brazil. 
 
 A. Belzehuh. The Makimonda. 
 
 The monkeys of this, like those of the preceding species, 
 unite in large companies and form the most grotesque groups. 
 All their attitudes evince the extreme of sloth. They will 
 bend their long arms over their backs, and remain motionless 
 in this position for hours together, under the heat of a tropical 
 sun. 
 
 CEBIDAE. 
 
 From CebMS,(Gr. xt\§o?, kehos, monkey.) The Sagoh, or Sajou. 
 
 The animals of this genus are grouped among the Sapajous, 
 but denominated more distinctively the Sajous. They are also 
 called Capuchin Monkeys, from the hood-like formation of the 
 hair of the head. 
 
 C. Appella. The Weepeb. 
 
 Why this very common species received so dolorous a name 
 is not apparent, as in confinement it is "good tempered, playful 
 and hardy." It has a rather rich fur of a color incluiing to 
 olive, with a golden tinge on the lighter parts, , and is distin- 
 guished by its yellow, flesh-colored fade. 
 
42 QUADRUMANA. 
 
 C. dlUfrons. (Lat. albus, white, and/ron*, forehead.) The 
 OuAVAPAvi, or White-Faced Capuchin. 
 
 This animal has a grayish blue face, except the pure white 
 orbits and forehead. The color of the body is grayish olive. 
 Troops of these monkeys are found in the forests of Oronoco. 
 The Indians often keep them as playthings, and derive from 
 them much entertainment. Hunriboldt saw a domesticated one 
 that caught a pig every morning, and rode him about the whole 
 day, while he was feeding in the savanna. Another, in the 
 house of a missionary, bestrode a cat which had been brought 
 up with it, and patiently submitted to its rider. 
 
 C.faiuellus. (Lat., the same as Faunas, or Fan, a Roman divin- 
 ity.) The Sagou Cornu, or Horned Monkey. 
 
 This species takes its name from the bushes of hair which ele- 
 vate themselves on the base of the forehead, producing a resem- 
 blance to horns. The color in some of these animals is a deep 
 brown, or purplish black ; in others, reddish brown. It is a na- 
 tive of French Guiana. 
 
 II. Sagoins. 
 
 / These include several groups, which, though differing from 
 each other in some particulars, agree in having tails that are 
 feeble andno< prehensile, but which they use for protecting them- 
 selves against the cold, of which they are very sensible. They 
 are light and graceful in their movements ; of a lively, timid, 
 and irritable disposition. Their food consists of fruit, birds' eggs, 
 and insects. Of the genera belonging to this division we name 
 the 
 
 Calliihrix sciureus. (Gr. xaXdg, kalos, beautiful, Ogl^, thrix, 
 hair.) Sciureus, the specific term, is from the Gr. axioCgsog, 
 (skiureus,) squirrel-like. 
 
 This is the Saimiri of Buffon, otherwise called the Squirkbl 
 Monkey, and is a very beautiful little animal not quite a foot 
 long, and with a tail three or four inches longer than the body. 
 
 It is native to Brazil and Guiana. The head is rounded in 
 form ; the muzzle is short and dark colored ; the ears very large, 
 and it has a large bushy tail. Around the eyeg are two circles 
 of flesh. The general color is olive gray ; but the fore-arms 
 and legs are of a fine orange red. Its cry is a hissing sort of 
 whistle repeated three or four times, and expressive of impatience 
 or anger. The tail, though not properly prehensile, it sometimes 
 winds around objects as a sort of feeler or support, so that this 
 animal may be regarded as a link between this division and the 
 Ordinary Sapajqus. 
 
QUADRUMANA. 43 
 
 t 
 
 The Sakis, 
 
 (Or those Sakis which have long bushy tails, and hence have 
 been denominated Fox Tailed Monkeys ; the term Saki, in its 
 more general application, denoting any American Monkey whichy 
 has not a prehensile tall.) • 
 
 Pithecia. These are the largest of the Sagoins. Of this 
 genus, which has a facial angle of 60o, the most remarkable is 
 the pithecia lugens, (Gr. m6)}gela, pithekeia, ape-like ; lugens, 
 Lat. mourning,) — the Widow Monkey, so named from the con- 
 trast of black and white displayed in its naturaUdress. The 
 general color is black, but the face and hands are white. The 
 Creoles of South America say, " it wears the veil, kerchief and 
 gloves of widowhood," according to the custom in South America. 
 
 Pithecia cheiropotes. (Gr. xbIq, ckeir, hand ; niizrjs, potes, drinker.) 
 
 The Hand-DrinkA, so named because with its hands it con- 
 veys Water to its n^outh, from a vessel or running stream. This 
 animal is the Capuchin of the Oronoko. It is distinguished by 
 two distinct bushy tufts formed by the parting of the hair above 
 the large, sunken eyes, and by its long crisped black beard. The 
 fur is of a reddish chestnut color. It lives in pairs only, and is 
 very shy. 
 
 But a more interesting species of these animals is the lacchus 
 vulgaris, (Gr. " laxyog, lakclios, Bacchus.) The Marmoset, 
 OuiSTiTis, or Striated Monkey. This small species has a body 
 about eight inches long, and a tail eleven or twelve inches. Upon 
 its head are two tufts of W>hite standing hair ; the facial angle is 
 50o ; the fur very soft. Some are black with yellow feet ; others 
 brown, striped with yellow, hence called striated. When re- 
 moved from its native region to a colder climate, the Marmoset 
 nestles itself among the materials of its bed, out of which it sel- 
 dom emerges. It is very fond of insects : in captivity it will eat 
 scores of the largest cockroaches, with many smaller ones, (re- 
 jecting the wing-cases and legs,) three or four times a day. Its 
 chief and favorite food in the wild state, is the banana, though in 
 that state it is almost omnivorous. 
 
 I. argentalus, (Latin, silvered.) This is the least and most 
 beautiful of the Sagoins, having silvery colored hair, which 
 pleasantly contrasts with a tail of deep brown, inclining to black, 
 ness. In general habits, it is like the preceding. 
 
 What are the two leading groups of the numerous monkeys found in 
 South America ? What is a marked distinction of the Sapajocs ? What 
 
44 QUABKUMANA. 
 
 of the Saooins ? Why are they sometimes, called four -fingered monkeys ? 
 What monkeys of the Eastern continent do the SAPAJons represent ? What 
 is said of their habits, manner of climbing, living, &o. ? What is said of 
 their fore hands ? What of the palms of both extremities ? What sort of 
 a life are they said to lead ? In what respect do the Howlers differ from 
 the Sapajous ? In what particulars do they agree with them ? Which are 
 the largest American Monksys ? For what are they remarkable ? Describe 
 their howling, size, disposition, &c. ? What is said of the Ubsine Howler, 
 or Akguato ? How many did Humboldt count in a single tree ? From 
 what ia Aides the generic term for spider monkey derived, and what does 
 it mean ? Why are they called Spider Monkeys ? For what are they dis- 
 tinguished ? Ho,w do they move on the ground ? Where and upon what 
 do they live ? How do they use theip tails ? How cross streams ? What 
 is said of their flesh ? What is said of the Marimonda {Ateles Belzebub ?) 
 What is said of the Sajods, or Capuchin Monkeys ? To what genus do 
 they belong ? With what are they grouped ? What is said of the Weeper? 
 What of the White-faced Capuchm ? What does Humboldt relate of this 
 monkey ? From what does the horned monkey derive its name ? Where 
 is it found ? What do the Sagoins include, and in what do they all agree ? 
 For what do they use their tails ? What is said of their movements, food, 
 &c. ? What is said of the Squirrel Monkey, and from what is the term 
 derived? What does the term Saki generally denote ? Which of them 
 are called Fox-Tailed Monkeys? Which genus of Sagoins is the largest? 
 Of this genus Pitkecia which is the most remarkable ? What do the Cre- 
 oles of S. A. say of it ? How is the Hand-Drinker distinguished ? Why is 
 it so named? Where found? What is said of the Marmoset, Ouistitis or 
 Striated Monkey? What is said of its food in its wild state? What in 
 captivity ? Among what class of animals on the chart would you look for 
 cockroaches ? WMch is the least and most beautiful of the Saooins ? 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 LEMURiDiE, (Lat. Lemures, ghosts, ghost-like.) 
 The Lemurs were so named by LinnjBUs, on account of their 
 nocturnal habits and noiseless movements. The larger part of 
 this family are natives of Madagascar ; but some inhabit the 
 African continent, and a few of them the East Indies. They 
 resemble the monkeys in having opposable thumbs on both pairs 
 of extremities ; those of the hinder limbs are large, and much 
 expanded at the tips ; the nails are flat, except those of the first 
 finger of each hinder limb, which are long, raised and pointed. 
 They do not show either the mischievousness and petulance, or 
 the sprigbtliness and curiosity of the monkey tribe. From them 
 they also differ in size and form, and in respect to their teeth. 
 The chief difference arnong the Lemurs themselves relates to 
 color; the habits, manner and general figure being the same in 
 all. The muzzle is very pointed, the tail very long ; the fur 
 woolly and soft. They are generally not larger than a fox, and 
 some are smaller. The Lemurs of Madagascar and two or three 
 adjacent islands appear to take the place of the Monkeys, none of 
 
which are found in those islands. Their habits, in a state of na- 
 ture, have not been much observed. When in captivity, they 
 are quite tame, and good natured ; fond of attention, and leap 
 about with surprising agility. They are evidently nocturnal. 
 When undisturbed, they spend the greatest part of the day in 
 sleep. If alone, they roll themselves up in the form of a ball, 
 and wind their long tEiils in a very curious manner about their 
 bodies, seemingly for the purpose of keeping themselves warm, 
 for they are naturally quite sensitive to cold, and delight in bask- 
 ing in the, rays of the sun, or in keeping themselves as close as 
 possible to^the fire. 
 
 At twilight they show more alertness, springing from perch to 
 perch, and uttering a peculiar grunt of pleasure and satisfaction. 
 At this time, they seem most desirous of food, which in confine- 
 ment is usually bread and fruits. They are naturally climbing' 
 animals and exceedingly active, twisting their tails about objects, 
 but not using it as a fifth hand. 
 
 They endure changes of air and climate better than the Mon- 
 keys; but "dust and wet not only annoy them, but produce dis- 
 ease and death." It is said that "one of their favorite situations 
 is the edge of the fender,- on which they will rest, spreading out 
 their hands before the fire, half closing their eyes, and luxuria- 
 ting in the genial glow." 
 
 The noise which the Lemur makes when alarmed, or suddenly 
 startled, is a singular " braying, or roar of interrupted hoarse 
 sounds, ending with abruptness." Their native food is not cer- 
 tainly known, but it is believed to be fruits and eggs, birds and 
 insects. When in captivity, Ihey refuse cooked meat. They 
 live together in troops, clinging to the branches of trees, or when 
 confined, to the bars of their cages, like the slolh, which in many 
 respects they resemble. The eyes are full and of hazel color; in 
 confinement, blindness isa common occurrence. '^ , 
 
 The^ whole are sometimes called Madagascar Cats. 
 
 Cuvier arranges the Lemurs into five groups, viz. 
 I. The Makis, or Macacos, the Tkue Lemurs. 
 
 II. The Indris, Liclmnotus, (Gr. Uchanos, index-finger; ous, 
 an ear.) 
 
 III. The Lori group, Slow Lemurs, Stenops, (Gr. Stems, nar- 
 row ; dps, face or muzzle.) 
 
 IV. The Galagos, Olilicnus, (Gr. ous, an ear; Mnon, a fan.) 
 V. The Tarsiers, Tarsius. 
 
 Among the most beautiful species of the' first group, is the Red 
 Lemur, L. ruber, (Lat. red.) This is also^one of the largest, and 
 apparently sufiers less than others by a removal from its native 
 
46 QUADRUMANA. 
 
 abode. Its fur is of a deep rich chestnut ; but the face and fore- 
 hands, as also the under parts and tail, are blacit. It is easily 
 tamed, and very gentle. 
 
 A still more beautiful species is the L. Macaco. The Ruffled 
 Lemtjr, the largest of the family. Its fur is varied with pure 
 white and black, in nearly equal proportions ; the hands, how- 
 ever, are black, and a white rt<^ surrounds the face. In habits 
 and disposition, it is like the rest. All the species of the Lemurs 
 are handsome, and worthy of attention ; but it is sufficient for our 
 purpose to name the above. 
 
 The Indris, (Lichanolus, Illiger.) These are found in Mada- 
 gascar, and present two species, the long and the short tailed. 
 
 The Black or Tailless Indri, I. brevicaudatus, (Lat. with 
 short or rudimentary tail,) is described as "a large animal three 
 and a half feet high, entirely black except on the face and abdo- 
 men, which are of a grayish cast, and the rump which is white." 
 The face is dog-like; the ears are short and much tufted; the 
 hair is silky and thick, but in some places, curly ; the nails are 
 flat, but pointed. When young it is trained to the chase like a 
 dog. Its note is spoken of as like a young child's crying ; hence 
 it probably derived its name Indri, man of the wood. 
 
 The Flocky Indri, I. laniger, (Lat. wool-bearing,) has a black 
 face, and large and greenish gray eyes ; five-fingered feet with 
 long claws, except the thumbs which have rounded nails. It is 
 said to be one foot nine inches long from the nose to the end of the 
 tail, the tail being nine inches. The color above is a pale yellow 
 ferruginous, or iron color, and white beneath. The fur is very 
 soft and curly. 
 
 The LoRis. Stenops, (Illiger.) The animals of this genus 
 have narrow, pointed muzzles, and are without tails. Their eyes 
 are close together, and they have a grasp thw is quite tenacious. 
 Their movements are sometimes very slow ; their habits noctur- 
 nal. ."The base of the arteries of the limbs has the division into 
 small branches which is found in the true Sloths." The number 
 of their teeth is thirty-six. The thumbs are widely separated 
 from the fingers on both extremities. Two species are found in 
 India and Ceylon, viz. 
 
 L. gracilis. (Lat. slender.) The Slender Loris. This is a 
 very small animal, being only eight inches in length. It has a 
 long, dog-like visage, a thin and weak body, and long slender 
 limbs. On each foot, the thumb is veiy distinct and separate 
 from the toes. The color above is tawny; beneath whitish. 
 According to Pennant, it is very active, and many of its actions 
 are like those of an ape. 
 
QUADRUMANA. 47 
 
 L. iardigradus. (Lat. slow.paced.) The Slow-Paced Lemur 
 is '-an animal of small size,scareely'equal to thai of a ciat." The 
 largest yet noticed is but sixteen inches long. The apparent clum- ' 
 siness of its form is much increased by the manner in which it 
 usually contracts itself into a kind of ball. The large eyes have 
 transverse pupils capable of being closed during the day, and very 
 largely dilated at night. The hair is long, close and woolly, and 
 of a deep ashy gray with a brownish tinge. A brown or chestnut 
 band runs along the middle of the back. Under the true tongue 
 is a second tongue, narrow and sharp pointed, which the animal 
 projects in connection with the other when he drinks, and also 
 when he eats, especially when eating flies, of which he is very 
 fond ; but he is able to retain the second within his mouth at 
 pleasure. One of this species was a pet of Sir William Jones, 
 during his residence in India. 
 
 Gidago. The Galagos, found in Africa and India. These 
 animals have round heads, short muzzles, and very large eyes 
 and ears. The feet are five-fingered* with the exception of the 
 first finger of the hind feet, which has a sharp awl-shaped claw. 
 The tail is very long and hairy. Their large ears close when 
 they sleep, but open upon their hearing any noise. They make 
 their nests squirrel-like, in the^ branches of trees, and cover it 
 with a bed of leaves or grass for their young. Their food con- 
 sists of soft-fruits and insects. They are found in grgat numbers 
 among the gum-trees of the desert of Saham, and are particularly 
 fond of the gum yielded by these trees. Thence they are taken 
 by the Moors, and carried to the const' for sale, where they are 
 named " animals of the Gum." Those animals are gentle and 
 pretty, but small, the length of the body being only seven inches, 
 and that of the tail, nine. 
 
 Of the sevei'al species, the one most worthy of notice is the G. 
 Moholi. The Moholi. This singular but beautiful animal, 
 peculiar to Africa, has a long glossy tail, very long hinder legs, 
 large, bare and spreading ears. The color of the tail is a medi- 
 um between a yellowish brown and cochineal red ; the fur is 
 throughout of the same color ; that of the other parts is a dark 
 slate color, except at and near the surface ; the eyes are a deep 
 topaz yellow. In its grimaces and active movements, it resem- 
 bles the monkey. It is rarely seen during .the day, which it 
 spends in the nest it forms in the forks of branches, or in the 
 cavities of decayed trees. Its length from the nose to the tip of 
 the tail is sixteen inches. 
 
 The Tarsiers are found in the Molucca islands. These have 
 tarsi, which are very long, and this gives to their hinder limbs a 
 
 3 
 
48 Q0.ADBDMA!fA. 
 
 disproportionate extent. They have a rounded head, large, eyes 
 and a long tufted tail. The hands are small and delicate ; ex- 
 ternally covered with a soft down, but within they are naked. 
 The nails of all the fingers of the hand as well as of the third and 
 fourth finger of the feet are triangular in shape ; on the index 
 and middle finger of the feet they resemble the thorns of a rose 
 bush. The fur is woolly and soft, the general color brown, ii). 
 clining to gray. Two species are known. Tarsius Bancanus. 
 The Banca Tarsier, and T- fuscotnams. (Lat./wssw, dark or 
 swarthy ; manus, hand.) These animals feed chiefly on lizards. 
 Averse to light, they retire by day under the »oots of trees. Dr. 
 Horsefield obtained the Banca Tarsier in Banca, near laboogi 
 one of the mining districts, where, he says, it inhabits the exten- 
 sive forests in the vicinity. 
 
 Cheiromys, (G. cheir, hand; mus, mouse.) The Aye-Aye. 
 This quadruped^ whose name signifies AandS-mouse,' resembles the 
 ai, or sloth in its habits, but should not be confounded with that 
 animal. Cuvier places it with the RodenLia, but it may properly 
 he classed, as it bus been by some naturalists, among the monkeys. 
 Its specific name Madagascariensi.s, points it out as a native of 
 Madagascar. It burrows under ground, and is slothful and noc- 
 turnal in its habits; has large flat ears, like those of a bat, and a 
 tail like a squirrel's; but its most distinguishing peculiarity is the 
 middle finger of the fore foot, the last two joints of which are very 
 long, slender and without hair. This peculiarity aids the animal 
 in drawing worms out of the holes in the trees, and in holding 
 on to branches. Its length is eighteen inches, exclusive of the 
 tail, and its general color ferruginous (iron) brown, mixed with 
 gray. 
 
 Galeopithecus, (Gr. galeds, a weasel ; pUhecps, an ape.) Fly- 
 ing Lemur. • , 
 
 This genus of animals is the connecting link betweea the 
 Lemurs and the Bats. There are two species ; some enumer- 
 ate three. G. volans, the Flying Lemur, — is found in the most 
 eastern islands of the Indian Archipelago. The chief peculiarity 
 of this animal is the extension of its skin between the front 
 and hind limbs, including also the tail, by which it receives a 
 paraohute-like support in the air, and is able to take long sweeps 
 ing leaps from tree to tree, somewhat like flying ; but it has not, 
 like the bats, the power of continued flight. The general struc- 
 ture is like that of the Lemurs. During the day it sleeps sus- 
 pended on the branches, with the head downward. At night it 
 goes forth in quest of iU food, which in addition to insects, consists 
 (u fruits, eggs and birds. 
 
CAKNIVOEA. 49 
 
 By whom were the Lemurs so named, and why ? Where are they found, 
 and of what do they there take the place ? In what do they resemble 
 Monkeys, and how diifer from them? In what do Lemurs chiefly differ 
 among themselves^ What is said of their size, and is much known of their 
 habits in a wild state ? What are their habits in a state of captivity ? In 
 what do they delight ? What food do they prefer, and what refuse ? How 
 do changes of climate affect them? What influences have wet and dust 
 upon them ? What is to them a favorite position ? Do they liv? alone, or 
 in troops ? What anjmiil do they strongly resemble ? What general name 
 is sometimes given them ? Name the groups into which Cuvier arranged 
 them ? What is said of the Red Lemur ? Which of the Lemurs is the 
 laTgest and isfipst bieautiful ? Give some account of the other grot?ps, the 
 Indris, the Slow Lemurs', the Galagos, and the Tarsiers. Describe the Aye- 
 Aye, and the Flying Lemurs. Why is the name Aye-Aye given to the 
 CheivoiQya? Ans. Because this name, as pronounced, is supposed to resem- 
 ble the cry of the animal. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 Oeder Thiud. CARNIVORA. 
 
 (La,t, ca,ro, flesh j voro, to devour.) 
 
 The two preceding orders^ we have found specially character- 
 ized by the number and properties of their hands. In the animals 
 we are now about to oonsidpr, the hands are modified into feet. 
 At the heiad of -the four,footed animals are the Carnivora, or flesh 
 eating animals, wh^h have the strongest thirst for blood, and with 
 it the power and instruments for its gratification. These, in the 
 structure of their teeth, their digestive organs, and general con- 
 formation, are adapted for preying upon other animals. In com. 
 mon with the first two orders, they have three kinds of teeth, and 
 nails or claws on their feet ; but unlike them, never have the 
 front toe opposable to the other fingers. Their molar teeth, or 
 grinders, are adapted for cutting and tearing rather than bruising 
 or grinding. The greater or less development of the molar teeth 
 as cutting or tearing instruments, indicates the kind of animal 
 food suited for their support. Those Carnivora which have their 
 molars, in whole or part, tuberculated, (covered with small 
 knobs,) use vegetables, to a greater or less extent; those which 
 have them serrated, or notched with pointSj live chiefly on insects. 
 Other modifications of the molar teeth, fit them for crushing 
 bones, or dividing flesh, as occasion may require. As a general 
 rule, the jaws open and shut like a pair of shears, upwards and 
 downwards., but do not admit of a side-wise movement. The 
 Carnivora have no third lobe in the brain. The senses of sight, 
 hearing and smell are exceedingly acute. Their feet are of a 
 peculiarly soft structure, to enable them to steal silently upon 
 "their prey ; and their supply being uncertain, ^y can ensure 
 
50 CARNIVORA. 
 
 long abstinence from food. The intestines of this order are suited 
 to their flesh-eating habits, being shorter, and less voluminous 
 than those of herbivorous animals. A kind providence has so 
 arranged things that the larger and more formidable of the car. 
 nivorous tribes are but thinly scattered and more or less remote 
 from the abodes of civilization. 
 
 The Caenivora may be divided into I. the Cheiroptera, 
 Bats; II. the Digitigrada, including the Cat, Dog and Weasel 
 families ; III. the Plantigrada, the Bear family or tribe ; IV. 
 the Amphibia, the Phocidje, or Seal family ; V. the True In- 
 sECTivoRA, including Shrews, Moles, &c. 
 
 By what were the first two orders characterized ? How are the hands 
 modified or changed in the Carnitoba, and other orders of Mammals? 
 What order stands at the head of four footed animals ? What are their 
 propensities, and have they the power to gratify them ? For what are 
 their teeth and digestive organs adapted ? How many kinds of teeth have 
 they ? Describe them, and spell their names. Ans. Incisors. The fore teeth 
 with sharp cutting edges for cutting or separating the food. Canine teeth 
 ' are on each side of the incisors. These are very long and prominent in the 
 Carnivora. (See plate IV. fig. 3.) Those in the upper jaw are called eye 
 teeth in the human family. Molars, or grinders are of three kinds ; false 
 molars are more or less pointed, and stand next the canine teeth ; next come 
 the carnivorous teeth, especially adapted for dividing and lacerating muscle, 
 and last the Tuhereulated teeth, full of rounded knobs or pimples. Serrated 
 teeth arc notched with points like a saw, and show that the animal lives on 
 insects. Trenchant teeth are very sharp and cutting. 'Granulated teeth are 
 covered with small elevations, or grains. What have Carnivorous animals in 
 common with the first two orders ? In what are they unlike them ? For 
 what are their molar teeth adapted, and what is indicated by their varia- 
 tions ? How can you distinguish by the teeth what food an animal lives 
 upon? How do carnivorous animals generally open and shut their jaws? 
 Have their jaws any side-wise movement? How many lobes has the brain 
 in animals of this order? What is said of their senses? For what are 
 their feet peculiarly adapted ? Can they sustain long fasts ? Are the intes- 
 tines shorter in Carnivorous than in Herbivorous animals ? How are the 
 wisdom and goodness of God shown in tlie distribution of carnivorous and 
 blood-thirsty animals? How are the Carnivoka divided? 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 I. Division of the Carnivora. 
 
 Sub-order Cheiroptera, (Gr. xeiq, clieir, hand; jiiejoV, pteron, 
 wing.) 
 
 These singular animals combine so much of the character of 
 birds with that of quadrupeds, that it was long thought difficult to 
 assign them a separate arrangement in the system of nature. It 
 is now, however, settled that the structure of their bodies, their 
 viviparous nature, their hair, etc., entitle them to a place among 
 
JIJV. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. 
 
 1. Skull of man, ehowing the omnivorous teeth of the order Bimana. 
 
 2. Tiger's head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Cat family, (Felidse.) 
 
 3. Dog's head, showing the carnivorous teeth of the Dog family, (Canidse.) 
 
 4. Skull of a porcupine, showing the teeth of a gnawing animal, order 
 Rodentia. , 
 
 6. Horse's head, showing the vacancy for the bit between the front and 
 back teeth, which space corresponds with the angle of the lips. 
 
 6. Hippopotamus' head, showing the canine teeth, (eye teeth,) developed 
 into enormous tusks, with a chisel like edge. 
 
 ?. Elephant's skull, showing the long, round, arched, pointed tusks or 
 incisors projecting from the upper jaw. 
 
 8. A molar, grinding or back tooth of the elephant, of which there are 
 never more than two on each side- of the upper and lower jaws of the 
 African elephant, and only one in a similar position in the Asiatic ele- 
 phant. 
 
 9. Mastodon's tooth, showing the conical points whence the animal derives 
 its name. For the, tusks of the mammoth, see the Chart. 
 
 10. Skull of a cow, showing the dentition of a cud chewing animal, order 
 Kuminantia. 
 
 11. Porpoise skull, showing how the numerous teeth interlock with one 
 another when the jaws are doeed. 
 
54 CARNIVORA. 
 
 the quadrupeds. Some of them are fruit eaters ; but as a whole, 
 we arrange them as Cuvier has dond, with carnivorous animals. 
 They are found both in the Eastern and Western Continents, and 
 also in Australia. A climate tolerably temperate seems best 
 suited to these animals ; but they are largest in warm countries. 
 Their most distinguishing character consists of a fold of the skin, 
 which rising at the neck, extends over the lengthened limbs, as, 
 the silk over the whalebone of a parasol or umbrella, and gives 
 them a winged appearance. Those genera which have the 
 bones of the hand so developed as to spread a sufficient extent 
 of this membranous skin, have power to perform all the evolu, 
 tions which are required for flight. The hand-wings present 
 a much greater extent of surface than those of birds, and the 
 strong muscles attached as in the birds, to the sternum or breast 
 bone, assist them to fly with great rapidity, and turn with aston- 
 ishing swiftness. A lengthened bone proceeding from the heel, 
 assists the tail in expanding that part of the membranous skin 
 which is between the thighs, and where the tail is absent, per. 
 forms that offioe alone ; and thus gives the power of governing 
 the direction of the flight, like the spread tail of a bird. By the 
 extension of the upward curving of the tail and the hind feet, the 
 interfemoral (between the thighs) part forms a hollow cradle into 
 which the new born young is received. The thumb is free, short 
 and armed with a strong hooked claw, by which they crawl along 
 on the ground. The feeble hind feet have five toes, armed with 
 sharp edged, curved and pointed claws, by which these animals 
 suspend themselves, head downwards, in hollow trees, caves, or 
 deserted buildings, where they are found during the day, going 
 forth only at night. Their eyes are extremely small, but the ex. 
 ternal ears are often large, and with the "wings, form an extensive 
 surface endued with the most singular and exquisite sensibility, and 
 enabling them, even when their eyes are sealed up, or removed, to 
 pursue their rapil^ and wheeling flight, avoiding every obstacle, 
 not even hitting threads stretched in various directions across 
 their way, and passing through the narrowest passages without 
 touching the sides. AH are exquisitely susceptible of cold, and 
 pass the winter in a state of lethargy, retiring to old ruins, cav- 
 ems, or hollow trees, where they continue suspended by their 
 claws until the genial spring warms them into activity. They 
 are most active in the calm evenings of summer. Some of them 
 are supposed lo be migratory in their habits. In the Cheiroptera 
 the teats are pectoral ; in all the rest of the Carnivora, they are 
 ventral. They perform a very useful part in the economy of 
 nature in the destruction of insects. 
 
CARNITORA. 55 
 
 Ttie CheiAopterAj or Vespertilionidje, are divided into five 
 sub-families, each ihcluding many gehera, viz. 1. Phyllostdma- 
 tina. 2. Rhinolophina. 3. Vespertilionina. 4. Nbctilionina. 
 5. Pteropina. They may also be arranged into 1st. the Frugiv- 
 erotis group, atid 2d. the true or Insectivorous Bats. Ortmivdreus 
 is, however, a term that more abcurately describes thfe former 
 group. Th'eir teeth are, some of them, more trenchattit than fruit 
 eating habits would alone require. CuVier says of these animals, 
 "they know how to pursue birds and small quadrupeds," and it is 
 quite probable they Sometimes prey on the large insects found in 
 the regions of their abode. Bestde the variations in the teeth of 
 the Fruit Eating or Omnivorous, and the Insectivorous Bats, there 
 are other differences which relate to the stomach and intestines. 
 The stomach of tlie former is very complicated, and the intestines 
 very long, (in the Pteropus, seven times as long as the body,) 
 whereas in the latter, the stomach is very sirtiple. Having but two 
 divisions or portions, and the intfestines are riot more than twice 
 the length of the body. Another difference respects the tailj 
 which in the insectivorous bats is generally powerful ; in the 
 fruit eaters wanting, rudimental or comparatively inefficient. 
 
 From what is the name of the sub-order Cheiroptera derived ? What dp 
 these singular animals combine ? Tb what difficulty did this give rise ? Is 
 it now a settled question ? What particularly entitles them to a place among 
 quadrupeds ? Are any of them friiit-eaters ? How did Cuvier arrange thein 
 as a whole ? Where are thfey foiind, arid what climate Suits them best ? 
 Where are the largest fotad ? WJiat is their ffldst distinguishing charao- 
 teriatio ? How db their whigs compare with those of birds ? How are the 
 muscles attached? How is the cradle for the young formed? What is 
 said of the thumb, and of what use is the hooked claw ? Ijy what do they 
 suspend themselves, in what position, and in frhat places ? What is said of 
 their eyes, ears, wirigs, &c. ? What of their exquisite sensibility, iihd what 
 dbes it enable then* to avoid? Are they aifected by_ cold, and how do they 
 pass the winter ? At what season do they leave their retreats ? When are 
 they mpst active ? Are any of them migratory? Ip what do they differ 
 from all other CarSivora? Are bats usefiit? In what tcay? Into hotv 
 many sub-families are thev divided? How may thfey Silsb be arranged? 
 What does Cuvier say bf thfem? What is 6aid of their teeth, intestirieg, 
 &c. ? Natne aiiy further differences between the Insectivorous and Frugiv- 
 
 erous Bats. , • » i. -is j 
 
 Spell, give the derivations and e:$amples of each of these five sub-families. 
 
 1. PifTtLOSTOMATiNA, (Gr. Phullon, h leaf. Stoma, a mouth,) naiiicd fronl 
 the ieaf-iikS ereet tipon thd hOSe. The Vampire, {VampirUs SpectnmA of 
 South America, is one 6f this bloOd-^cfeing family, acquaintance with which 
 would divest it of half its terrors. , . . 
 
 2. KhinolophIna, (Gr. Rhiri, a nose, Zophot, a crest.) These are the 
 Horse Shoe Bats, of Java, which derive their name from the shape of the 
 leafy membrane upon the nose. The genus Nycteris, (Gr. NMcterU, S batj) 
 iiiflatfe their bodifes, and appear like sraill ballooifls. 
 
56 CAKNIVORA. 
 
 3. Vespertilionina, (Lat. Vespertilio, a bat.) These are found in all 
 parts of the worldy including Australia. The Flitter mouse of England, V. 
 murinus, has the ears inclining backwards. The New York Bat, V. Novebo- 
 racensis, the Little Brown Bat, V. subulatm, (Lat. awl-shaped,) the Silver 
 Haired Bat, V. nodivagans, (Lat. nox, night ■ vagams, wandering,) the Car- 
 olina Bat, V. Carolinensis, are all found in the United States and Canadae. 
 
 4. NoontioNiNA, (Lat. J/bciilio, from nox, night, and eo, to go.) These 
 South American bats have side pouches for receiving their j'oung. 
 
 5. Pteeopina, (Gr. Pteron, a wing ; pous, a foot. ) These are the Rous- 
 SETTES of the French, and the fruit-eating bats of Java. The Kaloug, or 
 Fox Bat, Pteropus Javanicus,' is the largest, measuring five feet in the 
 spread of its wings. They are found in large companies, suspended from 
 trees. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 The Caknivoea Proper. 
 
 The Carnivora proper are sometimes arranged into three dl- 
 visions — the Digitigrada, the Plantigrada, and the Phocidae 
 or Amphibia. 
 
 II. DiTISION OF THE CaENIVORA. 
 
 I. Digitigrada, (Lat. digitus, a finger or toe ; gradior, I walk ;) 
 walking on the toes. / 
 
 This division of the Carnivora derive their name from their ap- 
 plication of the toes to the ground in walking. It includes the 
 Cat, Dog, and Weasel families. They are distinguished by their 
 free, light and active step, their elasticity of motion, beauty of 
 fur, and elegance of form; Many of them are nocturnal, slum, 
 bering by day in some dark den or deep recess, but prowling steal- 
 thily and noiselessly about during the night. Having satisfied 
 their blood-thirsty dispositions and voracious appetites, when 
 "the sun ariseth,' they gather themselves together, and lay them 
 down in their dens.'" Some animals of this division, as the wolf, 
 are, however, more open in their movements, and in bands hunt 
 their prey during the day. 
 
 1. Felidae, (Lat./eZis, a cat.) The Cat family. 
 
 These include Cats, Lions, Tigers, Leopards, and Lynxes. 
 Among them are the most eminently carnivorous and formidable 
 of the mammalia, and they include a large number of animals 
 that closely resemble each other in structure and appearance. 
 They are among quadrupeds what birds of prey are among the 
 feathered tribes. The size and strength of the Lion, Tiger and 
 Leopard, combined with their thirst for tlood, render them most 
 fearfully dangerous. 
 
 The jaws and teeth of the Felidae are quite difierent from 
 
CARNITOKA. 57 
 
 those of the preceding orders ; the jaws are much more powerful, 
 the teeth longer and sharper. On their fore feet are five toes, 
 and on the hind ones four, all armed with strong hooked and 
 sharp claws. To prevent the claws from injury by coming in 
 contact with the ground, they are, when not in use, drawn back. 
 They are also elevated above tlie ground by the soft pad underneath, 
 into sheathes, so that the point only just peeps out beneath the fur, 
 and thus are not liable to be worn or blunted. (See Plate VI, fig. 7.) 
 The tongue is very rough, as may be known toy feeling that of the 
 domestic cat. This roughness is occasioned by the innumerable 
 papilla which are turned backwards, and are .like so many little 
 hooks to assist the animal in tearing off any remnants of flesh 
 that may adhere to the bones of their prey. Their sight is acute, 
 and suited for vision both by night and by day. The expansive 
 power of the pupil of the eye is so great that it takes in every 
 ray of light. In the larger cats the pupil is circular-; in those 
 that roam at night and also see well by day, as our domestic 
 cat,, it is oval. Their long whiskers are delicate organs for the 
 sense of smelling. These whiskers are each connected with a 
 large nerve, and they are useful in indicating objects when the 
 animal is prowling at night. 
 
 Felis Leo, the Lton. This is the strongest and most coura- 
 geous of the feline tribes, called the " King of Beasts," and " Mon- 
 arch of the forest." He is regarded as the emblem of majesty 
 and strength combined with generosity. His form supports the 
 royal arms of Engltind, and surmounts them as a crest. Many 
 allusions are made in the Sacred Scriptures to his energy, 
 power and majesty, (Rev. v., 5,) and his ferocious and sanguinary 
 disposition. There are two kinds of Lions, Leo Afrieus and L. 
 Asiaiicus. The brown Lions of the Cape of Good Hope are 
 more ferocious than the yellow variety found in that vicinity, 
 and will carry off a heifer as easily as a cat would a rat. The 
 Lioii of Senegal has a thinner mane, and is of a deeper yellow 
 than the Lion of Barbary. The Bengal' Lion, the Persian Lion, 
 and the Maneless Lion, are only varieties of the Asiatic Lion, 
 Leo Asiaticus. 
 
 The Lioness is smaller than her mate, has two and sometimes 
 three blind whelps at a litter, which she guards with great care. 
 They are easily tamed when young, and live from twenty-five to 
 thirty years, sometimes much longer. The great lion Poropey, 
 which was in the Tower of London in 1760, had been there 
 seventy years. One from the river Gambia died in the Tower 
 at the age of sixty-three. Anderson, the African traveler, does 
 not represent lions as so ferocious and formidable as we have 
 
58 CARNirORA. 
 
 been accustomed to consider them. They have a small homy 
 prickle, or hook, fastened to the skin and concealed in the 
 tassel at the end of the tail. It is easily detached, and its use is 
 still unknown. Lions belong exclusively to the Eastern Conti. 
 nent, but the Puma is sometimes called the American Lion, and 
 as it is the krgest of the Cat family on the Western Continent, 
 we shall give it a more particular notice. 
 
 Felis Concolor. The Puma, Cob&ak, Panthek, Painter, Cata- 
 
 MOUNT. 
 
 This formidable animal is known under all these names in North 
 and South America. Washington Irving, (see his "Astoria,") men- 
 tions it as seen at the mouth of the Columbia river. Dr. Good- 
 man gives an account of a sportsman killed by one of these ani- 
 mals in the Catskill mountains. One of them, within the recol- 
 lection of Dr. Dekay, was even seen a few miles from the city of 
 New York. This animal was, no doubt, formerly found in all 
 the Northern and Eastern States, west of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and along the borders of the Pacific. A few yet remain in the 
 less cultivated portions of the Atlantic States. In Florida and 
 Texas it is quite abundant. It is also found within the tropics 
 in Mexico and Yucatan, and has made its way through Panama 
 into Guiana and South America, where it is called the Puma, 
 and reaches its greatest size. From its likeness in other respects, 
 to the I'on ,of the old world, it is, though" maneless, sometimes 
 named the American lion. The courage of the Cougar is, how. 
 ever, not great, and unless very hungry or wounded and at bay, 
 he seldom attacks man. The body is long and slender, (five 
 feet in length and including the tail, eigjit ;) the legs are short 
 and stout. The general color of the Puma, when the animal is 
 mature, is silvery grey, and hence it is sometimes called the sil- 
 very lion. In the United States the general color is tawny or 
 fulvous ; the under part is reddish white. The name " concolor," 
 it obtains from its uniformity of color. The tail of the male is 
 longer than that of the female, and without a tufl. The Puma 
 lives much on trees, which it climbs with great ease ; and its 
 uniform dusky fur makes it so like the bark that it is not readily 
 distinguished from the branches on which it rests. From trees, 
 it falls suddenly upon monkeys, deer, and cattle as they pass by ; 
 or it lurks among reeds and thickets by the side of rivers and 
 marshes, where it seizes the alligator as he raises his head above 
 water, or crawls out upon the bank. In Florida, the animal in- 
 habits the miry swamps and the watery everglades; in Texas 
 
CARNITORA. 5fll 
 
 he is sometimes seen in the open prairies, and his tracks are found 
 in every crossing place of creeks and bayous where perhaps he 
 may find some calf,- cow or bullock that has been sunk and suf. 
 focafed in the mire. The Cougar sometimes attacks young cat- 
 tie, but is generaMy compelled to subsist on small animals, such 
 as young deer, skunks, racoons, &c., or birds, and even Will eat 
 carrion when hard pressed by hunger. (Audubon.) 
 
 The Panther is nocturnal in its habits ; not, however, from ne. 
 cessity, as it can see well in day light. It makes its way through 
 tangled forests in searching for prey at night — perhaps arousing 
 and affrighting some benighted traveler or wearied banter, who 
 has bivouacked at the foot of a large tree; and fortunate indeed 
 is he if, his rifle fail him not, or if by a burning fire-brand he 
 can frighten away the hungry animal.< At the sight of a Pan- 
 ther, horses are thrown into such fright that they " break all fast- 
 enings and fly in every direction." Audubon says, " a respecta- 
 ble gentleman of the state of Mississippi gave us the following 
 account. A friend of his, a cotton planter, one evening while at 
 tea, was startled by a tremendous out-cry among his dogs, and 
 ran out to quiet them, thinking some person, perhaps a neighbor 
 had called to see him. The dogs could not foe driven back, but 
 rubbed into the house. He seized his horsewhip which hung in- 
 side the hall door, and whipped them all out, as he thought, ex- 
 cept one, which ran under the table. He then took a candle, 
 and looking down, to his surprise and alarm, discovered the sup- 
 posed refractory dog to be a Cougar. He retreated instanter ; 
 the females and children of the family fled, frightened half out 
 of their senses. The Cougar sprang at him-^he parried the 
 blow with the candle-stick, but the animal flew at him again, 
 leaping forward perpendicularly, striking at his face with the 
 fore feet, and at his body with the hind feet. These attacks he 
 repelled by dealing the- GoDgar straight-forward blows on its 
 betly with his fists, lightly" turning aside and evading its claws 
 as best he could. The Cougar had nearly over-powered him, 
 when luckily, he baeked towards the fire-place, and as the ani- 
 mal sprang again at him, dodged him, and the panther almost 
 fell into the fire, at which he was so terrified that he endeavored 
 to escape, and darting out Of the door, was immediately attacked 
 again by the dogs, and with their help and a club, was kilted." 
 
 The female has three, four, and even five at a litter, but the 
 usual number is two. She shows great affection for her" young, 
 never leaving them except to obtain food to support her strength. 
 
 Felis Tigris, (regaUs.) The Royal Tiger. (PI. IV. fig. 9.) 
 
 This animal itifeats Hiodestan, and the parts of Asia between 
 
60 CARNIVORA. 
 
 Bengal and China. It is nearly equal to the lion in size, and 
 though inferior to him in strength, surpasses him in activity and 
 rapidity. Whole villages are sometimes depopulated by this 
 most dangerous animal. The tigress has five cubs at a time, 
 which are easily tamed but not to be trusted. A mong American 
 Tiger Cats may be enumerated the Ocelot, P. pardalis, of Tropical 
 America ; the Chati, F. mitis, (mild,) of South America, about one 
 third larger than a cat, and the Pampas, or Jungle Cat, F. Pajeros, 
 which lives on Guineapigs. The Nepaul Tiger Cat, F. nepa- 
 lensis, is two and a half feet long, including the tail. The Ser. 
 val, F. Serval, an African Tiger Gat, plays like a kitten, and 
 looks very cat-like. 
 
 . The Leopards, or Spotted Cats, are numerous, and found on 
 both continents. They are distinguished for beauty and elie- 
 gance. Their color, in the East, is a pale yellow, covered with 
 rosettes of black, which contract into spots about the' head, neck 
 and limbs. The general length is about four feet and the height 
 about two. The Leopard preys upon antelopes, deer and mon- 
 keys. So great is the flexibility of its body that it can make 
 surprising leaps, swim, climb trees or crawl like a snake, with 
 nearly equal facility. These animals are fierce and rapacious, 
 and it is remarked that "though they are ever devouring, they 
 always appear lean and emaciated." , 
 
 The Jaguar, jF. onca, is the Leopard of this Continent. This 
 formidable animal inhabits Mexico, and is met with in almost 
 every part of Central America. In common with many of this 
 family, he is often called the Panther. The Cheetah, F: juhata, 
 is the Hunting Leopard of the Cape of Good Hope, and combines 
 in some degree, the habits of both the cat and the dog. Its spe- 
 cific name juhata, (Lat. crested,) is derived from the thin 
 mane running down the neck. 
 
 The Lynxes are distinguished by their tufted or tasseled ears, 
 and shorter bodies and tails- Eight species are described. The 
 Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx, Lynx rufus, looks most ferocious, but 
 flies from its pursuers, moving by bounds or leaps, and raising 
 all the feet at the same time from the ground. The Canada 
 Lynx, (Zr. Canadensis,) is more retired in its habits, and its fur 
 furnishes the most beautiful materials for muff's, collars, &c. 
 The Caracal, JP. Caracal, takes its specific name from the black 
 tips of its ears, the word in Turkish meanings black. Its 
 body is longer and more slender than in the true'LvNXES. It 
 is called the "Lion's provider." The domestic and the wild cat 
 are supposed by many to be of distinct species. A ma.iked dif. 
 ference is shcwh in the tails of the twa } thaM>f the wild cat is 
 
CAENIVOEA. 61 
 
 bushy and short, while that of our tame cats is long and slender. 
 The varieties are numerous ; among the most noted are the 
 Tabby, or Brindled ; the Maltese, of a bluish hue; the Tortoise- 
 shelled or spotted ; the Angora ; the Egyptian ; and the Manx 
 Cats, of the Chartreuse, a species that have no tails. Another 
 variety are said to have the fore paws divided into two parts. 
 The cat is more attached to places than persons ; is sly and sus- 
 picious ; loves her ease and seeks the softest places for her bed ; 
 is fond of catnip and valerian ; and is a great favorite, particu- 
 larly with children. She is fond of rats, mice, squirrels and 
 birds, and notorious for thievish propensities ; dislikes cold wa- 
 ter and bad smells. Her hair is electric, and always dry and 
 glossy; average age, 14 years. 
 
 What three divisions compose the Caenivora Proper? From what is dig- 
 itigrada derived ? What does it include ? By what are they distinguished ? 
 What are their usual habits? At what time do they seek their prey? 
 Which hunt in bands ? • At what time ? 
 
 What does/eZis signify? What does this family include? What is their 
 character, and how do they resemble each other ? To what are they com- 
 pared? What renders them particularly dangerous ? In what way do the 
 teeth and jaws of the Felidae differ from those of :the preceding orders? 
 What is said of their feet and claws ? How are the claws protected ? By 
 what are they elevated above the ground? What is said' of the tongue? 
 What causes the roughness ? What ' do these hooks assist them to do ? 
 What is said of their sight and of the shape of their eyes ? Of what u/;e 
 are their whiskers, and with what is each connected ? 
 
 Which is the strongest and most courageous of the feline tribe? What is 
 he called ? How regarded ? Where referred to ? What species are here 
 mentioned? What is said of the lioness and her young? Are they long 
 lived? How dpes Anderson, the African traveler who was recently trod- 
 den to death in that country by elephants, speak of them ? What is con- 
 cealed in the tuft of hajr at the end of the tail ? 
 r' "— : 
 
 Where do lions belong ? Which is the largest of the American Cats ? 
 tinder what names are they known ? Where have . tl\ey been found 1 
 Whore is it still found ? Why is it called the American Lion ?^ Why the , 
 Silvery? What is said of its courage? Whfit of its general color in the 
 United States? How do the male and female differ? On what does the 
 Puma live ? What is said of the appearance of its fur ? Of what advan- 
 tage is this? How does it secure its prey? Where are Its haunts in 
 Florida? Where in Texas? What does the Cougar attack? On what 
 does it usually subsist ? What are the habits of the Panther ? Define and 
 spell, Noc-tur-nal, (Lat. nocturnies, by night, from nox, night.) Di-ur-nal, 
 (Lat. diurnusjhj day, from dies, day.) Crepuscular, (Lat. erepuseuPum, twi- 
 light.) Are Panthers attached to their young, anil what ia their usual 
 number? . , , , ,, :. . 
 
62 CAnOTVORA. 
 
 How does the Royal Tiger compare with the lion? What countries 
 does he infest? What is said of his ravages? How many cubs has the 
 tigress? When tam^d, are they trustworthy ? Where is the Ocelot found? 
 Where the Cliati? What is said of its size? Where is the Jungle Cat 
 found ? On what does it live ? What other Tiger Cats can you mention ? 
 
 Are Leopards or Spotted Oats numerous? Where are they found ? For 
 what are they distinguished? What is their color in the East? What 
 their usuallength and height? Upon what do they prey? What is. said of 
 the flexibility of their bodies? What Of their disposition? Which is tfie 
 Leopard of this Continent, and where found? What is he often called? 
 Where is the Cheetah found? What called? What habits are united in 
 him ? What is the meaning of the specific name jubata I Why given ? 
 
 How aia the Lynxes distingufshed ? How many species are describ'ed ? 
 What is said of the Wild Cat, or Bay Lynx ? What of the Canada Lynx ? 
 From what does the Caracal take its specific name ? From what language 
 is the name derived? What does it- mean? Is the Caracal larger or 
 smaller than the true lynxes ? What is it called ? 
 
 Are Domestic and Wild Cats of the same or different species? What is 
 a plain difference ? Mention the most noted varieties. Give the character 
 of the cat. What is her average age ? ■ 
 
 SECTION XI. 
 SuB-?AraiLY Htaehidae. 
 
 Htaena, (Gr. fiou-a, Huaina.) 
 
 The Hyaena has the head and feet of a fox, and the intestines 
 of a civet. Linneeus placed it between the wolf and fox. It is 
 one of the most ferocious, malignant and carnivorous of animals. 
 There are three species, the Striped, (H, striata.) the Villose, 
 {H. viUosa.) and the Spotted, {H. maculata.) The Striped is the 
 H. vulgaris, or Common Hyaena, (see Chart.) It often deceives 
 its pursuers by feigning lameness at the commencement of a 
 chase. It dwells in caverns and rocky places ; prowling about 
 at night to feed on dead animals, or such living prey as it can 
 seize, seldom, however, assailing man unless in self defence. 
 Hyaenas are useful as feeders on carrion, in cleansing the 
 region where they dwell of the decaying remains of larger ani. 
 mals, and preventing the increase of poisonous effluvia. They 
 are found in the train of armies, whose slain they feed upon, 
 and sometimes even tear newly buried corpses out of their 
 graves. 
 
 VivERKiDAE, (Lat. viverra, a Ferret.) The Civets. 
 
 This entire group are noted for their perfume, which is secreted 
 in a glandular pouch near the tail, and is of some importance as 
 an article of commerce. It is called Cioetta, (A.rabic, Zibetta,) 
 
CARNITOHA. 83 
 
 meaning scent or perfume, and gives name to the animal. They 
 are nocturnal and predatory ; inhabit Africa, Asia and the adja. 
 cent islands, and are particularly numerous in Abyssinia. Their 
 general appearance is like that pf the fox. 
 
 Genetta, (Fr. Genette.) . The Genets or Wild Cats. 
 
 The Genets are simitkr to the Civets, but in contour of body, 
 are most like the Weasels^ having long and slender forms, short 
 limbs and sharp pointed muzzles. They give out the same odor 
 as the Civets, though the odoriferous pouches are much reduced 
 in size. 
 
 Herpestes IcHNEiTMON, Pharaoh's Rat, or Mangouste. 
 
 Tt4s beautiful little animal is appropriately calied Ekrpestes, 
 (Gr. a creeper,) and Jchneumon, (Gr. a tracker.) It was an- ■ 
 ciently ranked among the sacred animals of Egypt; destroys 
 reptiles and young crocodiles, and thousands of crocodile's eggs. 
 It is kept tame in the houses of the east, to destroy unpleasant 
 intruders. 
 
 What' is said of tlie mixed form and imtnrc of tlic Hyaena? Wliat 
 of its dispoaitioa aud Iiabits? How many species arc tliure? Describe 
 the one ngurcd on tlic chart. Qive its zuo'o^ical gradations. Ans. Tlie 
 Common or Striped Hyaena is of the Vaiuety, striata; species, Tulgaris; 
 GENUS, Hyaena; sub-fauiily, Hyenina, family or xniBii, Canidae; sctb-oBDer, 
 Digitigrada; ohdbr, Oarnivora; ctASS, Maniniaiia; warm blooded division 
 of the SUB-KINGQOU, Vertebrates, tlic Iiigliest braucli qf the Animal King- 
 dom. Give the meaning of these several gradatious. Trace out every 
 genuB studied by the class in this way. To what deceptive expedient do 
 the Hyaenas resort ? Do they often assail man ? ' Wliere do they live ? 
 Upon what do they feed ? What do they sometimes do ? 
 
 For what are the Civets noted? From what is their name derived? 
 Where are they found ? What is their general appearance ? 
 
 What are the Genets most like? In what do they resemble the Civets? 
 How was the Ichneumon ranked, and for what Is it useful in Egypt ? 
 
 SECTION XII. 
 
 2. Division of the Digitiobades. 
 
 The Canidae, (liat. cants,} a dbg. (PI. IV., fig. 2.) 
 
 This includes a large number of animals, some of which, in 
 particular respects, resemble the Cats; others, the Weasels and 
 Bears. The dog has, from olden time, beeii the friend and com- 
 panion of man ; yet some uncertainty still exists as to its original 
 stock. It is quite like both the Wolf and the Jackal> Some 
 
64 CARNIVORA. 
 
 naturalists incline to assign it a common origin with the former; 
 others have identified it with the latter. The balance of the ar-' 
 gument, .however,, seems in favor of\the wolf as the original 
 source from which the domestic dogs have sprung. Their skulls 
 and skeletons are similar. The period of gestation is sixty-three 
 days in both. Both open their eyes the tenth or twelfth dky, and 
 live fifteen or twenty years. We, however, prefer the position 
 that when man first went forth to till the ground whence he was 
 taken, the dog. was given him by the Creator as his assistant and 
 ally. The relation which he sustains to man differs much from 
 that sustained to him by other animals. The dog is alone iden- 
 tified with his master's interests and occupations. Other animals 
 may endure his rule ; to the dog it seems a pleasure. He knows 
 his looks, his voice, his walk, rejoices at his approach, and shows 
 himself his willing defender. The classic scholar will remem- 
 ber that Homer, in the true spirit of nature and of poetry, repre- 
 sents Ulysses as recognized on his return to Ithaca by his old and 
 faithful dog alone, which died with joy at his feet. The value 
 of the dog s services, in the early stages of society, and in pre- 
 paring the way for civilization, affords confirmation of our idea 
 concerning its origin. In wild and uncultivated regions, and es- 
 pecially in northern latitudes, the very existence of man is 
 often dependent upon the fidelity and ever ready aid of the dog. 
 "He is the only' animal which has followed man through every 
 region of the earth." The intimacy of relation implied in this 
 remark of Cuvier should be qualified in respect to its extent, as' 
 it is well known the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindoos, regard 
 the dog as impure and abominable, and will not touch it without 
 ablution. The teeth of the Canine family, (including dogs, 
 wolves and jackaU,) are forty-two in number. The muzzle of 
 these animals is more or less lengthened ; the tongue small, and 
 the pupil of the eye circular. The fore-feet have five toes ; the 
 hind feet four, and sometimes a fifth ; the toes are not retractile. 
 Domestic Dogs. 
 
 Their legs are long, and hence their stature is elevated. 
 Though carnivorous, their ferocity is not generally equal to their 
 strength. They obtain their prey, not by sudden bounds, but by 
 hunting it down by the aid either of sight or smell, often associ- 
 ating in packs for that purpose. Martin makes seven divisions, 
 containing fifty varieties of the Domestic Dog. 
 
 Facts almost innumerable illustrate the docility, sagacity, 
 and memory; the courage, faithfulness and . love of this 
 animal. The Esquimaux dogs, included in the first division, are 
 peculiarly valuable to the dwellers in Arctic regionst They are 
 
CAENIVORA. 65 
 
 used by them in pursuing the seal, the bear and the reindeer. 
 Yoked to heavily laden sledges, they often drag them with untir- 
 ing patience, fifty or sixty miles in a day. Capt. Parry's " Jour- 
 nal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North West 
 Passage," and Dr. Kane's "Arctic Explorations," abound in 
 graphic descriptions of the manners of the Esquimaux them- 
 selves, and in interesting particulars showing the utility of their 
 dogs. With good sleighing, six or seven of these dogs will draw 
 from eight to ten hundred weight, at the rate of seven or eight 
 miles an hour, for several hours together. 
 
 The Gkeyhound, (one of the second division,) is the swiftest 
 of all the dogs, and is used principally in the chase of the hare. 
 
 The Newfoundland dog is so named from the place whence it 
 originated. It is not to be confounded with the Labrador dog, 
 which is a larger and stronger animal. Both are trained to draw 
 sledges and light carriages. The Newfoundland dog is well 
 known for his care in guarding the property of his owner. He 
 is remarkably fond of the water, and will bring out any object 
 which his master points out in the water, and place it at his feet. 
 Many have been rescued by this dog from a watery grave. He 
 evinces the greatest fidelity and affection towards those who take 
 care of him. 
 
 The Water Spaniel, (of the fourth division,) delights in taking 
 itself to the water, which it does in pursuit of game. It is use- 
 ful to persons who are shooting wild ducks, or water hens, as 
 these fowl conceal themselves so closely that without aid they can. 
 not be discovered. It will dive to a considerable depth, and bring 
 up any small object from the bottom. 
 
 The Bloodhounds, (fifth division,) are noted for the acuteness 
 of their smell, and can trace a man or an animal with unfailing 
 certainty. Sometimes they have been used in the capture of 
 thieves, especially sheep stealers. It is about two feet four 
 inches in height, and has a voice peculiarly deep, and that may 
 be heard a considerable distance. 
 
 The Mastiffs, (sixth division,) are distinguished by the short- 
 nessof the nose, and the breadth of the head, which is caused by the 
 large muscles that move the jaw. Its powerful frame and deep 
 voice have led to its selection as a house guard against burglars. 
 
 The Terriers, (seventh division,) are used for destroying rats 
 and other vermin, and will boldly invade the covert of the fox or 
 • the badger. They become strongly attached to their masters, 
 and can be taught many tricks for their amusement. 
 
 The Shepherd's dog, (of the same division with the Esquimaux,) 
 is a rough and shaggy animal, having sharp pointed ears and nose. 
 
66 cAfiifiveKA. 
 
 To th^ shejJheM it is Ekti invaluablife assistant. Itt point bf intel- 
 ligence, thoiightfulness and promptitude, it is not probably ex- 
 celled by any of the varieities of dog&. A Story is told of a dOg 
 belonging to the " EttHck Bhteplierd," who had 700 sheep under 
 his care. On a certaiti occasion, they broke away in the middle 
 of the night, And in spite bf every effort bf the fehepherd and 
 his assistants, roamed tO a distance across the hills* "Sirrahj" 
 said the dfflicted shepherd to his dbg, " Sifrah, rtly man, they're 
 a' awa." Away went the dog in the darkness^ the shepherd and 
 his companions meantime scouring the hills, but seeing nbthing 
 of the flock or the dog. The next morning they found them at 
 the bottom of a deep ravine, not One lamb bf the whole flock 
 missing, and the dog standing in front of them, keeping watch. 
 
 On the Alpine summits of St. Bernard, remarkable for its 
 hbspital, and covered with the shows of a ceaseless winter, the 
 resident monks have been often known to issue forth in the midst 
 of tempests and snow storms, ahd by means of their large dogs, 
 of peculiar breed, have discovered travelers uhable to track 
 their way, and saved them from the cold embrace of death. We 
 subjoin the following as illustrating the powers of imitaliint and 
 memory possessed by the dogs. 
 
 A few winters since, a gentleman in Lawrence, Mass., one 
 n»rning when the snow was covered With a smooth icy crust, 
 noticed a little dog seated oh his hatincheS, sliding down the 
 steep bank before his house. He supposed that the dog had slipped, 
 but noticed as he resched the bottom of the hill, he ran up again. 
 He continued his sport for some time, appa rently with great delighti 
 P. H. Gosse, in his article oh the dog, relates that " Lord Corti- 
 bermere's mother, (Lady dotton,) had a terrief named Viper, 
 whose memory was so retentive that it was only necessary to re- 
 peat to him once the name of the numerous visitors at Corhber- 
 mere, and he never afterwards forgot it Mrs* ti. came on a 
 visit there on a Satui-day. Lady Combermere took the dbg Up 
 in her arms, and going up to Mrs. H. sSid, "Vipef, this is Mrs. 
 H." She then took him tb another newly arrived lady, and said, 
 " Viper, this is Mrs. B. ; " and no further notice was taken. 
 Next morning, wheh they went to church, Viper Was of the 
 party. Lady Cotton put a prayer book in his mouth, and told 
 him to take it to MrS. H., which he did, and then carried one to 
 Mrs. B., at his mistress's order." 
 
 A man in Windsor, Vt., owned a large and valuable Mastiff dog, ' 
 which had the misfortune to break his leg. The owner, after 
 trying in vain to set the bones himself, sent for a physician, who 
 speedily put the bone in its place, and splintered Up the 1^. 
 
CARNIVOBA. 67 
 
 For seVeftl days the doctor visited the d(^, and dressed the 
 wound, and then told the owner he should come no nwre, but if 
 any thing seemed to be wanting, to bring the dog to his office. 
 He did so two or three times, and when he ceased going, the dog 
 Would go alone to the doctor's office every morning, and lie dovyn 
 until the doctor Iboked at his leg, and then he would return, con- 
 tinuing this practice until he was fully cured. Some time after 
 this, the great dog found in the street a little one, with a broken 
 leg ; and after smelling around him for some time, he got him 
 up oti his three legs,^and tnanaged to get him to the before men- 
 tioned doctor's office, where he waited with the little dog, until 
 the doctor came and set the bone^ 
 
 Cards vulpes, (Lati vulpes, a fox.) 
 
 The Fox is about the size of a small dog. He is by nature 
 suspicious, timid and cunning ; his sight is ke^n ; his smell and 
 hearing so acute that it is difficult to take him in any kind of trap. 
 Unmolested, the fox lives from twelve to fourteen years; the first 
 year he is called a cub ; the second, a fox ; and the third, an old 
 fox. Audubon enumerated twelve species, four of which exist 
 in North America. The skin of the Silvery Fox, (C argentatus, 
 Lat. silveredj) of Labrador, has been sold in London for five 
 hundred dollars. Its fur is copious, and of a beautiful, lustrous^ 
 black hue, with the longer hairs of a silvei'y white* It is found 
 in Oregon, and the northern parts of this continent. 
 " The Common Fox of Europe, Vulpes vulgaris, is there the 
 favorite object of the chase. The American Red Fox, C.fulvus, 
 (Lat. tawny,) is somewhat larger ; its fur is finer, and of a bright- 
 er color, and it has a larger brush tail. It eats fish as well as rats, 
 rabbits, &c. The SwiftiFox, C. velote, (Lat. swift,) is the smallest 
 of the fox tribe. The Cross-Fox,derives its name, C.decussalus, 
 (Lat. divided cross-wise,) from its markings, not from its nature. 
 The Gray Fox, C< cinereus, (Lat. ash-colored,) is the annoyance 
 of the southern planter, as the Red-Fox is of the northern farmer. 
 The Arctic Fox, C. Lagopus, (Gr. Lagos, hare,;«JM«, foot. Hare's- 
 foot,) is covered with white woolly fur. The Antarctic Fox, C. 
 Antartticus; is called the Wolf-Fox, from its resemblance to that 
 animal. It \s tame, and barks like a dog. The Caama, G, Caa- 
 ma, is the smallest African fox. The Fenpec, or Zerda, C. 
 Zerda, whose place has been so often discussed by naturalists, 
 has the skeleton and teeth of the dog family. Its fur is short and 
 si^ky. 
 
 C. Lupus, (Lat. a wolf.) The Wolf. 
 
 The Wolf, in its habits and physical development, we have 
 already intimatedt is closely related to the dog. His proportions 
 
6S CARNIVORA. 
 
 are larger, and his frame more muscular than those of that ani. 
 mal, and between the two there exists a most inveterate hatred. 
 The well known traits of the Wolf are ferocity, cunning and 
 cowardice. In the earlier periods of English history, it is often 
 adverted to as a common and dreaded pest. In consequence of 
 its ravages, many of the early British kings and chieftains, as if 
 to render themselves more fortitiidablej adopted its name with cer- 
 tain adjuncts. This is seen in such names as Athlewolf, (noble 
 wolf;) Berthwolf, (illustrious wolf ;)'Eadwolf, (prosperous wolf,) 
 etc. It was finally extirpated in England, about 1350, in Scot- 
 land, about 1600, and in Ireland, about 1700. It is still abundant 
 in the northern countries of Europe, and in France and Western 
 Asia. Wolves always hunt in packs, and evince great craftiness 
 in waylaying and pursuing their prey. Sometimes they form a 
 semicircle and advance upon the animal which they would reach, 
 in this way forcing it over a precipice, or gradually hemming it 
 in so as to prevent its escape. Winter is the time when they 
 are most dreaded by those living in the regions which they in- 
 habit. Then as hunger renders them peculiarly ferocious and 
 daring, they, with the greatest obstinacy, follow after their prey, 
 whether it be man or animal. Under the gnawings of famine, 
 they will devour every sort of offal, and even disinter the dead. 
 It is related that in the reign of Louis XIV. a large party of 
 dragoons were, in the depth of winter, attacked at the foot of the 
 Jural mountains, by a numerous band of wolves. The dragoons 
 fought bravely, and killed many hundreds of them ; but at last, 
 overpowered by numbers, they and their horses were all devoured. 
 
 Of the Wolf, many varieties are found in both continents. 
 The C. lupus, C!ommon Wolf, is of a yellowish or fulvous gray 
 color; coverqd with harsh and strong hair, and from twenty- 
 seven to thirty inches high at the shoulders. Of this there is a 
 variety, white, either as an albino, or as the effect of a northern 
 or cold climate, also found in both continents, viz. C. lupus alius. 
 The wolves of Lapland and Siberia are almost all of a whitish 
 gray color ; those of the Alps in Europe, and the Rocky Moun- 
 tains of North America, become white or nearly so. 'The length 
 of the American White Wolf (albus) is about four and a half feet, 
 it being the largest of all the varieties of this animal. The 
 Black American Wolf, C. Lupus, (Niger,) is of the same shape 
 as the Common American Wolf, and rising three feet in length. 
 
 Packs of this animal, showing various shades approaching 
 black, have been found occasionally in every part of the United 
 States. In Florida the prevailing color is black. This is the 
 most numerous variety among the Pyrenees of Europe, and also 
 
CARNIVORA. 69 
 
 south of those mountains, where it is of larger size than the com- 
 mon wolf. Several varieties of wolves are met with in Asia. 
 Those of Asia Minor are deeply fulvous, and show more of red 
 than the wolves of Italy. 
 
 Numbers of such as the C. lupus (nubilus,) the ^JDusky Wolf, 
 the Black Wolf, C. lupus (niger,) are found on the sandy plains 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. They go in droves, and hunt deer 
 by night, with dismal, yelling cries, and woe to the foxes if they 
 find them on a plain at any distance from their hiding places ! 
 In the same districts, and associating in greater numbers than 
 other wolves, are found the C. lupus {lcitrans,)the Prairie or Bark- 
 ing Wolf, intermediate in size between the large American Wolf 
 and the Virginia Fox, and in many respects like the fox. ' In its 
 bark or howl it greatly resembles the latter animal, as well as 
 the domestic dog of the Indians. Their general color is ashy 
 gray;' their length two feet, ten inches. They are well known 
 to the inhabitants of the western parts of Arkansas and Missouri, 
 and to those who live on the borders of the Upper Missouri and 
 Mississippi rivers. 
 
 Their skins are of some value, the fur being soft and warm, 
 and constitute a part of the exportations of the Hudson Bay Com- 
 pany. The Prairie Wolf is found in California and Texas, and 
 on the eastern side of the mountains of New Mexico, as well as 
 on the western prairies. 
 
 C. lupus, (rufus.) The Red Texan Wolf resembles the 
 common gray variety, is more slender and light than the White 
 Wijlf of the North- West part of this contineift, and has a more 
 fox-like aspect. The hair is not woolly like that of the White 
 Wolf, but lies smooth and flat. The length is two feet, eleven 
 inches. In habits, it is nearly like the Black and White Wolf. 
 It IS said that " when visiting the battle fields of Mexico, the wolves 
 preferred the slain Texans or Americans, to the Mexicans, and 
 only ate'thp bodies of the latter from necessity, as owing to the 
 quantity of pepper used by the Mexicans in their food, their flesh 
 is impregnated with that powerful stimulant." Audubon, in re- 
 ferring to the geographical distribution of this animal, remarks of 
 quadrupeds generally, that toward the north they are more sub- 
 ject to become white ; toward the east, or Atlantic side, gray ; to 
 the south, black ; and toward the west, red, 
 
 C. aureus, (Lat. golden.) The Jackal. This animal is found 
 throughout the Levant, in Persia, India and Africa. It is called 
 ^^ aureus" on account of the yellow tint of its skin. The Jackal 
 is supposed to be the fox of the sacred writers, (Judges xv. 4, 5.) 
 Like the wolf, it hunts in packs, pursuing the antelope and other 
 
70 CARNIVOIIA. 
 
 animals for prey, and making away with carrion in every state of 
 putrefaction. It has been called the "lion's provider," for when 
 the cry of the Jackal is heard, the Lion, aware of the cause, 
 makes his appearance, and without ceremony seizes upon the 
 booty. The Jackals, however, retaliate by aiding in the con. 
 sumption of the larger prey which the lion destroys. They are 
 useful in the east as scavengers, consuming the offal which in 
 oriental cities is thrown into the streets, and might otherwise 
 breed pestilence. Grapes are the ?p?cial delight of the Jackal, 
 and it often makes great havoc in vineyards. When hunting, 
 these animals utter most piercing shrjeks, which produce, it is 
 said, a very terrific effect, « as resounding through the stilly dark- 
 ness of night, and answered from a thousand throats." 
 
 The Jackal is rather larger than the fox, but its tail is shorter 
 and less bushy. It is easily tamed, and is dog-like in disposition 
 and habits. One species of the Jacka,l, Cani^ Corsac, the Amvb, 
 is not larger than a polc'.cat, has a long tail) and is found in 
 troops amidst the deserts of Tartary. Other species are the Cape 
 Jackal, C. mesomela, (Gr. mesos, middle, melas, black,) and the 
 C. ctnihvs, (Gr. anthos,) of Senegal. All agree in manners and 
 general disposition, and in exhaling a strong and offensive odor, 
 which, however, is "scarcely perceptible" in a state of domesti- 
 cation. 
 
 Proleles LalanMi. The Aard-Woi-f, or Earth- Wolf, of 
 Sonith Africa. This animal has interest as connecting together 
 the Civets, Dogs and Hyaenas. It has the bones and external 
 appearance of a hyaena, the head and feet of a fox, and the intes- 
 tines of a civet, The fore legs are considerably longer than the 
 hind ones, and in this respect it is also like the hyaenas. It is 
 about the size of a full grown fox, yet stands higher on its legs; 
 but for its more pointed bead, and the additional fifth toe of the 
 fore feet, it might, at first sight, be easily mistaken for a young 
 hyaena. Thn color is a pale ash, with a slight shade of yellow, 
 ish brown. The fur is woolly, except the mane, which is coarse, 
 stiff hair, and bristles up when the animal is provolted. One of 
 these animals was brought from Africa, by th« traveler, Lalande, 
 from whom it received its specific name. The generic term is 
 from the Greek protetks, and relates to the superior length of the 
 fore legs. This aninial might perhaps njore properly be classed 
 with the Civets. 
 
 Spell Canidae and give its derivation. Wha,! does the second division 
 of DiOiTiBKADES Include? What other animals do they resemble ? What 
 is said of the origin and antiquity of the dog? What of their resemblance 
 to Wolves and Jackals, and in what respects do they agree f How do his 
 fidelity and attaehment compara with tnose of other animals? In what 
 
CAKMTORA. 71 
 
 State of society and in what regions is he particularly Taluable f ■Wh!»t 
 does Cuyier remark respecting the dog? What qualification does this 
 remark reqmre f What is said of their teeth, muzzle, tongue, eyes, feet, 
 claws, &c. ? How many varieties of domestic dogs does Martin make ? 
 Does their ferocity equal or surpass their strength ? How do they obtain 
 their prey? To what people are the Esquiraaui dogs of great value? 
 What use is piade of them? What works give interesting particulars 
 respecting them? What is said of the Greyhound? Why is the New- 
 foundland dog so n^med? What is said of ^is fidelity and affection? 
 What use is made of him ? In what does the Water Spaniel delight ? For 
 wh^t is it, useful? For what is the Bloodhound noted? How are Mastiffs 
 distinguished? Of what use are Terriers? In what does (he Shepherd's 
 dQg e¥cel ? Belate the story oi the £ttric^ Sl^epherd and dQg. What is 
 said of the dogs of ^t. Bernarcl? For what are they trained? What 
 anecdotes can you give showing the imitative power and memory of dogs ? 
 What is the size of the common fox? Describe him. How long does he 
 live ? How many species did Audubon enumerate ? How many are found 
 }a I^c^rth America i What f<x^ furnishes tl^e most valuable fur f Where is 
 it found ? Name and characterize the other principal species. 
 
 How do the dog and wqlf compare with each other? What are the 
 traits of the wolf? What is said of it in BugUsh history? From what 
 places lias it been extirpated? Where is it still abundant? How do wolves 
 hun^f When are they mps( dreaded? Why at th*t time ? Wht^t occur- 
 red near the Jural mounti»ins? Are there many v^ieties of the common 
 Wolf? Describe it. What is said of the Bed Texan Wolf, and its prefer- 
 ences? What does Audubon say of the changes of color in quadrupeds ? 
 
 Tybere is the Jackal found? What is it supposed to be? What is it 
 called ? Why ? Of what is it particularly fond ? What is said of Jack- 
 als' hunts? Are they of any use ? What is their size ? Why called awrciM/ 
 Are they easily tamed? What is said of the Adive? What of the 
 Aard, or Earth Wolf? What does it connect? Describe its habitat, size, 
 color, fur, &c. &c. 
 
 SECTION XIII. 
 3. Division of the Digitigrades. 
 
 MusTELiDAE, (Lat. Mustela, a weasel.) The Weasel Tribe. 
 The weasels are readily distinguished by their long snaiie-like 
 bodies, short muzzle, sharp teeth and predatory habits. Their 
 relish for blood is strong. In pursuing their prey, they are hold, 
 cautious and resolute, creeping toward their unsuspecting victim, 
 usually a rabbit, rat or bird, and on a sudden, darting at it, and- 
 piercing its neck with its sharp teeth. Fixing themselves where 
 some large vein invites them, they hang on until their prey ex- 
 pires, devouring its brain, and sucking its blood; but almost 
 always leaving the flesh untouched. Their bead is small, oval 
 and flattened, and their bodies so pliable as to be capable of being 
 insinuated into holes and crevices which it would seem they 
 
72 CARNIVOBA. 
 
 could not possibly enter ; and their short strong limbs and sharp 
 claws, enable thern to climb with the greatest celerity and adroit- 
 ness. In their habits they are more or less nocturnal. Accord- 
 ing to Audubon, about twelve species of the true Martens are 
 included in this family, four of which inhabit North America. 
 
 Muslela vulgaris, (or Putorius Vulgaris.) The Common 
 Weasel. 
 
 This is the smallest of the tribe, and well known, especially 
 by farmers, as they often have occasion to lament its onsets upon 
 their young broods of poultry. For this, however, they have 
 some compensation in the destruction, by this animal, of numer- 
 ous rats and mice that infest their barns and out-houses; so that 
 it is sometimes said, weasels " ought to be fostered as destroyers 
 of vermin, rather than extirpated as noxious depredators." This 
 active little creature is sometimes tamed, and by its playfulness 
 and unexpected display of affection, has awakened much interest. 
 
 M. Erminea, or Pulorius Ermneus. The Stoat, or Ermine. 
 
 This species closely resembles the Weasel, but is a third lar- 
 ger, being about the size of a cat. In the summer, its general 
 color is a yellowish brown, when it is called a Stoat ; but it 
 changes to a pure white in winter, when its fur is extremely 
 beautiful, and it is called Ermine. It is abundantin the northern 
 parts of this continent, and in Europe and Asia. The fur of the 
 Ermine is closest and most purely white in the most northern 
 latitudes, and constitutes a valuable article of commerce. The 
 white skins of this animal usually bring from ten to fifteen dol- 
 lars per hundred. The tail remains black at the extremity, du- 
 ring all the changes of the color. Formerly, the official robes of 
 judges and magistrates were lined with this fur. In predatory 
 hadits, it is like the kindred species. Hares and rabbits fall easy 
 victims to this animal, which kills them with a single bite, pene- 
 trating to the brain. It frequents stony places and thickets, and 
 in a short race will outstrip a dog. 
 
 Mephitis, (Lat. a noxious odor or exhalation.) Mephitic Wea- 
 sels. 
 
 The animals of this genus are so named from the intolerable 
 odour which, when irritated, or for self- protection, they give 
 ■ forth. They have on their fore feet nails, strong and well suited 
 for digging. The distinguishing color of the genus is black, 
 striped with white, lengthwise along the back, and the tail is long 
 and bushy. The Mephitic weasels all move slowly ; seldom flee 
 from man, unless when they are near their burrows. Though fee- 
 ble and insignificant in some respects, yet they seem conscious of a 
 power to " annoy beyond the point of endurance." Large num- 
 
CARNIVOEA. 73 
 
 beris of them are sometimes found in the same hole. They fesd 
 on poultry, birds, eggs, small quadrupeds and insects. The 
 head is short ; the nose ratlier projecting ; the snout gefaerally 
 blunt ; the hairs on the tail are very long. Seventeen or eight- 
 een species have ,been enumerated ; one in South Africa, two 
 or three in the United States, and the rest in Mexico and South 
 America.; but'^of these species there are almost endless varieties 
 in respect to color and markings. 
 
 Mephitis Americana or M. Chinga. The Common American 
 Skunk. 
 
 This animal is about as large as a cat, and generally is of a 
 blackish brown, with white stripes running lengthwise on the 
 back. In the markings of white^ it, shows many diversities, and 
 it has a long bushy tail. All the varieties of .tliis animal have a 
 broad fleshy .body, not unlike that of the wolverine. .Its.legs are 
 short ; the fur is rather long and coarse, intermingled with-much 
 longer smooth and glossy hairs. Its length from the polqt of the 
 nose to the. root of; the tail is seventeen inches. No quadruped 
 found on this continent is more universally detested than the 
 skunk., :The offensive fluid is contained in two sq:iall sacs situ- 
 ated near the root; of the taiJ. By day it is so thin and transpa- 
 rent as 1p be, scarcely perceptible ; but at night' has a yellow 
 luminous appearance. He is himself a very cleanly animal^ 
 never suffering a drop of the fluid to touch his fpr, nor does his 
 burrow give forth any offensive smell. In the northern states, 
 this animal retires to his burrow about December, and is not seen 
 a^ain till fhe. following February. In the southern, states he 
 does not go into winter quarters, but continues to, prow] at night 
 during the winter. It is said his flesh is " well tasted and savory," 
 and cooked and eaten by the Indians. 
 
 The Long or Labge Tailed Skunk, M. macroura, (Gr. fzaxgog, 
 makros, long, ovqa, oura, tail,);Co(nmon in Mexico and Texas, is 
 of the size of „a common cat, and has five or six young at a time. 
 
 The Mk ZoriUa, or California Skunk has white spots on the 
 forebead and on each temple, and-four white stripes on the sides 
 and back, with a bnoad tip of white on the tail ; in fprm is a 
 small image of thp common skunk, and like it, so. offensive as 
 seldom to be approached. Tlie African Zorilla, found at the 
 Cape of Good Hope, has the tail spread out in the form of a 
 plume, and does not give out the overpowering odor of other 
 species. 
 
 The M. mesoleuca, (Gr- fiimg, mesos, middle, Isvxdg, leukos, 
 white.) The Mexican, Skunk has the long and under fur of the 
 whole back and the tail, white. The long tail of this animal is 
 
 4 
 
74 CARNIVORA. 
 
 often first seen in the high grass and bushes, and makes a beau- 
 tiful appearance. 
 
 The Teledu, or Skunk of Java and Samsitra., MydaAs meliceps, 
 (Lat. meUs,& badger, oaput, a head,) has a short tail covered with 
 a mere pencil of hairs. In somethings, it reminds one of a hog. 
 
 M. Maries. The Mahten. Of this there are three varieties, 
 the Common Beeohj or Stone Marten, the Pine Marten, and the 
 Sable, of which the furs are exquisitely soft and beautiful. Their 
 agile and graceful motions are not excelled by apy of the Weasel 
 tribe. They reside in woods, and prey chiefly on birds, and 
 small animals. They also feed on rats, mice, and moles, araJ will 
 sometimes eat seeds and grain. The general length is about a 
 foot and a half; the tail is ten inches lotig, bushy, and of a darker 
 color than the other parts. The Marten is of a dark, tawny 
 color, with a white throat, and the under part is of a dtisky 
 brown ; the muzzle is pointed, and the eyes bright and lively. 
 The fur is of two soils ; the buter is long and brown, with vary- 
 ing shades, in different parts of the body ; the inner, very soft, 
 short and of light yellowish gray color. 
 
 M.Jhgorum, (Lat. of beeeh-trees.) The Beech Marten is a va- 
 riety with a white throat, found in Northern and temperate Europe, 
 and Western Asia. It approaches the habitotions of men oftenet 
 than the Pine Marten, resorting for prey to the vicinity of farm yards 
 and honiesteadis. Its fiir, which is much inferior to that of the Fine 
 Marten, is called in trade, the Stone Marten. Many skins of this 
 animal are obtained from the north of Europe, and the fur is dyed 
 to represent Sable ; though the practised eye easily distinguishes 
 it from the latter. The richest furs of this Marten come from thp 
 most northern latitudes. 
 
 M. Abietum, (Lat. of fir-trees.) The Pike MARTEt*. This 
 variety with a yellow tbtoat, varies much in color, so that it is 
 difficult to find two specimens. alike, but generally is yellowish, 
 blended into a blackish hue in other parts. It is found in Mount 
 Caucasus, and the northern parts of Europe ; and is very numer- 
 ous in the wooded districts of the northern latitudes of this conti- 
 nent. It js particularly abundant where the trees have been kilM 
 by fire, but are still standing. Specimens have been obtained irom 
 near Albany and the CatskiU mountains, and the northern parts of 
 Pennsylvaaia. Its southern range is about lat. 40o, and the novth- 
 ern about 68a. The length is one foot five inches. This Marten 
 is, in its disposition, shy, cruel, cunning and active ; does not ap- 
 proach the residences of men, but keeps rather in dense woods. 
 The fur of this animal is valuable, next to the Sable ; and when 
 in fashton, Marten skins bring good prices. It is sometimes dyed. 
 
CAENIVORA. 75 
 
 and efforts are made to palm it upon buyers as fur of a more 
 costly kind. , The Hudson's Bay Company have sold as many as 
 14,000 skins in a year, and upwards of 30,000 have, in the same 
 time, been exported from Canada by the French. According to 
 Sir J.ohn Richardson, Martens of the finest and darkest fur "ap- 
 pear to inhabit certain, rocky districts." ,The flesh of the Pine 
 Iklarten is rank and coarse, but is eaten by the Indians. In con- 
 finement, it. appears tolerably gentle, and loses much of its " snap- 
 pish character." They are trapped only in autumn and winter. 
 
 Mastela Zibellina. The Sable. This is the most celebra- 
 ted ofall t-he Weasel tribe, not only on account of the richness of 
 its fur, but from the perils connected with the chase, of it, carried 
 on in the depth of winter, and in regions the coldest and most des- 
 olate traversed by humati footsteps. It has long whiskers, round- 
 ed ears, large feet, (the soles of which are covered with fur,) 
 white claws, and a long bushy tail. The general color of the fur, 
 of which the hair lies each way, is. brown, with the lower part of 
 the neck and throat grayish. These animals inhabit the northern 
 parts of Europe and Asia. Vast numbers of them are killed in 
 Siberia, and their skins form a very considerable article of com- 
 merce among the Russians. Sables' skins are in the highest 
 perfection between November and January ; and within that time 
 they are sought after by large numbers of hunters. They are 
 taken in snares, or traps, which are usually pit-falls, with loose 
 boards placed over them, baited with flesh. Sometimes fire-arms 
 and CEOss-boiws are used in taking them. 
 
 Putorius Vison. The Mink. This animal is of a brown 
 color, with a white chin and short ears. The feet and palms are 
 covered with hair to the extremity of the nails, and the feet are 
 semi-palmated. It is smaller than the Pine Marten, being thir- 
 teen inches long, and the tail is half the length of the body. It 
 presents varieties which are striking and permanent, both in 
 respect to size aftd color. Next to the Ermine, it is the worst 
 depredator that prowls about the poultry yards of the farmer. 
 The Mink catches rats like the weasel or ferret, holding them by 
 the neck like a cat, and it has no aversion to fish ; trout and 
 salmon seem to be special favorites. It will steal them when it 
 can, or dive after them in brooks and shallow water, swimming 
 with considerable facility, and like the muskrat, diving at the 
 flnsh of a gun. It resides of preference on the borders of ponds, 
 and along the banks of small streams. This species 'is very 
 numerous in salt, marshes of the. southern, states, where it subsists 
 principally on the marsh-hen, the sea-side finch, and sharp-tailed 
 finch. It has not much cunning, and is easily taken in any kind 
 
76 CARNIVOEA. 
 
 of trap. When taken young, it becomes very gentle, and much 
 attached to those who fondle it. It does not emit its unpleasan' 
 odor except when it is hurt.. The skins of th'S Mink have bee; 
 used for making muffs, tippets, &c., and sold for aboiit fifty centc 
 each. Some skins are of a beautiful silver gray color, the fur 
 being quite unlike that ordinarily obtafned. Such skins are rare ; 
 six of them suffice to make a muff worth at least a hundred dol- 
 lars. (Audubon.) The Mink is constantly found in almost 
 every part of North America. 
 
 Musiela furo, (hat. I rage.) The Feeket. This useful but 
 ferocious little animal is kept in Europe, in a domesticated state, 
 and is employed for rabbit-hunting, and for destroying rats. Its 
 general form is like that of the Polecat, but it is smaller, being 
 usually about thirteen inches in length.. It has a very sharp 
 nose, red and fiery eyes, and round ears. In the slenderness 
 of its form, and the shortness of its legs, it resembles the Weasel. 
 
 The head of M. Canadensis, the Fisher, or Pennant's Mar- 
 ten, is more like that of the dog than that of the cat. It catches 
 and eats fish. 
 
 The Black-Footed Ferret is about a foot and a half long ; 
 found in woody districts, as far as the Rocky Mountains. The 
 
 P. pusillus, (Lat. very small,) is the smallest of the Weasels. 
 It is one-third smaller than the Stoat, the Polecat, or Fitchet 
 Weasel. 
 
 M. Putorious, (Lat. Putor, stink,) is stouter than the common 
 weasel. The under coat of fur is short, silky and pale yellow; 
 the outer is of a dark chocolate brown, and long and coarse. The 
 fur is inferior to that of the Sable and Marten, but esteemed as 
 an article of commerce under the name of Fitch. 
 
 Lutra, (Lat. Otter,) (Gr. loica, louo, to wash.) 
 
 This genus includes a species known as the common or river 
 Otters, whose habits are aquatic, and whose food is fish, and also 
 the Sea Otters. In their skulls and muzzles, there are points of 
 resemblance to the Seal, (phoca vitulina.) The limbs are short 
 and strong, and so articulated as to allow of free motion ; the 
 animal being able to turn them easily in almost any direction, 
 and bring them on a line with the body, so as to act like fins. 
 The teeth are sharp and strong, and the tubercles of the molars 
 very pointed; which aids them in taking and destroying their 
 slippery prey. Their intestines are very long. The body is 
 covered outwardly with long and glossy hair, with a softer, short- 
 er, downy fur, intermixed. The Otter is fierce, wild, and shy, 
 and its habits principally nocturnal. The hunt of this animal has 
 been a favorite, but a cruel sport. Pursued, he betakes himself 
 
CARNIVOKA. 77 
 
 to the water, where he is more than a match for the strongest 
 dog. His determined courage holds out to the last, and pierced 
 with spears, he dies without uttering a cry. Eleven species are 
 enumerated. 
 
 Lutra vulgaris. The Common Otter. This species is about 
 two feet long, and its tail fifteen inches in addition. The tail is 
 flat and broad, and the toes of the feet are connected by a com- 
 plete web. In its entire structure, the animal is well adapted for 
 an aquatic life ; diving and swimming with great readiness, and 
 with much ease and elegance of movement. It has a black nose, 
 and long whiskers. The ears are small and erect, the eyes very 
 small, and nearer the nose than in most animals. The color is 
 brown except small patches of white on the lips and nose. The 
 size varies from two to three and'a half feet. When it has seized 
 a small fish, it immediately leaves the water arid eats it, begin- 
 ning with the head, while the body is held in the fore paws. 
 Larger fish are held down by the paws, and the head and tail 
 often left uneaten. These animals destroy multitudes of fish, in 
 ponds and rivers, eating but a small portion of the fish, when they 
 have an abundance of |)rey. When fish are scarce, and they 
 are pressed by hunger, it is said, they sometimes go far inland 
 and attack lambs, sucking pigs and poultry, and even feed upon 
 larvae and earth worms. The Otter's place of retreat is beneath 
 roots of trees, or in holes near ponds and rivers. The female 
 bears from three to five young at a time. 
 
 The Common Otter is capable of domestication, but most readi- 
 ly when taken young, and -fed with small fish and water. Some- 
 times it shows attachment, but if oflfended, "bites grievously." 
 In some instances, it has been trained to catch fish,- or to assist in 
 fishing. When tamed, "they will allow themselves to be gently 
 lifted by^ the tail ;" though they "object to any ititeirference with 
 the snout, which is probably with them the seat of honor." 
 Usually they resort to fresh waters, but in some regions frequent 
 the sea, and hunt far out from land. Few animals show more 
 attachment for their young than the Otter. When these are 
 taken from them, they express their sorrow in tones resembling 
 the crying of children. 
 
 Iklra Canadensis. The Canada Otter. 
 
 This is larger than the Common or European Otter, having 
 dark, glossy brown hair, with the chin and throat dusky white, 
 and is five feet in length. The longer and outer hairs are glossy 
 and stiff, but the inner fur is soft, dense, and nearly as fine as 
 that of the Beaver. The ears are closer together than in the 
 Common Otter, and the tail flattened horizontally for half its 
 
78 CAENIVOKA. 
 
 length. ; The American Otter frequents running streams and 
 large ponds, and sometimes is found on the shores of some. of our 
 •rreat lakes. It prefers those waters which are clear, and a bur- 
 row in the banks, the entrance to which is under water. Their 
 favorite sport is said to be sjiding down steep banks, head fore- 
 most, sometimes for the distance of twenty yards. When shot 
 and killed in water, they sink from the weight of their bones, 
 which are solid and heavy, so that in deep water, the hunter may 
 lose his game. The American Otter, like the European, when 
 taken young, is easily tamed, will follow its owner, and sometimes 
 is playful. Audubon had one which was very familiar, and 
 much attached to him. And he relates that a landlord in the in- 
 terior of Ohio, had four Otters alive which were so gentle that 
 they would come when he whistled for them, and , approach him 
 with much apparent humility. This species ranges almost the 
 whole of North America, but is now obtained most readily in 
 Maryland,' and the western parts of the United States. The Brit- 
 ish provinces of North America annually furnish a considerable, 
 number. Their furs are much esteemed. 
 
 EMydra marina. {Mustda Lutris, Linnsus.) Sea Otter. 
 
 The generic name ^lAydra, is from the Greek ivvSQos, {enu. 
 dms,) iv, (en, in,) 'vSoi^, {tmdor, water.) The palmated feet, and 
 the tee^ of this genus are so modified as to connect this OUer 
 with the Seal, {Otia,) which have ears. The color is chestnut 
 brown or black ; the fur exceedingly fine and velvety ; the size 
 about twice that of the Common Otter. In length it is from four 
 to five feeU The hind legs and thighs are short, and better 
 adapted for swimming than in other mammalia, seals excepted ; 
 the hind feet are flat and webbed, and clothed with glossy hairs. 
 The hair, both on the body and tail, is of two kinds ; the longer 
 hairs are silky and glossy, but not very numerous ; the fur is, 
 shorter hair, e^eedingly fine and soil. This Otter runs very 
 swiftly, and swims with great rapidity, either on its back or 
 sides, aixi sometimes as if upright in the water. It has very 
 long jotestioes, they being twelve times as long as the animal, 
 white those of the Common Otter are but three and one-fourth 
 times its length. It sWms to have more the manners of a seal 
 than a land otter; haunts sea- washed rocks, and lives mostly in 
 the water. The female brii^ forth its young on land, and 
 though the animal is marine, A is found occasionally, very far 
 from the sea. 
 
 The Kamtschatdales, on whose coasts the greatest numbers of 
 these animals are killed, exphange the skins with the Russiaos^ 
 for those of the fox at^ se^^ ; and the llussiau merohoots for- 
 
CAENIVORA. 79 
 
 merly sold them to the Chinese, at a very high price, even as 
 high as from eighty to one hundred dollars each. The fur is not 
 prized so high as formerly. The Sea Otter is caught by placing 
 a net among the sea weeds, or by chasing it in boats. It inhabits 
 the waters th?tt bound the northern parts of America and Asia, 
 and the seas and bays from Kamtsehatka to the Yellow Sea, on 
 the Asiatic side, and from Alaska to California on the America^). 
 
 How are Weasels readily distinguished? What is their character? 
 What their habits ? How many species of true Martens does Audubon in- 
 clude in this family? Who was Audubon ? Answer. lOne of the most en- 
 thusiastic, industrious and observing American naturalists. Died near New 
 York city four or five years since, aged '76. How many of these inhabit 
 North America? What is said of the Common Weasel? Describe the 
 Ermine or Stpat. Describe its winter and summer dress. Which is the 
 Ermine dress ? l|'or wl^at was this fur particularly used ? What places 
 does it frequent? What is its pace? Give the meaning of the generic 
 term Mephitis, Why is this genus so called ? Whatissaidof their name? 
 What is said of the nails of these animals ? What of the tail ? What is 
 their diatingui|Bhjng color ? How are lihey striped? What is said of their 
 movements ? What gives them their power ? Upon what do they feed ? 
 How many species haVe been enumerated ? How many in the TInited 
 States ? How many in Africa ? Where are the rest found ? What is said 
 of their varieties ? To what do these varieties refer ? Give some account 
 of the Skunk. What places does it frequent? Describe the C!ommon 
 American Skunk, and give its peculiarities. When in the Northern Stjites, 
 does it retire to its burrow, aifd wh6n reappear? How is it in the Southern 
 States? What is said of its flesh? What is said of .the Large Tailed 
 Skunk? Where found? What is said of the California Skunk ? What of 
 t^e A&ican Zorilla ? What of the Mexican ? What of the Teluda of Java, 
 and what does it resemble ? 
 
 How many varieties of the Marten? What is said of their motion? 
 Where do they reside ? What ia said of the fur? Where is the Beecih, or 
 StODe Marten found? What distinguMi^s it? What is said of its te? 
 What is it called in trade ? Whence are many skins obtained,. and what is 
 said of their fur ? Wljiat distinguishes the Pine Marten ? What is the gen- 
 eral color ? Where is it found ? ■ In what places is it particularly ^nn- 
 dant ? In what part of the United States has it been found ? What is said 
 of its fur and flesh ? Which is the most celebrated of the Weasel tribe ? 
 What countries does it inhabit? At what time are the skins of the SaJ)le 
 in the highest perfection? ^ow are they taken? How does the fur differ 
 from the Marten? What .others are mentioned, either on the chart, or in 
 the text? From what animal is the fur called Fitch obtained? Mention 
 the varieties and habits of the Mink ? Where is it numerous ? What use 
 is made of its skin? What is said of Ihe Ferret? Which is the smallest 
 Weasel? Give tiie derivation f of Lu^BA? Describe the Otters? I^peat 
 the description given of the Cjom^on Otter ? How does the Canada Ott«r 
 compare with the European Otter? Give some account of it.- How exten- 
 sive is its range ? What is said of its ftir ? What is the meaning of Enht- 
 DRA? In what respect does the Otter resemble the Seal? What is said of 
 its size, speed, ftir, &e. ? For what do the Russians exchange its fiir ? In 
 what waters is it found ? 
 
80 OARNIVORA. 
 
 SECTION XIV. 
 III. Division of the Carnivora. 
 
 11. Plantigkada. (Lat. planta, sole of the foot, gradior, to walk.) 
 This name isgiven to those carnivorous animals which apply the 
 whole, or part of the sole of the foot to the ground in walking. 
 They are able to raise themselves on their hinder limbs or haunches, 
 and easily keep an upright position. There is a slowness and 
 heaviness in their motions ; their habits are generally nocturnal, 
 and in northern latitudes, they are in a lethargic condition during 
 the winter, and it is said they then shed the soles of their feet, a 
 First in order are the Uksidae, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) the Bears 
 forming a connecting link between the carnivorous and herbivo- 
 rous animals. These lay the whole of the foot upon the ground 
 in walking, which occasions their well known heavy, shuffling 
 gait, but allows them to raise themselves with facility, and to 
 maintain an erect position. When in this position they fre- 
 quently use the fore paws in self defence, or else to strike or 
 hug an assailant to death, by muscular pressure. The entire soJe 
 of the foot is naked. The feet have five toes each, fortified with 
 strong, curved, and somewhat obtuse claws, adapted for digging; 
 their grinding teeth are more or less tuberculated, and the food 
 is either animal or vegetable. In form they are generally robust. 
 The genera of this family inhabit both continents. 
 
 Vrsits. The Bbar. Of this animal, according to Audubon, 
 eight species have been described, " three existing in Europe, 
 one of which, the Polar Bear, is common also to America ; one 
 in the mountainous districts of India ; one in Java ; one in 
 Thibet ; and three in North America." The head of the Bear, 
 is large, the body stoqt, and thickly covered with coarse, 
 shaggy hair ; the ears are large and slightly pointed ; the limbs 
 are stout and massive ; the five toes have strong curved claws, 
 fitted for digging rather than for taking prey ; the tail is short, 
 and usually hidden in the hair of this animal ; the teeth are forty- 
 two in number ; the grinders have flattened crowns, surmounted 
 with tubercles, and are fitted for bruising vegetables, rather than 
 cutting flesh, and the incisor teeth give these animals but a 
 limited power of cutting it, so that they are ranked as the most 
 omnivorous of all the Carnivora. Some of them subsist on 
 vegetable food alone, and nearly all are capable of supporting 
 themselves upon it. They are nocturnal, but often seen wander, 
 ing about during the day. Their habits are unsocial, most of 
 them frequenting the recesses of mountains and caverns, and the 
 
CAENIVORA. 81 
 
 depths of forests. In winter, they dwell in caves and hollow 
 trees, almost without food, and comparatively dormant. In that 
 season the female produces her young. • Though widely diffused 
 throughout both continents, they are seldom met with in Africa. 
 Bears are said to be very food of honey, and will climb trees in 
 order to get at the nests of wild bees, for though clumsy ani- 
 mals, they are expert climbers. In Russia and other northern 
 regions, the skins of bears are among the most useful as well as 
 most comfortable articles of winter apparel. They are made 
 into beds; coverlids, caps and gloves, and used also for the ham- 
 mer cloths of carriages, for pistol holsters, etc. ; and the leather 
 prepared from them is used in harness, and for other purposes 
 where strength is requisite. 
 
 Vrsus Arctus\ (Gr. S^xtogi arktos, a northern bear.) This bear is 
 found in mountainous districts of Europe, from very high lati- 
 tudes to the Alps and Pyrenees. 
 
 It was once common in Great Britain ; but centuries ago was 
 there extirpated. 
 
 This bear of Northern Europe seems to be the only one with 
 which Linnasus was acquainted* To the people of Kamtschatka 
 it gives the necessaries, and even the comforts of life ;> its skins 
 forming their beds and coverlids, 'bonnets for their heads and 
 collars for their dogs; overalls are also made of the- skins, 
 and drawn over the soles of their shoes, to prevent them from 
 slipping on the ice ; the intestines yield them material for masks 
 or covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the 
 sun in spring, and as substitutes for glass, cover their windows. 
 The fleshis much esteemed as food, and the hams and paws con- 
 sidered great delicacies. So great are the benefits which it 
 yields, that the Laplanders, it is said, call it "the dog of God ; " 
 while the Norwegians say, "it has the strength of ten men and 
 the sense of twelve." If this bear is unable to find a hollow 
 tree or cavern for its wintry home, it constructs a habitation for 
 itself, out of branches of trees, lined with moss, where it contin- 
 ues dormant and without sustenance until spring. The female 
 produces two cubs at a birth, which at the first are about the 
 size of puppies. The brown bear is long lived. One in the 
 menagerie at Paris, France, is spoken- of as forty -seven years 
 old. This animal is four feet in length, and about two and a 
 half feet in height. 
 
 Ursus ferox, (Lat. ferpx, fierce.) The Grizzly Bear is 
 th6 most ferocious and powerful of the family, frequently attack- 
 ing man. It sometimes weighs more than 1,000 pounds. The 
 Indians fear it so much that a necklace of its claws, which may 
 
82 CARHIVORA. 
 
 only be worn by one who has destroyed this bear, is an orna. 
 ment thk entitles the wearer to distinguished honor. In Califor- 
 nia it keeps among the oaks and pities, on the acorns and seeds 
 of which it feeds. It is strong enough to overcome and carry 
 off a Buffalo. 
 
 U. Americarms. The American Black Bear is smaller than 
 the Grizzly bear, and of a more clumsy appearance. It feeds 
 upon berries, succulent roots, and juicy plants. When in 
 swamps, it wallows in the mud like a hogt living on cray fish, 
 roots, and nettles ; sometimes it seizes on a pig, or sheep, 'or calf, 
 or even a full grown cow. In robbing bee trees it is peculiarly 
 expert. The young are at first not larger than kittens. The 
 Cinnamon Bear, which is a permanent variety of this species, is 
 quite a northern animal, and its fur is more Valuable than that 
 of the black bear. 
 
 Ursus maritimus, (Lat. belonging to the sea,) or thalarctos, 
 (Gr. OiiKauaa, thalassa, the sea, figxtof, arktos, a bear.) The 
 Polar Bear. 
 
 This formidable species of bear has a long arid narrow head, 
 prolonged in a slraight line with the forehead, which is flattened ; 
 a long neck, and long, soft hair or fur, of considerable value. 
 Its average length, when full grown, is from six to seven feet. Capt 
 Ross brought back a specimen measuring seven feet ten inches, 
 and the weight of which, after losing thirty pounds of blood, 
 was 1131 lbs. Another specimen, described by Capt. Lyon, 
 measured eight feet seven and a half inches, and weighed 1600 
 lbs. The Polar Bear is entirely white, except the tip of the 
 nose and claws, which are jet black. Dr. Kane, in his "Arctic 
 Explorations," remarks that this animal is, " next to the Walrus, 
 the staple diet to the North ; and excepting the Fox, supplies the 
 most important element of the wardrobe." " The liver of the 
 animal," he says, " is, for some reason, poisonous, though eaten 
 with impunity by the dogs." 
 
 The chief diet of the Polar Bear is obtained from the floating 
 carcasses of whales and fishes, which often carry him, as a swim- 
 mer, far away from the shore. He also makes unceasing war upon 
 the seals and walruses, and neither refuses the animal exuvise 
 which the waters cast upon the land, nor the few berries afforded 
 by the shrubs of an arctic climate. On the land, these animals 
 prey upon hares, young birds, etc. Their lodges are dens 
 formed in layers of ice which are piled up so as to make stupen- 
 dous masses. The males are said not to hybernate, but \o brave 
 the severity of the winter upon the ice of the open sea, wander, 
 ing along the margin and swimming fnom fbe to floe in searohi 
 
CASNIVORA. S3 
 
 of prey. The females; however, do not appear 'until the approach 
 of milder weather, when they sally forth from their retreats, ac- 
 companied by two cube. At this period, gaunt, lean and fam- 
 ished, they are peculiarly formidable, hunger and the presence 
 of their young adding to their natural ferocity. This bear is, 
 however, formidable at all times, strong and active as it is, run- 
 ning with great swiftness either on the ground or on the ice, and 
 with its claws, easily ascending the slippery sides of icebergs. 
 The affection of this animal for its young is much celebrated, 
 and its sagacity is great. 
 
 U. omatus, (Lat., furnished or adorned.) The Spectacled 
 Bear, in the Cordilleras of the Andesi, in Chili, has two semifcir' 
 cular marks of a buff color above the eyes^ appearing somewhat 
 like a pair of spectacles. 
 
 JJ. collaris, (Lat. coUare, a collar.) The Bear of Siberia 
 has a large white collar passing over the neck and shoulders, on 
 to the breast 
 
 U. Syriacus. The Syrian Bear, mentioned in 2 Kings, ii, 
 23, is probably the first of which there is any record. 
 
 U. labialus, (Lat. laMa,a. lip.) The Labiated or Sloth Bear, 
 was, sixty years since, called the Five-fingered Ursine Sloth. 
 The caitilage of the nose is capable of extension, and the lips, 
 of considerable protrusion. 
 
 U. Malayanus. The Malayan Bear. 
 
 The long tongue of this Bear aids it in feeding upon the honey 
 of bees, of which, as of other delicacies, it is extremely fond. 
 It has also a taste for the young shoots of the Cocoa trees. 
 
 The existence of bears in Africa was doubted by Cuvier, but 
 there is now good reason to believe the animal is found in Ab- 
 yssinia, and the mountains of Arabia Felix. 
 
 Procyon lotor, (Gr. nqoxvatv, prokuon, n^, pro, before, ttvaty, 
 a dog.) The Racoon. 
 
 The remaining animals of this group form a sort of connect- 
 ing link between the plantigrade and digitigrade carnivorous 
 tribes. The Racoon, which with one or two other species, was 
 formerly included in the genus Vrsus, is now separated from it, 
 and included in the new genus Procyon. It is a native of this 
 continent, and numerously found in its northern territories, also 
 in the Eastern, Northern and Middle States of the American 
 Union, and yet more abundantly in some of the Southern States. 
 The average length of the animal is about two feet, from the 
 nose to the tail. The head is somewhat like that of a foK, the 
 forehead being broad and the nose sharp ; the ears are short, and 
 slightly rounded ; the body is broad and stout ; the back arched ; 
 
g4 CARNIVORA. 
 
 the limbs rather short, and the fore legs shorter than the hinder. 
 The upper part of the body is of a grayish color mixed with 
 black. The ears and under part whitish, with a black patch 
 across the eye. Varieties, however, are seen, some of which 
 are black, others, yellowish white. The tail is bushy,' and 
 rather long, with' rings of black and gray. Albinos are some- 
 times found, with red eyes and only faint traces of rings on the 
 tail'. In its feet the Racoon is only partially plantigrade, and 
 when it sits, it often rests the whole hind sole of the foot on the 
 ground, in the manner of a bear. The nails are strong, hooked, 
 sharp and without hair. The outer hair is long and coarse; 
 the inner, softer and more like wool. 
 
 The Racoon is a cunning, and when mature and in good case, 
 quite a handsome animal. It mounts trees with facility, and fre- 
 quently invades the woodpecker's nest ; and it digs up and de- 
 vours the eggs of the soft-shelled turtle. 
 
 This animal sometimes makes great havoc among wild as well 
 as domesticated birds, eating only the head, or the blood which 
 flows from their wounds. Occasionally it ravages plantations 
 of sugar cane s(nd Indian corn, especi&Uy when the latter is 
 young. Oysters are also a favorite article of food with the 
 racoon. These it is very expert in opening, biting off the hinge, 
 and dexterously hooking out the contents of the shells. Audu- 
 hon remarks that " the habits of the muscles, (imios.) which are 
 found in our fresh water rivers, are better known to the Racoon 
 than to most conohologists, and their flavor is as highly relished 
 by 4his animal as is that of the best bowl of clam soup by the 
 epicure in that condiment." Swampy or marshy lands, abound- 
 ing in trees and coursed by small str-eams, are the Racoon's fa- 
 vorite resorts ; it traverses the margins of creeks and other wa- 
 ters, looking after frogs and muscles, which are found along their 
 banks. It feeds chiefly by night, keeping by day in its nest or 
 lair, which is usually made in the hollow of some broken branch 
 of a tree. It rolls itself up, with the head between the hind legs, 
 and sleeps away the time until the approach of darkness, when 
 it goes forth in search of food. Sometimes, however, it is seen 
 in corn fields ; occasionally it will make an onset upon poultry 
 during the day. The universal testimony is that it shows great 
 "Slyness and cunning in its tricks and devices for procuring food, 
 Whe^ in captivity, kind treatment soon renders it docile ; it learns 
 to be active during the day and to remain quiet at nisjht. It 
 shows an insatiable curiosity, prying into every corner and crev- 
 ice with the greatest assiduity. In its habits it then becomes 
 omnivorous, .-^ating any thing, " vegetable or animal, cooked or 
 
CAENIVOEA 85 
 
 uncooked," with equal avidity. The Racoon exhibits a peculiar 
 fondness for sweets of every kind, and a great dislike for acids. 
 It is fobd of water, and before eating its food usually washes it ; 
 hence its name lotor, or washer. When hard pursued by the 
 hunter, the animal takes to a tree, but unless the tree is very 
 large, the pursuer is still after the "coon." If he cannot be 
 taken otherwise, the axe levels the tree to the ground, when he 
 is soon dispatched. The more common method of taking him is 
 by box traps, baited with an ear of corn, a fish or a squirrel. 
 For several months during winter, this animal hibernates in the 
 hollow of some large tree, -leaving its retreat only occasionally 
 and when the Weather is warm. The flesh is eatable, and the 
 fur considered by hatters next in val^e to that of the beaver. 
 
 Proycypn cancrivorus, (lat. cancer, a crab; voro, to devour.) 
 Crab Eating Racoon. This species has a longer and more slen- 
 der body than the common racoon. As observed in California, it 
 conceals itself during the day, in the holes Of decayed oak trees, 
 which exist in the branches, not in the trunk itself, (Aud.) Be- 
 sides crabs, frogs and fish, it feeds on birds, eggs, fruits, etc., and 
 is said to be specially fond of the sugar cane. 
 
 ■ Nasua, (lat. from nasus, a nose.) The Coati-mondi, found in 
 Brazil, Guiana, and Paraguay,^ — is like the Racoon, characterized 
 by nocturnal habits, a semi-plantigrade mode of progress, and 
 facility of climbing; but is readily distinguished from the racoons 
 by its snout, which is quite long and extremely flexible ; also by its 
 longer and more slender body, and by its feet, which are stronger 
 and well fitted for digging. The animal uses its snout in routing 
 the worms and insects, whicTi it digs up. The size is about that 
 of a large cat, and in addition to insects and worms, it eats birds 
 and eggs, and sometimes roots. Like the cat, it descends a tree 
 with the head downwards, and it is even more active than that 
 animal. The smell of the Coati seems to be more highly devel- 
 oped than any other sense. It is easily tamed, but is irritable 
 and not to be touched without caution. '"■ 
 
 Certoleptes, (Gr. xigxog-, kerkos, a tail, ^etTitg, leptos, thin.) 
 camdivol'oulus, (Lat. cawda, tail, volmiim, twisted.) The Potto 
 Kinkajou, or Mexican WeaseLj-^Is found in Mexico, and the 
 warmer parts of South America, resembling the Coati in its habits, 
 but showing more activity, and having a long tail, which is prehen- 
 sile, and used after the manner in which the spider monkeys use 
 theirs. Its size is that of a cat, but its limbs are shorter, thicker 
 and more muscular. The tongue is long, slender, and very ex- 
 tensible, and used for drawing out of crevices, insects which are 
 beyond the reach of its paws. This animal is a great destroyer 
 
86 C4HNIV0KA. 
 
 of the nests of wild bees, for the sake of obtaining the honey, of 
 which it is very fond, and has, therefore, been called the "Honey, 
 bee." 
 
 Meles, (Lat. a iadger.) M. vulgaris, (Lat. common.) The 
 Badger. The Badger has teeth which are best suited for masti- 
 eating and bruising vegetable substances, and is less carnivorous 
 than any of the Plantigrades, except perhaps the bears. It is 
 about as large as a dog of medium size, being about two feet 
 three inches in length, but stands much lower on the legs, and 
 lias a broader and flatter body. The hairs taken separately are 
 yellowish white at the bottom, black in the middle, and ashy 
 gray at the point ; the last color alone appears externally, and 
 trives a sandy gray shade to the upper parts of the body. The 
 face is white, and a long band of black runs along each side of 
 the head, to the upper parts of the body. It is a quiet and inoffen- 
 sive animal, but isoflen subjected to such ill-treatment, that "badg- 
 ering" a person is a phrase used to express irritating him in every 
 variety of manner. This animal inhabits most parts of Europe 
 and Asia, but in some places is less common now than it once was. 
 It is rather solitary and stupid, seeking refuge in retired places, 
 where it excavates deep burrows, and shuns the light of day. The 
 cruel sport of " baiting the badger," which consists in putting him 
 in a kennel,and setting dogs to bite him through his thick hair and 
 tough skin, is in some parts still continued. The Badger defends 
 itself with great resolution, and sometimes to the destruction of its 
 assailants. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Italy, France and 
 China, and may be made into hams and bacon. The skin, when 
 dressed with the hair, is impervious to the rain, and makes ex- 
 cellent pistol furniture and covers for traveling trunks, while the 
 hairs or bristles are made into paint brushes. 
 
 M. Labradorius. The American Badger. The general 
 characteristics of the American are the same as those of the Eu- 
 ropean Badger. There is, however, a difference in the teeth of 
 the American animal, and it has one tooth less than the Common 
 Badger, on each side of the lower jaw. The length of this spe- 
 cies is about two and a half feet. The body is very thick and 
 fleshy, the nose thinner than that of the European species, and the 
 claws of the fore feet much larger in proportion, while the tail is 
 comparatively shorter; its fur is also of a quite different quality, 
 and its appetites more carnivorous. The hair of the head and 
 extremities is short and coarse ; that of the other parts is fine and 
 silky. At the roots it is dark gray, then light yellow, then black 
 tipped with white, so that in winter it has an aspect of hoary gray ; 
 but in summer is njore nearly a yellowish brown. It abounds in 
 
CARNIVOEA. 87 
 
 fhe plains watered by the Missouri, and has been (raped as far 
 north as the banks of the Peace River. It is known to inhabit 
 Mexico, but its exact southern range is perhaps not accurately 
 determined. The sandy plains on the borders of Lake Winnipeg, 
 are perforated with innumerable badger holes, which greatly 
 annoy horsemen, particularly when covered with snow. Its bur- 
 rows are sometimes six or seven feet deep, and run beneath the 
 ground to the distance of thirty feet. It enlarges and pene- 
 trates the burrows of marmots, ground squirrels, etc., and feeds 
 upon these animals, which it cannot obtain when the ground is 
 frozen. During the snowy season, or from November to April, 
 it remains in a half torpid state. The badger is a slow and timid 
 animal, taking to the ground when pursued, and to escape from 
 dagger, burrowing in the sandy soil with the rapidity of a mole. 
 "The strength of its fore feet and claws is so great that one which 
 had insinuated only its head and shoulders into a hole, resisted the 
 utmost efforts of two" stout young men, who endeavored to drag it 
 out by the hind legs and tail, until one of them fired the contents 
 of his fowling piece into its body." Early ip the spring, badgers 
 come abroad, at ^rgt fat, but soon become lean, At that time, 
 they may be easily caught by pouring water into^heir holes, for 
 the water not penetrating the frozen ground, soon fills the hole, 
 and the animal is forced to come out, In this as in the Oeis 
 montana, the Rocky mountain sheep, the, fur, during the winter, 
 changes from a furry texture to a woolly covering. In confine- 
 ment, the American Badger appears gentle, and "allows himself 
 to be played with, and fondled by his keeper, but does not appear 
 to be well pleased with strangers." It produces from three to 
 five young at a litter. 
 
 M. collaris. The Inman Badger, or Bear Pig of the Hin- 
 dooS) — is about the size of the common badger. It has the body 
 and limbs of a bear; the snout, eyes and tail are those of a hog. 
 
 •Gulo, (Lat. a glutton.) This genus includes the Glutton, 
 or Wolverine, and the Grison. T)iese animals are semiplanti- 
 grade iri their walk, but resemble the weasel tribe in their teeth, 
 and their thoroughly carnivorous propensity, as well as in the 
 lengthened form of their bodies. Four species of this genus 
 have been described. 
 
 G. Arclicus. This species is found in the Arctic, or northern 
 regions qt both continents ; in size is about equal to thp badger, 
 but is, more slender in body, and much more active. It seems 
 to be intermediate between the badger and, the polecat; in its 
 general figure and aspect resembling the fornier; in its teeth 
 the latter. The hair is of a chestnut color, verging, in some in- 
 
88 CAiRNiVOEA. 
 
 Stances, towards blstck ; Us head is something like that of the 
 polecat, but broader, and ihdieates greater strength of jaw. The 
 nature of the Glutton is indicated by its name; and its laniary 
 teeth evince its voracious and blood thirsty appetite. 
 
 It is sometimes called the "Quadruped Vulture," from the 
 fact that it preys occasionally upon dead bodies of quadrupeds, 
 chiefly those Which have been killed by accident. It is- said, 
 these animals "do more damage to the fur trade than all ^ther 
 animals conjointly. They follow the Marten hunter's path round 
 a line of traps, extending forty, fifty or sixty miles, and render 
 the Vhole unserviceable, merely to come at the baits, which are 
 generally the head of a partridge, or a bit of dried venison. 
 They are not fond of the Martens themselves; but they never 
 fail to tear them in pieces, and bury them in snow at a consider- 
 able distance Irom the trap. Drifts of snow often conceal the 
 repositories thus made of the Martens, at the expense of the hunt- 
 er, in which case, they furnish a regale for the hungry fox, 
 whose sagacious nostril guides him unerringly to the spot, and 
 two or three foxes are often seen following the Wolverine for 
 this purpose." Perhaps these attendant foxes have given rise to 
 the resnciik that the Arctic Fox is the "Jackal or provider" of the 
 Glutton. 
 
 The Glutton feeds upon meadow mice, marmots and other 
 rodentia, and occasionally upon disabled quadrupeds of a larger 
 size. It resembles the bear, but is not as flfeet ; is industrious, 
 feed's well, and is generally fat. It goes abroad much in the win* 
 ter, anid the track of its journey in a single night, may often be 
 traced for miles. From the shortness of its legs, it moves with 
 diffioulty through the loose snow. Sir John Richardson says 
 "the Wolverine is a great destroyer of beave>-s." It must, how- 
 ever, be only m summe'T, vi^hen these animals are at work, that 
 it can surprise them, for an attempt to break through their frozen 
 mud.walled houi*s, would drive the beavers into the water, to 
 seek shelter in their vaults, on the borders of their dam. What- 
 ever the boldness of the Wolverine, in defending itself against 
 other quadrupeds, "it makes but a poor fight with a hunter, who 
 requires no other arms than a stick to kill it." 
 
 This animal has two secretory organs, from which he, on oc- 
 casion, discharges a yellowish brown fluid that gives forth an 
 ofFensive odor. The female brings forth yearly from two to 
 four cubs, covered with a downy fur, of a pale cream color. 
 
 The Wolverine remains through the winter, as far north as 
 70o 11' latitude, but does not change its color on account of the 
 intense cold. According to Lesson, it inhabits a complete circle 
 
CAHNIVOKA. 89 
 
 around the North Pole, in Europe and Asia, as well as America. 
 The skins furnished by Wolverines, do not compensate for their 
 destructive, habits. The fur resembles that of a bear, and is 
 much used for muffs, and when several skins are sewed together, 
 makes a beautiful sleigh robe. In Kamtsehatka, the women 
 dress their hair with the white paws of this animal, which they 
 esteem a great ornament. 
 
 G. viitatus, (Lat. from vitta, a band or fillet,) the Geison. A 
 white line or band passes on each side of the front to the shoulders. 
 ' They are most numerous in Guiana arid Paraguay. 
 
 G. or Ratellus mellivorus, (Lat. rhel, honey, voro, to devour.) 
 The Ratjel of the Cape of Good Hope, in general characters, cor- 
 responds with the glutton ; in size is about equal to the badger. 
 The color is of a dull ash gray, but whitest towards the head. It 
 is said to feed principally upon the honey of bees, which inhabit 
 the deserted lairs and burrows of the Ethiopian boar, the porcti- 
 pine, etc. 
 
 Ailurus fulgens, (Lat. shining,) the Panda, or Wah, — is found 
 in the Himalaya chain of mountains, between Nepaul and the 
 Snowy mountains. Cuvier declared this to be one of the most 
 beautiful of quadrupeds, and included it in the Bear tribe. In 
 the arrangement and form of the teeth, it shows some resemblance 
 to the Nasua and Procyon. It is about the size of 9. large cat ; 
 the soft and thickly set fur is above, of the richest cinnamon red, 
 behind more fulvous, and beneath, deep blaCk, while the head is 
 whitish, and the tail whitish, annulated with brown. Its loud cry 
 resembles the word wah, whence its name. " This elegant animal 
 frequents the vicinity of rivers and mountain torrents, passes 
 much of its time on trees, and feeds upon birds and the smaller 
 quadrupeds." The generic name is from the Gr. ailouros, a cat. 
 
 To what animals ia the name Plantigrades given ? What is the derivation 
 of the word ? What their miovements and' habits ? When and where are they 
 in a lethargic state ? From what is the family name TIksidae derived? To 
 what animals are the bears a connecting Unk ? What is said of their gait ? 
 What use do they make of their fore paws? Describe their claws. To 
 what kiiid of food are their teeth adapted ? Where are the genera of this 
 family found? According to Audubon, how many species, of the genus 
 TTesus have been described ? Give their locations. Describe the bear. , 
 Whatissaid of the number and kind of their teeth ? Which of the carniv- 
 orous animals is most omnivorous ? Do any bears subsist on vegetable food 
 alone? What are their habits? What is their condition in the winter? 
 In what part of the world are they seldom met ? What use is made of 
 their skins? Where is the common bear found? Is it now met with in 
 Great Britain? What was the only species known to Linnaua? What 
 does it furnish the people of Kamtsehatka ? What do the Laplanders call it? 
 Why? What do the Norwegians say of it? What is said respecting its 
 
90 CARNIVOEA. 
 
 winter home? Is it long lived? What is said of the age of one in the 
 Menagerie at Paris? What is its size ? What is said of the ferocity of the 
 Grizzly Bear ? What use is made of its claws? How much does it weigh? 
 Upon what does it feed? What is said of its sti^ength? What is said fif 
 the size, appearance and food of the American Bear? What is the size of 
 the young at first? What is said of the Cinnamon Bear? Describe the 
 Polar Bear. What is its average ^ength? What is said of its weight? 
 What does Dr. kane remark respecting this animal? What is its chief- 
 diet? On what else does he feed? What do these animals eat wheb on 
 the land ? What is said of their dens ? How do the males spend the win- 
 ter? Define and spell hybernaite, migrate and emigrate. When do the 
 female bears sally forth from their winter retreats, and what is their appear, 
 ance, aJid the degree of their ferocity? What is further said of the Polar 
 Bear? What is sai^ of the Spectacled Bear? What of the Siberian Bear? 
 What of the Syrian Bear ? What of the Sloth Bear ? What of the Malayan 
 Bear ? Are bears found in Africa ? Were they known to exist there dur- 
 ing Cuvier's Ufe ? 
 
 What is said of the remaining animals of this ^roup ? What name is men 
 to the Racoon ? Give the meaning of the generic and specific terms ? How 
 were the racoon and other species formerly arranged ? To what continent 
 does it pertain ? On what part is it numerously found ? Describe the ani- 
 mal in his appearance and habits ? What is a favorite kind of food with 
 the racoon? How does it get at the contents of the shells? What does 
 Audubon say as to the racoon's knowledge of the habits of fresh lyater 
 muscles ? What are its favorite resorts ? How does it appear in captivity? 
 What is said of its curiosity? Why is It called ?o(or^ How does it spend 
 the winter? What is said of its flesh and fur ? How does the Crab-eating 
 Racoon differ from the Common Eacoon? Wher? does it conceal itself in 
 the day time? On what does it live? From what is the generic term 
 nasua derived? Where is tjie Coati mondi found? What are its charac- 
 ters? How is it distinguished from the Racoon? How does it use its 
 snout? What is its food? In what respects does it resemble the cat? 
 What is further said of it ? Give the derivation and meaning of Cbbcolkp- 
 TES. Where is the Mexican Weasel found? What other names has it? 
 What animal does it resemble? What is said of its tail and size? What 
 use does it make of its tongue ? What name has been given it ? Why ? 
 
 What is said of the Badger's teeth ? What of its food ? What of its size 
 and hair? What does "badgering" a person mean ? Where is the animal 
 found ? What are its habits ? What is " baiting thie Badger?" WfaaJ: is said 
 of the flesh, and wha* use is made of the skin? Wherein does the Amarir 
 can Badger differ from that of Europe ? Where does it abound ? What is 
 said of its Northern and of its Souttiern range ? What is said of its bur- 
 rows ? How does it annoy huntsmen ? How long and at what season is it 
 torpid ? What is said of the strength of its fore feet and claws ? How are 
 these animals easily caught in the spring ? How do they appear in confine- 
 ment ? What changes does the fur undergo ? What is said of the Indian 
 Badger? What does the genus Gulo include ? Give the characteristics of 
 these animals. How many species ? To what is the species GWo arctimt 
 intermediate? What is it sometimes called? Why? How do these animals 
 injure the fur trade ? Upon what does the Glutton feed ? What animal 
 does it resemble? What more is said of it? How is the Orison marked, 
 
CAHNIVOEA. gl 
 
 an<jTirherc most numerous? Describe the Rattd? Where is the Panda 
 or Wah iouad ? What animals does it resemble ? What are its resorts ? 
 
 SECTION XV. D 
 
 Sub-order Pinnipedia or Ajviphibia, (Gr. 'aiuplSios, ampUUos, 
 having a double life.) 
 
 The term Amphibia, is, strictly speaking, applicable only to 
 such apimala as have double sets of lungs, or gills, giving them 
 the power) of living, indifferently, at the same time, either upon 
 land, or water; hut it is commonly given to seals otters, beavers, 
 etc., and to many reptiles whose habits are at once terrestrial and 
 aquatic. (,PU VI. fig. 11.) 
 
 Phocidae, (Gr. qAxTj, Phoki, a sea-calf or seal.) This tribe 
 of animals, belonging to the carnivorous order, show a peculiar 
 adaptation to the sphere assigned them by the All-wise Creator, 
 None of the four-limbed mammalia display such complete adiapta- 
 tion to residence in the water. Seals resemble quadrupeds in 
 some respects, and fishes in others. They have round heads, and 
 broad noses, not unlike those of dogs, with the same mild and ex- 
 pressive physiognomy ; large whiskers ; oblong nostrils, and large, 
 sparkling black eyes. In the seal there is no external ear; but 
 a valve exists in the orifices which he can close at pleasure, in 
 order to k^ep out the water ; a valve is also found in the nostrils, 
 which is useful for the same purpose. The body is covered with 
 stiff, glossy hairs, which are closely set against the, skin; it is 
 elongated and conical in Jformj gradually tapering from the shoul- 
 ders to the tail. The feet of the sesJ differ from thgse of rail other 
 quadrupeds. They have the same number of bones, hut are 
 covered with a membrane which would make them resemble fins, 
 more than feet, but for the sharp, strong claws with which they 
 are pointed. The limbs may be viewed as a sort of oars, or pad- 
 dies. In the front pair, the arm and forearm are very short, so 
 that f)ut little more than the forearm advances from the body ; 
 the hind limbs are directed backwards so as to almost seem like 
 a continuation of the body ; the thighs and legs very short ; the 
 tail is short and thick ; the foot is formed on the same plan as the 
 forepaw; but the toes are in pontacit; the web is folded when not 
 in use as a paddle ; but spread out when th-p animal is swimming. 
 The se&l moves in the water with great ease and rapidity, but on 
 the land, or on masses of ice, with extreme awkwardness. It is 
 gregarious, living in herds more or less numerous, along the shores 
 of the sea. The celUilar tissue, situated between the skin and 
 tnusoles, is very loose! and fibrous, and seems to be a receptacle 
 
92: CAENIVOEA. 
 
 for the blood, during the suspension of breathing under water. 
 It can remain in that element a long time without injiiry ; when 
 it is submerged, the blood not freely circulating, and thus accu- 
 mulating in the larger veins. Its tissue appears designed in 
 part to relieve the animal from the pressure of the superihcura-; 
 beilt water. The bloftd is abundant and dark in appearance, 
 showing that it has less oxygen than that of strictly terrestrial 
 animals. ■ ■■ .'^ 
 
 Seals are found in almost every quarter of the globe, but they 
 are most numerous in frozen and temperate regions. They exist 
 in vast numbers in the seas around Spitzbergen, and on the coasts 
 of Labrador, and Newfoundland. About thirteen species ai'e 
 included in the genus Phoca. In their wide range, seals are 
 sometimes found within the waters of the state of New York. 
 About the middle of the Spring of the year 1857, one was 
 taken in the Hudson river, and another on the borders of Long 
 Island. Dr. Dekay (N. Y. State Nat. Hist.) describes a female 
 seal caught in Long Island Sound, near Sand's Point. At a for- 
 mer period, these animals were abundant in our waters. "A 
 certain reef of rocks in the harbor of New York, is called Robin's 
 Reef, from the numerous seals which were accustomed to resort 
 thither; robin, or robyn, being the name in Dutch for seal."* In 
 the Kingston (U. C.) Chronicle, of February, 1823 or 1824, 
 there was a notice of a seal taken on the ice of Lake Ontario, 
 near' Cape Vincent, (Jefferson county,) N. Y. In August, 1824, 
 a seal was exhibited alive in New' York, which had been taken 
 in a seine in the Chesapeake, near Elkton, Maryland. A seal, 
 said to have been beautifully spotted on the under side, was taken 
 some years since near Lynn, Mass. 
 
 The length of the common seal, Phoca concolor, or P. vkulina, 
 (Lat. calf-like,) (see Plate VIII. fig. 1.) is, on an average, about 
 five feet; the color, yellowish gray, clouded with brown or 
 yellow. The female produces her young during the winter, 
 taking care of them at the place of birth for a few weeks, until 
 they become sufficiently strong to be taken to the water, to 
 which they are then removed by the parent, not without solicitude 
 for their safety. By her they are taught to swim, and seek for 
 fish, and when they are fatigued, she carries them on her back. 
 As might be expected from the nature of its food, the seal has a 
 fishy smell. It is reported that when assembled in numbers on 
 shore, the odor is perceivable at some distance. In pursuing their 
 watery prey, seals display much cunning and power of swimming. 
 
 • Nat. Hist, of State of New York. 
 
CARNIVOKA. 93 
 
 The voice of the finimal when old, is a hoarse, gruff bark ; when 
 young, a peculiarly plaintive whine. « With a good glass," says 
 Dr. Kane,* "you may study these animals in their natural habit- 
 . udes, undisturbed by suspicion. As thus seen, in the centre of a 
 large floe, and within retreating distance of his holej.the seal is a 
 perfect picture of solitary enjoyment, rolling not unlike a horse, 
 stretching his hide, awkwardly spreading out his flippers, and 
 twisting his rump towards his head. Again he will wriggle 
 about in the most grotesque manner; the sailors call it 'squirm- 
 ing,'! every now and theo rubbing his head against the snow. 
 The shapes of a seal, or rather his aspects, are full ot strange 
 variety. At a side view, with hisicaudal end sltied round lo the 
 side from you, and his head lifted suspiciously in the air, he is 
 the. exact image of a dog, ckien>de mer. ' During his' wriggies, he 
 resembles a great snail ; a little while after, he turns his back to 
 you, and rises up on his side> flippers, like a couching hunter, pre- 
 paring for a shot, the very image of an Esquimaux." The seals 
 are proverbially shy. The Esquimaux and Greenlanders, to 
 whom these animals are of inestimable importance, as fiirnishmg 
 them with the chief means of subsistence, are from* earliest youth, 
 trained to the pursuit of them, and look upon the most successful 
 hunters of thetn as their great men. "No one can pass for a 
 right Greenlander who cannot catch seals." This is not 
 strange, considering the manifold benefits furnished, the northern 
 tribes by these animals. The boat, or kajah in which they brave 
 the violence of a northern sea, and the perils of the chase, con- 
 sists of the skin of the seal placed over a light frame work of 
 wood. The same skin furnishes the material for his dress; the 
 flesh of ' the animal supplies him with his " most palatable Eind 
 substantial food ; the fat gives him oil for lamp-light, chamber 
 and kitchen fire. He can sew better with fibres of seal's sinews 
 than with thi'ead or silk. Of the skins of the entrails, he makes 
 the windows of his house, curtains for his tents, his shirts; and 
 part of the bladders they use at their harpoons, and he mdkes 
 train bottles of the maw or stomach." Seal skirts and oil are to 
 him also important articles of commerce. The fishing com- 
 mences in autumn, and is practised by means of nets stretched 
 across narrow sounds where the seals are in the habit of swimming. 
 Only the young ones can be taken in these nets; the old ones 
 are shot, or else the boatmen entfer the recesses of the animals at 
 night, with torches and bludgeons, and despatch them, which they 
 do easily with a slight blow on the forehead of muzzle. 
 
 * Grinnell Arctic Expedition. 
 
94 CARNIVORA. 
 
 "To shoot seal," says Dr. Kane, "one must practise the Esqui. 
 maux tactics^ of much -patience and complete immobility. It ig 
 no fun to sit motionless and noiseless as a statue, with a cold iron 
 musket in your bands, and the thermohieter lOo below zero. 
 Very straoge are these seal ! a countenance between the dog and 
 the ape ; an expression so like that of humanity, that it makes 
 gun-murderers hesitate> At last, at lohg shot, 1 hit one. The 
 ball did not kill outright ; it struck too low. He did drown finally 
 and swakf and so I lost him. Cariosity, contentment, pain, re- 
 proach, despair, and even resignation, I thought I saw on this 
 seal's face." ... "A Danish boy who had joined us by stealth 
 at Disco, told us that the animal's sinking was a proof that he had 
 no blubber, and he was probably right." Though the orifice of 
 the ear, as we have said, contains a valve which cbses, }Fet,the 
 seal has a most delicate sense of hearing, and delights in musical 
 sounds, a fact not unknown to the ancients. Laiog, in his ac- 
 count of a voyage to Spitzbergen, states that when the violin was 
 played^. " a numerous audience of sealsi" would generally collect 
 around the vessel, following her course for miles. In allusion to 
 this peculiarity of the seal. Sir Walter Scott says, 
 
 " Bude Heiskar's seals, through surges dark, 
 Will long pursue the minstrel's bark." 
 
 The seal has often been d6mesticated, and it is said, made use 
 of in fishing. The following is among the anecdotes illustrating 
 this remark. "In January, 1819, a gentleman residing in the 
 county of Fife, Scotland, completely succeeded in taming a seal. 
 Its singularities attracted the curiosity of strangers daily. It ap- 
 peared to possess all the sagacity of a dog, lived in its master's 
 house, and ate from his hand. In his fishing excursions, this 
 gentleman generally took it with him, when it afforded no small 
 entertainment. If thrown into the water, it would follow for 
 miles, the track of the boat, and though thrust back by the oare, 
 it never relinquished its purpose. Indeed it struggled sp hard to 
 regain its seat, that one would imagine its fondness for its master 
 had entirely overcome the natural predilection for its native 
 element." 
 
 When comi?anies of seals are seen at some distance "walking 
 the water," their heads peering above it, they assume sometimes 
 such appearances as have given rise to the stories of Tritons, 
 Sirens and Mermaids, concerning which many marvelous things 
 have been written. 
 
 The Phpca Groenltmdica, or Harp Seal, is about six feet in 
 
CABSIVOKA. 95 
 
 length, and noted for the variations of its color, as it advances 
 towards maturity. 
 
 The Phoca harbata, (Lat. bearded,) is larger, and has thicker 
 and stronger moustaches than the others. Its length varies from 
 seven to ten feet. Dr. Kane speaks of one which was shot by 
 Capt. Haven, of the Grinnell Arctic Expedition, measuring 
 " eight feet from tip to tip ; five feet eleven inches in his greatest 
 circumferei^e, and five feet six inches in girth behind the fore- 
 flippers." "His carcass," says the Dr. *' was a shapeless cylin- 
 der, terminating in an awkward knob, to represent the head." 
 
 P. cf (status, (Lat. crested,) or Slemmatopus cristatim, (6r. 
 stemma, a wreath; dps, face,) or Hooded Sbal, is distinguished 
 for having a globular sac, which can be swelled upon the top 
 of the head, in the male animal* This species reach the size 
 of seven or eight feet, and live in the seas about Greenland and 
 Newfoundland. , 
 
 The ELErnANT Seal, or Sea Elephai*t, P. MacrorMnus, (Gr. 
 rteakros, tong, fhin, nose,) ■proboscideus, (Gr. proboskis, a trunk,) is 
 the largest known species, being from twenty to thirty feet long, 
 and having a girth at the largest part of the body, of eighteen feet. 
 A full grown male of this species will yield seventy gallons of 
 oil. This hind of seal is found on the-sdulhern coasts of Austra- 
 lia, Juan Fernandez, and the neighboring parts of South Ameri. 
 oa. Its voice is like the lowing of cattle, and it is inert in its 
 habits. The name " Elephant Seal," is given tb the animals of 
 this species, partly on account of the large size of their tusk-like 
 canines, and partly from their power of lengthening the upper 
 lip into a kind of proboscis. They are much sought after on ac- 
 count of the quantity of oil which they yield, and also of their 
 strong skins, which are valuable for harness making. 
 
 The Sea Liqn, Platyrhptcus lemdrms, found on the north and 
 south coasts of the Pacific, is fr6m six to ten feet in length, and 
 of a yellowish brown eolof. The males have a large mane upon 
 their necks, partly covering the head and shoulders, and a very 
 powerful voice, whence their name. 
 
 The Sea B&aR, Arctocephalvs vrsitms, is so called from the 
 fur and shape of the head. It grows to the length of five or six 
 feet, and has small external ears. The membrane of the hind 
 feet is prolonged into as many lobes as there are toes, and the 
 fore feet are placed very far back. The color of the fur is 
 brown, but when it is old, ^assumes a grayish tint. This species 
 inhabits the coasts of the South Pacific, and is also said to be 
 found in the northern hemisphere. 
 
 Trichecus Rosm&rus, the Walrus, Mqbse, or Sba Cow. 
 
96 CARNIVORA. 
 
 This animal resembles the seal in its general conformation, but, is 
 much larger, and more "thick and clumsy in its proportions. Its 
 distinguishing peculiarity is the construction of the skull. The 
 lower jaw is without incisor and canine teeth, and is compressed 
 laterally to fit in between two enormous canine teeth, or tusks, 
 which arise out of the upper jaw, and are inclined downwards 
 with a genitle curve. The length of the tusks is sometimes, two 
 feet. The alveoli, or sockets of these tusks, occupy the whole 
 of the front portion of the upper jaw, and give a roundness to 
 the form of the muzzle ; the nostrils do not end ia a snout, but 
 are far above the mouth, or what seems the middle of the face. 
 The development of the brain is less in the, Walrus, than in the 
 seal, and it shows less intelligenoei The ears pe merely two 
 small orifices ; the head is smallln proportion to the bulk of the 
 body; the neck short; the lips are thick, theis upper one divided 
 by a longitudinal furrow, and studded with strong bristles ; the 
 skin is very thick' and impenetrable, and Covered with smooth, 
 yellowish hair. This huge animal is often eighteen or twenty 
 feet in length, and ten or twelve in circumference, around the 
 chest. It is sometimes classed with the Herbiverous Cetacea. 
 
 The Walrus is foUnd in the icy seas of. the north. Like the 
 seal it is gregarious. It is not a ferocious .'aniraalj but on account 
 of its great strength, and formidable tusks,- is dangerous; when 
 attacked; and the more dangerous because many hasten; to the 
 help of a companion when in trouble. They are said to be mo- 
 nogamous. The females defend their young with great resolu- 
 tion and perseverance. These animals resort to islands of ice, 
 or the ice-bound shore. , The tusks furnished them by the Crea- 
 tor, assist them to mount the slippery acclivities, or ledges of ice, 
 they striking the points of the tusks . into the glassy surface in 
 order to secure themselves firmly, and drawing up their unwieldy 
 bodies. It is said their hind feet are fur(iished»with suckersi, 
 which, act on the principle, of cupping glasses, exhausted of air, 
 so that the feet adhere to the ice, and thus help the animals to 
 propel themselves forward. Thus the Walrus can climb the ice- 
 berg with security, pass over its surface and betake itself at 
 pleasure to. the waters of the ocean. 
 
 Captain Gook, in his Journal of his Voyages, speaks of meet- 
 ing with Walruses off the. northern coast of America. "They 
 lie," says he, "in herds of many hundreds, upon the ice, hud- 
 dlingover one. another like swine, and roar and bray so very 
 loud that in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice 
 of the vicinity of ice before we could see it. We never found 
 the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch. These, 
 
CARNIVORA. 97 
 
 on the approach of the boat, would awaken those next to them, 
 and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole 
 herd would be awake presently; but they were seldom in a 
 hurry to get away till after they had been once fired at ; they 
 would then tumble over one another into the sea, in the utmost 
 confusion, and if we did not at the first discharge, kill those we 
 fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. The 
 dam, when in th& wat^r, holds the young one between her fore 
 arms." The chief use of the walrus to man, is in its tusks, 
 which yield the finest ivory, and in its abundant blubber, or fat, 
 which yields oil. They, and indeed all the marine mammalia 
 which are found in the Arctic seas, have abundant fat, as their 
 defence against the cpld. A beautiful and striking evidence of 
 kind and intelligent design, ot, which numberless instances are 
 presented to the student of Natural History, is seen in the fact 
 that immediately beneath the skin, a thick layer envelopes the 
 body, and being a bad conductor of caloric, besides other advan- 
 tages already referred to, prevents the vital heat from passing off". 
 With the Polar Bear, U. MariUmus, the Walruses have frequent 
 and desperate conflicts. They feed upon shell fish, and marine 
 vegetables, and perhaps a further use of their tusks is to root up 
 their food from the spot to which it adheres. Their flesh, like 
 that of the seal, is highly valued by the inhabitants of Arctic re- 
 gions, and northern voyagers have often found it a most accepta- 
 ble repast. 
 
 Give the derivation and meaning of Amphibia. To what animals alqne 
 does it strictly apply ? To what others is it commonly given ? From what 
 is Phocidab derived ? What is said of their adaptation to a watery resi- 
 dence ? Describe the Seal. What is said of its habits ? How is it enabled 
 to remain in water a long time without injury ? Where are Seals most nu- 
 merous? How many species does the genus include? ^here have they 
 been found in this country ? What is their size ? What does Dr. Kane say ■ 
 of these animals ? To what people are they of inestimable importance ? 
 Relate the particulars which are given respecting them. What has occa- 
 sioned the stories respecting Tritons, Syrens and Mermaids ? What is said 
 of the Harp Seal ? Give some particulars of the Bearded, Hooded and Ele- ■ 
 phant Seals. What is said of the Sea Lion ? Why is it so called ? Give 
 some account of the Sea Beae. What animal does the Walrus resemble ? 
 What other names has it? What is its distinguishing peculiarity? How 
 long are the tusks ? Give its general characteristics. What ts said of its 
 intelligence? What is its length? Where is it found? What are its 
 habits and disposition? With what are its hind feet furnished? What 
 dbes Captain Cook relate respecting Walruses ? Who was Captain Cook ? 
 Ans. A celebrated English circumnavigator, who was killed by the natives 
 at Owyhee, Sandwich Islands, in 1119. What is their chief use to man? 
 What evidence do they give of kind and intelligent design on the part of the 
 
 5 
 
98 CABNIVORA, 
 
 Creator? With what animal does the Walrus have severe conflicts? What 
 is its food ? What is said of its flesh ? 
 
 SECTION XVI. 
 
 Sdb-Okder Insectitora. (Lat. insecta, insect, voro, to eat.) 
 The Insectivora, as the term denotes, comprehends those ani. 
 mals whose food is especially insects, but not exclusively, as 
 sometimes they feed on other, and even vegetable substances. 
 They walk on the sole of the foot, (plantigrada.) The sub-or. 
 der includes four families. Their motions are feeble, feet short 
 and slender, snout lengthened. In cold climates they pass the 
 winter in a dormant state. 
 
 Hedge-hogs, [Erinaceadce, from erinaceus, Lat, forhedge-hog.) 
 The true hedge-hogs are found in Europe, Asia and Africa, 
 while others are found in Madagascar and the Oriental Islands, 
 They are slow and inoffensive, but are self-defended by a coat 
 of stiff, tough spines or prickles. They roll themselves up into 
 a round ball, and thus the spines project from every part of the 
 surface, and are a defence and safeguard. They lie concealed 
 in some crevice between the moss-grown roots of a tree, among 
 a mass of withered leaves, or in a hole which they have exca- 
 vated ; and in this condition, the animal remains during the day, 
 protected from injury in the way before described, shoiald its 
 retreat be discovered. As the dusk of evening comes on, it 
 issues from its lurking place and prowls about for food. If 
 pursued it makes no defence, but rolls itself up and trusts to its 
 spines for safety. These are, indeed, the only means of defence 
 bestowed upon t|j|is little, weak and timid animal. It feeds upon 
 insects, frogs, snails, fruits, and esculent roots. It is useful in 
 gardens, and often kept in large kitchens for the destruction of 
 beetles and cockroaches. 
 
 The Tenrec, (Centeies, Gr. xevtica, kenteo, to sting or prick,) 
 called also the Asiatic or striped hedge-hog, of Madagascar] 
 has no tail, but is covered with a spiny coat of mail. It rolls 
 itself up in the way of the hedge-hog already mentioned, 
 though not so easily, is nocturnal, and passes three months of 
 the year in sleep. Some are not larger than a mole. 
 
 The species are Tenrec Centetes acaudatus, Lat. a, without, 
 Cauda, a tail.) , 
 
 C. selosus, (Lat. bristly.) Its spines are short and rigid. 
 
 Vn!i3d Tenrec, C. semi-spinosus, ^at. semi, half, spina, spine.) 
 Its body is clothed with a mixture of spines and bristles. 
 
 Shrews, (Soricidce, Lat. sorex, a shrew.) Shrews have usu- 
 ally been considered a kind of mice and of the order Rodeniia. 
 
CARNIVOEA. 99 
 
 They are, however, distinguished from the latter by their teeth, 
 and the conical form of the head, and nose tapering to a long point. 
 They place the entire sole of the foot upon the ground, which makes, 
 their legs appear short. They have glands along the side of the 
 body, which secrete a humor of an unpleasant and peculiar 
 odor. Their shrill, piercing cry may often be heard in spring 
 and summer. Water shrews, which are twice the size of the 
 others, are found upon the banks of rivers, ponds, and marshes, 
 and appear to collect their food, consisting of the larvae of the 
 ephemeral flies, from the loose mud. Stationing themselves at 
 the mouths of their holes, they look intently on the water, and if 
 a shoal of minnows pass by, they plunge in among them, diving 
 with much adroitness. Their fur repels the water, 'and while 
 submerged they appear almost white. The Common Shrew, S. 
 araneus, (Lat. Spiders,) is covered with soft velvety fur, is easily 
 distinguished from the mouse by its long, tapering and cartilagin- 
 ous snout; the eyes, too, are very minute, almost hidden in the 
 surrouodtng hairs, and the ears are round and close. It is usu- 
 ally of a reddish mouse color above, grayish beneath, and some- 
 times tinged with yellow. Its entire structure is well adapted 
 to burrow under the earth, but it can also move rapidly upon the 
 surface. Its length, from the snout to the tail, is about five 
 inches ; its tail is one inch long ; it feeds upon insects, worms 
 and grubs. 
 
 Sorex fodiens, (Lat. digging.) The Water Shkew closely 
 resembles the common shrew- in its conformation. Its feet are 
 rather broad and formed for swimming, having a lock of stiff 
 hairS; on the end of the toes ; its tail is rather slender and fringed 
 with stiff hairs. Its swimming is principally effected by the al- 
 ternate action of the hind feet. The appearance of these ani- 
 mals, and their motions in water are quite a.musing. A sort of 
 musk is expressed from the region about the tail, and the skins 
 are put into chests and wardrobes, among clothes, to preserve 
 them from moths. 
 
 The Desman or Musk Rat, Mygale (Gr. spider-mouse,) mos- 
 chata. This is known as the Russian Musk Rat, is about the 
 size of a hedge-hog and distinguished from the shrews by its 
 long scaly tail, flattened at the sides. Under the tail of the Des- 
 man are two small follicles, containing a kind of unctuous sub- 
 stance of a strong musk odor, from which the name of musk 
 rat is given to it. 
 
 The ScALOP, to which Linnaeus gave the name of Sorex 
 aquaticus, is a native of Canada and is now separated from the 
 true shrews. 
 
100 CARNIVORA. 
 
 We come now to notice the Mole {Talpa) — Family, Taljndce. 
 This animal is five or six inches in length and formed for an un- 
 derground life- Its body is thick ajid cylindrical ; the head is pro- 
 longed, especially the muzzle, which projects far beyond the 
 jaws, and is very flexibile and strong, serving to convey the food 
 to the mouth ; it has no external ears, but the auricular appara- 
 tus is highly developed, and the sense is very acute ; its eyes 
 are very small and concealed by its fur, so that it is a vulgar 
 opinion that it is deficient in these important organs. The head 
 is not distinguished from the body- by any appearance of neck ; 
 the legs do not project perceptibly from the body. 
 
 The mole is accustomed to burrow for its food, forming its 
 abode or " encampment " under ground, and raising a larger hil- 
 lock than the rest for the reception of its young. Its subterra- 
 nean excavations are most distinctly and determinately made, 
 having passages or " high roads " from one part of its domain to 
 another. Into these roads open the excavations in which it daily 
 searches for food. In this home, which is separated from that in 
 which its nest is formed, it dwells from autumn to spring. The 
 mole is essentially an accomplished miner, and unlike most of 
 the mammalia, finds his happiness and his home in the subterra- 
 nean (underground) galleries which he excavates with admirable 
 skill and industry. Its fore feet, which are broad and muscular, 
 are constructed like hands and form complete paddles for throw, 
 ing the soil behind the animal. (See Plate VI, fig. 4 of Mole's 
 foot.) 
 
 It has been mentioned that there is no external conch to 
 the ears, as the auditory opening concealed by the fur is 
 small. "A valve, capable of being raised or lowered like an 
 eye-lid, the mechanism of which is visible if the fur be shaved 
 away, closes this aperture at the will of the animal, so as to ex- 
 clude any particle of earth or sand." The eyes, too, which are 
 exceedingly small and buried in the fur for protection, may be 
 uncovered at pleasure, when it emerges to the light. iThe Crea- 
 tor has given it the power of vision, but in a very limited degree ; 
 in fact it is in the very lowest stage of development, but it has 
 all in this respect that is needed. Its keen sense of smell is its 
 chief guide in searching for food, and dwelling as it does, in 
 darkness, this sense is remarkably perfect. 
 
 The structure of the mole is suoh as to concentrate the whole 
 force and energy of the animal in the anterior portion, and thus 
 is adapted to its habits and mode of life ; the hands are large, 
 broad, and thick ; the bones knit firmly and solidly together; the 
 claws are enormous — these are the organs by which it throws 
 
CAUNIVORA. 101 
 
 up the earth ; the head is an organ for boring or digging, very 
 long and flat, With the cartilages of the nose ossified ; the liga- 
 ment of the neck, which in other animals is elastic, is here 
 bone also, so that the strain in digging is better borne ^ the pelvis 
 is very small ; the bones of the hind limbs are small and slender 
 and rhe hind feet, thouffh having claws, are feeble in comparison 
 with the spade-Hke hands, thus hindering not its course through 
 its under-ground roads, but yet having sufficient strength, and 
 not in the way. 
 
 In short. Were we called upon for striking evidence of the de- 
 sign and attentive care of God. we would point to the habits and 
 manners of the Molk, and the fitness and adaptation of the 
 means and instruments with which it is provided. The mole 
 does not, of its own accord, emerge from its subterranean abode, 
 except to seek for some more favorable soil in wJiich to construct 
 its halls and winding galleries. Rich and cultivated meadows, 
 abounding in worms and other insects, are its favorite localities 
 in which it makes its burrows. 
 
 Unlike the dormouse or marmot, it is not less active in winter 
 than in summer ; the twilight hours of morning and evening are 
 Its period of labor. 
 
 The nest where the female mole nurses her helpless young, 
 (of which she has one brood yearly, generally four or five, some- 
 times as few as three, rarely six,) is formed in a vault, carefully 
 constructed at the center of diverging passages, made sofl with 
 leaves, grass, and scales of bulbous roots. '' The parents afford 
 a pattern of mtitual affection and assistance." 
 
 The food Consists of worms, insects, and when it can obtain 
 them, small birds 6r quadrupeds, to which roots are also added. 
 It is impatient of hunger, and cannot endure a fast of more than 
 six hours' duration ; an abstinence of twelve hours is said to 
 produce death. 
 
 Agriculturists 'complain that they suffer injury from the young 
 corn which moles carry off for constructing their nests ; but its 
 turning up and lightening the soil, and its destruction of Insects, 
 earth worms and noxious creatures found near the surface of the 
 ground and so hurtful to grasis, corn and other, plants, furnish 
 advantages to the farmer which probably more ilian counter- 
 balance any injuries which he suflfers from the doings of the 
 mole ; at the same lime, we should gUard the undue increase of 
 these mining animals. '' 
 
 CoNDVLTjRA, (GrT. xovdvlii, kmdiile, a knob, oigd, oura, a 
 tail ; knobbed tail.) Crested or Stab-Nosed Moee. This 
 name was given to this animal, by Uliger, under an erroneous 
 
102 CARNIVORA. 
 
 impression that the tail is " knobbed." There is but one spe- 
 cies well known, cristata, (crested,) found in various parts of thn 
 United States. The nostrils are surrounded by movable carti- 
 laginous points that radiate like a star when expanded. The 
 color is brownish black above, a 'shade lighter beneath. The 
 head is remarkably large ; the body thick and short, growing 
 narrower towards the tail, which is smaller at the root, large in 
 the middle, and tapering to a fine point at the tip ; the fur on the 
 body is very fine, soft and shining. The shape of the body 
 resembles that of the common shrew mole, and it is similar in 
 its habits. 
 
 The Banxrings, (Tupaid(B,)oi Sumatra and Java, are remark, 
 able insectivorous animals. They are nocturnal, and squirrel, 
 like in their appearance and habits. 
 
 ■ QUESTIONS ON THE INSECTTVOEA. 
 
 H6w many families does the Insectiyora include ? On what do they 
 feed? What is said of their motions and habits? Where are the true 
 Hedge-hoge found ? Where others ? How are they self-defended ? How 
 do they conceal themselves ? How is the day spent ? When does it seek 
 its food ? How act when pursued ? For what is it useful ? Where is the 
 Tenrec found ? What is it called ? How covered ? What are its habits f 
 What its size ? How many species ? Give their names and derivation. To 
 what order have Shrews commonly been referred f How are they distin- 
 guished from mice ? How do they tread ? What have they upon the side 
 of the body ? What is said of their cry ? To what places do Water Shrews 
 resort? What do they use for food? What is said of their watching for 
 minnows ? What effect has their fiir upon the water ? How is the shrew 
 distinguished from the mouse ? What is its color ? For what is it well 
 adapted? What is said of the Water Shrew ? What of the Russian Musk 
 Eat? What of the Soalop ? For what kind of hfe is the mole formed? 
 Describe the animal. How does it obtain its food? What is said of its ex- 
 cavations ? How are its fore feet constructed ? What is remarkable about 
 the ear? What is said of the sight and smell ? In what part of the body 
 is the strength concentrated ? Give particulars as to its structure. Wherein 
 does it give proof of divine care ? Why does it leave its subterranean 
 abode ? In what respect is it unlike the dormouse or marmot ? What is 
 said of its nest? What of its abilities to fast? Why do agriculturists com- 
 plain of the mole? What benefits does it confer upon the farmer? From 
 ■what is the term Condylwra derived? Was it rightly given? Why is this 
 animal called Crested or Star-nosed ? Describe it. What is said of its 
 shape and habits ? What is said of the Banxrings? 
 
 Obs. Here, at the close of the order Caenivora, and every other order, 
 let the teacher have a general review, naming the sub-orders, tracing out 
 the genera, families, &c., giving the specific name to each as he describes 
 the animal, 'pointing them out when on the chart, telling all he can remem- 
 ber about them, either from the book or chart. If he omits anything, let it 
 be mentioned by other members of the class. No pupil should ever be per- 
 mitted to pass the name of a person, or place, or even a word, without 
 knowing who the perspn was, where the place is, and what the word means. 
 
KARSUFIALIA. 103 
 
 SECTION XVII. 
 FotJKTH Order. MARSUPIALIA, or MARSUPIATA. 
 
 (Lat. mararupivm, a purse or bag.) 
 
 This order is arranged into two sections, — Marsupials and 
 Monotremata. These are not unfrequently regarded as separate 
 orders, constituting a sub-class termed Ovo-vivvpara, (Lat. ovum, 
 an egg ; vivo, to live, and pario, to produce,) and intermediate 
 between the truly viviparous mammals and the oviparous birds 
 and reptiles. The animals of this order are numerous and quite 
 different in their organs from all other mammals. So peculiar 
 is their internal structure that Cuvier remarks they may be looked 
 upon as containing several orders running parallel with the or- 
 ders of ordinary quadrupeds. Their rank is low in the scale of 
 intelligence. Of the two sections the marsupials show the least 
 departure from the general type of th* Mammalia. The .most 
 striking peculiarity, common to them all, is the immature state 
 of the young at birth, they being much like the half formed 
 chick in an egg which has been but a few days incubated •, and 
 their reception into, a pouch or fold of a fikin in the female, in 
 which they are nourished, remaining there five or six weeks, 
 until they increase in size and are able to take care of them- 
 selves. Even for some time after the young one can procure its 
 own living, and runs and plays by its mother's side, it instinct- 
 ively flies to the maternal pouch for protection from threatening 
 danger. The pouch is supported by two bones placed amidst 
 the abdominal muscles and called the marsupial bones. They 
 are found in the male as well as in the female, and even in species 
 where the pouch-formed fold of the skin is scarcely perceptible. 
 It is remarkable that these mammals are confined almost entirely 
 to Australia, including New Guinea and the islands immediately 
 adjacent, excepting the Opossums, whose home is South America, 
 but which are also found abundantly in the United States, resid- 
 ing in woods and thickets near hamlets and villages. Appear- 
 ances of secondary rocks seem, however, to indicate that at for- 
 mer periods they were more widely spread over the earth's sur- 
 face than they are at present. 
 
 The Marsupials include between seventy and eighty known spe- 
 cies, arranged by Prof. Owen into sixteen genera. The whole 
 are divided into five families, named from the more usual char- 
 acter of their food. I. The Sarcophaga, (Gr. aapS, sarx ; 
 qiayoi, phago, to eat.) Flesh-Eatehs. 
 
 These are found in New Holland and Van Diemen's Land 
 
104' MARSUPIALIA. 
 
 alone; though remains of them have been found in the Stonefield 
 slate, (England,) and in the gypsum quarries of Paris, (France.) 
 They show great varieties of size, from that of a small 
 wolf to a mouse, the larger ones being considerably fierce, des- 
 troying sheep, and even making their way into houses ; others 
 attack poultry and suck their blood. Those of this smallest size 
 show a likeness to the Insectivora, and live on trees. Prof. 
 Owen enumerates three genera of the Sarcophaga, viz. : ThylU'- 
 cinus, Dasyurus and Phascogale. These, with others of the or. 
 der, show a tendency to the multiplication of teeth, and peculiar, 
 ities of the arterial system and bodily organs. The Tkylacinus, 
 (Gr. 06laxog, thulacos, a sac ; tvig, inis, offspring,) has incisors, 
 I ; Canines, \:\ ; Molars, -1:^=46. The species T. cynocepUus, 
 (Gr. xv'tuy, kuon, a dog ; xeqjaX^, kephale, head,) Dog-headed Thy. 
 lacinus, Tasminian or Zebra Wolf, is an extremely active animal, 
 of the size of a young wolf; has short smooth hair, of a dusky 
 brown above, but barred or eebraed on the lower, part of the back 
 with about sixteen jet-black transverse stripes. This has to the 
 other animals of the group, relations similar to those which the 
 lion and tiger have to the larger quadrupeds of Africa and Asia. 
 Formerly it preyed chiefly upon Phalangers and Kangaroos, re- 
 jecting the flesh of the Wombat, an animal common in the dis- 
 trict which it inhabits. Since sheep have been introduced, its 
 favorite food is mutton, which puts shepherds on the alert to des. 
 troy these animals by every possible means. The Dasyurus^ 
 (Gf. dacfdg, dasus, thick ; odgii, dura, tail,) has a conical shaped 
 head, and on the hind feet the great toe is reduced to a tubercle, 
 or entirely Etbsent. It has four less molar teeth than the Tkyla- 
 cinus, making the number forty-two. One species is named D. 
 ursinus, (Lat. ursus, a bear,) — Ursine Dasyurus — having very 
 strong muscular jaws, and in its movements resembling the bear. 
 Its vulgar name is " Native Devil," The Dasyurus is very 
 destructive to poultry, eats raw flesh of all kinds and probably 
 dead fish and blubber, as its tracks are found on the sea shore. 
 In confinement it appears untamably savage, biting severely, 
 and uttering at the same time a low, yelling growl. The Phas- 
 cogale^ (Gr. q>agx<j)XMv, phaskolion, a bag; yaU, gale a weasel,) 
 has seven molars instead of six, on each side, above and below, 
 making, the whole number forty-six. The species P. penicillaia, 
 (Lat. perdcillus, a little tail,) lives on trees, has fur short, woolly 
 and thick, and is rather larger than the brown rat. 
 
 II. Family, the Entomophaga, (Gr. ivTOfxa, entoma, insect; 
 tpaya, to eat.) Insect Eateks. 
 
 These have three kinds, of teeth in bol;h jaws and a simple 
 
MARSUPIALIA. 105 
 
 stomach, like the preceding family, but more complicated in- 
 testines. This family includes three branches, or sub-fami- 
 lies; Ambuletloria, (walking;) Saltatoria, (leaping;) Scan- 
 S0ria, (climbing.) The only genus of the Ambulatoria, or 
 Walking section, is 'Myrmecobius, (Gr. (iliQfirj^, mUrmex, an ant ; 
 ^tioi, bioo, to live. The only species is M. fasciatus, (hat. 
 swathed,) which feeds on ants and has the reddish black of the 
 body adorned with nine white bands, whence the specific name. 
 Its length is ten inches. The Perameiles, (Bandicoots,) is of the 
 Leaping section, including animals which, in their general struc- 
 ture, form a link between the Opossums and the Kangaroos, evi- 
 dently approaching the latter in their form, and particularly 
 in the development of their hind quarters ; with the Opossums 
 1;hey agree in having a simple stomach and ten incisors in the 
 upper jaw. Some species, as P. lagotis, (Gr. layag, logos, a 
 hare,) make large and almost exclusive use of vegetable food. 
 In most of this family the pouch opens backwards, the reverse 
 of what occurs in the other Marsupialia, though in P. lagotis it 
 opens anteriorly. The species are found in Van Diemens' Land 
 and in New Guinea. The Scansoria, or Climbing section, include 
 the DidelpMdcB, or Opossums, in their geographical distribution 
 confined to this continent. These animals are all small, the larg- 
 est being about the same size as the domestic cat, while some 
 of them are no larger than mice. They number about thirty spe- 
 cies, ranging from Brazil to Virginia, under one genus Ihdelphis, 
 (Gr. 5(5, dis, double ; dsXcplg, dielpMs, a, pouah,) with the exception 
 of a single species, found in Surinam, in size larger than a rat, 
 and from its aquatic habits, as shown by its broad webbed feet, 
 ranked as a sub-genus, under the name Cheironectes, (Gr, ^x^Iq, 
 cheir, hand ; vijuxt)?, nektes, a swimmer.) The true Opossums, 
 {Didelphis,) have fifty teeth, viz. : ten incisors above and eight 
 below, four canines, twelve false molars, sixteen molars. The 
 incisors are small and disposed in the form of a semi-circle ; 
 the canines are large and strong ; the molars are crowned with 
 sharp tubercles. The feet have each five toes, armed with strong 
 curved claws ,■ the inner toe of the hind feet, however, is desti- 
 tute of a claw, and is so placed as to be opposable to the oth- 
 ers, thus constituting a true thumb. The tail is more or less 
 prehensile at the tip, and hence they are arboreal. The soles 
 of their feet are covered with a naked skin of great sensibility ; 
 the ears and tip of the muzzle are likewise naked. In some 
 species, as D. dorsigeruSj (Lat. dorsum, a b?ck ; gero, to carry,) 
 the pouch exists only in a rudimentary state, or slight folds of 
 the skin. The young of these species,, when of. sufficient size, 
 
106 HARSUFIALIA. 
 
 leave the pouch of the parent and are carried On her back, where 
 they hold themselves by. entwining their prehensile tails around 
 that of the parent. (See Plate V. fig. 7.) The species best known 
 is the common Opossum, D. Virginiana, of the United States, 
 as early as 1649 thus described: " This beast hath a bagge un- 
 der her bellie, into which she taketh her young ones, if at any 
 time they be affryghted, and carryeth them away." The food 
 of the Opossum is roots, poultry, and wild fruits. Like the spi- 
 der monkeys,, this animal uses the tail for climbing and swinging 
 fi!om branch to branch ; it crawls slowly on the earth. When 
 attacked it will feign itself dead, and no, beating will induce it to 
 show any signs of life. Even dogs are deceived, and turning it 
 over, pMs it by, The initiated determine whether it be alive or 
 not " by the appearance of the last joint of the tail, which i# 
 never relaxed." From its assuming a feigned character, any 
 adroit cheat, or sly deceitful acting, is said to be "possuraing," 
 or " playing possum." It has been said, " if a cat has nine lives, 
 this creature surely has nineteen ; for if you break every bone 
 in their skin and mash their skull, leaving them for dead, you 
 may come an hour after and they will be gone quite away, or 
 perhaps you may meet them creeping away." — (Lawson.) The 
 color of the Opossum is greyish white, darker along the sides ; 
 the flesh is very white and well tasted ; for this it is hunted, but 
 not for its fur. When disturbed or alarmed it gives out a very 
 unpleasant odor. 
 
 The Virginia Opossum is about the size of a domestic cat. Its 
 hair is of two kinds ; the lowest a long woolly down, brownish at 
 the tip, through which pass the long hairs of a pure white on 
 the head, neck, and upper parts of the body. The tail 
 is not so long as the body, covered at the base by long hairs, but 
 only scantily furnished with bristles which come out from be- 
 tween the whitish scales that protect it for the greater part of its 
 length. 
 
 in. Family, the Carpophaga, (Gr. xaQTtds, karpos, fruit ; 
 (poyo), pAa^o, to eat.) Fkuit Eaters have large and long inci- 
 sors in both jaws ; the canines sometimes wanting, and a still 
 longer intestinal canal. They resemble the squirrel tribe, but 
 are more closely related to the Kangaroos, the ICangaroo-rats, 
 (Hypsipfymnos, Gr. "vtpntgv/jvog, hupsiprymnos, h\gh extremity 
 or stern,) affording the connecting link. 
 
 Of this family are the Phalangers, Phalangista, (Gr. (pakay^, 
 phalanx, plu. •jDo'iciyj'Es, phalanges, small bones of the hands or 
 toes, (see Plate III. figs. 3 and 4.) These are so named because 
 they have the second and third toes of the hind feet united as far 
 
MAUSUPIALIA. 107 
 
 as the last phalanx, (or small bone,) in a common skinny sheath. 
 They have short, woolly fur, and a long prehensile tail. Among 
 these are the Coescoes, (sub-genus Cmscms,) of the Molucca 
 Islands, said to suspend themselves by the tail at the sight of a 
 man. 
 
 The Petaurus, (Gr. petao, to fly ; oura, tail,) has thirty-eight 
 teeth ; no canines ; the skin expands between the fore and hind 
 limbs, enabling it to take very long leaps, supported in the air as 
 by a paj;achute. In leaping, it is. aided by its flattened and 
 bushy tail. 
 
 P. sciureus, the Norfolk Island Sugar Squirrel, or Fly- 
 ing Squirrel, rests by day, but at night skims through the air, 
 half leaping, half flying from branch to branch, feeding upon 
 leaves and insects. 
 
 The IV. Family is the Poephaga, (Gr. niij, poe, grass, fayai, 
 phago, to eat,) Grass Eaters. 
 
 Sub.familyJl!facropodM&E,(genus Macropus, Gr. long-footed.) 
 The Kangaroos. The aspect of these animals is singularly 
 striking — the front parts are light and graceful, while the hinder 
 parts of the body, limbs and tail are very stout and muscular ; 
 the head is lengthened ; the ear.-, very large; the upper lip cleft; 
 the whiskers very short and few ; the hind limbs have very long 
 tarsi, like those of the Kangaroo-rat, but are much longer and more 
 robust ; the tail is long, triangular and very muscular. The teeth 
 are comparatively few, viz. : incisors, f ; canines, ; molars, 
 f;|=24. The species are numerous. The one best known is 
 the Macropus major, the Great Kangaroo. The natural posi- 
 tion of these animals is sitting upon their hind legs, in which 
 attitude they are supported by the strong, muscular, and tapering 
 tail. Their movement on all fours is awkward and constrained, 
 but they bound or hop along on their hind limbs with great facil- 
 ity, each leap being about fifteen feet. They easily clear obsta- 
 cles seven or eight feet high. M. Brunii, Le Brun's Kangaroo, 
 is the first of the Marsupials with which naturalists became ac- 
 quainted. It is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and was described 
 by Le Brun as early as 1711. The Kangaroo was discovered 
 by Capt. Cook in his first voyage. Since that period, (1770,) it 
 has been brought over in abundance to Europe and this country ; 
 has bred freely and might become an associate of deer in parks 
 and forests. The conical and tapering form of the body at once 
 suggests to the beholder the idea of great muscular power in the 
 loins and lower limbs, just the opposite to the mole. Its fore 
 limbs are of little use in its forward movements.. The defensive 
 
108 MAKSUPIALIA. 
 
 weapon of these animals consists of the large claw of the hind 
 foot, which is lengthened, strong, and armed with a hoof-like 
 nail. With this they can inflict a severe blow ; their eyes are 
 full and bright ; the mouth small ; the ears large and pointed ; 
 the fore paws are divided into five fingers, armed with nails for 
 scratching or digging ; the hind feet have five toes, but the two 
 inner ones are very small, and so united in their whole length 
 under the skin as to appear but one. The Great Kangaroo in- 
 habits New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, and is aiout five 
 feet without the tail, the length of which is about three feet. 
 The female, like the Opossum, carries the young about in its 
 pouch, from which they emerge when they desire exercise, and 
 leap back again on the least alarm. The largest weigh 140 to 
 150 pounds. The Kangaroo's flesh is much esteemed ; it is 
 hunted in Australia with a breed of dogs between the mastiff and 
 greyhound. 
 
 The V. family is the Rhizophaga, or Root EATERS,'(Gr. VS"> 
 rhiza, root; qAyo), phago, to eat.) In this we find the Wombat, 
 Phascolomys, (Gr. ifaamihov, phaskolidn, a pouch ; /ivg, mus, a 
 mouse,) Sub-family PhascolomyidEe. 
 
 This animal has been described as follows : " The Wombat, 
 or as it is called by the natives of Port Jackson, the Womback, 
 is a squat, short, thick, short-legged, and rather inactive quadru- 
 ped, with great appearance pf stumpy strength, and somewhat 
 bigger than a large turnspit dog. Its figure and movements, if 
 they do not exactly resemble those of the bear, at least strongly 
 remind one of that animal. Its length from the tip of the tail to 
 the tip of the nose is thirty -one inches. The hair is coarse and 
 about an inch and a half in length, thinly scattered ; thinly set 
 upon the belly, thicke'rupon the back and head, and thicker upon 
 the loins arid rump ; the color is of a light and sandy brown of 
 various shades, but darkest along the back." The Wombat will 
 not compare with the Kangaroo in swifiness of foot, as most men 
 could run it down. Its pace is a hobbling or shuffling, something 
 like the awkward gait of a bear. The flesh is said to be excel- 
 lent meat, and as it is nearly three feet in length, it is suggested 
 that it might be worth naturalizing in other climates, specimens 
 which have been taken to Europe having lived for years. 
 
 The whole of the Marsupialia, though some are active and 
 sprightly in their manners, present but little appearance of real 
 docility and intelligence ; and this fact, connected with the low 
 degree of development of their brain, points to their inferior 
 rank among the placental Mammalia. To denote this inferiority 
 the boundary lines of this Oi'der are, on the ch^r^ bent round to- 
 
MAKSUPIALIA. 109 
 
 wards the Cetacea. The earliest mammiferous animals whose 
 remains are found in the secondary and tertiary fbrhiations, are 
 those of this order. 
 
 Sub-order Monotejemata, (Gr. fi6pog, memos, one ; 'rg'jfia, trema, 
 perforation.) The animals of this sub-order have given occasion 
 to naturalists for much discussion concerning their proper aiflni- 
 ties and their appropriate position among the Mammalia. They 
 are truly unique, both in their external form and their anatomi- 
 cal and internal arrangements, the details of which cannot be 
 given in this work. We will only say that "in the form of the 
 skull, the construction of the shoulder and the breast-bone, but 
 particularly in the whole reproductive system of organs, the 
 Monotremata present a ttianifest departure from a mammalian 
 type, and a corresponding approach to that of the oviparous Ver- 
 tebrsB, tending to the reptiles more than to the birds." But hotv- 
 ever anomalous, it is evident they should have a place among the 
 mammals ; and also, though without any external pouch, that 
 the marsupial bones in the skeleton require that they be placed 
 next in order to the Marsupialia, "of which they constitute the 
 lowest and most aberrant type." , 
 
 These singular animals have no true teeth, but those of one 
 genus have horny substanc'es in the jaw which represent those 
 organs. The muzzle is prolonged into a flat beak, more or less 
 like that of a duck ; the eyes are small ; the ears are merely 
 minute orifices and without any external crnich ; the limbs are 
 short and strong, suited for digging ; the feet have each five toes, 
 furnished with stout claws, and on the hind foot is a kind of sharp 
 spur. 
 
 The order includes but two genera, viz. ; Echidna' and Orni- 
 thorhyncus. Both are found exclusively in New Holland and 
 Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 Echidna, (Gr. "exiSva, echidna, a fabulous monster or viper.) 
 Of this there is but one species, changing its name with the varia- 
 tions of its clothing at different seasons, viz. ; E. hislrix, (Gr."«wi?«l, 
 a porcupine,) to E. setosa, (Lat. bristly.) The muzzle of this ani- 
 mal is elongated and slender, terminated by a small mouth, having a 
 long extensile tongue, similar to-that of ant-eaters and pangolins ; 
 it is, however, more beak-shaped. The skin of this beak js thick 
 and without hair. The animd has no teeth, but the palate is 
 armed with many rows of small spines, directed backwards. 
 The feet are very large, robust, and armed with clasvs, being 
 formed for opening ants' nests. The upper surface of the body 
 and of the short tuberculous tail is covered with stout and strong 
 spines, intermingled with stiff, bristly hairs, and when alarmed, 
 
1 10 MARSUFIALIA. 
 
 the animal can roll itself up like a hedge-hog or porcupine, with 
 which latter it well compares in point of size. The chestnut 
 colored, soft and silky hair is so abundant at a certain season as 
 to half cover the spines, whilst at another, the hair entirely dis- 
 appears. It lives on ants, with their larvae and pupae. It takes 
 them with its extensile tongue, which it can protrude to a great 
 distance, and which is always covered with an adhesive secretion. 
 The Echidna digs for itself burrows in which it remains during 
 the dry season, coming out of the earth only during the rains. 
 It is supposed capable of enduring a long abstinence, and it has 
 intervals of suspended animation which continue for more than 
 three days at a time, and recur frequently when the animal is 
 kept in confinement. Its strength has been thought to exceed, 
 considering, its sizg, "that of any other quadruped in existence." 
 
 Ornithorhyncus, (Gr. iqvig, ornis, a bird, and 'giYx°^'i'hunc)ios, 
 a beak, so named from its bird-like bill.) 
 
 Two species have been described, O.juscus, (Lat. dusky,) and 
 O. rufus, (Lat. red,) but the latter differs from the former only 
 in having the fur softer and of a redder tint. It is said that in 
 looking at this animal one would imagine that the beak of a shov- 
 eller-duok had been artificially fastened on the front of the head 
 of a small otter. The beak, which is broader at the tip than at 
 the base, is covered by a thick leathery skin. This skin projects 
 in the form of a loose flap from each mandible, and protects the 
 eyes from the mud in which the animal is perpetually dabbling 
 for food. There are no true teeth, yet back of each mandible 
 are two horny appendages resembling teeth, but without roots, 
 which are of a form verging to a square, with a broad uneven 
 surface, fitted rather for crushing than grinding. Beneath the 
 skin of the face are capacious cheek pouches for the carrying 
 of food. The eyes are bright, but very small and high set ; the 
 ears mere orifices which are opened and closed at the will of the, 
 animal ; the feet have five well developed toes, all armed with 
 long, curved, and pointed claws, connected by a leathery web, 
 which in the fore feet extends considerably beyond the tips of 
 the claws, presenting a broad and powerful oar when in the wa- 
 ter, but folded back when the animal is digging in the earth. On 
 the hind feet the web reaches only to the termination of the toes. 
 In the male the feet are also armed with a stout, sharp, movable 
 spur, formerly regarded as hi^ily poisonous. The tail is broad 
 and depressed ; the fur combines the properties of an aquatic and 
 also of a burrowing animal, readily expelling both water and dust. 
 A full grown ornithorhynchus is about two feet long, measuring 
 beak and tail. The general color is deep brown, with a white 
 
MAKSUPIALIA.' Ill 
 
 spot in front of each eye. These animals are called Water 
 Moles by ithe colonists.. ■ Their favorite resorts are the borders 
 of some stream covered with aquatic plants, where the banks are 
 steep, shaded, and convenient for burrowing. They burrow in 
 a. serpentine direction, sometimes to the distance of fifty feet, 
 and ending in a small chamber. In this chamber they place 
 their nestmade of dry grass. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE MAKSUPIALIA. 
 
 From what is the term Maesupialia or Marsupiata derived ? Into what 
 two sections is this order arranged ? How are these sometimes regarded ? 
 What does Guyier remark respecting the animals of this order ? Which 
 of the two sections deviates least from the general type of mammalia ? 
 What is their most striking peculiarity ? To what part of the globe are 
 these mammals confined? What is the ground of their division into fami- 
 lies? What is said of the first family, SakCophaga? How many genera 
 of this family does Prof. Owen enumerate? What peculiarities do they 
 show ? Describe the Dog-headed Thylaeinus or Zebra Wolf? What rela- 
 tion does it bear to the other animals of the group ? What is said of the 
 Dasyurus ? What species of this animal is mentioned ? On what does it 
 feed ? How does it appear in confinement ? What is said of the Phasco- 
 gale? What species is named? Give the names and characters of the 
 second family. What three branches or sub-families does this include ? To 
 which of these does Myrmecohius belong ? How many teeth has it ? What 
 species of this genus is named? What genus of the leaping section is 
 mentioned ? What link do the animals of this genus form ? In what re- 
 spects do they agree with the opossums ? What species is named and 
 what is said of it ? What animals do the Scansoria include ? How many 
 species of them ? To what region are they confined ? How is the term 
 JOidelpMs compounded ? What sub-genus is named ? How are the Opos- 
 sums characterized and described ? Describe the best known and only spe- 
 cies found, in the United States. Give the general character of Fruit-eaters, 
 or the third family. How are they linked to the Kangaroo ? What genera 
 and species are mentioned ? Describe'and characterize the Kangaroos, or 
 grass-eaters. Which is best known ? Where is it found? Which of the 
 Koot-eaters is rdentioned ? How is it described ? How do the Marsupials 
 rank among mammals? Why are the boundary lines of this order carried 
 round next Cetacea ? What is peculiar in the Monoihemata, and what is 
 their general rank? How many genera do they include ? Where found? 
 What is said of the Spiny Ant-eater ? Particularly describe the Ornithor- 
 hyncus: 
 
 What is said of this order along the branches of the Chart f Mention 
 the animals of this order named or figured on it, tracing each. 
 
112 EDENTATA. 
 
 SECTION XVIII. 
 Fifth Order, EDENTATA. (Lat. toothless.) 
 
 This name was originally given by Cuvier, to the animals of 
 this order, from their agreement in the absence of incisive teeth 
 from their jaws, and in the length of their claws. Apart from 
 this agreement, they appear to. have among themselves but little 
 natural affinity. To several of the ant-eating tribe, which this 
 order includes, the name Edentata is literally applicable ; but in 
 other genera it is limited to the front, or incisor teeth. In this 
 order Cuvier included the Monotremata, but their most natural 
 place seems to be with the Marsupials. 
 
 I. Family, Takdigrada, (Lat. tardus, slow, gradior, to step;) 
 also named Bradypodidae, (Gr. (JgaWs, bradus, slow, novg, pous, a 
 foot.) This includes two genera, Bradypus tridactylus, (Lat. 
 three-toed,) the Ai, or Sloth, and Choloepus, (Gr. /wWff, clwlos, 
 lame, noig, pous, a foot,) didactyltbs, (Lat. two-fingered ;) the 
 Unatj. 
 
 The Sloths have no incisor teeth, four canines, two in each 
 jaw, fourteen molars, eight in the upper and six in the lower jaw. 
 The molar teeth consist each of a cylinder of bone, covered with 
 enamel ; hence their surfaces are always concave, the enamel 
 wearing less rapidly than the soft interior. No laminae, or folds 
 of the enameled substance penetrate the body of the teeth, as in 
 most other animals ; the canines are somewhat longer than the 
 molars, and in form pyramidal. When these animals stand 
 erect upon their hind Ifegs, their fingers can reach to the ground ; 
 and when moving upon all fours, they trail themselves slowly 
 and painfully along upon their elbows. Their claws surpass the 
 whole foot in length, and are very sharp and crooked. (See Plate 
 VI. fig. 5.) In a state of rest, they are drawn down upon the palm 
 and wrist, and can be extended only by the will and muscular effort 
 of the animal. Sharp, and bent in form, they are so many effective 
 hooks for holding on ; while the rigidity of the limbs gives a firm 
 hold ; the feet and thighs are jointed obliquely, which adapts them 
 for embracing a branch ; and the great length of the arms aids 
 these animals in seizing a fresh hold, and drawing twigs and 
 leaves, their usual food, to their mouths. They are born and live 
 on the trees, and never leave them, unless fio'm the operation of 
 force, or accident, resting not upon the branches, like the squirrel, 
 or monkey, but under them, and moving and even sleeping sus- 
 
EDENTATA. 113 
 
 pended from them. It is remarked of some whioK were in a state 
 of captivity, that they assumed, during sleep, "a position .of per- 
 fect ease and safetyj on the fork of a, tree," the head being sup- 
 ported between the arms and chest, and the face buried in the 
 long wool which covers those parts, and thus protected during 
 sleep, from the myriads of insects which would otherwise assail it. 
 
 The animals of the other genus, the Unau, or CholoepuS didaciy- 
 lus, the two-fingered sloth,. have essentially the same singular 
 conformation and habits as the three-fingered sloth, and are with 
 those of the other genus, found among the tropical forests of South 
 America, 
 
 II. Edentata Peoper. MyrMecophagadae, Ant-Eaters. 
 Myrmecdphaga, (Gr. fiigfii^, murmex, an ant, qxiya), phago, I eat.) 
 
 The Ant-eaters are distinguished by being entirely without 
 teeth, and also by theirf'hairy covering. The latter peculiarity 
 separates them from the Pangolins, (ilfanzs,) or Scaly Ant-eaters, 
 of Asia and Africa, which animals, in other respects, they closely 
 resemble. In this family, the jaws are produced into a very long 
 and slender muzzle, which has a mouth of very diminished size. 
 (See Chart.) The phalanges, or small joints of the toes (particu- 
 larly the last,) which bear the claws, are so formed as to allow 
 them to be bent inwards'only as in the Sloths ; and to this end, 
 have very powerful ligaments, which keep them in a state of re- 
 pose, bent in along the sole of the foot, and do not allow the hand 
 to be opened entirely, but only half extended, as seen in gouty or 
 rheumatic people. (Plate VI. fig. 5.) The toes are of unequal 
 size, and vary in number, in different species; as in the Sloths, 
 they are united closely together as far as the claws, and are not 
 capable of separate or individual motion; but this disability is 
 more than compensated by the increased strength which it pro- 
 duces. The claws are all large and powerful, efepecially that of 
 the middle toe, which is enormous. In walking, these animals 
 tread upon the outer edge of the foot, which is provided with a 
 large callous pad for that purpose ; whilst their toes being bent 
 inwards, along the palms, the sharp claws are preserved from 
 being injured by the friction of the hard ground. 
 
 The Ant-eaters are remarkable for their vei-y long and round- 
 ed tongues. With these, they take the ants which are their prin- 
 cipal food. On approaching an ant-hill, the animal scratches it 
 up with his claws, and then protrudes his slender tongue, which 
 has the appearance of an exceedingly long tape worm. The 
 tongue is covered with a glutinous saliva ; it is nearly twice the 
 length of the whole head and snout together, and when not ex- 
 tended, is kept doubled up in the moUth, with the point directed 
 
114 EDENTATA. 
 
 backwards. The ants adhere to his tongue when it is thrust into 
 their hills, and by retracting it, he swallows thousands of them. 
 The eyes of the Myrmecophaga are exceedingly small; their 
 ears short and round ; the legs robust and amazingly powerful, 
 but so unfavorable for locomotion, that these animals are almost 
 as tardy in their movements as the Sloths themselves, except 
 when put to their speed, at which time, their motion is pretty 
 rapid. Of the Ant-Eaters proper, we name three species. 1. 
 M. jubata, (Lat. maned or crested,) the Great Ant-Eater. 
 This animal is about four and a half feet in length, from the 
 snout to the tail, which is three and one-quarter feet long, so that 
 the entire length of the animal is seven and three-quarters feet; 
 the height at the shoulders is three and three-twelfths feet, and 
 but two and ten-twelfths feet at the croup, in consequence of 
 which, being perfectly plantigrade, it necessarily stands lower 
 behind than before, as is seen in the bear and badger ; the toes 
 are four on the front, and five on the hind extremities. It is 
 sometimes called Ant-Bear, from its mode of defence, which 
 resembles that of the bear. When assailed by a dog, he seizes 
 him between his strong fore legs, and squeezes him to death, or 
 else deals out severe blows with his sharp prehensile claws. 
 The clothing of the Great Ant-Eater consists of long, coarse hair, 
 forming a mane down the neck and back, and enveloping the tail 
 in a thick brush, which trails upon the ground. On the head the 
 fur is close and spare. The color is generally a grizzled black ; a 
 dark black stripe, bordered with white, passing obliquely from 
 the side of the neck, to the upper part of the back. This singular 
 animal has but a single young one at a birth, which for a whole 
 year is carried about with the mother wherever she goes. Its 
 digestive organs seem adapted for extracting nutriment from ants 
 alone. In its habits, it is solitary as well as slothful. Like all 
 other animals living upon insects, it can exist a long time without 
 food. Its flesh, though black, and of a musky flavor, is sometimes 
 found on the tables of Europeans, and by the Indians is highly 
 esteemed. 
 
 M. Tamandua. (Cuvier.) The Tamandita. 
 "" This Ant-Eater is much smaller than the one just described, 
 being not so large as a fox, or even a good sized cat ; whereas 
 the Maned Ant-Eater exceeds in length the largest greyhound, 
 though much inferior to that animal in height, owing to the short- 
 ness of its legs. In the conformation of its extremities, and the 
 number of its toes before and behind, the Tamandua is like the 
 Ant-Bear; but it differs from that animal in the prehensile power 
 of its tail, which makes it essentially an arboreal quadruped. 
 
EDENTATA. 115 
 
 The hair differs also, being short and shining, and of a consistence 
 which malies it a medium as to its qualities, between silk and 
 wool. The colors, are, likewise, more variable than those of the 
 Great Ant-Eater. '. The Tamandua is found in the thick primeval 
 forests of tropical America, living on trees, upon termites, honey, 
 and according to. D'Azara, upon stingless bees, which have their 
 hives among the loftiest branches of the forest. The female has 
 but a single cub at a birth, which she carries about with her on 
 her shoulders, for the first three or four months. 
 . M. didaclyla, (Lat. two-fingered, ,or toed.) The Little or 
 Two-ToED Ant-Eater. 
 
 This is easily distinguished from the other two species, by its 
 size, which does not exceed that of a large rat or squirrel ; also 
 by the number of its toes, four on the hinder, and only two on the 
 front extremities. The length from the snout to the tail is but 
 six inches; that of the tail is eeven and one-quarter, inches; to- 
 wards the point the tail tapers, and becomes naked, and it is 
 strongly prehensile. The snout is not so long in proportion to the 
 body, as in the other two .species ; the legs are stout and short ; 
 the hair very fine and soft to the touch. Like the other species, 
 the Little Ant-Eater has but one young at a birth, which it con- 
 ceals in the hollow of some decayed tree. 4 
 
 Orycteropus Capensis, (Gr. oQvxrifg, orukter, a digger; novg, 
 pons, a foot.) The Aard^VarKj or Earth- Hog. 
 
 This animal, of Southern Africa, is also to be numbered with 
 the Ant-Eaters, though there has been some difference of opinion 
 as to its proper location. ~ It resembles both the Ant-Eater and 
 the Armadillo, agreeing with the former in its general habits; 
 but though without any scaly armor, more like the latter in its 
 anatomical structure. Like the Armadillo, it has large and pow- 
 erful claws, adapted for digging up roots and insects, and for 
 making burrows in the earth. When full grown, it is five feet 
 long, from the snout to the end of the tail, which is about half the 
 size of the body. Its tongue is not cylindrical like that of the 
 Ant-Eaters proper, but flat and slender, and cannot be protruded 
 so far. The flesh, particularly of the hind-quarters, is dried for 
 hams, and much esteemed as food. 
 JUianis. (Linnseus.) The Pangolin, or Scaly Ant-Eater. 
 
 The name Pangolin, which is given to the animals of this 
 genus, is said to be derived from the word Pangoeling, signifying, 
 in the Javanese language, "an animal which rolls itself in the 
 form of a ball." The Pangolins are limited to the warmest parts 
 of Asia and Africa. In common with .the Hairy Ant-Eaters, 
 they are without teeth, and have a very long extensile tongue, 
 
116 EDENTATA. 
 
 covered with a glutinous mucus, for securing their insect nulA> 
 rnent, but they differ from them in their body, limbs and tails-, 
 whicii have as a panoply, their scales large, imbricated, (i. e. 
 hollowed like a roof, or gutter-tile,) and ovferlapping each other;' 
 they differ also in being able to roll themselves up when in dan- 
 ger, by which means their trenchant or sharp cutting scales be- 
 come erect, and present a defensive armor against their enemies. 
 These animals are particularly remarkable for the strength and 
 number of the vertebrae 'of the tail, (forty-seven in the large spe- 
 cies.) By some they are regarded as a kind of link between 
 viviparous quadrupeds and the Lizards. 
 
 M. macroura, (Gr. long-tailed,) or M. ietradactyta, (Lat. four, 
 fingered.) (Linnaeus.) 
 
 This species, found in Africa, is more than two feet in length, 
 and the tail is more than twice as long as the body. The broad, 
 striated and -pointed scales, cover the whole body, except the un- 
 der part; the legs are very short, and also scaled; on each of the 
 feet are four claWs, those on the fore feet being stronger than the 
 others. The scales are of a uniformly deep brown color, with a 
 tinge of yellow, and a glossy surface. 
 
 M. brachyura, (Gr. ^qaxiis, brachus, short; 'ovqA, oura, tail,) or 
 M. peniadactyla, (five-fingered.) The Short-Tailed Manis. 
 
 This Scaly Ant-Eater is a native of East India, where it re- 
 ceives different names, Tiled-Cat, Land-Carp, Caballe, &c. It 
 has a much thicker and shorter tail than is found in the preceding 
 species; the body is stout, and shorter than the tail. Each of the 
 feet, as the specific term pentadattyla denotes, has five toes ; those 
 on the fore feet, except the outer one, which is small, being vety 
 strong. The scales differ in shape from those of the Long-Tailed 
 Manis, and are much larger and wider in proportion to the body 
 and the tail ; they are so impenetrable that when the animal rolls 
 itself up, the tiger, panther, or hyaena attempts to force it in vain. 
 The middle claw of the fore paws, far exceeds the others in its 
 proportions, and is admirably adapted for the destruction of the 
 nests of termites, or white ants, which are a great part of its food. 
 It is said the natives " have a method of making a hole in its skin 
 with a knife, and thus of guiding and governing the animal at 
 their pleasure, the point of the knife, which is kept in the hole, 
 goading and irritating him." It is numerous in Ceylon. 
 
 III. Dasypodidae^ (Gr. daavg, dasus, hairy ; novg, pous, a foot.) 
 The Armadillos. 
 
 This remaining family are arranged by Cuvier into five groups. 
 They are distinguished by having molar teeth alone, and appear 
 to have a place between the Sloths and Ant-Eaters, the latter 
 
EDENTATA. 117 
 
 being without teeth, and the Sloths, in addition to the molars, 
 having large and powerful canines. Ant-Eaters differ from the 
 Sloths and Armadiljos, not only by being without teeth, but also 
 b^ the want of clavicles, or collar bones. The most prominent 
 distinction of the Armadillos, is the peculiar nature of their ex- 
 ternal covering. This consists of a bony, tessellated crust, in 
 which their bodies are enveloped ; the hjps and shoulders being 
 covered by large, broad bucklers, while the intermediate back is 
 shielded by transverse movable bands, similar in form and ap- 
 pearance to the plate armor of the middle ages. Hence, the name 
 Armadillos, (from Armada, armed, and of Spanish origin,) has 
 been given to these animals. The transverse bands which are 
 separated by narrow strings of membrane, overlap each other, as 
 in the ancient coats of mail, so as to give greater freedbm, and 
 some degree of lateral motion. The tail, with the exception of 
 one species, is covered with a series of rings ; the limbs are in- 
 cased in a hardened, tuberculous sort of skin, and are very short 
 and strong ; the toes have strong claws, adapted for digging or 
 burrowing, a process, which, in the light sandy soil traversed by 
 them, they accomplish with surprising celerity. The molar 
 teeth with which they are furnished, are never less than twenty- 
 six in the whole ; and in one species amount to ninety -eight I 
 those of one jaw fitting into interstices of the other as in the I)q1- 
 phins. (See Plate IV. fig. 11.) The eyes are very small; the 
 ears large ; the long and slender tongue, like that of the Ant-Eaters 
 proper, is lubricated with a viscid saliva, by means of which it 
 readily takes up ants and similar insects, upon which it chiefly 
 subsists. It however, also feeds on farinaceous roots, and on car- 
 rion, so that in Paraguay, deceased persons who are "interred at a 
 distance from the usual place of sepulture, are obliged to be pro- 
 tected by a lining of strong boards." In searching for food, it is 
 guided chiefly by the sense of smell ; its sight is poor, but this is 
 compensated by the acuteness of its hearing. The Armadillos 
 burrow with such rapidity that they soon disappear in the earth, 
 when suddenly surprised. Their movement is a sort of waddling 
 run, but rather rapid, most of them easily outstripping a man. In 
 captivity, this is kept up by the hour together, and without any 
 apparent motive. The greater portion of them are nocturnal, 
 never moving abroad while the sun is above the horizon, but re- 
 maining concealed in their burrows. The female bears annually, 
 and frequently six, eight, or even ten at a birth. The Armadillos 
 are. able, more or less perfectly, to roll themselves up into a ball. 
 These hardy animals thrive and breed rapidly, with a moderate 
 portion of care, in most temperate countries, but their proper hab- 
 
118 EDENTATA. 
 
 itat is the tropical and temperate portions of South America. Of 
 the nine or ten species, we particularize 
 
 1. Dasypus Peba, or D. novemcinctus, (Lat. nine-banded.) 
 The Peba or Black Tatit. PI. VI. 
 
 This species, found in Paraguay, Guiana and Brazil, varies in 
 the numbers of its bands, so that it is sometimes called D. octo- 
 cinctns, (Lat. eight-banded,) and D. septemcinctus, (Lat. seven- 
 banded.) Its length, from the snout to this tail, is sixteen inches ; 
 that of the tail is fourteen inches, and its circumference at the 
 base, six inches. It is much hunted on account of the delicacy 
 of its flesh, which when roasted in the shell, is fat and well tasted ; 
 said to resemble that of a suciing-pig. Of individuals of this 
 species, found in the Zoological Gardens of England, it is re- 
 marked, "they are fed on vegetable diet, and appear to be in ex- 
 cellent health. During the summer, they are allowed the liberty 
 of a little paddock, where, by the singularity of their actions, they 
 attract a crowd of spectators, and come in for a share of the in- 
 terest excited by the gambols of their fellow countrymen, the 
 Spider Monkeys." (Martin's Quadrupeds.) 
 
 D. Apar. The Mataco. 
 \The animals of this species are distinguishable from all others 
 of the genus, by "the faculty which they possess of rolling them, 
 selves up like a hedgehog, into a round ball, in which situation 
 they may be tumbled about, or even, it is said, thrown over preci- 
 pices, without receiving any material injury." They are, how- 
 ever, less common than some of the other species. 
 
 D. gigas, (Lat. a giant.) The Great Armadillo. 
 
 This species have' unequal toes and enormous claws, but what 
 most distinguishes the animals of this group, is their possession of 
 from eighty-eight to ninety -.eight teeth, a number greater than is 
 found in any other mammal. (PI. VI. fig. 6.) 
 
 The Great Armadillo is about three and one-quarter feet long, 
 from the nose to the tail, which is one foot, five inches. It is sepr 
 arated from the other species of this genus, not only by its supe- 
 rior size, but by various remarkable characteristics. Its head is 
 proportionably smaller ; the forehead more protuberant ; the face 
 rather cylindrical in form, like that of the Peba ; the ears are 
 not very large, pointed, and crouched backwards; the bucklers 
 of the shoulders and croup have nine and eighteen rows of 
 plates respectively, and are separated by movable bands to the 
 number of twelve or thirteen, formed of rectangular scales, about 
 half an inch square. At the root, the tail is as much as ten inch- 
 es in circumference, and covered with ring plates, at the base, 
 and with crescent-shaped lines throughout the rest of its length. 
 
EDENTATA. 119 
 
 The claws are very large and powerful. This animal confines 
 itself to the great forests, and burrows with surprising facility, 
 being assisted in this by the strength of its claws. "Those 
 who are employed in collecting the Jesuit's bark, frequently meet 
 with it in the woods, and report that when any of their compan- 
 ions happen to die at a distance from the settlements, they are 
 obliged to surround the body with a double row of stout planks, to 
 prevent it from being scratched up and devoured by the Great 
 Armadillo." 
 
 Chlamyphorus, ((pogsca, phoreo, I bear; xla/tig, chlamus, a 
 cloak.) The Pichiago. , 
 
 This edentate animal seems to blend in itself the characteris- 
 tics of several distinct tribes. Like the Armadillos, it has a tes- 
 sellated shield ; this, however, is not, as in them, attached by integ- 
 uments, to the entire under surface, but is connected with the 
 back only, by a ridge of skin along the spine, and with the skull 
 by two bony prominences from the forehead, the margins of which 
 are beautifully fringed with silky hair. Its feet, eyes and snout, 
 exhibit resemblances to the mole. From the appearance of the 
 hind part of the tesselated shield, this animal has the specific 
 name truncatus, (Lat. truncated, or cut off.) Naturalists have 
 designated resemblances in it to the Sloth, the Aard-Vark, the 
 Great or Maned Ant-Eater, the Echidna, and the Ornithorhyncus ; 
 and to the Ruminants and Pachyderms. Dr. Buckland regards 
 it as "one of the nearest approximations to the Megatherium, par- 
 ticularly in regard to its coat of mail, and in the adaptation of the 
 animal for digging." Dr. Harlan says, "taken collectively, if 
 furnishes us with an example of organic structure, if not unpar- 
 alleled, not surpassed in the history of animals." The Pichiago 
 is quite small, the total length of the animal being only five inches 
 and a quarter. "It is a native of Chili, but is so rare even there, 
 as to be regarded by the natives as a curiosity." 
 
 IV. Megatheridce, (Gr. fiiyag, megas, great; OtjqIov, therion, 
 wild beast.) Fossil Sloths. 
 
 This is a group of animals of such gigantic size, and massive 
 proportions, that even their fossil remains strike the beholder with 
 wonder and astonishment. Of such a character are these re- 
 mains, that we are constrained to bestow more space upon them 
 than can be given to other fossil tribes. These are the Megath- 
 EiioiDS of Professor Owen, whose descriptions of them are ex- 
 ceedingly elaborate and interesting. Of these fossils, the foUow- 
 ina; genera have been enumerated by him, viz.. Megatherium, 
 Megalonyx, Glossotherium, Mylodon, and Scelidoiherium, all of 
 which are found in South America alone. Of the Megatherium, 
 
120 EDENTATA. 
 
 nearly the whole skeleton has been considered, by comparing 
 different imperfect specimens, found after three unusually dry 
 seasons, in the river Salado, running through alluvial plains, to 
 the south of Buenos Ayrel. This has given rise to the not im- 
 probable "suggestion," that the long continued drought brought 
 these extinct gigantic animals to a slender stream, running be- 
 tween mud banks, and that they may have been "engulphed in 
 their efforts to reach the water." 
 
 The Megaiherium gives evidence in its remains, that it was 
 more nearly allied to the Sloths and Ant-Eaters, than to the 
 Armadillos. The skull is thought to resemble the former two; 
 the rest of the body was adapted partly to the former and partly 
 to the latter. When full grown, it is judged this enormous ani- 
 mal must have been not far from eighteen feet in length, and nine 
 feet in height. (See fig. on the chart.) The thigh bone twice 
 the thickness of the largest elephant's ; the fore foot more than 
 three feet in length, and more than one in width, and terminated 
 hy an enormous claw. The width of the upper part of the tail, 
 could not have been less than two feet. The entire structure of 
 this extinct animal, must have been admirably adapted for digging 
 in the earth, so as to enable it to obtain the succulent roots which 
 probably constituted the principal part of its food. Dr. Buckland, 
 in his " Bridge water Treatise," says, " The size of the Megathei-ium 
 exceeds that of the existing Edentata; to which it is most nearly 
 allied, in a greater degree than any other fossil amimal exceeds 
 its living congeners. The entire frame must have been an appa- 
 •ratus of colossal mechanism, adapted exactly to the work it had 
 to do ; strong and ponderous in its proportions, as its work was 
 heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle of life and enjoyment to a 
 gigantic race of quadrupeds, which, though they have ceased to 
 be coanted among the living inhabitants of our planet, have, in 
 their fossil bones, left behind them imperishable monuments of the 
 consummate skill with which they were constructed." 
 
 Megalonyx, (Gr. iiiyas, megas, great ; "ow^, onux, nail or claw.) 
 To the remains of this animal, this name was given on account 
 of the size of its claws. Mr. Jefferson described it from some 
 bones found in caverns in Western Virginia, and considered it to 
 be carnivorous. He supposed it the largest of unguiculated ani- 
 mals, and probably the enemy of the Mastodon. Dr. Wistar, of 
 Philadelphia, afterwards saw in the bones of the fossil foot resem- 
 blances to those of the Sloth. Cuvier showed that it belonged to 
 the Edentata. Professor Owen reviewed the whole subject, and 
 arranged the animal as a distinct genus. 
 
EDENTATA. 121 
 
 Glossotherium, (Gr, Y)Macra, glossa, a tongua ; OtiqIov, therion, 
 a wild beast.) 
 
 This genus is based " on a fragment of a cranium found in Mr. 
 Damin's collection, discovered in the bed of the same river, in 
 Banda Oriental, with the skull of the Toxodon." Reasoning 
 from this fragment, Professor Owen found decisive evidence that 
 the cranium was that of an extinct Edentate, and related to the 
 genera Myrmecophaga and Manis. 
 
 Mylodon, (Gr. ^uAtJ, mul^, a grinding mill ; odoiis, odous, a 
 tooth.) 
 
 This fossil Edentate, according to Professor Owen, "holds an 
 intermediate place between the Ai and the Great Armadillo." It 
 must have had the size and proportions of a Rhinoceros, but with 
 the limbs still more massive. So great was probably its muscular 
 strength, it could overthrow trees ; and as it was a leaf-eater, and. 
 too bulky and ponderous for climbing, it could thus feast at its 
 ease, on the abundant foliage. It had its name from the molar teeth. 
 
 Scelidotherium, (Gr. axsXlg, skelis, a haunch, or thigh ; therion, 
 a wild beast.) 
 
 This large extinct Edentate was allied to the Megatherium, and 
 the Orycteropus, Cape Ant-Eater. 
 
 • 
 
 What is the fifth Order of the Mammals ? Why did Cuvier give this 
 name to the animals of this order ? Is it strictly applicable to all the genera? 
 To which is it applicable ? Name the first family. What is its meaning ? 
 Give the other name of this family and its significations. How many genera 
 does it include ? What are the leading characters and habits of the Sloth 
 ' or Ai ? What gives them a firm hold on the branches of trees ? Do they 
 ever leave them ? On what part do they rest ? What is said of their sleep 
 during captivity ? What is said of the habits of the Unau and other tropical 
 Sloths ? Where arethey all found ? Give the name of the second family. 
 What is its derivation ? How are the Ant-Eateks distinguished ? What 
 peculiarly separates them from Pangolins ? What is said of their- jaws, 
 phalanges (small bones of the fingers and toes,) and toes ? Are the toes 
 capable of separate motion ? How do they walk ? Describe the tongue 
 and its uses. What is said of the other parts of the animal ? How many 
 species Of the Ant-Eateks Proper are named? What is said of the size of 
 the animal? How many toes has it? Why is it sometimes called Ant- 
 Star ? Why Jubata or crested ? What more is said of it ? What is said 
 of the size of the Tamandua ? In what respect does it differ from the Great- 
 Ant-Eater ? How is the Little or Two- Toed Ant-Eater distinguished, and in 
 what particular respect or feature does it differ from the other two spe- 
 cies ? Where is the Aardr Varh or Earth-Hog foimd ? What animals does 
 it resemble ? What is its size ? Does its tongue differ from that of the A. 
 E. Proper ? Why was the name Pangolin given to the Scaly Ant-Eaters ? 
 To what region is it confined ? How does it resemble the Hairy Ant-Eaters^ 
 and how differ from them ? For what are these animals particularly remark- 
 able? Where is the Long-tailed species found ? What is said of the scales ? 
 Where is the Short-tailed species fouiid? What names has it received? 
 
122 BODENTIA, ' 
 
 How does it differ from the Long-itailed species? Wliat more is said of it? 
 Wiiat is the name of the Third Family? How does Cuvier arrange it? 
 Has it teeth? What is the fhief distinction of the -drmorfiHos / Describe 
 them. What is the origin of the name? What is said of the tail? How 
 does the number of the teeth vary ? How do they resemble those of the 
 Dolphin? What further is said of these animals? Where is the Peba 
 found? How long is it? On what account is it hunted? What is said of 
 animals %f this species in the Zoological Gardens of England? What dis- 
 tinguishes the Mataco from all others of the genus ? What is said of the 
 toes and claws of the Great Armadillo? What is its size? How is it 
 separated from the other species ? What is reported by the collectors of the 
 Jesuits' bark ? Gfire some account of the Chiamyphorus ? What does Dr. 
 Harlan remark ? What is its size ? 
 
 What is the Fourth Family ? What is said of the size and proportions of 
 these animals? What of their fossil remains? How many species does 
 Prof. Owen name ? How has the structure of this animal been made out ? 
 What suggestion has been made respecting it ? To what animals were they 
 most nearly allied ? What is said of their size ? What of its fore feet and 
 tail? For what was it adapted? Give the quotation from Dr. Bsckland. 
 Define the term Megalonyx. Why was this name given ? State Jefferson's 
 views of this animal. What did Cuvier show ? Who arranged it as a dis- 
 tinct genus? What is the import of the term Glossotherium? Upon what 
 was this genus based ? How did Prof. Owen determine their relation to Ant- 
 Eaters ? Explain the term Mylodon. What place does Prof. Owen assign it ? 
 Whal: is said of its size ? Define the term Seelidotherium. To what does 
 it relate? I 
 
 What is said of the Meqatherium on the chart ? Give its dimensions and 
 trace it from its position among the Sloth Family, BBAOYPiD^ii, through all 
 its grades. Trace the Armadillo in the same way. 
 
 SECTION XIX. 
 Sixth Order. — RODENTIA. (Lat. rodo, to gnaw.) 
 Rodents or Gnawers. The Glires of Linnaeus. 
 The animals of this order may be at once known by their hav- 
 ing, for the most part, two incisors or front teeth in each jaw, 
 remote from the back teeth or grinders; (the Hare family have 
 two, four, and sometimes six in the upper jaw.) There are no 
 camne teeth, but a vacant space appears between the front and 
 back teeth. The greatest number of cheek teeth is twenty-two. 
 The incisors have no roots, but are deeply inserted in their sock- 
 ets. The enamel of the front side being more durable than the 
 other bony matter of the teeth, always preserves their chisel, 
 like edge. The jaws are so articulated that the lower jaw, (be- 
 sides opening and shutting,) simply moves backwards and for- 
 wards, or horizontally ; so that the front teeth serve to file down, 
 or reduce to fine particles, th& hai;d substances which are brought 
 
RODENTIA. 123 
 
 under their action. To meet the wear of the enamel and other 
 parts, the teeth constantly grow in a ratio corresponding with the 
 decrease or wear. Should one tooth be lost by accident, or dis- 
 placed, the counter one of the opposite jaw becomes enormously 
 long, so as to impede its feeding, as is seen in rabbits. The mo- 
 lar teeth have flat surfaces, with ridges of enamel running trans- 
 versely across, so as to be opposed to the horizontal movement of 
 the jaw, and thiis more readily grind their food. The entire 
 dental arrangement evinces admirable beauty and simplicity of 
 design. - ■ ' ' 
 
 The Rodetitia, according to De Kay, include not far from 300 
 species, spread over the globe, (except Australia,) of which 
 seventy are found in North America. They are generally inof. 
 fensive, being of a gentle and timid disposition, and trusting for 
 protection to flight or concealment; seldom more than of a mod- 
 erate size, while a portion of them are the smallest of the mam- 
 mals. Of these last the Harvest Mouse is an example ; thp lar- 
 gest Rodents are the Beaver, Capybara, and Porcupine. The 
 Rodents feed upon the harder sort of vegetable matter, as 
 nuts, grain, roots, twigs, etc., (except rats and mice, which are 
 omnivorous, eating anything that comes in their way, as most 
 house-keepers know to their sorrow.) The Rodents have gener- 
 ally six or eight young at a birth, and this two, three, and even 
 four times in a year. They are, however, kept from overrun, 
 ning the earth by the rapacity of beasts and birds that live upon 
 them. \ 
 
 Many are remarkable for their soft and beautiful fur. The 
 Beaver, Chinchilla and Grey Squirrel are valuable in commerce. 
 Some of them, as the squirrel and dormouse, use the fore paws 
 to 'Convey food to the mouth, to hold an object, and to climb. 
 The form of the body is usually more or less conical, the chest 
 and shoulders being small, whilst the loins and haunches are 
 robust and muscular ; the hinder limbs are longer than the fore 
 bnes, whence their movement is that of leaping or hopping 
 along. " Most of them are nocturnal or crepuscular in their 
 habits; many dwell in burrows ; some conceal themselves amidst 
 herbage, some among the foliage of trees, and some build for 
 themselves habitations which have excited the interest and admi- 
 ration of men." (Pict. Museum.) 
 
 We arrange the numerous animals of this order into eight fam- 
 ilies, viz. : L SciuRiDJE, Squirrels ;; 2. Arctomyd^, (Marmots;) 
 3. GerbilliDjE, (Jerboas:) 4. Chinchillid^, (Chinchillas;) 5. 
 Castoridje, (Beave's;) 6. Hvstricid^, (Porcupines;) 7. Mur- 
 IDJE, (Rats and Mice ;) 8. Caviad^e, (Cavies ;) 9. LEPOKiDiB. 
 
124 EODENTU. 
 
 (Hares.) Our limits will not allow us to do more than to give 
 brief accounts of some of the principal genera and species. 
 
 I. Family Sciuridse, (Lat. Sciurus, a squirrel,) Squirrels. 
 
 This includes between sixty and seventy species. Audubon 
 says about twenty well determined species are found in North 
 America. They are arranged into two groups, viz. : I. Squir. 
 rels with free limbs ; II. Squirrels with their limbs invested in 
 the skin at the sides. These are not only the most elegant and 
 isprightly, but the most numerous and widely scattered of the 
 Rodents. They are distinguished by their simple grinders, hav- 
 ing tuberculous summits, and the lower front teeth paired and 
 much compressed at the sides. The toes are long and accompa- 
 nied with sharp and hooked claws, and the rudiments of a thumb. 
 There are four claws on each fore foot and five on the hind. The 
 full development of the collar bones, (clavicles,) gives them 
 much facility in using their paws as hands. In eating, the squir- 
 rels usually sit upon their haunches, and holding the food be-, 
 tween the rudimentary thun!ibs of both paws, nibble it away un- 
 til the whole is consumed. The head is proportionably rather 
 large ; the eyes full and prominent ; the tail long, with tne fur 
 disposed on its sides like a feather ; the ears in many species 
 are tipped with a pencil of hairs. These animals are easily 
 tamed, and from their playful and graceful manners, often be- 
 come great pets. Most of the species resort to trees, but the 
 Ground Squirrel, ( Tamias or S. striatus,) burrows in the ground. 
 The generic name, Sciurus, or Shadow-tail, is derived from Gr. 
 o-xJa, (skia,) a shade, and ovga, (^oura,) a tail. Of this name the 
 English term squirrel is a corruption ; it refers to the fact that 
 when the animal is at rest, its long and bushy tail is turned over 
 the back and shades it. 
 
 '\ 
 I. Group. 
 
 S. vulgaris, Common Red Squirrel. This graceful and ao- 
 tive little animal is. generally about fifteen inches long from the 
 nose to the tip of the tail, having the ears terminated by long 
 tufts of hair ; the color of the head, body, tail and legs of a 
 bright reddish brown ; the belly and the breast white ; the eyes 
 large, black and sparkling ; the fore feet strong, sharp and well 
 adapted to hold its food ; the legs short and muscular ; the toes 
 long and the nails sharp and strong; the lip is cleft ; the fur 
 short and silky. It lives in pairs, constructing in the hollow of 
 a tree, or in the fork between two branches, a water-proof nest 
 of curiously interwoven moss, twigs and dry leaves. In May 
 
EODENTli.. 125 
 
 or June it commences to rear a young family, usually four or 
 five in number. In the fall of the year it carefully hoards up 
 its winter stores, which are concealed in holes and crevices of 
 trees not far from its retreat. In Sweden and Lapland, the color 
 of the Common Squirrel becomes gray ip the winter season ; in 
 Siberia it is often seen entirely white ; in other regions slight va- 
 riations of color are also noticed. 
 
 In the varieties found on this continent, the pencil of hairs 
 which tufts the Common Red Squirrel is wanting. The Gray 
 Squirrel, (S. Carolinensis, or S. migraiori^s, Lat. migratory,) 
 is one of the most common American species, found along the 
 Atlantic, from Hudson's Bay to Carolina. Of this De Kay enu. 
 merates five varieties. It is about the same length as the Com- 
 mon Squirrel, (15 inches.) One of the most remarkable pecul- 
 iarities of this species is a propensity to distant emigration in 
 large numbers. 
 
 The Northern Migratory or Gray Squirrels are as much dreaded 
 'by the farmers of the West, as the devouring locust by the East- 
 ern nations. Everything suited to their taste vanishes before 
 them, and no obstacle can withstand their progress. It is be- 
 lieved by many that they pass rivers seated on a piece of bark 
 brought by them for the purpose, and their tails hoisted' for a ' 
 sail. Audubon saw troops of squirrels cross the Hudson river 
 at different places between Waterford and Saratoga, in the au- 
 tumn of 1808 or 1S09, but said they appeared to him unskillful 
 sailors and clumsy swimmers. 
 
 S. vulpimbs, (Lat. vulpes, fox.) The Fox-Squirrel abounds 
 in the pine forests of the Southern States, feeding upon, the seeds 
 of the cones of the long-leaved pitch pine, {pimis .palustris, 
 Lat. marshy,) acorns and other nuts. It makes long journeys 
 to visit corn fields when the corn is in the milky state, and 
 often erects a temporary summer house in their vicinity. 
 
 S. Palmarum, (Lat. of palms.) The Palm-Squirrel, usually 
 seen frisking about palm trees, is said to be remarkably fond of 
 palm wine. They are often taken to England alive. 
 
 S. bilineatui, (Lat. marked with double lines.) The Plantain. 
 Squirrel, kept by the Javanese as a pet ; the tail trails gracefully 
 upon the ground ; when angry it bristles up like an irritated cat; 
 when asleep, rolls itself up like a dormouse, with its tail encir< 
 cling its body. 
 
 S. niger, (Lat. black.) The Black Squirrel of a glossy black 
 with a lighter shade beneath; claws covered with hair; the 
 hind legs have a few scattering hairs ; the fur is softer and finer 
 than that of the little Gray Squirrel, before which this species is 
 
126 BODENTIA. 
 
 said to be disappearing. The flesh of both these species tastes 
 like that of a rabbit, out is more juicy ; it is nice broiled, and 
 makes excellent meat pies. 
 
 S. macrourus, (Gr. makros, long, oura, tail.) The Long-tailed 
 Squirrel, of Missouri, is 22 inches long, the tail equaling in 
 length both the body and head. 
 
 t 5. quadrivittatiis, (Lat. four-striped.) The Four-Striped 
 Ground Squirrel is a very beautiful species found in the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 ' S. striatUiS, (Lat. streaked. Tamias of Illiger.) The Striped 
 or Ground Squirrel is characterized by its reddish brown color, 
 a black stripe upon the hack, and a shorter light cploted stripe 
 bordered with black upon the sides; by having the body shorter 
 and more robust for its size than- that of the Red Squirrel, and 
 eight instead of ten molars in the upper jaw. It is also known 
 under the names Chipping Squirrel, and Chipmuck. Usually it 
 is seen running along fences ; it is particularly fond of stone 
 walls, which afford this animal a ready retreat. Under these it . 
 burrows and stores its winter food. Sometimes it makes its homo 
 in the center of a decayed stump. It does not ascend trees ex. 
 cept when its retreat is cut off frpm its hiding place. The lange 
 of this squirrel on this continent is from 33o to 50° N. L. 
 
 II. Group of Sqfireels. 
 
 Pteromys, (Gr. megop, pteron, wing; fivg,7nus, winged-mouse.). 
 Flying Squirrel. This genus comprehends ten or more species^: 
 found On thi^ continent, in Northern Europe and in Java. Some 
 of them are nocturnal. These squirrels are distinguished by a 
 membrane adhering to the sides, extending from limb to limb, so 
 as to form a parachute, by the agency of which they can throw 
 themselves from tree to tree to a great distance, and sustain a short 
 flight, [n the sailing movement, they are aided, and perhaps in 
 part guided by their broadly expai)ded tail. The species of 
 Northern Europe, (P. volans, Lat. flying,) is about the size of a 
 large rat, and of a gray color. P. volucella, (Lat, dim. of uo/a- 
 cer, flying.) The Small American Flying Squirrel has only a 
 r(udimentary membrane. The loose skin stretches foiward by 
 his fore legs, and backward by his hind legs as he springs, so as 
 to buoy him up and enable him to leap a long distance at ont 
 bound. This squirrel is about ten inches long, including the tail ; 
 the fur of a brownish ash, tinged with cream color, very fine, soft 
 and silky. It is found in all the Atlantic States and in Canada 
 West. In Canada East it is replaced by a species, (P. sabrinus,) 
 
KODEXTIA. 127 
 
 one third larger than P. voluceUa. P. almtius, of the Rocky 
 Mountains, is still larger. 
 
 II. Family Arctomydae, (Gr. afgiBTos, arktos, bear ; (ivg, mus, 
 mouse.) Makmots. 127 
 
 This family is nearly allied to the Squirrels, among which 
 Svyainson places them. Sometimes they have been arranged 
 with the Rats. They have a large and somewhat flattened 
 head, ten molars above and eight below, heavy body, short bushy 
 tail and short limbs. Some of the species have cheek pouches. 
 They live in communities and all burroW and hyfaernate. 
 
 SpermopMlUs, Marmot Squirkels, sometimes ranked as a 
 sub-genus, (Gr. anegua, sperma, seed ; and (jotAo?, pUlos, lover.) 
 
 This includes animals so named by Cuvier from their fondness 
 for seed, and furnished' with cheek pouches. Of them there are 
 several species. One of these is S. ludoviciunus, (Lat. ludo, to 
 sport or frisk ; vicinia, vicinity or neighborhood,) so named be- 
 cause living and sporting together in large communities. This 
 is the Prairie Dog of Missouri and California, an appellation 
 which Audubon says was probably given to the animal from its 
 yelp, — "chip, chip, chip ; " it is not like a dog in its form. The 
 numbers of these animals are very great ; they sit on their little 
 mounds at the entrances of their burrows, "chirping and chatter- 
 ing to one another like two neighboring gossips in a village." — 
 (Hon. C. A. Murray.) 
 
 Arctomys, Marmot. Of this genus there are also several spe- 
 cies, which have the form, teeth, and habits of the preceding, 
 but only rudimentary cheek pouches. A. alpinus, the Alpine 
 Marmot is about the size of a rabbit, of a grayish yellow color, 
 approaching to a brown towards the head ; inhabits the mountains 
 of Europe, particularly the Alps and Pyrenees, just below the re- 
 gion of perpetual snow, and feeds on insects, roots and vegeta- 
 bles. Living in societies, these animals post a sentinel that gives 
 a shrill whistle if danger approaches, when they retire for safety 
 into their ingeniously contrived burrows. 
 
 A. monax. Woodchuck, Ground Hog, or Maryland Mar- 
 mot. This, when full grown, is of a reddish gray color and 
 about as large as a rabbit ; the young are reddish or of a uni- 
 form black ; its wool is intermixed with long coarse hair ; it has 
 short ears and cheek pouches ; the length is a little more than 
 two feet, though in this respect as well as color, it greatly va- 
 ries. The range of this marmot extends from Maine to California. 
 It dwells in subterranean abodes, which are partitioned into cham- 
 bers, feeds on clover and esculents, is easily tamed, and very 
 neat and cleanly in its habits. In some places it selects forests 
 
128 - ' KODENTIA. 
 
 of pine, in others cleared lands and old pastures for its residence. 
 The Woodchuck is awkward and slow in its movements; its 
 safety is found in its extreme watchfulness and sharpness of 
 hearing. When at all alarmed, it flies to its deep and long bur- 
 rows, "thirty or forty of which have been seen in a field of five 
 acres." To these its dilated cheeks carry its winter stores. Its 
 fondness for clover often renders it an annoyance to the farmer. 
 
 3d. Gerbillidae, or Dipodidae, Jerboas. 
 
 This family of the Rodents, sometimes called Jumping Mice, 
 are apparently formed to live on prairies and sandy deserts. 
 They have very short fore feet, and the hind ones very long, 
 being Kangaroos in miniature ; the tail is generally longer than 
 the body, and used in leaping or walking ; (Plate V. fig. 2.) the 
 forefeet are employed in conveying food to the mouth, and 
 seem of little or no use as organs of progression ; the fur is soft; 
 there are two cutting teeth in each jaw, the grinders simple or 
 compounded, six or eight beneath ; parts of the internal structure 
 are bird-like. As far back as tlie time of Herodotus, these Ro- 
 dents are alluded to as inhabiting Africa. 
 
 Dipus, (Gr. ^is, dis, two ; noSg, pons, foot.) 
 
 The animals of this genus have compound molars, and may be 
 regarded as an intermediate link between the Squirrel and the 
 Rat ; but are more like the former than the latter. The fore legs 
 are very short, and scarcely used in walking ; the enormous hind 
 legs and tail at once remind the beholder of the Kangsrroo. 
 When first seen, the animal seems supported in its rapid bounds 
 by only two long legs; whence the name Dipus, two-footed. At 
 a single bound, it moves four or five yards, and sometimes more ; 
 it feeds, sitting upon its haunches, like the Squirrel ; is found 
 abundantly in E^ypt, Syria, and the north of Africa. The most 
 common species is D. sagiita, (Lat. arrow,) the Gerbo, or Egyp- 
 tian Jerboa, about the size of a large rat, living in large societies, 
 and constructing burrows under ground. 
 
 Msriones. ifir. fuigCov, meridn, a, ihigh.) The animals of this 
 genus are small, with long, slender, and nearly naked tails ; they 
 have six composite molars beneath ; their fore feet have a rudi- 
 mentary thumb, with a small nail. They hybernate, and are 
 nocturnal. 
 
 M. Americanus, or Gerhillus Canadensis, The Deer Mouse ; 
 Jumping Mouse. This is about the size of a common mouse, 
 and of a reddish brown color ; has very short fore legs, long hind 
 ones, and a scaly, rat-like tail. It leaps ten or twelve feet at a 
 time ; is found in Canada and ffirther north, and as far south as 
 Pennsylvania, in fields of grass and grain. (PI. V- fig. 2.) 
 
PIV 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. 
 
 Obdes Boseniia, Familt HirniD^, (Mice.) 
 
 Jerboas, or Jumping Mice. 
 
 1. Jumping Hare, Cape Jerboa, or Grand Jerboa, Pedetes Capentis, in the 
 
 , position in whicli it eats, using its small fore feet to bring the food to 
 its njouth. With these feet it digs its burrow so expeditiously as 
 quickly to hide itself; the hind legs are proportionally longer than in 
 any other known quadruped. The tail is a, most efficient organ; if 
 depriyed of it they can neither leap nor sit upright. 
 
 2. Labrador Jumping Mouse, Meriones Lahradofius. a, animal sitting; b, 
 , jumping. 
 
 8. Pouched-Rat, or Sand-Kat, Geomys, or Pseudostoma (false mouth,) burs- 
 arius, (of skin.) The cheek pouches much resemble the th;umb of a 
 lady's glove in form and size, and hang down by the sides of the head. . 
 In the Canada Pouched Rat, or Missouri Gauffre, or Gopher, they are 
 like pockets, extending from the sides of the mouth to the shoulders, 
 lined with short, soft hairs, and opening on the outside of the mouih. 
 
 4. Woodchuok, Ground-Hog, or Maryland Marmot, Arctvmys monax. 
 
 Family Lepobid^, (Hares.) 
 
 6. Common Hare, L'epus timictus, showing its long ears for collecting and 
 conveying sounds, like an ear trumpet. 
 
 Familt Chinchillid^, (Chinchillas.) 
 
 6. Chinchilla, Chinchilla lanigera, a woolly field mouse of S. America. It 
 feeds in a sitting posture, conveying its food with^its fore paws. 
 
 Order Marsumalia, Family Didelphid^, (Opossums.) 
 
 //. Virginia Opossum, Didelphis Virginiana, showing the retreat of the 
 young when threatened with danger, and the use they make of their 
 prehensile tails. 
 
132 RODENTU. 
 
 Hdamys, (Gr. Allo/iai, allomai, to leap; fivg, mus, mouse;) or 
 Pedestes, (lUiger,) (Lat. Pes, a foot; sto, to stand.) 
 
 The animals of this genus have eight molar teeth beneath ; the 
 front legs are quite short ; the hind ones very long, and both armed 
 with exceeding long claws ; the tail is long and very bushy. This 
 includes the P.Capensis, of the Cape of Good Hope, the largest of 
 the Jerboas; (length from nose to tail, about fourteen inches; of 
 the tail, nearly fifteen inches ;) which leaps from twenty to thirty 
 feet at a bound, and sleeps in a sitting posture, placing the head 
 between the legs, and holding its ears over its eyes^ with its fore 
 legs. It is a very strong and rapidly burrowing animal. (Plate 
 V. fig. 1.) 
 
 Mjfoxus, (Gr. (ivo$og, muoxos, a Dormouse.) 
 
 The Dormouse is intermediate between the Squirrels and 
 Mice ; is found in temperate and warm countries, and lives en- 
 tirely on vegetable food. It has the two cutting teeth of the fam- 
 ily, in each jaw, and the grinders simple, with divided roots ; four 
 toes before, and five behind, (the reverse of the preceding genus;) 
 and naked ears. When in its winter retreat, this animal rolls 
 itself up, and becomes torpid, .occasionally rousing itself and par- 
 taking of its stores of food. Of this genus tbere are several spe- 
 cies. M. avellanarius, (Lat. avellana, a filbert,) is the Common 
 Dormouse, about as large ^s a common Mouse, but more plump, 
 with a less sharp nose, and large black eyes ; its color is a tawny 
 red ; the fur remarkably soft. 
 
 4. Chinchillidae. This genus is regarded as a connecting link 
 between the Hares and Jerboas. C. lanigera, (wool-bearing.) is 
 found in the valleys along the line of the Andes ; inhabiting re- 
 gions where the temperature is below a moderate degree. It 
 lives in companies, making burrows in the earth. Its food is en- 
 tirely vegetable, and principally consists of bulbous roots. The 
 Chinchilla, has an exquisitely fine downy fur. The Creator has 
 thus protected it against severe frosts. The length of the fur well 
 adapts it for spinning ; and the ancient Peruvians manufactured 
 it into stuffs as articles of clothing. Numbers of these animals 
 are annually destroyed for the sake of their skins. In size and 
 appearance, they are like young rabbits ; but the tail, like that 
 of the squirrel, is usually held turned up over the back, and the 
 ears, though long, are naked, broad, round and open. The color 
 of the fur varies in depth, irt different individuals; is of a dark, 
 clear gray, lighter beneath. The-Chinchilla is mild and inoffen- 
 sive, but does not, in captivity, exhibit much sprightliness, or in- 
 telligence. Its length is about nine inches, exclusive of the tail, 
 which measures about five. (Plate V. fig, 6.) 
 
M^STi,^. 133 
 
 5th. The MkvER FAMitY. 
 
 Castoridae, (Gr. x&cnoi§, kastor, a Beaver;) 
 
 The animals of this family have bodies covered with two sets 
 of hair, viz., fine and soft down, and long and rather rigid hairs. 
 The tail is flattened and covered with rounded or hexagonal 
 scales. The hind feet are the longest ; the ears short. In hab- 
 its, these animals are aquatic and social. Some species have 
 webbed feet, and all a musky smell. The range of these animals 
 on this continent is more limited than in former periods, when it 
 extended from 680 to 30o. N. L. They are still common on the 
 Euphrates, and along some of the larger European rivers, as the 
 Rhone and the Danube. In England, they have not been seen 
 since 1188. 
 
 Castor fiber, (Lat. Beaver.) The beaver is of a yellowish 
 brown color, and from two to three feet long; it lias four incisor 
 teeth in both jaws; no canines, and sixteen molar teeth. The 
 toes of the hind feet are webbed. It has also a glandulous follicle 
 on the lower part of the body, producing an article called castor, 
 (not castor oil,) and which is used in medicine. The flattened 
 and scaly tail, it lises as a kind of paddle. By this, it is enabled, 
 when loaded with a mass of timber, to stem a rapid current ; and 
 by making strokes up and down with its tail, it can dive or rise 
 with great celerity : tradition says, but untruly, that the Beaver 
 uses its tail in plastering its habitation. It moves more easily in 
 water than on land; the eye is small, better suited to twilight 
 than the glare of the sun. The external openings of the ear and 
 of the nostrils are capable of being closed, which , is a divine pro- 
 vision suited to its diving habits, and its continuance under water. 
 The Beaver's great incisor teeth are his only tools ; and most 
 effective they are, for with them " he can divide a common sized 
 walking stick at a bite, as cleanly as if severed with a knife." 
 In doing his work, he goei up the stream from the site which he 
 has chosen for his dwelling, so as to have the advaiUtage of the cur- 
 rent. Summer is the season; night the time of his labors. The 
 skill, gerseverance and toil which he exhibits in constructing his 
 habitai^n, and storing it with food, have given to this animal 
 great cfelebrity. In this, its instinct begins and ends; in, other 
 respects, it is very stupid, not comparing well with the Dog, Ele- 
 phant and other quadrupeds. The.^r of the Beaver is highly 
 valued, especially for the manufacture of hats; and is an article 
 of extended commerce. In one year, (1808,) Quebec alone ex- 
 ported nearly 127,000 furs, worth eighteen shillings sterling, 
 each. C. fiber, (Americanus,) is a variety of this animal. 
 
 Fiber, (Illiger.) The animals of this genus hava long, nar,. 
 
134 di»fiSlltSK 
 
 ro^Y, and somewhat flattened taTTs [ twelve molar teeth; and the 
 toes of the hind feet partially webbed. The species F. Zibethicus, 
 is the Musk-Rat, called in Canada, Musquash; about the size 
 of a small rabbit, and of a reddish brown color ; sometimes black, 
 or black and white. This animal has four strong cutting teeth, 
 of which those in the under jaw are nearly an inch long ; in in- 
 stincts and disposition, it is similar to the Beaver. It receives its 
 name from its strong musky odor, deposited in glands, near the 
 origin of the tail. Its length varies considerably, but is generally 
 from eighteen to twenty inches, while the tail alone is from seven 
 to ten inches. The Muskrat frequents swamps and low, marshy 
 grounds ; and is specially fond of the calamus root, and of fresh 
 water muscles, or clams. Its utility consists in its fur, which is 
 soft and glossy, and used in hat making. The territorial range 
 of this animal is similar to that of the Beaver. 
 
 6th Family, Porcupines. 
 
 Hystriddae, (Gr. "uorgtl, hustrix, a porcupine ; "uorptl, from 
 "vg, hus, a hog; OgtS, thrix, a bristle.) 
 
 We have already contemplated in the Insectivora, a group of 
 animals (Hedgehogs,) protected by a coat of spines. In the pres- 
 ent family, this spinous defence is more strongly and decidedly 
 exhibited. The hollow tubes of the Porcupines are somewhat 
 like the quills of feathers. They usually terminate in a fine 
 point of hard enamel, but sometimes open at the end, as if cut 
 off at their greatest thickness. These quills seem to be a smooth, 
 glossy envelope of horn, with an inner pith or marrow of soft 
 texture, and pure white. "They grow from a bulbous root, 
 formed within a cell below the true skin, or cutis, and containing 
 also a portion of fat, in which the vessels supplying its pulp and 
 capsule, are imbedded. The capsules consist of three mem- 
 branes, of which the innermost secretes the horny envelope, while 
 the pulp supplies the pith of the spine." The spines vary in 
 size; some are very long, slender and weak; generally, they 
 are from four to eight inches in length, and very strong ; thick in 
 the middle, and tapering to a point at the extremity. (Seeing, on 
 the Chart.) They are less thickly set in the tail, which isjshort ; 
 their place there is supplied by numerous, open, hollow quills, 
 raised on slender stalks, so as to vibrate with every movement. 
 When angry, the porcupine»clashes these hollow quills together, 
 making a rustling noise, resembling that of a rattlesnake. In his 
 undisturbed state, the spines lie down in regular order, with the 
 points all directed backwards ; but when he is angry, they are 
 raised up by means of a peculiar muscular expansion under the 
 skin, and joined to it, which by its action, influences their elevation 
 
EODENTIA,. 135 
 
 and depression. When clashed violently together, one or two 
 more loose than the rest, may be disengaged and fall ; but the 
 story that they dart out their spines like javelins, is pure fable ; 
 however, by pushing backwards or sidewise, quickly and with 
 violence, the Porcupine can both defend itself, and inflict wounds 
 on its enemies. 
 
 The head of this animal is thick ; his eyes small ; his face 
 very round or convex ; and his muzzle blunt. His cutting te,eth 
 are very large and strong, so that he can gnaw through the thick- 
 est and hardest boards. He is unsocial in his habits ; when 
 taken captive, is " neither familiar nor intelligent ; ip his native 
 state, digs burrows in dry and barren situations, as far removed 
 as possible from the haunts of men. These burrows have several 
 entrances leading to a chamber in which it passes the day in 
 silence and in solitude." As the light recedes, it cautiously 
 ventures out in search of food, such as birds, roots, fruit and other 
 vegetables. In winter, it- goes out only occasionally for food. 
 
 The Creator has given to the Porcupine special endowments 
 for his course of life. The animal burrows in hard and stony 
 soil, and for that purpose is provided with digging implements; 
 his limbs are short, strong and thick; and his toes, four before 
 and five behind, on each foot, have thick and powerful nails or 
 claws ; the tongue is roughened with scaly prickles, directed 
 backwards. The length of the Porcupine is about two feet; his 
 general color a grizzled black, the spines being elegantly ringed 
 with alternate black and white, and the limbs entirely black. 
 This family of animals was originally 'introduced from Africa 
 into Europe and America. The description above given is that 
 of the Common Porcupine, viz., Hystrix cristata, (Lat. crested.) 
 The Hystrix dorsata, (Lat. ridged,) (or Hystrix Hudsonitis, of De- 
 Kay,) otherwise called the Canada and North American Porcu- 
 pine, ranges as far north as 67o N. L., and in New York, Penn- 
 sylvania, the northern parts of Virginia and Kentucky, and west 
 as far as the Rocky Mountains. ' It is said to be increas^ig in the 
 western parts of New York ; in this species, which is from two 
 to two and a half feet long, the spines are almost c6ncealed by 
 the hair with which they are intermingled ; the fur of a soft and 
 dusky brown color, is remarkable for itg length and fullness; that 
 of the Canadian animal is almost black. The incisors are of a 
 deep orange color. This Porcupine is inoffensive, and of gentle 
 manners; in size well comparing with that of a fox; it feeds on 
 the leaves and bark of hemlock, bass-wood and ash trees ; is fond 
 of fruit and maize; and when confined, eats almost every kind 
 of vegetable. The spines or quills vary in length from one to 
 
136 EODENTIA. 
 
 four inches; by a strong muscle in the skin, those of the back, 
 when the animal is irritated, are erected and extended in various 
 directions; the tail is also erected, and by a quite sudden move- 
 ment, he is enabled to strike, leaving the loosened spines in the 
 body of his assailant. The flesh of the Porcupine resembles 
 young pork, and is by the Indians very highly esteemed. Spines 
 dyed of various colors, form ornaments for their dresses. (De 
 Kay.) 
 
 7th. The Mice Family. 
 
 MarideB, (Gr. fivg, mus, a mouse.) 
 
 This numerous family have in each jaw, besides the two cut- 
 ting teeth common to the Rodentia, six molars (usually) in each 
 jaw, surmounted by blunt tubercles. The teeth of the upper 
 jaw shelve backwards ; those of the lower, forwards ; the feet 
 are neither webbed nor fringed with stiff hairs, but several spe- 
 cies swim with much ease. The tail is round, usually naked or 
 thinly haired. Most of this family are small burrowing ani- 
 mals; some genera are furnished with cheek pouches. Dr. De 
 Kay, (N. H. S. N. Y.,) arranges all into two groups, I. those 
 having, II. those not having cheek pouches. The ordinary food 
 of these animals is grain, seeds, and other farinaceous matter, 
 for bruising which their teeth are Well fitted ; but they are really 
 omnivorous. 
 
 Mus decumanus, (Lat. tenth.) The Norway or Brown Rat is 
 of a grayish brown color above and white beneath ; in length, 
 from the head to the end of the tail, about twenty inches, having 
 the tail quite as long as the body. It was originally introduced 
 into Europe from the southern parts of Asia ; from its superior 
 strength and ferocity, has in some places almost entirely expelled 
 the Black Rat, {M. rattus.) It came to the United States with 
 the foreign mercenaries during the war of the Revolution, and 
 is now spread over the United States and Canadas. It infests 
 wharves and has been called the Whakf Rat, or Dock Rat ; the 
 name decumanus alludes to the tithe or tenth of everything taken 
 by this voracious creature. 
 
 M. musculus, (Lat. dim.) The Common Mouse is of a dusky 
 gray color, has ears about half the length of the head, a long, 
 bare and scaly tail, and in constitution and disposition is similar 
 to the rat. It breeds at various seasons of the year, from six to 
 ten at a litter ; is omnivorous, but prefers vegetable food. The 
 young are, in about a fortnight, strong enough to collect their 
 own food. The mouse is said to be very susceptible to the 
 power of music. An anecdote is related of a gentleman who was 
 playing a violin, seeing a mouse run along the floor and jump 
 aJ}out as if distracted. He continued the strain, and after some 
 
EODENTIA. 137 
 
 time the mouse, apparently exhausted with its exfertions, dropped 
 dead on the fioor. 
 
 M. leucopus, (Gr. levtibSi leukos, white ; Ttous, fmis, foot.) 
 This little animal is of a brownish color above ; the feet and 
 all beneath, white; the ears large; the tail hairy and as long 
 as the body. The whole length is six inches. The colors and 
 proportions give this mouse a delicate and beautiful appearance. 
 Like the Deer mouse, it is, from its agile, jumping movement, 
 called the " Jumping Mouse." It feeds on grains and grasses. 
 M. messoritis, (Lat. messis, a harvest.) This is the smallest 
 and one of the most beautiful of the mammalia, called the Har- 
 vest Mouse. It is scarcely half the size of the common mouse. 
 The color is of a reddish brown or squirrel-like aspect above ; 
 the under parts white ; its eyes are dark ; its action lively. In 
 winter it lives under ground in burrows, but it breeds in grassy 
 compact nests of the size of a cricket-ball, like those of a bird, 
 made among the stalks of the standing corn, and supported on 
 two or three straws. The principal food of the harvest mouse 
 is corn ; but it is also fond of insects. 
 
 .4mco?ffl, (Lat. «r«a, corn-fields; co&, I inhabit.) This genus 
 includes many species known under the names of Fibld Mice 
 and Field Rats, differing from the mice proper in the structure 
 of their teeth, and the length and hairy covering of the tail. 
 
 A. amphibius is the Water Rat common on the banks of riv- 
 ers, brooks, &c. 
 
 Qeomys, (Gr. yr], ge, earth ; (ivg, mus, mouse.) Pouched Rat, 
 Sand Rat. (See Plate V., fig 3.) 
 
 Of this genus there are several species, having eyes small and 
 far apart ; small ears ; ten molars above and ten below ,; large 
 and pendulous cheek pouches, opening, (according to Audubon,) 
 outside of the mouth, and extending in some species along the neck 
 to near the shoulders. These pouches are cold to the touch and 
 of an oblong form when distended. This animal has been seen 
 " when in the act of emptying its pouches into its paws like 
 a Marmot Squirrel, and squeezing its sacs against the breast with 
 its fore paws." 
 
 8th Family. 
 
 Caviada of Tropical America. 
 
 The Cavies seem to hold a middle rank between the Mouse 
 and the Rabbit. 
 
 Hydrochoerus, (Gr. 'vdiitg,hudor,vrsa.er; x°^?' choiros, a hog.) 
 Capybara, or Water-Hog, of South America. 
 
 This animal attains to the size of a hog of two years old ; 
 lives on vegetables, sugar-cane and fish. To procure the latter, 
 
138 EODENTIA. 
 
 it betakes itself to rivers, swimming as readily as the otter. 
 Like the Peccary, it is without a tail, and instead of a cloven 
 hoof, its feet are partly webbed, thus fitting it for its aquatic life. 
 In its manner of walking and its color, this animal resembles the 
 pigs ; but when seated on its haunches and watching any object 
 with one eye, it has the appearance of the Cavies. The Jaguar 
 destroys it in great numbers. 
 
 Cavia Colaya. The Common Cavy or Guinea Pig. This 
 animal, which is about as large as a rat, is distinguished for the 
 beauty and variety of its colors, and the neatness of its appear- 
 ance and habits. It is a native of Scyith America, but has been 
 introduced into the Eastern Continent. It is the most prolific of 
 all the mammalia, producing every two months from six to twelve 
 young. A single pair soon multiply to the number of 1,000. 
 It has no tail ; its flesh is tasteless and its skin of little value. 
 
 C. Patachonica, the Patagonian Cavy, or Hake-like Cavy, 
 is a burrowing animal, producing two or tbree young at a time ; 
 in its essential details of structure is a Cavy ; but its long legs, 
 long erect ears, combined with the general form of the head, lead 
 casual observers to mistake it for the Hare, which in size it sur- 
 passes, sometimes weighing twenty or thirty pounds. 
 
 Dasyprocta, (Gr. Saaiig, dasus, hairy or bristly, ngiaxrogjproCn 
 tos, anus.) The yellow-nosed Cavy or Agouti of Brazil. This 
 animal is found in great numbers in South America, It exhibits' 
 some resemblances in form and mode of living to the Hare and 
 Rabbit, and indeed is called the Rabbit of that region. The 
 toes have large and powerful claws. The Agouti, when eating, 
 sits upon its hind quarters, using the fore paws, like squirrels, to 
 hold its food. This consists ordinarily of yams, potatoes and 
 other roots, though it is almost omnivorous. It does not burrow, 
 but takes shelter in hollow trees. These animals are quite pro- 
 lific, and very TOstructive to sugar cane, and therefore are caught 
 and killed by the planters. 
 - ieporirfcE, (Lat. Zis^Ms, a hare.) Hare Family. (PI. V. fig. 5.) 
 
 The most remarkable difference between this family and the 
 other Rodents, consists in their having behind the two incisor 
 teeth common to the group, two additional ones of smaller size 
 in the upper jaw, making four, which in young ones are increased 
 to six ; the inside of the mouth and the soles of the feet are hairy ; 
 the tail is very short or wanting ; the eyes are large and promi- 
 nent ; the hind legs are usually more developed than the fore 
 ones; the clavicles wanting; the fur soft and copious. 
 
 Lepus. This genus includes, among other species, Lepustim- 
 idus, (Lat. tinid.) The Common Hare. L. cuniculus, (Lat. 
 
ROOENTIA. 139 
 
 Little Rabbit.) L. Totai, the Totai, of Siberia ; L. Capensts, 
 of North and South Africa ; on the American Continent, L. na- 
 nus, (Lat. dwarf,) or Americanus, the American Gray Rabbit. 
 L. Americantis, the Northern Hare of America ; L. variabilis, 
 the Alpitie Hare ; L. Hibernicus, the Irish Hare. Upwards of 
 thirty species are known, of which half belong to this continent, 
 all agreeing in having a short erected tail, and the hind larger 
 and more muscular than the fore limbs. 
 
 The Hare, L. timidus, is a^ large/ as a fox, of a grayish brown 
 color, has long pointed ears, and is a native of Europe. The 
 fur of this animal is an important article in the hat manufacture, 
 and its excellent flesh often found in the mariset. This ani- 
 mal is remarkable for its extreme vigilance. Its senses are most 
 acute and its>fleethess, in proportion to its size, unrivaled. The.se 
 are its means of defeiice. The general length of the animal is 
 about two feet; the color verges towards an iron gray, with the 
 chin and belly white. The eyes are placed laterally, and they 
 are said to be constantly open, even during sleep. The usual 
 and favorite residence of the Hare is in rich and rather dry and 
 flat grounds. It feeds principally by night and remains con- 
 cealed during the day; its food consists of herbage of various 
 kinds. Of parsley it is especially fond. Sometimes it does great 
 injury tp^wheat and other -grains. So timid is it that it flees on 
 the slighest alarm if disturbed while feeding. Acting like tubes 
 applied to the ears of dea:f persons, its long ears carry to it re- 
 mote sounds. In their flight, these animals are apt to exhaust 
 their powers at their first efibrts, and hence are more easily taken 
 than the slower but more wily foxes. Its voice heard- w-hen in 
 distress or wounded, is^like the sharp cry of an infant. In addi- 
 tion to the persecutions of mankind, it is assailed instinctively by 
 every kind of dogs, and by the cat and weasel tribes : even birds 
 of prey, snakes, adders, etc., drive it from its summer lodging 
 place. This lessens the increase of these animals, which from 
 their prolific tendencies, would otherwise be greatly multiplied. 
 
 The L. variabilis, sometimes called the Scotch Hare, is found 
 not only on the Alps, but on the mountains of Scotland. Its 
 tawny gray color in summer, is in winter changed to white, ex- 
 cept the tips of the ears, which are black. In portions of Russia 
 there is a variety called the Bussak, which in Siberia is always 
 white, but some"times is entirely coal black. The winter dress 
 of the American Hare is white, or white tinged with brown ; the 
 summer dress is more reddish brown with white beneath; the 
 ears are but little shorter than the head ; the length is twenty to 
 
140 RODENTIA. 
 
 twenty-five inches. It is said to be found from Canada to the 
 Gulf of Mexico, though its range is not well determined. 
 
 L. cuniculus, (Lat. a little rabbit.) The Rabbit resembles the 
 Gray Squirrel in size and shape; but when domesticated varies 
 in these respects. It is native to the warmer parts of the Eastern 
 Continent; is well known as a burrowing animal, and every, 
 where domesticated. The most common kind of the Albinos 
 are the white with red eyes. The flesh of the Rabbit is insipid 
 and its skin of no value, but its fur is made into gloves, stockings 
 and hats. It has a litter of five or six young ones every month, 
 and its great fecundity is in some places nothing short of a ca- 
 lamity. 
 
 L. silvaticus, (Lat. woody, wild,) is the American Gray Rab- 
 bit, in its wild state, having a color similar to that of the Euro- 
 pean burrowing Rabbit, but it does not change to the difierent 
 colors which the European Rabbit shows when' domesticated. 
 L. callotis, (Gr. xaUg, kalos, beautiful ; ovg^ ous, an ear.) 
 The Black-Tailed Hare, of Mexico and adjacent parts, mottled, 
 with gray and yellowish brown above, and white beneath ; it has 
 very long ears and long and slender legs and body, fitting it for 
 long and rapid leaps. This is a very interesting species,, and on 
 account of the length of its ears, called in Texas, the Jackass 
 Rabbit. 
 
 Lagomys, (Gr. i^aydg, logos, a hare ; /ivg, mus, a mouse.) 
 This is a genus of the Rodents which is separated from the 
 Hares proper, and includes four species; "one, the Pika, in the 
 northern mountains of the Old World, one in Mongolian Tartary, 
 one in the«south-eastern parts of Russia, and one, (L. ■princeps, 
 ' the Little Chief Hare,) in the Rocky Mountains of North Amer- 
 ica." — (Audubon.) Thej^lay up winter stores, which is never 
 done by the true Hares. 
 
 QUESTIONS UPON THE RODENTIA. 
 
 Give the derivation of Eodentia. How may the animals of this order be 
 easily known? What family are an exception to this ? Give some further 
 account of the teeth of this order. How is the wear of the enamel and 
 other part of the teeth counteracted ? What is the result if one tooth be 
 lost? How many species does the order include? How many in North 
 America? Which of these is the smallest ? Which the largest ? On what 
 do the Rodents teed? How are they kept from overrunning the earth? 
 Which are valuable in commerce ? (Jive the remark of the Pictorial Mu- 
 seum. Into how many families is the order divided ? Give their names. 
 
 How many species does the Squirrel Family include ? Into what two 
 groups is the family divided ? Describe the family. Give the derivation 
 of the generic name. Describe the Common EedS. What is one of the 
 most common American species? How many varieties of this? What 
 
BQDENTIA, 141 
 
 characteristic- of the common Red S. is wanting in this ? What is one 
 of its mast remarliable peculiarities ? Describe the Striped or Ground S. 
 By what other name is it Iinown ? What is the meaning of its name ? 
 Where is it usually seen ? In what respect does it differ from other S. ? 
 What is its range ? 
 
 Give , the derivation of the term Pteromys. How are the Flying Squir- 
 rels distinguished ? Give some account of the American species. 
 
 Give the character of the Marmot Family. What is the derivation of the 
 term Spermophilua? What animals does this genus, (or sub-genus,) in- 
 clude? What is the meaning of the term ijudomcianus? What is the 
 common name of this species? What is said of these animals? Derive 
 the term Arctmnys. In what respect does it differ from the preceding f 
 What is said of the Alpine Marmot? Describe the Woodchuck. Give the 
 character of the Jerboas. What ancient writer alludes to them ? Derive 
 the term Dipus. What js said of the animals of this genus ? Which is 
 the most common species? Describe the second genus. What is said of 
 the Jumping Mouse ? Give some account of the animals included in the 
 third getius. Describe the Dormouse. What is said of the common D. ? 
 Of what animals is the 0/iincMlla the connecting link? Describe this ani- 
 mal. De.scribe the Beaver Family. Give the Greek and Latin terms for 
 Beaver. Name the most striking peculiarities and habits of the B. Where 
 is the Musk-rat found? Why is it so called? Give some account 
 of it. Give the derivation of the term Hystrix. What is the family name ? 
 What is the distmguishing peculiarity of this family ? Describe its spines. 
 How does this animal defend itself? What is further said of it ? 
 
 Give the derivation of the term Muridm. What is said of this family? 
 Into what groups does Dr. De Kay arrange them ? What is said of the 
 Norway or Brown Kat? Describe tne Common Mouse. Derive the term 
 kucop/ins. Describe thin animal. Why is it called the Jumping Mouse? 
 Give some adcount of the Harvest Mouse. What is said of the species in- 
 cluded in the genus Amiccla ? How do these differ from the Mice proper ? 
 What is said of the Geomys, or pouched Rat ? Wtot is said of the Cavies ? 
 What species are particularly named? Describe the Water Hog of S. A. 
 What is said of the Guinea Pig? What of the Patagonian or Hare-lilie 
 Cavy? What of the Agouti, or yellow-nosed Cavy ? What is the deriva- 
 tion of the term Leporidaj? What Jafthe chief difference between this 
 family and other Rodents ? What species Me particularly named ? Give 
 some accoant of the Common Hare. What is said of the Jiabbit? What 
 species of the genus Lepus is referred to ? What is the derivation of the 
 term Lagnmya? How many species does it Include? Does it differ from 
 the true Hares? 
 
 How would you trace the Beaver on the Chart? Ans. JKber is the spe- 
 cies, Castor the genus, Rodentia, or Glires, the order, Ungiiioulata the sub- 
 class, Mammals the class. Warm-blooded the first division of the sub-king- 
 dom Vertebrates. Trace the Squirrel and Porcupine in the same way, giv- 
 ing the meaning of the terms at each step. What other gnawing animals 
 are mentioned on the Chart? 
 
142 PACHYDEEMATA. 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 Second Sub-Class. UNGULATA. 
 
 Okder 7. Pachydermata, (Gr. naxig, pachhs, thick; Sig/ta, 
 derma, skin.) 
 
 The animals included in this order are for the most part of 
 large size ; some of them are of truly gigantic proportions, being 
 the largest of all land animals. They are called Pachydermata, 
 on account of the massive thickness and solidity of the skin ; a 
 peculiarity which strikingly distinguishes the more prominent 
 species. These animals are thinly covered with bristly hairs, 
 or else almost entirely naked; and their external appearance is 
 frequently rough and coarse. They inhabit the warm latitudes 
 of Asia; Africa and America. One genus. (Sjm,) the Wild Boar, 
 is found wild in Europe; and two or three others, used for pur- 
 poses of economy, are now almost universally distributed by do- 
 mestication. The Pachydermata, for the larger part, live upon 
 vegetable food, such as grasses and watery herbage, and the suc- 
 culent plants of the tropics. Their molar teeth are compound^ 
 often triple, with flattened crowns ; in many there is a peculiar 
 development of the canines or the incisors into curved and pro- 
 jecting tusks. The muzzle is frequently produced into a probos- 
 cis, or trunk, as in the Elephants, Tapirs, and, in a less degree, 
 in the Hogs. 
 
 I. Family Proboscid* or Elephantid^, (Gr. n^ogxlg, pro. 
 hoscis, a. trunk;) including the Elephant Mammoth, and Masto- 
 don. These are Multungulate, (many-hOofed.) 142 
 
 EI.ephas, (Gr. 'eUijpag, elephas ) The Elephant. 
 
 Of this magnificent animal there are two species, Elephas 
 Indicits, or Asiaticus, and E. Africus. Both species are distin- 
 guished by their enormous tusks, which project dowtiwards from 
 the upper jaw of the male Elephants, of India, and of both males 
 and females, of the African Elephants ; also by the absence of 
 front teeth from the lower jaw, and by having five hoofs on each 
 fore foot. The enormously large tusks are seated in the bones, 
 from which the incisor teeth proceed in other quadrupeds, and 
 continue to grow while the animal lives. The grinders or molar 
 teeth strongly resemble those of many of the Rodentia. These 
 are made up of a certain number of vertical laminae, each formed 
 of bone, covered with enamel, and held together by a third sub- 
 stance, called the cortical, (Lat. cortix, barkj They are changed 
 six or eight times in the course of the Elephant's life. The 
 
PACHYDERBJATA. 143 
 
 manner in which they succeed each other is quite peculiar. The 
 old tooth is not pushed up by the new one, as is usually the case ; 
 but the new one appears behind the old one, urging it forward, 
 so that the latter wears away, and its, place is finally taken by 
 the new comer. The teeth are of immense weight, and with the 
 tusk, are the most valuable part of the animal. (PI. IV. fig. 7. & 8j) 
 The tusk is hollow for a great part of its length; the cavity con- 
 taining a vascular pulp, which supplies successive, layers within, 
 as the tusk is worn down without. Blumenbach, (see his Compar- 
 ative Anatomy,) says that some modern naturalists consider the 
 tusks a species of horn; and that balls with which the animal has 
 been shot when young, have been found on sawing through the 
 tusks, imbedded in their substance, in a peculiar manner. These 
 organs, especially in the African species, are extremely large. 
 Cuvier has a table showing their great size. The largest recorded 
 in the table was a tusk sold at Amsterdam, which weighed ,350 lbs. 
 One possessed by a merchant of Venice, was fourteen feet in 
 length. The largest in the Paris Museum is nearly seven feet 
 long, and about five and a half inches in diameter, at the largest 
 end. Professor Silliman, during his last tour in Europe, measur- 
 ed one in the. British Museum, which was ten feet in length. 
 One described by Hartenfels, in his Elephantographia, (Gr. Ele- 
 phas, Elephant ; grapho, to write,) exceeded fourteen feet. Or- 
 dinarily, the tusk of the Indian Elephant does not weigh more 
 than from fifty to seventy-five pounds. The first, or milk tu.sks, 
 never attain much size ; but are shed between the first and second 
 year; and the permanent tusks of the female are very small, in 
 comparison with those of the male. The feet have five toes, 
 " encrusted," as Cuvier says, in the callous skin which covers 
 the foot, and appearing in the hoof by the nails alone. The foot 
 is enclosed in a horny shoe or sock, which, when detached, pre- 
 sents a cavity that is quite tight, aild used by orientalists as a ves- 
 sel to contain tlieir food Professor Silliman measured the shoe 
 of an Elephant, in the British Museum, and found it five feet in 
 circumference. (Plate VI. fig. 9.) 
 
 The immense weight of the head, renders indispensable a pow- 
 erful muscular apparatus, and to that end a large surface for the 
 insertion of muscles is necessary. The extended surface of the 
 head gives full room for the attachment of the muscles of the 
 neck. These muscles are most powerful, not only supporting 
 the neck, but assisting the animal in digging or employing the 
 tusks as means of defence. The vertebrae of the neck, are more 
 fully developed than in the Ruminantia, and the spinous processes 
 in the vertebrae of the back, are lengthened and strong. The 
 
144 PACHyDERMATA. 
 
 entire structure is well compared to the Cyclopean walls of some 
 ancient city, huge, shapeless, and piled ov'er against each other as 
 if destined rather to sustain weight, than to permit motion. The 
 internal organization, as a whole, is more simple than that of the 
 Ruminants ; but still Elephants feed on nearly the same sort of 
 food. The stomach is of a very lengthened and narrow form, its 
 greatest diameter being only about one-fourth of its length. 
 There seems to be/a receptacle, though less extensive than that 
 of the Camel, to enable the Elephant to retain or secrete water 
 that may be used for moistening its food, but at times is also used 
 to disturb the insects, which during a march, or in hot weather, 
 annoy or torment it. 
 
 But the -trunk is unquestionably the most remarkable part Of 
 this animal's structure. This is properly a continuation of the 
 nose, and becomes more valuable as an organ of prehension, from 
 the unwieldy size of the head, and the shortness of the neck. It 
 is an organ of respiration, as well as prehension ; and it is also a 
 delicate organ of touch and smell. The short neck, made neces- 
 sary by the weight of the head and tusks, prevents the Elephant 
 from putting its head to the ground, or from stooping to the water's 
 edge ; but for this disability it is fully compensated in the advan- 
 tage of the trunk. This extraordinary organ has, according to 
 Cuvier, not much less than 40,000 muscles, which enable the 
 Elephant to shorten, lengthen, coil up, or move it in any direction. 
 Its structure is cartilaginous, and composed of numerous rings ; 
 a partition runs from one end of it to the other, so that although 
 outwardly it appears like a single pipe, it is inwardly divided 
 into two. "Endowed with exquisite sensibility; nearly eight 
 feet in length, and stout in proportion to the massive size of the 
 whole animal, this organ, at the volition of the Elephant, will 
 uproot trees, or gather grass ; raise a piece of artillery, or pick 
 up a comfit ; kill a man, or brush off a fly. It conveys the foo'd 
 to the mouth, and pumps up the enormous drafts of water, which 
 by its recurvature, are turned into it, and driven down the capa- 
 cious throat, or showered over the body." Through the trunk 
 the Elephant uses his trumpet'like voice ; the end has two open- 
 ings or nostrils, like those of a hog, and also a finger-like append- 
 age, with which he picks up small objects. His skin is usually 
 of a brownish gray color, sometimes slightly mottled with flesh 
 color ; generally it is full of scratches and scars, which it re- 
 ceives in its passage through thick woods and thorny places. 
 The form of the head varies with the animal's age ; and it in- 
 creases immensely in those of full growth. The tail is long, and 
 has a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the ground. The strength 
 
FACHYDERMATA. 145 
 
 of the Elephant in union with its capacity, renders it a most effi- 
 cient aid, where extraordinary animal force is required, as in 
 dragging ships, heavy stores and ordnance. Its ordinaiy pace is 
 equal to that of the horse at an easy trot. A consideration of the 
 velocity of its motion, as compared with the mass of its body, may 
 help one to judge of its very great force. Many arduous and 
 difficult military operations in the East have been much indebted 
 to the sagacity, patience and strength of the Elephant. The 
 height varies considerably. The East India Company's standard 
 for serviceable Elephants is "seven feet and upwards, measured 
 at the shoulders, in the same manner as horses are." It has 
 been said, they reach the height of seventeen or twenty feel ; but 
 there is reason to believe they seldom exceed ten feet in height. 
 Those from Pegu and Siam are much larger than those of Hin- 
 dostan. 
 
 The Elephant has long been the companion of the Orientalist, 
 in great hunting parties, (see border of the chart,) and from a 
 very early period, has been made to minister to the wanton and 
 cruel pleasures of Eastern princes, by being stimulated to com- 
 , bat, not only with other Elephants, but with various wild animals. 
 The ivory of these animals, which is now sought for useful pur- 
 poses, and also for minor ornaments, was in great request with the 
 ancient Greeks and Romans, for various domestic uses, as well 
 as for the Chrys-elephantine Statuary, (Gr. Chrusos, gold ; Ele- 
 phas, elephant,) of Phidias, such as the Minerva of the Parthenon, 
 and the Olympian Jupiter. 
 
 The exports of the tusks from the East have been, and still 
 cooitinue to be, large. In 1831-2, those to Great Britain alone, 
 amounted to 4,130 cwt. ; a weight of ivory, taking the average 
 of the tusks to be sixty lbs. weight, involving the destruction of 
 fiwm 4,500 to 5,000 Elephants. It is said 45,000 tusks are now 
 annually consumed in Sheffield, (England,) alone. The West- 
 ern and Eastern coasts of Africa; the Cape of Grood Hope; Cey- 
 Ion ; India ; and the countries to the east of the straits of Malacca, 
 are the marts whemce the supplies of ivury are obtained. The 
 chief consumption of this article in England, is in the manufac- 
 ture of handles for knives; but it is extensively used for other 
 purposes. Ivory articles are manufactured to a greater extent at 
 Dieppe, on the French sea-coast, than in any other place in Eu- 
 rope. In preparations of ivory, tfie Chinese excel. No Europe- 
 an artist has, we believe, succeeded in cutting concentric balls 
 after the manner of the Chinese ; and their boxes and other ivory 
 articles are decidedly superior to any that are to be met with 
 elsewhere. 
 
146 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 Though captured in India, and reduced to servitude, and ex- 
 tensively hunted in Africa, on, account of his tusics, the Elephant 
 is still found in great numbers in remote, secluded districts of the 
 East, where large streams or rivers running through a wide and 
 level region, are fringed by a luxuriant vegetation. A traveler 
 who accompanied some Elephant hunters in South Africa, was 
 told by an experienced hunter that he had seen as many as three 
 thousand in a troop, ranging along the banks of the Fish river. 
 " A herd of Elephants," says Pringle, " browsing in majestic tran- 
 quility amidst the wild magnificence of an African landscape, is 
 a very noble sight, and one of which I shall never forget the im- 
 pression." Sometimes they "tear up immense numbers of mi- 
 mosa trees, sprinkled over grassy meadows, which border the 
 river's margin." Of the soft and juicy roots of these and other 
 trees, they are very fond. In overturning the trees, they some- 
 times employ their tusks as we do a crowbar, thrusting them un- 
 der the roots to weaken their hold of the earth, and facilitate the 
 work of tearing up the trees with their proboscis. 
 
 The Elephant is known to have a strong relish for sweetmeats 
 and arrack, a spirituous liquor distilled from rice ; and by these 
 things is occasionally encouraged to perform tasks requiring 
 great skill and labor. In plantations of sugar cane, he revels 
 with great delight. Sometimes he adopts curious methods to grat- 
 ify his love of sweet things. "It chanced that a Cooley, laden 
 with jaggery, which is a coarse preparation of sugar, was sur- 
 prised in a narrow pass in the kingdom of Candy, by a wild Ele- 
 phant. The poor fellow, intent upon saving his life, threw down 
 the burthen, which the Elephant devoured ; and being well 
 pleased with the repast, determined not to allow any person egress 
 or ingress who did not provide him with a similar banquet. The 
 pass formed one of the principal thoroughfares to the capital; and 
 the Elephant taking up a formidable position at the entrance, 
 obliged every passenger to pay tribute. It soon became known 
 that a donation of jaggery would ensure a safe conduct through 
 the guarded portal, and no one presumed to attempt the passage 
 without the expected offering." 
 
 The Elephant possesses all the senses in great perfection ; that 
 of smelling is in him exquisite. He is not often bred in captivity, 
 it being found more advantageous to take a well grown animal 
 from a wild herd, and discipline it for service. In captivity, it is 
 very docile and gentle, but when provoked will take full revenge. 
 This, some who visit menageries have found out to their sorrow. 
 All Elephants are fond of the water, and sometimes submerge 
 themselves, so far that nothing but the end of their trunk remains 
 
PACHYDEBMATA, 147 
 
 aljove the surface. There are various modes of- capturing thgse 
 animals. One of these is by decoy Elephants, which are well 
 trained to their work. With two of these decoys, the hunters 
 proceed into the woods. The females advance quietly, and by 
 their blandishments so occupy the attention of any unfortunate 
 male that they nneet, that the hunters are enabled to tie his legs 
 together and fasten him to a tree. His treacherous companions 
 ' then forsake him. At length he is subdued by hunger and the 
 fatigue of efforts to free himself from his bonds, and then the 
 hunters drive him home between their two tame Elephants. 
 When once captured, he is easily trained. 
 
 When in captivity, maternal, affection does not seem strong in 
 the elephant; but in the wild state, the animal has, given striking 
 illustrations of such affection, as well as of marital and filial 
 love. The young animal is exceedingly playful. It becomes 
 mature when between 18 and 24 years of age, and usually livess 
 to a great age; Aristotle says, "more than 200 years;" it has 
 sometimes lived even more than 400 years. 
 
 The Elephant appears deeply susceptible of influence fjom 
 kindness. The natives in the East are wont to address him with 
 persuasive and endearing epithets, which he seems to compre- 
 hend and by which he is stimulated to exertion. Sometimes his 
 actions and display of comprehension appear almost the result of 
 a reasoning process. An officer who served in India remarks, 
 " I have myself often seen the wife of a mohont, (for the officers 
 often take their families with them to the camp,) give a baby in 
 charge to an Elephant while she went on some business, and 
 have been highly interested in observing the sagacity and care 
 of the unwieldy nurse." 
 
 Menaory, which, as well as instinct, is given to animals for 
 their well being, seems to have great strength in the Elephant. 
 An illustration of this remark is given by Mr. Corse, in the 
 Fhil. Tran., and quoted by Swainson in his "Habits and In- 
 stjncts of/ Animals." "An Elephant which had escaped, and 
 which was subsequently captured in company with a herd of 
 wild Elephants, after an interval of eighteen months, was recog- 
 nized by one of the drivers. When any person approached the 
 animal,' he appea,red wild and outrageous as the other animals, 
 and attempted to strike the person approaching him with histrunl^, 
 until an old hunter, riding boldly up to him on a tame Elephant, 
 ordered him to lie down, pulling hinp by the ear at the same time, 
 upon which the animal seemed quite taken by surprise, and in- 
 stantly obeyed the word of command with as much quickness as 
 the ropes with which he was tied permitted, uttering, at the same 
 
 7 
 
148 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 time, a peculiar shrill squeak through his trunk, as he had for, 
 merly been known to do. By this circumstance, he was imme- 
 diately recognized by every person who had been acquainted 
 with his peculiarity." 
 
 When bogged in swamps, the elephant shows a sagacity which 
 is remarkable. "The cylindrical form of his leg, which is 
 nearly of equal thickness, causes the animal to sink very deep, 
 in heavy gi'ound, especially in the muddy banks of small rivers. 
 When thus situated, the animal will endeavor to lie on his side, 
 so as to avoid sinking deeper ; and for this purpose will avail 
 himself of every means to obtain relief. The usual method of 
 extricating him is by supplying him liberally with straw, boughs, 
 grass, &c. These materials being thrown to the distressed ani- 
 mal, ho forces them down with his trunk, till they are lodged 
 under his fore feet in sufficient quantity to resist his pressure. 
 Having thus formed a sufficient basis for exertion, the sagacious 
 animal next proceeds to thrust other bundles under his belly and 
 as far back under the flanks as he can reach ; when such a ba- 
 sis is formed as may be to him proper to proceed upon, he throws 
 his whole weight forward and gets his hind feet gradually upon 
 the straw, &c. Being once confirmed on a solid footing, he will 
 next place the succeeding bundles before him, pressing them well 
 with his trunk, so as to form a causeway by which to reach the 
 firm ground. The instinct of the animal, and probably the ex- 
 perience of his past danger, actuate him not to bear any weight 
 definitely, until by trial both with his trunk and the next foot that 
 is to be plantetl, he has completely satisfied himself of the firm- 
 ness of the ground he is to tread upon." — (Swainson.) 
 
 The general characters and habits of the two species E, Asi- 
 aticus and E. Africus, are the same, and yet there are some 
 points of difference. The Elephant of India has a head or skull 
 almost pyramidal in form ; that of the African species is more 
 rounded in contour. The tusks and ears of the latter are the 
 larger. So enormously large are the ears that they cover the 
 animal's shoulders, and are-often " used by the natives as a sort 
 of truck, upon which to draw various loads." The teeth, too, 
 are different in numbers, the African species having eight mo- 
 lars, whereas the Asiatic has but four, and they are in the for- 
 mer also differently marked ; the Asiatic is the larger in its frame 
 and its color is a paler brown, and it has four nails on each hind 
 foot, while the African has only three ; it is considered essential 
 to the perfection of the Asiatic Elephant that it have eighteen 
 nails, five on each fore foot, and four on each hind one. The 
 
PACHYDEBMATA. 149 
 
 'Asiatic species is also deemed the superior of the two in point 
 of sagacity; though Guvier was of the opinion that even this 
 species does not in intelligence surpass the dog, an opinion that 
 finds ooirroboration in the size of the Elephant's brain, which is 
 estimated to be only ^ i^ part of his body, while in man the 
 brain is J^ part. 
 
 jE. frirmgenlMS, (Lat; •primus, first ; gignOj to produce.) The 
 ■Mammoth. 
 
 This is the name of an extinct species of Prohoscida, remains 
 of which have been discovered in the tertiary fresh water de- 
 posits of the Eastern and Western Continents. Abundant re- 
 mains of this species have been found in the frozen mud of Rus- 
 sian America ; they have also been traced in smaller quantities 
 as far south in the United States as Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri and 
 North and South Carolina. The Chart figures one of these ani- 
 mals dug up at Newburg, N. Y., twelve feet high and fourteen 
 feet long. Mammoth bones and tusks occur throughout Russia, 
 and particularly in Eastern Siberia. The skeleton of one six- 
 teen and one-half feet in length, obtained in Siberia, and having 
 the skin attached to the head and feet, is pi%served in the- muse- 
 um at St. Petersburg. The hair of this specimen consists of 
 two kinds, common hair and bristles; showing in the arctic char- 
 acter of its clothing that it was capable of living in high northern 
 latitudes, like the Rein-Deer and Musk-Ox of the present day. 
 It is inferred from the teeth of these animals that their food did 
 not probably differ much from that now used by their survivors in 
 'tropical countries. 
 
 E. Amerieanus. Amerioan Elephant. 
 
 Dr. De Kay, (N. Y. S. N., 1819,1 designates a species under 
 -this name from specimens of teeth found in a diluvial formation 
 near the Irondiquoit river, in Munroe County, ten miles east of 
 Rochester. 
 
 Mastodon, (Gr. fiacnog, mastos, a nipple or udder ; oSoiig, odous, 
 a tooth.) (Plate IV. fig. 9.) 
 
 This is the name of an extinct genus of gigantic Pachyderms 
 whose ren>ains are found abundantly in tertiary and sometimes iq 
 secondarydeposits. Theaniraal must have equaled or exceeded the 
 elephant in bulk, and greatly resembled him in shape ; the tusks, 
 proboscis, and the general conforraatipn of the body and the limbs 
 were similar. The principal distinction between the two genera 
 was formed by the molar teeth, the crown of which, unlike those 
 of the elephant, exhibited", on cutting the gum, large conical 
 points of a mammiform structure, whence the animal derived its 
 flame. The whole number of teeth was twenty-six. The Mas- 
 
150 PACHYDERM ATA. 
 
 todon was probably less exclusively herbivorous than the ele- 
 phant. "There is scarcely a state east and south of the Hudson 
 River which has not afforded specimens of the Mastodon," The 
 genus eimbraces species which " have been found in almost every 
 partof the worldj and in all latitudes." The term mammoth, which 
 was: specially applied by the inhabitants of Siberia to a fossil 
 elephant^ has sometimes been improperly given to this animal. 
 
 M. giganteus, now one of the attractions of the British Muse- 
 um, was found near the banks of the river La Pomme de Terre, 
 a branoh of the Osage River, in Burton Co., Missouri, imbedded 
 in a brown sandy deposit, full of the remains of cypress, tropical 
 cane, swamp moss, stems of palmetto, &c. Five arrow heads 
 were found with the remains, 'which were 20 feet 2 inches long, 
 and 9 feet 6§ inches high. These remains were exhibited in 
 London in 1842-3, under the name of the Missouri Leviathan. 
 At the Big Bone Lick, in Kentucky, were discovered the re- 
 mains of I'OO Mastodons and 20 Mammoths, with bones- of the 
 Megalonyx Stag. The grinders have been dug up in the streets 
 of London. Mr. Woodward, in his Geology of Norfolk, Eng., 
 says thai "upwards of 2,000 have been dredged up by the fisher- 
 meaof Happisburgh in thirty years." On the Hudson River, 
 remains of the Mastodon have been repeatedly discovered. About 
 three years ago, a very fine specimen was discovered in the in- 
 clined side of a marshy declivity, a few miles from the city of 
 Poughkeepsie. 
 
 n. SuiD^, (Lat. siis, a swine or hog.) (Four hoofs.) 
 
 The Swine Family. 
 
 This is a family of the Pachyderms, highly valuable to man as 
 food. The animals of which it is composed are characterized 
 by having on each foot two large principal toes, shod with stout 
 hoofs, and two lateral toes which are shorter and hardly touch 
 the earth. "The incisor teeth kre variable in iiwmber, but the 
 lower incisors are all leveled forwards; the canines are pro- 
 jected from the mouth and recurved upwards." The muzzle 
 terminates in a truncated snout adapted for turning up the ground. 
 Ten species are enumerated as belonging to this family. 
 
 Sus scrofa, (Lat. acrofa, an old sow.) The Hog, or Wild 
 Boar. ( 
 
 The well known Hog is the domesticated descendant of the 
 Wild Boar, an animal still found in the larger forests of Europe, 
 Asia, and the Northern parts of Africa. The wild race may, 
 however, be distinguished from the domestic breed by the color, 
 
PACHYDERMATA. 151 
 
 which is a dark grizzled brown, by the longer limbs, the small, 
 erect ears, the greater development of the shout, and by a more 
 botiy appearance. 
 
 In his native retreats, the Wild Boar is a truly formidable ani- 
 mal, and the hunt of it exciting and dangerous ; for this fierce 
 and powerful animal is armed with long, curved and sharp tusks, 
 capable of inflicting severe and fatal wounds.' After he, has 
 pa'Ssed his fifth year, he becomes less dangerous, on account of 
 the increased size of his tusks, which so turn up as often to bin- 
 der rather than assist his design of wounding with them. In the 
 wooded regions of Europe, the chase of the Wild Boar is still 
 continued, and it- is also one of the most exciting sports of orien- 
 tal countries. It is not now found in its natural state in Great 
 Britain, but formerly it there rioted in the dense forests ; and in 
 so high estimation was the chase of the^ animal held, that by a 
 forest law of William-, the Conqueror, any who were found guilty 
 of killing a Wild Boar had their eyes put out I The lair is gen- 
 erally in some wild, retired spot, not far from water, and com- 
 manding, by some devious path, an entrance to the open country. 
 The young, or Marcassins, as they are termed by the French 
 are striped with longitudinal bands. 
 
 The Domestic Hog, {Sus scrqfa,) differs from the wild animal 
 principally in having smaller tusks and ears larger, somewhat 
 pendant, and of a more pointed form. It is known that it varies 
 considerably in color as well as in size, but the prevailing cast is 
 a dull yellowish white, marked or spotted irregularly with black ; 
 sometimes it is perfectly plain or unspotted, sometimes rufous, and 
 sometimes totally black. 
 
 The Hog is,' of all quadrupeds, the most gross in his manners, 
 and is generally esteemed the very image of impurity. The 
 Jews were forbidden to eat his flesh, probably from the tendency 
 to cutaneous disease growing out of its use in the East ; and the 
 Mahometans follow the same prohibition. Late experiments 
 with this animal, as kept for domestic uses,' go to show that some 
 injustice has been done and losses incurred, by the opinions 
 which have been long entertained as to its proclivity for dirt and 
 mud. If fairly treated, it is by no means a dirty animal, and 
 most judicious farmers find their account in reforming the pens 
 of hogs so that they be kept in a cleanly condition, instead of be- 
 ing saturated with filth. However fond of wallowing in the mire, 
 yet, « with plenty 'of dry litter, space and water, the hog will 
 keep himself scrupulously clean and will thrive all the better. 
 Even the trouble of washing and curryii^ him frequently will 
 be well repaid. Wood's Natua-al History contains an imputa- 
 
152 PACHYDERMATA- 
 
 tion agaihst the Hog, which we do not remember to have seen or 
 heard of before. " I have," says he, " seen pigs suck the cows 
 in a farm yard, while they were lying down and chewing the 
 cud, nor did the cows attempt fo repel them." 
 
 The Hog is remarkably prolific, bringing forth two litters in 
 the year, of from eight to twelve, and sometimes fifteen or twenty 
 each. It is plain, therefore, that they would soon become annoy- 
 ingly numerous were they not diminished by being used for the 
 support of man. Though perfectly Useless during life, they are 
 among the most important of the animals which are reared for 
 the value of their 'flesh as human food. None convert a given 
 quantity of corn or other nutriment so soon into fat, or can be 
 made fat on so great a variety of food. "Their flesh," says 
 Linnssus, " is wholesome food for persons of athletic constitu- 
 tions, or those who habituate themselves to much exercise, but 
 improper for such as lead sedentary lives-?' It is an article of 
 gKeat importance to us as a naval and commercial nation, as it 
 takes salt better than any other kind of flesh, and hence can be 
 longer preserved. " The largest animals are not the best. 
 Fertility, a capacity of fattening with rapidity and with the least 
 expense, the smallness of the bones, and the firmness and sweet- 
 ness of the flesh, with its readiness to receive salt; are objects 
 of higher importance than mere bulk." The introduction of 
 the Chinese Hog, it is said, has in some places made great 
 changes in the native breeds. This breed is remarkable for 
 productiveness. Cuvier believed it to be specifically differ, 
 ent from the wild Boar. It is of " small size, short and thick ; 
 the belly deep, and when fat nearly reaching the ground ; 
 the legs short and fine; the head very short; the neck thick." 
 The pork of the Chinese animal is i particularly delicate; but 
 the common breeds are said to " yield the best bacon and 
 hams." 
 
 The senses of the Hog are acute, especially that of smelling. 
 The broad snout ploughs up the herbage, and not a root, an in. 
 sect or a worm,' escapes the olfadtory sense. The animal is not 
 stqpid as compared with many .quadrupeds, and when treated 
 with kindness, sometimes evinces strong attachment. That it is 
 docile is proved by the number of "learned pigs," and by "the 
 famous sporting sow that Went regularly out with the gun, and 
 stood her game as staunch as any pointer." 
 
 iS. .BaiJrMssa, (native word. Hog deer) The Babyboussa. 
 
 This animal is nearly the size of a common hog, but differs 
 from it in some marked respects. The form is longer and light. 
 
PACHYDERMATA.. 153 
 
 % 
 
 er, the limbs more slender, and of greater length. The skin is 
 black, naked and warty, and when closely examined found to be 
 sparingly set with short bristly hairs. It is remarkable for pos- 
 sessing four tusks The two recurved tusks of the upper jaw, 
 instead of passing out between the lips, pierce through the skin 
 halfway between the eyes and the end of the snout, turning up- 
 wards towards the forehead, like the horns of the Ruminantia ; 
 the tusks of the lower jaw are also very long, sharp and curved ; 
 but not of equal magnitude with those of the upper. The tusks 
 are very fine ivory, but neither so hard nor so durable as that of 
 the Elephant; tKe eyes are small ; the ears erect and pointed. ; 
 the tail rather long and slender, and tufted at the end with long 
 hairs. The food of the Babyroussa consists chiefly of vegeta- 
 bles, and the leaves of trees. When hunted closely, and in ap- 
 parent danger, this animal takes to the water, and by facility in 
 swimming, alternately diving and rising, is frequently able to 
 escape from its pursuers. It is said that it "crosses without diffi- 
 culty the straits that intervene between neighboring islands." 
 It is capable of being domesticated) and its flesh is palatable and 
 well adapted for food. The Indians ascribe these animals to a 
 union of the Hog and the Deer. The Baby roussas abound in the 
 Molucca islands, and are also found in a few other islands of the 
 Indian Archipelago. 
 
 Two of these animals, (one of each sex,) were brought to 
 France, some years since, and kept in the Parjis Menagerie. 
 " The female was much younger, and more active than the male, 
 which was aged and very fat, and spent his short life in eating, 
 drinking and sleeping. The female bred once after her arrival 
 in Europe. When tiie male retired to rest, she would cover him 
 completely^over with litter, and then creepiin under the straw to 
 him, so that both were concealed from sight. They died of dis- 
 eased lungs, about three years after their arrival." 
 
 Phacochoerus, (Gr. cpatebg, phakos, lentil ; jfoigo;, choiros, hog.) 
 The Warty Hog. 
 
 This genus of the Pachydermata, found in Africa, is allied to 
 the Swine, and from the projecting appeodstges about the head, 
 called Warty-hog. Its feet are forrxied like those of the True 
 Hog. Some of them have but sixteen, others twenty-four teeth, 
 while the common hog has ,forty-four, find the Babyroussa thirty- 
 two. Of the two species, one has incisors, the other none ; both 
 have tusks, lateral and directed upwards. Their system of den- 
 tition points them out as more herbivorous than omnivorous. 
 
 P. Aeliani, Aelian's Wart-Hpg, is a native of the north of 
 Africa. This, at all ages, has incisor teeth in the upper ^d the 
 
154 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 lower jaw, which clearly distinguishes it from the Wart-Hog of 
 the Cape Colony P. Aethioficus'. 
 
 The skin of this animal is scantily bristled and of an earthy 
 color. A mane, commencing between the ears, runs along the 
 neck and back, made up of long bristly hairs, some of them ten 
 inches long. These bristles and those found on the other parts 
 of the body, are light brown. With the exception of the back, 
 the body has a naked appearance. The head is broad along the 
 brow, which is rather depressed ; the eyes are small and very 
 high up on the head ; and two large warts appear, one on or near 
 the cheek, called the larger wart, and the smaller one along' side 
 the cheek. These warts are formed of thickened skinny tissue; 
 are smaller in this species than in the Wart-Hog of the Cape'.' 
 The eyes are small ; the tail thin, and nearly bare, with a tuft 
 of hair at the end.' On the fore feet is a piece of thick, hard, 
 protuberant skin. These animals haunt low bushes, and forests, 
 creeping on their bent fore feet, in search of food, and in this 
 posture, digging up the roots of plants on which they feed with 
 their enormous canine teeth ; the hind legs pushing the body for- 
 ward as it moves in this position. 
 
 P. Aethiopicus, or Aethiopian Wart-Hog, has larger warts than 
 the preceding, and a more singularly formed head, 
 
 Dicotyle, (Gr. dig, dis, two ; xoiiiAi/, koiule, hollow, or cavity.) 
 The Peccaries. 
 
 These animals are native to South America ; of a short, com- 
 pact form, thickly covered on the upper parts of the body with 
 large and strong dark colored bristles, and marked by yellowish 
 white rings ; and round the neck is usually a whitish band or col- 
 lar. By their general appearance and propensities, they are 
 closely allied to the Ti"ue Swine; but they differ from them in 
 respect to their teeth, having four instead of six incisors in the 
 upper jaw, and six instead of seven molars on each side; their 
 tusks also differ from those of the common hog, not turning up 
 and projecting out of the mouth, but having the usual direction as 
 in other animals; the hind feet have only^hree toes, the external 
 toe on each foot being absent; and the limbs are more slender, 
 the head shorter, and the snout longer than in the common hog. 
 The tail is merely rudimentary, and not visible. The most deci- 
 ded characteristic is its having a glandular opening on the loins, 
 which secretes a fetid and disgusting odor, infecting the flesh 
 when the animal is killed, unless immediately cut away ; in that 
 case it is tolerable food. There are two species of the Peccary. 
 
 Dicotyle tnrquatus, (Lat. torques, a collar.) The Collared 
 Peccary. It has its name " Collared" from a line of white which 
 
PACHYDERMATA. 155 
 
 passes from the fore part of the neck, obliquely upwards, to meet 
 over the shoulders; is found in Mexico, as well as in the greater 
 part of South America. The food of this species consists of 
 acorns, roots, and earth worms, and similar creatures, bred in 
 moist and marshy places. The Collared Peccary has been do- 
 mesticated in South America, and some of the West India islands, 
 and in the, domestic state is fed upon the same esculents as the 
 common hogs, but its flesh is far inferior to theirs, both in flavor 
 and fatness. "The comparative infertility of the Peccary, which 
 only produces two young at a birth, is a bar to its superseding 
 the domestic pig, which is equally fertile in all climates where it 
 has been introduced." ^The gland also, presents a strong objec- 
 tion to the Peccary, as a domestic animal, however "neat and 
 trim" it may be in its general habits and appearance. It is said 
 that D'Azara " revelled in its scent, as a perfume," and that oth- 
 ers have considered it " agreeable enough," but to most persons it 
 proves extremely offensive. These animals haunt the thickest 
 and largest forests, dwelling in hollow trees, or holes in the earth 
 made by other animals. They go in {)airs or small families, 
 laying waste the cultivated fields and plantations of maize or 
 sugar cane, if not driven from them ; but they are not common in 
 the vicinity of villages. ■ 
 
 D. laUatus, (Lat. lipped.) The White-lipped Peccahy. 
 
 This is larger, stronger and heavier than the Collared Peccary, 
 often measuring three and a half feet long, and sometimes weigh- 
 ing one hundred pounds, whereas the Collared species seldom ex- 
 ceed three feet in length, or weigh more than fifty pounds. The 
 prevailing color is brown; the lips are white. The White-lipped 
 Peccaries are found in numerous bands, sometimes, as is said, 
 amounting to upwards of a thousand, spreading over a league of 
 ground, and directed, the natives say, by a leader who takes his 
 station in front of the troop. They cross rivers, and ravage 
 plantations on their march. "If they meet with any thing unu- 
 sual on their way, they ,make a terrific clattering with their teeth, 
 and stop and examine the object of their alarm. When they 
 have ascertained that there is no danger, they continue their route 
 without further delay." 
 
 Rhinoceros, (Gr. glv or pJs, rin or ris, a nose ; xigag, keras, a horn.) 
 The Rhinoceros. « 
 
 This leirge uncouth looking creature is a native of the hotter 
 regions of the Eastern Continent, and next to the Elephant, the 
 most powerful of all quadrupeds. There are several species of 
 
156 FACHVDEEMATA. 
 
 this animal, of whieh the chief peculiarity is the horn, consisting 
 of fibres matted together like those of whalebone. 
 
 R. unicorms, (one-horned,) or R. Indicus, the common E. In. 
 dian Rhinoceix)s, is usually about twelve feet long, and seven in 
 height, and the circumference of the body is nearly equal to its 
 length. This species, as the name tmicornis imports, has but one 
 horn, slightly curved, and sharpened to a point, not far from 
 three feet in length, and used as a most powerful and effective 
 weapon. The upper lip protrudes considerably, and from its ex- 
 treme pliability, answers the purpose of a small proboscis. The 
 skin is thick and coarse, and has a knotted or granulated surface;, 
 it is disposed in several folds, on the neck and shoulders. The 
 legs are very short, strong and thick ; and the feet divided into 
 three lai^e hoofs. (Plate VI. fig. 10.) The Rhinoceros of India 
 leads a quiet, indolent life, in the shady forests, or wfiUowin'g in the 
 marehy borders of lakes and rivers, in the waters of which it occa- 
 sionally bathes. Its movements are usua;Uy slow, and it carries its 
 head low like the hog, ploughing up the ground with its horn, and 
 forcing its way through jungles. Pennant and others are of the 
 opinion that this is the Unicorn of the Holy Scriptures. The female 
 brings forth one young at a time. The ordinary food of the In- 
 dian Rhinoceros consists of herbage, and the branches of trees. 
 The flesh is said to be not unpalatable. One of these animals, 
 which was taken to England, in 1790, ate twenty-eight pounds 
 of clover, the same quantity of ship biscuit, together with a great 
 quantity of greens, each day ; and twice or three times a day, 
 five pails of water were given to him. The 'Asiatic specimen in 
 the Zoological Gardens, London, iiffed on clover, straw, rice and 
 bran. The skeleton of this animal approximates to that of the 
 Tapir and the Horse ; the stomach is more like that of a man or 
 a hog. It has thirty-six teeth, twenty-one of which are molar, 
 but none of them canines. 
 
 R. Jaoanacns. The Rhinoceros of Java. This has less rough 
 or prominent folds than those of the Indian Rhinoceros ; its range 
 extends from the level of the ocean to the summit of mountains' 
 which are considerably elevated. Marsden, the Missionary, in 
 his "History of Sumatra," says, that "both the one and the two 
 horned Rhinoceros are natives of the woods ;" and he denies the , 
 stories which have been told "of the desperate encounters of these 
 two enormous beasts." 
 
 R. Sumatrensis, or Bicornis, (Lat. two-horned.) The Rhino- 
 ceros of Sumatra, has a skin covered with stiff brown hairs, and 
 almost altogether without folds, and it has a second horn behind 
 the ordinary one, in, this respect j-esembling the African animal. 
 
PACHYDEKMATA. 15 7 
 
 The Rhinocsero^ is not uncommon iti Sumatra, but is very shy, 
 and therefore rarely seen. 
 
 R. Africanus. The animals of this species range over a large 
 part of Africa. They were formerly common in the vicinity of 
 Cape Town, but their present limit on the South West coast is 
 the. twenty -third degree of latitude. In the interior of the conti. 
 nent, the tribe is still very numerous, but- less so than in Asia. 
 This species differs from the Asiatic in having a comparatively 
 smooth hide, while almost all the Asiatic species have a very 
 coarse one, which is covered with large folds, not unlike a coat 
 of mail. Four distinct varieties are said to exist in South Afri- 
 ca, two of a dark, and two of a whitish hue, called the " black" 
 and the " white" Rhinoceros. The common Black Rhinoceros, 
 Rhinoceros Ucornis, is called by the natives the "Boifile;" the 
 other, the "Keitloa," Rhinoceros keiiloa. 
 
 The upper lip in both species of the black Rhinoceros is capa- 
 ble of extension, and is so pliable as to twist round a stick, collect 
 its food, or seize any thing which it would carry to its mouth. 
 These animals are very fierce, and except the Buffalo, perhaps, 
 the most dangerous of all the beasts of South Africa. 
 
 Of the white Rhinoceros, the two varieties are R. simus, the 
 common white Rhinoceros, called Mmoohoo, by the natives, and 
 R. Oswellu, the Kobaaba, or long horned White Rhinoceros. 
 The chief difference between these two species^ relates to the 
 horns, the "front horn of the Monoohoo averages about two feet in 
 length ; that of the Kobaaba frequently is more than four feet. 
 The .latter variety is least often found, and confined to the more 
 interior portions of Southern Africa. 
 
 The White Rhinoceros is of larger size than the black. The 
 head is so prolonged that it is nearly one-third part of the entire 
 length of the body, which is from fourteen to sixteen feet; the 
 nose is square ; the anterior horn is longer ; the disposition of the 
 animal milder, and the flesh better tasted than that of the black 
 species. Its food is grass. ' The black species are very sullen 
 and savage in their disposition. Their flesh is lean, and of an 
 acrid taste, given to it by the "Wait-a-bit" thorn bushes, on 
 which they feed, ploughing them up with their short horn. 
 
 The body of the R. Simus, (between fourteen and sixteeji feet 
 long, and ten or twelve round,)v is exceeded in size only by that 
 of the Elephant ; its belly is large and hangs near the ground ; 
 the legs are short, round and very strong ; and the hoofs divided 
 into three parts, each pointing forward. The head is large; the 
 ears long and erect ; the eyes small and sunken, or deep set in 
 the head. The horns are not affixed to the skull, but attached to 
 
158 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 the skin, resting, however, in some degree, on a bony protuber- 
 ance above the nostrils. They take a high polish, and are worth 
 half as much as Elephant's ivory, being much used for sword, 
 handles, drinking-cups, rifle-ramrods, etc. People of fashion at 
 the Cape, have the cups set in silver and gold. The Turks be- 
 lieve these cups will split asunder and fly into pieces, if poison 
 be put into them! Even the chips and turnings of the horns are 
 carefully preserved, being esteemed of great benefit in convulsions, 
 faintings, and many other illnesses. The Rhinoceros is noctur- 
 nal in his habits, commencing his rambles at dusk, and visiting 
 the pools or fountains between the hours of nine and twelve 
 o'clock at night. Having wandered until sunrise, he spends the 
 day in sleep, under the shelter of some rock or tree. All the 
 beasts dread him — the lion avoids him — even the elephant, should 
 they meet, retreats, if possible, without hazarding a combat, and 
 he will also fight his own species. His hearing and smell are 
 acute, but his sight is not good. The Rhinoceros is not gregari- 
 ous, but yet of a social turn, and usually goes in pairs; some- 
 times browses and pastures in droves of a dozen. 
 
 The best time to shoot these animals is when they go to the 
 pools to quench their thirst and wallow in the mire, which they 
 always do once in twenty-four hours. Occasionally the Rhi- 
 noceros, like the Elephant, is taken in pitfalls. The mother is 
 affectionate and guards her offspring with tender care. The 
 young also show strong attachment to the mother, clinging to her 
 for days afler she has been killed. The general appearance of 
 the African Rhinoceros is that of an immense hog, with the bris- 
 tles off, excepting a tuft at the extremity of the ears and tail ; it 
 has no hair whatever, and is the "very image of ugliness." 
 The full grown male of the common white species, weighs not 
 less than four or five thousand pounds, or as much as three good 
 sized oxen. The Rhinoceros is long lived, attaining, as is 
 thought, the age of one hundred years. Unwieldly as he ap- 
 pears, he is still swift of foot, at least this is true of the black 
 species. Gordon Gumming,' in his "Adventures in Africa," 
 says, "that a horse with a rider, can rarely manage to overtake 
 it." The food of this animal consists of vegetables, grasses, 
 shoots of trees, and all kinds of grain 5 but it is not a voracious 
 feeder. The statement that the hide of the rhinoceros is " im- 
 penetrable to a bullet," is now regarded as pure myth ; for "a 
 common leaden ball will find its way through the hide with the 
 greatest facility." In consequence of the solid structure of the 
 head, and the great thickness of the hide in that part, and the 
 smallnessof the brain, a shot aimed atthehead rarely proves fatal. 
 
PACHYIERMATA. 159 
 
 The cavity of the brain in this animal holds but one quart, while 
 that of the human skull will contain nearly three pints. How- 
 ever severely wounded, the JEUiinoceros seldom bleeds externally ; 
 the hide teing so thick and elastic and not firmly attached to the 
 body, but constantly moving, the hole made by a bullet almost 
 immediately closes up. Very many of these animals are an- 
 nually destroyed in South Africa. . Anderson, from whom we 
 gathered many of the particulars here given, states, in bis "Lake 
 Ngami," that Messrs. Oswell and Vardon killed, in one year, 
 eighty-nine of these animals, and that be himself, " single handed,- 
 killed in the same time nearly two-thirds of that number. Cum- 
 ming, in his "Adventures," states that these animals are attended 
 by what are called " Rhinoceros-birds," which stick their bills in 
 the ear of the Rhinoceros, and uttering a harsh, grating cry, 
 warn him of impending danger. These birds feed upon the 
 ticks and other parasitic insects which swarm upon these animals. 
 
 Hippopotamus, (Gr. "htnog, hippos, a horse ; mna/ibg, polarnds,' 
 a river.) The River Horse. (Four-hoofed.) 
 
 ■ This gigantic inhabitant of the African rivers is formidable in 
 his strength, and in bulk inferior only to the Elephant. The 
 ancients named him River-Horse, on account of the sinularity 
 of his voice to that of a horse. The form of this animal is m 
 the highest degree uncouth ; the body being extremely large, fat 
 and round ; the legs very short and clumsy. So low, indeed, at 
 times is the animal in the body, that the belly almost brushes the 
 ground. The head is exceedingly la,rge, the mouth of enormous 
 width, and the teeth of vast size and strength. (Plate IV. fig. 6.) 
 The canines or tusks of these animals, of which there are two in 
 each jaw, sometimes measure more than two feet in length, and 
 weigh upwards of six pounds each ; so hard and strong are they 
 that they strike fire with steel, which gave rise to tlie fable of the 
 ancients that the River-Horse vomits fire from his 'mouth. The 
 tusks of the lower jaw are always the hardest. The hoofs £tre di- 
 vided into four paits, unconnected by membranes. The skin, neacly 
 an inch thick, is destitute of covering, except a few scattered 
 hairs on the muzzle, edges of the ears and tstil. The color, 
 when on land, is of a purple browns but when seen at the bottom 
 of a pool, it appears to be of a dark blue, or as described by Dr. 
 Burohell, "of a light hue of Indian ink." As in the Croco- 
 dile, the upper mandible is said to be movable. The inside of 
 the mouth has been described bv a recent writer, as resembling 
 " a mass of butcher's meat." The pyes, (which have been com- 
 pared to the garret- windows of a Dutch Cottage,) the nostrils, and 
 the ears are idl on nearly the same plane. This give& the use of 
 
160 PACHiTDEKMATA. 
 
 three senses, and allows of respiration, with a very snnall portion 
 of the animal exposed, when it rises to the surface of the water. 
 
 Two species are found in Africa, viz. : H. amphibius, (Gr. 
 afiq>l, amphi, double ; (?»(m<), Moo, to live,) and M. Liberiensis, 
 (some consider these, however, one and the same species ;) the 
 latter is much the smaller of the two. They range from the 
 Cape Colony to 22o or 23° N. Lat., being found in the lakes and 
 rivers, but in no rivers which empty into the Mediteranean, ex- 
 cept the Nile, and that part of it which flows through Upper 
 Egypt, or in the fens and lakes of Ethiopia. They- inhabit both 
 fresh and salt water, but are retiring before the advance of civil- 
 ization. This animal is believed to have once existed in Asia, 
 but on that continent has now become extinct. 
 
 The adult male of this species, H, amphibius, attains a length 
 of 11 or 12 feet, and is nearly the same number of feet in cir- 
 cumference. The height is seldom more than 4j feet ; the 
 female is considerably smaller than the male. The water seems 
 the native element of the Hippopotamus, in which it swims and 
 dives like a duck, and taking into account its unwieldly bulk, in 
 a manner truly astonishing. When on land,' with its dumpy 
 legs supporting so enormous a weight, its progress is anything 
 but rapid. Seldom does it wander far from water, to which it 
 immediately betakes itself when disturbed or alarmed. 
 
 It is nocturnal, rarely feeding except during the night, for that 
 purpose taking to the shore, it being an herbaceous animal. It 
 appears rather nice in the selection of its food, which consists of 
 grass, young reeds and bulbous succulent roots. When near 
 cultivated districts, it ravages plantations of rice and grain, des- 
 troying as much by the treading of its enormpus feet as by its 
 voraciousness. 
 
 These animals are gregarious, being found in troops of from 
 six to thirty. It is said tcr be " amusing to watch them when con- 
 gregated ; to see them alternately rising and sinking, as if im- 
 pelled by some invisible agency, in the wiiile snorting most tre- 
 mendously and blowing the water in every direction." Some- 
 times they continue perfectly motionless near the surface, with 
 the whole or part of the head out of the water. When in this 
 position, they are described as appearing, at a little distance, 
 " like so many rocks." By some zoologists, they are represented 
 as naturally mild and inoffensive. This may be true of them in 
 regions rarely visited by the foreign hunter and the firelock ; 
 but it is certain they have at times shown themselves to be most 
 ferocious and hurtful. Their memory seems good, and seldom 
 do they expose themselves to a second attack in the same place. 
 
PACHVDERMATA. 161 
 
 That they naturally are fond of the aquatic element, is; shown 
 by the fact that if the mother be shot dead just after calving, the 
 young one will immediately make for the water. The natives har- 
 poon them in a manner similar to that adopted with the whale ; 
 if killed outright the animal sinks, but in half a day reappears. 
 The flesh is highly esteemed ; the tongue is regarded as a 
 great deli{;acy, and the fat of the animal forms a capital substi- 
 tute, for butter. 
 
 The hides of these animals form no mean article of commerce in 
 the Cape Colony ; in Northern Africa they are made into whips for 
 the dromedary, and also for punishing refractory servants. The 
 ancient Egyptians used the hide largely in the manufacture of 
 shields, helmets, javelins, etc. But the teeth, (canine and inci- 
 sor,) are the most valuable part of this animal. They are con- 
 sidered much superior to Elephant's ivory, and when perfect and 
 heavy, (say from five tc eight pounds each,) have been known to 
 bring about five dollars a pound.. They do not leadily turn yel- 
 low, as is, frequently the case with Elephant's ivory, and. on that 
 account are more valuable for artificial teeth. 
 
 Medicinal qualities are attributed to certain portions of the 
 body of the River Horse. These animals are easily domesti- 
 cated but are very voracious. , One of them now in the Regent's 
 Park Gardens, (London,) when first shipped at Alexandria, 
 Egypt, and yet comparatively a " baby," consumed daUy the 
 milk of two cows and three goats. This portion, until supple- 
 mented with Indian corn, did not, however, suflSce to satisfy his 
 enormous appetite. " On his arrival at the gardens, oat-meal 
 was substituted for Indian corn ; and the change, with an extra 
 supply of milk, seemed to give the gigantic infant great satisfac- 
 tion." Vegetable diet was by degrees administered j'nr place of 
 milk ; at the present time the animal is. fed on clover, hay, corn, 
 chaff, bran, mangel wurlzel, carrots and white cabbage. The 
 three last named vegetables constitute his favorite food. On a 
 daily allowance of 100 lbs. of this kind of food, he thrives aston- 
 ishingly well, as is proved by the fact that weighing 1,000 lbs. 
 when he first arrived, he now weighs more than 3,000 lbs. Not 
 less than six bushels of chewed grass Was found in the stomach, 
 of one examined by Mr. Burchell. ' 
 
 Tajdrus. The Tapir. ^ 
 . Of this genus of Pachydermatous quadrupeds there are three 
 species ; two of them found in South America, the other in Sum- 
 atra and Malacca. The general characters of this genus are the 
 following ; the molar teeth, which are seven on each side above 
 and six below, " have their crowns crossed by two transverse and 
 
162 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 Straight ridges, at least, until worn down by attrition; the inci- 
 sors in each jaw are six ; the canines two, separated from the 
 molars by a wide interval ; the nose is elongated into a short 
 flexible trunk ; the feet have four toes before and tliree behind ; 
 the sltin is dense and thinly covered with short, close hair." In 
 its general form and contour, this animal reminds the beholder 
 of a hog ; but it is distinguished from the hog by its flexible 
 trunk, which answers partly the same purpose as that of the 
 elephant. (See Chart.) The trunk has not, however, any fin- 
 ger-like appendage like that of the latter animal. The eyes are 
 small and lateral, and the ears long and pointed. 
 
 The American Tapik, T, Americanus, is the largest animal 
 of South America. It is of a deep brown color throughout, 
 approaching to black ; between three and four feet in height, 
 and from five to six in length. The hair is short and very 
 scanty, so that it is scarcely discernible at a short distance. 
 The back of the neck is bristled with a thin mane of stifi" black, 
 ish hairs. The inmost recesses of deep forests are the chosen 
 resorts of this species, which is not gregaripus, and avoids 
 the society of man. For the most part, it is nocturnal in its 
 habits, sleeping, or remaining quiet during the day, and at 
 night seeking its food, which, in the natural state of the anl- 
 mal, consists of shoots of trees, birds, wild fruits, etc. It is, 
 however, when in confinement, an indiscriminate swallower of 
 every thing, filthy or clean. Its enormous muscular power and 
 the tough, thick hide which defends its body, enable it to tear its 
 way through the underwood in whatever direction it pleases. 
 Its ordinary pace is a sort of trot ; but it sometimes gallops, 
 though awkwardly, and with the head down. It is very fond of 
 the water,; and often resorts to it, sometimes remaining below. the 
 surface for a considerable time. Its disposition is peaceful and 
 quiet ; it will, however, defend itself vigorojjsly, and inflict se- 
 vere wounds with its teeth, though it never attempts to attack 
 either man or beast, unless hard pressed. The Jaguar often 
 springs upon it, but is frequently dislodged by the activity of the 
 Tapir, who rushes through the bushes as soon as he feels the 
 claws of his enemy, and endeavors to brush him off" against the 
 thick branches. In s?wie parts of South America the Tapir is 
 domesticated. M. Sonnini saw several of them ♦' walking at lib- 
 erty about the streets of Cayenne, whence they were accustomed 
 to stroll into the neighboring woods, returning at night to their 
 home ; nor were they by any means destitute of intelligence, but 
 seemed fond of their masters, whom they not only recognized, 
 but. acknowledged by various tokens of attachment." In his 
 opinion, the Tapir might, from its great strength and docility, be 
 
PACHYDERMATA. 163 
 
 advantageously used as a beast of burden. ' The sight, hearing 
 and smell of this animal are very acute. It is in much request 
 by the natives for its flesh, which, though coarse and dsy, they 
 deem excellent food. The skin is also valuable, from its tough- . 
 ness and density. _L 
 
 T. Malayanus, (or T. Indicus.) The Malay or Asiatic Tapir is 
 larger than the American, which it resembles in form and gen- 
 eral habits. Its back and sides are of a grayish white, abruptl^r , 
 edging the browa of the other parts, which gives the animal an" 
 appearance as if a white horse-cloth had been spread over it; 
 Ihe neck is destitute of a mane. Its flesh is eaten by the natives 
 of Sumatra. In captivity, like the South American animal, it is 
 gentle and inoffensive, "becoming as tame and familiar as a dog, 
 feeding indiscriminately on all kinds of vegetables, and some- 
 times fond of attending at table to receive bread, cakes, or the 
 like." The young, as is the case with the American species, 
 differs in color from the adult, being, at the age of four or five 
 months, black, beautifully marked with spots and stripes of a 
 fawn color above, and white below, 
 
 A third species has been discovered in the Cordilleras of South 
 America, co-vered with thick black hair, and with a more elonga- 
 ted trunk. 
 
 Hyrax,{Gr.''vQa?, hurax, from°t)s, hus, a swine.) The animals 
 of this genus are small, and aptly described in the Holy Scriptures, 
 as "a feeble folk," but of great interest on account of the pecul- 
 iarity of their organization. "They are rhinoceroses in minia- 
 fure." Cuvier, by a recourse to the anatomy of the Hyrax, 
 proved it to be a true Pachyderm ;' and "notwithstanding the 
 smallness of its proportions," intermediate between the Rhinoce- 
 ros and the Tapir. This animal has twenty-one ribs on each 
 side, a number greater than that possessed by any other quadru- 
 ped, the Unau excepted, which has twenty-three. Its molar 
 teeth resemble those of the Rhinoceros, as it does also in the 
 characters of its stomach and alimentary canal. The body is 
 covered with thick hair, and "beset here and there with erinace- 
 ous bristles." It has a simple tubercle in lieu of a tail ; four 
 toes on each fore foot, and three on the hind ones. 
 
 H. Syriacus. The Daman of Syria, the Coney of the Bible, is 
 of a brownish gray color above, and has the lower parts white ; 
 these two colors being separated by a yellowish tint, and the head 
 and feet being more gray than the body. The skin, where it is 
 exposed, isof a blackish violet. The length is about two feet; the 
 height eleven inches. It stands rather low on the legs, being par. 
 tially plantigrade ; its body is stout for its size, which is hardly equal 
 
164 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 that of a hare. It skips about with great agility, and its actions 
 evince a sportive and playful disposition ; in captivity it becomes 
 docile and affectionate. The Conies make their houses among 
 the T;ocks. Proverbs xxx; 26. "The nature of their retreats 
 renders the capture of these animals very difficult. To behold 
 this creature among the craggy and broken mountain scenery of 
 the land of the Psalmist, where he noticed it himself, and recorded 
 the goodness of God in providing a refuge for a defenceless ani- 
 mal, surrounded with numerous enemies, the jackall, the hyaena, 
 and the eagle, cannot but raise in the mind that train of reflections 
 which led David to exclaim, "O Lord, how manifold are thy 
 works! in wisdom hast thou made them all!" 
 
 The Conies or Damans, associate in considerable numbers, 
 coming forth from their retreats during the day, ,but flee on 
 any alarm, to their holes in the rocks, or in the steep declivities 
 of mountains, there resting themselves in their nests prepared of 
 leaves and grasses. Their food consists of the roots and vegeta-' 
 bles of mountain districts. In walking they steal along as if 
 frightened, with the belly almost oq the ground, advancing a few 
 steps at a time, and then pausing. Their whole manner is mild, , 
 feeble and timid ; they are easily tamed, though if roughly hand' 
 led at first, they will bite. It was classed among the unclean an- 
 imals of the Jews. Lev. xi : 5. In Abyssiiiia, its flesh is con- 
 sidered unclean, both by Christians and Mohammedans. The 
 Arabs, it is said, eat it and carll it, perhaps in jest, " the sheep of 
 the children of Israel." 
 
 H. Capensi^. The Klipdas, closely resembles the Syrian ani- 
 mal. In winter, it is fond of coming out of its hole- and "sunning 
 itself on the lee-side of a rook," and in summer, of enjoying a 
 breeze on the top ; but in both instances, as well as when it feeds, 
 a sentinel, which is generally an old male, is on the look out, and 
 usually gives notice by a prolonged, shrill cry, of the approach 
 of danger. 
 
 Palaeotherium, (Gr. ntxhtiig, palaios, ancient, and OtigUtv, the- 
 rion, a wild beast.) 
 
 This is the name given by Cuvier to an extinct genus of Pachy- 
 dermatous animals, discovered in the gypsum beds of Paris, in 
 company With Anoplotheriwn. Of this fossil genus, nearly fifty 
 species have been discovered. Remains of Palaiolheria have 
 been found in the tertiary formation near Rome, the department 
 of the Gironde, Provence, etc., and in the lower and marly beds 
 of Binstead, in the Isle (3f Wight. The zoological position of the 
 genus appears to be intermediate between the Rhinoceros, Horse 
 and Tapir. The habits of the animals which it included were 
 
PACHYDEEMATA.; 165 
 
 probably like those of the Tapirs. Dr. Bucklatid supposes that 
 they lived and died upon the margins of lakes and rivers. The 
 species varied greatly in size, some having been as large as a 
 Rhinoceros, and others having ranged from the size of a horse to 
 that of a dog. In relation to the discovery of this fossiL genus, 
 Cuvier thus writes : "I found .myself as if placed in a charnel 
 house, surrounded by mutilated fragments of many hundred 
 skeletons of more than twenty kinds of animals, piled confusedly 
 around me ; the task assigned me was to restore them all to their 
 original position. At the voice of Comparative Anatomy, every 
 hone and fragment of bone resumed its place, I cannot find 
 words to express the pleasure I experienced in seeing, when I 
 discovered one character, how all the consequences which I pre- 
 dicted from it, were successively confirmed. The feet accorded 
 with the characters announced by the teeth; the teeth were in 
 harmony with those previously indicated by the feet. The bones 
 of the legs and thighs, and every connecting portion of the ex- 
 tremities, were found to be joined together precisely as I had 
 arranged them before my conjectures were verified by the dis- 
 covery of the parts entire. Each species was, in fact, recon- 
 structed from a single unit of its composing elements." The Pa- 
 Jxieotheria were characterized by having twenty-eight complex 
 molar teeth, four canines, and twelve incisors; six in each jaw, 
 
 Awplotlierium, (Gr. from iiy, an, neg ; Snlo!', hoplon, a weapon ; 
 dtigioy therion, a wild beast.) 
 
 This name, signifying a beast without offensive arms or tusks, 
 was given to a genus of extinct Pachyderms, found by Cuvier in 
 company with the Palaeotberia, and named by him, ranging be- 
 tween the Pachydermata and Ruminantia. 
 
 III. Family of the Pachydermata. (PI, VI. fig. 8.) T, 
 
 Equidae, (Lat. EqmiSf a horse.) Solid-ungulous, or one-hoofed 
 Mammalia. These Pachyderms have but a single finger or toe, 
 terminating each extremity ; and this finger or toe is enclosed in 
 a horny hoof or shoe. They include Horses, Asses, and the 
 Zebra. Of these the Horses are far the most valuable and most 
 widely distributed. Instead of the massive form and heavy tread 
 of the Elephant, these animals approach to slender forms, and 
 they (especially the horses,) resemble in their graceful propor- 
 tions, and their fleet movements, the Deer and the Antelope. 
 They are distinguished from other animals, not only by the un- 
 divided hoof, but by their stomach, which is simple and incapable 
 of rumination. Their intestines are much lengthened, and thus 
 adapted to their food, which consists entirely of herbage. "The 
 Asses and the Zebras," says Dr. Gray, " are always whitish and 
 
166 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 more or less banded with blackish brown, arid always have a dis- 
 tinct dorsal line, the tail only bristly at the end, and they have 
 warts only on the arms, (fore legs,) and none on the hind legs; 
 and have long hair on the tail, from its insertion to its extremity." 
 
 The number of .teeth in this family is forty-two, viiz. twelve 
 incisors or nippers, four canines and twenty-six molars. While 
 the animal is young, the incisors have their crowns furnished 
 with a groove; the molars have square crowns marked or edgetJ 
 with four crescents of enamel. Between the canines (which 
 are developed in the male alone,) and the first molar, is a broad, 
 open space, which is capable of receiving the bit, (see Plate IV. 
 fig. .^,) with which these animals are governed when in a state of 
 domestication. The female ordinarily produces one young at a 
 time, which is called a foal, and suckled during six or seven 
 months. Africa and Asia are the native regions of the Eqtjid^. 
 They range in large herds over the extended plains and table 
 lands which are uncovered with forests. Two species, the 
 Horse and the Ass, have been domesticated and widely dispersed 
 over the earth. ■ 
 
 E. cdballus, (Lat. a Keffel or Saddle Horse,) The Horse. 
 
 It has been well remarked that if custom had not dignified the 
 Lion with the title of "King of beasts," reason could no where 
 confer that honor more deservedly than on the horse. His cour- 
 age, strength, fleetness, his symmetrical form and grandeuV of 
 deportment, are unalloyed by anyquality injurious to other crea. 
 tures, or adapted to create the aversion of man, whose orders he 
 implicitly obeys, whose severest tasks he undertakes with a 
 cheerful alacrity, and to whose pleasures he contributes with an- 
 imation and delight. On the battle-field, he shows the most res- 
 olute fierceness and courageous ardor. In the poetical language 
 of the sacred writings, " His neck is clothed with thunder. The 
 glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth the valley and re- 
 joiceth in his strength. He goeth on to meet armed men. He 
 mocketh at danger and is not affrighted ; neither turneth he 
 back from the sword." (Job, xxxix.) 
 
 Much discussion has existed concerriing what region the Horse 
 originally inhabited, and to what nation we are indebted for his 
 first subjugation. It is well known this animal is found wild in 
 the Western as well as the Eastern Continent ; but there is 
 no doubt it was at first confined to the latter, where the wild spe. 
 cies, such as the Zebra, the Quagga, etc., still range in freedom. 
 The testimony, of the sacred writings is decidedly in favor of the 
 eastern origin of the horse, making it quite evident that the 
 Egyptians first subdued it to obedience and servitude. The first 
 mention of the hoT « occurs during Joseph's wise administration 
 
JAOHYDERMATA. ► 167 
 
 in, Egypt, who, it is said, gave bread to the famishing in exchange 
 for horses ; and when the remains of the patriarch, Jacob, were 
 removed from Egypt to Canaan for burial, we read "there went 
 up, with him botli chariots and horsemen." This shows that 
 horses were used both for draught and burden 1650 years before 
 the birth of Christ, which is earlier than the date of any profane 
 history in relation to this subject. The Egyptian and Nubian 
 horses are still among the handsorpest, but 4'i'^bia bears the palm 
 in producing the most beautiful breed of horses, and also the 
 most generous, swift, courageous and persevering. "The Arab 
 treats his horse as one of his family; it lives in the same tent 
 with him7 eats from his hand, and sleeps among hi^ children, who 
 tumble about on it without the least fear. Few Arabs can be in- 
 duced to part with a favorite horse." It is related that " an Arab, 
 the net value of whose dress and accouterments might be calcu- 
 lated at under seven pence half penny, refused all offers made to 
 purchase a beautiful -mare on which he rode, and declared that 
 he loved the 'animal better than his own life." The Arabian 
 horses are in height not often more than fourteen hands two 
 inches. They are found, though not in great numbers, in the 
 deserts of that,, country, and the natives make use of every strat- 
 agem to take them, Reserving the most promising for breeding, 
 and instead of crossing, as is done in other countries, taking 
 every pains to keep the breed pure. Some have supposed that 
 to Arabia we are indebted for the primitive breed of this, noble 
 animal and its subjugation to the use of man. Mr. Bell, how- 
 ever, who is high authority in this subject, says in his "History 
 of British Quadrupeds," "there is great reason to conclude that^ 
 it was only at a comparatively late period that they were em- 
 ployed by that people. While Solomon was recei^ng from 
 Arabia treasures of various kinds, it was from Egypt only that 
 his horses were brought. There, appears great probability in the 
 opinion that Egypt, or its neighborhood, is the original country, 
 and still more that this extraordinary people first rendered it sub- 
 servient to man, and subsequently distributed it to other coun- 
 tries." 
 
 In Brando's Dictionary of Science, dsc, it is remarked that 
 " wild horses appear to be free from nearly all those diseases to 
 which the domestic breed are prone." 
 
 The wild horse is found in immense numbers in the vast 
 plains of Great Tartary, and also in South America in the rich 
 pampas extending from La Plata to Paraguay. The wild horses 
 of South America are undoubtedly descended from those of An- 
 dalusia, originally carried thither by the Spanish conquerors. 
 
168 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 When caught, they are easily subjugated and valuable for their 
 speed, hardness and strength. The usual method of taking 
 them is by the lasso, a running noose at the end of a long 
 leathern thong, thrown with wonderfal precision and capable of 
 bearing a sudden and violent strain. 
 
 The horse is a herbivorous animal, as its teeth indicate, and > 
 is more scrupulous in the choice of its food than most other 
 quadrupeds, rejecting in the meadow several plants which the ox 
 devours with pleasure. By the peculiar structure of some of 
 the bones of his face, he is enabled to so move his jaws as to 
 comminute and grind down his corn. The best method of judgi. 
 ing of a horse's age is from a careful investigation of its teeth. 
 "Five days after birth, the four teeth in front, called nippers, 
 begin to shoot ; these are cast off at the age of two years and a 
 half, but are soon renewed, and in the following year two above 
 and two below, namely otte on each side of the nippers, are also 
 thrown off; at four years and a half, other four next those last 
 placed fall out and are succeeded by other four, which grow 
 much more slowly. From these last four corner teeth it is that 
 the animal's age is distinguished^ for they are somewhat hollowed 
 in the middle and have a black mark in the cavities. At five 
 years old these teeth scarcely rise above tlffe gums ; at six their 
 hollow pits begin to fill up and turn to a brown spot, and before 
 eight years the mark generally disappears. A horse's age is 
 also indicated by the canine teeth or tusks, for those in the under 
 jaw generally shOot at three years and a half, and the two in the 
 upper at four ; till six they continue sharp at the points, but at 
 ten they appear long and blunted. There are, however, many 
 circufnstances which render a decision as to the age very diffi. 
 cult afteAhe marks are defaced from the lower incisors ; and it 
 should be observed that horses which are always kept in the sta- 
 ble have the marks much sooner worn out than those that are at 
 grass, to say nothing of the various artful tricks resorted to by 
 dealers and jockeys to deceive the inexperienced and unwary." 
 We must refer to other works far interesting particulars respect- 
 ing the various breeds of horses and the different kinds used, Bs 
 the Race Horses, supposed tohaVe been originally of the Arabian 
 breed, the Hunter, the Roadster, the Carriage Horse, the Dray 
 Horse, the Cart Horse, &c., and the smaller varieties, such as 
 the Shetland Pony, Galloway, &c. 
 
 The Horse is capable of strong attachment toman and to other 
 animals. Among the numerous anecdotes illustrating this re- 
 mark are the following : "A horse and a cat were great friends, 
 and the latter generally slept in a manger. When the horse 
 
PACHYDEKMATA. 169 
 
 was going to have his oats, he always took up the cat gently 
 by the skin of her neck and dropped her into the next stall, that 
 she might not be in his way while he was feeding. At all other 
 times he seemed pleased to have her neaj; him." 
 
 Two Hanoverian horses had long served together during the 
 Peninsular War, in the German brigade of .artillery. They had 
 assisted in drawing the same gun and had been inseparable com- 
 panions in many battles. One of them was at last killed, and 
 after the engagement the survivor was picqueted as usual and 
 his food brought to him. He refiased, however, to eat, and was 
 constantly turning round his hea'd to look for his companion, 
 sometimes neighing as if to call him. . All the care that was 
 bestowed on him was of no avail. He was surrounded by other 
 horses, but he did not notice . them, ; and he shortly afterwards 
 died, not having once tasted food from. the time his former associate 
 was killed., A gentleman who witnessed the circumstance as- 
 sured me that nothing could be more affecting than the whole 
 demeanor of this poor horse." * 
 
 Of the age to which the horse would naturally arrive, it is 
 difficult to speak with certainty. The animal sometimes exceeds 
 thirty or forty years, and it has even exceeded fifty years in age, 
 but from ill usage^Sind over exertion the majority come to their 
 end before they have seen nine or ten^ years. The horse is now 
 spread over every part of the Western Continent. The natives 
 of Terra del.Faego are well stpcked with horses, each man hav- 
 ing six or seven, and all the women and even the children have 
 their own horses. With the horses are found herds of wild oxen. 
 The number of mustangs or wild horses found in South Amer- 
 ica may be judged of from the fact that from 1838 to 1842, 
 90,000,000 lbs. of oxen and horses' hides, and 9,500,000 lbs. of 
 horse hair were obtained within tiie limits of Monte Video and 
 Buenos Ayres. In his " Fauna Boreali Americana," Sir John 
 Richardson says that the horse is found amongst the wandering 
 Indians who frequent the. prairies of Saskatchewan and the Mis- 
 souri, and who use it for chasing the Buffalo as well as a beast 
 of burden. Among the Indians as well as the Guachos, the 
 horse is eaten. It is also eaten by the Calmuck Tartars ; and in 
 many parts of Asia, mare's milk is taken as an article of diet. 
 It is converted into butter and cheese, and a favorite beverage 
 amongst the Tartars is made by fermenting it. 
 
 Equus Asinus, (Lat. Ass.) The Ass. 
 
 The ass was anciently employed by the Orientals for, common 
 
 • "Gleaaings in Nat. Hist." 
 
170 fACHYDEEMATA. 
 
 purposes more than the horse. They seem to have looked upon 
 the horse as rather fitted for war and scenes of pomp and stale. 
 The ancients were ignorant of the art of shoeing the horse's hoof 
 with iron, and found ij more easily injured by travel on hard 
 roads and by long journeys than the harder hoof of the Ass. The 
 hoofs of horses were .usually protected by sandals of thick close 
 felt. From time immemorial, the ass has, in Oriental countries, 
 been the servant of man, and its introduction into Europe and 
 this country must be regarded as comparatively recent. Though 
 out of its native climes, it seems strong, patient and hardy, still 
 it is much different from the animal of the East. Here it is dull 
 and slow, small and clumsy; there it is larger, well made, light, 
 footed with a sprightly pace, and carries its head high. White 
 asses were in ancient times highly valued. Upon them those 
 rode who sat in judgment. Judges, v. 10; and our Saviour, too, 
 appears to have honored this animal by riding " upon the foal of 
 an ass upon which never man sat." 'Mark, xi. 3. Asses made 
 no inconsiderable part of the wealth of the Hebrew patriarchs. 
 
 The Mule is a mixed breed between the horse and the ass, an 
 animal not much sought after among us, but extensively used in 
 the East for riding, and in Spain is the chief beast of burden. 
 It is very strong and sure footed, and is for ^t reason employed 
 in the Andes of South America instead of tne Llama, and also 
 used in other mountainous countries. 
 
 jE. asinus onager, or onagga. The Kotjlaik or Wild Ass is 
 of a pale reddish color in the warmer season, in the winter gray- 
 ish. It is found abundantly in Mesopotamia and Persia, and on 
 the shores of the Indus. Bishop Heber says no attempt has ever 
 been made to break in the wild Ass for riding. The ears are 
 two inches longer in the male than in the female. ,,. In the tame 
 species the ears are elongated and acute, but in this and the 
 other wild species are moderately short and rounded. 
 
 E. asinus hemionus. The Dizigguetai. 
 
 The name Dizigguetai, given to this species, has been spelled 
 in seven or eight different ways. It is said to refer, in the Moni 
 gol language, to the large ears of this animal, which exceed in 
 size those of a horse. This species are found in Oriental Tar- 
 tary, and the wild regions of China and Persia. This is the 
 wild ass of Scripture. " Who hath sent out the wild ass free ? 
 or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass ? Whose house I 
 have made the wilderness and the barren land his dwellings. 
 The range of the mcuntains is his pasture, and he searcheth af- 
 ter every green thing." Job, xxxix chapt. 
 
 The Dizigguetai, or Dziggtai, is in size intermediate between 
 
PACHYDEEMATA. 171 
 
 the horse and the ass, and in disposition extremely wild and un- 
 tamable. Its limbs are finely proportioned, showing the lightness 
 and elegance of the stag, combined with the power of great mus- 
 cular exertion. It runs with great rapidity, carrying its head 
 erect, §nuffing up the wind and defying the speed of the fleetest 
 coursers. Sir R. Ker Porter gives an amusing account of an 
 unsuccessful chase of one of these animals,, which he was un- 
 able to overtake, though mounted on a very swift Arabian horse. 
 This roamer in the " wilderness " and " barren land," lives in 
 troops, like the wild horse, being guided by a 'leader or chief, on 
 which the movements of the rest depend. The flesh is esteemed 
 a delicacy by the Mongols, who occasionally rpanage to shoot 
 the leader and thus throw the troop into confusion, sojhatsweral 
 fall before they take their flight. The fur is short, smooth, and of a 
 bright red bay, the legs of a straw color. The males are the more 
 deeply colored and larger, often Standing 14 hands high. These 
 animals live partly on the plains and partly on the mountains, 
 and from this fact perhaps, the lower surface of the hoof shows 
 considerable variation in form and concavity. They are found 
 in a climate where the temperature is below the freezing point 
 in the middle of summer, yet they throw off their pale woolly 
 coat during that sea^^ and become bright bay. . 
 
 Equus montanus,^^ Asinus Zebra.) The Zebra. 
 
 This species is native to Africa, confined to the mountains, for 
 traversing which their hoofs are expressly formed. The ground 
 color is white, with black bands on the head, body and legs to the 
 Hoofs ; the nose is reddish ; the belly and inside of the thighs 
 not banded ; the end of the tail is blackish ; the hoofs narrow 
 and deeply concave beneath. The Zebra has scarcely ever 
 been brought ^nder the bit. Sometimes, however, in spite 
 of its vicious habits, it has been trained to draw a carriage. 
 It is fierce and strong and universally admired for its fleetness 
 and beauty. The voice of the Zebra is very peculiar and can- 
 not be described. We have said above that the ground color is 
 white ; this is true of the female, but in the male the ground, 
 color is yellowish fawn. It is often a prey to the lion, and also 
 to the untutored natives, by whom its flesh is regarded as a great 
 delicacy. * 
 
 The Equus Burchelli, or the Peechi, is a native of the plains, 
 inhabiting, in small companies, the flat country lying north of the 
 Cape of Good Hope and stretching into the interior. This is a 
 strong, muscular animal, and might be used as a beast oi bur- 
 den. The head, neck, shoulders and back are covered with al. 
 lernate stripes of white and black ; the nose is white, with faint 
 
 8 
 
172 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 black markings ; the black stripes of the body become fainter on 
 the haunches and disappear on the under parts. 
 
 jE. Quagga, or A. Quagga. The name, (Quagga,) of this ani- 
 mal, expresses the souiid of its voice, which, in some degree, is 
 like the ■ barking of a dog. It is now sometimes tamed by the 
 natives and used for purposes of draught, and occasionally a half 
 domesticated specimen is offered for sale at Cape Town with a 
 rider on its back ; but in the most tractable State to which it has 
 hitherto been reduced, it is regarded as vicious, obstinate and 
 ficklei 
 
 ORDER PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 Give the derivation of the term Pacbtdebmata. Why are the animals 
 of this order so called ? Where are they found ? What genus appeals 
 wild in Europe ? What is the nature of their food ? What peculiarity 
 have the canine or incisor teeth ? How is the muzzle prolonged ? What 
 is said of the size and strength of these animals ? 
 
 From what is the family name PiiOBOScrDEA derived? What does it in- 
 clude ? How many species of the .Elephant ? By what are both species 
 distinguished ? How do they compare as to genera,! characters and habits ? 
 In what respects do they differ ? What is said of the molar teeth ? What 
 peculiarity in the manner in which they succ eed each other? In what 
 bones are the tusks seated . Describe the .tusk!HH7hat is said respecting 
 their length 'and weight ? How is the foot enclo^W? What is required by 
 the immense weight of the head ? What is said of the muscles of the 
 neck? To what is the entire structure compared? What is Said of th? 
 internal organization ? Which is the most remarkable part of the Ele- 
 phant? What are its uses? How many muscles has it? Describe it. 
 What is found at its extremity ? What is said of th^ skin» head, tail and 
 general appearance of the Elephant ? Wha.t indicates its very great force ? 
 What is the East India Compt^ny's standard as to height for j. serviceable 
 Elephant? Where are the largest found? What use has been made of 
 them by Eastern princes ? What use was made of ivorj^n ancient times ? 
 What weight of it was exported to Great Britain in 1831,2. , How great 
 a destruction of Elephants did this involve? Mention the chief marts 
 whence ivory is obtained. For what purpose is it most used in England? 
 Where in Europe are ivory articles manufactured most extensively ? What 
 people excel in preparing ivory articles ? Where are Elephants still found 
 in great numbers ? Of what roots are they especially Ibnd ? What ingen- 
 ious use do they make of their tusks ? How is this animal stimulated to 
 extra effort ? Repeat the story showing his love of sweet things. What is 
 said of his, senses? What of his fondness for certain flowers and plants? 
 Why is he not often bred in captivity ? For what is he trained in India ? 
 What is said of his fondness for water ? How is he captured ? What Kllu- 
 sions to the Elephant are found in the Holy Scriptures ? What is said of 
 their affections? How illustrated ? How are they influenced by kindness ? 
 Give examples showing their sagacity and power of memory. Derive the 
 specific name of the JiaOTmo<A. What is said of their remains? Givetjie 
 derivatien of the term Mastodon. Is this a living or extinct genus ? In 
 whf»t deposits are its remains foilnd? How is it principally distinguished 
 
PACHYDEEMATA. 173 
 
 from the Elephant? What more is said of it? To what is the term Jfam- 
 moth properly applied ? Where have numerous remains of the Mastodoji 
 been discovered? 
 
 From what is the term Snin^ derived? How many species does it in- 
 clude ? What is the origin of the common Hog ? Where is the wild ani- 
 mal still found? How distinguished from the domestic Hog? What is 
 next Said of him? What other differences between the domestic and the 
 T^ild animal? What is said of the variety of color in the common Hog? 
 What of its habits? What people were forbidden to eat its flesh? What 
 do late experiments show ? From what may it be inferred that this animal 
 was designed to be food for man ? Give the opinion of Linaseus. Why is 
 the flesh of great importance to commercial people ? Does the value de- 
 pend chiefly upon thft size ? What is said of the Chinese breed ? What 
 further is said of the Hog ? . • . 
 
 What is the meaning of the word Babirussa ? How does this animal 
 compare with the common Hog ? What is said of its tusfcs ? Upon what 
 does it chiefly subsist? How does it elude pursuit? In what countries 
 does it abound ? What is said of a pair taken to France ? What is the 
 derivation of Pacockoertts ? Where are the animals of this genus found ? 
 Why is It called Warty-Hog? What is said of its teeth? What is indi- 
 cated by its structure ? ^ 
 
 Give the derivation of the term Dit»iyUs. Where are Peccaries fouAd ? 
 By what are they allied to the true, swine ? How do they differ ? What 
 is their most decided characteristic ? How many species ? Why is the 
 CeLLAEED PeocabtC so c^kd and where found ? What objection to it as a 
 domestic animal? Wh^fcs said of the White-lipped Peccary? Are 
 they found in great nuimrers ? 
 
 What is the derivation of the term Hhinoceroa ? In what regions is this 
 animal found? What is its rank? How many species? What is their 
 chief peculiarity ? What is the meaning of the specific term unicornis ? 
 Why is this name given to the Common East Indian Rhinoceros ? Describe 
 this animal and give its habits. What did Pennant suppose it to be? 
 What is its ordinary food ? Illustrate its capacity for food ? What more 
 is said of it ? How does the E. of India differ from that of Java ? What 
 is its range? 'VWiat does Marsden say? What is said of the E. of Suma- 
 tra? How exteBwe is the range of the R. of Africa? How does the 
 African species differ from the Asiatic? How many varieties or species 
 are found in South Africa? Describe the Black variety? What is the 
 chief difference between the two varieties ? How do the white and black 
 E. differ ? Describe the R. simus. What use is made of its horn ? What 
 account is given of the Rhinoceros ? 
 
 Give the derivation of the term Hippopotamus. Describe the character- 
 istics of this animal. How many species and what is theh' range ? Is it 
 found in Asia ? What is the size of the adult male of the H. airmhibius ? 
 What seems its native element ? What is said of it on land ? When and 
 what does it eat ? fiow do troops of them appear when in water ? What 
 fact shows their fondness for that element ? How are they harpooned ? 
 What is said of their flesh and hides'? What is the most valuable part of 
 the animal ? In what respects is their ivory superior to that of the Ele- 
 phant ? Are they easily domesticated ? What is said of one in the Re- 
 gent's Park, London ? 
 
 How many species of the Tapir? Where is it found ? Give the general 
 character of the genus. What animal does it resemble ? How does it 
 
174 PACHYDERMATA. 
 
 differ from it ? Describe the Tapir of South America. What animal often 
 springe upon it ? What is said respecting its domeBti'catiou ? What are its 
 uses ? How does the Asiatic compare with the American Tapib in size ? 
 What appearance has this aniinal ? How is it in captivity ? Where has 
 the third, species been discovered? What Scripture animal is the Hyrascl 
 How is it described ? Who proved it to be a true Pachyderm ? How many 
 ribs has it ? What larger animal does it resemble ? Describe the Daman 
 or Hyrax of Syria. Is it easily captured ? On what does it feed ? How 
 was it classed among the Jews ? What is said of the Cape Hyrax ? 
 
 Give the derivation of the term Palaeotheriwm. To what animal is it 
 applied ? How many species have been discbvered ? Where have the re- 
 mains been found ? What is the Zoological position of this genus ? What 
 were the habits ? What does Bucliland suppose f What does Cuvier say 
 respecting the discovery of this fossil genus? How is it characterized? 
 Give*he derivation of the term anoplotherivm. What does it mean ? In 
 ■what connection is it found ? 
 
 Give the derivation of Equid,*. What animals belong to the One-hoofed 
 Mammalia, or solipedes ? Mention the tTNEVEN-HooPED animals, and the 
 MuLTUNGULATE, or many hoofed ?^ What does the Horse Family include ? 
 Which are most valuable and widely distributed ? How are the EQUin^fi 
 distinguished from other animals ? What is 6aid of the Ass ? What of the 
 Zebra ? What is said of the teeth of the Equidffl ? What are their native 
 regions? Which species have become'domesticated? What does the term 
 codoHus'mean? What is said of the quaUties of the horse? What of his 
 native regions ? What of his first subjug^tion^—What countries produce 
 tbe most beautiful breed of horses ? How do^ne Arab treat his horse 1 
 Give Mr. Bell's remarks respecting the native co^mry of the horse. Where 
 is it now found ? How usually captured ? What is said of its food? How 
 is its age determined ? What is said of its attachments ? Give examples. 
 How long does it live ? How widely, diffused ? What is said concerning^ 
 the use of the Ass in Oriental countries? What of its introduction into" 
 other countries ? What is remarked respecting White Asses ? What of 
 the breed of the Mule ? Give some account of the Onagger or Onagga. 
 To what does the name Diziggujstai refer ? Where is this animal found ? 
 Describe it. Where is the Asinus Zebra found ? Giv^^ome account of 
 it. Of what country is the Eguus £urchelUi a nativ«^ What is said of 
 it ? What is said of the Asinus Quagga ? Trace the norse from the spe- 
 cies, (caballus,) through the higher divisions. 
 
 Name the three families of the order Pachydermata from the chart. 
 Mention the animals named in each, giving both the common and scientific 
 names. Give the characteristics and peculiarities of each family, genus 
 and species. Which is the largest animal of this order mentioned? Which 
 the smallest figured on the Chart ? 
 
RITMINANTIA. 175 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 EiaHTH Okder. — RUMINANTIA. (Lat. rumen, a stomach or 
 paunch.) 
 
 Ruminating, or Cud-chewing Animals. 
 
 This pre-eminently useful order includes the oxen, sheep and 
 goats, deer, giraffes and camels. They were very anciently ■ 
 recognized as a sejtarate group, and taken as a whole are ex- 
 tremely compact and well defined. The camels alone present 
 some slight exceptions to thfe general character. Each foot ends in 
 two toes, covered with two sharp pointed horny hoofs, fitting'each 
 other as though a single round hoof had been cleft in the middle. 
 Behind these are two small spurs, or rudiments of lateral toes. 
 Hence they are called animals with " divided, or bifurcate hoofs." 
 The Ruminants are well known as herbivorous. Their name 
 indicates the singular faculty which they have of masticating or 
 chewing their food a second time, and by which they are special- 
 ly diltinguished from all other animals. For this purpose they 
 are furnished with four stomachs, or one divided into four dis- 
 tinct chambei's or caAies, each having a distinct office to per- 
 form. The first is tne rumen, or paunch, in full grown animals 
 the largest of all, and covered with papillce, or flattened warts. 
 Into this passes the hard and coarsely masticated food from the 
 • beginning of the muscular canal, which is at the end of the seso- 
 phagus or gullet. From the rumen, tjie rudely bruised herbage 
 is transmitted into the second stomach, called the reticulum, or 
 hood, which is beautifully divided into hexagonal cells, like a 
 honeycomb. «jS''ater is received from the mouth into this second 
 cavity. The food is here moistened and moulded into small 
 balls or pellets, and by a rapjd and inverted action of the muscles 
 of the gullet is propelled into the mouth, where it is more per- 
 fectly masticated, mixed with fluid and again swallowed, passing 
 now into the psalterium, omasus, or manyplies, ihethird stomach. 
 The inner coat of this division is set with parallel longitudinal 
 lamintB, or folds, resembling the leaves of a book. In the sheep 
 it has forty, in the ox as many as a hundred of these folds. In 
 these plates the superfluous fluid, which might otherwise have too 
 much diluted the gastric juice, is absorbed ; and the sub-divided' 
 cud passes gradually into the fourth and last, or red stomach, 
 (abomdsus,) which is large and pear shaped, and. wrinkled and 
 hairy, as to its inner surface. This is the true digesting stom- 
 ach, and in the young, while sucking, is the largest of the fi>ur. 
 
176 RUMINANTU. 
 
 For the purpose of assisting the reader to form a correct idea 
 of this wisely arranged internal mechanism, we give' a section 
 of a stomach, as ia Plate VI. fig. 13, with the Ibllowing 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 • In the stomach of the Ruminants, (fig. 13,) the gullet or seso- 
 phagus (A) which is opened, expands into the paunch or Rumen 
 (B) which is divided by a muscular wall ; the valve (C) allows 
 the food only to pass gradually, by the action of the paunch, into- 
 the Reticulum or hood, (D,) which is opened to show the folds 
 and cells called the honeycomb, and from which the food, i?fioist- 
 ened and compressed, is passed back to the mouth and chewed 
 again. When swallowed the second time, it passes to the oma- 
 sus, or third stomach, (E.) The gullet has a fold running down 
 and walling in the orifice of the omasus, (F.) The fibres sur- 
 rounding this oi^ifice contract on the application of crude veget- 
 able matter ; but when this matter has been elaborated in the 
 reticulum, and chewed the secon.d time, the orifice expands, and 
 by the action of the muscular fibres of the stomach, is brought 
 higher up into the gullet to receive the then welcome 'kiass. 
 The laminated or leaf-like structure of the omasus, sometimes 
 called the leaflet, is shown in the figure.*From this the food 
 passes to the fojirth stomach, [abomasus, G^ which has digestive 
 powers similar to that of the simpler stomach in other animals. 
 The third stomach is the least essential to ru.minants capable of 
 enduring long thirst and of living upon dry shrubs, like the 
 Camel and Llama. It cannot properly be said to exist in them, 
 and the opening leads directly into the abomasus. It is remark, 
 able that the milk upon which young animals of this kind are 
 fed, requiring no process of rumination, passes d^ctly from the 
 gullet into ihe fourth stomach. 
 
 Another character of the Ruminants is the possession of inci- 
 sor or cutting teeth in the lower jaw only. Cuvier makes them 
 consist of two divisions ; first, those without horns, and secondly, 
 those with horns. The larger part have horns, particularly the 
 males. The few species which want these organs have the 
 tusks, or cutting teeth, which are deficient in the others. The 
 vegetable nature of their food renders the flesh of these animals 
 wholesome and agreeable. Their milk furnishes butter and 
 cheese ; their skins, leather ; their horns, combs ; their wool, 
 cloth and yarn ; their hair is used in the making of matresses, 
 sofas, etc. The fat has the property of hardening as it cools, 
 and is distinguished by the name of suet. Their tallow is made 
 
EUMINANTIA. 177 
 
 into candles and soap, and their bones are in great request for 
 manure. Indeed, they seem to have been formed with the ex- 
 press design of ministering to man's comfort and welfare. They 
 
 inhabit the known world, with the exception of Australia. 
 
 • 
 
 Define the term Ruminantia. What animals does the order include ? Is 
 the group well defined? What exception is made ? Why are the hoofs of 
 this order termed bifurcate or bisulcate ? Upon what do these animals sub- 
 sist, and what peculiarly distinguishes them from all other animals ? De- 
 scribe in full the stomadh of a ruminant, pointing out the. parts as you pro- 
 ceed, on plate YI. fig. 13. How does Cuvier divide the, .BM?re*«««<«/ To 
 what species are the larger incisors confined ? What is the nature of thetp 
 food ? What their uses ? Where are they found ? 
 
 Name the seven families of Cud-ohewing animals on the Chart. Which 
 are without horns? Which have solid horns? Which hollow horns? 
 Which is the tallest? Which most useful for food? Which tor clothing? 
 Which wild ? W bioh domesticated ? 
 
 SECTION XXII. 
 
 Cafnelida, (Gr. xafirilog, hmhehs, a camel.) The Camei, 
 Teibe. 
 
 This family of* tha^uminants differ, in some respebtg, frotti 
 the others,, forming a connecting link between them and the 
 Pachyderms, or thick skinned animals. They are without 
 horns; the hair inclines to be woolly; there are fleshy bosses, 
 or humps on the back ' These humps are of a firrh, fatty con- 
 sistence, seeming tike reservoirs of nutriment, being observed to 
 diminish from absorption, during long abstinence, but to increase 
 again when food becomes abundant." The eyes are large and 
 projecting ; the ears small. , The Camels have canine teeth in 
 both jaws, and two incisors in the upper jaw, which are 
 wanting in other Ruminants. The lower incisor teeth are 
 six in number; there are six molars on each side in the upper 
 jaw, and five in the lower. The anterior one takes the fornti of 
 an additional canine. This, however, is wanting in the Llamas. 
 The upper lip is swollen and cleft in thei center, and has a power 
 of jnotioHr It is used for feeling or examining the dry shrubby 
 food on which these animals mostly' live, before.it is conveyed to 
 the mouth. When in the midst of abundant pasture, they usu- 
 ally browse as much in an hour as serves them for ruminating 
 all night, and for supporting them, during the next day. But 
 such pasturage they do not often find, and they are even thought 
 to prefer nettles, thistles, cassia and other prickly vegetables to 
 the soilest herbage. They have seven callosities, or firm pads, 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VL 
 
 TEET AND STOMACHS. 
 
 1. Foot of an ox. Bisuloated foot, or bifurcated hoof ; cloren-footed i 
 two-hoofed. 
 
 2. Camel's foot, showing the pad or cushion which prevents its sinking in 
 the sand. 
 
 5. Llama's foot, showing the sharp hoof for cliitabing rocky hiUs. 
 4. Mole's foot, formed for digging or scooping out the earth. 
 
 6. Sloth's sharp, strong, crooked claws, for clinging to the branches of 
 trees, on the under side of which they live auspenaed: 
 
 6. Foot of the Armadillo, Sasypus, fitted for rapid burrowing. 
 
 7. Lion's toe. A, represents the toe with claw sheathed. B, shows the 
 retractile apparatus, with claw in same position. C, claw unsheathed. 
 D, claw in, same position, with tendons exposed. 
 
 8. Horse's foot ; soUpedes, hoofs whole, not cloven or divided. Solidun- 
 gulate, one-hoofed. 
 
 9. Elephant's foot, sliowing the horny shoe enclosing all the toes. 
 10. Rhinoceros' foot ; three toes on each foot incafed in hoofs. 
 11.' The fore foot or hand of a Seal, used as a fin for swimming. 
 12. A Dolphin's fore fin, flipper or paddle for swimming. 
 
 18. Stomach of a ruminant or cud-chewing animal. 
 
 A. JEsophagus or Gullet, expanding into the rumen or paunch. 
 
 B. Rumen or Paunch. It ik the first stomach and much the largest in the 
 
 adult animal, but small in the young. 
 
 d. Valve allowing the food to pass from the rumen into the reticulum. 
 
 D. Hood, Honey-comb-bag,- Bonnet, or Reticulum. The second stomach. 
 '■ E. Omasus, Manyplies, or Psalterium. This third and smallest stomach does 
 ■ not properly exist in the Camel or Llama. 
 
 F, Orifice of the Omasus. 
 
 6, Abomasus, the fourth stomach, the true organ of digestion, is next in 
 size to the rumen or paunch. In calves it is the largest stomach, the 
 rtiilk passing from the guUet immediately into it. WJien salted and 
 cured, this stomach of the calf is called rennet, and used for making 
 cheese. . 
 
 14. Cells pf the reticulum or second stomach of the camel. These cells 
 can be dilated so as to contain an unusual quantity of water. 
 
PlYl. 
 
EUMINANTIA. 
 
 181 
 
 for the support of their burden ; one on the breast, two on each 
 of the fore legs and one on each of the hind ones. The toes do 
 not present the true cloveii figure, but are united underneath by 
 an elastic pad, or cushion, connecting them together, but leaving 
 the points free and separable, so that a larger surface thus comes 
 into contact with the sandy earth. (Plate VI. fig. 2.) This, in 
 connection with the elastic nature of the sole or cushion, enables 
 the animal to tread with equal comfort over the yielding desert 
 and the hard and arid plain. 
 
 • The Camel has great difficulty in moving upon a soft and 
 muddy soil, as it slips at every step. So great is its aversion to 
 treading upon such soil, it is said, that its drivers " have been 
 obliged to spread their tent coverings over the obnoxious ground 
 in order to conceal its appearance and induce the animal to pro- 
 ceed." Tha step of the Camel is noiseless. " What always 
 struck me," says the writer of a work on Constantinople, "as 
 something extremely romantic and mysterious, was the noiseless 
 tread of the Camel, from the spongy nature of his foot. What- 
 ever be the nature of the ground, sand, or rock, or turf; or paved 
 stones, you hear no foot-fall ; you see an immense animal ap- 
 proaching you stilly, as a cloud floating in the air ; and unless 
 he wear a bell, your sense of hearing, acute as it may be, will 
 give you no intimation of his presence." 
 
 The sense of hearing, in this animal, is very delicate. It 
 seems greatly pleased with the sound of bells, and with the 
 cheering song of its driver; its sense of smell, also, is remarka- 
 bly acute. When the traveler across the desert is suffering 
 from thirst, the- camel, snuffing the gale, first indicates, by its 
 dumb show, that the water is near of which the exhausted pil- 
 grim must soon "drink or die." 
 
 The third stomacl^, or laminated omasus, of the Ruminants, is 
 wanting in the Camels. The paunch or pannel is provided with 
 a large number of cells, in order that water may be retained to 
 serve the wants of the animal in case of extreme necessity. A 
 longitudinal ridge of muscular fibres divides the paunch into two 
 portions, the left containing a row of cells, which, (in the Ara- 
 bian Camel,) holds four or five quarts of water ; the right has a 
 smaller series, holding about a quart. (See Plate VI. fig. 14.) 
 
 When the cells are filled, the fluid is kept from mixing with 
 the food by the contraction of the orifice of each cellj and it can 
 be forced out at pleasure by the action of a muscular expansion 
 covering the bottom of the cellular apparatus. The deep cells 
 of the reticulum are arranged in twelve rows, and are formed by 
 muscular bands intersecting each other transversely. This 
 
182 RUMINANTIA, 
 
 compartment in the Camel appears destined exclusively as a 
 reservoir of water, never receiving solid food, as in the ox and- 
 sheep. Sir E. Home is of the opinion that "Camels accustomed 
 to journey for an unusual number of days without water, acquire 
 the power of dilating their cells so as to make them contain a 
 more than ordinary supply for their journey." When pressed 
 with thirst, the Camel, by the contraction of the muscles, throws 
 up water into the other stomachs, which serves to macerate 
 its dry and simple food. As it drinks but seldom, it takes 
 in a large quantity of water at a time ; and travelers, when 
 straitened for that article, have been often known to kill their 
 camels for the water which they expected to find in them. 
 
 .The large and prominent eye of the Camel enables, it to take 
 in a very extensive range ; its vision is very keen, but the ani- 
 mal cannot look upward; in the horizontal position in which the 
 head is carried, the brow overhangs the orb so as to shield it from 
 the glare of the sun in a burning sky. The Camel has been 
 called "the ship of the desert." Here the Simoon, or hot wind, 
 blowing from the south-east, carries along with it dense yellow 
 clouds of sand, which impede respiration, and are often suffocat- 
 ing to travelers. Even when the lighter winds blow, the fine 
 particles of sand, driven along in volumes, and loading the atmos- 
 phere, would, to animals with wide and open nostrils, occasion 
 the greatest suffering ; but the nostrils of the camel being in the 
 form of narrow oblique slits, which it can open or close at pleas- 
 ure, it is, by breathing gently and gradually, enabled to exclude 
 the suffocating mass. The Camel is full grown at the age of 
 eight years. It generally lives forty years, sometimes much 
 longer. It is said that instances have been known of Camels 
 which have reached the age of one hundred years. The female 
 has one young at a time which is suckled for a year. Her milk 
 is described as rich, thick, and abundant, but rather strong in 
 taste, though when mixed with water, it is a very nutritious 
 diet. 
 
 The entire structure of this animal is wonderfully adapted to 
 the region of its abode, and to the habits and uses of man. 
 " The pad or sole cushion of the spreading foot dividing it into 
 two toes, without being externally separated, which buoy up, as 
 it were, the whole bulk, with their expansive elasticity,, from 
 sinking in the sand, on which it advances with silent step ; the 
 nostrils, so formed that the animal can close them at will, to ex- 
 clude the driftrsand of the parching simoon ; the powerful upper 
 incisor teeth, for assisting in the division of the tough prickly 
 shrubs and dry stunted herbage of the desert; and above all, 
 
RUMINANtlA. jgg 
 
 the Cellular structure of the stomach, which is capahle of being 
 converted into an assemblage of water tanks," must b6 included 
 among the plainest and most striking evidences of (Jie Creator's 
 wise and benevolent care, as presented in the "Animal King- 
 dom." 
 
 The Camel combines within itself qualities, the possession of 
 anyone of which serves to render other quadrupeds absolutely nee- 
 essary to human welfare. " Like the Elephant, it is manageable 
 and tame; like the horse, it gives the rider security ; it carries 
 greater burdens than the ox and the mule ; and its milk is fur- 
 nished in as great abundance as that of the cow : the flesh of 
 the young one is supposed to be as delicate as veal ; the hair is 
 •more beautiful and in more request than wool ; nay, there is 
 scarcely a part of their frame of which it can be said, it is use' 
 less." 
 
 C. AraUcus. The Arabian Camel. 
 
 Of the two species, ithis is the best known, and sometiriries iS 
 called the Dromedary, or runner, (C. dromedariUs.) Plate II. 
 (ig. 3. The term dr&medary is, however, more strictly ap. 
 plicable to a lighter variety, El-Heitie, which is unfit for 
 burdens, but employed when despatch is required. The 
 Arabian Camel is more extensively used than the Bactrian; 
 and frorti its constitution, appears able to endure, for a grealei* 
 length of time, the fatigues and deprivations to which these ani- 
 mals are subjected. It ie the wealth of the Arab, and nearly 
 the only beast of burden in Turkey, Persia and the north of Af- 
 rica. Having only a single hump, placed nearly in the center 
 of the back, it is at once distinguished from the other species, 
 which has two ; it is also of a size and stature somewhat smaller, 
 being from five to seven feet high at the shoulders. The muz- 
 zle is less swollen than that of the other species ; the hair soft, 
 woolly and very unequal, longest on the neck, the thrbat, and 
 the hump. The color is always lighter than that of the Bactriaii 
 Camel, being, while the animal is young, of a dull, dirty white, 
 but becoming, with age, of a reddish gray. The long woolly 
 hair is woven into garments and tents, and the finer hair is inn- 
 ported into Europe for the manufacture of artists' pencils. The 
 best is obtained from Persia. Of the? varieties of this Camel, 
 the Turkish and Arabian is the strongest- and most hardy. In 
 China there is a swift breed to which is given the poetical 
 name of "the Camel with the feet of the wind." 
 
 The Arabian Camel is carefully trained, when yoytig, to kneel 
 and receive burdens. In temper, it is linild, submissive, docile 
 
184 
 
 ETTMINANTIA. 
 
 and patient ; but is said to be very obstinate when over-loaded, 
 often refusing to rise if the burden is felt to be beyond its 
 strength. Njimerous caravans of these animals, each with a 
 load of five or six hundred weight, and arranged in long rows, 
 patiently pursue their toilsome way beneath a scorching sun, at 
 the rate of about twenty-four miles a day ; in some instances, 
 fifty miles have been traversed in that time, but this could not be 
 continued for successive days. Clapperton's Journal of Travels 
 in the East, (continued by Lander,) after mentioning the arrival 
 of five hundred Camels, with salt, from the borders of the Great 
 Desert, says : " They were preceded by a party of twenty 
 merchants, whose appearance was grand and imposing. They 
 wore black cotton robes and trowsers, and white caps with black 
 turbans, which hid every part of the face, except the nose and 
 eyes. In their right hand they held a- long and light polished 
 spear, while with their left, they held their shields and retained 
 the reins of the Camels. Their shields were made of white 
 leather, with a piece of silver in the center. As they passed me, 
 their spears glittering in the sun and their whole bearing 
 bold and warlike, they had a novel and singular effect which de- 
 lighted me. They stopped suddenly before the residence of the 
 chief, and at the word, (' choir,') each of the Camels dropped on 
 its knees, as if by instinct, while the riders dismounted to pay 
 their respects." Sometimes, while attending caravans across 
 the deserts, these animals of the swifter breeds perform the office 
 of scouts, keeping a look-ou^ for danger from wandering tribes 
 and for the approach of the water stations. They will then 
 travel from seventy to one hundred and twenty miles in twenty, 
 four hours. The swift Dromedary has been known to perform a 
 journey of six hundred and thirty miles in five days. It will 
 continue at a long trot of eight or nine miles an hour for many 
 hours together. A modern traveler, (see Morgan's Algeria,) ' 
 says, it was often affirmed to him by the Arabs and the Moors 
 that the express Dromedary " makes nothing of holding its rapid 
 pace, which is a most violent hard trot, for four and twenty 
 hours upon a stretch, without showing the least symptoms of 
 weariness or inclination to bait ; and that having swallowed a 
 ball or two of paste made up of barley, and perhaps a little pow- 
 der of dates among it, with a bowl of water or Camel's milk, if 
 to be had, and which the courier seldom fails to be provided 
 with, in skins, as well for the sustenance of himself as his Pega- 
 sus, the indefatigible animal will seem as fresh as at first setting 
 out, and ready to contitiue at th^ same scarce credible rate for as 
 
EUMINANTIA. 185 
 
 many hours longer, and so on, from one extremity of the Afri- 
 can desert to another." We know nothing of this animal in a 
 wild condition, but in a domesticated state it has existed from the 
 earliest times, in Egypt, Arabia, Palestine and the neighboring 
 countries. Herds of Camels formed no small portion of the 
 wealth of the scriptural patriarchs, (Job, xliii., 12,) and they are 
 mentioned; among the acquisitions of Abram on his first visit to 
 Egypt, (Gen. xii., 16.) 
 
 The Camel was well known to Ari?totle, and described by him ' 
 in his " Natural History." Its native country extends from Mau- 
 ritania to China, within a zone of one thousand miles in breadth. 
 The Arabian Camel is found throughout the entire length of this 
 zone, on its southern side, as far as Africa, and India. It is nu- 
 merous in the Canary Islands, to which it has been introduced, 
 and found also in Pisa, Italy. After the conquest of Spanish 
 America, an attempt was made to introduce Camels into that 
 country ; but the project was looked upon with disfavor by the 
 " ruling Spaniards," and the animals gradually dwindled away. 
 Camelus Bractianus. The Bactrian Camel. 
 This species is found in the northern side of the zone above 
 referred to, including the central portions of Asia and China and 
 Thfbet ; occasionally it is seen in other countries. As already 
 stated, it is easily known from the Arabian by its having two 
 humps, one near the shoulders, the other near the croup. This 
 is a stronger and heavier animal than the other species, and nev- 
 er used when dispatch is needed. It is larger than the Drome- 
 dary, being twelve feet in length and eight feet in height, be- 
 tween the humps. The hair is shaggy, particularly under the 
 throat ; the color generally dark brown, though variations occur 
 in this respect, and also in respebt to size, strejigth and fleetness, 
 according to the breed and climate. The Bactrian Camel can 
 carry a weight of twelve hundred pounds, but from five to eight 
 hundred pounds is the usual burthen. 
 
 The Camels not long since purchased by the United States 
 government, with a view of testing their utility in crossing the 
 wide extended plains lying between" the Mississippi valley and 
 the Pacific ocean, are described by one of their superintendents 
 "as very superior ones, presenting a far more sightly appearance 
 than the miserable creatures which have been exhibited to crowds 
 in the strolling menageries." He says, "their stride is about 
 3 feet in length, and with steady traveling they will average 3^ 
 miles per hour. They do not kneel to receive their loads, as has 
 
18S HUMiNANTIA. 
 
 been stated, at the word of command, but with a Kir-r-r, Kir-r-r, 
 and a gentle pressure upon the neck, or a pull upon the tialterS, 
 they assume the kneeling position." (Their not doing so, at 
 the word of command, to receive their loads, may be owing to a 
 defect in their early training.) The same writer remarks, 
 "their cries are uttered to express their distress or dissatisfaction 
 at all times. When half suppressed, they are the same as the 
 lazy grunt of a hog whose repose is rudely disturbed ; but when 
 enraged; it is much more wild and greatly like that of- a Bengal 
 tiger When his keeper 'stirs him up with a long pole.' We had 
 about 600 pounds of corn on each of them for the first day after 
 leaving Howard's Ranch ; but each day reduces it by feeding 
 until we lay in another, supply. They have worked admirably 
 well so far, and promise to fulfill our most sanguine expectations 
 in regard to the experiment." 
 
 Giye the derivation of Gamelida? What orders does this family link? 
 What is said of their teeth ? Which is wanting in the Llama? What is' 
 peculiar in the upper lip ? For what used ? What is said of their brow- 
 sing? How many callosities ? Where situated ? What is said of the cush- 
 ion on the foot, (see Plate YI. fig. a.) and the aversion of the animal to 
 mud ? What results from the spongy nature of its foot ? What is- sai(J of 
 its senses of hearing and , smell ? Give some account of the cells of the 
 stomach and their uses, (Plate VI. fig. 14.) In what direction does it look? 
 flow is the Camel protected against the effects of the simoon I How long 
 does it live ? In what respects does it show the wise and benevolent care 
 of the Creator ? What qualities does it combine ? Which of the two spe- 
 cies is best known ? What is it called ? What is said of its powers of en- 
 durance ? How is it distinguished from the other species ? Where is the 
 Bactrian Camel found, and how does it differ from the Arabian C. ? ' How 
 large a burden does it usually carry ? What is the habitat of the C. ? 
 What is said of the Camels purchased by the tT. States ? 
 
 Trace the genera of the Camel family upon the Chart, giviog their spe- 
 cific names and a synopsis of each animaL 
 
BUMINANTIA. 187 
 
 SECTION XXIII. 
 
 Auchenia. (Gr. 'avxijv, auchen, a neck.) 
 
 The Llama. 
 
 We have in this genils the Camels oi the Western. Pontinent, 
 inhabiting the Cordilleras of the Ancles below the line of perpetual- 
 snow. They are fouHd principally in Peru and Chili, though 
 in much fewer numbers than formerly. Sometimes they have 
 been taken into Mexico, but rather as curiosities than for any 
 other purpose. The Llamas were first noticed at Rio Bam^ba, 
 about ninety miles south-west of Quito, and not far from the 
 snow-capped mountain of Chimborazo; and at this very spot, 
 they are now seen in considerable numbers. Rio Bamba is 
 11,670 feet above the sea-level, and the temperature of the air 
 corresponds to this elevation. But these apimals, as many as 
 five hundred in a herd, are found at elevations still higher, — say 
 from 13 to 16,000 feet above the level of tlie sea, and where the 
 mercury falls every night below the freezing point. They do 
 not, however, advance so high as the line of perpetual snow, 
 preferring rather a middle region affording congenial tempera- 
 ture and food. As a protection against the cold of their elevated 
 abodes, they are clothed with a long and woolly fur. The name 
 AucKenia refers to the long slender neck of these animals, in 
 which they resemble the Camels proper. They are also like 
 them in the great cellular development of the second stomach; 
 the cellular apparatus of the paunch ; the absence of the third 
 or plicated stomach, and the concomitant power of endijring 
 thirst, or rather. abstaining from water altogether; in the large, 
 full, over-hung eye ; the division and mobility of the upper lip; 
 and the fissured form of the nostrils, and the meagre limbs. Oon- 
 Irasting the location of these animals with that of the Camelsj we 
 naturally look for a deviation in the structure of the foot. The 
 pad which connects the toes of the Camel beneath, would have 
 afforded no very sure footing for an animal destined to climb the 
 precipices of the Andes. We accordingly find in the Llamas toes 
 which are armed with strong nail-like hoofs, (Plate VI. fig. 3,) 
 completely separated from each otfier, and each defended with its 
 own pad or cushion, — thus admirably adapted to firm progression 
 either in ascent gr descent ; while there is nothing in the structure 
 to hinder great rapidity upon comparatively smooth. and level 
 ground. The humps of the true Camels are not found on the 
 backs of the Llamas, yet there is said to be in the latter a con- 
 
188 RUMINANTIA. 
 
 formation resembling those excrescences, and "consisting of an 
 excess of nutritious matter, in the shape of a thiclc coat or fat 
 under the skin, which is absorbed as a compensation for want of 
 occasional food." 
 
 The genus Auchenia is now generally considered to include 
 three species, viz., the Auclienia Llama, or Guanaco, which is 
 used for burdens, and the Auchenia Alpaca and the Vicvgna, 
 which are raised for their flesh and wool. Cuvier regards 
 the Paco or Alpaca, as a variety of the Llama, with the wool 
 more amply developed, but the Vicugna as a distinct species. 
 
 Llama is the common term with which the Peruvians designate 
 their sheep. The wild Llama is usually of a deep rich fawn, 
 verging to white on the under parts. The wool is long and 
 shaggy, but shorter on the neck and limbs than on the body. 
 The long slender neck is " held erect and swan-like ; " the head 
 is small ; the lips are thick ; the eye large and brilliant. On 
 the breast, there is a bunch which constantly exudes a yellowish 
 oily matter. The length of this animal is six feet ; the height at 
 the shoulders about four. The reclaimed Guanaco or domes- 
 ticated Llama, is greater in size than the wild animal; the body 
 is slender, and the limbs more muscular; the wool smoother and 
 closer; — ^the physiognomy is no longer wild and independent, 
 and its air betokens mildness and subjection. The color is white, 
 brown, black, and sometimes mixed or piebald. Its step is slow 
 and regular, and it has not the strength or energy of the wild 
 Guanaco, — carrying at the most but one hundred and fifty pounds. 
 Under this load, however, it will travel witlr firm and sure step 
 fourteen or fifteen miles a day, along rugged mountain-passes 
 and the narrow ledges of precipitous rocks ; but if loaded too 
 heavily, or urged beyond its wonted pace, — camel-like, it lies 
 down and refuses to move another step. All that the conductor 
 can* do, in such a case, is to sit down by the animal and wait 
 until " by his blandishments, he prevails on it to rise spontane- 
 ously." The difference in weight and speed between this animal 
 and the Camel, the Peruvians make up in the great numbers 
 which they use of these beasts of burden, — one drove sometimes 
 including more than five hundred that subsist in traveling as 
 they are able. Formerly the^e animals were used in bringing 
 down the products of the mines, and 300,000, it is said, were 
 once employed in the mines of Potosi alone. Mules, however, 
 are now chiefly used for that purpose; though the Llama is still 
 employed to some extent ; its labor involving less expense. The 
 white Llama is said to have been the presiding divinity of the 
 natives of Callas before that province was annexed to the empire 
 
EUMINANTIA. 189 
 
 of the Incas; the "priests of the sun " sacrificed it, at stated sea- 
 sons, to the orh of day. Frequently the Llama, but preferably the 
 Alpaca, was a pet' in the Indian's cabin. In intelligence these 
 animals rank high among the ruminants. As regards patience 
 and resignation, they are said to equalthe ox, while in point of 
 sensibility, they are unsurpassed by any other quadrupeds. 
 The size and shape of the eye indicate a strong and quick sight 
 as well as a peculiar capacity for bearing the reflection of the 
 sun's rays in the same manner as the Camel resists that glare of 
 the sands which in man so often produces ophthalmia. (Gr. 
 blearedness of the eyes.) 
 
 Auchenia Llama. The Guanaco. 
 
 The animals of this species are rather larger than sheep, but 
 smaller than heifers. Their compact bodies, their long legs, 
 and their feet having toes armed with nail-like hoofs, fit them for 
 dwelling in their wild state, among crags and precipices, where 
 the hunter would be foiled if he dared to venture. Vast herds 
 of wild Guanacos associate, during the summer, free as the 
 air, — feeding upon the herbage of their elevated abode, and the 
 grass Or rush called iclw, which covers the mountain slopes. 
 As long as green and succulent vegetables can be procured, the 
 animal never drinks. The cells of the stomach in this animal 
 probably retain the moisture of the masticated vegetables for the 
 necessities of the system, perhaps even adding to it by a liquid ■ 
 secretion of their own. It is a proof of Divine Providence 
 that formed to dwell in such regiohs, the Guanacos are not only 
 able to live without water, but if they can obtain their natural 
 food, do not even require it. 
 
 Auchenia Alpaca. Paco, t)r Alpaca Llama. 
 
 The great peculiarity of this species is its long, fine and silky 
 wool, covering the neck as well as the other parts of the body. 
 The staple of our common wools is not more than six inches 
 long; but that of the Alpaca averages from eight to twelve, and 
 sometimes reaches twenty inches ; acquiring strength without 
 being accompanied by coarseness,:— the reverse of which occurs 
 in other woolly tribes. Each filafnent, or thread, appears straight, 
 well formed, and free from crispness; and the quality is more 
 uniform throughout the fleece. Theire is also a glittering bright- 
 ness upon the surface, which gives it the glossiness of silk, espe- 
 cially, when it comes out of the dye-vats. It is distinguished by 
 softness, an essential property in the manufacture of fine stuff; 
 and being exempt frofn spiral, curly and shaggy portions, — 
 when not too long, it spins easily, and yields an even and true 
 thread. It is, besides, less liable than other wool to form knots 
 
jgO RUMINANTIA. 
 
 difficult to unravel ; it is not injured by keeping, nor does it lose 
 in weight; and it is less subject to injury from moths, as the fol- 
 lowing fact will show. A small bundle of Alpaca wool, with a 
 few locks of other wool mixed with it, was accidentally thrown 
 into a closet and forgotten. At the end of twelve months, the 
 closet was opened, when it appeared that the moths had nearly 
 eaten up the common, without injuring, at all, the Alpaca wool. 
 The fleeces of Alpa(<a wool range, in Peru, from ten to twelve 
 pounds each, whereas, "those of our full sized sheep seldom go 
 beyond eight pounds, and the small species four pounds." As far 
 back as the days of Philip II., efforts were made to introduce 
 these animals into Spain; but failed through the intervention of 
 war. They were taken to France, in the days of Napoleon I., 
 where they have fgund a congenial climate ; and they have 
 lived to their full period in the low lands of Spain. They have 
 also been bred in Hamburg and in England, where the wool 
 seems to improve. The staple of some Alpaca wool from the 
 Earl of Derby!s flock, was exhibited in England some ten or 
 twelve years since. This appeared about a foot long, and it 
 was estimated the animal had seventeen pounds of it on his 
 back. 
 
 The meat of the Alpaca has been compared to "venison, and 
 even heath-fed mutton." Its quality could hardly fail to be 
 good as the animal eats nothing but the purest vegetable sub- 
 stance, and in habitual cleanliness, is said to surpass every other 
 animal. The Alpaca is also far lesg subject to disease than 
 sheep; and as it seldom perspires, the fleece does not require 
 washing before it is taken from the back. 
 
 It has extraordinary foresight of storms, and power to contend 
 with them, so that, in its native climes, seldom is one missing 
 after a tempest. 
 
 The first marketable fabric made from the wool of this animal, 
 was presented at Greetland, near Halifax^ (Eng.,) about twenty- 
 five years ago. It was there sold, at a very high price, in the 
 form of ladies' carriage shawls and .cloakings, as curiosities. 
 The quantity manufactured and.used smce that time, has steadily 
 and greatly increased. From Alpaca wool, plain and figured stuffs 
 ares produced, which have a beautiful luster. The difficulty which 
 was at first found in dying it, being now overcome, the most deli- 
 cate colors are obtained, such as royal blue, scarlet, green and 
 orange, as seen in the mousselines de laines, and other ladies' 
 dresses npw in use. The blacks are superior, and the damask 
 patterns very showy in their appearance. In some instances, Al- 
 paca takes the place of Angola,, or goat's hair wool ; and in France, 
 
STIMINANTIA. ]m. 
 
 it has been used for cashmeres and merinoes. English capitalists 
 have introduced the animal into the colony at the Cape of Good 
 Hope, whiere it has succeeded well, the shearing yielding eight and 
 a half pouads a sheep. Alpaca goods are, to some extent, man- 
 ufactured, and largely, imported, and used in the United States. 
 Alpaca Vicugna, or Auchenia Vicuna. The Victtna. _ 
 
 This is a much hardier animal than the Guanaco. It inhabits 
 ranges nearer the line of perpetual snow, where the cold is in- 
 tense, and is rather pleased than annoyed by snow or frost. In 
 size, it is less than the Guanaco. The wool is of a pale yellow, 
 ish fawn color, and exquisitely fine, having a texture which may 
 be termed silken. It is used for manufacturing expensive shawls 
 and other articles of dress. For the sake of it, eighty thousand 
 of these animals, it is said, are killed every year. They are 
 not unlike goats, except that they are larger,' and have no 
 horns. The Vicunas are found in flocks, appear timid, and flee 
 at the sight of men and of wild beasts. 
 
 What is the habitat of tlje Zlama? Where was it first noticed? To 
 what does the name Auchenia refer? In what particulars do they resem- 
 ble the Camels proper? What deviation is there in the structure of the 
 foot? (Pi. VI, fig. 3.) Has it the humps of the Camel? How many 
 species are included in the genus ^acAema/ What are th§ir respective 
 uses? How did Cuvier ■ regard the Alpaca and Vicugnal How do the 
 Peruvians use the term Llama? Describe the wild Llama? What is 
 the size ? What is said of the reclaimed. Guanaco as compared with 
 the wild Llama ? What of its uses as a beast of burden ? What of the 
 White Zfama? How do these animals rank in intelHgence? What is 
 the size of the Guanaco? Upon what does it feed? What proof of 
 divine providence is referred to? What is the great peculiarity' of the 
 A,lpaca Llama ? What is said of its wool ? How early were attempts 
 made to introduce it into Spain ? When were they taken to France ? In what 
 other countries have they been bred ? What is said of the cleanliness of the 
 Alpaca? When and where was the first marketable fabric madd from the 
 - Alpaca wool? Where is most of the spinning and weaving of this wool now 
 performed? What is further said of its manuf!*eture ? How does the 
 Vicvgna compare with the Guanaco in hardiness and size ? What is said 
 of its wool ? What animal does it resemble ? 
 
 What Llamas are named upon the chart? What is said of them? 
 Trace them? 
 
192 
 
 RUMINANTIA. 
 
 SECTION XXIV. 
 
 Camelopardae. (Gr.- tc&fiiikog, kamelos, a camel ; n&Q8ahs, 
 pardalis, a leopard.) 
 
 The Camelopards. 
 
 These singular and beautiful ruminants, in their general struct- 
 ure, most nearly approafch the Deer, but have points of resem- 
 blance also to the Antelopes and Camels, besides striking pecu- 
 liarities of their own. They have persistent horns, common to 
 both sexes, and are the tallest of all known quadrupfeds; fre- 
 quenting the wooded plains and hills that skirt the arid deserts^ 
 or the verge of mighty forests where groves of mimosa trees 
 beautify the scenery. 
 
 Camelopardalis Giraffe is the sole species, including two 
 varieties, — the on3 native to Nubia, Abyssinia, and the regions 
 adjacent, and ranked by Svvainson as a distinct species, — the 
 other, found in Southern Africa.* (See Chart.) 
 
 The general characters of the Giraffe are the following, viz., 
 " Lip not grooved, entirely covered with hair, much produced 
 before the nostril ; tongue very extensile ; neck very long, and 
 having a short thick mane; body short; hind legs short; false 
 hoof none; tail elongate, with a tuft of thick hair at the end." 
 This animal at once impresses the beholder with its towering 
 height, varying from fifteen to twenty feet. The males are 
 generally fifteen or sixteen, and the females thirteen or fourteen 
 feet in height} and their young at birth, six feet. Its thickness 
 is not what might, perhaps, be expected from the height. In 
 order to support its very long neck, (but having only the 
 number of bones found in the human deck,) the withers are ele- 
 vated; the spinal processes of the vertebrae are prolonged to 
 meet the elastic ligament which runs along the neck, and assist 
 to keep it in its natural position. It is said above, — "the hind 
 legs are sliort." This describes them as they appear ; but in 
 reality the front and hind legs are about the same length ; the 
 
 * The Commentator on the "Pictorial Bible," where a good cut of the 
 Giraffe is given, says, with reference to the word Chamois, used. Genesis 
 iii., 21, "The Arabic version understood that the word Giraffe is meant 
 here, which is very lilsely to have been the case, for the Chamois is not met 
 with so far to the Southward as Egypt and Palestine." The Jews had, 
 probably, many opportunities of becoming acquainted with the animal while 
 in Egypt, oa had also the seventy (translators of the Septuagint) who 
 resided there, and who indicate their li:nowledge of it in their translatioa 
 of the Hebrew name.' 
 
KUMINANTIA. J 93 
 
 thighs in front are so long in comparison with those hehind, that 
 the back of the animal seems inclined like the roof of a house; 
 and this gives to it an appearance of unwieldiness and unfitness 
 for active movements. But the seeming drawbacks related to its 
 structure and condition, are balanced by marked and peculiar 
 advantages. A man on horseback can, without stooping, ride 
 under the body of the animal, — the height to the tip of the 
 shoulder being ten feet. Why thai, neck of prodigious length? 
 Why the disproportioned height of the fore and the hind parts of 
 the body, giving to the animal its appearance of unwieldiness 
 and, clumsiness? The answer is, — the animal derives a large 
 part of its food from the leaves of trees, particularly the mimosa, — 
 a species of acacia, called acacia giraffe. The peculiarity of the 
 Giraffe's form enables it to reach the high branches which are 
 uncropped, because above the reach of ordinary animals ; and a 
 shorter neck, on the other hand, would not have allowed it to 
 reach the 6arth, in districts where woods are less common. In 
 reaching the high branches, it is also aided by the tongue, which 
 has the-power of motion in such a degree, accompanied with the 
 faculty of extension, that it performs "the office of the proboscis 
 of an elephanl^ in miniature." This organ may be extended sev- 
 enteen inches after death, but in the living animal, can lie so 
 diminished in size as to be inclosed within its mouth. Ac- 
 cording to Sir Everard Home, its actions depend on- the com- 
 bined powers of muscular contraction and elasticity ; its increase 
 and diminution of size arising from the blood vessels being at 
 one time loaded with blood, and at another empty. The Cam- 
 elopard seizes the foliage with its long and narrow tongue, 
 using it as a prehensile organ, and a beautiful accessary to the 
 other parts of the «trucfure, — rolling it around the object with 
 considerable pliability. - 
 
 The tongue is used as an organ of examination, for the power 
 of prehension is so great, that when extended to the utmost, it 
 can grasp an ordinary lump of sugar, of which the animal seems 
 very fond. He retroverts the tongue for the purpose of cleansing 
 the nostrils, — an office which its flexibility enables him to per- 
 form in the most perfect manner. The tongue, it is said, can be 
 so tapered as to enter the ring of a very small key. The eyes 
 are large and prominent, and soft and gentle in their expression ; 
 the ears large and spreading; the lips, especially the lower one, 
 being movable ; the head is small, but elegantly modeled, taper- 
 ing to the singularly narrow muzzle, with a well-formed mouth. 
 
 Both the male and female Camelopard have horns, — not such 
 as are periodically shed and renewed ; nor yet true and promi- 
 
.Q. KUMINANTIA. 
 
 nent horns, like those of the Antelope, but consisting of two 
 porous, bony substances, about three inches long, with which 
 the top of the head is armed, placed just above the ears, and 
 crowned with a thick tuft of stiff upright hairs; a considerable 
 protuberance also rises in the middle of the forehead, between 
 the eyes. By some, these horns muffled with skin and hair, are 
 said to be "useless as instruments of defence," — others say, — 
 " We have seen them wielded by the males against each other 
 with fearful and reckless force." The Giraffe does not butt by 
 depressing and suddenly elevating the head ; but strikes the cal- 
 lous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack 
 with a sidelong sweep of the neck. The imperfection of the horns 
 h3,s,been plausibly ascribed "to the state of the circulation of the 
 blood in the arteries of the skull." The long neck is supposed 
 to impede the circulation, so that the vital stream ascends with 
 difficulty, — it rises slowly, in more moderate quantity, and is 
 " inadequate for a supply of osseous matter, remarkable either for 
 its abundance, or its rapid elaboration." Who does not see the 
 wisdom of this ordering? What could the long-necked Cam- 
 elopard do with the ponderous horns of the Moose, or the Wa- 
 pite? "It is not for nothing that the neck is elongated, that the 
 head is light, and the tongue made flexible; — it is not without 
 desigtiAhat the horns are rudimentary; for such modifications 
 the instincts and the habits of the creature demand ; the one part 
 involves the other." Professor Owen has noticed a further 
 beautiful provision in this animal, which is, that its nostrils are 
 provided with cutaneous sphincter (Gr. ocpiYyio, sphingo, to con- 
 strain ) muscles, and can be shut at will, like the eyes. He 
 supposes that the object of this mechanismj is to keep out the 
 sand when the storms of the desert arise; 
 
 The hair of the Giraffe is short and close ; the ground color 
 of a light grayish fawn, marked with numerous triangular spots, 
 with a darker hue, less regularly shaped on the sides than on 
 the neck and shoulders. The Northern variety of the animal is 
 of a paler color than the Southern. 
 
 The eyes of the Giraffe are so placed that he can see much of 
 what is passing on all sides, and even behind, without turning the 
 head. Hence it is difficult to approach him ; and when surprised 
 or run down, he directs most accurately the rapid storm of kicks 
 with which his defence is made. Ordinarily, however, tiiis ani- 
 mal seeks safety in flight. Its motion is extremely rapid, espe- 
 cially along rising ground ; but cannot be maintained for a 
 sufficient time to enable it to escape from the Arab mounted on 
 his long-winded steed. The pace is an amble; the animal 
 
RUMINANTIA. 195 
 
 moves two legs dn each side at the same time, but when put in 
 motion, it can, for a while, keep b horse at a pretty smart gallop. 
 The lamented Anderson says, in his "Lake Ngami," — "It is a 
 curious sight, a troop of Giraffes at full speed, balancing them- 
 selves to and fro in a manner not.easily described ; and whisking, 
 at regular intervals, from, side to side, their tails, tufted at tjie 
 en4,, while their long and tapering necks, swaying back*ard 
 and forward, follow the motion of their bodies. They are so 
 long-winded, that a swift horse seldom overtakes them under less 
 than two or three miles." The author of the "Menageries" 
 remari??,—" Until the year 1827, when a Giraffe appeared in 
 England, and one in France, the animal had not been seen in 
 Europe since the 15th century, when the Soldan of Egypt sent 
 one to Lorenzo De Medici, which was familiar to the inhabit- 
 ants of Florence, where it was accustomed to walk at ease about 
 the streets, stretching its long neck to the balconies, and first 
 floors, for apples and other fruits, upon which it delighted to 
 feed." In 1836, four Giraffes were introduced into England by 
 the Zoological Society, at an expense of between eleven and 
 twelve thousand dollars. One of them soon died ; but the others 
 lived, and one of the females had sevRral young ones, which 
 were sold and taken to different parts of the world. In our own 
 country, the Camelopard is often exhibited. The animal, it is 
 said, is often seen in a tame state, nt Grand Cairo, in Egypt, and 
 is found figured in the sculptured remains of that country. 
 Pompey the Great exhibited in the theatre, ten of these ani- 
 mals, which he had brought from the scenes of his military 
 enterprise. His rival, Julius Csesar, also exhibited them. After 
 him,.several Roman Emperors showed them in the public games 
 and processions. All these were probably obtained from the 
 northern or north-eastern part of the African Continent, and by 
 way of Egypt. 
 
 What is said of the structure of the Camelopards ? Ho,w many varieties 
 md where found ? What are the general characters of this animal ? What 
 its size y How is its long neclt supported? Are its hind legs really shorter 
 than its fore legs ? What coriipensation is referred to ? What aids it to 
 reach high branches? What is said of the tongue? Has this animal 
 horns? Why are they imperfect ? What provision is noticed by Professor 
 Owen? How do the varieties differ in color? How do the eyes of the 
 Giraff'e assist him in self-defence? What is the remark of Anderson? 
 What more is said? 
 
 What is said on the chart of its size ? 
 
196 EUMINANTIA. 
 
 SECTION XXV. 
 
 MoscHiDAE, or Musk Deer. (Gr. /^cxog, moschos,.a. Musk.) 
 
 These are so called, from the fact, that one species yields the 
 wfeU-known perfume) called musk. According to Cuvier, "they 
 are much less anomalous than the Camels, and only differ from the 
 other Ruminants in the absence of horns, in having a long canine 
 tooth on each side of the upper jaw, which comes out of the 
 mouth in the males, and, finally, in having in their skeleton, a 
 slight_^SM?a,, (clasp, or connecting link,) which has no existence 
 in the Camels." 
 
 The distinction of the other canine tooth noticed by Cuyier, is 
 not, however, confined to the Musks, — as some of the males of 
 other deer, the Muntjak, for example, show a similar forma- 
 tion ; that of the Moschus moschiferus, (Lat. musk-bearing,) is 
 three inches long. In general form, the Musk deer differ only 
 a little from other Deer; but the body is rounded and stouter, 
 and the neck shorter, — ^the head is not carried erect, and the 
 bearing not so bold ; the limbs are more tapering, and the hind 
 quarters considerably elevated ; the face is narrow and length- 
 ened, and they are destitute of horns. None of them have tear 
 openings, or tufts of bushy hair on their legs, like \he other deer. 
 They have large, dark and brilliant eyes, rather small ears, and 
 short, tails; they have also front and hind hoofs, — the front hoofs 
 being long, narrow and pointed, the hind ones high set, small and 
 conical. In the irwe mMsfes, however, the hoofs are broad and 
 expanded; the hind ones large, almost touc'hing the ground. 
 Besides the true and celebrated Musk Deer, the family includes 
 .four other species, orife found in Ceylon, and three in Java, in- 
 cluding the smallest, and according to some, the most elegant of 
 the Ruminants. 
 
 Moschus moschiferus. The Thibet Musk. (Plate VII. fig. 1.) 
 
 This is a mountain animal, — timid, shy, and a lover of soli- 
 tude, having somewhat the form of a roebuck, but thicker and 
 more clumsy. It is six inches higher behind than at the shoulder, 
 where it measures about two feet three inches. The ears are 
 long, and rather narrow; in the inside, pale yellow, and dark 
 brown, outside. The hair is long, coarse and harsh, and mixed 
 with brown yellow, and whitish, which produces a dark red 
 tinge on the back, fading off to whitish beneath, — the tail is nearly 
 rudimentary, and covered by the hair ; a tuft hangs on each side 
 from the lower jaw. This animal being extremely cautious, and 
 
IIi.VK. 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIL 
 
 1. The Musk-Deer, Moschus Mosehiferus. 
 
 2. The Common Stag, or European Ked Deer, Cervus Mephas, 
 8. The Moose, Flat-Horned Elk, or Black Elk, C. alces. 
 
 4. The American Elk, Kound-Horned Elk, or Wapiti Deer, Elepkat Carta- 
 denns. 
 
 5. The Caribou, or American Reindeer, C. rangifer or B. Tarandus. 
 
 6. The Fallow Deer, C. Soma or Dama vulgaris. 
 
 7. The Koe-buck, C. Capreolus or Capreolus Boreas. 
 
 8. The Muntjak, C. vaginalis, 
 
 az. 
 
 9. The Musk Ox, Ovibos MoschatUs, Little Bison of the Chipewyans and 
 Copper Indians. 
 
 SHEBP. 
 
 10. The Moufflon, Ovis musimon or Caprovit musimon, Wild Sheep op 
 Siberian Goat of Pennant. 
 
 11. The Argali, or Wild Sheep, Caprovis Argalis. 
 
 12. The Many-Horned Sheep, Ovis polycwata. 
 
 13. The Syrian Goat, Copra Syriaca. Its large pendulous ears are from 
 one to two feet long, and at times so troublesome that the owners are 
 obliged to trim them. Amos iii. 12. 
 
 14. The Ibex, Capra Ibex. 
 
 ANTKLOPES. 
 
 15. The Eudoo, Antilope strepsiceros. 
 
 16. The Blessbok, A. albifrons. 
 
 17. The Prong-Horned Antelope, A.Americana or Antiloeapra A. 
 
 18. The Common Antelope, or Sasin, A. eervicapra. 
 
 19. The Dorcas Gazelle, A. Dorcas, or Gazella iorcas. 
 
 20. The Oryx, A. Oryx, or Oryx Oazella. 
 
 21. The Chamois, or Gems, A. rupricapra, or S. Tragus. 
 
 22. The Mhorr, Gazella Mliorr, orA.Mhorr. 
 
 23. The Gnu, or Gnoo, A. Gnu, or Catoblepas Gnu. 
 
 24. The Bekker-el-Wash, or Wild-Ox of the Arab?, A. Buhalis, or Alcepht^ 
 lus Bubalis. 
 
200 EUMINANTIA. 
 
 residing among broken crags and precipices covered with pines, 
 is yet eagerly, and often with peril of life, hunted for its perfume, 
 peculiar to the male alone. Its habits are similar to those of the 
 Chamois,---it climbs and bounds over the Alpine ridges of Cen- 
 tral Asia with astonishing activity; assembling in herds, and 
 sometimes in considerable numbers. Occasionally, it is killed 
 with a cross-bow, a string having been set in the path of the 
 animal. The bag containing the' perfume, is kidney -shaped, and 
 about the size of a hen's egg. It has two openings, the larger 
 one oblong, the smaller round, and covered with Lair. The 
 musk, on the application of pressure, may be driven through the 
 openings, — it is an unctuous, dusky red substance, and when dry, 
 is more or less granulated. The hunters cut off the bag and tie 
 it up for sale ; but like many other articles of commerce, it is 
 often adulterated by the addition of blood and other matter, and 
 pieces of lead have sometimes been found enveloped in it for the 
 purpose of increasing the weight. The quality and quantity of 
 the musk in a given bag vary, according to the age of the ani- 
 mal. To the taste, it is bitter, and somewhat acrid. No sub- 
 stance is known to have a stronger, or more subtle and perma- 
 nent smell. It strikingly illustrates the extreme divisibility" of 
 matter, for a single grain of it will perfume a whole room, and 
 its odor continue for days without any diminution. When once 
 introduced, it is exceedingly difficult to destroy its perfume. 
 Vessels of silver do not for a long time part with the scent of 
 musk that has been placed in them. When exposed in large 
 quantity^ its effect is really violent upon the nervous system ; 
 blood has been forced from the nose, eyes and ears of those who 
 have imprudently inhaled a large amount of the vapor. Pur- 
 chasers of the article sometimes secure themselves from the sud- 
 den effects of the smell by covering the face with a handkerchief 
 several times folded. For nervous diseases and convulsions, it 
 has been used as a medicine. Orientalists make warm winter 
 dresses for themselves out of this animal's skin, with the fur 
 preserved ; Ihey also prepare from it a soft and shining leather. 
 The Romans and Tartars even eat the flesh, though that of the 
 male is highly flavored with musk. 
 
 Moschus Meminna. The Meminna. 
 
 This beautiful little Musk, about seventeen inches in length, 
 and weighing only five and a half pounds, is a native of Ceylon, 
 frequenting woods and groves, but never found in the plains. It 
 has large dark eyes, and smooth shining hair, of an olive color, 
 clouded with reddish about the limbs. The sides are dappled 
 with interrupted linee and irregular dots of white ; the throat 
 
KUMINANTIA. 201 
 
 and chest are also white, and from the former, two lines of the 
 same color on each side radiate baclc wards, the lower one ex- 
 tending to the shoulders. (This peculiar marking specifically- 
 varied in a slight degree, characterises the remaining species of 
 this geniis.) 
 
 Moschus Napu. The Napu, or Chevrotain. 
 
 This Musk Deer is a native of Java, and is about the size of a 
 rabbit, — the legs are scarcely as thick as a common quill ; the 
 general color is a uniform ferruginous brown, clouded with 
 black; and the animal has throat marks as above referred to. 
 
 To this species, Sir Sta,mford /Raffles has given the specific 
 name Javanicus. He remarks, that it " frequents thickets near 
 the sea-shore ; and feeds principally upon the berries of a species 
 of Ardisia ; can be easily trained when taken young, and will 
 become quite familiar." 
 
 Moschus Kanchil. Kanchil Musk Deer. 
 
 This is by some regarded as the most elegant, as it is one of 
 the smallest of the Ruminantia, — and is also found in Java and 
 Sumatra. Its height is about nine inches; its length, four- 
 teen, The color is a deep yellow brown, approaching to 
 black on the back, a "bright bay on the sides, and on the under 
 parts white. The markings of the throat have the upper line of 
 white extending from the face to the shoulder, diflfering in this 
 respect from those of the Napu. It has long canine teeth, and 
 a tail tufted and white at the tip. Berries and wild fruit consti- 
 tute its food. Among the Javanese, it is said to have a reputa- 
 tion for strategy similar to that of the fox. A Malay proverb 
 describes a great rogue as being "as cunning as a Kanchil.*' 
 "If taken in a noose laid for it, the Kanchil, when the hunter 
 arrives, will stretch itself out motionless, and feign to be dead ; 
 and if, deceived by this manoeuvre, he disengage the animal, it 
 seizes the moment to start on its legs, and disappears in an in- 
 stant." A still more singular expedient is mentioned, viz., "that 
 when closely pursued by the' dogs, the Kanchil will sometimes 
 make a bound upwards, hook- itself on the branch of a tree by 
 means of its bent tusks, and there remain siispended, until the 
 dogs have passed beneath." 
 
 Linnaeus placed the Musk Deer between the Camels and Deer. 
 Swainson places them between the Camelopards and Deer^ , 
 
 Why are the MuskDeer so called ? What is Cuvier's remark respecting 
 them? What is said of their general form, &o. ? How many species does 
 the family include? What is said of the size of these animals? Describe 
 the Thibet Music? What is its great peculiarity? Whatshowsthe powerful 
 nature of the Musk? What property of matter does this illustrate? To 
 
302 KUMINANTIA. 
 
 what medicinal use has it been applied? Give some account of the Me- 
 minna? What peculiarity has it in common with the remaining species of 
 this genus? Where is the Napu found ? What does Sir Stamford Raffles say 
 of It? Where is the ^ancW found? What is its size ? What reputation 
 has it among the Javanese? What Malay proverb is mentioned? How is 
 its cunning illustrated? Where did Linnseus and Swainson place Musk 
 Deer? Where are they placed on the Chart? 
 
 SECTION XXVI. 
 
 Solid-Horn£d Ruminants. 
 
 Cervidae. (Lat. Cervus, a stag.) The Deer Family. 
 
 We come now to a group of animals which have been ever 
 greatly admired. They seem, many of them, to have been 
 formed to embellish the forest, and impart animation to the sol- 
 itudes of- nature. In their internal structure, they olpsely 
 resemble the ox, but they are "without the gall-bladder; the 
 kidneys are formed differently; and the spleen is larger in pro- 
 portion to the size of the animals." Of the genus Cervus, the 
 general characters are simple. Incisor teeth are found, eight in 
 number, in the lower jaw alone ; the grinders are six on each 
 side above and below; the canine teeth are generally wanting. 
 The pupils of the eye are elongated, and below the inner angle 
 of the eye, there is a deep fossa, or opening, generally known as 
 the lachrymal sinus. In some, this opening, called by the 
 French, larmiers, (from Fr. larme, a tear,) is of considerable 
 size. It has been supposed "to communicate with the nostrils, 
 and assist them in maintaining respiration, during great exertion 
 or swiftness; " but its use is not fully ascertained. The cavity 
 secretes a wax-like substance, which sends forth a strong odor. 
 The ears are large and pointed; the tail short ; the legs slender; 
 and the feet bisulcated. The horns, or antlers.-^xcepting in the 
 case of the Rein Deer, found alone in the males, — ^are solid, and 
 in a large part of these animals, annually shed and renewed. 
 "The form of the horns is various. Sometimes they spread into 
 broad palms, which send out sharp snags around their outer 
 edges ; sometimes they divide fantastically into branches, some 
 of which project over the forehead, whilst others are reared up- 
 ward in the air, or they may be so reclined backwards, that the 
 animal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect 
 posture ; yet, in whatever way they grow, they appear to give 
 an air of grandeur to the animal." The geographical range of 
 the Deer includes the entire globe, with the exception of Austra- 
 lia and Southern Africa. The species ' found in the colder 
 
EUMINANTIA. 203 
 
 regions, are generally marked by superior size, and a greater 
 development of the horns ; and by having a broad muzzle cov- 
 ered with hair. 
 
 The production, loss and renewal of the antlers of this family 
 of quadrupeds, are among the most remarlfable phenomena of 
 animal physiology. The subject is trpated with great ability 
 and clearness in W. C. L. Martin's work on the Mammalia, from 
 which we extract the following : 
 
 "The horns are seated upon an osseous peduncle, or footstalk, 
 rising from each frontal bone at its central point of ossification, — 
 thes3 peduncles are enveloped in skin. It is not until in the spring, 
 or beginning of the second year, that the first pair of horns begin 
 to make their appearance. At this epoch, a new process com- 
 mences, the skin enveloping the peduncle swells, its arteries 
 enlarge, tides of blood rush to the head, and the whole system 
 experiences a fresh stimulus. The antlers are now budding," 
 for, on the top of their footstalks, the arteries are depositing lay. 
 ers of osseous matter, particle by particle, with great rapidity. 
 As they increase, the skin increases in an equal ratio, still cov- 
 ering the budding antlers, and cDntinues so to do until they have 
 acquired their due development and solidity. This skin is a 
 tissue of blood vessels, and the courses of the large arteries from 
 the head to the end of the antlers are imprinted in the latter in 
 long furrows, which are never obliterated. In ordinary lan- 
 guage, the skin, investing the antlers, is termed velvet, being 
 covered with a fine pile of close short hair. Suppose then, the 
 antlers of the young deer, now duly grown, and still invested 
 with this vascular \is=!i)e ; but the process is not yet complete. 
 While this tender velvet remains, the deer can make no use of 
 his newly acquired weapons, which are destined to bear the 
 brunt of many a conflict with his compeers ;_ it must, therefore, 
 be removed ; but without giving a sudden check to tl)e current 
 of blood rolling through this extent of skin, lest, by "directing the 
 tide lo the brain, or some internal organ, death be the result. 
 The process then is this i — As soon as the antlers complete, (ac- 
 cording to the age of the animal.) the footstalk, always covered 
 with skin, they begin to deposit round it a bone, or rough ring of 
 hone, with notches, through which the great arteries still pass. 
 Gradually, however, the diameter of these openings is contracted 
 by the deposition of additional matter; till, at length, the great 
 arteries are compressed as by a ligature, and the circulation is 
 effectually stopped. The velvet now dies for the want of the 
 vital fluid ; it shrivels, dries and peels off in shreds, the animal 
 
204 EITMINANTIA. 
 
 assisting in getting rid of it by rubbing his antlers against the 
 trees. They are now firm, hard and white ; and the stag bears 
 them proudly, and brandishes them in defiance of his rivals. 
 From the burr upwards, these antlers are no longer part and 
 parcel of the system, — they are extraneous, and held only by 
 theii" mechanical continuity with the footstalk on which they 
 were placed 5 hence their deciduous character ; for it is a vital 
 law, that the system shall throw off all parts no longer intrinsic- 
 ally entering into the integrity of the whole, — an absorption 
 process soon begins to take place justbfeneath the burr, removing 
 particle after particle, till at length the antlers are separated and 
 fall by their own weight, or by the slightest touch, leaving the 
 living end of the footstalk exposed and slightly bleeding. This 
 is immediately covered with a pellicle of skin which soon thick- 
 ens, and all is well. The return of spring brings with it a re- 
 newal of the whole process, and a finer pair of antlers branch 
 forth." 
 
 The rapidity with which this firm mass of bone is secreted, is 
 worthy of particular notice. The budding horns of a male 
 Wapite, are several inches high in ten days from their first ap- 
 pearancB ; a month afterwards there is an interval of two feet 
 between them, measuring from branch to branch.- When the 
 process is ended that completes the horn, the deer seems con- 
 scious of his strength, and goes forth prepared to encounter any 
 creature, even man himself, that may dare to invade his haunts. 
 Thus he continues for a season, — but when he again sheds his 
 horns, betakes himself to the recesses of the forest until they are 
 replaced. The Common Stag sheds his horns about the end of 
 February, or in the month of March ; the Fallow Deer from the 
 middle of April to the first week of May. In the Stag, the horns 
 do not appear until the second year. The first shed, is straight, or 
 single, like a small thrust sword or dagger, — whence the young 
 male is termed Daguet, (Fr. dague, a dagger,) by the Frencli ; 
 th(3 next horn lias commonly but one antler ; the third has two, 
 and sometimes three ; the fourth has three or four, sometimes 
 five or six. Up to this time, the animal is called a Young 
 Stag, — the fifth horn has five or six antlers; the sixth is shed 
 when the animal is a:bout seven years of age. In addition to 
 the growth df antlers, the horns become larger, have the fur. 
 rows more marked, the burr more projecting; and the supports 
 of the horns become, every year, shorter and wider. By these 
 signs, the age of the animal, from eight years and upwards, is 
 determined. After the seventh year, there is no fixed rule as to 
 the antlers. They are multiplied towards the summit of the 
 
KUMINANTIA. 205- 
 
 beam, where they are united into a sort of crown, and are said 
 to be paimated. The oldest have not usually more tha,n ten or 
 twelve antlers; though it is said some have borne the enormous 
 number of thirty-three. (See Plate VII. fig. 2.) 
 
 Deer are remarkable for the acuteness of their hearing and 
 smelling, and it is therefore very difficult for the hujjter to ap- 
 proach them when he follows the course of the wind. They 
 are very nice in choosing their food, and will not eat that which 
 has been handled or touched by any foreign substance. The 
 flesh. of many of these animal^ as is well known, is used for 
 food, and familiarly known under the name of venison. Strong 
 and lasting leather is made from their skins. According to Dr. 
 De Kay, (N. H. S. N. Y.,) this family "comprises forty-five 
 real or nomiual species, distributed, according to the ideas of sys- 
 tematic writers, into eight or ten genera. But six species are 
 found within the United States, and of these three only exist ui: 
 the State of New York." 
 
 Elaphus Canadensis, or C Canadensis. The American 
 Stag, or Wapiti, or Round-Horned Elk. 
 
 This, animal, which is frequently called thp Canada Stag, is 
 
 of a much larger and stronger make than the Stags of Europe ; 
 
 and i'n fact is one of the most gigantac. of the deei' tribe, being 
 
 from four to five feet in height and from seven to eight feet in 
 
 length. Their horns are shed annually ; they are round and very 
 
 large, branching into serpentine curves, but never palnnated, and 
 
 measuring six feet from tip to tip. (Plate VII. fig. 4.) Under the 
 
 throat of the male is a dewlap composed of black ha;ir from four 
 
 to six inches long ; the tail, in both sexes is very short. Most of the 
 
 ' upper parts of the Wapiti are of a lively yellowish brown color ; the 
 
 neck is mixed red and black ; the rump yellowish, bounded by a 
 
 dark, circular' marginal line; the limbs on the front are deep 
 
 brown ; the tail yellowish. The Wapiti feeds on g,rass and 
 
 young shoots of trees ; is easily tamed and has been trained to 
 
 the harness. It is said to make a shrill, quivering i^oise, "not 
 
 very unlike the braying of an ass."' The flesh is somewhat 
 
 coarse, and not highly valued ; but its hide, when made into 
 
 leafher is said not to turn hard in drying after havipg be:en wet, 
 
 a quality which places it in high estimation. The Wapiti is 
 
 found, not only in the northerp parts of this continent, but on the 
 
 western prairies, and in California, Oregon, and New Mexico., 
 
 C. axis. The Axis. (So named by Pliny.) 
 
 Of this beautiful deer there are two varieties. The common 
 
 Axis, in its size and general form, nearly resembles the fallow 
 
 deer, being, at the shoulder, about two and a half feejt in height. 
 
206 EUMINANTiA. 
 
 It has a rich fawn.colored skin, spotted with white, and hence 
 sometimes receives the specific name maculosa, (spotted.) Along 
 the back the ground-color changes to nearly black ; but the un. 
 der parts are snow white. A broad dusky spot appears upon the 
 forehead, and a line of the same color extends along the middle 
 of the nose. The Axis is a native of India, arid is particularly 
 numerous on the banks of the Ganges. It roams among the 
 thick jungles, near streams of water, and is hunted under the 
 name of the Spotted Hog-Deer', This animal feeds in the night, 
 is timid, mild and inactive, excepting when the females have 
 young, at which time the male is bold and fierce. It has^b'een 
 kept with success in menageries and parks, to which, from its 
 form and color, it is highly ornamental. The larger variety. A, 
 major, (Lat. greater,) a native of Borneo and Ceylon, is about 
 the height of a horse, and has horns which are three-forked, 
 thick and rugged, and nearly three feet long. 
 
 Capreolus Dorcas, (Gr. doqx'Ug, dorkas, a gazelle,) or C. capre- 
 olus, (Lat. Roebuck or Chamois.) The Roebuck. 
 
 This species of deer, once common in England, is now con- 
 fined chiefly or entirely to the Highlands of Scotland. They are 
 of less size than the fallow deer, being only two feet four inches 
 in height, and three feet six inches in length. The color is reddish 
 brown on the back, the chest and under parts of the body are yel- 
 lowish, and the croup white ; the horns are round, divided into three 
 branches, and about nine inches long. (Plate VII. fig. 7.) The 
 Roebuck does not live in herds, but singly and in pairs, amongst the 
 shady thickets and risingslopes. Thisdeer is very cunning, when 
 pursued, sometimes baffling the dogs by making a few enormous 
 leaps, waiting until the dogs have passed and then resuming its 
 former track. It is said to be very fond of the Ruhus saxatus, 
 called in the Highlands, the Roebuck-berry. In winter, when 
 the ground is covered with snow, these animals browse on the 
 tender branches of the fir and birch. The flesh is delicate food, 
 and the horns are used for carving-knives. By the old Welsh 
 laws, a Roebuck was valued at the same price as a she-goat. It 
 can be easily subdued, but never perfectly tamed, always retain- 
 ing some portion of its natural wildness. 
 
 C. leucurus. (Gr. i.Ev«bg, leukos, white; oiga, oura, a tail.) 
 The WniTE-TAiiED Deer. 
 
 This resembles the European roebuck. On the Columbia 
 river it is the most common deer ; the tip and under part of the 
 tail are of a cream white. 
 
 C. macrotis. (Gr. /lotxqbg, makros, long; olg, ous, ear.) The 
 Mule Deer. 
 
RtTMINANTIA. 207 
 
 This takes its name from its long ears, which are half the 
 length of the whole antler. The hair is waved or crimped like 
 that of the elk ; upon the thighs near the croup it looks like white 
 thread cut off abruptly. 
 
 C. elaphus, (Gr. elaqibg, elaphos, a stag.) The Red Deer, 
 or Stag. 
 
 This noble species is found native in the European forests and 
 in those of Asia where the climate is temperate. It is the 
 largest of the English Deer, associated with ihe forest laws, so 
 oppressive that they affixed a less value to the life of a man than 
 that of a stag ; and it is blended with the legends of deadly feud, 
 as in the celebrated ballad of "Chevy Chase." The Red Deer 
 is' distinguished by its brown color, and a pale spot on the rump, 
 and sometimes attains a great size. Pennant speaks of one that 
 weighed 314 lbs., exclusive of the entrails, head and skin. Ac- 
 cording to Buffon, the small size of some of these animals is ow- 
 ing to a deficiency of nourishment, as in rich pastures its size be- 
 comes greatly increased. The horns are round, having the antlers 
 > turned towards the front, the summit terminating in a fork, or snags 
 from a common center. (Plate VII. fig. 2.) It is very common in 
 France, and is supposed to have been originally introduced from 
 that country into England. In the latter country it is now largely 
 superseded by the common or Fallow Deer, which is of a more 
 manageable and placid disposition and affords far superior venison. 
 The Red Deer has a fine eye, an acute smell and a good ear ; 
 when listening, raises his head and erects his ears ; when going 
 into a coppice, or other half-covered place, stops to look around 
 him on all sides, and scents the wind to discover if any object be 
 near that might disturb him. He eats slowly, and after his stom- 
 ach is full, lies down and leisurely ruminates. 
 
 The pursuit of this deer is a very favorite amusement in Eng. 
 land, summoning into action all the energy of youth and man- 
 hood. The animal in stalking is generally shot; but when 
 wounded and yet able to fly, the dogs are let loose in the chase. 
 In olden times, the dogs were mainly relied on for taking and 
 killing deer, so that fleet and courageous hounds became the 
 pride of nobles and princes. It is said he is particularly de- 
 lighted with the sound of the shepherd's pipe, and is by that instru- 
 ment sometimes lured to his own destruction.. In, winter and 
 spring,. this ji^imal rarely drinks, the dews and herbage being suffi- 
 cient to satisfy his thirst ; but duringthe parching heats of summer, 
 he not only frequents the brooks and springs, but searches for deep 
 water wherein to bathe and refresh himself. He swims with great' 
 ease and strength, particularly when he is in good condition, his 
 
208 EUMINANTIA. 
 
 fat contributing to his buoyancy. The female bears one young, 
 seldom more, in or hear the month of May. The fawn, or calf, 
 as it is called, the first year, does not quit the dam during tlje 
 entire summer. The female is most assiduous in concealing and 
 tending the young one, which is needful to secure it against as- 
 saults, not only from the cat and dog tribes, but even from the 
 stag himself, who is not overstocked with paternal affection. 
 
 C. Darna, (Lat. a Fallow Deer.) The Fallow Deer. 
 
 This has the same general form, aspect and manners as the 
 Stag, with a more gfentle disposition. The size is smaller, but 
 the chief difference between the Fallow Deer and the Sfag re- 
 lates to the horns, (Plate VII. figs. 2 and 6,) which, in the former, 
 are broad and palmated, at their extrernities pointing a little for- 
 ward, and branched on their hinder sides. It is less delicate 
 than the stag in its choice of 'food, and browses much closer ; is at 
 full maturity when three years old. 
 
 There are two varieties of this animal m England, where it 
 adorns the modern parks. The beautiful dappled variety is sup- 
 posed to have been brought from the south of Europe, or the 
 western parts of Asia; the other very deep brown variety is 
 said by Pennant to have been introduced by James I., from Nor- 
 wky. On the continent of Europe, as well as in England, they 
 are confined in parks ; but they are found wild in Moldavia as 
 well as Lithuania. The venison of this Deer is of the richest 
 and most delicate kind ; the skins of the buck and doe are unri- 
 valed for durability and softness ; the horns, like those of the 
 stag, are manufactured into knife handles and other articles, 
 while from the refuse, ammonia or hartshorn is extracted. This 
 species is represented in the sculptures of Nineveh. 
 
 C. Virginianus. The American Deer. 
 
 This species resembles the English Fallow Deer, and is so 
 named by Professor Emmons, (Mass. Report.) The color is 
 bluish gray in the autumn and winter, dusky reddish in the 
 spring, changing to bluish iji the summer; the young animal is 
 spotted with White. The horns are of moderate size, curving 
 forward, having the concave part in front, " with from one to six 
 points occasionally palmated." In the adult males the horns 
 show a great variety, which is regulated by their age, the season 
 of the year, and the abundance or scarcity of their food. These 
 animals range from Canada to Mexico. In some places, the 
 united attacks of men &nd wolves are largely diminishing their 
 number. Their horns are usually cast in the winter. Dr. De 
 Kay says the reason so few of the horns are found, is that as 
 soon as they are shed they are eaten up by the Rodents or gnaw- 
 
BUMINANTIA. 20&. 
 
 ing anima.ls. In frontier countric;s. these. aqimals are exceedingly 
 useful, not only for the food whiqh they fqrnish, but for their 
 skins, which form an important article of cpmrnerce. They live 
 upon twigs of, trees, shrubs, berries and grasaps; for the buds 
 aijd flowers qf the pond-lily, they are sf(id to show a peculiar 
 fondness, The female has one, sometimes , two fa«rns at a birth, 
 in the latter part, of spring or early in the summer. 
 
 Calces. (Lat. an Elk.) The Elk or Moose. Flat-Horned 
 Elk, Blaql^ Moose or Elk. (See Plate, VII. fig. 3.) 
 
 "This animal, surpassing all the true d^er in sizie and stj-ength, is 
 found in the nortfiern parts qf Europe a,iid America.. The name 
 whicli it bears is of Celtic origin, coming from "Elob," whence 
 is derived thei latter word nice or alces, which is the Celtic trans- 
 ferred to the Roman language. In America, it is known under 
 the various names of Flat-Horned Elk, Black Elk, or Moose. 
 TijLO latter, which is the more commoa terpn, is a corruption of 
 the Indian appellation, Moosoa or Mus^e, wqqd eater. 
 
 The Elk is six or seven feet in length, and from, four to .five 
 and a half feet high at the withers;, the head is large and elon- 
 gated, E^i^d is, including the upper lip, covered with short pro, 
 jecting and flexible hair, something likp that of the Tapir ; the 
 eyes are moderately large, and placed near the base of the 
 horns; the ears long and asinine ; the, neck very shprt and strong, 
 and furnished with, a, mane ; the lachrymal pit, is small ; horns 
 are found in the male only. The hair of the lips and throat, in 
 connection with its very long and flexible tongue, serves to direct 
 food to the mouth. The food consists of' shoots and twigs of 
 trees, particularly of striped maple; the Elk also feeds upon 
 high cqarse grasses, but vifhen wishing to graze, reaches the 
 ground vvith, difficulty, and sorpetimes feeds leaning on its knees. 
 It likewise peels old trees and feeds uppiji the bark. During the 
 sunimer, Elks frequent the neighborhood of lakes and streams, 
 often resqrtit^g,tq the water as a refuge from tormenting musqui- 
 toes, and feeding upon aquatic plants; like the C. Virginiamts, 
 they are said to be particularly fond of the roots of the pond- 
 lily. In winter, they betake, themselves to the wqqded hills. 
 T.he Elk can hardly be said to be gregariqus, hut two or three 
 being seen together, except, at particular seasons. Some natu- 
 ralists consider the Moose of this country to be a different species 
 from the Elk of Europe, asserting .ths^t in the heavy palmated 
 horns of both, there is a. difference which indicatesa diversity 
 of species; but; according to DeKay, this difference is. not uni- 
 form, ai^d the animals should be considered of the same species. 
 The horns, perfecte4. in the fifth y^^^i ^^^ from ten to, twelve feet 
 
210 BUMINANTIA. 
 
 apart, and weigh from fifty to sixty pounds. The snags or 
 branches sometimes amount to twenty-eight- The body of the 
 Elk is round and compact, supported by legs of disproportionate 
 length ; the hair is full and coarse, longest upon the head and 
 withers ; it is black at the tips, gray in the middle, and white at 
 the roots. The dress of summer is of a browner tint than that 
 of the winter. (See the figure above the Camelopard on the 
 Chart.) 
 
 In its ungainly form and awkward movements, this animal ex- 
 hibits a strong contrast to the others of the same family. The 
 shoulders being rather higher than the croup, it does not bound 
 like the deer, nor gallop like the horse, but shuffles or ambles 
 along, its joints or hoofs cracking at every step. Like those of 
 the Rein Deer, the hoofs are broad and divided so that they di- 
 verge on pressing the ground, thus giving the animal a sort of 
 natural snow-shoes. When each part is brought smartly together 
 by the sudden raising of the limbs, the cracking noise above 
 mentioned is produced and may be heard at a considerable dis- 
 tance. When increasing its 'speed, the animal straddles his 
 hind legs to avoid treading on its fore heels, tossing about the 
 head and shoulders when breaking from a trot into a gallop. In 
 its progress, it holds up its nape so as to lay the horns horizon, 
 tally back, and prevent their entanglement among trees. The 
 Moose is a timorous and wary animal, and as its senses of hear, 
 ing and smell are acute, must be approached with great caution. 
 
 When it notices the coming of the hunter, it at once endeav- 
 ors to escape, trotting off with great rapidity; at this gait, it soon 
 leaves the hunter far in the rear, stepping with ease over fallen 
 timber of the largest size. When hard pressed by the hunters 
 wearing snow shoes, if it breaks into a gallop they soon overtake 
 it; though in the winter it may sink at every step, it still keeps 
 on its way, the sharp ice wounding its feet, and its lofty horns 
 becoming entangled in the branches of the forest as it passes 
 along. The trees are broken with ease, and wherever the 
 Moose runs, the hunter perceives it by the snapping off of 
 branches of trees as thick as a man's thigh with its horns. The 
 chase may last in this manner for a whole day, sometimes for 
 two or three days together; for the pursuers are often "not less 
 excited by famine than the pursued by fear." The poor animal 
 "at last quite tired and spent with loss of blood, sinks like a 
 ruined building, and makes the earth shake beneath his fall." 
 The flesh iS highly esteemed ; the nose and tongue in particular 
 are thought to -be great dainties. The Elk can be easily domes- 
 ticated, and has wen used for draught. The male sometimes 
 
EUMINANTIA. 211 
 
 becomes very large, attaining the weight of eleven hundred 
 pounds. Elks were formerly used in Europe for conveying 
 couriers, and could accomplish 36 Swedish, or 234 English 
 miles in a day, when attached to a sledge. Dorelli, a Swedish 
 gentleman, recommended that they Should be used in time of war 
 as flying artillery, to reconnoitre and carry dispatches. The 
 skin is so tough that a regiment of soldiers was furnished with 
 waistcoats made of Elk's hide, whidh coUld hardly be penetrated 
 by a ball. 
 
 C. rangifer, or Rangifer tarandus. The Rein Deer. 
 
 The Deer of this species have received many names. They 
 are found throughout the arctic regions of Europe, Asia and 
 America ; but those of Lapland and Spitzbergen are said to be 
 the finest. Their general height is about four arid a half feet ; 
 their horns are long and slender, having round, branched and 
 recurved antlers, the summits of which are palmated ; (Plate VII. 
 fig. -5 ;') the body is of a thick and square form ; the legs are stouter 
 in proportion than those of the Stag ; the size differs with the cli- 
 mate, those in regions farthest north being the largest ; the color 
 is brown above, varying, however, with the age of the animal and 
 the season of the year. As the Rein Deer grows older, it often be- 
 comes of a grayish white beneath, and sometimes almost entirely 
 white; the space about the eyes is always black. Both sexes 
 have canine teeth ; both also have horns, but those of the male 
 are larger, longer, and more branched than those of the female. 
 
 The male sheds his horns about the last of November ; the fe- 
 male retains hers until she brings forth ; if barren, she drops 
 them in the beginning of November. The horns, during the 
 early part of their growth, are extremely sensitive, and the ani- 
 mal experiences much suffering from the gnats and musquitoes. 
 The hoofs are long, large and black, as also are the false or sec- 
 ondary hoofs behind. While the animal is running, the latter 
 hoofs, as in the Elk, make, by their striking together, a remark- 
 able clattering noise, which may be heard at a considerable dis- 
 tance. Richardson, who has given many particulars respecting 
 this Deer, thinks that in the fur countries of this continent, at 
 least two varieties exist, called by him the " Barren Ground 
 Caribou," and the " Woodland Caribou." The Woodland animal 
 goes south in the spring, and is confined to wooded districts ; the 
 Barren Ground animal goes northward, retiring to the woods 
 only in the winter, and passing the summer on barren grounds, 
 or on the borders of the Arctic Seas. Bucks of this latter vari- 
 ety, when in good condition, weigh, according to Richardson, 
 from 90 to 130 lbs., without the offal. , Sir John Franklin states 
 
213 
 
 KTJMINANTIA. 
 
 the weight of the Woodland Caribou to be fron? 200 to 240 lbs. 
 It has been asserted that somp Rein Deer have weighed as mtjch 
 as 400 lbs., though the correctness of this is questioned. The 
 Rein Deer of Norway and Swedpn are small when compared 
 with those of Finland and Lapland, w,hioh, in their turn, yield 
 to those of Spitzbergen, and these again fall short of the Polar 
 races. The fiarren Ground Caribous feed, in summer, upon the 
 shoots of grasses growing in the valleys of the north, returning 
 to the wood^ in September;, they there feed upon the tree lichens 
 and mosses found on the rooks and ground. They, root for the 
 lichen like swine in a pasture. The forehead, nose, and feet, 
 are covered with a hard skin closely attached to those parts, and. 
 are thus guarded against injury by the icy crust which covers 
 the surfa,ce of the snow. The Rein Deer of thei Eastern conti- 
 nent are sustained by the ssime kind of food as the American 
 animal. The Caribou is not less, necessary for the support of 
 our northern native tribes, than the Rein Deer of the Eastern 
 Continent for that of the Laplander and otherpeoplp of the north. 
 Of the Caribou horns the Indians make their fish spears; tlie 
 hide, dressed with close and compact fur and remarkably imperv- 
 ious to cold, forms their winter clothing, and from it is made a 
 soft and pliable leather for moccasins and summer garments. 
 When sixty or seventy skins are sewed together, they make a 
 tent sufficient in size for the residence of a large family. By 
 pouring one third part of melted fat over the pounded meat, and 
 incorporating them well together, a composition called pemmican 
 is made. This, if kept dry, may be preserved for three or four 
 years, and containing much nourishment in small bulk, is well 
 fitted for use in extensive journeys, as is abundantly proved by 
 the experience of traders and others traversing the northern lati- 
 tudes. Another mixture, called ihucchawgan, made of pounded 
 deer's meat and fish, is either eaten raw or made into soup. 
 
 The Caribous travel in herds varying in number from eight or 
 ten to two or three hundred ; their daily excursions being gener. 
 ally towards the quarter from which the wind blows. They are 
 approached with more ease than any other deer found on this 
 continent. A single family of Indians have sometimes destroyed 
 two or three hundred in the course of a few weeks. To the In- 
 dians this animal is solely a beast of chase, not, as among the 
 Laplanders, being used for purposes of draught. It is hunted or 
 taken in traps or pounds, or lured to its fate by other artifice. 
 Sometimes the hunter takes advantage of the animal's inquisi- 
 tiveness, by creeping behind an object affording him partial con- 
 cealment, where he imitates the bellowing of the animal, at the 
 
RUMINANTIA. 213 
 
 same time having l:ps deer skin coat and hood drawn over his 
 head. In this attempt he seldom fails to shoot down the animsrl 
 hefore he comes within a distance of twelve paces. The rude 
 inhabitants of the whole of northern Asia use the Rein Deer as 
 a beast of burden ; but in Lapland, where it is essential to meet 
 the wants of a pastoral people, it is most highly appreciated. In 
 that country the horse and ox could not. exist ; but the Rein Deer 
 supplies their place, furnishing, as it does, food and clothing, and 
 submissively and patiently yielding its labor. The movements 
 of the Laplander and his habits of life are, in fact, controlled by 
 his deer. He must go where they go in search of lichens and 
 mosses, and is obliged to make periodical journeys involving 
 much labor and fatigue, in order to keep them from being an- 
 noyed by the gadfly [Oestrus Tarandi,) which not only torments 
 them witii its sting, but even deposits its eggs in the wound which 
 it makes in their hides. Often the; hides are pierced in a hun- 
 dred places, like a sieve, by this insect; and some deer die in 
 the third year from thisi cause. The Laplander flees with his 
 deer to the mountains in order to escape; this insect, not only, but 
 the scarcely less dreaded musquitoes, which are more ferocious ' 
 in the cold climates than in the tropics. His deer are the Lap- 
 lander's wealth. When in good circumstances he has three or 
 four hundred of them, and can live in comfort. He who has 
 only one hundred is thought to be in a condition somewhat pre- 
 carious, while he who has but fifty commonly joins his animals 
 with the herd of some richer man, and himself performs the neces- 
 sary menial service. The civilization of Lapland, which is on 
 the advance and promoted by intercourse with other nations, 
 depends upon the Rein Deer as the only beast of burden and 
 conveyance. When a, traveler crosses the borderline of Lap- 
 land, he must, for further progress, like Bayard Taylor, step 
 into the sledge drawn by the rapid Rein Deer. The sledge is a 
 light vehicle, running, not on wheels, but on its flat boards, which 
 are covered with leather. The Rein Deer is yoked to it by a 
 collar, and guided by reins attached to its horns. 
 
 "Obsequious at their call, the docile tribe 
 Yield to the sledge their necks, and whirl them swift 
 O'er hill and dale, heap'd Into one expanse 
 Of marbled snow, far as the eye can sweep. 
 With a blue crust of ice unbounded, glazed." 
 
 With the usual load of from two to three hundred pounds, 
 they will trot over the glazed snow at the rate of ten miles an 
 hour. Journeys, by these animals, pf one hundred and fifty 
 
214 RUMINANTIA. 
 
 mjjes in nineteen hours are not uncommon. In truth, some sto- 
 ries of their swiftness would appear incredible, if not so fully at- 
 tested, Pictet, with three deer, went in 1769 to the north of Lap- 
 land, in order to observe the transit of Venus. "The first per- 
 formed 3089 feet, 8 inches and J^\ in two minutes, making a 
 rate of nearly nineteen English miles an hour; the second went 
 . over the same ground in three minutes, and the last in three 
 minutes and tvventy-six seconds." One is recoi^ded to have 
 "drawn, in 1699, an officer, with important dispatches, eight 
 hundred English miles in forty-eight hours; and the portrait of 
 the poor deer, which fell dead at the end of its remarkable 
 journey, is still preserved at the palace of Drottingholm, Sweden." 
 C. munfjac, or Cervulus (Lat. dim.) vaginalis. (Lat. sheathed.) , 
 The MuNTJAc or Kijang, of India. (PI. VII. fig. 8.) 
 
 This animal is a little larger than the Roebuck ; has a pointed 
 head and rather large ears ; its eyes are large with lachrymal 
 sinuses; the tail is short and flattened; the male has large ca- 
 nine teeth in the upper jaw ; the female has none, and is without 
 horns. The horns in the male are short and simple, " rising 
 from a footstalk apparently beneath the skin, and running ob- 
 liquely upwards, one on each side of the forehead, beginning as 
 low down as the inner angle of the eye." On the face, two 
 rough folds of the skin, following the direction of the prominent 
 part of the forehead, unite so as to mark the face with the letter 
 V. The general color is. a reddish brown above; the under 
 parts and front of the thighs, pure white. The Chinese Muntjak 
 is of a grayish brown color, with pale ringed hair.' The Munt- 
 jak is one of the most elegant and beautiful of the deer kind.' 
 It possesses " a great portion of craftiness, combined with much 
 indolence." As it gives forth a strong scent, dogs easily follow 
 its path. In its flight, it is at fii'st very swift ; but it soon slack- 
 ens its speed, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot 
 from which it started. After making several such circuits, if 
 still followed, it thrusts its head into a thicket, and thus remains 
 fixed, as in a secure place, unmindful of the approach of the 
 sportsman. The male animal has a great share of courage, and 
 when the dogs are at bay with him, he makes, with his tusks, a 
 most vigorous defence, and many dogs are wounded in the attack. 
 Dr. Horsefield, whose account of this animal is the most satis- 
 factory, states that the Munijak " selects for its retreat certain dis- 
 tricts which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of these dis- 
 tricts are known as the favorite resort of the animal for several 
 generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, di- 
 versified by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities 
 
KUMINANTIA. 215 
 
 of the more considerable mountains, or approaching the con- 
 fines of extensive forests." These districts, common in Java, are 
 "covered with long grass, and shrubs, and trees of moderate 
 size, growing in groups or sm- 1) thickets." The long grass, 
 saccharum spicatum, and a plant called Phyllanthus Emblica, 
 constitute the principal food of the'Muntjak. The flesh is said 
 to afford excellent venison, and is often found on the tables of 
 European residents. xAimong the Mahrattas,thrs animal is called 
 Baikar. It uses its long sinuses apparently for the purpose of 
 smelling, "dilating them to a great extent, and applying them to 
 various objects." 
 
 The SoaTH American Deer form a beautiful group. Of 
 these we can notice only 1st, C. nemorivagus, (Lat. nemus, a 
 wood; uagus, wandering,) — the Gauzu-viva, a delicate little 
 deer, which is but twenty-six inches in length, approaching, in 
 its aspect, that of the sheep. In this species, the lachrymal si- 
 nus, or tear pit, is scarcely perceptible. The lower part of the 
 head and legs is whitish ; about the eyes, on the inside of ihe 
 fore legs and under part of the body, the color is a palish cinna- 
 mon; the neck and other parts brownish. The horns are very 
 short. It is found in Brazil. 
 
 2. C. rufus, (Lat. red.) The Pita. 
 
 This is about twenty-nine inches in height; in 'its general 
 color reddish brown, but in some parts whiter. It lives in the 
 low ma,rshy grounds of South America ; is found in large herds, 
 and "as ten females,are seen for one male," and as the former 
 are without horns, the existence of deer on this continent, with- 
 out horns, has by some been incorrectly reported. The Pita 
 shows little power of endurance when pursued, being soon run 
 down by dogs; sometimes it is captured by the lasso and balls. 
 
 Fossil Cervid^ have'been discovered, the most remarkable of 
 which is the Megaceros (great horrjed) Hibernicus, the gigantic 
 Irish Deer, larger in size than the Moose ; the antlers over five 
 feet in length, from the burr to the tip, in a straight line, and 
 nearly eleven feet apart, reckoning from the extreme tip of the 
 right to that of the left antler. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 I 
 
 What is said of the internal structure' of the Deer Family? Give their 
 general characters. Are the horns found in both sexes ? What is said of 
 their form ? How extensive is the range of the Deer ? What is remarked 
 of the loss and renewal of the antlers ? Briefly describe the process. At 
 what time does the Common Staff shed his horns ? How soon, in the young 
 animal, do the horns appear? What determines the age of the Stag? 
 
216 KUMINANTU. 
 
 How many antlers hare the oldest ? What is said of their hearing apd 
 smell ? How many species does the family include ? How does the ]i'''jit- 
 (i compare with the European Stag? Wliat is said of his horns? What 
 other characteristics are given? Upom what does it feed?^ Is its flesh 
 highly valued? Where is it found? How many varieties of the Axis? 
 Describe the Common Axis. Where found? What do the hunters call it? 
 What is said of the larger variety? Where is the Roebuck now found? 
 Give its size and other particulars. What is said of the White-tailed Deer ? 
 What of the Mule or Lmig-ewred Deer / Where is the Red Deer, or Stag 
 found ? With what is this associated ? How is this distinguished ? What is 
 said of its sjze or weight ? What species tas largely superseded this in 
 England, and why ? What is said of the chase of the Deer ? iGive other 
 particulars. How does the Fallow Deer compare with the Stag ? When is 
 it mature ? How many varieties in England ? Where is it found wild ? 
 What is said of its venison ? From wliat part of the animal is hartshorn 
 obtaiue,d? Which English sp, dp^sthe Am^rica.n or Virginia D. resemble? 
 Describe ilj. What is its range ? Why are so few of its horns found ? 
 How is it useful iii froiftier countries ? What is said of the size of the Mk ? 
 What is the origlii of its name ? What is the animal called in this country ? 
 Explam the term Moose. Name its characteristics. Of what roots and 
 twigs is iti particularly fond ? Does the Am. differ from the Eur. sp. ? 
 What is said of its Ijorns, hair, &c. ? How does it contrast with other 
 Deer? What is peculiar in its hoofs? Whi),t of its efforts to escape from 
 hunters? For what purpose were Elks formerly used in Europe? Of what 
 regions is the Rein Deer a. native ? Give its size and other characteristics. 
 How many varieties, according to Richardson, are found on this continent? 
 Give the weight of each? Which Rein D. are the largest? On what does 
 the Can6oiJ feed ? What is said of its uses ? What is pemniican ? What 
 is thucehawgan? How does the Caribou travel? For what do the In- 
 dians use it? How is it hunted? What are the uses of the Rein D. on 
 the Eastern Continent ? How does it affect the character and condition of 
 the Laplander ? What is said of the size of the Miiiitjac I Give some ac- 
 count of its disposition and habits. What S. American Deer are mentipned? 
 Give some account of them. Which is the most remarliable of the fossil 
 Deer? 
 
 Compare the description of the Flat-horned Elk with the figure above 
 Camelopard, on the chart. Give, the genera, species, &c., of the Rouufl- 
 horned Mk OT Wcipiti. What else is it called? Trace the Rein D. and 
 compare the description in the book with the figure on the chart. 
 
 SECTION XXVII. 
 
 ~~' BoviDAE. (Lat. Bos, an ox.) The Oxen. — Bisulcated. (Lat. 
 Bis, two; sulcus, furrow, two hoofed or furrowed. )(P1.VI. fig.I.) 
 The animals of this family have characteristics easily recog- 
 nized and generally familiar. Both sexes have horns which are 
 permanent, hollow and smooth, except at their base, wh^re they 
 are ringed ; also rounded and tapering to a point, so as to form 
 a crescent. The horns are supported by bony cores, having 
 cavities, or cells communicating with the interior of the skull ; 
 
EUMINANTIA. 217 
 
 the muzzle is, large ; the neck thick, deep and compressed, — its 
 skin forming a pendulous dewlap ; the body is heavy' and mas- 
 sive; tlje limbs stout; there is a distinct ridge upon the, bad?, 
 which is sorAetimes produced into a dorsal hump ; the expression 
 of the countenance is often, particularly in the males, malignant 
 and threatening, betokening the ferocity that belongs to several 
 of the species ; — the Cow and Ox, however, exhibit a quiet, 
 decided gentleness of physiognomy. The oxen are social in 
 their habits ; and some are gregarious, associating in immense 
 herds, as the Bison or Buffalo. The organs of digestion in this 
 family are. after the same plan as those of the other ruminant, or 
 cud-chewing atiimals, and need riot be here particularly de- 
 scribed. The main food of the Ox family is herbivorous ; for 
 although they do browse upon shrubs and trees, yet grass and 
 herbage they prefer. (For the kind of teeth in this family, see 
 Plate IV. fig. 10.) When hungry, they l^ave been known to feed 
 on plants not designed for their use, and by which they have been 
 injured. Meadow-SafTi'on, (colchicum autuninale,) for insta,noe, is 
 deleterious to them if taken in any large quantity ; and Hellebore, 
 (Helleborus.) is said to be poisonous to them; Yew, (taxus hac- 
 cata,),\s fatal to them, as it is to herbivorous animals generally. In 
 a state of "domesticated nature,"^ — that is, when hot stall-fed, or at 
 all using artificial grasses, but roaming at large, oxen are said 
 to eat two hundred an4 seventy-six plants, and to reject two 
 hundred and eighteen. Heifers waste away in enclosures where 
 the Meadow-Sweet, (^spiraea ulmaria,) grows in abundance, and 
 covers the ground ; but to the Goat this is nourishing food. The 
 present; races of wild cattle are probably all descended from 
 those which were, at some period, subservient to man. The an- 
 cient ZJriM, or Wild Ox, was a savage, untamable animal, with j 
 large spreading horns, and of great size. ' J. 
 
 Bos taunts. (Lat. a Bull.) This animal,' with flat forefiead, 
 and the withers not humped, was properly regarded as the type of 
 the entire tribe. This species includes the Ponimon Ox.which is so 
 widely diffused, and of such extended and varied utility ; — of 
 which more than forty synonyms have been giveii. The horns dif- 
 fer much as to their form and direction, from the influence of 
 domestication ; the colors are various, as reddish, white,' g^'ay, 
 brown and black. "The male is called a hull; the female, a 
 cow; and the young, a calf; the name 6x is given to the gelded 
 male ; and he is called an ox-calf, or bull-calf, until he is twelve 
 months old; a steer until he is four years old. and after that an 
 ox or bullock." 
 
 The Ox is less used for farming, purposes than formerly ;. the 
 
218 EUMINANTIA. 
 
 horse and improved agricultural implements taking its place ; it 
 reaches its full vigor in three years, and its term of Kfe is about 
 fourteen. The breeds of the animal are numerous, and gener- 
 ally distinguished by the length or shape of the horns. The 
 " Durham," or short-horned breed, is perhaps most valuable for 
 the dairy, as well as for a tendency to fatten rapidly, and at an 
 early age." The "long-horned," the'" middle-horned," and the 
 " polled," or hornless breeds, have each their particular values. 
 The "Alderney Cow," with "crumpled horn," has long been 
 celebrated for the richness of its milk. Within the last half 
 century, many and successful efforts have been made to improve 
 the breed of cattle both in England and in this country.* Con- 
 siderable benefit has resulted from the labors of Agricultural 
 Societies, and, in particular, from the stimulus which, by the . 
 offer of premiums, they have given to the raising of cattle for 
 exhibition at the annual County and State Fai^s. The uses 
 of the Ox are well known, and we need not describe them ; every 
 part of the animal is of value. Formerly, the cruel sport of bull- 
 baiting was much practiced ; and in some countries, particularPy, 
 Spain, it is still a popular diversion. 
 
 Bos Indicus. The Zebu, or Bkahmin Bull, of India. (See 
 Chart.) 
 
 This is distinguished for a more lengthened form of the head, 
 with a decidedly concave line of profile ; an arched neck ; a 
 lump of fatty substance rising from the withers ; an arched back, 
 sinking and rounded qff on the hinder part; an enormous dew- 
 lap dangling down in folds; long, pendulous ears; a mild 
 and sleepy eye ; and long and tapering limbs. The size varies 
 from that of a large mastiff to that of a full grown buffalo. Over 
 the whole of Southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Archipela- 
 go, and the eastern coast of Africa, the Zebu supplies the place 
 of the Ox. In some places, it is saddled and ridden, or harnessed 
 in a carriage ; traveling from twenty to thirty miles in a day. 
 Its beef is inTerior to that of the Ox. The hump is deemed the 
 most delicate part. This sometimes becomes greatly increased 
 in size, and has even been known to reach " the enormous weight 
 of 50 lbs." Among the Hindoos, the Zebu has a "charmed 
 life." They venerate this animal, and hold its slaughter to be 
 a sin ; though they do not object to work it. In the streets of 
 Calcutta, "some particularly sanctified" Zebus may be seen 
 wandering at their ease in the public streets, and taking their 
 food where they list. The utmost a native does when he sees 
 them honoring his goods too much, is to "urge them by the 
 
 * See "American Herd Book," and other Agricultural works.. 
 
KUMINANTIA. 219 
 
 gentlest hints, to taste some of the good things in his neighbor's 
 stall." If lying down in some narrow way, a person must not 
 disturb them ; but he must either proceed hy anothef road, or 
 wait until the sacred anirnals are pleased to rise ! 
 
 B- Dante. , The Dante. This is an Egyptian species^ re- 
 sembling the preceding, figures of which are , found on ancient 
 tombs of Egypt.|| 
 
 Bison. {Gt.Biaatv. named from the Thracian Blamvsg, Bis- 
 tones.) The Bison. 
 
 This generic name first used by Pliny, applies to two living 
 species, — rone of them European, and now almost extinct; the 
 other American, and still found in great numbers. Audubon 
 enumerates five species, three of which, however, are more gen- 
 erally arranged either with the genus Bds, or the genus Buhahus. 
 The European Bison is now found living in the Moldavian and 
 Wallachian districts, and in some parts of the Caucasus ; the 
 other species at one time " ranged over nearly the whole of 
 North America ; " it is now found in vast herds in some of the 
 Western prairies, and is thinly scattered along the valleys 
 which border upon the Rocky Mountains. The Histricts which 
 these animals inhabit, are described very graphically in Washing- 
 ton Irving's "Tour in the Prairies." They delight in level 
 prairies, covered with luxuriant vegetation, bordering the hills of 
 limestone formation, where saline springs or marshes abundantly 
 occur. The American species, B. Americanus, has fifteen pairs of 
 ribs ; the European has fourteen, (one more than the common ox.) 
 This points out the main difference between the two species. 
 
 The Bison is marked by its broad and slightly arched fore- 
 heajd, and the long and wavy hair upon it, forming on the chin 
 and breast a kind of beard ; by the elevation of the withers, aris- 
 ing from the lengthened spinous processes for the attachment of 
 the ligament and enormous muscles of Ihe neck, serving to sup- 
 port the large and ponderous head ; and by a continuous fatty 
 deposition, or sort of hunch, — from which the back gradually 
 declines, the hind quarters appearing disproportionably weak 
 and small ; and by its short but amazingly powerful limbs. 
 The horns are short, tapering and erect ; the' general color dark 
 umber brown, becoming in winter tinged with a grayish white. 
 The aspect of this animil is fierce, wild and malicious; ihe 
 eyes being small, fiery, and half hid in the shaggy hair inter- 
 mingled with wool, which copiously overspreads its head and 
 shoulders. The height at the shoulders is upwards of six f^et ; 
 the length (exclusive of the tail, which is twentyjnches) is eight 
 and a half feet ; the weight of a fat bull is generally near two 
 
220 KDMINANTIA. 
 
 thousand pounds ; that of a fat cow, nearly twelve hundred, which 
 is considered a good weight in the fur countries. The Indians 
 have long been hunters of this animal, which they call the Buffalo ; 
 using bows and arrows, which, wielded by their skillful hands, 
 strike the huge creature to the ground. The female is beyond 
 all comparison swifter than the male, and is the constant object 
 of the hunter, from the superior quality of her flesh. The Bison 
 is a shy and wary animal; usually it flies before its pursuers; 
 but sometimes, led by an infuriated individual, the whole herd 
 ■will turn, and rushing towards the hunters, trample them down 
 in their headlong course. Next to man, the enemies which 
 these animals most greatly dread, are the grizzly bear and the . 
 wolf, by which many of them are desti-oyed ; the wolves assail- 
 ing them in packs and making great havoC, especially among 
 the smaller animals. 
 
 While feeding, they are frequently scattered over a vast 
 surface ; but when they move onwards iii a nnass; they form a 
 dense, impenetrable coliimn, which once fairly in motion, is 
 scarcely to be turned. They swim large rivers in nearly the 
 same order in which they traverse the plaint; and when flying 
 from pursuit, it is vain for those in front to halt suddenly, as the 
 rearward throng rush madly forward and force their leaders on. 
 The Indians sometimes avail themselves of this habit. Driving 
 a herd of these animals to the vicinity of a precipice, and setting 
 the whole in rapid niotion, they, by shouting and other artifices, 
 impel the affrighted animals onward to their own destruction. 
 The herds of thesis animals fouhd together, sometimes number 
 "countless thousands." Lewis and Clark say, that "20,000 
 would be no exaggerated number" for a herd which they saw, 
 and which "darkened the whole plain." To Gatlin's account O'f 
 his travels among the North American Indians, reference may 
 be had for many interesting accounts of "buffalo hunts." The 
 risk of this chase is considerable, but its rewards are great ; few 
 animals minister more largely to the wants, and even to "the 
 comforts of man, than the Bison. The flesh is said to be juicy, 
 bearing "the same relation to common beef that venison does to 
 mutton." The tongue, well cured, is thought to surpass, as a 
 relish, that of the common ox, — ^the hump also is esteemed pecul- 
 iarly rich and delicate. Much of the pemmican used by North- 
 ern voyagers, or by those attached to the fur companies, is made 
 of bison meat, — one bison lurnishing meat and fat enough io 
 make'90 lbs. of the article. The Indian tribes make every part 
 of the animal subservient lo their necessities aiid comfort, — itie 
 " Buffalo robes," — the iskin dressed with the hair on, — <lefendi()g 
 
ruminantia; 221 
 
 them against the cold ; the horns are converted into powder-flasks ; 
 and the ribs of the animal, strengthened by some of the stronger 
 fibres, are made to furnish the bow, by which others of the spe- 
 cies are to be destroyed. Catlin says, tha't "there are, by a fait 
 calculation, more than 300,000 Indians who are now subsisting 
 on the flesh of the buffaloes, and by these animals supplied with 
 all the luxuries of life which they desire, as they know no 
 others." ' Tlie advance of white population oVer tlie regions of 
 the West, bearing vtfith them the institutions of civilization is, 
 however, modifying this statement, and gradually contracting 
 the rangiS of the Bisdn. 
 
 Buhalus Bvffalus, or Bos Bulatus. The Buffalo of Asia. , 
 
 This animal, in its geiieral aspect and carriage, resevhbles the 
 Bison, or perhaps the Domestic Ox, though larger and stronger,— 
 but differs from the Bisoti in its horns, which are enormously 
 large, bent down and recurved at the tip ; in its ears, which are 
 half the length of the head, and slightly covered with hair; and 
 in the fur, which is rotigh, irregiilar and bristly. Of this 
 species, there are two varieties, the B. Arnee, (Shaw,) and the 
 B. Rhainsa. The Arnee is the wild Buffalo of India, found on 
 the nriEtrgins of old and thick forests ; and, like the Rhinoceros, 
 confining itself to the most swampy parts of the region where 
 it dwells. Its horns are often five feet in length, and so in- 
 clined together at the points, as to form a figure somewhat lyre- 
 shaped. It is also remarkable for the shortness of its tail, which 
 reaches no lower than the hock. It is one third larger than the 
 Rhainsa, or tame Buffalo, being ten and a half feet long, and 
 six to six and a half feet high at the shoulders. Its strength is so 
 great, it is a formidable enemy even to the tiger, who shuns an 
 encounter with him ; and such is the power of his charge, that 
 he frequently prostrates a well-sized elephant. This Rhainsa is 
 universal in India and adjacent countries, and was formerly, as 
 now, used as a beast of burden in Egypt, Greece and Italy. In 
 the latter country, it is, on account of its great strength, very use- 
 ful for carrying purposes, especially in marshy and swampy dis- 
 tricts, where the roads are two or three feet deep with mud. 
 The hide of the Asiatic Buffalo is peculiarly thick and strong, 
 and in great request for making harness. 
 
 Bos Gaurtui, the Gour, or Gaur, of mountainous parts of Ceiitral 
 India. 
 
 This has the hind hoof only half the size of the fore one, — 
 the general color is brown, but the legs are white ; the horns are 
 bent downwards at the front ; "the limbs have more of the form 
 of the deer than any other of the bovine genus." It is asserted 
 
222 EUMINANTIA.^ 
 
 that the tiger has no chance in a combat with a full grown Gour. 
 This animal does not, like the Buffalo, wallow in swamp and 
 mire. The large quantity of milk given by the cow, is said 
 to be occasionally so rich as to cause the calf's death. 
 
 Poephagus. (Gr. n6i], poe, grass ; (piyo), phago, I eat,) or Bos 
 grunniens, (of Linnaeus.) The Yak. 
 
 Of this genus, there is but one species, P. grunniens, found in 
 the woods and recesses of the Thibet mountains. It has fourteen 
 or fifteen pair of ribs, and resembles the Buffalo in its form, but 
 is smaller. Both sexes grunt like a pig, whence the specific 
 name, grunniens, (Lat. grunting.) The tail has full flowing 
 hair like that of a horse, and is used in India as a fan or whisk 
 to keep off the musquitoes, — when fixed into an ivory or metal 
 handle, it is called a chowrie. Elephants are sometimes taught 
 to carry a chowrie, and waive it about in the air. The neck 
 and back are surmounted by a sort of mane ; the hair of the 
 body is black, — smooth and short in summer, but thick and harsh 
 in winter ; the back and tail are often white. The Yaks dislike 
 the heat of summer, and hide themselves in the shade and water. 
 The hair is applied to various purposes by the Tartars. They 
 weave it into cloth, of which they not only make articles of dress, 
 but also tents and the ropes which sustain them. There are two 
 varieties, — those used for the plough, and those used for riding. 
 The former are ugly and short-legged, and guided by the nose, 
 carry their heads very low; the latter much handsomer, having 
 twisted horns, a noble bearing, and an erect head ; also a stately 
 hump, and a rich silky tail reaching nearly to the ground. 
 
 Bos moschatus. (Lat. musky,) or Ovihos moschatus. The 
 Musk Ox. (Plate VII. fig. 9.) 
 
 This animal has sometimes been removed from the genus Bos, 
 in consequence of the absence of the naked muzzle which is 
 possessed by others of the bovine groups, and ranked as a con- 
 necting, or intermediate link between the ox and the sheep ; 
 hence the generic term ovibos, (Lat. ovis, a sheep; and bos, 
 ox.) It may be doubted, however, whether, on this account, it 
 should be separated from the bovines. The full-grown male is 
 about the size of a small two year old cow ; the female is con- 
 siderably smaller ; the horns kre united at the top of the head, — 
 flat, broad, and bent down against the cheeks, but become round 
 and tapering, and turning up, end in a sharp point about the 
 Jevel of the eyes. The animal is covered with long bushy hair, 
 which reaches almost to the ground. The general color of the 
 hair is brown, or brownish black, except a portion in the middle 
 of the back, which is dirty gray ; in the female, the general 
 
RUMINANTIA. " 233 
 
 color is black ; the head is large and square; the eyes mod- 
 erately large; the ears short, and scarcely visible through the 
 surrounding long hair. Under the hair of the body, is an admir- 
 able second coat, consisting of brown, or ash-colored wool ; the 
 legs are short and thick, covered with close hair, unmixed with 
 wool ; the tail very short ; the hoofs are small compared with 
 the size of tiie animal, — resembling those of the Rein Deer. It 
 is said "none but an experienced hunter can distinguish the dif- 
 ference of the impressions made by the toes on the snow." Its 
 food is also like that of the Rein Deer, — lichens in winter; — grass 
 in summer. The length of the Musk Ox from t(ie nose to the 
 root of the tail, is about fiye and a half feet ; and its weight, ac- 
 cording to Parry, about 700i lbs. It is gregarious, being found 
 in herds, twenty or thirty in number. The home of these ani- 
 mals is in the barren lands of North America, in regions above 
 the 60th degree of latitude. They are hunted by the Esquimaux; 
 but not without danger, as when provoked or wounded, they are 
 apt to turn upon the pursuer. The poor creatures seem to fancy 
 that the report of guns is thunder, and crowd together in a mass,' 
 so that they afford a good mark. If, however, they get sight of 
 one of their assailants, they instantly charge at him, and then they 
 are very dangerous enemies. Sometimes the Esquimaux turn 
 the' animals' irritation to good account; — for, after the adroit 
 hunter has provoked the animal, and induced it to attack him, he 
 wheels around it more quickly than it can turn ; and by re- 
 peated stabs, puts an end to its life. The speed of the Musk Ox 
 in running, is great, and it climbs rocky paths and broken and 
 uneven sides of hills, with great agility. Sir John Richardson 
 says, the wool of this animal "resembles that of the Bison, but is 
 perhaps finer, and would be highly useful in the arts, if it could 
 be procured in sufficient quantity." The same author informs 
 us, that " when the animal is fat, its flesh is well tasted, and re- 
 sembles that of the Caribou, but has a coarser grain." When 
 lean, these animals " smell strongly of musk, their flesh, at the 
 same time, being very dark and tough, and certainly far inferior 
 to that of any other ruminant animal in North America." 
 
 QUESTIONS UPON THE BOVIDAE, (OX FAMILY.) 
 
 How is Bovidae- derived? What is said of the general character of this 
 family? What of the horns in particular? What of the appearance and 
 habits of these animals? What kind. of food do they use? What plants 
 are hurtful to them ? How many plants do oxen eat? How many do they 
 reject? Which species furnishes the type of the entire tribe ? How many 
 synonyms have been given ? Give the different names appropriated to this 
 animal? How are the breeds of this animal usually distinguished ? What 
 
 10 
 
224 RUMINANTIA. 
 
 is said of the Durham breed? What other breeds are mentioned? By 
 what means has the breed of cattle been improved? How is the Zebu dis- 
 tinguished ? How extensively does it supply the place of the ox ? What 
 uses are made of it? How is it regarded by the Hindoos? What is said 
 of the Egyptian species ? How many species of Bison are there ? Where 
 is the European species now found ? What has probably prevented its en- 
 tire extinction ? In what part of North America is the other species found? 
 What is the main difference between the European and the American 
 species ? How many ribs has the common ox ? Give the distinctive marks 
 of the Bison ? Describe its disposition and habits. What enemies does it 
 most dread ? How do the Indians avail themselves of the habits of this 
 animal ? What is said of the largeness of the herds ? Mention the uses 
 made of the different parts of the Bison. How many Indians does Catlin 
 estimate are' daily Supported by its flesh ? How does the Asiatic Buffalo 
 difler from the Bison ? How many varieties of this species ? What is said 
 of them ? In what countries is the animal used ? Where is it especially 
 useful? What is said of the Gour? How does it differ from the Buffalo? 
 Give the derivation of the term Poephagus ? How many species of the 
 Yak ? What renders the specific name appropriate ? What use is made of 
 its tail? What of its hair? How many varieties of this animal? Why is 
 the generic Ovibos applied to the Musk Ox ? What is the composition of 
 that term ? What characteristics are given ? Where is the home of this 
 animal ? What more is said of it ? 
 
 Name the genera and species of the Ox Family found upon the chart, 
 tracing and giving some account of each as you proceed. 
 
 SECTION XXVIII. 
 
 Ovidae. (Lat. ovis, a sheep.) The Sheep. 
 
 These differ so slightly from the Goat in anatomieal. struct, 
 ure that hoth genera are by some naturalists united. 
 
 The chief distinctive characters consist " in the sheep having 
 no beard ; in the horns being directed backwards, and then in- 
 clining spirally more or less forwards ; in having a convex fore- 
 head ; and in the existence of a sac, or fossa, situated at the 
 base of the toes, lined with hair, and furnished with sebaceous 
 follicles." The males also differ from the goat in being inocjo- 
 rous. The age of sheep is reckoned from the first shearing. 
 Their value, both for food and clothing, is well known, and is in- 
 calculably great, while they are reared upon soils where other 
 animals could not obtain sufficient for their support. The fila- 
 ments of wool taken from a healthy sheep, present a polished, 
 glittering appearance; those of a sickly, or half-starved animal, 
 exhibit a paler hue. The dressed skin is largely used for the 
 binding of books, and for different kinds of apparel. The bones, 
 when calcined, are employed as tests in refining processes ; from 
 the entrails are prepared strings for musical instruments. Sheep 
 furnish milk whiph is thicker than that of cows, and yields a 
 
HTJMINANTU. 225 
 
 greater quantity of butter and cheese. In some cases, water 
 must be added in order to produce whey. The history of these 
 anmials is intermingled with poetical descriptions and national 
 customs and enactments. They are mentioned in the earliest 
 scripture records, and formed the chief wealth of the ancient 
 patriarchs. Among the Jews, under the economy of Moses, the 
 lamb was offered in sacrifice, — pointing to " Christ, the Heav- 
 enly Lamb ; " and in the New Testament these animals are the 
 subjects of many beautiful and touching parables. 
 
 Ovis aries. The Common Sheep. 
 
 This exhibits numerous varieties, and many of its form have 
 been raised to the rank of speeies* The Ovis Hispanicus, the 
 Spanish, or Merino Sheep, is among the most celebrated. These 
 sheep, it is said, are the regenerated stock of the sheep of Boeotia, 
 and survived the conquest of Spain bythe Goths and Vandals. 
 They have been transferred to Great Britain, Germany and the 
 United States ; and are remarkable for the fineness of their 
 wool. In Germany, the wool has been brought to the highest 
 perfection. Merino Sheep were introduced into Great Britain in 
 1787. The original stock in this State, (N. Y.,*) was derived 
 from Holland ; the Merino vari-ety was first introduced in 1801 ; 
 though their importance was not fully appreciated until seven or 
 eight years after that period ; when the excitement respecting 
 them became very great, and they were sold at enormous prices. 
 
 Of the Merino Sheep, there are three varieties, viz., the 
 Paular, the Negretti, and the Gaudaloupe breeds. The quality 
 of the wool has been improved by the introduction of Saxony 
 Sheep, (originally of the same Merino race.) 
 
 The breeds of sheep are distinguished by the comparative 
 length of the fibres, which compose their fleece. They are de- 
 signated as short- wooled, middle- wooled, and long-wooled sheep. 
 To the short-wooled division belong the " Merino, Saxony and 
 Australian breeds, whose short, fine and silky wool is used in 
 the manufacture of broadcloths. The middle-wooled breeds, 
 such as the English South-down, Suffolk and Cheviot, furnish 
 material for the coarser cloths, flannels and similar fabrics. 
 The Leicester breed, and some others, are long-wooled. The 
 ftbre of the wool in these sheep is strong and transparent, but is 
 deficient in the powei of/eUing, on which the compactness of 
 cloth depends. This wool is used for merinoes, mousselines de 
 lame, iiosiery, etc. Welsh sheep are noted for the superior flavor 
 of their flesh, and "in the London market Welsh mutton is always 
 in demand." 
 
 •DeKay. 
 
226 
 
 RUMJNANTIA. 
 
 O. Amman Argalis, or Siberian Sheep. The Argali. 
 
 This is one of the varieties of wild sheep, native to Siberia, 
 and ranging over the mountains of Asia, — a strong, muscular, and 
 active animal, about as large as a small fallow deer, and having 
 thick, roughly ringed horns.' (Plate VII. fig. 12.) In summer, 
 its hair is smooth, and of yellowish gray color ; but in winter, 
 it becomes thick, harsh and reddish ; the muzzle, throat and under 
 parts, continuing white at all seasons. The whole form of this 
 animal appears better adapted for agility than that of the com. 
 mon sTieep. 
 
 O. Canadensis. The Taye, or Big Horn Sheep, of Canada. 
 
 This is identical with the O. Montamis, of Geoffrey, and a 
 variety is the O. California, of Douglas, which Dr. Gray says is 
 probably the same as the Ammxm, of Siberia. 
 
 O. Miisimon, or Musmon. The Moufflon, of Cyprus, Can- 
 dia, and Corsica. (Plate VII. fig. 10.) 
 
 Thi.s differs from the Argali, only in being rather smaller, 
 and in the horns being very small, jr altogether absent in the 
 female. Like the Argali, it makes its home upon the mountains. 
 It has been supposed that the primitive stock may be traced either 
 to this, or the preceding species, — the hair of both species possess- 
 ing the essential character of wool, — ^an imbricating scaly sur. 
 face, — which gives to the covering of the domestic breeds the re- 
 markable _/eZ)!in^ property upon which its utility so niuch depends. 
 
 O. polycerata. (Gr. Tiolig, polus, many ; x^gaj, keras, horn.) 
 The Many-Horned Sheep. 
 
 This species found in Iceland and the most northern parts of 
 the Russian dominions, resembles the common sheep in its body 
 and tail, but has three, four, five or more horns. (See Plate VII. 
 fig. 13.) The wool is long, smooth^ hairy, and of a dark brown 
 color. Under its outer coat, is a fine, short and soft kind of 
 wool, or fur. 
 
 O. laticauda. (Lat. /ates, broad ; caurfa, tail.) The Broad- 
 tailed Sheep, — is common in Tartary, Arabia, Persia, Barbary, 
 Syria and Egypt. This sheep is chiefly noted for its large, 
 heavy tail, often so loaded with fat as to weigh from ten to twelve 
 pounds, and according to some, double that weight, and a foot 
 broad ; sometimes it is necessary to support it artificially. The 
 upper part is covered with wool, but it is bare underneath, and 
 the fat, of which it consists, is regarded as a great delicacy. 
 
 0. sirepsiceros. (Gr. argiqiai, strepho, to twist ; xsgos, keras, 
 horn.) The Cretan Sheep. 
 
 This is chiefly found in the Island of Crete, but is kppt in 
 several parts of Europe on account of its singular appearance ; 
 
RUMINANTIA. 227 
 
 the horns being very large, long and spiral, those of the male 
 upright, — of fhe female, at right angles with the head.' 
 
 O. Guineensis. The African, or Guinea Sheep, — found in 
 all the tropical climates of Africa. It is large, with rough, hairy 
 skin, short horns and pendulous ears, a kind of dewlap under the 
 chin, and a long mane reaching below the neck. It is stronger, 
 larger and more fleet than other sheep, and better suited to a 
 forest life ; but the flesh is quite indifferent food. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 What are the distinctive characters of the Sheep ? How does the wool 
 of the healthy sheep appear? What are the uses of this animal? With 
 what is it associated ? What Scripture references are given ? What is said 
 of the varieties of the Common Sheep I Which js the most celebrated? 
 What is said of their origin ? Where js their wool brought to the highest 
 perfection ? When was this variety first introduced into the State of New 
 York ? How has the quality of the wool been improved ? How are tlie 
 breeds of sheep distinguished, and how designated? What breeds are 
 included in t\ie Short-Wooled division? What in the Middle-Wooled, and 
 what in the Long-Wooled? In what respect is the fibre of the £ong- 
 Wooled Sheep deficient ? For what is the wool much used ? What is said 
 of the Welsh variety? Where is the Argali found? What is said of it? 
 How does the J^ujlon differ from the Argali ? In what respects does it 
 resemble it? What is said of the Many-Horned Sheep? Where is the 
 Broad-Tailed Sheep? What is said of its- tail? Where is the Cretan 
 Sheep found ? What is said of its horns ? Where is the Guinea Sheep 
 found, and what is said of it ? 
 
 Trace the varieties mentioned on the chart, — ^tell where they are found, 
 and their peculiarities. 
 
 SECTION XXIX. 
 
 Capridae, (Lat. capra, a goat.) The Goat Family. 
 
 The distinguishing characteristics of the Goat family are that 
 they have hollow horns turned upwards and ringed ; that they 
 have eight cutting teeth on the lower jaw and none in the upper ; 
 and that the male has a beard. The muzzle is comparatively 
 narrow, with no naked space about the nostrils ; the tail is short ; 
 there are no fissures, or tear-pits, beneath the eyes, nor tufts of 
 hair upon the knees. Either " native or naturalized," this ani- 
 mal appears in almost every part of the world. It is capable of 
 enduring all kinds of weather, being found in high northern lati- 
 tudes, and also thriving in the hottest parts of Africa and India. 
 The internal organization of the animal is almost entirely simii 
 lar to that of >he sheep, (Ovidce.) " He is, however, stronger, 
 lighter, and more agile, and less, timid than the-sheep. The sup. 
 pleness of his organs, and the strength and nervousness of his 
 
228 KUMINANTIA., 
 
 frame, are hardly sufficient to support the petulance and rapidity 
 of his natural movements." (BufTon.) 
 
 The milk of the Goat as sweet, nutritious, and medicinal, ow. 
 ing to the character of its food, which consists chiefly of what is 
 obtained from high hills, or from pastures where aromatic shrubs 
 abound. Anciently the skin was deemed valuable for clothing ; 
 the best Turkey or Morocco leather is made from it, and from 
 the skin of the kid is prepared the softest and handsomest leather 
 for gloves. The strong odor of the Goat is well known, and it is 
 said to be "refreshing" to horses. The female bears, generally 
 in the last of February, usually two, sometimes three and even 
 four young. Among the Greeks and Romans the Goat, because 
 an enemy to the vine, was sacrificed to Bacchus. This animal 
 is remarkably sure footed. Pennant says, "two yoked together, 
 as they often are, as if by consent, take large and hazardous 
 leaps, and yet so time their mutual efforts as rarely to miscarry 
 in the attempt." The Goat butts, raising himself on the hind 
 legs, and then coming down sidewise against his enemies. The 
 ■ varieties are numerous, and some of them have been exalted to 
 the rank of species. 
 
 Hircus (or Capra) Aegagrus, The Wild Goat. Tliis is re- 
 garded by Cuvier and others, as the parent stock of the Domes- 
 tic Goat in all its varieties. 
 
 It is found in herds, freely ranging in the great mountain 
 chains of Asia. In Persia it is called the Paseng. The size is 
 rather larger than that of the domestic breed ; the horns also 
 usually exceed those of the common Groat ; the color is a brown, 
 ish gray above and white beneath^ The male has a large brown, 
 ish beard ; the female neither beard nor horns. 
 
 Capra hircus. The Domestic Goat. (Lat. hircus, a he-goat.) 
 This animal, like others reclaimed and subject to man, exhib- 
 its great varieties in respect to size, color, the quality of the hair, 
 and even the largeness and number of the horns. 
 ^ C. Angorensis. The Angora Goat. (See Chart.) 
 
 This is a native of Angora, in Asia Minor ; generally is of a 
 milk.iyhite color, short legged, with black, spreading, and spi- 
 rally twisted horns and pendulous ears ; its silk-like wool, which 
 is its chief excellence, covers the entire body in long, hanging 
 and spiral ringlets, and from it the finest camlets are made. 
 
 The Cashhiere Goat, which is found in Thibet and roams the 
 pastures of the Himalaya motintains, has an undercoat of wool, 
 exquisitely delicate and fine. From this are manufactured the 
 Cashmere shawls so highly valued by the fashionables of both 
 hemispheres. It is remarked that the lower the temperature 
 
KUMINANTIA. ^ 229 
 
 ■where the animal pastures, the heavier and finer is its wool. 
 The Goats which feed in the highest vales of Thibet are of a 
 brigiit ocre color ; in lower ground the color changes to a yel- 
 lowish white, and still lower down to entirely white. The high- 
 est parts of the Himalaya mountains inliabitable by man have a 
 kind of black Goats, which yield Wool from which are made 
 shawls that in India command the highest price. -The fine curled 
 wool of these Goats lies close to the skin, just as the under hair 
 of the common Goat lies below the coarse upper hair. The flesh 
 of the Himalaya Goats is said to taste as well and its milk to be . 
 as rich as that of the common Goat. 
 
 The Angora Goat loses the delicacy of its hairy coveriilg 
 when exposed to a change of clifriate and pasture. It is said the 
 people of Cashmere constantly work 16,000 looms, each loom 
 giving employment to three men, the annual sale being calcu- 
 lated at 30.000 §hawls. 
 
 The "Naturalists' Libkaky," (Ruminantia, part II. by 
 Sir William Jardine,) says that "a fine shaWl, with a pattern all 
 over it, takes nearly a year in making. The persons employed 
 sit on a bench at the frame, sometimes four people at each, but 
 if the shawl is a' plain one, only two. The borders are marked 
 with wooden needles, there being a separate needle for each color, 
 and the rough part of the shawl is uppermost while it is in a 
 process of manufacture. The Cashmeres which are obtained 
 from the kingdom of that name are most 'sought after. India, 
 however, produces several Goats besides the true Cashmere breed 
 which yield wool from which shawls are made. Twenty-four 
 pounds weight of the best wool of Thibet, sells at Cashmere for 
 twenty rupees." 
 
 C. Jaela, orC Nubiana, The Abvssinian Goats, foutid in the 
 mountains of Abyssinia and Upper Egypt, and also on Mount 
 Sinai, differ from the Goats of Thibet, in having close sniooth 
 hair, a convex forehead, and a projecting lower jaw. ■ 
 
 The SvRiAN Goat, {Capra Syriaca,) is • distinguished by its 
 large pendulous ears, (see Plate VII. fig. 13,) which are usually 
 from one to two feet in length, and sometimes sb annoying to the 
 animal that the owners are obliged to trim them to enable it to 
 feed with more ease. It has black horns which bend a little for- 
 wards, and are only about two inches long. The hair is colored 
 like that of a fox, and it has two fleshy protuberances under its 
 throat. It is very numerous in Syria, where it finds pastures 
 specially adapted to its wants. Pennant says that "it supplies 
 Aleppo with milk." It is no Unimportant part of the' wealth 
 of a pastoral people, its flesh being used for food and its hair 
 
OQQ EUMINANTIA. 
 
 wrought into clotk This was one of the animals offered m sac 
 rifice by the ancient Hebrews ; it was this Goat over which the 
 Jewisi) High Priest, putting his hands on the Goat's head, "con. 
 fessed the iniciuities of the children of Israel," and then " sent 
 him away by the hand of a fit man into the wilderness." The 
 long ears of this animal illustrate those words of scripture, 
 Amos iii. 12, "As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the. 
 lion .... a piece of an ear." So large and thick are the ears 
 of this Goat that they make a considerable mouthful even for a 
 lion. 
 
 C. Ibex. The Ibex. 
 
 Of this species there are several varieties in the mountain 
 ranges of Europe, Asia and Africa, but more especially those 
 of Asia and the bordering parts of Europe, all, however, resem- 
 bling each other in their structure and general habits. This ani- 
 mal is much larger and stronger than the common domestic 
 Goat. " The color is a deep hoary brown, the under parts of 
 the body and insidesof the limbs are of a much paler and whitish 
 hue ; the body is thick, short and strong ; it has a small head, 
 large eyes, and strong legs ; very short hoofs ; a short tail; and 
 extremely large and long arched, browJn colored horns, with knobs 
 on the upper surface." (Plate VII. fig. 14.) The fore legs are 
 considerably shorter than the hind, which enables the animal 
 to ascend more easily than he can descend lofty mountain heights. 
 In manners and voice^the Ibex is much like the CImmois. It 
 is found in small flocks consisting of ten or fifteen individuals. 
 When hard pressed, these animals sometimes turn upon the 
 hunter, hurling him down the most frightful declivity. It is a 
 native oflhe Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains and of the Alps. 
 C. Americana. Rocky Mountain Goat. 
 These animals inhabit the lofty chain of mountains whence 
 they derive their name, ranging from 40° to 65o North LatiiuJe- 
 They resort to grassy knolls begirt with craggy rocks as affofd- 
 ing. them places of refuge against the onsets of dogs and wolves , 
 visiting, daily, caves in the mountains said to be encrusted with 
 an effervescence of salt, of which they are fond ; they are of 
 larger size than the common Goat, have black horns, which are 
 smooth and polished at the tips, and curved backwards, and ob- 
 scurely ringed at the base, where they are sometimes a foot in 
 circumference. On account of the great size of the horns, this 
 animal is called by the hunters, the " Big-horn." The muzzle 
 is extremely small ; the color white ; the hair long and straight; 
 the skin very thick and spongy, and principally used in making 
 moccasins. The flesh, when it is in season, is said to exceed m 
 
K0MINANTU. 231 
 
 flavor the venison obtained in the same region, and the fleece is 
 also highly valued, being next to that of the Cashmere Goat in 
 flneness. 
 
 Give the chief characteristics of the Qoai Family. What is Buffbn's re- 
 mark ? What are the uses of the Goat ? What remark is quoted from 
 Pennant ? Has this family many varieties ? Which species is regarded as 
 the purest stock ? Where is it found ? How does it compare in size, &c., 
 with the domestic breed ? In what respects does the Domestic Goat vary? 
 Describe the Angora Goat. Where is the Oaskinere Goat found ? What 
 articles are liiauufactiired from its wool? What shawls command the high- 
 est price in India? What is said of the wool of which, they are made? 
 Has change of climate any effect upon the wool of the Angora Goat? 
 What is said of the manufacture and sale of the Cashmere shawls? HOw 
 do the Abyssii.im Goats differ from those of TOi6e< / For what isthe<Syr«- 
 an Goat distinguished? What is said of its hair, &o.? What use was 
 made of it by the Ancient Hebrews ? What words of Scripture do the ears 
 of this animal illustrate ? What is the habitat of the Ibex ? What is said 
 of its varieties? How do they compare with the Domestic Goat? Give 
 the character of this animal. Does it ascend or descend most easily ? What 
 animal is it much like? What is the range of the Rooky Mountain Goat? 
 What are their particular resorts? What do the hunters call this animal? 
 For what are'its skin and flesh used ? 
 
 Kame, trace and characterize the species on the chart. 
 
 SECTION XXX. 
 
 Antelopidce. "Bright eyed." (Gr. &vOog,anthos, & Rower ot 
 beautiful ornament ; toif/, dps, eye.) 
 
 Antelopes. (Bisulcated or Cloven-footed.) 
 
 This beautiful family of Ruminants is by some considered a 
 connecting, link between the Goat and Deer families. Like the 
 Goats, they never shed their horns ; in size and general struc- 
 ture, the nature and color of their hair, and their swiftness of 
 foot, they resemble the Deer. The hind limbs, like those of the 
 hare, are much longer than the fore ones. This not only helps 
 them to be more fleet, but increases their security in climbing 
 precipices, which they are delighted in doing. The larger part 
 of the species are brown on the back, and white on the under 
 pjrt of the body, with a black stripe between the brown and 
 white. The tfiil is of various lengths, but always covered with 
 pretty long hair ; the ears, which are beautiful and well placed, 
 terminate in a point. The hoof is cloven like that of a sheep ; 
 the perennial horns are conical, bent back, and ringed at the 
 base, never showing the angles and ridges which distinguish 
 those »f the sheep and goats. This last is,perhap% the most general 
 
232 ■- KUMINANTIA. 
 
 character of the family. The case of the horns is thin, and as a 
 group, the Antelopes are numbered among the Hollow-Horned 
 Animals. A large part of them have lachrymal sinuses or 
 " tear-pits," as seen in the Deer, and which can be opened at the 
 will of the animal. These are furnished at the bottom with a 
 gland that secretes an oily, viscous substance of the color and 
 consistency of ear-wax, and turning black upon exposure to the 
 air. The common Indian Antelope, and the Gazelle, according 
 to observations of them away from their native climes, use this 
 organ when any strange substance is brought to their notice, par- 
 tioularly if it be odoriferous ; and they appear to derive great 
 pleasure from protruding the sinus and rubbing it against the 
 odorous body. The possession of sinuses distinguishes the An- 
 telopes from the Goats and the Sheep ; and this, connected with 
 the absence of horns in the females of many species, also makes 
 this family an intermediate link between the rest of the Hollow. 
 Horned Ruminants and the Cervine, or Solid-Horned Animals. 
 A few species of Antelopes have an additional gland running 
 lengthwise between the sub-orbital sinus and the mouth, but hav- 
 ing no internal opening, and secreting an oily substance. An- 
 other and more general character of this family than even the 
 lachrymal sinuses, is the inguinal pores or folds opening inwards 
 and secreting a substance similar to that of the other glands to 
 which we have now referred. 
 
 The form of the upper lip is quite various In some species 
 it forms abroad naked muzzle, as in the ox ; in ethers it is hairy 
 and attenuated, as in the goat ; and in still others it shows a mod- 
 ification of both these characters. The hair of the Antelope is 
 usually short and smooth, and of an equal length on every part 
 of the body ; some, however, have bristly manes along the neck 
 and shoulders, and a very few species, like the Gnu, have a 
 beard on the chin and throat. Generally these animals are 
 found in large herds, but some species reside in pairs or families. 
 Africa may be regarded as the "head quarters " of the Ante- 
 lopes. The nature of their habitat varies in different species. 
 
 This family has been arranged into two grand divisions, the 
 Antelopes of the Fields, and the Antelopes of the Des- 
 ert, between which the most obvious distinction i^ that in the 
 Antelopes of the Fields " the nostrils are free from hairs, whilst 
 in the Antelopes of the Desert, the nostrils are beaded within, or 
 covered with bristles." (English Cyclopedia.) 
 
 I. Antelopes of the Fields. These are arranged into three 
 groups. 
 
 1st. True Antelopes, ." which hav^ a light, pfegant body ; slen- 
 
BOTrtNAWtlA. 338 
 
 der limbs ; small hoofs? a short or moderate tail, covered with 
 elongated hairs at the base ; lyrate or conical horns, placed over 
 the eye brows." 
 
 2d. Cervine Antelopes, " approaching the Deer in character. 
 They have a rather heavy, large body ; strong, slender limbs ; 
 a long tail, cylindrical at the base, with the hair longer at the 
 end, often forming a compressed ridge." The muffle resembles 
 that of the Deer. 
 
 3d. Goal-like Antelope's, having " a heavy body ; strong legs ; 
 large hoofs and false hoofs ; very short tail, flat and hairy above ; 
 recurved, conical horns." 
 
 The species in each of these groups are quite numerous ; but 
 though all are handsome creatures, we must content ourselves 
 with noticing the more prominent. 
 
 Trtje Antelopes. 
 
 A. Dorcas. (Gr. diggo/Mi, derkomai, to see.) The Gazelle, 
 or the CoRiNNE. (Plate, VII. fig. 19.) 
 
 This is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Antelopes. Its 
 large, mild, and black eyes, beam with lustre, and its light and 
 graceful figure has made it a favorite with Oriental poets. In 
 the sacred writings it is alluded to under the name of the Roe, 
 "swift upon the mountains." The Gazelle is common in the 
 northern parts of Africa, where large troops of them bound along 
 with such amazing fleetness that they seem bird-like. The Ariel 
 [A, Arabica) a variety of this species, abounds in Arabia and' 
 Syria. 
 
 "The wild Gazelle o'er Judah'a hills 
 Exulting still may bound ; 
 And drink from all the living rills 
 That gush on holy .ground." 
 
 So swift is this animal that the greyhound is generally unable 
 to overtake it, unless aided by falcons which fly at its head, arid 
 thus check its speed until the dogs regain their lost distance. In 
 some parts of Syria, the gazelle is taken by driving a herd into 
 an extended enclosure surrounded by a deep ditch. A few open- 
 ings are made through which the affrighted animals leap and fall 
 into the ditch, when they are easily taken. If pursued in the 
 open fiield, it flies to some distance, then stops to gaze a mo- 
 ment at the hunters, and again renews its flight. A flock 
 when attacked in a body, disperse in all directions, but soon 
 come together agaiD,«nd when brought to bay, defend thefmaetveir 
 
234 RFMINANTIA. 
 
 with courage and obstinacy, uniting in a close circle, with the , 
 females and fawns in the center, and presenting tlieir horns at 
 all points to their enemies; yet notwithstanding their courage, 
 they are "the common prey of the lion and panther, and are 
 hunted with great courage by the Arabs and Bedouins of the des- 
 ert." When taken young, the Gazelle is easily domesticated ; 
 and it is frequently seen at large in the court-yards of the houses 
 in Syria, the exquisiteness of its form, and its great beauty and 
 playfulness rendering it a special favorite. 
 
 The size of the Gazelle's body, {S^ feet long,) about equals 
 that of the Roebuck, but the legs are considerably longer,' and 
 the entire form is lighter and more elegant ; the fur is short and 
 close pressed ; the color a dark fawn above, and white beneath, 
 the upper parts being divided from the lower by a deep dark 
 band along the flanks. The horns are black, lyre-shaped, and 
 have twelve or fourteen rings. Upon the monuments of Egypt 
 and Nubia, this animal is frequently found sculptured. A cir- 
 cumstanoe of this creature's extreme affection, and which ended 
 fatally, occurred not very long since in the island of Malta. A 
 female gazelle having suddenly died from something it had eaten, . 
 the male stood over the dead body of his mate, butting every one 
 who attempted to touch it ; then suddenly making a spring, struck 
 his head against the wall, and fell dead by the side of his com- 
 panion. , 
 
 A. (or G.) mhorr. The Mohr. (Plate VII. fig. 22.) 
 
 This Gazelle is 4 feet 2 inches long, and 2j feet high at the 
 shoulder, (8 inches taller than the preceding,) found in Western 
 Africa, and much sought after by the Arabs on account of pro- 
 ducing the bezoar stones, called Mohr's eggs in Morocco, and 
 valued in eastern medicine. The Mohr is said to live in pairs, 
 not in flocks like the other species. 
 
 A. euchore. (Gr. sZ, eu, well ; xoQ^S, chores, dance.) The 
 Springbok, or the Spring-Buck. 
 
 This animal of Southern Africa, in the gracefulness of its 
 proportions and the beautiful variety of its colors, is scarcely 
 surpassed by any other of the Antelope- tribe. It is nearly a 
 third larger than the Gazelle ; its horns a1-e black, irregularly 
 lyrated, and.of moderate length. The most marked peculiarity 
 of this species is a line of long white hairs arising from two lon- 
 gitudinal foldings of the skin, commencing about the middle of 
 the back and extending to the tail. In their, ordinary state, the 
 edges of these foldings approach each other, and are so near to- 
 gether as to conceal, in a great measure, the stripe of white. ' 
 Bjit,,i|i(Jhen the anin^ial leaps, as it sometimes does, perpendicularly 
 
ByMINANTIA. 235 
 
 to the height of six or seven feet, the folds are expanded and 
 form a broad circular mark of the purest white extending over 
 the whole croup and ■ hips, producing a very remarkable and 
 pleasing effect. Immensely large herds of these animals are 
 found on arid plains of the interior of South Africa; but when 
 the pools and pastures to which it has been wont to resort, are 
 dried and burnt up by the excessive heat, it migrates to the cul- 
 tivated districts of the Cape. Travelers who have witnessed 
 these marches ^stiniate the numbers that unite in their migra- 
 tions' at from 10,000 to 50,000. "Cumming's Adventures" give 
 some graphic v^ews of these " grand migrations." Before the 
 migration is closed, it is said,, those which happen to get in the 
 rear of the troop are lean and half starved, being left nearly 
 dpstituie of food in consequence of the cropping of the scanty 
 pastures Eilmost bare by the preceding ranks ; but when the troop 
 begin to retrace their steps norlhwardj those which formed the 
 van during the advance, are necessarily in the rear returning ; 
 hence they soon lose their plump condition, and, in their turn, 
 are subjected to want and starvation. In their approaches to the 
 settlements of men, thousands of these animals are killed for 
 food. Great numbers of them are also destroyed by panthers, 
 hyaenas and wild dogs. On the return of the rainy season, they 
 retrace their steps to the plains of the interior, and in a brief pe- 
 riod not a Spring-Buck is to be seen. So fearful is this animal 
 of man, it is said, that "if it has to cross a path over which a 
 man has passed before, it does not walk over, but takes a leap 
 ten or twelve feet high and about fifteen feet long, at the same time 
 curving its back in the most extraordinary manner." It is from 
 this habit of leaping, the dwellers at the Cape have given it the 
 name of, Spring-Buck. 
 
 A. cervicapra. (Lat. stag-goat.) The Common Antelope, 
 or Sasin, of India. 
 
 This species is spread in large families, over every part of In- 
 dia's rocky ajid, open plains. It is remarkable. for the form and 
 beauty, of its horns, which are ringed and spirally convoluted, 
 (PlateVlI.fig. 18,) having twoormore turns, according to the age 
 of the animal. When full grown, it is four feet long and two and 
 a. half feet high ; almqst black above and white beneath ; on the 
 knees are tufts of long bristles, forming small knee brushes; the 
 other parts have the hair short and close. The Sasins are so swift 
 that except when taken by surprise, greyhounds are slipped after 
 them in vain ; the dogs are more likely to be injured than the 
 game. Capt, Williamson, in his "Wild Sports of the East," 
 says he has seen an old., bijick Antelope lead a herd of females 
 
236 rCminantia. 
 
 over a net at least eleven feet high ; and that these animals fre- 
 quently vault to the height of twelve or thirteen feet, passing 
 over ten or twelve yards at a single bound. They are usually 
 bunted by the Cheetah, which "cteeps cat-like towards the herd 
 and bounding upon a selected victim, dashed it to the ground 
 ■with a blow." In size they equal the fallow deer. They are 
 bold and familiar in captivity, and would be graceful ornaments 
 to public parks. The fakirs and dervishes of the East polish 
 their horns and wear them at their girdles instead of swords and 
 daggefs, which their religious vocation prevents them from using, 
 
 A. tragulus. (Lat. dim. goat.) The Stein-Bock, or Stone- 
 Buck. (3 ft; 4 in. long, 1 ft. 7 in. high.) 
 
 This ranks as one of the most elegant and graceful of the 
 Antelope tribe. The legs are longer and smaller in proportion to 
 its bulk than in any other species. A remarkable distinction, in 
 this species, (existing also in the Spring or Prong Buck,) is the to- 
 tal absence of spurious hoois, both on the fore and hind feet, a 
 character which "no other ruminating animals of the hollow- 
 horned family possess." The Stein-Buck resides in pairs on the 
 stony plains and mountain valleys of South Africa. When 
 closely pressed, and without power to escape, it will hide its 
 head in the first hole or corner it meets with, and thus patiently 
 resign itself to its fate. 
 
 A. oreotragzisi, (Gr. Sgog, oros, mountain ; Tjdyos, tragos, goat. ' 
 Mountain-goat.) > The Kainsi, or Klippspringer. (3 ft. 2 in. long.) 
 
 This, is an antelope which inhabits the most barren and inacces- 
 sible mountains of the Cape, and appears to supply, in South Af- 
 rica, the place of the Chamois and Ibex ; the general color of 
 the hair above is a lively mixture of yellow and green, and light' 
 sandy yellow tinged with red beneath ; the texture of the hair in 
 this, as in the Spring or Prong Bock, is so fragile that it breaks 
 with the slightest touch, crushing like straw between the fingers, 
 and it is so wanting in elasticity that it never regains its original 
 form. The legs are more robust than in most other species ; 
 and the hoofs, instead of being pointed and flat beneath, are »-n- 
 tirely round and cylindrical, being worn only at the tips, upon 
 which alone the animal treads. This, with other peculiarities of 
 structure enables the Klippspringer to bound with very surprising 
 agility among the most dangerous rocks and precipices. 
 
 A. sallixma. (Lat. leaping or bounding.) The Madoqita. (2 
 ft. long; 14 in. high.) 
 
 This antelope is found in all parts of Abyssinia, where it was 
 first discovered by Bruce, and lives in pairs in mountainous dis- 
 tricts. It is well nigh the smallest of all homed animals, be* 
 
HUMINAMTIA. 237 
 
 ing " scarcely the size of a good English hare ; " the color is like 
 that of the American Gray Squirrel, intermixed with deep red- 
 dish brown above, and pure unmixed white beneath ; the tail is a 
 mere stump ; the! legs very long in proportion to the weight of 
 the body, and so small that they scarcely equal the little finger 
 in thicknessL 
 
 A. perpusilla. (Lat. very small.) Kleene-Boc. 
 
 This is an exceedingly small sp6cies, about a foot high with 
 horns only an inch and a half long ; found at the Gape of South 
 Africa, and called by the Dutch Colonists, Kleene-BoC, (Little 
 Goat.) When domesticated, it soon becomes familiar, and learns 
 to answer to its name. 
 
 Cervine Antelopes. 
 
 A. oryx. (Gr. "ojul, orux, a gazelle.) The Gems-Boo or 
 Oryx.) 
 
 This strong cervine animal is about five feet long, and from 
 three to four feet high, found in the southern and central parts 
 of Southern Africa, and once common but now rare in the Cape 
 Colony. It possesses many of the beautiful peculiarities of the 
 antelopes, but in form it is somewhat anomalous. The horns are- 
 black and almost perfectly straight, and situated in the piano of 
 the forehead, about 2J feet longi blunt in the male, but very sharp- 
 pointed in th<s female ; (Plate VII. fig. 20,) the general color of 
 the body is dark rusty iron gray above, but the head and .under 
 parts are white. There are beautifully black bands on the head 
 and flanks, producing a contrast of colors which has a singular 
 effect upon the animal's appearance. In coloring and height, 
 the GemsrBoc resembles the Ass ; but in its erect mane and its 
 long sweeping tail it is like the horse, while its head and hoofs 
 are those of the antelope. It always keeps to the open field, 
 living in small families. 
 
 Anderson says "it is the swiftest quadruped be met in South 
 Africa, and lives on grass, succulent plants, (often of a very ac- 
 rid taste,) shrubs, &c. It rarely if ever attacks man, but can 
 defend itself with its formidable horns, even against the lion." 
 Others say that even " the lion himself is afraid to attack this 
 powerful and courageous animal, and that sometimes when 
 pressed by famine, he has ventured to do so, he has been beaten 
 off with disgrace, or even, paid for his temerity with his life." 
 The Oryx has been said to live without water, but Anderson re- 
 marks that "troops" of this animal "have been found dead or 
 dying near pools purposely poisoned by the natives to capture wild 
 animals." 
 
2S8 BUMINANTZA. 
 
 A. leucoryx, (Gr. Uvxh?, leukos; Bgv^, onus, the gazelle.) 
 The White Oryx. 
 
 This species, called by, some the " Milk- White Antelope," is 
 perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelope genus, it being 
 the one that gave rise to the fabulous, unicorn of the ancients. 
 The horns are more'distinctly ringed for about half their lengthy 
 than in the preceding species, gradually curVed throughout the 
 whole course, and in a, side view appearing to be one and the 
 same. ' The neck, throat, and some portions of the face are 
 brown ; bu* the other parts are milk-white. This species is 
 found represented on the monuments of Egypt and Nubia ; '' in 
 the inner chamber of the great pyramid at Memphis, a whole ; 
 group may be seen, (with 6ne exception,) shown in profile, so 
 that but one horn appears-" The White Oryx is gregarious; its 
 range i? more northern thanthatof the Gems-Boc, including Nu- 
 bia and Senegal ; its food consists of different species of acacias. 
 
 Goat-Like Antelopes. 
 
 A rupicapra. (Lat. Rock-Goat,) The Chamois, or Gems. 
 
 This interesting animal is the only Antelope of Europe, being 
 found in all the high mountain-chains of that region, and also those 
 of Western Asia. The horns of the Chamois are usually but six 
 or seven inches long, nearly parallel in their whole extent, — and 
 bent backwards like hooks at their tip. (Plate VII. fig. 21.) Its 
 length is about three feet three inches ; and its height at the 
 shoulders, a little more than two feet ; the face is straight and goat- 
 like; the ears are small, erect, and pointed , the long hair of the body 
 hangs down over the sides, and is of a deep brown color in winter, 
 a brownish fawn in summer, and in spring, slightly mixed with 
 gray ; the pale yellow of the head is banded with dark brown on 
 each side. Beneath the external covering, is a short thick coat 
 of fine wool, which lies close to the skin, and protects the animal 
 from the severe weather of cold mountainous regions, and the 
 bruises to which, from its habitat, it is .'liable. The hoofs are 
 admirably adapted for security, enabling it to avail itself of every 
 little roughness and projection, either from the naked granite, or 
 from the icy glaciers. 
 
 In its elevated home, the Chamois displays all the vivacity, 
 restlessness and agility of the Common Goat. It does not bear 
 heat, and is, therefore, in summer found on the tops of the highest 
 mountains, or in deep glens where the snow lies during the year ; 
 in winter, it descends to lower ridges, and then only is it hunted 
 with any prospect of success. All its senses are exceedingly 
 acute ; and these, combined with its agility, are its means of 
 
EUMINANTU. 239 
 
 security. Its sense of smell, it is said, will enable it to perceive 
 an aggressor at the distance of one and a half miles. It is rest- 
 less, and very much alarmed until it gets a sight of the object 
 of its terror, leaping upon the highest rocks at hand, in order 
 to obtain a more extensive prdspect. When undisturbed, its 
 voice is a low kind of bleating ; if excited by the approach of 
 a hunter, it utters a suppressed whistle, or hissing sound, and all 
 the while, shows much agitation ; but when the hunter comes 
 near, it flies with its utmost speed, — bounding from ledge to ledge, 
 where the eye can mark no footing, — and from crag to crag, and 
 point to 'point — sweeping over the glacier, — throwing itself down 
 precipices of fearful depth, and pitching, almost by miracle, upon 
 the slightest projection. "It does not descend at a single bound, 
 nor in a vertical direction, but by projecting itself obliquely or 
 diagonally forwards, striking the face of the rock three or four 
 times with its feet for the purpose of renewing its force, or 
 directing it more steadily to the point it aims at ; and in this 
 manner, it will descend a rook almost perpendicular, of twenty 
 or thirty feet in height, without the smallest projection upon 
 which to rest its feet." 
 
 , The hunting of the Chamois, is among the most perilous of 
 human undertakings, and involves "a perversion of mental ener- 
 gies capable of better ' things." It has been remarked; "no 
 Chamois hunter ever dreams of any other death than that of fall- 
 ing from the brink of a precipice, or being buried in some chasm 
 beneath the treacherous snow ; " yet urged on by a sort of fas- 
 cination, "he pursues his course of life with feelings allied to 
 those of the gambler, alternating with hopes and fears." 
 ' The Chamois; seldom drinks. Its food consists of mountain 
 herbs, flowers, and the tender roots of trees and shrubs. This gives 
 a richness and a fine flavor to the flesh; which is much esteemed 
 as a venison. For this and the skins, the Chamois hunters jeopard 
 their lives. The animal can seldom be captured alive, and 
 rarely thrives in captivity, "Like the Swiss, its congenial 
 home is among its native mountains, and in its native liberty." 
 
 A.furcifer. (Lat. Vrong-hearer •,)or Antilocapra Americana. 
 The Phong- Horned Antelopk. - - i 
 
 The absence in this animal of inguinal and lachrymal openings, 
 and of accessary, hoofs, together with the fact that it has branqb- 
 ing horns, (Plate VII. fig. 17,) of which no instance occurs among 
 the other species of Antelopes, led Audubon to refer it to the 
 genus Antilocapra, derived from the two genera, Antilope and 
 Caprd, Goat- Antelope. This Antelope is confined to the Western 
 portions of North Aineri(?a, and is never seen East of the Missis- 
 
240 EUMINANTIA. 
 
 sippi, but ranges as far South as California and New Mexico, 
 feeding on moss, buds, dec. 
 
 It is shortly, but more compactly built than the Virginia 
 Deer, but in its elegant and stately form, resembles more the 
 Antelope than the Deer family. The horns of the^male are curved 
 upwards and backwards, with a short triangular prdng about 
 the centre. In winter a ridge of coarse hairs^ resembling a 
 short mane, appears on the back of the neck, of which, in sum- 
 mer, only a black Stripe remains, — the color is a reddish dun, 
 with the throat and the clink on the hinder parts white. The 
 head, ears and legs are covered with short close hair of the com- 
 mon description, but that of the body is long and padded, and of 
 a texture altogether different from that of other animals; it being 
 hollow like the feather of , a bird, brittle, and when bent, not 
 returning to the original straight form. The animals are grega- 
 rious, sometimes several ' hundreds being found together, and 
 they migrate from Ndrth to South according to the season. 
 When the ground is clear, their speed surpasses tiiat of most 
 other animals, but a good horse easily outstrips them after a 
 slight fall of snow. They are sly, but extremely curious ; and 
 the Indians, and even the wolves, it is said, know how to take , 
 advantage of their curiosity to get within reach of them, by 
 crouching down and moving forwards, or stopping, alternately. 
 These Antelopes will wheel round and round the object of their 
 attention, decreasing the distance at every turn, till at last they 
 approach sufficiently near to be shot or captured. Sometimes 
 they are caught in pens, in nearly the same manner as the 
 bison ; but in the deep snow of winter, when they are suffering 
 for want of food, they are generally dispatched with clubs, — ' 
 Audubon says, "principally by the women." They sye fattest 
 in autumn. "Their liver is much prized as a delicacy, and we 
 have heard that many of these animals are killed simply to pro- 
 cure this choice morsel." (Anderson.) Their flesh,, however, 
 is not highly esteemed by the Indians, who hunt them only in 
 times of scarcity. 
 
 II. Group. — Antelopes of the Desert. 
 
 A. Gnu. The Gnoo, or Horned- Horse. \ 
 
 This equine Antelope is sometimes called Catobkpas, (6r. 
 xaza^Unmv, Katabtepon, looking down,) a name well expressive 
 of its sinister aspect, shaded as its face is by overgrown horns, 
 bent down and oi;twardsj on the sides, broad at the base, and bent 
 up at the tip. (Plate VII. fig. 23.) It has a wide and bristly nosie, 
 
RUMINANTIA. 241 
 
 with large covered nostrils ; and in size about equals a well grown 
 ass. The neck, body and tail, precisely resemblo those of a small 
 horse, and the pace also, which is a species of light gallop, is so 
 perfectly sinxilar, that a herd of Gnoos, when seen at a distance, 
 flying over the plains of South Africa, " might be readily mis- 
 taken for a troop of the wild zebras, or quaggas, which inhabit 
 the same locality, if their dark and uniform color did not distin- 
 guish them." They are naturally wild and difficult to approach, 
 and when provoked very dangerous if wounded, turning upon 
 the hunter and pursuing him, dropping on their knees before 
 making an attack, and then darting forward with amazing force 
 and velocity. " When the hunter approaches the old bulls, they 
 commence whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric 
 manner; then springing suddenly into the air, they begin pranc- 
 ing and capering, and pursue each other in circles at their utmost 
 spaed. Suddenly, they all pull up together, to overhaul the 
 intruder, when two of the bulls will often commence fighting in 
 the most violent manner, dropping on their knees at every shock ; 
 then quickly wheeling about, they kick up their heels, whisk 
 their tails, with a fantastic flourish, and scour across the plain 
 enveloped in a cloud of dust." (Cumming's South Africa.) 
 They are said to be subject to a cutaneous eruption at particular 
 seasons of the yee^r, which they sometimes communicate to do- 
 mestic cattle, and which invariably ends in death. Their flesh 
 is in good repute both among the natives and colonists. 
 
 A. Caama. The Lecama, or PIarte-Beest. 
 
 This species of Bovine Antelopes inhabit the plains of South 
 Africa, and are the most common of all the large Antelopes in that 
 country. They are of a gray-brown color ; reside in large 
 herds ; and are much hunted by the natives and colonists. Their 
 pace resembles a heavy gallop, but yet is tolerably quick. In 
 their manners, they are mild and tractable ; but when put upon 
 their defence, they make good use of their powerful lyrate horns, 
 like the Gnoo, dropping upon their knees before charging, and 
 after advancing some distance in this position, suddenly darting . 
 with great force against the hunter. The flesh is much esteemed, 
 being more hke ox-beef than that of any other Antelope, except, 
 perhaps, the Eland. 
 
 The Strepsicerae (twisted horns) is another small group refer- 
 red to in the " Penny CyclopEedia," under the name of Antelopes, 
 and including some very interesting Ruminants. They are 
 named from th^e subspiral, or twisted form of their horns ; and 
 distinguished among the "Hollow-Horned Bovine Ruminants," 
 by being marked with white stripes and spots. Agassiz has 
 
242 KUMINANTIA. 
 
 remarked, that the horns of the Strepsicerae and the sheep are 
 twisted in opposite directions. 
 
 A. iStepsiceros. The Kudoo. 
 
 Tliis magnificent animal is found in South Africa. It is one 
 of the largest of the Antelopes, being upwards of eight feet long, 
 and four feet high at the shoulder. The horns of the Kudoo, for 
 which it is most remarkable, are nearly four feet long, and beau- 
 tifully twisted into a large spiral form, of about two turns and a 
 half. A bold ridge runs over the horns and fbllowstheircurvature. 
 (Plate VII. fig. 15.) The leading color is a bright fallow-brown, 
 with a narrow white stripe along the spine. In its external aspect, 
 the animal more nearly resembles the ox than the Antelope. - 
 Although large and heavy, it can leap with wonderful activity. 
 The weight of the horns is- considerable, and in part to relieve 
 itself from that weight, and in part also to keep the spreading horns 
 from entanglement in the bushes on which it lives and feeds, the 
 Kudoo usually bends its head back and rests its horns upon its 
 shoulders. When closely pursued, it takes to the water, and 
 seeks to escape by its power of swimming. 
 
 A. areas. (Gr. oQei&g, oreias, of the mountain.) The Bland, 
 or the BosELAPnus, (ox-stag,) of the ancients. 
 
 We have in this animal the largest of the Antelopes, — measur- 
 ing eight feet two inches in length, and full five feet in height at 
 the shoulder — being quite as large as a good sized horse. It has 
 very thick, nearly straight horns, about a foot and a half long, 
 and covei'ed, for the most part, with a thick spiral wreath. The 
 ears are large. A protuberance, of the size of a man's fist,, 
 appears on the larynx ; from this organ, the animal probably de- 
 rived the name of Eland, (as it is called at the Cape Colony.) 
 When full grown, it weighs from seven to nine cwt. ; and, contrary 
 to the usual rule observed among Antelopes, is commonly ex- 
 tremely fat. The flesh is more highly prized than that of any other 
 animal in South Africa. The Eland is mild and inoffensive in Us 
 disposition, so that a man may penetrate into the very midst of a 
 herd without alarming them. Being quite heavy, the great ob- 
 ject in hunting this animal, is to turn the game in such a direc- 
 tion as to drive it close to the residence of the hunter before it is 
 killed; and the Cape farmers, it is said, "very frequently succeed 
 in accomplishing this master piece of South African field sports." 
 
 A, picta, (painted.) The Nyl-Ghau. 
 
 This large and magnificent Antelope is about the same size as 
 the Gnoo, standing a^out four feet high at the shoulder. It is 
 found in the forests of N. W. India, ranging thence as far as 
 Persia. The face of this species is long and narrow, surmounted 
 
EUMINANTIA. 243 
 
 with short, smooth, and neariy parallel horns. The fore-quarters 
 are considerably raised, and there is a slight elevation upon the 
 Vvithers; the neck is long and horse-like; from the throat and 
 shoulders hangs a dense bunch of hair ; the haunch is small and 
 low; so that the hinder limbs are short. The Nyl-Gbau is less 
 graceful in its proportions than the Stag, but more muscular and 
 powerful. The color of this animal is a slaty blue ; it has, how- 
 ever, several white spots which, contrasting with the slaty blue, 
 or dark brown of the other parts, suggested the specific name of 
 picta. It is extremely vicious, and cannot be approached with- 
 out danger. In making an attack, it first falls upon its knees, 
 like the Gnoo, and then springs violently forward. It is the 
 common prey of the tiger ; and hunters erect their platforms near 
 the mangled remains of this animal, well knowing that the 
 tiger will return to glut himself with the remainder of his prey. 
 During the day, the Nyl-Ghau conceals itself in the forests, and 
 at night leaves its coverts to feed, often doing harm to 'adjacent 
 cultivated fields. It has been- often taken to England, where it 
 breeds, and is not an uncommon animal. 
 
 QUESTIONS ON ANTELOPES. 
 
 What is the derivation of the word Antelopidae ? What families are the 
 Antelopes thought to connect ? In what respect are they like the goats ? In 
 what lite the deer? What advantages do their hind limbs give them? 
 State the color of the larger part of them. What is said of the tail, ears 
 and hoofs ? What is the most general character of the family ? Are their 
 horns solid 'or hollow ? What is said of their tear-pits ? From what do 
 these distinguish them? What makes this family an intermediate link be- 
 tween the two kinds of horned animals? What additional glands are 
 spoken of ? What is said of the form of the upper lip ? What of the hair ? 
 Are they gregarious K What two grand divisions do the Antelopes env- 
 brace ? What is the most obvious distinction between the two ? Name 
 the groups of Antelopes of the Meld, with their characters. Where is the 
 Gazelle found ? Give some account of its peculiarities and habits. Where 
 is the Mohr ? Why is it sought after by the Arabs? What is the locality 
 of the Springbok ? Is it larger or smaller than the Gazelle ? What is its 
 most marked peculiarity ? What is said of its leaps ? What of its migra- 
 tions ? How widely i^ the Common Antelope diffused? What is said of its 
 hor^is ? Illustrate its swiftness. What animals are used in hunting it ? 
 How large is it ? What Antelope is next mentioned ? What is said of it? 
 Where is the JClipsprinffer found? What is peculiar in its hair? What 
 enables it to bound with very great agility? Who first discovered the 
 Madogual What is said of its size, color, &c. ? Where is the Kleenbok 
 found? What is said of it? To which division of the ^ Antelopes of the 
 Field do the preceding ones belong? Where is the Oryx found? What 
 is its size ? Give some description of it ? What is said of it by Anderson 
 and others? Which is perhaps the most celebrated of all the Antelopes? 
 To what fabulous animal did it give rise ? How ? Where is it found sculp- 
 
244 CETACEA. 
 
 tured? What ia its range? To what division do the two preceding Ante- 
 lopes belong ? Which is the only Antelope of Europe ? What characteris- 
 tics are mentioned ? Further describe it. What is said of the hunt of this 
 animal? How is its flesh esteemed? To what genus is the Prong-Horned 
 Antelope referred ? Name its characteristics and habits. To what division 
 do the two last named species belong? What are Antelopes of the 
 second group called? Which of these is first mentioned? Name its dis- 
 tinctive traits and habits. Give some account of the Lecama. What other 
 small group of Antelopes is mentioned? Why are they so named ? What 
 distinguishes them ? What has' Agassiz remarked? What is said of the 
 Kudoo? For what is it most remarkable? What animal does it most re- 
 semble ? Which is the largest of the Antelopes ? What gave it the name 
 Eyland? What is said of it? Where is the JVyi-<?Ao« found? Give a 
 description of it. 
 
 Name the species on the Chart. Trace them. Give the most prominent 
 characteristics of each as a general review. 
 
 SECTION XXXI. 
 Third Sub-Class. Marine Mammals. 
 
 Ninth Order. CETACEA. (Gr. xi/toj, a whale.) Whales, 
 Dolphins, etc. 
 
 Marine-Mammals. 
 
 This is an order of mammiferous animals inhabiting the sea ; 
 surpassing all others in size, though lower in organization than 
 those living upon the land. Moving in the water by. means of 
 fin-flippers, or paddles, "the earlier naturalists placed them 
 among the fishes; but all now unite in placing them among the 
 mammals." Like them, they are viviparous, (born alive,) suckle 
 .their young, have warm blood, and breathe by means of lungs. 
 The contour of the body,' is fish-like, no neck being distinguisha. 
 ble, and the whole tapering down gradually from the head to the 
 tail. The tail, however, terminates, not vertically as in fishes, 
 but horizontally, in a cartilaginous fin, and is moved upwards and 
 downwards by muscles of enormous force and volume. In 
 length, it is only five or six feet ; but in width, from eighteen to 
 twenty-six. So powerful is it in the largest varieties, that they 
 frequently force themselves out of water. The greatest velocity 
 is given by the upward and downward strokes ; a slower motion 
 is obtained by cutting the water sidewise, and obliquely down- 
 wards, as a boat is forced along by a single oar in the operation 
 of skulling. So rapid are the movements of the Cetacea, they 
 have been called the "birds of the sea." The flippers, or pad- 
 dles, the anterior limbs, are generally stretched out in a horizon- 
 tal position. When dissected, the bones of the paddles are found 
 
CETACEA. 245 
 
 to be short and flattened, yet distinct and handlike ; but the whole 
 of this osseous frame- work is enveloped in a cartilaginous cover- 
 ing, so as to form an undivided oar. The chief use of the pad- 
 dles seems to be that of balancing the animal, for as soon as life 
 is extinct, it falls over upon its back ; they are also employed in 
 turning and giving direction to the velocity produced by the tail. 
 
 The Cetacea regularly resort to the surface to take in a fresh 
 supply of air. They also descend into the remotest depths of the 
 ocean ; in the case of the larger animals sometimes encountering 
 a pressure which has been estimated at two hundred thousand 
 tons, or one hundred and fifty times as great as that of the atmos- 
 phere, and sufficient to force water through the hardest wood, 
 causing it to sink like so much lead. For sustaining so vast a 
 pressure, their structure is most wisely adapted. 
 
 The body is covered with a coat of peculiar elasticity. The 
 naked skin is itself much thickened; but by an open texture of 
 its interwoven fibres, it is made to contain within itself, a thick 
 layer of oil or blubber, and thus the animal can endure, without 
 injury, the greatest weight of water, "A soft wrapper of fat, 
 though double the thickness of that usually found in the Cetacea, 
 could not have resisted the superincumbent pressure; whereas, 
 by its being a modification of the skin, always firm and elastic, 
 and in this case, being never less than several inches, and some- 
 times between one and two feet thick, it operates like so much 
 india-rubber, possessing a density and resistance which, the more 
 it is pressed, resists the more."* As the blubber is specifically 
 lighter than water, it also makes the animal more buoyant. A 
 dead whale floats ; but the body, when stripped of its fat, sinks 
 immediately. Another important use of the blubber, is to pre- 
 serve the vital heat of the body in a cold medium, which has a, 
 constant tendency to abstract caloric. Without this layer of 
 blubber, which is one of the worst conductors of heat, the whale 
 would be unable to resist the low temperature of the Arctic Seas, 
 and must perish from cold. The eyes of the Cetacea are admi- 
 rably adapted to the dense medium in which the animals dwell. 
 As compared with the size of the body, the eyes are small, — 
 generally not larger than those of an ox ; in the Beluga, or 
 White Whale, they are smaller than the human eye; in the Por- 
 poise, not so large as those of a sheep. In the Cetacea, "the 
 humours of the eye are so adjusted in their form, density and 
 refractive power, as to prevent any dispersion, or decomposition 
 of the ray^" The refractive power of the aqueous humor. 
 
 * Naturalist's Library. Mammalia, VII., 48. 
 
246 CETACEA. 
 
 which is great in respect to land animals, would, in water, be 
 comparatively weak ; this defect is, in the case of the Cetacea, 
 supplied by the spherical form and great refractive power of the 
 lens of the eye. The outer, or sclerotic coat is, in these. animals, 
 remarkably thick and tough, it being as dense as tanned leather, 
 serving both to preserve its spherical form, and to defend the ani. 
 mal from injury. This coat increases in thickness towards the 
 back part, and is full five times the thickness behind, that it is 
 on the front part. To this. Dr. Paley (see Nat. Theol.) has 
 well referred, as strikingly evincing Divine contrivance. The 
 front part sustains the pressure from without, and needs no addi- 
 tional support; but were the back part to yield, the globe of the 
 eye would be distended in that direction, and the whole interior 
 of the eye sufier derangement. As a safe-guard, the sclerotic 
 coat is, therefore, remarkably strengthened behind. 
 
 One of the most extraordinary things in the economy of the 
 Cetacea, is the length of lime during which they can suspend 
 respiration. While, in most animals, it can be suspended only 
 for a few minutes, in some of the larger whales it may be sus- 
 pended from one to nearly two hours, they remaining under ' 
 water for that time. This fact points to the peculiarity of their 
 breathing apparatus. The whale has a reservoir wherein there 
 is an overplus of oxygenized blood which, on occasion, is emptied 
 into the general circulation ; it is thus able to continue longer 
 under water, and less frequently resorts to the surface in order 
 to inhale oxygen from the atmosphere. Whales have no nostrils, 
 properly so called, and their mouths are seldom opened in the 
 free air. The process of breathing is therefore carried on 
 through tubes, called blow-holes, or spiracles, opening on the top 
 of the head, and allowing a free passage to and from the lungs. 
 These openings are called blow-holes, because the expulsion of 
 the long-confined and heated air, as the animal rises to the sur- 
 face, is attended with considerable noise, and the casting forth of 
 water or steam. The " spoutings " are heard as far as two miles, 
 and sometimes reach the height of twenty or thirty feet. They 
 are most conspicuous in the larger genera ; quite marked in the 
 intermediate dimensions ; but in the smaller, seldom or never vis- 
 ible. After the " spoutings are out," as the \^^alers say, most 
 of the Cetacea descend into the depths of the pcean. The lungs 
 are guarded from injury that might hence arise, by the conical 
 stopper which, like the cork of a bottle, fits itself to the blow- 
 hole so perfectly, as to exclude every drop of water. Habitually, 
 the whales take their sustenance under water ; but, "by a slight 
 alteration in a few cartilages at the top of the windpipe, and in 
 
 J 
 
CETACEA. 247 
 
 the direction of the air tubes, they feed as safely in the deep 
 ocean as others do in the most balmy atmosphere." 
 
 The external opening of the ear, is minute, and in some species, 
 hardly discoVei-able. This can be closed, at pleasure. The 
 hearing, as well as sight, is quick beneath water,— whales have 
 the sense of smell in some degree; showing themselves sensible 
 of the noxious ^tftell of bilge-water, pumped frorh the hold of 
 vessels. The seiises of taste and touch they possess, but in a less 
 degree than cither animals. 
 
 The stomach of the whale is divideid into five, and sometimes 
 seven distinct sacs, or pouches ; instead of a single spleen, they 
 have several, which are small and globular. The teguments of 
 the tongue are soft and srhooth. Those of the Cetacea which are 
 possessed of teeth, have therh all of edriical shape, and all alike. 
 
 The brain in these animals is small, though the size of it 
 varies in different genera. In a young Greenland whale i< was 
 found to be j^Vo' P^*"' °^ ^^^ whole animal. The proportion in 
 the Dftlphin is much greater, the brain being J, part of the 
 whole, and approaching quite riear to that of man. 
 
 The degrees of intelligence nianifested by the Cetacea, are 
 various, atid sc) are their dispositions ; but all agree ip the mutual 
 regard which they entertain, — -the rnother for her young, the 
 cub for its parents; and members of the same family, or shoal, 
 for one another. The female has but one young at a time, in 
 the early spring, which is about ten or twelve feet long fit birth; 
 the mammae are two in number, and situated near the vent. 
 
 The Cetacea may be divided into four families, viz : I. The 
 DflLPHiNiDAE, including Dbljihins, Porpoises, etc. ; II.^ Cataijon- 
 TiDAE, or Physeteeidae, Spermaceti Whales; III. Balaenidae, 
 True Whales, Common, Right or Whale-Bone Whales ; IV 
 Hekbivo'rOus Cetacea, including the Manatees, Dugongs, etc. 
 
 I. Delphinidae. (Gr. ^e^qpis,, Delphis, a dolphin.) 
 
 This is the Dolphin tribe, characterized by the moderate size 
 of the head, and usually by the presence of teeth in both jaws. 
 They are voracious feeders ; their flesh is, for the most part, 
 rank, oily, and unwholesome. They include seventeen genera, 
 and sixty-four species, and ai'e the most numerous family of the 
 Cetacea ; are scattered in all seas, and frequently ascend rivers. 
 One genus (Inia) is found in the mountain lakes of Peru, — ^the 
 fountains of the Amazon, and a thousand miles from the ocean. 
 " They are the Camassiers of the waters, preying upon the 
 fishing tribes, which they chase in all directions ; and their teeth 
 are modified accordingly." 
 
348 
 
 CETACEA. 
 
 Delphinus, (25 species.) 
 
 Delphinus DelpMs. The Common Dolphin. (Plate VIII. 
 fig. 4. and PI. VI. fig. 12.) 
 
 The animals of the genus Delphinus, have more teeth than any 
 other of the Mammalia, the number averaging ninety in each 
 jaw ; in form, simple and conical, but adapted for seizing only. 
 The jaws of these animals project so as to be like a slender beak, 
 separated from the forehead by a groove, or furrow, that resem- 
 bles the bill of a goose. (Plate IV. fig. 11.) There is a fin 
 upon the back. The Common Dolphin is usually six or seven 
 feet long, sometimes nine or ten feet. Its form is admirably 
 adapted for swimming. The tail is large and powerful. This 
 animal is familiar to fishermen and mariners, and cannot but be 
 regarded with interest, on account of its beautiful and- graceful 
 form, the fleetness with which it darts through the waters, its 
 gambols and leaps, and its social habits. 
 
 So smooth are the bodiesof Dolphins, that "their sportive gam- 
 bols create surprisingly little disturbance of the water." To 
 the ancients, the manners of the Dolphin were well known, and 
 to them, its playful, social disposition, made it a great favorite. 
 It is accurately figured on many of their coins. Among the 
 Greeks, it was sacred to Apollo, who was worshiped at Delphi 
 with Dolphins for his symbols. It early appeared on the shield 
 of some of the princes of France, gave name to a province of 
 that empire, and a title to the heir-apparent of the crown. 
 
 The brilliancy and variety of many of the Dolphins fpund.in 
 the Southern and Equatorial seas, cannot be adequately repre- 
 sented by pictures, or exhibited in words. The Dolphin, "with 
 its -many dying colors," of which poets have sung, is, however, 
 hot the true animal, but a scomberoid Jish, Coryphaena hippurus, 
 the Dorado, of the Portuguese; though, as Dr. J. E. Gray re- 
 marks, "to this fish, which changes color in dying, most man- 
 time persons generally confine the name of Dolphin." But, 
 however it may be celehrated in story and in song, the Dolphin 
 appears quite wolfish in its habits, — in troops, hunting down its 
 prey, — in its rapid course, forcing the flying fishes to take refuge 
 in the air; but ojnlinuing the chase until the exhausted victims 
 are taken. Of the many wonderful stories related by ancient 
 naturalists respecting the Dolphin, we have room for only the 
 following. Pliny says that, "in Barbary, near the town of 
 Hippo, a Dolphin used to frequent the shore, and receive food 
 from any hand that supplied it, — that it would mix with persons 
 bathing, allow them to mount its back, and obey their direction, 
 with all celerity and precision." The ancients speak of the 
 
CETACEA. 249 
 
 Dolphia as peculiarly partial to children ; and here we quote a 
 further incident from Pliny, which has pathos, whatever may be 
 thought of its truth. A Dolphin, which he says had penetrated 
 the Lake of Lucrinus, in Campania, every day received bread 
 from the hand of a child, answering to his call, and transporting 
 him on its back to school on the other side of the lake. This 
 intimafcy continued- for several years, when the boy dying, the 
 affectionate Dolphin, overwhelmed with grief, soon sunk under 
 its bereavement. 
 
 Monodon. (Gr, jiivog, rnonos, single ; odoig, odous, a tooth.) 
 
 Monoceros, the specific name is from Gr, /livos, {monos,) and 
 xegag, ,{keras,)hara, ' 
 
 This is the Narwhal. (Nar, signifies in Icelandish, a horn ; 
 whal or wale is synonymous with our word, whale, and derived 
 from the same Teutonic root.) It is also called the Sea Uni- 
 corn, or Unicorn Whale. This Whale has no teeth, prop- 
 erly so called ; it has, however, two tusks, one on each side tlie 
 head. Only the left tusk projects, (from the upper jaw of the 
 male,)! the other remaining within the head, whence the name 
 Monoceros, or Unicorn. This horn, or tusk, is eight or ten feet 
 long, tapering, with a rope-like twist, to a point, and harder and 
 whiter than ivory. Formerly, the tusks brought a high price. 
 Many medicinal virtues were attributed to them. They are still 
 of value as an article of trade. The kings of Denmark are said 
 to .have a magnificent throne made of these tusks, which is pre- 
 served with great care, in the castle of Rosenburg. The length 
 of the Narwhal is from twenty to thirty feet, and, including the 
 tusk,, between thirty and forty. It is thought the animal uses 
 the tusk to pierce the ice for the purpose of breathing, and also 
 in capturing the fishes on which it feeds. It usually precedes 
 the Mysticetus, both using the same kind of food. Hence, when 
 Greenlanders see unicorns, they prepare for fishing in earnest. 
 It is on record that the thick oak tirr)bers of a ship have been 
 pierced by the horn. Sometimes. the Narwhal drives it into the 
 sides of the huge whale, and greedily receives the oily blubber 
 which oozes from the wounds thus inflicted. 
 
 Dr. Scoresby describes the Narwhals as active and inoffen- 
 sive, — often sporting about his ship, sometimes in bands of'about 
 twenty together, raising, up their long tusks, and crossing them 
 with each other as if/ fencing. Our own lamented Kane says, 
 "the play of a groilp of Narwhals is graceful, striking and 
 beautiful." The blubber, yields a superior oil. This and the 
 flash also are highly valued by the Esquimaux and Greenlander. 
 .Their tusks afford thein weapons of defence, and even the intes- 
 tines thf y use for lines. 
 
250 CETAOEA. 
 
 Beluga. The White Whale. 
 
 Of this genus there are two species, viz. : the Northern Belu- 
 ga, {B. catodon,) the Australian Beluga, {B. Kitigii.) The shape 
 of the Beluga is that of a double cone, one end of which is con- 
 siderably shorter than the other, and extremely well adapted to 
 motion in the water. It is known by its white color. The 
 length varies from twelve to twenty feet. The tail is powerful, 
 bent under the body in swimming, and impels it forward with 
 the velocity of an arrow. The eye is scarcely larger than that 
 of a man ; the iris is blue. It has no olfactory nerve, no exter- 
 nal ear, and the mouth is small when compared with the bulk of 
 the animal. Its food is codfish, haddocks, and other fish. The 
 favorite resorts of the Northern Beluga are the higher latitudes 
 of the Arctic regions, Hudson's Bay, Davis' Straits, and the 
 northern coasts of Asia and of this continent, where they fre. 
 quent large rivers. They are found in the Gulf of Sr. Law. 
 rence, and go with the tide as far as Quebec ; and there are 
 fisheries for them as well as for porpoises in the river St. Lawrfencel 
 They yield a considerable quantity of oil which is said to be of 
 the finest quality. Of their skins a sort of morocco leather is 
 made, which, though thin, is strong enough to resist a musket 
 ball. They are not shy, but often follow ships and tumble about 
 the boats in herds of thirty or forty, bespangling the surface with > 
 their sparkling whiteness. The whaler seldom disturbs these 
 beautiful creatures ; they being very active, it is difficult to strike 
 them ; the harpoon often gives way, and they are of compara- 
 tively little value when killed. They are said to visit the west 
 coast of Greenland about the end of November, and are then very 
 useful to the natives as their provisions fall short. In taking them, 
 harpoons and strong nets are employed. The internal membranes 
 are used for windows and bed-curtains, and the sinews for 
 thread. The flesh resembles beef, but is to some extent oily. 
 
 Flioccma. (Gr. q)ihxaiva, phokaina, a porpoise.) 
 
 The characteristics of this genus are as follows: "Head 
 rounded, not much, elevated ; mouth terminal ; snout, short and 
 rounded ; a dorsal eminence, (as in the Globicephalus,) usually 
 of a small size; gregarious; piscivorus." (N. H. S. N. Y.) 
 
 Flioccma communu. The Common Porpoise, or Porpesse. 
 (French, Porcpoisson.) (PI. IV. fig. II.) 
 
 Of all the Cetacea, this and the allied varieties are most com- 
 mon, being found in almost all the seas of Europe, and in large 
 numbers on the coast of the American continent. It is common 
 in our rivers and bays. It was formerly " so abundant on the 
 shores of Long Island as to have induced the inhabitants to form 
 
CETACEA. 251 
 
 establishments for its capture." TheCommon Porpoise, like the 
 Common Dolphin, is the smallest of the varieties. Between the 
 two there is a general resemblance in color, shape and disposi- 
 tion. The scarf skin of the porpoise is very soft to the touch, 
 and easily detached. The eye has the iris of a yellowish hue, 
 and the pupil in the form of V reversed. The opening of the 
 ear is not larger than the prick of a pin ; that of the blow-hole 
 is on the top of the head, between the eyes. The dorsal fin, or 
 eminence, is not bony, but composed entirely of fat, and incapa- 
 ble of separate movement ; and the tail is without any osseous 
 part within. The fat, or blubber is white, from one to two inches 
 thick, and when heated yields an oil that is fine and much val- 
 ued. It is "cut through on the back and belly and is peeled off 
 in halves; it is scraped off with an instrument resembling a 
 currier's knife, and the skin is then sent to the tanner. The 
 leather made from this skin is said' to be the strongest known, and 
 is used more particularly for the upper leather of boots and shoes." 
 (N. H. S. N. Y.) The deep bluish color of the Porpoise fades 
 away on the sideSj till it acquires a silvery whiteness. It has 
 ninety-two teeth, cutting and somewhat rounded at the edge. 
 The brain is large and has deep convolutions lying over the cere- 
 bellum. The porpoise, the dolphin, and the monkey are the only 
 animails' that in this respect resemble man. The food of por- 
 poises is chiefly fish, and' they occasionally pursue shoals of her- 
 ring and maokerel, which they drive into the bays in very great 
 apparent terror. They are great enemies of salmon, which, 
 when pursued by the porpoise, often spring several yards out of 
 the water ; but from the quickness of their foe, are unable to 
 escape. The flesh of the porpoise was once esteemed a volup- 
 tuous kind of food, and is said to have been found^on the tables 
 of the old English nobility as late as the time of Queen Eliza- 
 beth. Later thaa this it was extensively used in some countries, 
 especially during the time of Lent. 
 
 Grampus. {Phoama orca.) The term Grampus is a corrup- 
 tion of the French, Grand-poisson, great fish, pronounced by the 
 Normans, Grapma,, whence came the English word Grampits. 
 American sailors have given it the names of "Killer and Thrash- 
 er." By some, (see Cat. of British Museum in Eng. Cyc.,) a por- 
 tion of the animals once included under the genus Grampus, 
 has been formed: into a new genus, "Orca," which includes the 
 Killers proper, and has four species. 
 
 The body is thick in^ proportion to itslength, and of oval shape. 
 The snout short and roundish^ -, the lower jaw somewhat bent 
 upwards, broader, but not so long as the upper. The teeth are 
 
252 CETACEA. 
 
 forty-four in number, elpven on each side above and below, va- 
 rying in number with age, sottietimes are as tpany as sixty, and 
 interlocking^ when the jaws are shut. The dorsal elevation, im- ; 
 properly called a fin, is from four to six feet high ; the pectora] 
 or swimming fins are large and oval, and it, has a strong tail. 
 The color is glossy black above, white beneath ; occasionally 
 there is a lalrge white patch behind, the eye, resembling an eye- 
 lid. The length is from twenty, to thirty feet ; the circumference 
 from ten to twelve. " The favorite abode of the Grampus is the 
 coast of Greenland, Spitzbergen, and Davis' straits ; it is also found 
 in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. It was formerly numerous on 
 the coast of New York State. It is a very powerful and vora- 
 cious animal, devouring great numbers of fishes, large ones es- 
 pecially, such as the cod, haddock, and turbot, and even seals 
 and porpoises have been found in their stomachs. " They go in 
 company by dozens, will attack a young whale, and bait himi 
 like so many bull-dogs." The oil ' which they yield is of 
 excellent quality. Fishermen sometimes call them Finners, 
 or Black-fish Whales. Stories are told of their attacking 
 whales, joining in herds for that purpose ; but these perhaps 
 need confirmation. Sir Joseph Banks says of one that was 
 captured in the Thames, (Eng.,) " It pulled the attached boat 
 twice from Blackwall to Greenwich, and once as far as Dept- 
 ford, at the rate of eight miles an houi', and it was for a long 
 time unimpeded by the lance wounds which were, inflicted 
 on it when it came to the surface. So long as it was alive, 
 no boat would venture to approach it; and the. dying efforts 
 of this formidable creature were terrible. It was finally killed 
 opposite the Greenwich Hospital." 
 
 G. Cuvieri, or Phocana grisea, (of Lesson,) is a handsome 
 species inhabiting the North Sea;' has been taken on the West 
 coast of France ; is ten or eleven feet long; has only eight teeth, 
 and these in the lower jaw. It is famous for uttering loud cries 
 like the Deductor (or Howling) whale, and associating in groups 
 like that whale. 
 
 Delphinapterus. This genus includes two species, D. Peronii, 
 Peron's Dolphin, and D. Borealis. The head is rather convex 
 in front, nose depressed, forming a slender beak, and there is tio 
 dorsal fin. The form and proportions are elegant. The snout, 
 as far as the eye, and the under parts of the body and the tail 
 are of silvery whiteness; a bluish black covers the upper parts 
 of the body, giving it the appearance of having on a black cloak. 
 The iris is of an emerald green color. The D. Peronii is the 
 Right- Whale Porpoise of the Whalers, , found in the higher 
 
CETACEA. 
 
 253 
 
 southern latitudes. The D. Borealis inhabits the North Pacific. 
 (See.Peale's description in the U. S. Exploring" Expedition.) 
 
 Globicephnlus. (Globe-headed.) This contains five species, 
 viz.: G. Swineval, Pilot- Whale, (North Sea;) G. intermedius, 
 the Black Fish, (N. America ;) G. affinis, Smaller Pilot-Whale, 
 (locality unknown ;) G. Sieioldii, Naiso Gota, (coast of Japan^) 
 G. macroyJiyiiclms, South Sea Black Fish. They are character- 
 ized by the absence of a snout, by having a globular head, an 
 eminence resembling a fin on the back, and a single spiracle, sit- 
 uated near the back of the head. The length varies from six- 
 teen to twenty-four feet; the pectoral fins are from six to eight 
 feet, and this tail fivfe feet in length. The second species resem- 
 bles the Grampus in size, and is probably often confounded with 
 it. The teeth aro from twenty to twenty-eight in number in feach 
 jaw, t(nd when the mouth is closed, they " shut together like a rat- 
 trap." It is called the Deductor. With blind confidence, these 
 animals follow one as a leader, the main body keeping close to him, 
 "as sheep follow the wether." Efforts are therefore made to en- 
 trap the leaders, and then many others are taken. They are in- 
 offensive, and so timid that men in boats, with' ineffective weapons, 
 and with shouts and noise in the water, drive them in great num- 
 bers to the shore, to their own destruction. When any one 
 strikes the ground, it is said that it sets up a howling cry, and 
 immediately others crowd to the spot as if for its relief. This 
 circumstance has given it the name of theca'ing (calling)' whale. 
 It is also called the Black Whale Fish, (species G.. intermedius, 
 or melas,) and Bottle-head. Of all the Cetacea it is the most so- 
 ciable, vast numbers being found together, whence it is named 
 the Social Whale. Large herds of these whales are fre- 
 quently stranded and perish on the coast, particularly in high 
 northern latitudes. "At Wellfleet, near Cape Cod, in 1822, a 
 herd of one hundred, varying in length from ten to fifteen feet, 
 were stranded and captured. In 1823, one was taken in Salem 
 harbor, Mass. ; in 1832, one at Fairfield Beach, Conn. ; in 1834, 
 two on the east end of Long Island." (Nat. His. S. N. Y.) 
 
 II. CAT0D0NTiD.5i. (Gr. xajoi, kata, under; oSovg, odous, a tooth;) 
 or PHysETERiDJE, (Gr. q)vat}x-/\q, Phuseter, a blow-pipe, or 
 bellows.) Toothed Whales. 
 
 This family of the Cetacea are distinguished by the enormous 
 size of the head, which occupies more than one-third of the whole 
 bulk of the animal, and ends in a broad muzzle, appearing as 
 though it had been abruptly cut off. The lower jaw is narrow, 
 
254 CETACEA. 
 
 slender and pointed, and has numerous stout conical teeth, while 
 the upper jaw contains either none or a few which do not per- 
 forate the gums. Hence the name Caiodontidm. The blow-holes 
 have but one orifice, situated at the top of the muzzle. The 
 three genera constituting the family, agree in their essential char- 
 acteristics ; we therefore omit a detailed and separate descriptifcn 
 and confine our remarks to the Catodon, or Physeter macrocepht,'- 
 his, {jiaxqog, long ; xscpalt], a head,) the Northern Sperm- Whale. 
 It is sometimes called the Cachalot, a term derived from Cachon, 
 a tooth, in the Basque (Spanish) language. The Sperm-Whale 
 (Plate VIII. fig. 3,) is of enormous size, being between seventy 
 and eighty feet in length, and from thirty to thirty-five in circum- 
 ference. From its frequent paroxysms of fury it is one of the 
 most dangerous monsters of the deep. It is found in all latitudes, 
 but is a native of the Arctic and Antarctic Seas, where it is seen 
 attended by its young. Sperm- Whales usually appear in pa'rties 
 of from two to five hund.red, guarded by one or two males of the 
 largest size. In the upper part of the head there is an immense 
 cavity, divided into compartments and smaller cells, filled with 
 oil which is fluid when the animal is alive, but hardens when cooled 
 or after the animal is dead, and is known under the name of sperm, 
 aceti^ A hole is made in the head as soon as the whale is killed 
 and the spermaceti is baled out with buckets. When the first 
 process of squeezing and draining the oil is over, the yellow, 
 unctuous and impure mass of cetine is put into bags made of 
 hair prAvoolen, and further pressed between plates of iron iu a 
 screw press until it becomes hard and brittle; it is then broken 
 into small pieces and throvyn into boiling water, where it melta 
 and the impurities are separated from it. After being cooled 
 and taken from the first water, it is put into a boiler of clean 
 water and a weak solution of potash is gradually added. Thi? 
 is thriqe repeated, aftei^ which, the whole is poured into copiers, 
 w,hjere it crystalizes, and on being cut, exhibits the beautiful flaky, 
 appearance belonging to the spermaceti of commerce. An ordi- 
 nary sized whale wi.ll yield frotn ten to twelve barrels of crude 
 spermaceti. Ambergris, which is used as a perfume, and often 
 found Abating on the surface of tjie sea, is a fatty concretion 
 formed by disease in the intestines. Upon the ivory tepth of 
 the Sperm- Whales, sailors often show, their, taste in carving fig- 
 ures of various kinds. These whales produce but one young at 
 a time, about fourteen feet in length, and having a skin mCieh 
 thicker than that of the old ones. The milk by which the young 
 are nourished resembles that of quadrupeds. The throat of the 
 Sperm-Whale is capacious enough to give passage to the body 
 
CETACEA. 256 
 
 of a man, presenting a strong contrast to th« contracted gullet of 
 the mysiicetiis, or Greenland Whale. The mouth is lined with 
 a pearly white membrane. The eyes are small in proportion to 
 the size of the animal, and furnished with eye^^lids ; the skin is 
 usually smooth, but in old whales sometimes wrinkled. At each 
 breathing time, the Cacjialot makes from sixty to seventy expira- 
 tions, remaining at the surface of the water ten or eleven' min- 
 utes. It continues below the surface for periods of from an hour to 
 an hour and twenty minutes, consuming about one-seventh of its 
 time in respiration. The Sperm- Whale feeds Upon seal and 
 fishes, which it pursues with great pertinacity ; but a large sjiecies 
 of cuttle ash, (Octopus,) is said to constitute its principal food. 
 Its forty-eight huge teeth, which it sometimes employs in biting 
 boats, make it formidable to whalers. Sometimes it swims off 
 to a distance, and then rushes at the boat With its head, thereby 
 knocking it to pieces. One of these whales sunk a ship by three 
 or four blows from its head. The Sperm- Whale fishery is a 
 principal branch'of the industry of the United States, hundreds 
 of ships being engaged in this important branch of the fisheries. 
 
 The names of the genera as given in the Catalogue of the 
 British Museum, are Genus I. Catodon, 3 species; C. macroce- 
 phalviS, Northern Sperm. Whale ; C. eolueti, Mexican Sperm- 
 Wbale ; C. polycyphus. South Sea Sperm- Whale. Genus II. 
 Kogia, one species ; K. breviceps, Short-Headed Whale. Genus 
 III. Physeter. P. tursio, the Black Fish. 
 
 III. Balaenidje. (Gr. §(i.htiva, iaiaina, a whale.) True 
 or Whale-Bone Whales. 
 
 These iriclude but a limited number of species, comprised in 
 four, or according to Dr. J. E. Gray, three genera. They equal 
 the Sperm- Whale in size. The head is very large, but does not, 
 like theirs, terminate in a broad, abrupt muzzle. They have two 
 nostrils, separate and longitudinal. The jaws are toothless ; the 
 blow-holes distinct, situated on the top of the head and each a 
 foot long. The absence of teeth specially distinguishes these 
 from otjier whales; their place in the upper jaw, which is ex- 
 tremely narrow, is supplied hy baleen, or whalebone, consisting of 
 pendent, horny plates, or lamina (see Chart,) each fringed so closely 
 as to fill up the cavity of the mouth and .form a strainer retaining 
 the Clio Boreq,lis, minute crustaceans, and other small tenants of 
 the sea. These are carried by thousands into the vast spoon-shaped 
 lower jaw. The laminae or plates are three or four hundred in 
 
256 CETACEA. 
 
 number on ea(jh side, the longest often fifteen feet long; the 
 Baleen of the Balaena alone is designated" as Whalebone, or 
 Whalefin, as it is called in commerce. That of the other genera, 
 (.Balesnoptera and Megaptera,) is called Finner-Fin, or Hump. 
 back-Fin ; the tongue is very large, thick and fleshy, fat, soft 
 and spongy, not unfrequently twenty feet long, and nine or ten 
 wide," The blubber obtained from these whales is extremely 
 abundant, a single whale often yielding forty tuns, or three 
 hundred and twenty barrels of thirty-one and a half gallons 
 each; much more than this is frequently yielded. The Arctic 
 and Antarctic Seas are the principal, but not the exclusive re. 
 sortsof the True Whales. See "Note" at the end of the " Cetacea." 
 
 1st Genus. Balaena myslicelus. (Gr. /liata^, miistax, q 
 moustache ; a^ios, a whale. )- 
 
 This is the Common Greenland Whale, sometimes called the 
 Black Whale and Right Whale. Though not the largest of the 
 tribe, it is, in a commercial point of .view, most valuable forits 
 oil and other products. It is without a fin on -the back. The 
 two pectoral fins, are about two feet beyond the angle of the 
 mouth, about nine feet long and five broad. It is thirty feet in 
 height, and from sixty to eighty feet long ; in weight, from sixty 
 to one hundred tons, or as heavy as three hundred fat oxen. The 
 enormously large and fat tongue is very soft and delicate, giving 
 it the appearance of white satin ; it is entirely incapable of pro- 
 trusion, being fixed from the root to the tip. The front extrem- 
 ity of both jaws is surmounted by a few scattered hairs, to which 
 the name Myslicelus has reference. The back, most of the up. 
 per jaw and part of the lower jaw, together with the fins, are 
 black; the other parts gray and white, with a tinge of yellow. 
 The older the animds the more they contain of white and gray, 
 and some are all over piebald. When of the largest size they 
 yield a ton of baleen. The blubber resembles the substance of 
 salmon ; in the younger whales is yellowish white, from eight to 
 twenty inches thick, and when fresh, free from all unpleasant 
 smell. A Greenland whale, sixty feet in length, wiH frequently 
 yield more than twenty tuns of pure oil. 
 
 The flesh of a young Mysticetus is of a red color, and if 
 cfeared of fat, broiled and seasoned with pepper and salt, is said to 
 have a relish not unlike that of coarse beef. That of the old 
 whale becomes blackish and is exceedingly coarse. The tail is 
 very flbrous and sinewy, and extensively used in the manufac- 
 ture of glue. The bones are quite porous and contain large 
 quantities of fine oil, and the jaw bones, from twenty to twenty- 
 five feet in length, are often preserved) chiefly on account df tho 
 
C£TACEA. 257 
 
 oil which drains out of them. The external surface, even of the 
 most porous bones, is, however, compact and solid. The Green- 
 land Whale remains at the surface to breathe for about two min- 
 utes, " blows " eight or nine times, then descends for five or ten, 
 sometimes when feeding, for fifteen or twenty minutes. It blows 
 most strongly and densely when alarmed, or when coming to th6 
 surface after having been a long time down. When harpooned, 
 it has been drawn up by the attached line, and found to have 
 broken its jaws, and sometimes the crown bone, by the blow 
 which in its descent was struck against the bottom. Having'no 
 teeth, the Mysticetus cannotprey on its own kind, or on the larger 
 fishes. Its throat is exceedingly straight and narrow, not more 
 than an inch and a half in width. So very small is it that it 
 could not dispose of a morsel which might be swallowed by an 
 ox / In this respect it differs widely from some others of the 
 Cetacea. Divine beneficence has, however, abundantly provided 
 for its sustenance. A' considerable proportion of the limits 
 within which this whale is found, is occupied by what is called 
 green water. This forms about one-fourth part of theGreenland 
 Sea, between 74o and 80o N. Lat., equal to about 20,000 square 
 miles. This body of water is colored by immense numbers 
 of animalcules, for the most part invisible except with the 
 aid of the microscope. These afford sustenance to multitudes 
 of minute crabs, lobsters and sea snails by which the Mysticetus 
 is nourished. This whale seems to attain its full growth at the 
 age of twenty or twenty-five years. It is thought to attain a 
 great age. Our limits do not allow us to enter into details of the 
 perils and hardships connected with the chase and capture of the 
 whale. We may say here, however, the instinctive attachment 
 between the parent and its offspring, is a circumstance of which 
 whalemen often avail themselves in order to secure their prize. 
 The young cub, reckless of danger arid easily harpooned,, is 
 often struck as a snare to the mother. Says the well known 
 Ca^t. Scoresby, " at such a. time, she joins her young one at the 
 surface of the water whenever it has occasion to rise for respi- 
 ration ; encourages it to swim off"; assists its flight by taking it 
 under her fin, and seldom deserts it' while life remains. One 
 of my harpooners struck a sucker with the hope of its leading to 
 the capture of the mother. Presently she ai-ose close by the 
 ' fast boat,' and seizing the young one, dragged about a hijndr,ed 
 fathoms of line out of the boat with remarkable force and veloc- 
 ity. Again she rose to the sui-face ; darted furiously to andfro; 
 frequently stopped short or suddenly changed her direction, and 
 gave every possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length 
 
258 CETACEA. 
 
 of time she continued thus to aiit, though closely pursued by the 
 boats; and inspired with courage and resolution by her concern 
 for her offspring, seemed regardless of the danger which sur. 
 rounded her. At length one of the boats approached so near 
 that a harpoon was hove at her; it hit, but did not attach itself, 
 A second harpoon was struck ; this also failed to penetrate,' but 
 a third was more eflectual and held. Still she did not attempt to 
 escape, but allowed other boats to approach, so that, in a few min- 
 utes, three more harpoons were fastened, and in the course of an 
 hour afterwards, she was killed." 
 
 The Right Whale was formerly found in great numbers along 
 our own coast. The whale fishery, . including this and the 
 Sperm- Whale, is prosecuted largely and with great success by 
 individuals and companies of men, subject however to great flue 
 tuations. " The first vessel constructed expressly for this fishery, 
 was built at Nantucket in 1690." 
 
 Of this genus, the other species are the B. marginata, Western 
 Australian Whale, Cape Whale ; B. Japanica, Japan Whale ; 
 B. antarctica, New Zealand Whale ; B. gibbosa, Scrag Whale ; 
 and the B. australu~ 
 
 Balaena Auslrdlis is the Cape or Southern Whale, inhabitingthe 
 South Seas and of a uniform black color, measuring from thirty-five 
 to fifty feet. Its baleen, owing to the great curve of the upper 
 jaw, appears relatively longer than in the Northern Balaena, 
 usually reaching to about nine feet in a whale of forty feet. The 
 head is frequently covered with barnacles, layer above layer, 
 which, concealing its true color, give it a whitish appearance, 
 quite unlike that of its northern relative. The pectoral fins are 
 longer and more pointed, while the lobes of the tail are less 
 marked than in the former species. 
 
 2d Genus. Megapteea. (Large.finned.) 
 
 This genus includes the Hump-Backed Whales, easily known 
 from the " Finners " by " beiijg shorter and more robust, in hav. 
 ing the skull nearly one-fourth the entire length, the head wide 
 betwieen the eyes, the mouth larger, the lip warty, and the nose 
 large and rounded. The plaits of the belly and throat are broad. 
 The skull is intermediate betweeri that of the Balaena and the Ba- 
 laenoptera. Pour species are enumerated : M. hngitnana, found 
 in the North Sea, described by Dr. Johnson from a specimen cast 
 ashore at Newcastle, Eng,, and called Johnson's Hump-Backed 
 Whale ; M. Poeskop, the Poeskop, or Cape Hump. Back ; it is 
 the Roquai du Cap, of Cuvier, the t^ump-jBacked Wl;jale of Ros^' 
 
CETACfiA. 259 
 
 "Antarctic Voyage^" and an inhabitant of tbe Seas of the Cape 
 of Good Hope; M.Kuxira, the Kuzira, inhabitingthe Japanese 
 Seas ; M. Americaria^ the Bermuda Hump-Back, is of a black 
 color with a white belly, and has its head covered with tubercles. 
 It is found at Bermuda from March to the end of May, when it 
 departs. The baleen of this whale is extensively imported fron> 
 Bermuda. 
 
 3d. Balaenopiera Ror^ttahii. The Rowqttals or Finners. 
 
 These include .several species closely allied to those of the ge- 
 nus Balaena, but which haVe been separated from it, and formed 
 into a distinct genus. Amon^ them are the largest of the Whale 
 tribe, and probably the largest and most powerful animals found 
 on our globe. They are often from a hundred to one hundred 
 and twenty feet in length ; the head is about onejfourth part of 
 the length. These whales differ from the Mysticetus, in having 
 bodies which are longer and in their form more slender and cy- 
 lindrical ; in possessing a dorsal fin ; in having blubber which is 
 thinner, being generally not more than six inches thick, and yield- 
 ing an oil bf inferior quality and less in quantity ; in theirgreater 
 speed, quicker action and bolder conduct ; in their more violent 
 blowing ; and in having shorter and less valuable baleen. Hence 
 they are avoided by whalers as not repaying for the hazard of 
 their Capture. The upper jaw of the Mysticetus is relatively 
 longer and more curved ; consequently, the plates of baleen are 
 long in the Mysticetus and short in the Rorquals. In the latter, 
 the longest laminae measure only three or four feet; the smallest 
 are reduced to mere bristles, so that the animal has not fewer than 
 four or five thousand distinct plates of whalebone. The poste- 
 rior arch of the palate is so large that it could easily admit some 
 modern Jonah, forming a great vestibule to the wind-pipe and 
 gullet. This last is somewhat larger'than a man's fist. The 
 Rorquals feed not only upon the small medusee, shrimps, etc., 
 which form the food of the Mysticetus, but upon medusae of a 
 larger size, and such fish as herring, haddock, salmon, etc. 
 This could not be unless the baleen were coarser and the swallow 
 larger than in the Mysticetus, The Rorquals are sure to be in 
 the track of the fish just referred to, and they devour them in 
 quantities almost beyond imagination. M. Desmoulins states that 
 six hundred great corf, and immense quantities of pilchards have 
 been found in the stomach of one of these whales. Unlike the 
 Common Greenlahd Whale, the animals of this genus often leave 
 their native seas and stray far away to other waters and shores. 
 
 N. B. In the Catalogue of the British Museum, the genus 
 Balaenopt4ra has but one species;^— the B, rosirata, Pike Whale — 
 
260 CETACEA. 
 
 the Rorqudlus rostratus, of DeKay. It is of a black color, un- 
 derneath of a reddish white; inhabiting .the North Sea, and has 
 been found at Volognes, in France, in the Thames, at Deptford,- 
 Eng., and in the bay of New York. The other species, eight in 
 number, are included in a fourth genus, Physalus, The names of 
 the speciesjas given in the catalogue above referred to, are F. an- 
 tiquorum, the Razor Back, or Great Northern Rorqual ; P. Boops, 
 of which a specimen, thirty-eight feet in length, is in the British 
 Museum. This is probably one of the smaller R.orquals, and was 
 taken in 1846. P. Sibhaldi, another Rorqual, of which a speci- 
 men is found in the Museum at Hull, Eng., forty feet long; P. 
 fasciatus, the Peruvian Finner, found on the coasts of Peru ; P. 
 Iwasi, the Japan Finner. It is very rare. A specimen, taken 
 nearly a century ago, was twenty-five feet long ; — P. antarcticus, 
 so named by Dr. I. E. Gray, from the baleen of a New Zealand 
 species; P. Brasiliensis, the Bahia Finner, named from baleen, 
 brought from Bahia. P. australis, the Southern Finner, found 
 in the seas of the Falkland Islands. 
 
 The genus Balaenoptera, is divided into two sections, — one 
 distinguished by the smoothness of the skin, of the throat and 
 under parts, of which there is one species, Balaenoptera physalus, 
 called the Finfish. The other section is characterised by the deep 
 longitudinal regular folds into which the skin of the throat and 
 under parts is thrown, and which are supposed to be capable of 
 great dilatation. Of this there are several species. The name 
 Rorqual, which they bear, is of Norwegian origin, meaning " whale 
 with folds." The Rorquals have sometimes been arranged into 
 greater a'nd lesser Rorquals,(?nc;ores et mtnores.) - Twenty-five 
 feet is said to be the limit, as to length, of the smaller division. 
 Their baleen is white and short; the folds are of a rosy tint. 
 They frequent the rocky bays of Greenland, (especially during 
 summer,) and the coasts of Iceland and Norway, rarely descend- 
 ing into lower latitudes. They are very active in their habits, 
 so that, although valued in northern climates for the extreme 
 delicacy of their flesh, yet ^he natives do not attempt to harpoon 
 them, but wound them with their darts and spears, and after a 
 fortunate hunt, hope to discover them dead and stranded. The 
 smaller Rorquals yield an oil peculiarly delicate, and esteemed by 
 the Icelanders as an article of their materia medica. The Rorqual 
 of the Southern Seas, B. Australis, resembles the Northern 
 Rorqual. Its great power and velocity make it difficult of cap- 
 ture, and its products by no means repay the risk and labor of 
 taking it. It is sometimes called the Black Whale, and has been 
 found in considerable numbers on the shores of California. 
 
CETACEA. 261 
 
 These Southern Whales are fond of placing themselves in a per. 
 pendicular position, for the purpose of surveying more easily the 
 expanse of waters ; at a distance, resembling large black rocks 
 In the midst of the ocean. Fossil Rorquals have been found in 
 Britain and other parts of Europe. 
 
 IV. HEKBivoRotrs Cetacea, or Aquatic Pachyderms. 
 
 This family of the Cetacea have teeth with flattened surfaces, 
 and adapted to the herbivorous nature of their food ; the skin is 
 thick, and more or less horny; the stomach divided into four 
 cavities. They have stiff moustaches on their lips, and pectoral 
 mammae, — peculiarities which, when their bodies are partly 
 raised out of the water, give them a somewhat human look, and 
 probably are connected with the fanciful stories which have been 
 often told about "Mermaids." They are frequently called "Sea 
 Cows, Sea Calves," etc. The favorite haunts of these animals, 
 are Uie mouths of rivers or straits, where the water is only three 
 or four fathoms deep. Here, where the sea-weeds grow luxu- 
 riantly, they feed in troops^ rising frequently to the surface, in 
 order to take breath. This group includes three genera, and 
 about twice as many species, d 
 
 Mdnatus or Lantaniine, The Manatee, or Sea Cow. (Plate 
 VIII. fig. 2.) 
 
 The animals of this genus, are confined to three or four spe- 
 cies, having oblong bodies, which are from ten to fifteen, and 
 sottietimes twenty feet long ; long, rounded tails, and eight grind- 
 ers in each jaw. They are gregarious, and strongly attached to 
 each other, as well as their young, which the female defends, 
 regardless of her own danger. Their flesh resembles fatted 
 pork, and when salted, makes excellent sea-store. They are 
 much sought after, being captured with a harpoon attached to a 
 stout cord. The sliiri is of a blackish color, very lough and 
 ha_rd,,full of inequalities, and sprinkled with. a few bristly hairs 
 about an inch in length. The Manaius Americanus is found at 
 the mouth of the Amazon, Oronoco, and other rivers of South 
 America, and one species is still hunted among the lagoons and 
 keys of Florida. Its exhibits rudimentary nails upon its flippers, 
 and by their aid, sometimes drags its unwieldy body on shore to 
 bask in the sun, or seek for herbage growing on apd near the 
 banks. 
 
 Halicore Dtigong. 
 
 This genus is similar to the preceding one ; has one species, 
 (Dugong,) and is found in the waters of the East Indies, and 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE Vm. 
 
 rig. lat. Common Seal, or Sea-Dog, Phoca miulina. It has five or six rows 
 of white whiskers, short fore feet, with webbed toes, serving as oars 
 for swimming, b\it upon land only available for creeping or shuffling 
 along as it comes out to bask in the sun. The hind'feet have short 
 flattened claws, of which the three middle ones are smallest, giving the 
 feet a forked appearance. 
 
 Fig. 2d. Manatee, Sea Cow, Siren, or Mermaid of the ancients, Manatut 
 Americanus. The nostrils are in the sltin, near the end of the muzzle. 
 It has flippers or pectoral 'fins, or fin-like forearms, having their five fin- 
 gers enveloped in t membrane or skin, with nails, or rudiments Of nails, 
 which terminate four of the fingers. 
 
 Kg. 3d. Sperm-Whale, Physeter^, or Cachalot maerocephalua. The head 
 forms one-third of its bulk ; the nostril, spiracle, or spout-hole, is a slit 
 a foot long and shaped like the letter /. The case above the brain con- 
 tains the sperm oil. In a large whale the cavity will contain a tun, or 
 more than ten barrels. The portion just above the mouth, called the 
 Junk, is formed of elastic, strong fibres, permeated with fine sperm oil 
 and spermaceti. The eyes are small, and the two are said to be unequal in, 
 size. The ear-openings are behind the eyes, and only large enough to 
 admit a small quill. On the neck is the Bunch, (Bunch of the neclt,) 
 and on the back the Hump. Although this animal is of enormous size, 
 the Small, near the Flukes or Tail is not thicker than a man's body. 
 
 Kg. 4th. The True Dolphin Of the ancients, Delphinua delphis, has a spiia- 
 cle or blow-hole on the summit of the head, above the eyes, which are 
 small and low down, near the angle of the mouth. The beak is of the 
 same length as the head, with froin forty to forty-eight teeth on each 
 side, above and below, interlocking with each other. The swimming paws 
 are placed low and ha,lf way between the end of the beak and the dor- 
 sal eminence. 
 
Pivni, 
 
 Manatee, ManaJus.Ameiicayus. 
 
 Sperin."Whale,Thyseter macro oepTialus . 
 
 Dolphin, Jelithin^ Ddjhis 
 
CETACEA. 265 
 
 those of the Northern line of Australia. The most conspip- 
 uous difierence between this and the Manatus is, that it has 
 no traces of nails. The tail is truncated, or two- lobed, and 
 there are five grinders in each jaw; the body is round and 
 tapering.: ' To aid it in browsing upon fuci £(nd submarine 
 vegetables, the front part of the jaw is bent downwards, so as to 
 bring the mouth in nearly a vertical position. A great peculiar, 
 ity of the animal is, that the ventricles of the heart are detached 
 from each other, being connected at their base only. Th^ body 
 is seven or eight feet long ; the flesh tender and not unlike beef. 
 
 IlalicoT^e Taberwiculi, the thigong of the Red Sea, is consid- 
 ered a distinct species by Rupel, who gave it the specific name, 
 supposing^ that with its skin, the Jews were required to veil the 
 tabernacle. 
 
 Steilerus. This third genus is found in the Polar regions, and 
 especially in the vicinity of Behring's Straits, where, in great 
 numbers, the animal frequents the shallow parts of the shore, and 
 the estuaries of rivers. The skin is remarkably thick and hard. 
 The head and mouth are small ; the lips appear to be double, 
 i. e.., inner and outer. The space between them is filled with 
 strong, bristles, (one apd a half inches long, and as thick as 
 pigeons' quills,) — which are, to this anima,!, what the wha,le-bone 
 is. to the largest Cetacea. It has no teeth ; but in place of them, 
 ha.s two horny substances adhering, the one to the palate, the 
 other to the lower jaw. The length of the body is twenty, 
 eight feet; the weight of a large one, eight thousand pounds. 
 The skin is used by the natives for covering their boats. They 
 esteem the blubber of the animal as good as "iMay butter." The 
 flesh of an old Steilerus, when well boiled, resembles beef; that 
 of the young one is like veal. 
 
 Zeuglodon. This is an American fossil, viihpse name vvas 
 . suggested by the back molar teeth, which j-esemble two teeth 
 yqked together, — as the generic name signifies. Remains of this 
 extinct animal have been found in Maryland, Alabama and Ar- 
 kansas, (U. S.) Professor Owen supposes it to, bp, aljied to the 
 Dugong and Manatee. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 According to tieut. Maury, (see Phya. Geog. of the, Sea,> "the tropioaj 
 regions of the ocean are to the Right, or True Whftle, as, a sea,of| fir,e, 
 through which he cannot pass, and into which he never enters j " bu]t 
 "whaTes, with harpoons in them bearing the stamp, of ships known to 
 cruise' on the Baffin's Bay side of the American Continent, hav,e repeatedly 
 been taken near the Behring's Strait aide ; — and as, in one or two instanpea 
 a very short time had elapsed between the date.of the capture in the Pacifio 
 
266 
 
 CETACEA. 
 
 and the date when the fish muSt have been struck on the Atlantic side, it 
 was therefore agreed that there is a north-west passage by which whales 
 passed from one side to the other, since the striclten animal could not have ' 
 had the harpoon in him long enough to admit of a passage around either 
 Cape Horn, or the Cape of Good Hope." He adds, "It is found also that 
 the Right Whale, of the Northern Hemisphere, is a different animal from , 
 that of the Southern." 
 
 QUESTIONS UPON MARINE MAMMALS. ' 
 
 What is said of the size, organization and moTcments of Marine Mammals ? 
 What have they been called ? How do the paddles appear when dissected? 
 What is their chief use ? Why must the Whale resort to the surface? How 
 great a pressure does it sometimes encounter? How is it guarded from 
 injury which might thence arise? Describe the uses of the blubber. Give 
 particulars respecting the eyes of the Getacea. What author has referred to 
 them as showing Divine contrivance? What is one of the most remarkable 
 things in the economy of the Whale? -How are they able to remain so long 
 under water? In what manner do they, breathe? Why are these called 
 blow-holes? What 'is said of their spbrtings? How do the Whales usually 
 take their food? What is said of their hearing? Have they the sense of 
 smell? What is said of their stomach and other organs? What more is 
 said of them ? Into what families may the Cetacea be divided ? Give a 
 general view of the Dolphin tribe ? How many species does thi? family 
 include? What is said of the number of the teeth in the Common Dolphm? 
 What of their form and use ? How long is it ? What gives interest to this 
 animal? How was it regarded by the ancients? What is said of the colors 
 of the Dolphin? Does its color change while dying? What are its habits? 
 How are these illustrated by Ancient naturalists? What is the meaning of 
 the term Monodonf What of Narwhal ? What other names are given to 
 it ? Has it teeth ? What is said of its tusks ? What virtues have been 
 attributed to them? What use does the animal make of them? What 
 other species of Whales does this precede ? Does Dr. Scoresby describe the 
 Narwhal? What is said of them by Dr. Kane? Name the sp; of the 
 Beluga, or White Whale? Give some account of this W. What are their 
 favorite resorts ? Why are they not more often pursued by whalers ? At 
 what season are they very useful to the Greenlander? Give the character- ' 
 istics of the Porpoise. What is said respecting the wide diffusion of the 
 Common P. ? What of its resemblance to the Dolphin ? What is said of 
 the leather made from its skin ? What is said of the brain and teeth of the 
 P.? What of the word Grampus? Upon what do they feed? How was 
 its flesh formerly regarded ? What is the meaning of the term Grampus t 
 What is it called by American sailors ? Describe it. Where is its favorite 
 abode? What is said of its voracity? What incident is related by_ Sit 
 Joseph Banks? Name the sp. found on the coast of France. For what is it 
 famous ? Give the sp. included in the gen. Delphinomterus, and describe 
 it? What do whalers call it? Where is it found? How many sp. do the 
 gen. GloUeephalus include ? How are they characterized ? How do the 
 teeth shut into one another? What is this W. called? By what method 
 are they taken ? What additional names are given to this W. ? How are the 
 second fam. of Cetacea distinguished ? Why is the name Catodontidak 
 given to it ? What names are applied to the Sperm W. ? Describe it. What 
 peculiar substance does it yield ? Describe the process for obtaining the 
 pure Spermaceti of commerce. What is Ambergris ? What is said of the 
 
CETACEA. 267 
 
 I 
 throat of, the Bperm, Whale? What other peculiarities of structure are 
 mentioned ? On what does it feed How does it sometimes use its huge 
 teeth ? What is said of the Sperm W. Fishery ? What is said of the size 
 oftheTrue W.? How are they sf[e(4ally . distinguished from other W.? 
 What supplies the place of teetfl in the upper -ja(W ? : Describe the Baleen 
 and its uses. How much blubber is yielded by one of these W. ? What 
 are their principal resorts ? Which of the W. is most valuable in a com- 
 miercial point, of View? Give the deriyation of. its specific name, What 
 renders it appropriate ? What is said respecting the quantity of baleen and 
 oil yielded by a Gr Ailand W. ? Of what use are the bones ? What is said 
 of their blowing ? in what respects do they differ from other W. ? How 
 extensive is the area of the green water ? What occasions its peculiar color ? 
 What is said of the age of these W. ? How are their instinctive attachments 
 illustrated ? When was the first American whale-ship built ? What is said 
 of the Hmnped-baeked W. t How many sp. are enumerated ? To what 
 are the Rorquals allied ? What is said of their size and strength ? How do 
 they differ from the J/i/sticeiMS ? Why are they avoided by sailors? What 
 is said of the arch of the palate? On what does the animal feed ? Illus- 
 trate its voracity. Name the two sections of the genus Salaenoptera ? 
 What is the meaning of the term Rorqual ? How large are they ? What 
 waters do they frequent ? What is said of the oil which they yield ? Are 
 they easily captured? In what position are the Southern Rorquals found? 
 
 Give the peculiarities of the Herbivorous Cetacea. What are they fre- 
 quently called ? Where are their favorite resorts? How many sp. does this 
 group include ? Describe the Manatee, or Sea Cow. Where is the M. Amer- 
 icana found ? Where is the Dugong found ? What is the chief difference 
 betwen this and the Manatus? In what respect is it very peculiar? Where 
 is the Stellerus found? DescrH)e it. Mention the name and localities of the 
 American fossil sp. What species of Whale is figured on the Chart? Trace 
 apd describe it. What other Cetaceans are named upon the Chart? Refer 
 to the figures and species of this order, tmciag each, giving their charac- 
 teristics and habit's, size, &c., &c. 
 
 Those Aquatic Pachyderms constitute so najura. a group that some natu- 
 ralists now remove them from Cetacea and place them by themselves, di- 
 viding the Gmup /S«'emdia into four families : 1. DiNOTHEBiDAE (all fossil;) 
 2- ]ilU.NAtioi.K! 3. Halicoridae; 4. Byiinidae. 267 
 
ORNITHOLOGY. 
 
 SECOND BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Ornitholqsy. (Gr. 6§vis, ornis, a bird ; AiSyoj, hgcs, a di&. 
 course.) Birds, (Aves,) — 2d Division of the Warm Blooded 
 Animals. 
 
 The numerous cla,ss of vertebrated animals which this term 
 includes, are prominently distinguished from the Manniiftlia by 
 their general form and feathery coverings and by producing their 
 young from eggs. They fall below quadrupeds in the scale of 
 nature,* but they far surpass fishes and insects in point of saga- 
 city, and in the structure of their bodies. Though called biped^, 
 they nearly approach to quadrupeds, as may be seen by looking 
 at a plucked pigeon, and observing how, in respect to limbs, it 
 resembles a skinned rabbit, except that the forelegs have no feet 
 or toes at their tips. 
 
 Birds are formed for flight ; they have been, not unaptly, 
 styled, "the Insects of the vertebrated series." The organiza- 
 tion of the greater part is wisely adapted both for suspension in 
 the air, and for motion through it. Their activity in so subtle a 
 medium, required variops conditions and ad.aptations of structure 
 whjch an attentive examination qlearly presents, as combined in 
 their organization by the all-wise Creator. 
 
 The shape of the body is sharp before, to pierce and make 
 way for itself through the air ; it rises by gentle swelling, and 
 falls off by an expansive tail, that helps to keep it buoyant, while 
 the foreparts are cleaving the air by their sharpness. Hence, 
 they may be compared' to a bark making its way through the 
 water ; — the trunk of the body answering to the hold ; the head 
 to the prow ; the tail to the rudder ; and the wings to the oars. 
 
 * The following scale is given, showing the size of the brain as com- 
 pared with that of the body. — Eagle, l-260th of the bodyj Sparrow, 
 l-'25th; Chaffinch, l-27th ; Redbreast, l-82d; Blackbird, l-BSth; Canary- 
 bird, l-14th ; Cock, l-26th ; Duck, l-267th ; Goose, l-860th. 
 
dMit&ohOGt. 269 
 
 The rapidity and variety of motion of which Bltdfe show theftii 
 selves capable, ttiay well excite admiration. The Swallciw and the 
 Eagle can dart through the air at the rate of sixty miles an hour ; 
 the Falcon at the rate of forty or fifty miles in the same time ; 
 the Passenger Pigeon outstrips the wind, which, whish most vio- 
 lent, traverses only sixty miles an hoUr : the Curletv traverses 
 three elerilents with ease, — running rapidly upon the groiihd ; 
 perfectly at home on the oeean wave, and borne iii the air as it 
 flies swiftly from one dontihent to another. 
 
 For this fleetness of tnotion, the skeleton of a bird is Strikingly 
 adapteH. (Plate XII. fig. 2.) It unites lightness with firmness; 
 the great bones of the limbs, and many of those of the body, are 
 hollow reservoirs of air, dommunieating with the lungs. Sacs, 
 of bladder>like receptacles,' which can be filled with air, are dis- 
 tributed about the body ; some of them internfally ; others be- 
 tween the muscles and the skin, down the throat and che^t, or along 
 the tendons of the shoulder ; and these dommunicate with each 
 other and with the lungs. The last named organs adhere dlosely 
 to the ribs, occupying (Plate XII. fig. 2, E.) the hollows between 
 them and on each side of the spine ; the lungs are very largej 
 but can be very little expanded or contracted. To compensate 
 for this incapacity, which might impede their breathing, the ends 
 of the branches of the wind pipe open into them ; but tliese agaiii 
 communicate with the membranous sacs, or buoyant air cells, 
 that run along the whole length of the body, — so that a probe 
 thrust into the lungs of a fowl, easily finds a passage into the in- 
 ternal parts of the frame ; and air blown into the wind-pipei|Will 
 be seen to distend theJ)ird's body like air blown into a bladder. 
 By the great developmelit of the breathing apparatus, the blood 
 is more rapidly and effectually oxygenized, and muscular energy 
 accumulated- for the action of flight ; while, by the anirtial heat 
 which is thus given out, the air contained in the cbmpleJt respir- 
 atory apparatus is rarified ; and thus the body is increased in bulk, 
 but rendered specifically lighter. 
 
 The wings of a bird correspond to the arms and hands of man ; 
 but the hand in the bird consists of only two fingers, (Plate XII. 
 fig. 2d, N.,) and a thumb, all of which are rudiVnentary. From 
 the bones of the bird's hand (M) arise the^rmaries, or great 
 quill-feathers of the wings,— ^ten in number, and by their form, 
 stiffness, and relative strength, indicating the character and the 
 povver of the flight. The secondaries spring from the principal 
 bone of the forearm, (K. L. ;) the number of these varies in dif- 
 ferent species ; they are generally stouter, longer, and nrore flex- 
 ible than the primariesj and differ less in form from the general 
 
270 OKNITHOLOGY. 
 
 covering of the body. The bone of the upper arm (Immerus, I.) 
 gives rise to another series of feathers, called tertiaries, which, 
 in such birds as the Plovers, Curlew, etc., are greatly lengthened ; 
 but in their structure are yet weaker than the secondariesi 
 Fastened to the little bone v^hich represents the thumb, are twoor 
 three short and stiff feathers, called the winglet, (or bastard, wing ;) 
 they lie upon the base of the first primaries, at the edge of the 
 wing. Corresponding with the series of feathers, there are both 
 on the outer and inner surface of the wing, several rows of 
 smaller ones, called coverts, from their office of protecting the 
 basal part of .the quills ; the feathers covering the shouldef.blade^ 
 or scapula, are called scapulars. 
 
 If we examine each feather separately, we find it composed.of 
 twd parts ; (1) a light but firm shaft, hollowed below for strength 
 and lightness, into a horny tube, containing the blood-ves- 
 sels by which it is sustained; (2) the vane, or beard of the 
 feather, composed of a double series of layers, or thin parallel 
 plates on each side of the shaft, and set at an angle to it. Towards 
 the shall of the feather, these layers are broad, and of a semi-cir. 
 cular form, to serve for strength, and for the closer grafting them 
 one against the other, when ijn action. Towards the outer part 
 of the vane, the layers grow slender and tap^r, to be more light. 
 On their wider side, they are thin and smooth ; but their upper 
 outer edge is parted into two hairy edges, each side having a dif- 
 ferent set of hairs, broad at the bottom, and slender and<'bearded 
 above. By this means, the hooked beards of one layer always 
 lie next the straight beards of the next, and lock and hold each 
 other. No resistance is offered to the flio;ht of birds by this ar- 
 rangement; while beneath these there is a layer of*soft down, 
 which preserves them from cold, to the effects of which, but for 
 this provision, they would have been much exposed. 
 
 The wings are usually placed at that part of the body which 
 serves to poise the whole and to sup|)ort it. The feathers of the 
 wing overlap each other, and present a continuous surface of 
 great breadth, by repeated strokes of which upon the air, the bird 
 performs its flight. (Plate X. fig. 2.) 
 
 "Each feather is cohcave, whether we regard it transversely 
 or longitudinally ; its stem, or middle, is remarkably strong, 
 though very light, and the beards which present their edges in 
 the direction of the stroke, are linked to each other by a sei;iesof 
 minute hooks." These arrangements add" to the pow^r of the 
 wings in their downward strokes upon the air. 
 
 Every part of a bird, except the beak and ihe lower, or poste- 
 rior extremities, is, in general, clothed with feathers. Tne feet 
 
OKNITHOLOGY. 271 
 
 are protected by a naked, scaly sk,in which, in same cases, ex- 
 tends above the tarsus, and partly up the leg. The soles of the 
 toes are covered with a granulated and callous modification of 
 this, skin. (Plates IX. and X.) 
 
 In Birds, particularly those of extended and powerful flight, 
 the greatest part of the muscular force centers in the wings. 
 The muscles which produce the downward stroke of the viag, 
 are enormous ; for their attachment, the breast-bone is greatly 
 enlarged, and its surface is also increased by having its middle 
 portion raised into a perpendicular ridge, the two faces of which, 
 from their direction, afford an advantageous point of resistance, 
 or purchaxe. A bird can move its wings with a degree of 
 strength which, when compared with the animal's size, is almost 
 incredible. The flap of a Swan's wing has power sufficient to 
 break a man's leg ; and a similar blow from an eagle has been 
 known to produce instant death. 
 
 The powerful muscular action involved in flight, would nat- 
 urally tend to draw the shoulders together; b:it this tendency is 
 resisted by the insertion between the two bones (coracoids) to 
 which the shoulder bones (H) are joined, — of a singular arched 
 bone, called the wish-bpne or merrythought. (G.) In the domes- 
 tic fowl, the bone is feeble; but in birds of powerful flight, as 
 the Hawks, the Swallows, and the Humming-Birds, it is very 
 strong and elastic. On the other hand, when the bird never rises 
 upon the wing, as in the case of the Ostrich and Emu, this bone 
 is reduced to a mere rudiment. The bones of the lower, or p6s- 
 terior extremities also differ materially in structure from those 
 of quadrupeds. These consist of (1) a thigh-bone, {or femur,) R. ; 
 leg-bones, {tibia and fibula,) S. ; (these leg-bones are really two, 
 but the fibula is yery small, and becomes anchylosed to the 
 tibia; i. e., immovably fixed by a continuation of bony secre- 
 lion ;) (2) the metatarsal, or shank-bones, U. U., at the lower end of 
 which there are as many processes as there are toes, each pro- 
 cess being furnished with a pulley for moving its corresponding 
 toe ; (3) the toes, of which the usual number is four, — a number 
 never exceeded ; while a few birds have only three ; and the 
 Ostrich only two. The three toes are directed forwards, and 
 one, answering to the great toe, backwards. This, at least, is the 
 general rule. The back, or great toe, is wanting in some birds. 
 In the Swallows it is directed forwards ; but in the Climbing 
 Birds, as the Parrots and Woodpeckers, the outer toe and back 
 toe are both directed backwards ; while the Swifts hE(ve all the 
 four toes directed forwards. 
 
 As t^e upper limbs, or anterior extremities, are exclusively for 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. 
 
 BEAKS AND HEADS OF BIEDS. 
 
 1. Owl's head, showing the egrets or tnfts of feathers on each side, close 
 
 to the cars. 
 
 2. Head of an Eagle, showing the strong curved beak of a rajitoriil bird. 
 Order Haveners, (.birds of prey.) ,_ - , 
 
 3. Falcon's beak, sliowing the notches and teeth near the tip of each man- 
 
 dible, for holding its prey. ' 
 
 4. itecurved beak of the Avoset, Stilt Plover, &c. 
 
 5. Merganser's bill, with serrated margins arid abruptly hooked tip. 
 
 6. Ldng, slender, curved bill of the Curlew, formed £?Sr penetrating the 
 ,mud on the sea-shore, .ia search of insects, slugs and small testaceans. 
 
 T. Bill of the Humming Bird, formed for searching out insects in flowers 
 and sipping the honey dew. Order Tenuirostres, (slender bills.) 
 
 8. Beak Of the Crbssbill, the crossed points of which it inserts to open the 
 cones of pines and fir trees, upon the seeds of which it feeds. 
 
 9. Beak of Parrots, Mackawa, Lories, &c,, having the upper mandible 
 greatly curved ov?r the lower, which is considerably shorter. 
 
 10. Beak of the Petrel, so furrowed as to appear pf distinct pieqes. 
 
 11. Puffin's beak, transversely furro\Yed on both sides, appears as though a 
 
 sheath had been slipped over b6th mandibles. 
 
 12. Duck's bill, broad, long and soft, with plaits on each side for straining 
 insects, worms, &c., out of the mud. 
 
 13. Beak of the Hornbill, of a light honeycomb structure ; th6 horn or hel- 
 met is hollow, and by some supposed to act as a sounding board. 
 
 14. Beak of. the Whip-poor- Will, deeply cleft ; the mouth fi-higed ttlh 
 
 strong, stiff hairs, (vibrissa.) Order Fisairostres, (split bills.) 
 
 TAILS OF BIRDS. 
 
 16. Fan shaped or rounded tail. , , 
 
 16. Jf forked tail, indicating a swift flyer, as in fly-catchers, (MuscicapidSB.) 
 IT and 18. Lyre shaped tails, as in the Chatterers, (Ampelidse.) 
 
 19. Doubly forked tail, as in Paalurus bifurcatus, a species of night-jar 
 found in Brazil ; very rare. 
 
 FEET OT BIRDS. 
 
 20. Foot of the Golden Eagle, showing its jfeathered tarsi, and the power- 
 
 ful talons of a rapacious bird. 
 
 21. Foot of a scratching bird, showing the three front toes united by a meni- 
 brane up to the first joint, the hind toe articulated upon the tarsus, and 
 the horny spur in the male bird. Order Rasores, (scratohers.) 
 
 22. Fool of the Ptarmagin, covered with hairlike feathers as far as the claw's, 
 2S. Woodpecker's foot, with toes in pairs, (yoke-footed, or Zygodactylus.) 
 
 Order Soansores, (climbers.) 
 
 24. Webbed foot of a swimming bir^. Order Natatores, (swimmers.) 
 
 25. Foot of a Phalarope, with lobate membranes or festoons on the i^i 
 sufficiently broad to assist them in swimming. 
 
 26. Grebes' foot, not webbed as in most water birds, but each toe flattened 
 so as to serve as a separate paddle. 
 
 2'r. Foot of the Sacred Ibis, a Wading, shore, or stilt bird. Order Gralla- 
 
 tores, (waders.) 
 28. Claw of Heron, showing the comb-like diviaioos of its inner edge. 
 
TTlIX. 
 
 BEAKS AND HEADS OFBIPtDS 
 
 TAILS OF BIRDS. 
 
 FEET OF BIROS 
 
. ORNITHOLOGY. 27S 
 
 flight, and the, bird.depends principally on its bill fpr gathering 
 its food, it became necessary, as the bones of the back have 
 scarcely any motion, that the neck should be as it is, long and 
 flexible. Hence, while in the mammals, the vertebrae of the 
 neck are seven, — there being no more even in the Camelbpard, — 
 the deficiency of motion in the back is made up in birds by an 
 increase in the . vertebrae of the neck, {B.) proportioned to their 
 wants Thus the Raven Jias twelve neck bones, the Domestic 
 Cock thirteen, the Ostrich eighteen, the Stork nineteen, and the 
 Swan twenty-three, which is the largest number yet ascertained, 
 while, the smallest is ten. These are so joined together, that the 
 head can be turned completely around, (the position^ which the 
 bird takes when at rest,) or moved in any direction, so that the 
 bird can touch every point of its body with its bill. 
 
 The trunk is sustained on the thighs by very powerful mus- 
 cles ; another set of which passes from the lower part of the 
 thighs to the toes, turning over the knee and heel, in such a 
 way that the flexion or bending of these joints shall shorten them- 
 Hence, the simple weight of the body flexes the toes, so that birds 
 are enabled to sleep perched on one foot. But the pectoral mus- 
 clesj as a general rule, show the greatest development. The 
 breas' bone, or sternum, is made to project forwards with an ele- 
 vated ridge or keel. To this, the powerful muscles which 
 depress the wings, are attached. The depth of the keel is a partial 
 criterion as to the power of flight; in the Harrier it is deep; in 
 the Ostrich, where the wings are not sufficiently developed to 
 raise the bird from the ground, ii is quite flat. 
 
 The jaws of the bird are not furnished with teeth,, but the 
 place of these organs is supplied by a casing of horn, terraina- 
 tinu; in a point at the lip, and brought to an edge on the side of 
 the jaw. This horny casing is known as the beak or bill ; the 
 name mandibles is given to the upper and lower divisions. In 
 Birds of Prey, {see Plate of Birds' Beaks and Heads,) the beak 
 is like a carving or dissecting knife ; In the Woodpeckers it is an 
 effective chisel ; in the Snipe and Woodcock, it is a long and 
 slender probe, furnished at the tip with copious nerves of sensa- 
 tion for feeling in the deep earth of bogs and marshes ; in the 
 Parrots, it is a climbing hook, or a fruit knife ; in the Swallows 
 and Goat Suckers, it is a fly-trap; in the Swans, Geese and 
 Ducks, it is a flattened strainer, with nerves on the inside for the 
 detection of the food remaining after that particular operation 
 which almost every one must have observed a duck perform in 
 muddy water ; in the Storks and Herons, it is like a fish-spear ; 
 in the Cross-Bills, or Seed-eating Birds, it forms a pair of Seedr 
 
 12 
 
276 ORNITHOLOGY. 
 
 crackers for extricating the kernel from the h^sk which cov. 
 ers it.* 
 
 Varying as the beak does in different kinds of birds, it in no 
 instance performs a proper masticating function ; though it may 
 divide flesh, crack a nut, and with the assistance of the tongue, 
 shell it; and though it may separate the grain from the husk, as 
 is constantly seen in the Goldfinch and Canary. A nearer ap. 
 proach to mastication, is the bruising down of hard seeds by 
 means of a knob' in the middle of the palate, as is seen in th6 
 Buntings.' 
 
 The stomach in Birds, consists of three parts, (not always, 
 however, distinctly developed,) viz., the crop or craw, the mem. 
 branous stomach, and the gizzard. From the want of masti. 
 eating power in the bird, it, of course, swallows its food entire. 
 When the food is flesh, the process of digestion is sufiiciently 
 simple, and so rapid as to need no preparation. To prepare for 
 the digestion of hard grains and seeds, which are the food of so 
 large a number of species, a sort of internal grinding, mill is fur- 
 nished by the gizzard. 
 
 This organ, which is seen to most advantage in grain-eating 
 birds, is made up almost entirely of two semi-globular masses 
 of dense muscle, whose flat faces, covered with a thick leathery 
 skin, work over each other like a pair of millstones, and by the 
 aid of small angular stones, sand, etc., swallowed for the pur. 
 pose, very quickly grind down the hardest substances. In the 
 Museum of the College of Surgeons, (London,) is a large glass 
 bottle entirely filled with pebbles, &c., taken from the stomach 
 of an ostrich. The experiment has been made, without injury, 
 of conveying bullets beset with needles, and even lancets into 
 the stomachs of granivorous birds, with the effect of the total 
 destruction of those sharp instruments in a short period. 
 
 The organs of the voice in birds bear a striking resem- 
 blance to certain musical wind instruments. The larynx is 
 made up of two parts ; the second part, or lower larynx, contains 
 a second rima glotUMs, (cleft or opening of the throat,) furnished 
 with tense membranes which perform, in many birds, the same 
 office that a reed does in a clarionet, or hautboy, while the fiisl 
 or upper rima, (cleft or opening,) of the throat, like the ventaj/e 
 or hole of the instrument, gives utterance to the note. None of 
 the endowments of this interesting class more minister to the 
 pleasure and delight of man than their powers of song. 
 
 The development of the senses of birds varies iti the different 
 
 ' Bee Penny Cyclopedia; Art. Birds. 
 
ORNITHOLOGY. 277 
 
 tribes, according to the mode in which they are adapted to take 
 their prey.. Of the five senses, sight, smell* and hearing are 
 most acute in birds. The crystalline humor of the eye is 
 flat in birds ; the vitreous humor is very small. The color of 
 the iris varies in different species, and in many cases is very 
 brilliant. Birds have three eyelids, two of which, the upper 
 and lower, are closed in most of the race by the elevation of the 
 lower one, as may be seen in our domestic poultry. But the 
 third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, forms the most curious 
 apparatus. When at rest it lies in the corner of the eye ; but 
 by the combined action of two muscles which are attached tothe 
 back of the sclerotic coat, (the wfiite,) of the eye, it can be 
 drawn out so as to cover the whole front of the eye-ball, like a 
 curtain, and its own elasticity restores it to its resting place. 
 This, it is said, enables the eagle to look at the sun. 
 
 The rapacious birds seem most remarkable for their length of 
 sight ; others, as the swallow tribe, which fly with extraordinary 
 swiftness, have an almost inconceivable quickness of sight. 
 
 The sense of hearing in birds appears to be in general tolera- 
 bly acute, especially in the nocturnal birds of prey, which have 
 what other birds are without, an external cartilaginous ear. 
 
 The sense of smell does not seem to be very highly devel- 
 oped in the birds as a class, but is strong in the vultures. 
 
 Pew of them have a tongue which serves as an organ of taste, 
 but some of the swimmers and' the parrots generally have one 
 that is soft, thick and covered with papillae, and there can be no 
 doubt that these taste food of a soft or fluid nature, and select 
 that which they like best ; for the most part, however, the tongue 
 is an organ for taking food rather than of taste. The sense of 
 touch is in birds generally very obtuse. 
 
 The dress or plumage of birds is admirable for its fitness to 
 the ends for which it was designed ; for its softness, smooth- 
 ness, compactness, and various hues. The most brilliant col- 
 ors are lavished upon the " winged denizens of the air." This 
 is particularly true of birds of the torrid zones. Those of the 
 temperate zones are not so remarkable for the elegance of their 
 plumage ; bu^ the smaller kinds malfe up for this defect by the ■ 
 nielody of their voices. While the birds of the warmer regions 
 are very bright and gorgeous in their colors, they have scream- 
 ing voices, or are totally silent. The frigid zones, where the 
 seas abound in fish, are stocked with birds of the aquatic kind far 
 more than any other regions. These usually have a warmer 
 coat of feathers, or they have large quantities of fat lying under, 
 neath the skin, which serves to defend them from the rigors of 
 the climate. 
 
278 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY. 
 
 Birds are oviparous ; in other words, are produced from eggs 
 consisting of a living point attached to a globular sac of nutri- 
 ment called the yelk, surrounded by a layer of alhumeii,' the 
 glair or white part, and enclosed in two series of membrane and 
 a hard calcareous shell. The egg is developed into a living, ac 
 tiye chick, by the warmth which the parent supplies while sitting 
 upon the nest wherein the eggs are deposited ; or it may be 
 hatched in a breeding machine, by means of artificial heat of 
 about 96 o Fahrenheit. The instinct of birds is wonderfully -ex- 
 hibited in constructing and locating their nests as places of com- 
 fort and concealment, and in the exquisite workmanship display«i 
 in some of them. 
 
 The process of incubation lasts a few weeks, when the young 
 is ready for exclusion. By means of a homy pointed scale at- 
 tached temporarily to the tip of its beak, it succeeds in breaking 
 the egg-shell and forcing its way to freedom. "At the end of 
 the second day, the first moving of the heart is perceptible, and 
 on the fifth, the whole frame of the little creature can be dis- 
 tinctly seen in motion. The feathers make their appearance in 
 a fortnight. At the commencement of the fifteenth day, the 
 chicken begins to breathe, and on the nineteenth it is able to 
 peep." The gallinaceous and swimming birds can run about 
 and pick up their own food as soon as they escape from the egg; 
 but more commonly the young are, for several days, unable to 
 quit the nest, and as is well known, are anxiously fed and cared 
 for by the parent birds. 
 
 Few things have attracted more attention than the migration 
 of birds. ' The immediate cause of this is doubtless to be traced 
 to temperature and to food, particularly that;which is adapted to the 
 sustenance of the young; and the instinct of the bird accord- 
 ingly leads it from one climate to another. 
 
 The change of plumage, termed moulting, takes place in all 
 birds at least once a year, and sometimes oftener. Apart from 
 the ailment connected with this change, birds are subject to very 
 few diseases. In all countries they are said to be more long 
 lived than the quadrupeds of the same climate. 
 
 Fowls sometimes live 20 years. Linnets and 5ther little birdsshut 
 
 up in cages often live 15 years. 
 Robins, 17 do. 
 
 Eagles, over 100 do. 
 
 Cockatoos, reach 120 do. 
 Swans, frorn 300 to 360 do. 
 
 The fossil remains of birds, though not numerous, are entitled 
 
 Pigeons, 
 
 longer. 
 
 Canaries, 
 
 25 years, 
 
 Parrots, 
 
 30 do. 
 
 Peliicans, 
 
 80 do. 
 
 Geese, 
 
 80 or 90 do. 
 
OENITHOLOGY. 279 
 
 to attention. Considerable interest was awakened by the discov- 
 ery, by Prof. Hitchcock, of Amherst College, of many large 
 bird tracks in the new red argillaceous sand-stones of the valley 
 of the Connecticut river. Remains of colossal birds of the Os- 
 trich type have also been obtained from Australia, which possess 
 peculiar value from their relation to such birds as the Dodo, 
 known to have existed at a former period, but now no longer to 
 be found. 
 
 i The classification of birds Into orders is founded upon charac- 
 jters derived from the beak and feet. The subordinate divisions 
 ! take their rise chiefly from the form of the beak, and run into 
 each other by almost imperceptible gradations. The number of 
 species has been estimated at six thousand. These have been 
 arranged into two grand divisions, viz. : Land and Water, or 
 Tbheestrial ^nd Aquatic Birds, the former being divided into 
 five,, the latter into two orders, making the whole number seven. 
 
 Raptores, (Raveners,) 
 Insessores, (Perchers,) 
 ScAN^oREs, (Climbers,) J- Land Birds. 
 OspESS. ■{ Rasorbs, (Scratchers,) 
 CuRSORES, (Runners,) 
 
 Crallatores, (Stilts or Waders,) } ■,„ t> 
 
 L Natatores, (Swimmers,)^ ^ \ ^^"^^^ ^'"^^^^ 
 
 What is the second branch of Zoology called? Give the derivation of 
 the word. To what division of animals do birds belong? How are they 
 distiBgnished from the Mammalia or first division of warm blooded animals ? 
 Are they Bipeds or Quadrupeds ? What have they been styled ? What 
 does their formation for flight involve ? Explain or show how their struc- 
 ture is adapted to it. What is said of the rapidity and variety of their 
 motions ? Explain the skeleton of the bird as given on Plate XII. Name 
 the different kinds of feathers ^nd their situation, as illustrated in Plate 
 X. Name the parts of which each feather is composed. In what does 
 the greatest part of the birds' muscular force center? Illustrate its 
 power. Show the use of the wish-bone or merrythought. Give some 
 account of the bones of the lower extremities as illustrated in Plate XII. 
 State the variations as to the number and direction of the toes in different 
 birds. Show the benefit accruing from the numerous joints or vertebrae in 
 a bird's neck. State the number found in differfent birds. Give some ac- 
 count of the muscles of a bird and their action. Strictly or properly speak- 
 ing, ha,ve birds any teeth ? What supplies their place ? What are its up- 
 per and lower divisions called ? Describe the different kinds of beaks. 
 Do birds really masticate their food ? What approach to mastication ia 
 seen in the Bunting ? Of how many parts does the stomach consist ? What 
 are their uses ? Wbat facts show the power of the gizzard? What do the 
 birds' organs of voice resemble ? Illustrate this. What senses are most 
 acute in birds? What is said of the eye and its appendages ? What birds 
 are most remarkable for their length of sight? What for quickness? 
 What is said of their senses? What of their plumage? How are their 
 
280 BAPTOKES. 
 
 young produced ? What is eaid of their nests f Describe the different 
 stages of the incubated egg. What is said of the migration of birds? 
 What does the term moMJIWnjr mean ? How often does it occur? Are birds 
 long lived? What facts show it? What is said of their fossil remains? 
 Upon what is the classification of birds based ? What is the estimated num- 
 ber of species? What are the Grand Divisions of birds? In how many 
 orders are they respectively included ? Name them, 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 LAND-BIRDS. (First Division.) FIVE ORDERS. 
 
 1, Order. — RAPTORES, (Lat. rapio, to seize.) Birds or 
 
 Prey, or Rayeners. 
 
 This order is sometimes named Accipitres, (Lat.Hawks^) and 
 divided into two sub-orders: 1. Accipitres diurni, (Lat. Hawks 
 of the Day,) 2. Accipitres nocturni, (Hawks of the jNight.) 
 
 The Birds of Prey are among the largest and the, most mus. 
 cular and powerful of all the feathered tribes. They are easily 
 known by their strong hooked beak, and large acute talons or 
 claws. (Plate IX. fig. 20.) By the claws the first blow is given 
 to the prey, which, when grasped by the feet, is torn open by the 
 bill. For aid jn this operation, the typic£ll Raptores, (the Fal- 
 cons proper,) have a strong and sharp tooth-like projection from 
 one or both of the mandibles ; (Plate IX. fig. 3 ;) but in thos&of 
 this order that feed upon carrion or small animals, this projection 
 is nearly or entirely deficient. The base of the beak is covered 
 with a naked skin called the cere, in which the nostrils are 
 pierced ; the stomach consists of a membranous sac, without a 
 muscular gizzard. 
 
 The flight of these birds is lofty, vigorous and long-sustained. 
 Their increase is slow, and they are comparatively few in num- 
 ber. They annually produce not more than two or three eggs, 
 generally pure white. The females of the order, contrary to the 
 general rule in birds, are one-third larger than the males. The 
 Birds of Prey are found in all parts of the world. They include 
 three distinctly marked families, viz, : I. FalconidcB,the Falcons; 
 
 2. Vulturini^ee, the Vultures ; 3, Strigida, the Owls. 
 
 First Family, — The Falcons. 
 Fatconida, (Lat, falco, a falcon.) 
 This family is arranged by Swainson into five sub-families, 
 viz.; (1) .dg'MiZJjKS, Eagles; (.2) il/i&W(S, Kites ; {Z) BuUordm, 
 Buzzards; (4) FaZconma, Falcons; (5) jlccipj/nndB, Hawks. 
 
KAPTORES. 281 
 
 The Falcons, as a family, exhibit, in their structure and habits, 
 the highest development of the destructive faculty. In these the 
 head is wholly 'covered with feathers, except the cere at the base 
 of the beak ; and the leading genera have, in the beak, the sharp 
 projecting tooth referred to above. (See Plate IX. fig. 3.) The 
 eyebrows usually overhang the eye, giving a stern expression 
 to the countenance. The points of the strong and highly curved 
 talons are kept from injury by a mechanism for raising them 
 from the surface on which the bird rests ; a process analogous 
 to the sheathing of the claws in the Cat Family of the Mam> 
 malia. 
 
 The falcons are widely diffused ; some species have been re- 
 claimed and trained for the pursuit of game. 
 
 KoTE.^It would be interesting and might l?e instruotiTe to give minutely 
 the characteristics and habits of all the genera and species included in this 
 and in the other orders and families of the Birds; but from the restricted 
 limits of the present volume, and the great number of species, (6000,) in 
 the feathered tribe, our notices, when given, will necessarily be 6rief, while 
 very many species must be passed by altogether. 
 
 1st Sub-Family. AquiUme. (Lat. aquiia, an eagle.) 
 
 The first place is given to the Eagle, (in treating of the Fal- 
 con tribe,) not because it presents most distinctly the family traits, 
 but on account of its great size and strength, the grandeur of its 
 aspect, and the dignity of its movements. This bird was honored 
 by being in the Holy of Holies of the ancient .Jewish temple, 
 and every tyro in classical study knows that the old Romans re- 
 garded it as the " Bird of Jove." 
 
 Eagles are birds of high and powerful, but not of rapid flight. 
 Usually they prefer to strike their prey upon the ground. They 
 breed in solitude on the inaccessible crags of lofty mountains. 
 In these birds, the notch or tooth of the upper mandible is almost 
 obliterated ; the claws are remarkably strong and curved ; the 
 under surface is grooved ; the hind and outer claws are the 
 longest. (See Plate IX. figs 2. of Beaks, and 20 of Feet.) 
 
 The Golden Eagle, Aquild chrysaetus, (Gr. chrusaeios, golden 
 eagle,) is a truly magnificent bird, about three feet in length, 
 having plumage of a deep and rich umber brown, glossed on the 
 back and wings with purple reflections ; the feathers of the head 
 and neck are of an orange-brown hue, and when under the rays 
 of the sun, have an almost golden appearance ; the tail is striped 
 with gray and obscure brown, but in the young bird is, in the 
 under part, white. (This variation in the plumage of the young 
 bird has ledsome to describe it as a distinct spSoieSj by the name 
 of the Rin^-tailed Eagle.) 
 
282 EAPTORES. 
 
 , The longevity of the Golden Eagle is almost proverbial. One 
 
 .that died in Vienna, (Austria,) is said to have lived in confine. 
 
 ment one hundred and four years. This species is found 
 
 throughout the middle and north of Europe, and in North Amer- 
 
 ica. e 
 
 The Bald or White- Headed Eagle, HoZiaetos, (Gr. ftaZ«, the 
 sea ; aelos. an eagle ;) leucocephalus, (Gr. white-headed,) is, ; 
 when full grown, three feet long, and more than seven feet across 
 at the expanse of wings. The general color of the upper parts 
 is a deep, dark brown; the head, chief part of the neck, and the 
 lower parts are white. The wing is admirably adapted for the 
 support of so large a bird, measuring two feet in breadth on the 
 greater quills, and sixteen inches on the smaller. 
 
 The Elald Eagle is an occasional visitant to the Northern Hem- 
 isphere of the old world ; on this continent it is common, breed- 
 ing, according to Audubon, as far south as Virginia, though its 
 nests are most frequent in the fur countries. 
 
 The ardor and energy of this bird might awaken deep interest 
 were they not associated with so much of robbery and wanton 
 exercise of power ; for it habitually spoils the Osprey or Fish- 
 Hawk, (Plate X. fig. 3, a,) of his watery prey, and will even, in 
 "hard times," steal from the vultures the carrion on which they 
 are feeding. The falls of Niagara are one of its favorite haunts 
 on account of the fish caught there, and the attraction presented 
 by the numerous remains of squirrels, deer and other animals 
 which perish in attempting to cross the river above the cataract 
 The nest of the Bald Eagle is usually placed on a very tall tree 
 that is destitute of branches to a considerable height ; it is never 
 seen on rocks. Dr. Franklin thus speaks of this eagle, the em- 
 blem of our national union : 
 
 "For my part, 1 wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosep as 
 the representative of our country. He is a bird of a bad moral 
 character; he does not get his living honestly. You may have 
 seen him perched upon some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish 
 for himself, he watches for the labors of the fishing-hawk ; and 
 when that diligent bird has at length taken a fish, and is bearing 
 it to its nest for the support of his mate and young ones, the 
 Bald Eagle pursues him, and takes it fi'om him. With all this 
 injustice he is never in good case, but like those among men who 
 live by sharping and robbing, he is generally poor, and very oft- 
 en lousy. Besides, he is a rank coward ; the little King-bird, 
 not bigger than a sparrow, attacks him boldly and drives him 
 out of the district. He is therefore by no means a proper emblem 
 for the brave and honest.Cincinnati of America, who have driven 
 
KAPTORES. 283 
 
 out all the King-Birds from our country, though exactly fitted 
 for that order of knights which the French call Chevaliers 
 d' Industrie." 
 
 Washington Sea-Eagle, H. WasMngtonii, is a new species 
 first observed by Audubon in 1814, who named this " magnificent 
 bird," the largest of the eagles, after Washington, the " father of 
 his country." 
 
 The Harpy Eagle, Harpuia, (Gr. harpida, from harpazo, to 
 seize,) destructor, (Lat. destroyer,) is one of the " Short- Winged " 
 Eagles found in New Mexico, New Granada, and Guiana. In 
 size and powers of b^dy it equals the Golden Eagle: (See Chart.) 
 The beak above is convex ; the upper mandible is slightly notched, 
 somewhat like the True Falcons ; the tarsi are lengthened, very 
 strong and feathered at the base. When full grown, this bird's 
 head has a thick downy plumage, of a light slaty-gray color. 
 On the back part of the head, there is a crest of dull black 
 feathers, which ordinarily is slightly raised above the level of 
 the feathers on the back of the neck, but on any sudden excite- 
 ment is elevated at right angles to them ; the back and wings 
 are black ; the under surface is pure white ; the tail has four 
 transverse black bands, alternated with whitish, or ash-colored 
 spaces. (See fig. on Chart.) In the nakedness of its legs, it 
 approaches the Sea-Eagles. 
 
 The Harpy is a solitary bird, frequenj;ing the thickest forests, 
 where it feeds upon the sloths; it also preys upon fawns and 
 young quadrupeds. One of these birds, taken near the mouth 
 of the river Amazon, while on its passage to England, is said to 
 have destroyed and ea^n a King of the Vultures. After its ar- 
 rival; a cat was put into its cage, and the eagle, with one blow 
 of its immense foot, broke its back, / 
 
 The Brazilian Caracara Eagle, Polylorus or Aquila Bra- 
 ziliensis, differs from the Harpy Eagle in having more slender 
 and lengthened tarsi, and in the comparative weakness of its 
 toes. It is of the size of the common Kite, and has a tail nine 
 inches long. It is all over covered with dusky and blackish 
 feathers ; h^nce is called by some morphnus, (Gr. morphnos, ob- 
 scure, or dark.) For its food it seems content with any animal 
 substance ; it is by no means shy, but is seldom attacked, as it 
 rarely molests domestic poultry. 
 
 The Fish Hawk, or Bald Buzzard, PanMon, (Gr. proper 
 name;) halielus, has very long and curved talons, the outermost 
 versatile, or capable of being revolved. These are well adapted 
 for holding this bird's slippery fishy food. As already said, 
 it has, in the Bald Eagle, a persecutor that ofcen snatches from it 
 its hard-earned prey. (Plate X, fig. 3, b.) The plumage of the 
 
284 EAFTOBES. 
 
 Fish-Hawk is much like that of water fowl, white below, with a 
 few brown streaks or speckles on the throat. This bird is spread 
 over Europe and part of Asia ; it is found in North America from 
 Labrador to Florida. 
 
 The Harrier, Circus, (Gr. kirkos, a circle,) has the sides of 
 the head furnished with a circle of feathers much like the disk 
 of the Owl's head. 
 
 The Common Harrikr, C. cyaneus, (Gr. kuaneos, dark blue,) 
 ranges from Labrador to Texas, and sometimes is seen in the 
 Western prairies in flocks of thirty or even forty in number. 
 The notes of this bird, while on the wing, " sound like the sylla- 
 bles, pee, pee, PEE, the first slightly pronounced, the last louder, 
 much prolonged, and ending plaintively." The Common Harrier 
 feeds on insects, small lizards, frogs, &c., but occasionally will 
 attack paTtridges and plovers, g 
 
 Second Sub-Family. Kites. 
 MilmruB. (Lat. milvus, a kite.) 
 
 The length of the wings and the forked tail are the characters 
 which most separate the Kites from the rest of the Birds of Prey. 
 
 The Common Kite, or Glede, M. ictinus, (Gr. iktinos, a kite,) 
 oril£ regalis, (Lat. royal,) is found, in various parts of Europe.^ 
 According to Charles Lucien Buonaparte, it is very common near 
 Rome, (Italy,) especially about herds of cattle. Formerly, more 
 numerous than now, it was a great scourge to the poultry yard. 
 In falconry, the Glede was very docile, being used both as pur- 
 suer and pursued. 
 
 The Swallow- Tailed Hawk, or Fork- Tail, Nauclerus, (Gr. 
 naukleros, a ship master,)_/Krca*t««, (Lat. forked,) differs from the 
 true kite, (milvus,) in having a more largely forked tail. The 
 Fork-tail, in steering its course through the air, reminds one ofthe 
 helmsman who is guiding some noble bark amidst the waves. Its 
 flight is graceful and long protracted. It has been seen as far north 
 as Pennsylvania; in.Mississippi and Louisianaitis abundant. The 
 Swallow-tailed Hawks always feed upon the wing. In calm and 
 warm weather they are seen soaring very high, and pursuing the 
 large insects called " Musquito Hawks." The upper plumage is 
 black with reflections of purple ; the head and under parts white. 
 
 The genus Elanus has several species, among which are E. 
 melanopterus, (Gr. black-winged,) the Black- Wingf.d Swallow- 
 Hawk, of Africa ; E. dispar, (Lat. dissimilar,) the Black-Shoul- 
 dered Mawk, a beautiful bii-d found from Texas to South Caro- 
 lina. 
 
RAPTORES. 385 
 
 The genus Ictinia, (Gr. iktin, a kite,) is characterized by its 
 strong and short bill, the upper mandible of which is "somewhat 
 angularly festooned," and the lower distinctly notched. 
 
 The Mississippi Kite, I. plumbeus, (Lat. leaden or dull,) is 
 by some naturalists ranked among the Buzzards. Twenty or 
 more of these birds are sometimes seen together, sweeping around 
 some tree, and catching the locusts which are iiiumerous earfy in 
 the season. The back and wings of this bird are of a slate blue ; 
 the head and under parts whitish, spotted with brown. This 
 Kite is said to fly to a great height, where it remains for a while 
 poised ; it cleaves the air rapidly, in order to seize the insects 
 which are its prey, added to reptiles and birds. 
 
 Third Sub-Family. The Buzzards. 
 ButeonincB. (Lat. buteo, a buzzard.) Buteo, sub-genus of Faico, ' 
 
 The Buzzards are, as a group, distinguished by their short 
 beaks, expanded wings, and squared tails. They are com- 
 mon in most of the wooded districts of Europe, and the adjacent 
 parts of Asia, and have been met with in the fur countries of 
 North America. They are indolent, sluggish birds, often remain- 
 ing perched on the same bough the greatest part of the day ; and 
 generally feed upon small quadrupeds, reptiles, and various spe- 
 cies of insects. The skins of the Buzzards are covered with 
 fine down. In Cairo, (Egypt,) and in some other places in the 
 East, the skins, after the feathers are removed, are tanned with 
 the down upon them ; as thus prepared, they aroused by wealthy 
 Turks and Persians for lining their silk robes. 
 
 The I Common Buzzard, B. vulgaris, has a general plumage 
 of chocolate brown ; the primary feathers are black with the in- 
 ner webs white, barred with brownish black ; the tail has ten 
 dusky bars on a reddish brown ground ; the under parts are yel- 
 lowish white. This bird builds its nest on high trees, though it 
 has been known to construct it upon rocks. It often seizes upon 
 the nest of a crow, which it enlarges and lines with wool and 
 other soft materials. The female lays from three to five eggs of 
 a whitish cast, spotted with pale brown, and almost without any 
 of the tinge of red which is peculiar to diurnal birds of prey. 
 The length of the Common Buzzard is about twenty-nine inches ; 
 the expanse of the wings about fifty inches. 
 
 The Red-Tailed Buzzard, B. Borealis, (Lat. northern,) pe- 
 culiar to the American Continent, is found throughout the United 
 States. This is a very wary bird, and hard to be approached by 
 any oae bearing a gun. In common with some other Falcop^ it 
 
286 EAPTOEES. 
 
 is much annoyed by parasitic fly-ticks. Unlike the eagles, pairs 
 of these birds, after rearing their young, "become as shy to eaeh 
 ■ other as if they had never met, and will " chase and rob each other 
 of their prey on all occasions." Farmers, to whom this bird is 
 known as the Hen-hawk, usually regard it with anything but com- 
 placency. 
 
 Other species of the genus Buieo found in the United States, 
 are the Red-Shouldered Buzzard, B. linealus, (L at, marked 
 with lines,) of the Western and Southern sections of the Unioii; 
 the Rough-legged Buzzard, B. lagopus, (Gr. hare-footed,') found 
 east of the Alleghanies, also in the nortli of Europe, and noted 
 as a great destroyer of meadow mice. 
 
 The Honey Buzzard, Perjiis, (Norman, perner, to take,) api. 
 vorotis, (Lat. bee-eating,) is distinguished by haying a feathered 
 band about the eyes. This bird is found in the warmer parts of 
 Europe and of Asia. Its food does not consist of honey, as its 
 specific name seems to indicate, but of bees, wasps, and their lar- 
 vae. It is a bird of passage, leaving Europe io the beginning of 
 winter. Its length is about two feet ; expanse of the wings 
 fifty-two inches. 
 
 FouETH Sub-Family. The Falcons, Proper. 
 
 FalconiruB. (Lat, falco, a falcon.) 
 
 {Falco is the typical genus of the FalconidcB, and inclullesthe 
 greater portion of this sub-family.) 
 
 The Peregrine or Sultan Falcon, F. peregrinus, (Lat. wan- 
 dering,) is one of the most remarkable members of the Falcon 
 family. It ranges over Europe, the north of Asia, America and 
 New Holland. When full grown it is a foot and a half in 
 length. We have already referred to the Falcon's strongly 
 notched beak. The beak is of a blue color, approaching to black 
 at the point ; the back and upper surface of the bird is of a 
 bluish slate color; the breast reddish white, with dark brown 
 transverse bars. On account of the large size of this bird's feet, 
 it is called the Great-fooled Hawk ; from its successful chase of 
 ducks, it is sometimes named the Duck-Hawk. The flight of the 
 Peregrine Falcon is amazingly rapid. It does not merely dash 
 at Its prey and grasp it with his claws, but strikes its victim with 
 its breast, and actually stuns it with the violenca of the blow be- 
 fore seizing it with its claws. Thence called thp Bullft Hawk 
 ,_ Peculiar interest attaches to the "Sultan" bird from its connec- 
 tion with falconry, an art of great antiquity and extensively prac- 
 ticed by English nobles from the period of the Heptarchy to the 
 
KAPTORES. 287 
 
 days of Charles II. Indeed, a person of rank in England would 
 at one period of her history scarcely be seen out of doors unless 
 he had upon his hand a hawking bird. This in old illuminations 
 and ancient seals is the criterion of nobility. At the present day 
 hawking is still practised in some Oriental countries. 
 
 So bold is the Falcon, it was generally employed to take the 
 formidable Heron. When used anciently for hawking, the fal- 
 cons were taken into the field with hoods over their eyes, and 
 with little bells on their legs; the sportsman carried a lure to 
 which the bird had been trained to fly by being fed regularly 
 upon or near it with fresh killed meat. When the falcon closed 
 with its prey, they both came to the ground together, and it was 
 the sportsman's business to reach the place of conflict as soon as 
 possible, and assist the falcon in vanquishing its prey. 
 
 This bird constructs it^.nest on ledges of rocks, laying four 
 eggs of a reddish brown color. 
 
 The Gyrfalcon, or Jerfaloon, F. gyrfalcon. The name Jer- 
 falcon is a corruption of Hierofaleon, Sacred Falcon, This bird 
 is by some regarded as the boldest and most beautiful of the tribe, 
 approaehing in size nearly to the Osprey. It is a native of Ice- 
 land. In the days of falconry, the Jerfaloon was highly esteemed, 
 and used for the larger game, such- as cranes and herons. Its 
 plumage is white with dusky.lines. 
 
 The Merlin or Stone Falcon, F. asalon, (Gr. aisalon,) is 
 the smallest of the European species, being not much larger than 
 a black-bird; in olden times it was considered as the " lady- 
 bird," and uspd for taking partridges, which it would kill by a 
 single stroke of the neck. It is not uncommon both in Europe 
 and America, and is a migratory bird. 
 
 The Kestbal, or Windhover, F. tinnunculus, (Lat. akestril, ) 
 inhabits Asia and Africa, as well as Europe.. Its length is from 
 fourteen to fifteen inches. Farmers often mistake it for the Spar- 
 row-Hawk, and take every opportunity to destroy it ; but as its 
 natural food is field-mice, they ought to look upon it as a bene- 
 ' factor, and protect, instead of remorselessly killing it. Its nest 
 is usually built in some deserted one of a crow or magpie. 
 
 Fifth Sub-Family., Hawks. 
 Aecipitrince, (Lat. accipiter, a hawk.) 
 
 The Hawks have short beaks, hooked from the. base ; and 
 short wings, reaching no farther than two-thirds of the extent 
 of the tail. The upper mandible has a. festoon, or prominence 
 in place of the notches of the true Falcons. 
 
288 RAPTORES. 
 
 Of the genera, we name Astur, (proper name,) characterized 
 by its short beak, its somewhat oval nostrils, and the scutellated 
 acrotarsia, or highest parts of the tarsi. 
 
 The Goshawk, (or Goosehawk,) A. palumbarius, (Lat. from 
 Palumies, a. wood-pigeon,) receives its name paZMmJarm^, from 
 its preying upon pigeons. These, together with pheasants, par. 
 tridges and grouse, constitute its food. Hares and rabbits, also, 
 it sometimes devours. A full grown female is about twenty- four 
 inches in length ; the male bird is one-fourth, and sometimes 
 one-third less. The upper surface of the wings and tail feathers 
 is black ; the throat and under parts nearly white, with spots and 
 bars of black. The Groshawk flies low, pursuing its prey in a 
 line after it, or in a manner which falconers call "raking." It 
 abounds in the forests of Continental Europe, and is found in the 
 temperate regions of Asia and America. It has been seen in the 
 neighborhood of Philadelphia, (Penn.) 
 
 The Goshawk was also one of the falconry-birds ;'the female 
 generally " flown " at the large-Winged bird ; the male at par. 
 tridges. 
 
 Birds of the genus accipiter have smooth and elongated tarsi. 
 
 The Sparrow-Hawk, A. fringillarius, (LaX. fringilla, a chaf- 
 finch,) is the type-bird cf this Sub-family. It is widely spread 
 throughout Europe ; found also in Japan and Southern Africa. 
 The adult male is about twelve inches, the female fifteen inches 
 long. The individuals of this species show considerable diver, 
 sity of color. 
 
 The Sparrow-Hawk is a great enemy of quadrupeds and small 
 birds, and is often very destructive to poultry. When taken 
 young, it is easily tamed, and then will " associate with quite in- 
 congruous companions." "A gentleman had a Sparrow-Hawk 
 which used to live in his dove-cote among his pigeons ; would ac- 
 company them in their flights, and be uneasy if separated from 
 its strange friends." 
 
 It builds its nests upon high trees, laying four or five eggs of 
 bluish white, marked with dark brown. 
 
 The Chanting-Hawk, Melierax, (Gr. meU, honey ; hierax, a 
 hawk,) is the only known bird of prey whose voice has any 
 sweetness, or is at all pleasant to the ear. It is a native of Af- 
 rica. This Hawk chants every morning snd evening ; sometimes 
 it continues its notes the whole night long. In size itequalpa 
 Goshawk. It lives upon reptiles^ 
 
EAFTOBES. 289 
 
 Second Family. The Vultures. 
 Vulturidae. (Lat. vultur, a vulture.) 
 
 This r^amily of the Raptorial Birds, feed on the flesh of ani- 
 mals already dead. Decomposition is not, however, a necessary 
 condition of their food, as is shown by the fact that they may fre- 
 quently be seen regaling themselves on the flesh of an animal 
 within half an hour after it has been killed. Their geographical 
 distribution is confined to warm climates, where they act as 
 scavengers to purify the earth from the putrid substances with 
 i^hich it otherwise would be. encumbered. They are generally 
 protected by the natives of the countries whieh they inhabit, on 
 account of their utility in disposing of decayed animal remains. 
 , It has been a disputed point, whether Vultures are directed to 
 their fetid food by the sight, or the smell. Audubon was in 
 favor .of the-fprmer, as the directing power; and their lofty 
 flight and telescopic eye, are extremely well adapted to assist 
 these birds in detecting any dying or dead animal ; but many 
 facts migftt be adduced, tending to show that these birds are 
 guided to their food by the action of both sight and smell. 
 
 The Vulture tribe are, on the whole, considerably larger than 
 the Falcon birds, but they are much less courageous. The 
 beak is lengthened, curved downward at the point, and not in 
 the least notched ; the talons are comparatively weak, by no 
 means corresponding with the stature of these birds, and used by 
 ' them far. less than the beak. In order that the parts of the bird 
 which come in contact with its offensive food might not become 
 soiled or matted, as feathers, of course, would be by such con- 
 tact;,, the head, and sometimes the neck, in a greater or less de- 
 gree, are naked, or else covered only with a thin down ; the legs, 
 also, , at the lowest part, are covered with scales, and not with 
 featherp, as in the Eagle, The wings are strong and large, and 
 the general plumage uncommonly thick and coarse. 
 
 The Griffon Vulture, Vultur fulvus, (Lat. tawny,) is 
 found throughout a large extent of the Eastern Continent. This 
 Vulture has its head and neck covered with close set, short and 
 white downy feathers. The general color is yellow brown; the 
 length more than four feet. 
 
 Cathartes. (Gr. Kathartes, a purifier.) The Vultures of 
 this genus have a stout beak, but not the fleshy crest which these 
 birds sometimes exhibit; and the head and neck are plumeless. 
 
 The Turkey Vulture, or Turkey Buzzard, C. Aura, (Gr. 
 aura, air,) is a species that inhabits a vast range of territory in 
 
290 RAFTOHES. 
 
 the warmer parts of this continent. In the Northern and Middle 
 States of the American Union, it is partially migratory, the 
 greater part returning to the South on the approach of cold 
 weather. When full grown, it is not far from three feet loflg ; 
 and the wings expand six and one-third feet. The Turkey Buz- 
 zards live upon all sorts of food ; "they suck the eggs and 
 devour the young of many species of birds, and even eat birds 
 of their own species when they find them dead. They are 
 daily seen in the streets of the Southern cities, along with their 
 relatives, and often roost with them on the same trees." (And.) 
 In Jamaica, this bird is protected by a fine of five pounds ster- 
 ling inflicted upon any one who destroys it within a prescribed 
 distance from the principal towns, h 
 
 The Black Vulture, or Carrion Crow, C. atratus, (Lat, 
 clothed in black,) — is smaller than the preceding ; — less elegant 
 in form, and less graceful in flight. It is a constant resident of 
 all the Southern States, and is seen, during the whole day, -in the 
 principal Southern cities, flying or walking- about the streets. 
 Those of Cbarleston resort at night to a swampy wood across the 
 Ashley river. Audubon, and "his friend John Bachman, vis- 
 ited this roosting place together," They estimated the number 
 of these vultures which they saw, at several thousands, spread 
 over an extent of two acres. 
 
 The California Vulture, C. Californiarms, is found in the 
 valleys and filains of the Western Slope of this Continent, and in 
 size bears the same proportion to the other species as a Golden 
 Eagle to a Goshawk. The length of this Vulture is fifty-five 
 inches. It builds its nest upon the loftiest trees ; the eggs are 
 two, nearly spherical, and jet Mack. 
 
 The Egyptian Vulture, Neophron percnopterus, (Gr. perknos, 
 black ; pteron, wing ;) sometimes called Pharaoh's Chicken, or 
 Henj has a pure white plumage, except the great quill-feathers, 
 which are black ; the length is a little more than two feet. 
 
 Sarcoramphus. (Gr. sarx, flesh ; rhamphos, beak.) The 
 Vultures of this genus, have a fleshy tuft growing on their beaks, 
 somewhat like the wattles, or fleshy excrescences of the Turkey; 
 they have also the Turkey's naked neck and long and oval 
 nostrils. 
 
 The Condor, S. gryphus, (Gr. grups, a griffon,) — is a bird 
 respecting whose magnitude exaggerated statements have been 
 often made. It may, indeed, be ranked among the largest birds 
 which have the power of flight ; but the greatest authentic meas- 
 urement makes its length not more than five feet, and its expanse 
 of wings not more than fourteen, i 
 
EAPTOKES. 2&1 
 
 The beak of the Condor is four inches long, and straight at the 
 base, but the upper mtodible bgcomes arched to a point, and 
 terminates in a strong, well covered" hook,— so strong as to be 
 able to pierce the body of a bullock. Around the lower part of 
 the neck in the male and female birds, there is a broad white 
 ruffof dowpy feathers, which forms the line of separation between 
 the naked skin above, and the true feathers covering the Body 
 below it ; on the head is a species of comb. (See figure of Con- 
 dor on the Chart.) 
 
 The Condor is found in the Andes from one end of South 
 America to the other ; but is most numerous in Peru and Chili, 
 and is frequently met with at an elevation of from 10,000 to 
 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. Here, amidst perpetual 
 snow,. Condors may be seen' in groups of three or four, but never in 
 larger companies, like the true Vultures. The Condor descends 
 to, the plains only when driven by the demands of appetite ; but 
 soon leaves them again for a lighter atmosphere. " The pecul- 
 iarities of structure," says Dr. Rogetj"'have probably a relation 
 to the capability we see them possess, of bearing with impunity, 
 very quick and violent changes of atmospheric pressure. The 
 Condor of the Andes is: often seen to descend rapidly, from a 
 height of above twenty thousand feet, to the edge of the sea, 
 where the air is more than twice the density of that which the 
 bird has been breathing, thus encountering, in its descent, varia- 
 tions of barometrical pressure extending from twelve to twenty- 
 nine inches." 
 
 The general color of the Condor is brownish; the feathers on 
 the back, however, are sometimes perfectly black. This bird 
 does not build any nest, but, after the manner of many sea-birds, 
 lays two white eggs, somewhat larger' than those of a Turkey, 
 on the bare lofty rock. It is very strong, and highly tenacious 
 of life. Two Condors will attack and kill the Llama, or even 
 the Puma; by their repeated buffeting and pecking, wearying it 
 so completely that it finally yields to their power. So destruc- 
 tive is the Condor, that varions methods are employed by the 
 natives in S. A. to capture it. Sometimes a .person clothed in 
 the skin of a newly killed animal, goes out, and entices the 
 Condor to attaqk him ; while companions,; who have secreted 
 themselves, rush out from their hiding places, and seize it. 
 
 The King- Vulture, S. papa, is much smaller than the Con- 
 dor, but of a brighter plumage, and among the handsomest of the 
 Vultures. When pressed with hunger, be will, in the absence 
 of his favorite carrion, feed upon snakes and lizards. He is said 
 tp be called the King Vulture, because he keeps some smaller 
 
292 RAPTORES. 
 
 Vultures under subjection, and "does not suffer them to approach 
 a dead body until he has completely satisfied his own appetite, 
 which is certainly none of the smallest." This Vulture is a 
 native of South America ; near the central portions of which it 
 is abundant, and it is occasionally seen in Florida, U: S. 
 
 Gyfaetusj - (Gr. gi^ps, a vulture ; alios, an eagle.) The 
 birds of this genus, are included by Gmelin, under the genus 
 Falco. On the Chart, these are accordingly arranged with the 
 FalconidtB, but they perhaps approach most nearly tO| the Vul- 
 tures in habits and conformation, and we have thought best to 
 place them with the Vulture Family, as is done by Prince Buona- 
 parte and Mr. Gray. They have the weaker talons of the 
 True or Griffon Vultures; the head and neck, however, are 
 feathered, like the Eagles, and they reject putrid matter unless 
 ■hard pressed by hunger. 
 
 The Lsmmer&eyer, (German, LarnVs Eagle,) or Bearded 
 Vulture, G. barbatus, (Lat. bearded,) is a celebrated bird, — not, 
 however, strictly a true Vulture, as its head and neck are feath- 
 ered, nnd it rejects putrid flesh, except when pressed with hunger. 
 
 The term bearded is applied to this bird on account of the lOiig 
 tuft of hairs with which each nostril is clothed. It destroys 
 hares, and young or sickly sheep and goats ; when emboldened 
 by hunger, it does not fear even to attack man himself. The 
 young Chamois, the Mountain Hare, and various kinds of birds 
 fall victims to its appetite. The head and neck of this Vulture, 
 are a dirty white ; tiie lower parts of the neck, breast, and belly, 
 orange red ; the back, and wing-coverts, deep gray brown. The 
 Bearded Vulture, the largest bird of Europe, is a little mote than 
 four and a half feet in length; the expansion of its wings is from 
 nine to ten feet. This Vulture inhabits the highest mountains of 
 Europe and Asia, and is also found in the lofty mountains of 
 Central Africa. 
 
 The Secretary- VuLTuiiE, or Serpent-Eater, Gypogeranus, 
 (Gr. gups, a vulture ; geranos, a bird,) has, in regard to its true 
 position, been a puzzle to naturalists. This very remarkable 
 bird has long legs like a wading bird, but, in other respects, 
 seems to rank between the Vulture and the Eagle. It feeds ' 
 exclusively upon reptiles and serpents. A pendent crest appears 
 on the back of the head, reminding the beholder of the pen stuck 
 behind the ear by writing clerks, — hence, the name " Secretary." 
 It chiefly inhabits the arid plains in the neighborhood of the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Attempts have been ma,de to introduce 
 this bird into the Antilles with a view to diminish the Yellow 
 Serpent, Trigonocephalusi, (triangular-head,) which is six or seven 
 feet long, poisonous, and in those islands, very abundant, j* 
 
bafiores. 293 
 
 Third Family. Owls. 
 StrigidcB. (Gr. ot^IS", strix, a screech-owl.) 
 
 The family of Strigida comprise the Hawks of the night, 
 [AcCipitres nocturni.) They have the head very large, with great, 
 (plated and projecting eyes, looking forwards, and capable of 
 taking iri every ray of light. The power of vision is increased 
 by the manner in which the eye is fixed in a bony socket, just like 
 the watch-makers glass. The pupil is so long that the bird is daz- 
 zled in full day, and hence in part arises the stupid appearance 
 which Owls exhibit in the sun-light. Each eye is encircled by 
 a concave disk, or circular fringe, formted of singularly diverg- 
 ing feathers, and assisting these birds to concentrate their whole 
 faculty of sight upon the object directly before them, just as we 
 use a tube in looking at a painting, or some object which we wish 
 to see more distinctly. In those Owls which are partly diurnal 
 in their habits, this circular fringe- is scarcely discernible. When 
 the feathers which form the hinder part of the disk are separated, 
 the great ear is seen, enclosed between two valves of thin skin, 
 from whose edges these feathers grow, and which are capable of 
 being widely opened, at the bird's will, so as to catch every 
 ^ound that may give notice of its prey amidst the silence and 
 darkness. The plumage is loose and downy, — a character 
 which reaches even to the wing-quills ; hence the flight of 
 the Owl is almost, or entirely noise/ess. The downy feathers 
 present various tints of dull yellow, and brown and white ; 
 often they are spotted minutely, and very delicately penciled. 
 The Owls have the strong hooked beaks and acute claws of 
 the raptorial birds, h 
 
 In some species of this family, there is a series of feathers 
 more or less lengthened, on each side of the top of the head, and 
 which can be erected at pleasure ; when raised, they have some 
 little resemblance to horns, or to the erect ears of a cat. These 
 are called Horned, or Eared Owls. (PI. IX. fig. 1.) 
 
 The geographical distribution of the Owl family is very wide, 
 species being found in Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Aus- 
 tralia. "They feed on birds and quadrupeds, and some species 
 on fish. The large-horned Owls, of Europe and America, at- 
 tack hares, partridges, grouse, and even the turkey ; but mice, 
 shrews, small birds, snakes and crabs', suffice for the inferior 
 strength of the smaller Owls. 
 
 The Owl Fj^mily may be arranged into three divisions: (I.) 
 the BARiN Owls ; (3.) the Tuftless Owls ; and (3.) the Horned 
 
294 RAPTOHES. 
 
 Owls. The species are exceedingly numerous, and our notices 
 of them must be few and general. 
 
 (1.) Bakn Owls. 
 
 Strix. (Gr. from strizo, to screech.) This genus includes the . 
 Barn, or typical group of Owls,, having great eaVs, coveredwith 
 a large operculum, .or ear-flap. The beak is lengthened,, and 
 covered only towards the point ; the tarsi are rather long and 
 feathered, and the toes clothed with hair. The Barn Owls are 
 eminently nocturnal ; they are without egrets, or tufts of feather? 
 upon the head ; their colors are generally, white and pale buff, 
 marked and speckled with bluish gray; t^heir voices loud and 
 discordant. 
 
 The Barn, or Screech Owl, S. jlammea, (Lat. flaniing,) is 
 common in the temperate and warmer regions of Europe. It 
 hides during the day "in deep recesses, among ivy-clad ruins, in 
 antique church towers, in the hollows of old trees, in barn;lofts,, 
 and- in similar places of seclusion." At night it sallies forth forr 
 prey, which consists of mice, tats, moles, and shrews. The 
 length of this Owl is about thirteen inches. 
 
 The American Barn Owl, S. Americana, is closely allied to 
 the European Barn Owl ; the color is of a darker brown, with 
 the ruff red, and the length from seventeen to eighteen incljes. * 
 It is much more abundant in the Southern section of the Union 
 than in the other parts, and is also found quite plentifully in 
 Cuba. 
 
 (2.) TuFTLESs Owls. 
 
 These differ from the rest of the family, (excepting the Barn 
 Owl.) in the extraordinary extension of the fringes of'feathers 
 about the eye ; and also differ among each other in their adapta- 
 tion to diurnal or nocturnal habits. Like the Barn Owls, they 
 are widely diffused over the globe. 
 
 Syrnium. (Gr. owl, or inauspicious bird.) The Hootins 
 Owls. The Owls of this genus hoot, and are of very large size. 
 The legs are rather short, with the toes feWhered. The plumage 
 is very soft and downy ; the facial disks are complete ; the 
 wings, very large and much rounded. 
 
 The' Great Cinereous Owl, S. cinereum, (Lat. ash-colored,) 
 is very large, the female being about two and a half feet long. 
 They range from the North-East coast of the United States to 
 the Columbia river. The comparatively small size of their eyes 
 seems to indicate that they hunt by day, as Au(Jubon suggests ; 
 
EAFXOEES. 295 
 
 the unusually small feet and claws also indicate that they do 
 ^t prey on large animals. They are not found in any great 
 numbers. 
 
 Surnia. (Gr. owls.) This is a genus of Owls having small 
 heads, feathered claws, and wedged tails. Unlike the Barn Owl, 
 they seek their food during the day. Among the species is the 
 
 Burrowing Owl, S. cunicularia. (Lat. from euniculits, a 
 rabbit,) found on the plains near Columbia river, and through- 
 out the whole extent of the Rocky Mountains. It resides in the 
 forsaken burrows of the Badgers and Marmots, (see Prairie Dogs 
 in our account of the Rodentia;) it does not, however, appear to 
 live on terms of intimacy with those animals. The burrow 
 selected by this bird, is usually found at the foot of the worm-wood 
 bush, (artemisia absinthium,) upon the summit of which, this Owl 
 often perches. The plumage, as Mr. Townsend states,-swarms 
 with fleas, probably left in their burrbws h.y the Marmots and 
 Badger. - »' I know," says Mr. T., " of no other bird infested by 
 that kind of vermin." The eggs of this Owl are about as large 
 as those of the common House-Pigeon. The length of the male 
 is ten inches, of the female, eleven inches. 
 
 The Geeat Snowy Owl, S. nyctea,{Gr. from nux,) is nearly 
 as large as the Eagle Owl, and on account of its snowy white- 
 ness, one of the most beautiful of the tribe. It is. found in the 
 high mountain latitudes of both continents. 
 
 (3.) tioENED Owls. — 
 
 These are so called, from having the head furnished with a 
 pair of tufts of feathers longer than the rest, which are placed 
 above the ears. The tufts are termed egrets, and in many spe- 
 cies, can be raised or lowered at will. Of this division, is the 
 genus Bubo, (Lat. Horned Owl,) in which the ear-opening is 
 small. 
 
 The Great Horned Owl, Eagle Owl, B. rmxirmns, (Lat. 
 greatest,) is one of the largest of the nocturnal birds, being not 
 much inferior in size to the Golden Eagle. It is very destruc- 
 tive to grouse, hares, and even fawns. Formerly, this bird was 
 sometimes used by falconers to entrap the Kite. It Inhabits the 
 great forests of Europe ; but is seldom seen in England. Pliny 
 refers to it as an ill-omened bird, on account of whose visits 
 ancient Rome twice underwent lustration. 
 
 The Virginia Horned Owl, B. Virginianus, is a native of 
 North America, being found in almost every part of the United 
 States, and in the fur countries where the timber is of large size. 
 Audubon represents it to be quite equal to the Eagle Owl in 
 
396 KAPTOKES. 
 
 size. " It sails," says Wilson, " with apparent ease, in large cir: 
 cles, and rises and descends witiiout the least difficulty, by 
 merely inclining the wings or its tail as it passes through the 
 air," Even when "not more than fifty yards distant, it utters 
 its mournful hoo, hoo, hoo-e, in so peculiar an under tone, that 
 to those not acquainted with the bird, it might seem they were 
 produced by an Owl more than a mile distant." This Owl' is 
 very powerful and daring, attacking half-grown Turkeys with 
 success, and making large havoc among other fowls. 
 
 The Little Screech Owl, B. Asia, sometimes called the 
 Mottled Owl, and when young, the Red Ovstl of Wilson,Ms 
 only about ten inches long; and usually found about farm- 
 houses, orchards, and gardens, Audubon "carried one of the 
 young birds in his coat-pocket from Philadelphia to New York, 
 traveling alternately by water and by land. It remained gener. 
 ally quiet, fed from, the hand, and never attempted to escape." 
 The Little Screech Owl is found in the Eastern States, and in 
 Virginia and Maryland. 
 
 Otus. (Gr. ous, an ear.) In this genus, the conch of the ear 
 is of enormous size. 
 
 The Eared Owl is common to the Eastern and Western 
 Continents ; in Pennsylvania, it is much more numerous than 
 the White or Barn Owl, (Wilson.) Of this genus, there are two 
 species, — the O. vulgaris, the Long-Eared Owl, and O. brachyo- 
 tus, (Gr. hrachus, short,) the Short-Eared Owl. In the latter, 
 the head tufts are inconspicuous. The size excepted, these 
 Owls resemble the Great Horned Owl. 
 
 What is the first order of Land Birds ? What other name is sometimes 
 giren to it ? Into what sub-orders is it divided ? Give the general cliarac- 
 ters of the Birds of Prey. What is the'comparative size of the females of 
 this order ? How many families do they include ? Into what Sub-Fami- 
 lies does Swainson divide the Falcons ? What is said of the Falcons as a 
 family ? Why in treating of the Falcon Tribe is the first place given to the 
 Eagle ? Have Eagles a distinct notch or tooth in the upper mandible? 
 What is said of the Golden Eagle? Why is it called Golden ? Is the King? 
 tailed Eagle a distinct species ? What fact is given showing the longevity 
 of the Golden E. ? What is said of the size, plumage, &c. of the Bald or 
 White-Headed E. ? What is one of its favorite haunts ? What does Dr. 
 Franlilin say of it? When was the Washington Sea E. first observed? 
 What is said of the Harpy Eagle ? What of the Caraoara Eagle ? What is 
 said of the Fish-Hawk or Bald-Buzzard ? What of the Harrier ? 
 
 What characters separate the Kites or Second Family from the other 
 Birds of Prey ? What is said of the Common Kite or Glede f What of 
 the Swallow or Forked-tailed Hawk? What of the genus tElanwa and its 
 
RAPTORES. 297 
 
 species ? What of the genus Ictinea ? What species is mentioned, and 
 ■what is said of it ? 
 
 Give some account of the Third Sub-Family. What is said of the Com- 
 mon Buzzard? What of the Ked-tailed B.? What other specifes of the 
 genus JButeo is mentioned ? What is said of the Honey Buzzard ? 
 
 What is the Fourth Sub-Family? Which is the typical genus of the 
 Falconid^? What is said of the plumage and flight of the Peregrine 
 Falcon ? What gives peculiar interest to this bird ? What is meant by 
 Falconry? State some particulars respecting it ? What is said of the Jer- 
 Falcon? What of the Merlin and Kestrel? 
 
 What is the Fifth Sub-Family ? Mention their characters. Give an 
 account of the Gos-hawk ? Which is the type bird of this Sub-Family ? 
 What is said of it ? Where is the Chanting Hawk found ? Why is it so 
 named ? 
 
 Which is the Second Family of the Birds of Prey? On what do they 
 feed ? To what climates are they confined ? How are they treated by the 
 inhabitants ? What has been a disputed point ? How do they compare 
 with the Falcons ? What characteristics are given ? What is said of the 
 Griifon Vulture ? What of the Turkey V. or Buzzard? What of the 
 Black V. or Carrion Crow? What of the Egyptian V.? To what genus 
 does the Condor belong ? Give particulars respecting it. What is said of 
 the King V. ? To what genus does the Lammergeyer or Bearded V. be- 
 long ? What is said of it ? What of the Secretary Vulture or Serpent 
 teater? 
 
 Which is the Third and last Familt of the Birds of Prey ? Give the 
 characteristics and habits of the Owl Family. What is their Geographical 
 distribution? Into what divisions are they arranged? What species of 
 the Barn Owls are mentioned ? What is said of them ? How do the Tuft- 
 less 0. differ from the Barn 0. ? What is said of the Great Cinerous 0. ? 
 What of the Burrowing Owl? What of the Great Snowy 0.? Why are 
 the Horned Owls so. called? What is said of the Great Horned 0. ? What 
 of the Virginia 0. ? What of the Little Screech 0. ? What Eared Owls are 
 mentioned of the genus Otus ? Trace thus every bird of this Family men- 
 tioned on the Chart. The Harpy Eagle is of the species destructor, genus 
 Harpyia, sub-family Aq0ilin^, family Falconid^, order Raptores, sub- 
 claiss, Land Birds, class Birds, division of Wasm-Blooi^ed Animals, sub- 
 kingdom, Vebiubbaies. Give the derivation of these several terms. 
 
298 INSESSORES. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 . Order II.— INSESSORES, OR PASSERES. Perching 
 
 Birds. 
 
 These birds are of smaller size than those of the other orders. 
 Naturalists regard them as exhibiting, in the highest degree, those 
 properties by which, as a class, birds are distinguished. 
 
 So many are the variations of form and structure which are 
 found in this group, (about equaling in number that of all the 
 other orders taken together,) that but few positive characters can 
 be assigned, which are common alike to the whole group and to a 
 particular division. Its distinctions are mostly negative ; for the 
 group includes neither swimmers, waders, nor climbers, neither 
 rapacious nor gallinaceous birds ; and yet, by comparing the va. 
 rious tribes which it includes, a general resemblance of struc- 
 ture becomes apparent. 
 
 These birds have the power of grasping the branches and twigs of 
 trees with their feet, and are accustomed to rest upon them ; hence 
 they are called Perchers ; (Plate X. fig. 4.) the hind toe is al- 
 ways present and placed on the same level or plane as those in front ; 
 and the claws are incapable of being raised as in the Birds of 
 Prey. The larger portion of the species usually dwell in woods 
 and thickets. All have the faculty of flight in full perfection, 
 and in the Swifts and Humming Birds it may be regarded as at 
 its highest development. The beak in the Perchers differs 
 greatly in form, but its common shape is that of a cone, more or 
 less lengthened. In some of the genera a notch appears near 
 the tip of the upper mandible, indicating some affinity for the 
 habits of the Falcon tribe ; but this gradually disappears in the . 
 others. 
 
 The food of these birds is various in its kinds ; but by far the 
 larger part feed either upon insects or the seeds of vegeta- 
 bles, which they almost always procure by the beak alone. 
 
 This order has peculiar interest as including the sweet song- 
 sters whose soothing influence is so widely felt and acknowledged. 
 
 The larynx, or organ of voice, is in these birds always of 
 complex structure, so that there are few of them that do not, du- 
 ring the pairing season, either sing or utter some peculiar note or 
 chatter analogous to song. 
 
 The instinct of birds in building their nests, is in those of this 
 order most strikingly displayed. Admirable indeed are the com- 
 pact felted nests of the Humming-bird, of the Goldfinch or Yel- 
 
PI.Z. 
 
 »trJ 
 
EXPLANATIOiS^ OP PLATK X. 
 
 Fig. 1. The Dunlin or Fueke, (Tringa variabilis,) showing the principal 
 parts of the plumage, particularly those most conducive to flight; a, 
 the front; b, the throat; c, the occiput; d, the cheek; e, auri- 
 cle, or auditory conch; f, breast; g, bade; h, scapularies; i, i. 
 lesser coterts; li, k. winglet or spurious wing; 1, 1. greater coverts; 
 m, m. the primaries or greater quill feathers of wing, which are suc- 
 ceeded by n, n. the secondaries, and these by u, o. the tertials; 
 p, the upper tail coverts; q, the under tail coverts; r, the tail 
 feathers, (rectrices.) 
 
 Fig. 2. The wing of common Buzzard, (Buteo vulgaris,) stripped of all its 
 feathers excepting those which give it power and expansibility, and 
 whiQh are those arising from the hand and Ulna, termed quill feathers. 
 They form two sets ; the first set, (m, ) consists of those arising from 
 the hand, (metacarpus and phalanges, ) constituting the most important 
 of the series, being mainly instrumental, by their' length and shape, 
 their stiffness or flexibility, in determining the character or the power 
 of flight. They are termed the pinions or primary quill-feathers, and 
 are ten in number, but they differ in fornd, as in relative length. The 
 second set arises exclusively from the ulna, and are termed the second- 
 aries or secondary quill-feathers, (n. ) They are usually shorter, broader, 
 and less rigid than the former. Their number varies. From the small 
 bone which represents the thumb, arise certain stiff feathers, lying 
 close upon the quills of the primaries, and constituting the spurious 
 wing or winglet, (k.) Besides these, there is a group of feathers termed 
 tertiaries, arising from the humeral joint of the fore-arm, and which in 
 many birds, as the curlews, plovers, lapwing^, &c., are very long, form- 
 ing a sort of pointed appendage, very apparent dilfing flight; in most 
 birds, however, they are: very short, or not to be discriminated from 
 the rest of the greater coverts, of which, in fact, they, are a continua-d 
 tion ; hence they cannot be strictly reckoned among the quill-feathers. 
 The same observation applies to the feathers (o,*) attached to the upper 
 part of the humerus and termed scapularies; these Ue along the sides 
 of the back, and in many birds are of great length. 
 LAND BXKDS. 
 Oedee 1st. BiEDS OP Peet, Kaptoees oe Accipitees. 
 
 Fig. 8. a. White-headed, Sea, or Bald Eagle, seizing the fish j-ust obtained 
 by b, the Fish-hawk or common Osprey. 
 
 Oeoee 2nd. Peeching Bieds, Insessobes oe Passees. 
 Fig. 4. a, Long-eared Podargus; b. Ruby-throated Humming-bird; c, Blue- 
 jay; d, Green Tody; e. Black-cap Titmouse ; f, Wagtail. 
 
 OfiDf E Srd. Climbebs, Scansobes. 
 Fig. 5. a, Cockatoo; b, Green Woodpeckers. 
 
 ObDEB 4th. SCEATCHEBS, BaSOBES. 
 
 Fig. 6. a, Buffed Grouse; b, CaUfornia Partridge or QuaU. 
 
 ObDEB 5th. BXTNNEES OE TbaYELEBS, CtTESOEKS. 
 
 Fig. 1. Cassowary or Asiatic Ostrich. 
 
 WATER BIRDS. 
 Obdeb 6th. Wadebs, Stilts, oe Shoee Bibds, Geallatores. 
 Fig. 8. a, Crowned Crane ; b, Virginia Rail ; c, Little Sand-piper. 
 
 Obdeb Vth. Swimhebs, Natatobes oe Palmipedes. 
 Fig. 9. a, Northern Diver; b, rntagoiii.'vn Peni^nin. 
 
302 
 
 mSESSOSES. 
 
 low-bird, and of the Bottle-tit or Penduline Tit-mouse, and the 
 woven, purse-like nests of the Oriole and-the Starlings. (Plate 
 XI.) 
 
 The Perchers always live in pairs ; in general, the female is 
 smaller and less brilliant in her plumage than the ntale. The 
 young leave the egg in a blind and naked state, and for a while 
 are entirely dependent upon parental care for thejr subsistence. 
 
 For convenience, this large order has been arranged into fsija 
 tribes or sub-divisions, founded oh tKe varying form of the beak. 
 Viz.: (1) Fmiros/res", (Split-bills;) {2y Bentirostres, (Topthei. 
 bills;) (3) Coniroi/res, (Cone-shap6d bills ;), and (4) Temim. 
 tres, (Slender-bills.) 
 
 FiKST Division of the Pekchers. Split-billed Birds 
 Pissirostres, (hat. Jissura, a slit ; rostrum a beak.) 
 
 This division of the Insessores is a comparatively small one, 
 but is readily distinguished from all the others by the beak. 
 This is short but broad, and more or less flattened horizontally, 
 often hooked at the tip, and very deeply cleft, so that the open, 
 ing of the mouth, (or gape,) is, extremely wide. (Plate IX. fig. 
 14.) Most of the species feed upon insects, which they take 
 when on the wing, receiving them in full flight into their open 
 mouths. One genus, Alcedo, the King-Fisher, subsistson fishes. 
 The Pissirostres, like the birds of prey, may be divided into di- 
 urnal and nocturnal. Their principal home h in tropical coun- 
 tries. Some species are found in the temperate zone, 'but rather 
 as migratory visitors than as permanent residents, and, on the ap- 
 proach of winter, they depart to more congenial climes. Mafljr 
 of the species are celebrated for the brilliant hues which adorn 
 their plumage. 
 
 The Split-bills are divided into six families, viz. : (1) Capri- 
 mul^idfB, (Night-jars ;) (2) Hirundinida, (Swallows ;) (3) Mr- 
 opj(te, (Bee-eaters;) (i) Trogonidce, [Trogons ;) (5) Todidce, 
 (Todies ;) (6) Akedinidce, (King- fishers.) 
 
 First Family. The Night-jars. 
 Caprimiilgidtz, (Lat. Caprimulgus, Goat-Sucker.) 
 
 These birds have the beak exceedingly small, but the gape 
 enormous ; (Plate IX. fig. 14 ;) its sides are, for the moist part 
 fringed with long stiiT bristles called vibrissa ; and the interior 
 of the mouth is moistened with a glutinous secretion, both which 
 aid them to secure their insect prey. The winns are long and 
 
INSESSOKES. 303 
 
 formed, for powerful flight ; the feet very small and feathered to 
 the toes, which are connected at the hase by a membrane. The 
 claw of the middle toe, in most of the genera, is extended on 
 one side, the edge being cut into regularly formed teeth, like those 
 of a comb, and used, as is thought, for cleaning their plumage. 
 
 The Night-jars are nocturnal or crepusculslr in their habits, 
 chasing their insect food by night, or at dusk, when the beetles and 
 large ipoths are on the wing, for the capture of which the formation 
 of the ijpouth, is admirably fitted* 
 
 In their nocturnal movements, their feathered feet, their large 
 ears and, ?yes, and in other additional respects, an analogy is dis- 
 coverable between these birds and the Owls, and one which is 
 repognized in the common names, Fern Owl, Churn Owl, &c., 
 applied to some of the species- Indeed, the Night-jars are evi- 
 dently, to be regarded as a connecting link between the Perohers 
 and Birds of Prey. 
 
 The species of these birds are widely spread. Their colors 
 are usually various shades of black, brown, gray and white, 
 beautifully intermingled with minute waves, lines and spots. 
 
 Instead of being noxious and mischievous, they are the most 
 harmless and u^ful of birds, destroying the scavenger beetles 
 apd rnoths, those great enemies of vegetation. 
 
 The term Goat Suckers, also applied to these birds as far 
 back as the days of Aristotle, is derived from a silly notion that 
 they sfjck goats, an idea about as credible as the one some- 
 times entertained that hedgehogs suck cows, or cats the breath 
 of children. The voices of the Night-jars, like those of the 
 Owls, are often harsh and strange ; and- sometimes they show a 
 peculiar vibratory or quivering character. Some of these noc 
 turnal birds, (Podargus, Gr. ■pons, a foot; argos, inactive,) have 
 a beak nearly as strong as an Owl's ; others of them, (Psalurus, 
 Gr. psalis, scissors ; oura, tail,) have forked tails of excessive 
 length ; and one species, (C. diwrnis, Lat. diurnal,) is "seen in 
 cloudy days in troops, of fifteen or twenty, skimming over the 
 surface of ponds precisely in the manner of swallows." 
 
 The Common Goat-Sucker of Europe, C. Ewopmus, (see 
 fig. on Chart.) 
 
 This is a beautiful Night-jar, in its, migrations reaching Eng- 
 land about the middle of May, and departing near the end of 
 Septembsr. Its length is about ten inches. It builds no nest, 
 but lays two mottled eggs on the ground. Frequently this bird 
 sits on a branch or a fenqe-rail, and with the head as low as the 
 feet, utters, with swpllen, quivering, throat, its singular jarring^ 
 
304 INSESSORES. 
 
 note, for a long space at a time, and without seeming to draw 
 breath. 
 
 The Chuck-will's-widow, C. CaroUnensis, is an interesting 
 American Night-jar, but rarely found beyond Mississippi or the 
 Carolinas on the sea-board. It is the southern species of the 
 United States. In sound and articulation, it seems to express 
 the words of its name, putting the chief emphasis upon the last 
 word. Its head and back, are of a dark brown color, mottled 
 with red, and streaked side wise with black ; the lowfer parts are 
 of a dull reddish yellow. The length of the riiale is twelve and 
 three-fourths inches ; of the female thirteen and one- fourth 
 inches. The notes of' this bird are seldom heard ih cloudy 
 weather, and never when it rains. It forms no nest ; its eggs 
 are oval, of a dull olive speckled with brown, and are placed i(i 
 a little space carelessly scratched amongst the dead leaves. If 
 the eggs are touched, both parents remove them to some other 
 place of deposit in the woods, where they cannot easily be again 
 discovered. 
 
 The Whip-poor-will, C. vociferus, (Lat. vox, voice ; fetai to 
 bear or give forth,) is seen at the approach of spring in most 
 parts of the Western and Southern States, and in sma:ll tracts, 
 thinly covered with timber, in the Middle States also. Like its 
 near relative, the Chuck-will's-widow, it is not often seen during 
 the day, except when discovered casually in a state of repose ; 
 and it is much distressed by being forced to face a brilliant light. 
 In the dusk of the evening, however, this bird becomes active 
 and diligent in securing its insect prey. Its flight is light and 
 noiseless, the motion of its wings only causing a gentle undula- 
 tion in the air, scarcely noticed by a person a few feet distant, 
 An imagined resemblance of its notes to the syllables whip-poor- 
 will, has given this bird that common name. Its song is pro- 
 longed for several fiours after sunset. The male bird is nine 
 and one-half inches long. (See Chart.) 
 
 Steatornis, (Gr. st^ar, fat; ornis,a. bird.) 
 
 The birds which this term includes were ranked by Cuvier iff 
 the genus Podargus, but on account of their peculiar food and 
 habits, were erected by Humboldt into a separate genUs. 
 
 The GuACHAEo-BiKD, S. Caripensis, (belonging to Caripe,} 
 takes its name from the mountain of Guacharo, near the valley 
 of Caripe, South America. It has a wedge-shaped tail, is about 
 the size of a common fowl, and covered wil;h plumage of a 
 brownish gray color, mixed with small furrowed lines an^ black 
 dots. The Guacharo mountain is noted for its large cave, pierced 
 in the vertical profile of the rook, eighty feet broad and seventy- 
 
INSESS0EE3. 305 
 
 two feet high, which was entered by "Humboldt and his com- 
 panions. After penetrating not far from four hundred and fifty 
 feet, they heard from afar the hoarse cries of the Guacharo 
 Birds. These birds quit the cavern only at nightfall, especially 
 when there is moonlight. Humboldt remarks that they are the 
 only frvgivoro-us birds of the night yet known. They feed on 
 very hard ffiiits, and reject the insect food of which other Goat- 
 Suokers are fond. Once a year, near midsummer, this cave is 
 entered by the Indians. Armed with poles, they ransack the 
 greater- part of the nests, while the old birds; hover over the heads 
 of the robbers, as if to defend their brood, uttering, at the same 
 time, horrible cries. The young which fall down are killed 
 upotj the spot. The inner parts of these birds are laden with 
 fat ; darkness and repose, as Humboldt suggests, favoring its for- 
 mation, as in the case of geese and oxen. The fat of these birds, 
 when melted, is called the butter or oil of the Guacharo ; it is 
 half liquid, transparent and inodorous, and so ppre that it will 
 keep a year or more without becoming rancid. The crops and 
 gizzards of the young birds, when opened in the cavern, are 
 found to contain all sorts of hard and dry fruits, which are con- 
 veyed to them by their parents. These are preserved, and, un- 
 der the name of Guaeharo-seed, are considered a remedy against 
 intermittent feviers. The cave of the Guacharo is situated in 
 South Lat. lOo 10'. 
 
 Second Family. The Swallows or Maetins. 
 Hirundinidce, (Lat. Hirundo, a swallow.) 
 
 The family of Swallows resemble the Night-jars in the small- 
 ness of the beak, and the great width of the gape, asthey do also 
 in the weakness and greatly reduced size of the feet. They, 
 however, differ from the Night-jars in being active during the 
 day, and hence are included in the sub-tribe, Eissirostres diurni, 
 or Diurnal Split-billed Birds. The Swallows are also of far 
 more powerful wing than the Night-jars, nor have their feathers 
 the lax softness, or the mottled style of coloration common to 
 birds of the night ; but on the other hand, the plumage is close, 
 smooth, and often burnished with a metallic gloss ; while the pre- 
 vailing shades are black, (more or less changing into blue or 
 green,) above, and white, often varying with dull red, beneath. 
 
 The smallness of their feet' is in correspondence with their al- 
 most perpetual flight ; they even drink on the wing ; and their 
 feet, being small and weak, are little used, yet as these birds 
 often cling to rocks and walls when they do rest, their toes are 
 
306 INSBSSOEES. 
 
 famished wLth sharp crooked claws, and the hind toe can either 
 wholly, as in the Swifts, or partially, as in the common Chimfiey 
 Swallow, be brought to point forward. 
 
 The Swallows are widely scattered overthe globe, but still are 
 eminently fond of warm latitudes ; Ihey roam, indeed, over the 
 temperate zones, and even advance as far north as the Arctic 
 circle, but only in the summer season ; when cold we&ther ap. 
 proaches, they hasten to equatorial climes. Everywhere they 
 are known as birds of great speed, for which they are fitted by 
 the firm and close plumage of their bodies, their long, stiffjand 
 pointed Wing-feathersv and their long and forked tails. 
 
 Cypselus, (Gr. kupselos, a martin.) Swifts or Martins. 
 
 The birds of this genus have the toes thickly feathered, and 
 all the four toes directed forwards. The species C, apous, (Sr. 
 without feet,) is the Swift, or Black Martin. This specific 
 name is given to this bird on account of the exceeding smallness 
 of its feet. It is spread over Europe in the summer season, and 
 is popularly known as "Jack Screamer." This is one of the 
 swiftest of the Swallow family, appearing to spend the whole 
 day on the wing, and occasionally soaring almost out of sight, 
 but screaming so shrilly that the sound is plainly heard. The 
 Black Martins destroy a very great number of insects, retaining 
 them in a kind of pouch under the tongue for the use of their 
 young, and constantly renewing the supply. 
 
 Chaetura, {Gr. chaiie, bristle ; oitra, tail.) Spine-Tails. 
 
 The Spine-tails have the tarsUs bare and longer than the mid. 
 die toe ; the tail short and even ; the shafts prolonged into sharp 
 points. 
 
 C. p&ldsgiai (Gr. pelaio^Va come near,) is the American Swift, 
 or Chimney Swallow, a bird which seems to show its appreci- 
 ation of the progress of civilization by leaving its old abodes in 
 the hollows of trees, and taking possession of chimneys free from 
 smoke in the summer season. This bird builds its nest in a 
 Serhi-circular form. The nest is glued together with the saliva 
 or unctuous matter secreted in glands provided for that purpose, 
 arid with the same saliva it is fastened to trees or to a chimney 
 wall. When the nest is ih a chirnney, it is usually placed on 
 the east side, from five to eight feet from the entrance ; when in 
 the hollow of a tree, it is placed high or low, according to con. 
 venience. Audubon counted more than a thousand that "entered 
 one chimney before dark," and he estimated that nine thousand 
 roosted in a single tree which he watched near Louisville, Ken. 
 tucky. This Swallow rears two broods in a season. It does not 
 
INSESSOHES. 307 
 
 migrate farther east than Nova Scotia. In the State of New 
 York it appears about the last of April. 
 
 The Escitlent" Swallow, H. escuZewto, is the maker of ihe 
 edible bird-nests, (see Chart.) esteemed such a delicacy among 
 the Chinese, and a considerable article of their commerce. 
 These nests are made of a species of sea-weed, {fucus.) The 
 bird macerates and bruises it before forming the material in lay- 
 ers so as to construct the whitish gelatinous cup-shaped nests. 
 The finest are those obtained before the nest has been contami- 
 nated by the young. These are pure white, scarce and valuable. 
 The inferior ones are dark, discolored, or mixed with feathers. 
 These are geherally converted into glue. The only preparation 
 for sale which these bird-nests undergo, is that of simple drying, 
 without exposure to the sun, after which they are packed in 
 small boxes. They are assorted into three kinds for the Chinese 
 market, according to their relative values, and distinguished into 
 first or best, second and third qualities. 
 
 These nests are founfi in Java, and they are particularly 
 abundant in Sumatra. They are regarded as an article of ex- 
 pensive luxury, and sold at most extraordinary prices ; they aro 
 consequently consumed by persons of rank alone. The sensual 
 Chinese use tbeni under an impression tliat they are powerfully 
 stimulating and tonic; but probably their most valuable quality 
 is their perfect harmlessriess. 
 
 The .Bakn Swallow, H. rustica, (Lat. of the country,) 
 ranges in the spring from New Orleans to Newfoundland. The 
 same name is given to the Chimney Swallow of England; which 
 in its son^ this bird entirely resembles. The nest of this bird is 
 something like a section of an inverted eohe, and is attached to 
 the side of a beam or rafter in a barn or shed. The BarnSvval- 
 low surpasses in speed every other species, except the Humming 
 Bird. The tail is deeply forked, the side feathers of which much 
 exceed the wings in length. 
 
 The Purple Mautin, H. purpurea, (Lat. of a purple color,) 
 is seen early in April, and for its reception in our cities habita- 
 tions are sometimes furnished ; occasionally its nests are seen in 
 the Corners of houses. Its flight is easy and graceful, but not 
 so swift as that of the Barn Swallow, Audubon was of the opin- 
 ion that this SWallow goes farther south than any other of our 
 migratory birds. 
 
 Other interesting species are H. rlparia, (Lat. ripa, a bank,) 
 the Bank Swallow, or Sand Martin, which perforates sand banks 
 and makes its nest in the holes ; (Plate XI. fig. 10 ;) H. thalas- 
 sina, (Gr. ihalassa, the sea;) the Violet Green Swallow ; H. 
 
308 INSGSSOKES. 
 
 fulva, (Lat. tawny,) the Republican, or Cltff Sw;allow. This 
 latter species was described by Gov. De Witt Clinton, in 1824. 
 Its winter retreat is in Mexico. In summer, it is found in dif. 
 ferent parts of the United States, taking the course of the valleys 
 of the Mississippi and Ohio. -Its nest is composed of mud or 
 clay, with a narrow tubular neck, and resembles a coarse retort. 
 (See Plate XL fig. 11.) 
 
 Third Family Bee-Eaters. 
 Mexopidm, (Gr. fiigoip, merops.) 
 
 We place the Bee-eaters next the Swallows, following in that 
 arrangement the classification of Swainson, though sometimes, oa 
 account of the lengthened form of the beak in this family^ they 
 have been placed immediately before the tenuirostral, or thin- 
 billed bird^. 
 
 In addition to the long, slender and tapering beak, the Bee- 
 eaters are distinguished by their long pointed wings ; the first 
 quill, for the most part, being nearly or quite as long as any 
 other. 
 
 These birds are generally of a green color varied with blue. 
 They associate in flocks, and in their appearance and rapid flight 
 are much like the Swallows. The food of the- ikferqpid*, con- 
 sists of large ins'ects, which they capture and eat during flight. 
 One species is said to perch and watch for prey on the horn of 
 the Rhinoceros, giving notice to that animal of the approach of 
 the hunter ; but usually they take their food on the wing. These 
 birds are entirely confined to the continents and islands of the 
 eastern hemisphere. They do not construct nests, but lay their 
 eggs in holes. 
 
 The European Bee-Eater, M. apiaster, (Lat. a beefeater,) 
 in its coloring and shape, is not unlike the King-fishSr. It an- 
 nually visits the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, ap- 
 pearing in flocks of twenty or thirty, and skimming over the 
 vineyards and olive plantations in pursuit especially of bees and 
 wasps. It is remarkable that these birds are never stung ; they - 
 seize the insect, and with their strong beak crush it at once. 
 The flesh of the Bee-eater is sufficiently esteemed to be sold in 
 the markets both of Italy and Egypt. The boys of Candia, it is 
 said, take it after this manner : they bend a pin like a hook, and 
 tying it by the head to the end of a thread, they thrust it through 
 a Cicffda, (as boys bait hooks with a fly,) holding the other end 
 of the thread in their hand. The Cicada so fast.aned, neverthe- 
 less continues its flight, which the merops perceiving, pursues 
 and catches it, swallowing pin and all, whereby she is captured. 
 
INSESSOBES. 309 
 
 The RoLLEES, ■which are in some respects intermediate between 
 the Swallows and Bee-eaters, have been variously arranged by 
 naturalists. With Swainson, we place them among the Meropi- 
 d(B. These are represented by the genus Coracias, (6r. kora- 
 kias, raven-like,)the birds of which have a straight and moder- 
 ate sized bill, and: very short perching or insessorial feet. One 
 species, C. Aiyssinica, has two I6ng, loose processes, terminat- 
 ing the two external quills. 
 
 The Common, or Gaeeitlous Rollee, C. garrula, (Lat, talk- 
 ative,) is plentifully found in most parts of Europe. The mouth 
 is slightly furnished with bristles like those of the Night-jar; 
 the voice is loud and chattering, whence its specific name. To 
 the species C orientalis, (Lat. eastern,) Linn, the name of DoL- 
 LAE BiED is given. Swainson refers it to a sub-genus Eurysto- 
 mus, (Gr. eurus, broad; stoma, mouth.) It resembles the com- 
 mon Roller, but has a shorter and wider bill, and longer wings ; 
 the sides of the gape are smooth. It is a native of South Aus-' 
 tralia. The natives near Sydney call it the, Natay-Kin; the 
 Colonists name it Dollar Bird. (See Chart.) 
 
 FouETH Family. Todid^, (Lat. todus, a small bird.) Todies. 
 
 The Todies are a small family, resembling the King-fishers 
 in their general form, and found chiefly within the tropics of both 
 hemispheres. Their legs are rather long ; their wings short and 
 rounded, and incapable of any but the most feeble flight. The 
 beak is broad and much flattened, usually blunt or rounded at 
 the tip. In their habits they resemble the Fly-catchers, hopping 
 about among the slender branches of the trees, and occasionally 
 making a short flight to capture insects ; these form their princi- 
 pal food, to which, in the case of some species, berries acf added. 
 " They have scarcely any voice except at pairing time, and their 
 color closely resembles ' that of the trees in which they dwell." 
 The species included in the genus Todiis are confined to Tropi- 
 cal America. 
 
 The Green Tody, T. viridis, is very common in the greater 
 West India Islands. This is a very familiar and beautiful bird ; 
 (Plate X. fig. 4d.) while sitting upon some twig or low bush, 
 watching for flying insects, " it will often let a man come within 
 a few feet and look at it for minutes together, before it moves." 
 It is interesting to note the various means Divine Wisdom has 
 ordained for the attainment of a given end. The Swallow and 
 Tody livfe upon the same food, (insects ;) the Tody's short, hoi- 
 
310 INSESSORES. 
 
 low and feeble wings, are to him as effectual for securing his 
 prey, as are, for the same purpose, the long and powerful pin. 
 ions of the Swallow to him. 
 
 Eurylaimus, (Gr. eurus, broad ; laimos, throat,) is a genus of 
 Todies peculiar to the Eastern Continent. One species is E. Ja. 
 vanicus, in which the beak is, at the base, nearly as broad as its 
 length. Sir Stamford Raffles says : " It frequents 'the banks of 
 rivers and lakes, feeding on insects and worms. It builds nests 
 pendent from the branch of a tree or bush which overhangs the 
 water." 
 
 Fifth Family. TrogonidjE. Trogons. 
 
 This is not a large family of birds, but one pre-eminent in 
 beauty and brilliancy of plumage. The color is usually a me. 
 tallic golden green, strongly contrasted with scarlet, bletok and 
 brown. 
 
 The Trogons have two toes behind and two before, as in the 
 Woodpecker ; still they have not the habit or power of climbinff. 
 The wings are very short but pointed ; the quill-feathers stiff; 
 the general plumage soft and thick. The beak is short, triangu- 
 lar.shaped and strong ; the tip, and generally the edges are 
 notched; the gape is wide; The head is rather large, and the 
 form full and plump; the tail remarkably long and ample; the 
 feathers regularly decrease in length outward ; and in one genus, 
 Calurus, (Gr. kalos, beautiful ; oura, tail,) the tail-coverts are so 
 greatly developed as to conceal the tail, and hang down in nar- 
 row flowing plumes of great length. (See Chart.) 
 
 The food of the Trogons consists principally of insects, 
 "which," says Mr. Gould, "they seize upon the wing, as their 
 wide gape enables them to do with facility; while their feeble 
 tarsi and feet are such as to qualify them merely for resting on 
 the branches as a post of observation, whence to mark their prey 
 as it passes, and to which, having given chase, to return. Daz- 
 zled by the brightness of the meridional sun, morning and even- 
 ing twilight is the season of their activity." The recesses of 
 the thickest forests form their chosen abode for the entire year. 
 The Trogons of the most exquisite plumage are found in South 
 America. According to Mr. GouW, twenty-three species are 
 inhabitants of America and its Islands, ten of the Indian Islands 
 and India, and one of Africa. 
 
 The remarkable plumage and shy habits of the Trogons were 
 closely observed by the ancient Mexicans. According to Cortes, 
 three hundred men were employed in taking care of the Royal 
 
INSESSORGS. 311 
 
 Menagerie in which large numbers of these birds were kept ; 
 physicians were also appointed to watch their diseases and apply 
 timely remedies. This, was By order of the King, who not only 
 delighted in the sight of so many species, but was very careful 
 of their feathers for the sake of the famous mosaic images and 
 pictures, as well as other works which were made of them. 
 
 The Trogon [Cahirus) resplendens, (Lat. shining brightly.) is 
 the Qttesal of Guatimala. Unlike some others of the family, 
 its beak is not serrated ; the head is surmounted with a com- 
 pressed and elevated crest ; the upper tail-feathers are so enor- 
 mously developed as to hide the tail. (See Chart.) "It is 
 scarcely possible," says Mr. Gould, " for imagination to conceive 
 anything more rich and gorgeous than the golden-green Color 
 which adorns the principal part of the plumage, or more elegant 
 and graceful than the flowing plumes which sweep pendent from 
 the lower part cf the back, forming a long train of metallic brill- 
 iancy." From the feathers of this, "the most, beautiful of a 
 beautiful tribe," — not excluding, however, those of some other 
 species — ^the Mexicans made Mosaic pictures, together with orna- 
 ments for their bead-dresses. A picture in mosaic, made from 
 the feathers of this bird, is preserved in the Ashmolean Museum, 
 Oxford, Eng. The subject is "Christ fainting upon the c^oss." 
 The entire picture is about as la.rge a? the size of the palm of 
 the hand, and the figures are only half an inch in height; yet 
 it is said, the very expression of the features is preserved. 
 
 Prionites, (Gr. serrated ) The Motmot. 
 
 The name of this genus is derived from the serrated margins 
 of both the mandibles, in which particular it differs from the 
 other Trogons. The Motmot, P. Erasiliends, is a very curi- 
 ous and handsome bird, inhabiting many parts of South Amer> 
 ica. I 
 
 What is said conoerning the size and number Of the Perchiso Birds ? 
 What of their variations in form and structure? Why aye they calle4 
 Feechers i What is said of their power of flight ? W^t of their bealc, 
 food, and musical powers ? What of their instinct in building their nests ? 
 How do they always live ? Into what Tribes are they arranged, and iipon 
 what is the arrangement based ? How are the Split-Bills distinguished from 
 aUtheothers? How and upon what do they feed ? Is there any exception to 
 this? Where Js the home of the F^ssirostral birds? Are aiiy found in 
 temperate zones? Name the Families into which this tribe is divided. 
 Give the characteristics of tHe Night-jars. In what respects" do they re- 
 semble the Owls? Why are these birds called Goat-Suckers? What is 
 said of their voices? What sp. are mentioned? Which is diurnal and 
 what is said of it ? Describe the Common G. S. of E. What is said of the 
 
312 ' INSESSOEES. 
 
 Chuck-wills-widow? What of the 'Whip-poor-will? Repeat what la said 
 of the Giiacharo B. 
 
 What is the second Family of the Split-billed birds ? Are they noctur- 
 nal or diurnal? In what respects do they resemble the Nigjit-jars ? How 
 do they differ from thetn ? What is said of their flight ? What other char- 
 acteristics are noted of the Swallow Family? What popular name has 
 the Sv?ift or Martin ? What is said of this bird ? What characteristic of 
 the Spin,e-tails are mentioned ? What is the scientific name of the Ameri- 
 CAN Swift or Chimney Swallow ? What is its signification ? Repeat what 
 is said Of this bird. What is said of the construction, uses, &c. of the edible 
 bird-nests ? Where are they found and how regarded ? What is the range of 
 the Barn Swallow ? What English bird does it resemble ? What other sp; 
 are mentioned? How are the Bee-Eaters distinguished? What is the 
 general color of their plumage ? What birds do they resemble ? To what 
 birds are ihe Rollers intermediate ? What habit is peculiar to one sp. ? 
 To what hemisphere are the Rollers confined ? To which sp. of R. is the 
 name Dollar Bird given ? Describe the E. Bee-Eater? How do the boys 
 of Candia take this bird ? 
 
 Give the characteristics of the third Family or Todies. To what region 
 are the birds of the gen. Todies confined ? What is said of the Green To- 
 dy? What. gen. is peculiar to the Eastern Continent? What is said of 
 the number, plumage and size of the Trooons, or the fourth Family? 
 What are their characteristics? Where found? How many sp. according 
 to Mr. Gould ? How did the ancient Mexicans regard these birds ? What 
 use did, they make of their feathers? What does Mr. G. remark of the 
 QuESAL of Gnatimala? Which is the most beautiful of the Trogons? What 
 mosaic picture was made of its feathers? Where is the Motmot found? 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Second Division of the Percheks. Tooth-Billed Birds. 
 7 Dentirosires. (Lat. dens, a tooth ; rostrum, a beak.) 
 
 The upper mandible in this division is notched on each side 
 near the tip, whence the name Dentirostres, or Tooth-billed. In 
 the Shrikes, or Butcher Birds, the indentation is very decided, 
 and attended with a projecting tooth, so as to show a connecting 
 link with the Birds of Prey; the beak being also very strong, 
 hooked, and sharp pointed, and the habits of the birds ferocious 
 and carnivorous. Even the Shrikes, however, differ from the 
 Falcons in having the notch confined to the horny surface of the 
 beak, whereas, in the Falcon, it is a true process, extending into 
 the bone itself. 
 
 The favorite food of the Tooth-billed birds consists of insects, 
 though some of them join with this food, berries and other soft 
 fruits. Excepting the Finches, belonging to the Cone-billed 
 
INSESSOKES. 313 
 
 birds — all the musical birds, including the Nightingale of the 
 Old World, and the Mocking-bird of the New, belong to the 
 division which we are now to consider. 
 
 The Dentirostres are spread over the globe. They are com- 
 prised in five families, viz: (1.) Silviadm, or Warblers; (2.) 
 Merulida, or Thrushes ; (3.) Muscicapida, or Fly-catchers ; 
 (4.) Ampelida, or Chatterers ; (5.) Laniada, or Shrikes. 
 
 PmsT Family. The Wakblers. 
 SilviadcB. (Lat. Sylvia, or Silvia, a wood.) 
 
 The small singing birds comprised under the general name of 
 Warblers, form a very numerous, as well as interesting group. 
 The bill in these birds is slender, straight, awl-shaped, higher 
 than it is wide at the base, and furnished with bristles, the lower 
 mandible being straight. Audubon enumerates no less than 
 forty-four species of these birds found on the American Conti- 
 nent. The habits of the different species vary considerably ; 
 but in general, the Warblers frequent groves and woods, and 
 search for the small insects, which are their food, among the 
 leaves and twig% and the crevices in the barks of trees, rather 
 than on the wing, like the Swallows. 
 
 Excepting the Humming Birds, we find among this groupi, the 
 smallest birds of the creation. The diminutive Golden Crests, 
 Regulus ; the Nightingale, Philomela; the White-throat, or 
 Petty-chaps, Silvia, or Gurruca, (Lat. caterpillar;) the Wood- 
 warbler, or Wood-wren, Sylvicola,. (Lat. wood inhabitant,) are 
 examples of genuine warblers. 
 
 Diffused over all parts of the habitable world, it seems to be the 
 office of these birds to prevent an undue multiplication of the innu- 
 merable insects which lurk within the buds, the foliage or the flow- 
 ers of plants. The smallness of these insects, causes them to 
 elude the notice of the Thrushes and the larger insectivorous birds, 
 whilst their habits secure them against capture by the Swallows 
 and other birds that take their prey only when on the wing. 
 
 The Warblers are, for the most part, migratory birds. When 
 the increasing warmth of spring is. ushering the insect tribe into 
 renewed life and activity, the return of these 'birds is providen- 
 tially and wisely ordered, to prevent its troublesome increase. 
 In autumn, when the hosts of insects begin to diminish, and no 
 longer require to be kept in check, these useful little creatures 
 take their flight to other climes. 
 
 The Warblers may be conveniently arranged into five groups, 
 
314 INSSSSORES. 
 
 having different tribes of insects allotted to them respectively, 
 and showing a correspondent diversity in their fayorite haunts. 
 
 (1.) The Golden Crests, Sylviada, and Wood-'Warblers, 
 SyivicolidcB, are the true warblers, confining themselves mostly 
 to the taller trees, where they search for winged insects among 
 the leaves, or capture them, like the Fly-catchers, when attempt-, 
 ing to escape. Of these, the Gold-crested Wren, or Kinglet, 
 Reguhis, (Lat. dim, oi rex. king;) cristalus, (see Chart,) is one 
 of the most attractive species, and the smallest of the European 
 birds, three and a half inches long. 
 
 The Golden-crested Kinglet, of America, Regulus satraps, is 
 half an inch longer than the European apecies,yet agrees with 
 it in its general appearance. The color is olive green; beneath 
 whitishi but the crown is orange, or gold colored. It isan active 
 and restless bird, generally found in groups, on the extremities 
 of twigs and bunches of leaves. The Blue Bird, Erythaca, or 
 Sialia Wilsonii, or Blue Robin, as it is called in some districts 
 of the Union, bears considerable resemblance to the Robin Red. 
 breast, of Europe. It is a lovely warbler, found in all parts of 
 our country, appearing in New York early in the spring, 
 (March,) but leaving in November for fhe South, as far as Mex- 
 ico. It is very useful as a destroyer of multitudes of noxious 
 insects. The Myrtle Bird, so called from its feeding in autumn 
 and winter on Myrtle-wax berries, (Myrica ceri/era,) or the Yel. 
 low-crowned Wood-warbler, Sylvicola coronata, is perhaps the 
 best representation of the Wood-warblers, — it is very common 
 in the State of New York, and ranges from Mexico to 65<> N. 
 Lat. 
 
 The summer Yellow Bird, Sylvicola cestiva, (Lat. of sum- 
 mer,) — so called to distinguish it from the Common Yellow Bird, 
 ( Carduelis tristis,) is " remarkable for its instinctive sagacity in 
 getting rid of the eggs of the Cow Black Bird, [Molothrus pecpris.) 
 As the egg is too large to be thrust out, this Yellow Bird com- 
 mences a new rtest above it ; thus almost horizontally closing it 
 up, and then proceeds to deposit her own eggs." 
 
 The Tailor Bird, Silvia, (Lat. a tit-lark,) constructs a nest 
 of a curious kind. — by sewing leaves together, (See Plate 
 XI. fig. 8;) ' 
 
 (2.) The RpED- warblers and Nightingales, of Europe, 
 Philomelina, which haunt the vicinity of waters, or the more 
 dense foliage of hedges, for insects found in such situations. 
 These are larger than the true Warblers, and live partly upon 
 fruits as well as insects. 
 
 (3.) The Stonechats, SaxicoUncB, (Lat. saxum, rock; colo, 
 
INSESSOEES. 316 
 
 I inhabit,) wliien' prefer dry commons, or wide extended plains, 
 and ' feed on the insects peculiar to such localities. The Robin 
 Red-breast, Erithacits,* (Gr. erithacos. Red-breast;) nibecuia, 
 (Lat. a Red-breast,) — of ballad and song celebrity, and a bird 
 that sings throughout the ■frhole year, — belongs to this third 
 group. It . is smaller, and more familiar in its hq,bits, than the 
 American Robin, TUrdits migratorius. 
 
 (4.) The Wag-tails and Tit-lahks, MotacilUdce, (frommota- 
 cilltf, Lat. for wag-tail,) in some respects like the Wading birds, 
 aiid which have for their food the insects that frequent humid 
 and wet places. ' 
 
 The American Pipit, or Tittlark, Anthus, (Lat. a tit-lark,) 
 ludovicianus, is of this group,^a little bird about six and a 
 half inches long, varying in its plumage with age and sex ; in 
 the male, of grayish brown on the upper parts, and dusky white 
 beneath. It feeds on minute shells, shrimps, and aquatic insects 
 found on rocky shores and the banks of streams, or on insects 
 and various seeds which it finds in meadows and ploughed 
 grounds; when feeding in the latter places, these Tit-larks are 
 seen in small flocks; to this the specific name probably refers. 
 These birds appear in New York about the first of May, — but 
 range far North and West ; wintering in Louisiana and still 
 farther South. 
 
 (5.) The Tit-mioe, Parities, (from Parus, Lat. for tit-mouse, 
 or tom-tit,) — birds which search assiduously for insects among 
 the buds and tender shoots of trees. At the same time, they are 
 quite omnivorous, sometimes laying up stores of grain, and even 
 eating small and sickly birds, when they are able to destroy 
 them. Of this group, the Black-cap Tit-mouge, or Chickadee, 
 P. airicapillvs, (Lat. black-haired,) is a familiar example, (Plate 
 X. fig. 4e,) a truly Northern species, and so abundant in the fur 
 countries, that companies of them may be found in almost every 
 thicket. The penduline Tit-mouse, or Bottle-tit, Parw* pendulU 
 nus, derives its name from its" purse-like, or bottle-shaped nest, 
 suspended on the branch of a willow or some other aquatic tree, 
 with, an opening on the side for the ingress and egress of the bird 
 and it$ young. (Plate XI, fig. 5.) 
 
 The Csestnut-crowned Tit-mouse, P. minimus, (Lat. least,) 
 of the Wahlamet, (near the Pacific coast,) constructs a curious 
 nest, resembling a long purse, and hanging from a low bush. 
 (Plate XI. fig. 1.) It is made chiefly of moss, down, and lint 
 of plants, and lined with feathersj the'female lays six white eggs. 
 
 * This is spelled Erythaca, on the GhdH, after the manner of Swainson 
 and others, but the true orthography is that given in the text. 
 
316 INSESSORES. 
 
 The length of this pretty bird is only four and a half inches. 
 Linneeus included the entire group of Warblers under the one 
 genus Motacilla. 
 
 Second Family. Thrushes. 
 
 MeruUdcB, (Lat. merula, a black bird,) or Turdidcs, (Lat. 
 Turdus, a thrush.) 
 
 The Thrushes are the most numerous and diversified of the 
 tooth-billed division of birds. The average size is considerably 
 greater than that of the Warblers. The beak of these birds is as 
 long as the head, and compressed at the sides ; the upper .mandi. 
 ble arched to the tip ; the notch is well marked ; the gape is 
 furnished with bristles; the feet are long, with curved claws 
 adapted fof walking as well as perching, for exercising on the 
 ground as well as moving among the trees. The food on which 
 the Thrushes subsist, is less restricted than that of the Warblers; 
 for, besides insects and their caterpillars, snails, slugs, earth- 
 worms, etc., they feed largely on pulpy and farinaceous berries. 
 Many of the species are gregarious in the winter, and some, as 
 the common Fieldfare, T. pilaris, (Lat. like a ball,) are so during 
 the year. < 
 
 The colors of the Thrushes are, for the most part, sombre, but 
 often elegantly arranged ; various shades of olive are the pre. 
 vailing hues, and these often take the form of spots running in 
 chains upon the breast and under parts. The Orioles are dis- 
 tinguished for their fine contrasts of rich black and golden 
 yellow ; the Breves, Pitta, (Gr. pitch,) with remarkably short 
 tails, and found in India and Australia, — are distinguished for 
 their dazzling blue and green ; while some of the African 
 Thrushes shine like the metallic lustre of burnished steel. 
 
 The Thrushes are common in all parts of the world, and 
 many of them are eminently birds of song. As illustrating the 
 general character and habits of the family, we may refer to the 
 Song Thrush, Mavis, or Throstle, (T. musicus,) which sings 
 with sweet and varied note from the commencement of spring, 
 and even earlier, to the close of summer; to the Blackbird, (T. 
 merula,) whose song is less varied, but still richer and mellower; . 
 and to the Fieldfare, or Gray Thrush, (T. pilaris.) '■ 
 
 The African Short-legged Thrushes, Brachypddida, (Gr. 
 hrachus, short ; pons, a foot,) are a sub-family ; from having foiiri 
 long bristles on the back of the neck, sometimes called Bristly- 
 necked Thrushes. 
 
 Another sub-family, is the BXbblers, or Long-legged Thrushes, 
 
INSESSOEES. 317 
 
 Craterpodidce, (Gr. crater, a wine-cup, or opening ; pous, a 
 fpqt,) of Australia, which have large and strong feet, and send 
 forth loud and disagreeable notes. Among the true Thrushes, 
 MerutincR, is the American Robin, T. migratorius, (Lat. migra- 
 tory,) whose cheerful note is always most welcome in the open- 
 ing spring, and whose large nest, in which may be seen five 
 beautiful sea-green eggs, appears to be regarded, even by boys, 
 as more sacred than others. 
 
 The American Mockin& Bird, Orpheus, (Gr. proper name 
 of a famous musician;) polyglottus, (Gr. many-to'ngued,) is 
 another true Thrush, — having a voice capable of every variety 
 of modulation, surpassing, in this respect, even the European 
 Nightingale; but not noted either for its gay, or its brilliant 
 plumage. The Mocking Birds are much sought after on account 
 of their extraordinary vocal and imitative powers, which remain 
 undiminished even in confinement. They are easily raised ; a 
 single bird sells for from seven. to fifteen or twenty ,^pllars ; the 
 sum of fifty dollars has been paid, and that of one hundred dol- 
 lars refused for an exquisite singer. The first brood of the 
 Mocking Bird are always largest and stoutest. This bird is 
 usually about ten inches in length, The Cat Bird, T. lividus, 
 (Lat. livid,) is an aberrant form, of Orpheus, and, in some parts 
 of the United States,, very numerous. It is nearly as large as 
 the Mocking Bird, (see Chart,) and has a note which closely im- 
 itates the cry of a young kitten. The Misletoe Thrush, (T. 
 viscivorus, (Lat. viscus, a misletoe; voro, I devour,) is said to 
 "surpass all other Thrushes in size, and is decidedly the largest 
 songster of the European birds." It is particularly fond of the 
 berries of the misletoe ; next to these, it prefers the berries of the 
 mountain ash. Its length is eleven inches. Some persons call 
 it the StormcocS, as it "pours forth its melody when the bleak 
 winds of winter roar through the leafless tree?." The Water- 
 Ouzel, or Dipper, Cinclus, (Gr. Kinklos, the name of a bird,) 
 aqualicus, — is an interesting bird, found principally in hilly places, 
 where there are clear and rapid brooks and rivulets. It dives 
 for considerable distances with apparent ease, and may be 
 seen perched on the top of a stone in the midst of a torrent, . 
 in a continu£(l dipping motion, while watching for its food, which 
 consists of small fishes and insects. It has been said to possess 
 the extraordinary power of "walking, in quest of its prey, on 
 the pebbly bottom of a river, and with the same ease as on dry 
 land." ! ! Respecting this alleged power, it has been well re- 
 marked, "If the Water Ouzel, which is specifically lighter than 
 water, can manage, by some inherent power, to walk on the 
 
QIQ INSESSORES. 
 
 ground at the bottom of a rivulet, then there is great reason to 
 hope that we, who are heavier than air, may, any day, rise up 
 into it, unassisted by artificial apparatus, such as wirigs, gas, 
 steam, or broom staff." 
 
 Third FaIvult. Fly Catchers. 
 Muscicapida, (Lat. musca, a fly ; capio, I catch.) 
 
 This very musical family, which receives its popular name 
 from the expertness of the birds which it comJ)rises, in catching 
 the (lying insects upon which they feed, is found widely diffused 
 throughout both the Eastern and Western Continents ; and in. 
 eludes many of the most beautiful of the feathered tribes. They 
 appear to be a connecting link between the Split-billed and 
 the Tooth-billed birds. Like the former, they havie a beak 
 which is broad at the base, and booked at the tip, while the 
 gape is surrounded with bristles ; 'like them, also, their feet are 
 unusually feeble, or less developed than the wings, and they feed 
 upon insects which they take in their flight. Indeed, they are the 
 most insectivorous of all the tooth. billed birds. In their generic 
 details, the Fly -Catchers widely differ; all^ howevei*, are united 
 by common peculiarities of structure ; and, particularly, by 
 having the beak strong, broad, flat, angular on the summit, or 
 culmen, and notched at the tip ; and by having the side of the 
 mouth defended by thick bHstlcs. 
 
 This European birds of this family, are sometimes Called 
 "Restricted Fly-Catchers," having shorter bristles around the 
 mouth, and much more slender bills than the others. Of these 
 there are but two species, Musicapagris5la, the (tKay, or Spot- 
 ted Fly-Catcher, known by several provincial names, all 
 derived from its habits, — as the _" Beam Bird," from a favorite 
 site of its hest, and the " Cherry -chopper," from its supposed 
 taste for the fruit of that tree. In some portions of England, 
 it is called the "Post- bird," and in other parts, the "Bee- 
 bird." It is about six inches in length ; its breast is of a dull- 
 ish white, slightly tinged with a dull orange, and the upper 
 part of the body is brown. It is a very tame bird, often build- 
 ing its nest in places where persons are constantly passing and 
 repassing, — seeming particularly partial to the vine and sweet- 
 briar, as the support of its riest. The note of this Fly-Catcher 
 is a weak chirp, and even that is not often heard. 
 
 The other European species, M. luctuosa, (Lat. sorrowful,) is 
 the Pied Fly-Catcher, about as large as a Linnet, found in 
 Prussia, Sweden, and sometimes in England. It has' been called 
 
INSESSOEES. 319 
 
 "a Magpie in miniature." The bilKxind the crdwn of the head, 
 are black; the other parts of the body present various shades of 
 black, brown and white; there is a White spot on its forehead, 
 from which its name is derived. The female lays five very 
 pale blue eggs. 
 
 Of the numerous American Fly-Catchers, we name first, the 
 King Birdj or Tyrant Fly-Oatcher ; M. tyrannus, (Linn.,) or 
 Tyrannus intrepidus, (Lat. undaunted,) ranging during summer 
 from the temperate part of Mexico to the remote interior. 
 
 It receives its narhe from the authority which it assumes over 
 other birds during the time of breeding ; the eggs are five in 
 number, of a pale green color, or dullish white. At the breeding 
 season, thje King Bird's extreme affection for his mate and for 
 his nest and youngs makes him suspicious of every bird that 
 happens to pass near his residence, so that hfe attacks, with- 
 out discrimination, every intruder. In the months of May, June 
 and part of July, his life is one continued scene of broils and 
 battles ; in which, however, he generally comes off conqueror. 
 Hawks, and Crows, the Bald Eagle, and the Great Black Eagle, 
 all equally dread an bncouriter with this dauntless little cham- 
 pion, which, mounting to a considerable height abovb these birds, 
 darts down upon their backs, sometimes fixing himself there, to 
 the no small annoyance of his powerful antagonists. In teasing 
 the Eagle, he constantly keeps up a shrill and rapid twittering ; 
 tbis, in fact, is his only song. The Purple Martin, however, 
 from its more rapid flight, is more than A match for the King 
 Bird, eluding all his attacks, and teasing him as he pleases. 
 "I have," says Wilson, "also seen the Red-headed Woodpecker, 
 while clinging on a rail of the fence, amuse himself with the 
 violence of the King Birdj and play bo-peep v/iih him around the 
 rail, while the latter, highly irritated, made every attempt, as he 
 swept froni side to side, to strike him, — but in vain," ' 
 
 In fields of pasture, the King Bird oflen perches upon the tops . 
 of the mullein, arid other rank weeds, near the cattle, and makes 
 occasional sweeps afler passing insects, particularly the large 
 gad-fly, so annoying to horses and cattle. This bird preys upon 
 bees, but in his watchings of the bee-hive, it is said, he picks out 
 only the drones, and never injures the working bees. 
 
 He must, however^ be regarded as the farmer's friend, in de- 
 stroying great multitudes of insects, whose larvae prey upon the 
 productions of his fields and gardens. Like all Fly-Catehers, 
 the King Bird disgorges the harder parts of insects. This bird 
 reaches New York the last of April or the first of May ; it leaves 
 the Middle States earlier thaii inost other species. The King 
 
320 ' INSESSOE£S. 
 
 Bird is eight inches long, and fourteen iii the expanse of 
 its wings. 
 
 The Phebe Bird> or Pewit FLy-CAxcHER, M. fusca, (Lat, 
 dark or dusky.) The notes of this bird are pleasing, not for any 
 melody which they possess, but from their association with the 
 returning verdure of spring. The favorite rfesortofthe Phebe 
 Bird is by streams of water, under or near bridges, in caves, &c, 
 Near such places, he sits on a projecting twig, calling out, pe-we6, 
 pewiititee pe-wei, for a whole morning, — occasionally sallyingafter 
 insects, and returning to the same perch. The Pewit appears 
 in New York State the last of March or the beginning of April.. 
 It lays four to five white eggs, with a few reddish spots near the 
 larger end, and it sometimes rears three broods in a season. 
 Insects are its summer food ; berries and seeds, its winter fare. 
 Whenever the Pewit appears, Mr. Bartram says, it is safe to 
 plant almost all kinds of esculent garden seeds, as, after the 
 arrival of this bird, there are rarely frosts severe enough to injure; 
 them. The plumage is a dark olive brown, the bill entirely^ 
 black; the tail emarginate, the feathers whitish on the outer 
 web. This familiar and favorite little bird, winters from South 
 Carolina to Mexico. , « 
 
 The Wood Pewee, M. virens, (Lat. green, or lively,) is gen. 
 erally found in the interior of forests ; it is considerably more 
 abundant than the Phebe Bird; is rather late in entering the 
 Middle States, seldom reaching Pennsylvania and New York; 
 until from the 10th to the 15th of May, but it advances as far 
 North as Labrador, and is seen on the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Ameeican Red-start, M. ruticilla, (Lat. red, inclining 
 to golden yellow,) is found, during the summer, throughout the 
 United States, but winters between the tropics ; it is shy and 
 solitary, and varies much in the brilliancy of its colors. 
 
 Genus CuUcivora, (Lat. gnat-eaters,) includes the Blue-grey 
 Fly-Catcher, C. cmrulea, (Lat. dark blue,) — a lively little bird, 
 four aad a half inches in length, noted for itsMieing frequently 
 the foster parent of the young Cow-bunting, the real mother of 
 which drops her egg in its nest. It ranges from Texas north- 
 ward. 
 
 The Greenlets, which by some naturalists are included 
 among the Fly-catchers, are by Audubon and Dr. Dekay erected 
 into a separate family, Vireonidce, 
 
 They include about eight species, and are peculiar to Amer- 
 ica. The bills of these birds are of moderate size, but strong, 
 and broader than high at the base, which is furnished with bris- 
 tles. The upper mandible is notched,, and the tip bent ; the la^ 
 
INSESSOEES. 321 
 
 sus of moderate length, as is also the tail, which is more or less 
 ernarginate. We can only glance at the principal species. They 
 feed upon insects and berries. 
 
 The YELLOW-THftoATED Grebnlet, F. flavifrons, (Lat. yel- 
 low-front,) is of an olive green color; it wiWters in Texas' and 
 Mexico, but in summer advances as far north as Nova Scotia. 
 This Greenlet is said to construct a pendulous nest. The length 
 is from five to'six inches. 
 
 The SoLiTAKT Greenlet, V, solitarius, has a bill that is very 
 short and nearly as broad as the Fly-catcher's. The color of 
 this Greenlet is dusky olive ; the length five inches. It winters 
 in Mexico, but is seen as far north as Nova Scotia and as far 
 west as the Columbia river. 
 
 The White-EySd Greenlet, V. novoloracensis, (of New 
 York,) has a short, straight bill, abruptly curved at the tip and 
 flattened at the base. Its general color is a dark olive, with white 
 underneath ; the third qUill is the longest ; the length five inches. 
 The notes of this bird are uncommonly sweet. ■ It uses bits of 
 newspaper in making its nest, and Wilson says is, therefore, some- 
 times called "politician. This Greenlet is seen in New York 
 early in April, and is common ; it leaves for the South in Octo- 
 her. 
 
 The Warbling Greenlet, V. gilvus, (Lat. pale yellow,) is 
 of a pale green color above, but whitish beneath ; the first and 
 fifth primaries are equal ; the bill short ; the length five inches. 
 This is a musical little bird, wintering in tropical America but 
 reaching New York early in May, and advancing to 46o N. L. ; 
 it is seen westward as far as Columbia river. Its nest is pen- 
 dent, containing from four to six white eggs, marked with brown 
 spots and lines. The length is five inches. 
 
 The Red-Eved Greenlet,' V. olivaceus, (from Lat. oliva, an 
 olive,) is of a light olive green above ; beneath whitish, with 
 a yellowish tinge on the sides. It has a long and strong 
 bill. This is a common species, ranging from Mexico to 55o 
 N. L. 
 
 The Long-Beaked Greenlet, V. langiroHris, (Lat. long- 
 beaked,) has wings not reaching to half the length of the tail ; 
 the first quill shorter than the fourth. It is found in the Antilles ; 
 the length is five and one-half inches. 
 
 Another genus of the Gr^enleJ^ is Ictekia, with but one spe- 
 cies, the Yellow-Breasted Chat, I. viridis, (Lat. green,) con-» 
 necting the Fly-catchers with the Greenlets, and also forming the 
 passage between the Merula and the Vireo. This bird h^s a 
 strong knd lengthened beak, curved and with small divergent 
 
322 
 
 INSESSORES. 
 
 bristles at the base ; the wjngs are rounded ; the third and fourth 
 primaries the longest ; the first scarcely longer than the sixth. 
 The color is a greenish olive ; the length seven inches. This bird 
 attracts attention by its singular notes, and the oddity of its mo- 
 tions. It comes frotp the tropical regions of America early in 
 W[ay; along the Atlantic does not. Jidvance farther than the 
 southern part of New York ; it is, however, not uncommon in 
 the Western States. It leaves us among the eajliest, going 
 S.out,h about the middle of August. 
 
 FouETH Family. Chatterers, or Wax-Wings. 
 AmpelidcB, (Gr. afineXlg, ampelts, a vine or singing bird.) 
 
 The beak in the Chatterers is stouter in proportion to its length 
 than in the Fly-catchers, the form of the lower niandibje ap. 
 proaching thftt pf the cone-billed birds; the upper mandiljle is, 
 however, rather broad at the base, flat, with the upper e4ge.inore 
 or less angular and ridged, and tbe tip distipctly notched. The 
 feet are, for the niost part, stout, with, the outer toe united tq the 
 middle one as far as, or beyond, the first joint. In many, the wide 
 gape extends beyond the eye, and. in some it is nearly as wide as 
 in the Night-jars. The absence of bristles from the gape indi- 
 cates that the wide opening is not to catch insects on the wing, 
 as in the Swallow family. The Chatterers feed chiefly on ber- 
 ries and other soft, fruit, which they swallow whole ; and this 
 food naturally requires a wide passage ; occasionally they feed 
 on insects. Their home seems to be in fruit-bearing trees, and 
 they very seldom come to the ground. 
 
 The species in this family are not very numerous ; but they 
 are of varying forms, and widely scattered. Many of them are 
 distinguished for their soft aiid silky plumage and the brilliant 
 colors which adorn it. The plurnage of the head forms a long 
 and pointed crest, which is capable of being erected, and is com- 
 mon to bo!;)i sexes. Some of these birds are distinguished by hav- 
 ing singular appendages to the secondaries of the wing, and 
 sometimes to the feathers of the tail ; the shaft of the feather 
 being extended beyond the vane, and its tip dilated into a flat 
 oval appendage of a, brilliant scarlet hue, and exactly resembling 
 the appearance of red sealing-wax. IJence they are sometimes 
 called Wax-wings ; from the silky softness and smoothness of 
 their plumage, and particularly' that of the tail, they are also 
 named Silk-Tails, 
 
 The Bohemian Chatterer, or Silk-Tail, A. garrulus, or 
 BombyciUa, (Gr. Bonibux, silk-worm,) garrulus, is tne only spe. 
 
INSESSORES. 3^3 
 
 cjes known in Europe ; south-east of Gerraany it is quite abun- 
 dant. Its general plumage is of a purplish red hue ; the crown 
 and crest are of a chestnut brown ; some five or six of the 
 secondary feathers, and, in very old males, some of the tail feath- 
 ers also, have the extended scarlet appendages which are refer, 
 red 10 above. Prince Bonaparte gives a very amiable charac- 
 ter of the European Wax-wing in, a state of nature. In the 
 spring it eats all sorts of flies and. other insects ; in autumn and 
 winter different kinds of berries. It is fond of the berries of 
 the mountain ash ; of grapes it is exceeding greedy, and is, 
 therefore, with reason, called, ampelis. When ta^iiDg-wing it ut- 
 ters a note resembling the syllables zi, zi, id, hat it is generally 
 silent, though it bears the name of Chatterer. In captivity it 
 cats almost any vegetable substance, losing at the same time, 
 all its vivacity and its amiable social habits. Its length is nine 
 or ten inches. This bird was seen by Dr, Richardson inN. Lat. 
 50p, in flocks, near the' Great Bear Lake ; it has also beeij pro- 
 cured in the vicinity of Philadelphia. 
 
 The Cedar Wax-Wing, or Cedar Bird, B. Carolinensis, 
 ranges from Texas as far north as the Fur countries, and west- 
 ward to the Columbia river. Its nest is built in the fork of a 
 cedar or apple tree, and is composed of stalks of grass, coarse 
 without and fine within. In tHs it lays three or four eggs of a 
 bluish white, marked with dots of black and purple. It devours 
 every fruit or berry that comes in its way. Dr. Brewer says it 
 remains all the year round at Boston, and confers great benefit 
 on the farmer by destroying thousands of the destructive canker- 
 worm, Audubon thinks the name of Fruit devourers would be 
 more appropriate for these birds than that of Chatterers, " By 
 way of dessert," however, they eat largely of winged insects, 
 being troubled with most voracious appetites. 
 
 The A. cotinga, (Gr. from kotillo, to chatter,) (see Chart,) 
 an inhabitant of Brazil, is sometimes called the Pompadour Chat- 
 terer, from having been introduced into Europe by the thought- 
 less and extravagant mistress of Louis XV. 
 
 The Red, or Japanese Wax- Wing, B. phanicoptera, (Gr, 
 phoinicos, red; pteron, wing,) bears great resemblance to, the 
 Cedar Bird. It was discovered by means of the scientific 
 mission to Japan, instituted by the government of the Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 The Bell-Bied, Proenias, (Gr. projcne, a proper name or 
 Swallow,) carunculaia, (Lat. from caruncula, a small piece of 
 flesh,) is a species of the Chatterers distinguished by the soft car- 
 buncl^ or fleshy excrescence at the base of the beak. It is the 
 
324 INSESSOEES. 
 
 celebrated Carapanero of South America, whose voice, during 
 the stillness of mid-day, it is Said, exactly resembles the tolling 
 of a bell. 
 
 At uncertain intervals, the Chatterers appear in particular 
 districts in immense flocks, and so remarkable have such visita- 
 tions appeared, that they have been recorded as events of history, 
 and regarded as ominous, in some way, of great public calami- 
 ties. 
 
 Fifth Family. Shrikes, or Butcher Bieds. 
 Laniadce, (Lat. lanius, a butcher.) 
 
 The structure of these birds closely resembles that of the 
 Perohers, but their beak is very similar to that of the falcons, in 
 its strength, its arched form, its strongly hooked point, (see Chart,) 
 and in the distinct tooth which precedes the usual notch of the 
 tooth-billed tribe. This peculiarity of beak is accompanied by 
 a carnivorous appetite, a rapacious cruelty, and a courage alto- 
 gether raptorial, and which, as indicating a kind/ed nature, have 
 induced naturalists to associate them with birds of prey. 
 
 The Shrikes not only devour the larger insects, especially 
 grasshoppers, but even attack and overpower small birds and 
 quadrupeds, seizing them with their beak or claws, and bearing 
 them to some station near to tear them in pieces with their 
 toothed and crooked beak. These birds live in families for a 
 few weeks after the breeding season ; they fly irregularly and 
 precipitately, uttering shrill cries ; nestle on trees or in bushes ; 
 lay five or six eggs and take great care of their young. Many 
 of them have the curious habit of impaling their prey upon a 
 large thorn, and then pulling it to pieces and devouring it at their 
 leisure. Hence they have derived the name of Butcher-bird^/ 
 Mr. Bell, when traveling in Russia, had one of these birds given 
 to him, which he kept in a room, harming fixed up a sharpened 
 stick for him in the wall ; and on turning small birds loose in the 
 room, the Butcher-bird instantly caught them by the throat in 
 such a manner as soon to suffocate them, and then stuck them on 
 the stick, pulling them on with bill and claws ; and so served as 
 many as were turned loose, one after another, on the same stick. 
 
 The power which the Shrikes have of clutching with their 
 toes is remarkably great. They always hold their prey in one 
 foot, resting on the tarsal joint of that foot, unless when they 
 have fastened the prey upon a thorn, when they pull it to pieces 
 in a contrary direction. They show great boldness in defending 
 
msEssoBES. 325 
 
 themselves and their nests from their more powerful enemies ; 
 and the parents evince great attachment to each other as well 
 as to their young. This family comprise? a large number of 
 species, distributed through all quarters of the globe. Some of 
 tliem have a remarkably melodious song. , 
 
 The Great Gray Shrike, L. excubiior, (Lat. a sentinel,) re. 
 oeives its specific name from its habit of watching for birds of 
 prey, and chattering loudly as soon as it perceives them. Bird- 
 catchers sometimes avail ihemselves of this peculiarity in takin" 
 hawks. A pigeon is fastened to a net by way of bait. A string 
 is attached and brought within the turf but where the bird-catcher 
 sits. Close to the hut a shrike is tied to the ground, and two 
 pieces of turf are set up as a shelter for the bird from the 
 weather, and as a refuge from the hawk. As soon as the hawk 
 appears in the distance, the shrike becomes agitated ; as it draws 
 nearer, he begins to scream with fright; and just as i,he hawk 
 pounces on the pigeon, he runs under his turf, which is the sig- 
 nal to the bird-catcher to pull the string, thereby enclosing the 
 hawk within the folds of the net. The nest of this bird is built 
 on trees, and contains about six grayish-white eggs, ash^colored 
 on the larger end.^ The length of the Great Gray Shrike is from 
 nine to ten inches. 
 
 The Great American Shrike, L. horedlis, (Lat. northern,) 
 is larger in size, but in other respects, does not differ much from 
 the preceding European Shrike. 
 
 The Red-Backed Shrike, L. collurio, (Gr. kollurion.) has 
 derived its English name from having the back, scapulars, 
 and wing-coverts of a rusty red color. (See Chart.) 
 
 What is the 2d Division of the Percheks? Why are they so called? 
 In what birds is the notch most remarkable? What are their habits? How 
 does their beak differ froni the Falcons' ? What is said of the Tooth-Bilied 
 Birds? Do they include all the musical birds? What is the exception? 
 Into how many Families are these birds divided? What is the 1st Family? 
 What is said of their numbers? How many American sp. does Audubon 
 enumerate? What is said of the habits and size of these birds? What 
 office do they perform? What is said of their migrations? Into how many 
 Groups may they be arranged? Which are the True Waebleeb ? What 
 sp. are particularly mentioned? Which is the smallest of European birds? 
 What birds are included in the 2d ftnoup ? What in the 3d Group? What 
 celebrated bird is found in this group ? How does it differ from the A. 
 Kobin? What is the 4th Group? What A. sp. is mentioned? What is 
 the 5th Group? What is a familiar example? Why is the Penduline Tit 
 OB Bottle Tit so called? 
 
 Name the 2d Family. What is said of their numbers, favorite haunts 
 and average size ? What of their beak, food and plumage ? For what are 
 
 ■ 14 
 
•)26 INS£$SORES. 
 
 the Okioles diatingiushed ? For what the Breves and African Thrbshes? 
 Wh^t sp. illustrate the general character and habits of this family? To 
 what sub-family does the American Robin belong? What is said of the 
 Mocking-bird? What of the Cat-bird? Of the Misletoe Thrush? Of the 
 Water Ouzel or Dipper ? 
 
 What is the 3d Family? Why are they so called ? How do they appear 
 to connect the Split-billed and Tooth-billed birds? Into how many genera 
 does Audubon arrange them? What are the Eoropkan Flt-Catchers 
 sometimes called and why? Mention the sp. What is said of the King- 
 bird ? What of the Phebe B. ? What of the Wood Pewee and the Amer- 
 ican Redstart? How have the Greenlets been arranged? What is Bald 
 of them ; 
 
 What is the 4th Familt? Give the characteristics of these birds. What 
 is their food ? What is said of their plumage ? Why are they cillcd Wax- 
 Wings? Name and describe the only E. sp. ? What is aaid of the Cedar 
 B. ? What of the Pompadour Chatterer? Of the Asiatic Wax-wing? Of 
 the Bell B. ? What has been inferred from the appearance of immense 
 flocl(S of Chatterers in certain districts ? 
 
 What is the name of the 5th and last Familt? What is said of thi- 
 structure of these birds? What accompanies their peculiarity of beak? la 
 their food confined lo the larger insects? What curious habit have 
 they? What name is hence given to them? What is related by Mr Bell? 
 What is said of the power of their toes? What of their boldness? Does 
 this family include many ap. ? What is said of the G. G. Shrike? What 
 of the Great American 'S. ? What of the Ked-backed S. ? 
 
 Trace those mentioned on the Chart. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 •> Third Division of the Peechehs. Cone-billed Birds. 
 Conirosires. (Lat. ccmus, a cone ; rostrum, a beak.) 
 
 This division is less numerous than the Dentirostres, but still 
 includes a great numberiof birds of varying size, structure and 
 habits. Naturalists regard this tribe as typical, not only in the 
 Order of the Perchers, but in the whole Class of Birds. 
 
 The chief character by which they are associated together, is 
 found in the beak, which, though differing in shape and oompar. 
 ative size, is generally short ; at the same time, it is thick, and 
 very strong, more or less conical, in form, and usually without a 
 notch at the tip. In one pretty large group, however, the 
 Tanagehs, of Louisiana, and South America, — gay, fire-colored 
 birds, — the beak, while partaking of the conical form of this 
 division, is distinctly notched ; constituting them one link of 
 conheixion between this and the preceding tribe, (Dentirostres.) 
 
INSESSORES. 327 
 
 The feet in the Cone-billed Birds are, upon the whole, formed 
 more for perching than for walking, though many birds of this 
 division, walk habitually upon the ground. 
 
 Seeds and grain are the principal food of these, the "Hard- 
 billed " Birds; and for opening the different capsules feind seed 
 vessels, as well as for crushing hard seeds themselves, their stout 
 and homy beaks are peculiarly fitted. Some of these birds, 
 however, join insects to vegetable food ; and a part of them are 
 nearly or quite omnivorous. As the form of the beak varies from 
 that of a short and broad cone, so does the appetite proportiona- 
 bly vary from an exclusive seed diet. The Cone -billed Birds, 
 particularly the Finches, seem to prefer the temperate and 
 colder to the warmer regions ; but they are represented in all the 
 countries of the globe. The families of this tribe are the follow, 
 ing, viz: (1.) Comdce, or Crows; (2.) SturnidtB, or Starlings; 
 (3.) FringilUda, or Finches; (4.) LoxiadtB^ Or Cross-bills; (5.) 
 BueerotidcB, or Horn-bills; (6.) Musophagidce, or Plantain 
 Eaters. 
 
 FiKST Family. The Chows. 
 tlorvida, (Lat. corvus, a raven.) 
 
 The Crows are aniong the largest of the Passerine, or Perch- 
 ing Birds, They are widely spread, but yet comparatively few 
 in number. Their beak is powerful, more or less compressed at 
 the sides, coniciai, but long, having the upper mandible usually 
 arched, the gape nearly straight, and the nostrils concealed by 
 stiff bristles, pointing forwards. The plumage is dark and som- 
 bre, often black, more or less glossed, and sometimes varied with 
 gray or white. To this sombre coloration, the Jays, however, 
 are an exception, being usually arrayed in the richest azure and 
 purple. They are also more exclusively arboreal than others of 
 the family which walk a great deal on the ground* 
 
 The CorvidcB are birds of firm and compact structure ; their 
 wings are long, pointed and strong ; their feet and claws robust. 
 Their disposition is bold and daring ; they are very sagacious ; 
 easily tamed, and rendered familiar. Most of them have the 
 faculty of imitating with much accuracy the sounds Which they 
 hear, and even words of human language. They show a strange 
 propensity for thieving, and for hiding substances that can be of 
 no use to them whatever, particularly if they display metallic or 
 polished surfaces, or brilliant Colors. They may be ranked as 
 omnivorous ; insects and their larvfe, grain, fruits, bread, flesh. 
 
328 
 
 INSESSOEES. 
 
 both when fresh and when putrid, they can, by turns, devour 
 with avidity. 
 
 "The Crow, (Corvus,) "as Swainson strikingly remarks, "is 
 the type of types, or the preeminent type of all birds, uniting a 
 greater number of properties than are to be found in any other 
 genus of birds. Like the Hawk, it soars in the air, and seizes 
 living birds ; like the Vulture, it devours putrid substances, and 
 picks out the eyes of young animals; like the Climbers, it dis. 
 covers its food when hidden from the eye, by pecking ; like the 
 Parrot family, it has a taste for vegetable food ; has great cun. 
 ning, sagacity, and powers of imitation, even to counterfeiting 
 the human voice ; like the Waders, it walks with facility, and 
 has great powers of flight; like the Aquatic birds, it can both 
 catch and feed upon fish. Thus it unites some of the properties 
 of all other birds, and stands the preeminent type ofthe Perchers." 
 
 The largest and most powerful species of the genua Corvus, is 
 the well known Eaven, C. coram, (Lat. a raven,) — ^the Cokbie, 
 of Scotland, celebrated even from the time of the universal 
 deluge, and ever looked upon as a bird of dark omen. It is 
 twenty -five inches in length, and fifty inches in the spread of the 
 wings, — ranging from the Arctic seas to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 in the Eastern Cohtinent, and from the same seas to Mexico, on 
 the Western; unchanged in character, amidst all the variations 
 and extremes of heat and cold ; traveling in pairs, and flying so 
 high that it would escape notice but for its frequent crying; in 
 all times and places, showing itself possessed of acute and 
 powerful sight and smell ; and at perpetual variance with all 
 other feathered tribes. 
 
 The Common Crow, C. Americanus, is seventeen inches in 
 length, being somewhat smaller than the Common Carrion Crow 
 of Europe, from which it differs in its voice, its gregarious habits, 
 and the shape of its tongue\ Both are regarded and treated as 
 nuisances. Tens of thousands of them are shot every season, 
 They may be of some use to farmers in ploughing time, by 
 picking up worms and the larvas of insects; but of other good 
 deeds of the Crow, we are ignorant. No sooner are the seeds 
 in the ground, than he begins to search after and devour them; 
 for Indian Corn and eggs he seems to have a wonderful inclina- 
 tion; and even relishes young chickens, turkeys and goslings; 
 at the same time, he is very cunning in avoiding the snirea 
 which are devised to entrap and destroy him. The Fish Crow, 
 C. ossifragus, (bone-breaker,) — found on the sea-coast as far 
 North as New York, like the Raven and Common Crow, robs 
 other birds of their eggs and their' young; but, being regarded 
 
INCESSOEES. 329 
 
 as inoffensive, it is usually unmolested. It takes the liberty, 
 ho^yever, to feed with great freedom on the best garden fruits. 
 The Magpies, Pica, (Lat. magpie,) and the Jays, Garrulus, (Lat. 
 chatting, or talkative,) are near relatives of the Crows. The 
 well known Blue Jay, G. cristatus, (crested,) is capable of living 
 in cold as welf as warm climates, and is found in all parts of the 
 United States. It is truly omnivorous, and, in times of scarcity, 
 has been known to feed even on carrion. Though extremely 
 beautiful in its appearance and graceful in its movements, (see 
 Plate X. fig. 4c,) it is a deceitful, and often a very mischievous 
 bird. The Nut-ceackers, Nucifraga, (Lat. iiux, a nut; frartgo, 
 to break,) all belong to this family. In their habits, they resem- 
 ble both the Jays and the Woodpeckers, — climbing trees and 
 perforating their bark, and devouring all sorts of fruits and 
 insects, as well as small birds. The Fkuit Crows, Coracince, 
 are a sub-family of South American Birds, about whose proper 
 place there has been some question among naturalists, but which 
 are placed by Swainson with the Corvida. The most remark, 
 able of these are the Capuchin Baldhead, Coracina gymnocephala, 
 (Gr. baldheaded,) a bird about as large as the Common Crow, 
 of Spanish-snuff color, or, as some say, capuchin color. Its 
 large beak and ample forehead, bare of feathers, to which the 
 specific name refers, give it a very singular appearance. The 
 Crested Crow, C. cephaloptera,(Gr, head-winged,) is also a sin- 
 gular looking bird, of a uniform blue-black hue, having the 
 head and base of the bill ornamented with a crest, forming a sort 
 ofparasol, to shade the face, and reaching to the end of the bill, 
 compressed in the same manner as in the Rupicola, or Cook of 
 the Rock. " The sides of the neck are naked, but long feathers 
 forming a loose pelerine, and hanging down lower than the 
 breast, spring from beneath the throat and from the sides of the 
 neck.* This crest and feathers of the pelerine give hietallic 
 reflections.'' (Lesson.) 
 
 In the family of the CorvidtB are included the Birds of Para- 
 dise, which some naturalists have, with reason, erected into a 
 separate family, called FaradiseadcB, including some of the most 
 Singular and magnificent of the feathered tribes. They are 
 natives of New Guinea, to which they are almost confined. Of 
 these birds, splendid as they are, fiction has presented many 
 strange and exaggerated descriptions. For a long time, it was 
 asserted that some of them are without legs ! They considera- 
 bly resemble the Crows in their general structure, and they also 
 approach them in size. In these birds, the wings are long and 
 round, the tail varying in length at the extremity, or else 
 
330 
 
 INS£SSOB£S. 
 
 rouaded. The tarsi are robust, long, and covered by^a siflgle 
 feathered scale ; the toes long and strong, especially the hind 
 toe; the claws large, curved, and powerful. The sides of the 
 body, the neck, the breast, the tail, and sometimes^ the head, are 
 ornamented with lengthened and peculiarly developed showy- 
 feathers ; the plumage of the face and throat, is commonly of a 
 scaly or velvety texture, and most richly glossed with > metallic 
 hues, while other parts of the body are frequently arrayed in 
 rich and brilliant colors. 
 
 There are several species of these birds, but the Emerald 
 Bird of Paradise, which is figured on the Chart, is the- one best 
 known. It is impossible adequately to describe its beauty of 
 form, and the vivid and changing tints of its plumage. The 
 generic part of the scientific name, Paradisea apoita, is from the 
 Greek Paradeisos, a pleasure-ground ; thp specific name, which 
 mea.ns footless, was given it by Linneeus, " because the older 
 naturalists called it footless.'" The truth is, the natives of New 
 Guinea were accustomed to dry birds of this species, (having 
 first cut off the legs,) and to offer them for sale. They v/ere 
 taken to other countries in this "footless" condition ; and hence, 
 conjectures arose that they lived in the air, buoyed up by the light- 
 neas of their feathery covering : thai the shoulders were used for 
 a nest ; that the only rest which they took, was by suspending 
 thernselves from a branch by the filamentary feathers of the tail , 
 that their food was the morning dew, — and other things of a like 
 character, — amusing enough, but entirely without foundation, in 
 fapt. So fstT from living wholly on dew, this bird eats no small 
 amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, etc., which, however, 
 it will not touch when dead ; it also feeds largely on the seeds 
 of the teak tree, and on figs and aromatics; when alive, it is 
 about the size of a Common Jay, or Pigeon ; its note is like that 
 of the Starling. The body, breast, and lower parts, are "of a 
 deep rich brown; the forehead is clothed with close-set feathers 
 of a velvety black shbt with green ; the throat of a rich golden 
 green ; the head yellow ; the sides of the tail are clothed with a 
 splendid plume of downy feathers of a soft yellow color. By 
 the^e are placed two long filaments, or thread-like shafts, 
 which extend nearly two feet in length. (See figure on the 
 Chart.) '*0f these beautiful feathers, the bird is so proud, that 
 it will not suffer the least speck of dirt to remain upon them, 
 and it is constantly examining its plumage, to see that there are no 
 spots on it. When in its wild state, it always flies and sits with 
 its face to the wind, lest its elegant flying plumes should be dis- 
 arranged." The female is without these floating plumes of the 
 
INSESSORES. 331 
 
 male, and her colors are less lustrous. The Emerald, in its 
 motions is lively and agile, and, in general, it perches only upon 
 the tops of the most lofty trees. These birds are killed by the 
 natives with blunt arrows, and sold to the Europeans ; this forms 
 a gainful traffic ; and hence, the Chinese, it is said, fabricate 
 imitations of these "celestial fowls," of the feathers of Parrots 
 and Paroquets, which they sell at high prices to strangers. 
 
 Second Family. The Starlings. 
 Sturnida. (Lat. Slurnust a starling, or stare.) 
 
 The Staelings are a numerous and widely distributed fam- 
 ily ; larger, for the most part, than the average of the perching 
 birds; but of less size than the Crows, which, in structure and 
 manners, they much resemble. The beak in these birds, is of a 
 form well adapted for penetrating the earth in search of the 
 worms and underground larvae upon which they feed. 
 
 The plumage is commonly of dark colors, bu*. has a peculiar 
 richness; black, glossed with lustrous hues of sfesl blue, purple, 
 or green, of the prevailing color, but occasionally it is relieved: 
 by broad masses of crimson or yellow, (and, in a (iew instances, 
 of white,) as in the Icterus, or Baltimore Oriole. 
 
 The Starlings live in societies, sometimes immensely numer- 
 ous, and seem uiiiversally to prefer the locality of plains fre- 
 quented by cattle ; in this particular, resembling the Maize 
 Birds. 
 
 The Common Starling, (S. vulgaris) it has been observed, 
 becomes Wonderfully familiar in the house ; is very docile ; 
 always gay and wakeful ; soon knows all the inhabitants of the 
 house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself 'o 
 their humors ; he repeats correctly the airs which he is taught, 
 imitates the cries of men and animals, and the^ songs of all the 
 birds in the same room with hinjself; but his acquirements are 
 of little value, for he forgets as fast as he learns The Starling 
 lays, twice in a year, from four to six eggs of a delicate pale 
 blue, or qf an ashy green color. It is about the size of the 
 Blackbird. 
 
 The Meadow Starling, or Meadow Lark, (Stumella ludo. 
 D/cia/ia.) IS a beautiful bird, found abundantly throughout the 
 United States, and as far North as the Fur countries, wintering 
 in the Carolinas, or Florida. It builds its nest at the foot of 
 some tall, strong grass. This bird, chough useful in destroying 
 
333' msEssoRES. 
 
 thousands of larvse in meadows, is a little too fond of scratching 
 up tlie seeds of grain, and of plucking up young corn; it has 
 been known even to kill and eat small birds." The^ male is 
 about eleven inches in length. 
 
 The Red-winged Starling, S. prtBdatorius, (Lat. plunder- 
 ing,) ranges from Labrador to Mexico, — north of Maryland 
 being migratory. From its strong' predilection for corn or 
 maize, and its extensive depredations upon the young ears, it has 
 acquired a bad reputation, having among other names, that of 
 CoKN or Maize Thief. A remarkable characteristic of this 
 bird is, that the male is nearly two inches longer than the female, 
 and of proportionate magnitude. • >. 
 
 The Boat-tai/ls are American Birds, and the largest of the 
 Starling family, and might easily be mistaken for Crows. Their 
 tails are so concave on their upper sides as to resemble a boat, 
 whence the sub-family name, Scaphidurince, (Gr. skaphis, a 
 boat; oura, a tail.) The typical birds of this group, {Scaphi' 
 dura,) are found in South America. 
 
 Another genus, sometimes included in the Boat-tail Birds, is 
 Quisbklus, which has sev6r{il representatives in the United States^ 
 Among these are (1) the Boat-tailed Grackle,or Great CrowBlaolc 
 Bird, Q. major, (Lat. greater,) about sixteen inches in length, and 
 found in the Southern States, particularly on the sea-coast. .The 
 food of this species consists, principally, of the small crabs, called 
 "fiddlers;" fS,) the Purple Grackle, or Common Crow Black- 
 bird, is a constant resident in the Southern States, but migrating 
 very far North. It appears in the Sta.te of New York about 
 the middle of April, and is notorious, and dreaded for its attacks 
 on Indian Corn ; {3,) the Rusty Crow Blackbird, Q,.ferrugineus, 
 (Lat. iron-colored,) of similar character and habits with the pre- 
 ceding, but ranging still farther North. 
 
 The sub-family, LamprptarnincB, (Gr. lamprotes, splendor; 
 ornis, a bird,) includes Grackles found in Asia and Africa, in 
 which they rep^essnt the Boat-tails of America. 
 
 The Orioles, or Hang-Nests, Icterus, (Gr. Yellow Thrush,) 
 — sub-family, IcterincB, — are a numerous and beautiful group 
 of American Birds, of which the Baltimore Oriole, I. Baltimore, 
 is the most noted. This is sometimes called Golden Oriole, 
 Golden Robin ; and also Fire-Bird, Fire Hang-Bird, from 
 the bright orange seen through the green leaves, and resem- 
 bling a flash of fire ; but more generally, the Baltimore Bird ; ' 
 its colors of black and orange, resembling those of the arms 
 or livery of Lord Baltimore, formerly proprietary of Mary.- 
 land. The materials which this bird uses for making its nest. 
 
INSESSOEES. 333 
 
 vary with the temperature. In Louisiana, itS; nest {see. Plate 
 XL fig. 4) is constructed of moss, woven throughout, so that the 
 air can easily pass thVough it, and it is placed in the coolest posi- 
 tion ; so strorlgly is it secured, that no wind can carry it off 
 without hreaking the branch to which it is suspended. In Penn. 
 sylvaniaand New York, the nest is constructed of the warmest 
 and softest materials, and so placed as to be exposed to the 
 sun's rays. In summer, the Baltimore Oritfles are dispersed 
 over the United States, and as far North as Nova Scotia. The 
 song of, this bird, is a clear, mellow whistle, repeated at short 
 intervals. The male, according to Audubon, does not ;receive 
 its full plumage until the third spring. The principal food of the 
 Oriole consists of caterpillars, beetles, and bugs, particularly one 
 of a brilliant glossy green. 
 
 Dr. DeKay, in the Natural History of New York, includes 
 the Crow Blackbirds, (Quisealus,) the Orioles, {Icterus,) the Cow 
 Bunting, (Molothrus,) and the Bob-o'link, (Dolichonyx,) in one 
 family, QuiscalidcB. But Audubon ari'anges these together, 
 with. the Mar^h Blatfkbird, Agelaius, in the family Agelaimz, 
 
 MiNO Bird. — Among the Starlings we also place the Mino 
 Bird, Eulabes, (Gr. euldbes, circumspect, or religious,) Javana- 
 cus, or Gracula religiosa ; following Swainson in this arrange- 
 ment, who deems it quite unreasonable to place this long-legged 
 Grackle close to the short-legged Rollers, as M. Lesson has 
 dQue. This bird has a short and stout beak, with the tip dis- 
 tinctly notched. Its plumage is of a deep velvety black, with a 
 white space in the middle of the wing ; behind the eye spring 
 fleshy carbuncles of a bright orange color. 
 
 The Mino Bird feeds on insects and fruits. It is easily tamed ; 
 learns to whistle and talk with great facility, and is therefore a 
 great favorite with the Javanese. Marsden says, it has the fac- 
 ulty of imitating human speech in greater perfection than any 
 pther of the feathered tribe. There is said to be a srnaller 
 variety of this bird in India. 
 
 Third Family. Finches. 
 Fringillidce, (Lat. Fringilla, a finch.) 
 
 The Finches are a large and interesting family, the smallest 
 of the Perchers, and, for the most part, excellent songsters. 
 They have short, thick, and powerful beaks ; both mandibles are 
 usually of equal thickness^ and their length and breadth nearly 
 alike, so that when the beak is closed, it generally appears like 
 a very short cone divided in the middle by the gape. In some 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATI! XI. 
 
 Pig. l.'Nest of the Chesinitt Crowned Titmouse, fiuspeaded from the 
 foric of a twig, nine iaoheS lObg, more than three in diameter, entrance 
 at the top less than an inch vide, made of thre Bofteat materials. 
 ■Fig. 2a. Nesta of the African Weater-Birds, (Reeitblican Grosbeaks of 
 Swainson.) ihe numerous entrances to this Bird Town lead, to regu- 
 lar streets, having nests on each side, at about two inches distance from 
 each other ; the general roof or cover is built by the united labors of 
 the birds, and sometimes shelters hundreds. That from ithlch'this fig- 
 ure was taken was thought to contain a society of ejght. hundred or a 
 thousaud. 
 pig. 2b. Hive nests of the Sooiablk Weaver-birds. The lower surface 
 abounds with perforations admitting the birds to their nests, but ex- 
 cluding snakes and other intruders. They never occupy the'oid nests, 
 but continue to add successive tiers UDtil the branches yield to the ac- 
 cumulated weight. 
 Fig. 3. Nest of the Wood Swallow. 
 
 Fig. 4. Nest of the Baltimore Oriole, closely interwoven with flax, hemp, 
 tow, hair, and bits of thread, cord, &c., stitched through and through 
 with horse hair, securely suspended from the branch of a tree. 
 Fig. 5. Nest of the Penduline Titmouse, or Bottle Tit, made of the 
 down of the wUlow, poplar, and thistle, lined with, feathers, containing 
 from ten to fqurteen eggs. 
 Fig. 6. Nest of the PensilS WEAVER-Biftog, or Weaver Finches, shaped 
 like a Chemist's retort ; suspended over water from trees ; entrance 
 from beneath. 
 Fig. 1. Nest of the Wren ; of hay, if against a hay-staek ; of moss, if 
 
 against a mossy tree. 
 Fig. 8. Nest of the Tailor-bird, or Tailor Warbler, of Ceylon, curi- 
 ously formed by stitching with plant fibres or threads of cotton a dead 
 leaf to a living one ; nest open at the top and filled with fine down. 
 A species in Italy are said to sew their materials together with spiders' 
 webs. 
 Pig. 9. Bar-Tailed fluMMlNO Bird, of Peru ; the nest of soft delicate 
 
 materials, is often wSrped or woven together with spiders' webs. 
 Fig. 10. Nests of the Bank Swallows or Sand Martins, numerous in Sand 
 banks Or artificial excavations, such as gravel-pits. Audubon Ays, 
 "the little Creatures are so industrious he has known a, hole dug to the 
 depth, of three feet four inches, the nest finished in four days, and the 
 first egg deposited on the morning of the fifth." 
 Fig. 11. GOdrd-shapkd nests of the EEtuBLiOAN or Cliff Swallow, built 
 of muddy sand under the eaves or cornices of buUdings, At attached 
 to rooks overhanging rivers, where they are found grouped by hundreds. 
 Note. — The nests of Eaptobial birds are seldom met with, as they are 
 usually built in lofty trees or inaccessible precipices. Owls do not usually 
 construct nests, but deposit their eggs in some hole, in a tree, an old build- 
 ing, or in the ground. Insectivorous birds are solitary builders ; among 
 the Shrikes, Thrushes, Warblers, TiUmioe, and Fly-catchers, there is not 
 one instance of a species either living or building in societies. Pensile 
 nests are altogether peculiar to perching birds, and are more common in 
 tropical than temperate latitudes. Hundreds of hang-iiests may be seen in 
 Brazil attached to a single tree ; some of them are said to measure between 
 four and five feet. Other nests are said to have a portico or ante-rooK 
 where the male bird often sits during the time ei the female's incubal^ik 
 
PI .XT. 
 
INSESSOEES. 337 
 
 genera, however, the conical, form is less obvious, by the lateral 
 and vertical swelling of its Qutline. The Grosbeak, or Haw- 
 FINCH, Coccothrauste^ (6r. kokkos, grain ; thrauo, I break,) has 
 a beak enormously thick in proportion to its length, and in com- 
 parison with the size of the head. In this bird, and, indeed, in 
 all the Finches, the great strength of the beak well ads^pts it for 
 the uses to which it is destined, as the food of this bird Consists 
 of seeds often enclosed in woody capsules of great hardness, or 
 the kernels of stone fruits, which must either be opened by a 
 forcible wrench, or crushed by a strong pressure. The Finch- 
 es, besides seeds, also feed on grain, and occasionally on 
 insects. 
 
 These birds frequent fields, groves, and woodlands; numbers 
 of them ar# found in gardens, building their nests in bushes. 
 Many of them, in a state of captivity, , are rendered subservient 
 to human improvement, and become favorite domestic pets. So 
 numerous are the genera and species of this family, it is impos- 
 sible, within the limits of this volume, to give any more than the 
 briefest notices of some of the more prominent ones, 
 
 1. We notice the Weaveks, sub-family, Ploceina, (Gr. plo- 
 keus, a weaver ) 
 
 These birds build their nest upon branches extending over 
 a river or pool of' water ; it is shaped exactly like a chemist's 
 retort, (Plate XI. fig 6 ;) and is suspended from the head ; and 
 the shank, of eight or nine inches length, at the bottom of which 
 is the opening, almost touches the water. It is made of green 
 grass and curiously woven. The Weaver Birds also construct 
 the celebrated hive-shaped nests. (See nests of the Social 
 Weaver Birds, Plate XL fig. 2.) The Textor, (Lat. Weaver,) 
 erythrorhyneus, (Gr. eruthros, red ; rhunchos, a beak.) The 
 Red-beaked Weaver, of South Africa, companies with Buffa- 
 loes, and obtains from their hides its supply of food. It serves 
 these animals by ridding them of the insects with which their 
 hides are infested, and,by flying up on any alartn, it becomes to 
 them as a sentinel, indicating the approach of danger, or of any 
 thing unusual. This bird does not appear to attach itself to any 
 quadruped but the Buffalo. 
 
 The Widow Birds, or Whidah Finches, ranged by Swainson 
 Under the sub-genus Vidua, (Lat. a widow,)-^have long boat- 
 shaped tails, with the two middle feathers excessively lengthened, 
 and generally broad and convex. In Senegal and South Africa, 
 is found the Widow Bird of the " English salesmen and fan,pjers," 
 V.paradisea. about the size of a Canary bird, — but the twp, fe*trhei;s 
 next to the middle tail-feathers are a foot m length ftoai the. base, 
 
ggg INSESSOBES. 
 
 and about three-fourths of an inch in width ; the two middle feathers 
 have very broad webs on their basal half, (or extending about three 
 inches midway,) but the remainder of the shaft becomes like a 
 plumeless, hair-like process of the same length. The term, 
 "widowed," is applied to this group from the sombre hue which 
 prevails in the plumage, "suggesting the idea of widow's 
 weedsj" Among tlie Ploceince, Swainson places the, Java 
 Spaeeow, Amadina, represented by the Tiaris, or Creslet, in 
 South America, in whicii the thickness of the beak is enormous 
 in proportion to its length, and the middle feathers of the tail are 
 the longest. This bird is frequently kept as a pet in cages, 
 living on seeds. 
 
 II. The Buntings, sub-family, Emherizidtz, are an interest, 
 ing group of Passerine birds, differing from the Finches proper, 
 chiefly by having a knob on the "palate," or on the under man- 
 dible, — the sides of the uVider mandible bending inwards ; their 
 strong conical beak is well adapted for breaking the seeds which 
 constitute their principal food. 
 
 The Laek BuNTmss, Plectrophanes, [Gt. pIectron;pJiaino,;\o 
 display,) have moderately long tarsi; the side toes of equal 
 length ; the hind toe strong, with a lengthened and nearly 
 straight claw. There are several species of these birds, among 
 which is the Snow Lark Bunting, P. nivalis, (Lat. snowy,) 
 which appears in the Eastern part of the United States early in 
 November, and in some parts, remaining until March. The 
 summer plumage of the Snow Bunting, is pure white and black, 
 but it is found in all varieties of plumage. In the Highlands of 
 Scotland, it is called the Snow Flake ; in Labrador, New Found- 
 land, and elsewhere, the White Bird ; and also the White Snow. 
 Bird, to distinguish it from the Common Snow Bird. Struihus, 
 (Gt. sirouthos, a sparrow;) hyeTtialis, [hat. of winter.) The 
 Arctic Bird, the Lapland Snow-Bird, or Bunting, P. Lappmdtus, 
 breeds in moist meadows, on the shores of the Arctic seas; and 
 in the State of New York, is seen during the extreme cold of 
 winter. Audubon observed these birds in Kentucky and Missouri. 
 They have been seen as far North as 74o Lat. 
 
 The Buntings, Emberiza, include a large number of species. 
 The Black Throated Bunting, E. Americana, is abundant in 
 the Middle and Atlantic districts of the Union, but exceedingly 
 so in the vast prairies of the West; Its simple and unmusical 
 notes, are said to resemble those of the Corn Bunting, of Europe, 
 E, miliaria, (Lat. of millet.) Its length is six inches. The 
 Yellow Winged Bunting, £. passerina, (Lat. sparrow. like,) is 
 a small bird, only four and a half inches long, which "passes, un- 
 
INSESSORES. 339 
 
 observed, from Mexico to bonnecticut. The indiviBuals seem 
 to move off in a sulky knoodj' and in so concealed a way, that 
 theif winter-quarters are yet unknown." The Field Bunting, 
 E. pusilla, (Lat. very small, or weak,) breeds from Maryland to 
 Maine. It is social and peaceable, and trills its notes like a 
 young Canary Bird. In length it is six inches. 
 
 The Chipping Bunting, or Chip-Bird, E. socialis, (Lat. so- 
 cial,) is known to all. It is confined to the United States and 
 the adjacent Eastern provinces; associating with the Song 
 Sparrow, or Finch, Frivgilla melodia, and other birds of the same 
 genus. The Chip-Bird builds its nest on some low bush and 
 lines it with cow-hair; lays from four to five bright greenish 
 blue eggs, spotted with brown chiefly at the larger end. It 
 seems determined to make up in quantity any defect in the 
 quality of its notes, for it sings all the day long. It migrates to 
 the Southern States in the winter, and is among the earliest of 
 the Spring birds. This bird may be noticed, gleaning up 
 crumbs from our yards, and our very doors,-'— it will even ap- 
 proach the threshold to pick up the crumbs thrown to it, — in 
 this social characteristic, it is singular ; it is distinguished by 
 its black bill and frontlet. Its length is five and a half inches. 
 This bird seems to represent, in Ametrica, the Common, or House 
 Sparrow, of Europe, Fyrgila domesliea ; but it is less bold and 
 ci'afty than the latter bird, and probably less voracious also. 
 Buffon estimated that a pair of Sparrows will destroy about 
 4,000 caterpillars weekly in feeding their young; this is some 
 compensation for the birds' devastation in granaries and barns. 
 
 The Tree Sparrow, or Canada Bunting, E. Canadensis, 
 breeds in the Fur countries. Audubon thinks it also breeds in 
 Maihe. This bird ^ may be seen in the magnificent elms that 
 ornament Boston and its adjacent villages. It is a sweet songster. 
 
 The well known Snow 'Bvs.d, Strutlms hyefrMlis,.0T Niphcm, 
 (snowy,) hiemalis, Aud., migrates from the North, at night, as far 
 as 30o N. L. It -is common to the northerii parts of the conti- 
 nent of Europe. This is a shy, timorous bird, and is rarely 
 seen exceJpt in snow-storms; when it appears in flocks around' 
 dwellings. At night, it resorts to stacks of corn or hay, making 
 there a hole for its resort in cold weather. Its nest is built on 
 the ground ; the eggs are usually four in number, of a spherical 
 form, yellowish white, and sprinkled with reddish brown dots. 
 Length six and a quarter inches. , 
 
 The Indigo Bunting, or Indigo BiIid, Spi«a, (Gr. from spizo, 
 to chirp ;) cyanea, (sky-blue,) is one of our beautiful birds coming 
 from the Southi and appeailiDg in New York late in May, — ^it is 
 
g^Q INSfiSSOBES. 
 
 seen throughout the United States. Its note nearly equals that 
 of the Canary, but is not so sonorous. This bird seems gradu- 
 ally to lose! its brilliant tints when caught and caged, as does the 
 Painted Bttnting, S. ciris, (Gr. fceifis, name of a bird,)of Caro- 
 lina, Louisiana, and South America. In certain lights, the plumage 
 of the Indigo Bird appears of a rich sky-blue, and in others, of a 
 vivid verdigris green ; so that ''the same bird, in passing from one 
 place to another, before your eyes, seems to undergo a total 
 change of color." (Wilson.) Its length is five and a half inchesi 
 The Painted Bunting is found in the orange groves of the, South, 
 It is abundant in the vicinity qf New Orleans, where it is caught 
 in trap-cages. 
 
 The Shore Finches, Ammodramus, (Gr. ammos, sand ; dra- 
 mein, to run,) are found on the Atlantic coast from Texas to 
 Massachusetts, — and in summer, in our salt marshes, where they 
 breed. The Seaside Finch, A. marilinms, (of the sea,) feeds 
 chiefly on marine crustacea, and such insects as are found on the 
 seashore. Its builds its nest on the ground ; and lays from four 
 to six grayish white eggs, speckled with brown. Length from 
 seven to eight inches. The Swamp Spakhow, A. palustris, 
 forms the principal food of the Sparrow Hawks and Hen.Har. 
 riers. In New York, it is often called the Red Grass-bird. 
 Swamp Sparrows have been found abundantly in the marshes of 
 Cayuga Lake. Their note is* a harder, tone than that of 
 other Sparrows. The length is about six inches. This bird 
 ranges from Texas to Labrador. It is said to be abundant about 
 Boston during the winter ; has a short, conical bill, higher than 
 broad at the base. «nd very acute at the tip. 
 
 The Linnets, Zinana, include several species. The Brown 
 Linnet, L: linota, is a song-bird common in every part of Eu- 
 rope. Of this Linnet, it has been said, "it is the cleanliest of 
 birds, delighting to dabble in the water, and to dress its plume ge 
 in every little rill that runs by. The extent of voice in a single 
 bird is not remarkable, being more pleasing than powerful, yet 
 a l^rge field of furze, in a mild sunny April morning, animated 
 with the actions and cheering music of these harntless little 
 creatures, united with the bright glow and odor of this early 
 blossom, it not without its gratification." 
 
 The Common Linnet frequents commons and neglected pas- 
 tures, and builds its nest in the center of a large and dense brush. 
 
 The Lessee Red-Poll, L. minor, in length about five inches, 
 and the Mealy RedPoll, L. borealis, in length, five inches and a 
 half, are found within the United States. The Pine Linnet, L, 
 pinus, (Lat. pine,) sings while on the wing, like the Goldfinch. 
 
IK6ESS0SKS. 341 
 
 It- feeds among the branches of the tallest 'Fir trees, as well as on 
 the seeds of Thistles, much in the manner of the European Siskik, 
 on the Ftingilla Spinim, f Lat. blackuhom.) Its length is a little 
 less than five inches. 
 
 The American Goldfinch, or Yellow BirB. Card-uelis, 
 (Lat. a thistle-finch,) tristis, (Lat. sad,) (see Chart,) is a well 
 known and handsome bird, similar in its song and flight to the 
 Goldfinch. Its plumage and notes make it universally agreea- 
 ble. The Yellow Bird is abundant in the middle districts of the 
 Union, in summer, and so hairdy is it, that it often remains there 
 during the whole winter. It iJanges from the tropics to the 
 northern and southern regions. Its length is four and a half 
 inches. This bird feeds principally on the seeds of hemp, the 
 sun-flower, and various species of thistles. From its fondness 
 for the thistle down, it has been called the Thistlefihch. It is 
 sometimes kept in cages for song, and wjll live to a great age in 
 a cage or room. Audubon says he has known instances in 
 which birds of this species had been confined for ten years. 
 They had been taken in tra]p-cages, as the writer has taken 
 them, in the vicinity of New York city. This bird is not 
 only beautiful, but seems to give evidence of unusual sagacity. 
 It can be trained to draw water for its drink from a glass,— ^and 
 when it alights on a twig covered with bird-lime, for the purpose 
 of securing it, "it no sooner discovers the nature of the treacher- 
 ous substance, than it throws itself backwards, with clbsed wings, 
 and hangs in this posture until the bird-lime has run out in the 
 form of a slender thread considerably below the twig, when, 
 feeling a certain degree of security, it beats its wings, and flies 
 off," — and, says Audubon, from whom we now quote, "I have 
 observed Goldfinches that had escaped from me in this manner, 
 when about to alight on any twig, whether smeared with bird- 
 lime or not, flutter over it, as if to assure themselves of its being 
 safe for them to perch upon it." Its length is four and a half 
 inches. Several species of Goldfinch are found in the United 
 States. 
 
 The Finches proper, Fringilla, include quite a number of 
 species, among which are the Song Sparrow, F. melodia, (Gr. 
 song,) which presents two varieties ; one having spots generally 
 distributed over the breast ; the other having fewer spots on the 
 breast, but a large black one in the center, — appearing among us 
 even before the Pewee and Blue Bird. The Song Sparrow is 
 the harbinger of spring; it is "the earliest, sweetest, and most 
 lasting songster." The first named variety builds ^its nest in 
 low shrubs' a few feet from the ground ; the other builds it upon 
 
342 
 
 mSESSOB£S. 
 
 the ground. : It feeds chiefly upon insects. Its length is about 
 six and a half inches. 
 
 The Fox-coloked Finch, or Sparbow, F. iliaea, (Lat.,from 
 ilia, flanks,) is one of the largest of the genus, being seven and 
 a half inches long, and breeds in countries North of the United 
 States. It has been seen as far North as 680 Lat., and ranges 
 South to within 30o of the equator. 
 
 The Bay-winged Sparrow, or Grass Bird, Grey Grass 
 Bird, F. graminea, is ranked by Audubon and Wilson with the 
 Buntings. We' follow Dr. DeKay in placing this familiar Spar- 
 row with the Finches proper. It feeds on grass seeds and insects. 
 Length five and a half inches. 
 
 The White-throated Finch, F. Pennsylvanica, is an active 
 Northern Sparrow, appearing in New York, more or less, during 
 the whple year, and advancing as far as 660 North. 
 
 The Ground Finches, Pipj'Zo, (Lat. to peep, or chirp,) scoop 
 out the earth and build their nests on the ground. Th^ live 
 on grubs and earth and wire-worms. 
 
 The Towhee Ground-Finch, P. eryihrophihalmus, (Gr. em. 
 ihros, red ; ophihalmos, eye,) is found in large numbers on the 
 Pine Barrens of Kentucky, It breeds in New York State, and 
 is known " under the name of Chewink from its peculiar note, and 
 of Ground Robin, from its seldom attempting to fly high." In 
 Louisiana it is called Grassbt, and esteemed by epicures. 
 
 There are several species of Purple Finches, Erylhrospiza, 
 (Gr. fruthros, red; spiza, a bird like a sparrow.) The Crested 
 Purple FiNCH. E. purpurea, (Lat. purple,) frequently associates 
 with ihe Cross-bills, and feeds, upon the same trees, — it ranges 
 from Texas to Labrador. Length six inches. This bird is seen 
 on the Atlantic coast of New York State as late as December 
 and January. 
 
 The Pine Btjll-Finch, or Common Pine Finch, Corythus, 
 (Gr. korus, a crest ;) enucleator, (Lat. kernel, or seed-sheller,) 
 is a most beautiful bird, and a charming songster; of a red 
 color, (the female olive-green,) with the wings and tail brown,--*< 
 ranging from Pennsylvania to Newfoundland, and breeding 
 from Maine northward. The length is eight and a half inches. 
 It has been seen in large flocks in the vicinity of New York 
 city. Nuttall, Bonaparte, and others, name this bird Pyrrhula, 
 (Gr. purrhoulas, from puros, red,) enucleator. 
 
 The Cardinal Grosbeak, or Crested Red Bird, Pitylus, 
 (Gr. pilulos, frequent agitation and mo\ement,) cardinalis, — ^is 
 a bird which no one can see without admiring. In richness of 
 plumage, elegance of motion, and strength of song, this specie* 
 
INSESSOBES. 343 
 
 surpasses all its kindred found within the United States. Length 
 eight inches. It breeds abundantly from Texas to New York. 
 In some parts, it is called the Virginia Nightingale. 
 
 The Blue Grosbeak, Coccoborus cceruleus, and the Rose- 
 breasted Grosbeak, Coccoborus ludovicianus, are also very- 
 beautiful species. 
 
 The Summer Red Bird, Pyranga mstiva, (Lat. of sum- 
 mer,) coming from Mexico and farther South, is seen among 
 us in the hottest part of summer, rarely moving eastward of 
 New York. It feeds on insects, particularly the largest 
 beetles. This bird cannot bear cold, or even temperate weath- 
 er, and its stay in the United States, (where it breeds,) scarcely 
 exceeds four months. Length seven and a half inches. This 
 bird is also called Tanagra, (Gr. a brazen. vessel,) in allusion 
 to- the color of the female bird. The Black-winged Red 
 Bird, or Tanager, is seven inches in length ; reaches New 
 York about the middle of^May; and goes as far as 49a N. L. 
 It migrates by night In September. 
 
 Larks. 
 
 Sub-family Alaudintz, (Lat. alauda, a lark.) 
 
 Of these singing birds there are many species, characterized 
 by a long and straight hind claw, a strong straight bill, and by 
 being able to raise the feathers on the back part of the head in 
 the form of a crest. The greater part of them are migratory ; 
 they build their nests on the ground and may be regarded as pe- . 
 culiarly birds of the fields and meadows. The Larks are every 
 whei'e distinguished for their vigilance and their song. The con- 
 formation of their feet - does not adapt them for perching, but 
 rather for walking on the earth. They accordingly always 
 build on the ground, making usually a rather slight, though neat 
 nest, and laying about five eggs, for the most part of a grayish 
 white, with specks of a brown color. They frequently rear two 
 broods of young during the summer. 
 
 These birds are filmed for singing while in flight, and soaring 
 to great heights in the air. From the situation of their nests, 
 they are much exposed to the attacks of predaceous animals of 
 the weasel kind, which destroy a great many of the eggs and 
 young. During their migrations, immense numbers of these 
 singing birds are, contrary to our sense of justice, taken in nets 
 to increase the pleasures of the table, particularly on the conti- 
 nent of Europe. Swainson considers the genus Alauda to be of 
 
344 INSESSORES. 
 
 the Fisslrostral type, but they are more commonly ranked with 
 the Cone-billed birds, where we have placed them. 
 
 The Sky-lark, A. avensis, the Alouette of the French, the 
 Feld Lerche of the Germans, and the Lodola of the Italians, is 
 widely celebrated for its inexpressibly beautiful song, chanted 
 far up in the air, when the bird is at liberty and in its natural 
 state. It commences to sing early in the spring, and continues 
 its song during the entire summer. " When this Lark first rises 
 from the earth, its notes are feeble and interrupted ; as it ascends 
 however, they gradually swell to their full tone, and long after 
 the bird has reached a height where it is lost to the eye, it still 
 continues to charm the ear with its melody." Its food consists 
 of insects and their larvse, with many sorts of seeds and grain. 
 The Sky-lark is about seven inches in length. It is found 
 throughout Europe ; also in Asia and the northern parts of 
 Africa. 
 
 The Wood-lake, A. arhorea, is smaller and can perch on 
 trees, a power denied to the Sky-lark. 
 
 The HoKNED Lark, A. cornuta, (Lat. horned,) is an Ameri- 
 can species of a dusky brown color, seven and a half inches in 
 length. Its head has erectile feathers. This Lark ranges from 
 680 N. Lat. to Texas. It is seen during the coldest weather. 
 
 Dr. Buckland figures a Lark, {alauda,) among the land mam- 
 mals and birds of the third period of the Tertiary series, in the 
 first plate of his illustrations of his " Bridgewater Treatise." 
 
 SXTB-FAMILY. The CoLIES. 
 
 ColiadcB, (Gr. xohbg, kolibs, the name of a bird.) 
 
 The Golies are ranked by Swainson among the Muscophagada, 
 or Plantain-eaters. Othej-s rank them among the Finches. Gosse, 
 in his work on Birds, raises them to the rank of a family, and 
 places them between the Finches and Plantain-eaters. They 
 are few in number and confined to Africa and India. The two 
 mandibles of the short, conical beak, are, in these birds, arched, 
 the point of the upper slightly overhanging the lower. The feath- 
 ers of the tail are exceedingly long and stiflP; like the Humming 
 Birds, they deviate from the general ruje of twelve tail-feathers, 
 having but ten, agreeing in this respect with the Swifls, and also 
 in having the hind toe capable of being turned forwards, so that 
 all the four toes point in one direction. In their general form 
 and habits, they do not, however, show any likeness to the 
 Swifts. The Colies live niostly on trees, climbing about much in 
 the manner of Parrots. They go in large flocks and even 
 
lUSESSOEES. 34,5 
 
 breed fe corntnunities, constructing numerous targe and round 
 nests in tlie same bushes ; in each nest five or six eggs are de- 
 posited. It is said these birds sleep suspended from a branch, 
 with their heads downwards, many of them together ; and that 
 when the weather is cold, as it sometimes is in South Africa, 
 they are found so benumbed in the morning that they may be 
 readily taken, one after another, without their making an effort 
 to escape. The plumage of the Goly, {Colitis,) is short, thick, 
 aqd sn)ooth, with a silky appearance. The feathers of the head 
 are lengthened, forming a long pointed crest, which can be 
 erected at pleasure. The prevailing; colors are gray or ashy, 
 from which circumstance, and that of their crawling about trees, 
 they, are, at the Cape of Good Hope, called Muys-vBgel, or 
 Mouse, birds. 
 
 The Colies live chiefly on fruits, the buds of trees, and the 
 tender sprouts of vegetables. On account of the mischief which 
 they dp in gardens, they are much disliked. They are bad 
 walkers, but expert climbers, clinging to the branches in all sorts 
 of attitudes. Their cry is monotonousj (the wind-pipe, (trachea,) 
 being furnished with but a single pair of vocal muscles,) and 
 that of the largest species is said to resemble the bleating of a 
 lamb. The flesh of the Colies is of a delicate flavor and highly 
 esteemed. It forms the common food of several species of the 
 Birds of Prey. The C. Senegalensis, as its name imports, is a 
 native of West Africa. It has a pearly-gray plumage with 
 greenish reflections ; the forehead is yellow ; the under part of 
 the body ruddy ; and a naked reddish skin surrounds the eye. 
 
 Fourth Family. Cross-Bills. 
 Jjoxiadce, (Gr. loSfi?, lonsos, oblique.) 
 
 The beak of the Cross-Bills, (Plate IX. fig. 8,) is of unique 
 form, the mandibles curving to the right and left, and always in 
 opposite directions to each other. In some of these birds the 
 upper mandible is turned to the right, the lower mandible curved 
 to the left ; in others the position of the mandibles is reversed as 
 to their direction. The upper mandible has a limited degree of 
 motion on the head or cranium, the upper jaw bones and the 
 nasal' ones being united to the frontal bone by flexible osseous 
 laminae. The lower jaw is remarkably strong, and the muscles 
 by which this and the upper mandible are moved, are large^par- 
 ticularly in the lower jaw, and act with great power in asidewise 
 direction. By this extraordinary bill, these birds are enabled to 
 extract the seeds from pine cones with remarkable facility j and 
 
346 INSESSORES. 
 
 they are confined to localities in virhich these cones can be ob. 
 tained, such as the Hartz, or great pine forests of Germany. 
 They first fix themselves across the cone, then bring the points 
 of the mandibles from their crossed position to be immediately 
 over each other. In this reduced compass, they insert their beaks, 
 and then opening them, not in the usual manner, but by drawing' 
 the lovifer mandible sidewise, they force open the scales. In 
 this process, they are aided by the beautiful and peculiar adap. 
 tation of the tongue, an additional portion, partly osseous, with a 
 horny covering being articulated to the front end of the bone of 
 the tongue, {os hyoides.) Underneath this grooved appendage is 
 another small muscle which is attached at one end to the bone of 
 the tongue ; at the other, it is joined to the movable piece, and 
 by its erection bends the point downwards and backwards ; whilst; 
 therefore, the points of the beak press the shell from the body of the 
 cone, the tongue, brought forward by its own muscle, is enabled, 
 by additional ones, to direct and insert its cutting scoop beneath 
 the seed, and the food thus dislodged is transferred to the mouth. 
 
 While these birds are at work on the fir cones, they send forth 
 a gentle twitter, and may be seen climbing among the branches 
 like parrots ; but they- are also said to have a pleasant song, 
 poured forth only in the, winter months, or at the season of incu- 
 bation. The Cross-bills are subject to considerable changes- of 
 color. 
 
 The male of the Common Cross-bill, Loxia curviroslra, (Lat. 
 curve-beaked,) varies from a beautiful red to an orange color on' 
 the head, neck, breast and back ; the female is generally of a 
 dull olive green on those parts which are red in the male. It is 
 sometimes called the German Parrot, and on account of its sweet 
 and well tasted flesh, is in special request in the bird-market of 
 Vienna, (Austria,) for the purposes of the table. This bird is 
 five and three-fourths inches long. It is a regular inhabitant of 
 ^all our pine forests (situated north of 40° N. Lat.,) from the be- 
 ginning of September to the middle of April, building its nest on 
 the highest part of the fir trees, and making use of the resinous 
 matter which exudes from them for fixing it to the trees. 
 
 The American Cboss-bill, L. Americana, is of a red- color, 
 with brownish tail and wings, from six and one-half to seven 
 inches in length ; feeds on the cones of the hemlock, and on 
 apples and other fruits, which the bird breaks open for its seeds. 
 Bonaparte and other naturalists consider this species as distinct 
 from the European Cross-bill. It is a northern-bird, but breeds 
 as far south as Pennsylvania. 
 
 Another species is the White Winged Cross-Bill, L. Zeacop- 
 
INSESSOEES. S47 
 
 tera, (Gr. white winged,) which is somewhat less than a Gold- 
 finch, (according to DeKay, six and one-half inches long.) It 
 ranges from 40o to 68° N. Lat., and is common on the shores of 
 Lake Ontario. (N. B. These Cross-billed birds are included 
 by Audubon in the family of Finches. In the N. Y. State Nat. 
 Hist, they have a like arrangement.) 
 
 Fifth Family. The Horn Bills. 
 BueeroiidcB, (Gr, ^oixsgcag, boukeros, ox-horned.) 
 
 The characteristics of the birds of this family which most ar- 
 rest the attention, are the enormous extent, and singular protu- 
 berances of the beak. In many of the species this organ is con- 
 siderably larger than the head ; there is a large, uncouth look- 
 ing projection, Various in form, on its summit. This projection 
 sometimes resembles a horn, or the crest of a hejmet which often 
 encroaches upon the skull towards the crown of the head. The 
 mandibles in adult birds are both notched on the edges.- The 
 protuberance on the upper mandible is small when the bird is 
 young, and does not attain its great size until the bird is fully 
 grown. (Plate IX. fig. 13.) By a beautiful provision of the 
 Creator, for birds supporting so large an organ, the horny case 
 of the beak is very thin, thus diminishing the weight ; and, at 
 the same time, the bony core is hollowed into numerous cells of 
 various sizes and forms, with very thin walls between them, so 
 that the needed firmness is preserved in union with remarkable 
 lightness. The bones of the body are also permeated with air 
 more than those of any other bird. The tongue in the Horn- 
 billed birds is fleshy, and like that of the Birds of Prey, short 
 and deep in the throat ; the tail is long, broad, and more or less 
 rounded at the extremity, consisting of only ten feathers ; the 
 feet are short, strong and formed for Walking or perching ; the 
 claws short and blunt. 
 
 The BucerotidsB are large sized birds; they are gregarious and 
 noisy, and live both on animal and vegetable food ; few are 
 smaller than a Crow, and some are much larger than a Raven. 
 The plumage is usually of a sombre cast, but frequently relieved 
 with masses of white; the beak and naked skin often exhibit 
 bright colorings during life. The abode of these birds is lim- 
 ited to Africa, India, and the large islands adjacent. 
 
 The Horn-bills seem to be most nearly related to the Crows 
 on the one hand, and to the Toucans on the other, thus connect- 
 ing the Perchers and the Climbers. That they form a link be- 
 tween these two orders was proved from anatomical examina- 
 
348 IKSESSOEES. 
 
 tions of the bird made by Professor Owen, More than twenty 
 species of the genus Buceros have been named. 
 
 The Italian Raven, B. hydrocorax, (Gr. Water Raven,) 
 found in the Moluccas and in Africa, has the walk of the Crow, 
 but is unlike that bird in its food, rejecting carrion, and being 
 particularly fond of nutmegs, devouring them so greedily as 
 often to do serious damage. The flesh is very delicate, and 
 when roasted, possesses an aromatic flavor derived from its food. 
 
 The Rhinoceros Horn-bill, B. Rhinoceros, differs from the In. 
 dian Raven in living upon carrion ; it " casts forth a strong smell, 
 and hath a foul look, and much exceeds the European Raven in 
 bigness." This bird is about the size, though rather more slender 
 than a hen-turkey ; its color is black, except the lower part of the 
 belly and the tip of the tail, which are white ; the bill is usually 
 about ten inches long and of a yellowish white ; the upper mandi. 
 ble red at the base ; the lower, black ; the legs are short, strong, and 
 of a pale yellow color. The cry consists of a short hoarse croak, 
 but when the bird is excited, this is changed to a loud discord- 
 ant noise. It breeds in the hollows of lofty trees. The flight 
 of the Horn-bills is sailing and resembles that of the crow ; on 
 the ground, they advance by a leaping kind of movement, assisted 
 by the wings. When Tiaking their leaps on the highest branches 
 of trees, and in their loud call note to their mates, the hollow 
 protuberance of their beaks seems to be to them like a sounding 
 board, increasing the reverberations of the air. The beak, it is 
 thought, " constitutes a necessary defence against monkeys and 
 other animals which may seek to assail its nest ;" or it may be 
 used in " drawing snakes and lizards from their lurking places, 
 and young birds and eggs from the recesses of old anddecaying 
 trees." 
 
 Sixth Family. Plantain- Eaters. 
 
 MusophagadcB, (Gr. (lovaa, musa, gen. term for plantain ; <fi^i»i 
 phago, to eat.) 
 
 This family, though a small one, includes birds of uncommon 
 elegance and richness of plumage. They have a short beak ; 
 the upper mandible is much arched, and has its edges cut into 
 minute saw-like teeth; the lower mandible is thin and narrow. 
 The feet are short and formed for climbing, the outer toe being 
 capable of a partial reversion ; it is, however, united to the mid- 
 dle toe by a short membrane. The tail, as in the Colies, con- 
 sists of but ten feathers ; the head is generally clothed with a 
 
INSESSORES. 349 
 
 long and elegant crest. In their habits they show affinity to the 
 Toucans, among the Climbing Birds, with which they are prob- 
 ably connected by the Horn-bills, {BuceroiidcB.) Some of them, 
 as the Plant-Cutters, Phytotpma, (Gr. phuion, a plant; temno, 
 to cut,) show an affinity to the Bull-Finches. The Plant-Cutters 
 are small, the Chilian Plant-Cutter, P. rara, being about the 
 size of a quail. They feed on plants and have the destructive 
 habit of cutting them off close to the root ; often they capriciously 
 cut off a quantity without touching them any further. On this 
 account the rustic inhabitants carry on a continual war against 
 these birds, and children who destroy their eggs, are rewarded. 
 Thfe nest is built in obscure places and on lofty trees, and thus 
 the Plant-Cutters escape, in some degree, the persecutions of 
 their enemies. 
 
 The Plantain Eaters Proper, are confined to Africa, where 
 they subsist almost entirely on fruits. Their movements are ex- 
 tremely light and elegant, and unlike the Colies.'they pass with 
 an easy gliding flight from tree to tree. The first and fourth 
 toes are directed laterally. It is said they, therefore, usually 
 perch lengthwise on the horizontal branches, along which they 
 walk, clasping the boUgh with their two toes arranged side-wise, 
 while the other two point forwards. These birds live either in 
 pairs or in families, according to the season. They construct a 
 nest like the Parrots, in which they lay four eggs, delicately 
 white. 
 
 On the gold coast and in Senegal is found the Musophaga 
 violacea, the Violet- colored Plantain Eater — a "magnificent 
 bird." 
 
 The TouRACOs, belonging to this family, include seven species, 
 arranged under the generic name Corythaix, (Gr. xogvOal^, Icoru- 
 thaix.j They have a brilliancy of plumage, elegance of form, 
 and grace of motion. Their long and broad tail and their high 
 pointed crest add much to their beauty. The color of these 
 birds is almost always rich green, set off with gorgeous crimson 
 or purple on the expanded wing. One of the most attractive 
 species is the C.eryihrolaphys, (Gr. red crested.)* When un- 
 der excitement, the crest of this bird is elevated into a somewhat 
 conieal form, compressed at the sides, so that the head appears 
 as if covered with a warrior-like helmet. To this appearance 
 the generic name refers, signifying a warrior, or one who moves 
 the helmet. In a state of repose, the crest feathers fall down 
 
 • One of these Red or Fire Crested Touracos lived for some years in the 
 garden of the Zoological Society, (London.) An engraving taken from 
 this bird during life, may be found in the "Fenny Cyclopedia," 
 
850 IKSESSORES. 
 
 upon the head and project behind. The Touracos are about 
 twenty inches in length. 
 
 What ia the 3d Division of Perchees? What is said of their number! 
 Mention ihe chief characteristics by which they are united. What pecu- 
 liarity of the bealc is found in one genus of these birds ? What link do 
 they thus form ? To what are the feet generally adapted ? What is the princi- 
 pal food of these Hard-Billed Bikds? What other food do they uaeS 
 In what proportion does their food vary from an exclusive seed diet ? What 
 regions do these birds frequent? Mention the families into which they are 
 divided. 
 
 Is the Ceow Family a numerous one ? Describe the beak and plumage. 
 What group form an exception in respect to plumage ? In what other re- 
 spect do they differ ? What is said of the structure and disposition of the 
 Crow f What of their propensity for thieving ? What of their food ? 
 Show how the Crow is a remarkable type of the Birds. Which is the 
 largest and most powerful of this family ? How large is it and how re- 
 garded ? What more is said of it ? What is the size of the Common 
 Crow, and how does it compare with that of Europe ? In what respects is 
 it a nuisance ? Does the Fish Crow differ from the raven and common 
 crow in character? What Birds of Prey are near relatives of the Crow? 
 What is said of the Blue Jay ? What group do the Ndtcrackees resem- 
 ble in their habits ? What is said of the Fruit Crows ? What speciet 
 are mentioned ? What remarkable birds are includedjn this family? Of 
 what region are they natives ? Give a general description of these birds. 
 Which species is best known? Give the meaning of the generic and spe; 
 cifie name. Why were the birds of this species considered footless? What 
 strange conjecture respecting them arose ? On what do they feed ? Give 
 further particulars. 
 
 What is the 2d Family of the Cone-Billed ferds ? What is said of their 
 number and distribution ? What of their beak and plumage ? Are they 
 solitary or social in their habits? What is said of the Common Starling? 
 Of the Meadow Starling ? Of the Red Winged Starling ? Which are 
 the largest of the Starling family? "Why are they so called? Where are 
 the Typical Birds of this group found ? What other genus is sometimes 
 included in the Boat tails ? What Grackles are found in Asia and Africa? 
 
 What other Sub-Family is mentioned ? Whichia the mostnotedspecies? 
 What is said of it? Describe its nest. What is said of the Mino Bird! 
 Where is it found? What faculty has it in great perfection? 
 
 What is the 3d Family of Cone-Billed Birds? What is said of their 
 number, size, and musical powers? Describe their beaks. What is pecul- 
 iar in that of the Grosbeak or Hawfinch? What use do they make of it 
 in obtaining their food ? What Sub-Family is first noticed? Describe 
 their nests. Whence does the Red Beaked Weavet obtain its food? 
 What is said of the Whidah Finches? Why is the term Widow applied to 
 this group ? What is said of the Java Sparrow ? What Sub-Family is 
 next mentioned? What ia said of the Lark Bunting? Describe the 
 Snow Lark Bunting. The Lapland Suow Bird. What species of the Bunt- 
 ings are mentioned? Describe the Cliipping Bird. What European bird 
 does it represent in this country? What fact shows the usefulness of Spar- 
 rows? What Bunting breeds in the fur countries? Describe the Ssow 
 
inSessokes. 351 
 
 Bird. What is Baid of the Indigo Bird ? What, of the PiiNifeD Bcnting ? 
 Where are the Shore Finches found? What species are mentioned? 
 What IS the generic name of the Linnets? What has been said of the 
 Brown Linnet? What other sp. are mentioned? To what group does the 
 American Goldfinch or Yellow B. belong? What is said of it? Mention 
 the species which are given of the Fisches Pkoper. What is said of ttie 
 Ground Finches ? What. sp. of Puuple Finches are mentioned ? What is 
 said of the Pine Grosbeak? What of the Cardinal Grosbeak ? What other 
 sp. of Grosbeak are mentioned? What is said of the Summer Red B.? 
 Why is this bird called the Tanagra ? What Sub-Family is next mentioned? 
 How characterized ? For what are they famed ? What is said of the Sky- 
 Lark? What of the Wood-Lark? Of the Horned-Lark? What addi- 
 tional Sub-Family is mentioned? How do others rank them? To what 
 countries are tfiey confined ? Describe them. What is said of their social 
 habits? What of their plumage? Why are they' much disliked? What 
 is said of their cry? Of their flesh? What sp. is named ? 
 
 What is the 4th Family ? Describe the beak. What use do these birds 
 make of it? What aids them in this process? What is remarkable in this 
 organ ? What sp. are mentioned ? 
 
 What is the 5th Fa'mily? What are their most noticeable characteris- 
 tics ? What renders their large beak supportable < What is said ol the 
 bones of the body and the toiigue? On what do they liyo ? Describe their 
 plumage. To what regions are they limited? To what other birds are they 
 nearly related ? How many sp. of the gen. Buceros have been named ? 
 What is said of the Indian Raven? What irf the Rhinoceros Horn-bill? 
 
 What is the name of the Last Family ? Give their leading characteris- 
 tics ? To what other birds are they related .' Why are they called Plan- 
 tain Eaiers? What IS said ol the. Plant-Cutters? To what region are the 
 P. Eaters confined? Describe their motonients, &c. ? What species is 
 found ou the gold coast of Africa '! What other birds belong to this fam- 
 ily ? What is their generic name ? What is its signification ? What is 
 said of this group ? Which is the most attractive ? What is said of their 
 crest feathers ? 
 
 Name and trace those mentioned on the Chart. 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 Fourth Division of the Peechers." Thin Billed Birds. 
 
 Tenuirostres, (Lat. tenuis, thin, or slender ; rostrum, beak.) 
 This group of birds, M. Vigors considers "the most interesting 
 of the animal world." They are characterized by the length 
 and the slenderness of the bills, which are frequently curved 
 and notched at the tip. The tongue is often divided at the end 
 into two or more filaments ; sometimes the slender filaments are 
 so numerous as lo lesemble a painter's brush. The peculiar 
 conformation of the bill seems chiefly intended to protect the 
 
 15 
 
852 INSESSOKES. 
 
 tongue, by which, and not by the bill, these birds suck, or lick 
 up the nectar of flowers, drawing in with the honied liquid, 
 multitudes of minute insects, which form the solid part of their 
 food. The feet are very short and delicate. 
 
 The smallest birds, and those the most brilliantly adorned, are 
 found in this group. Many of the genera are clothed with a 
 plumage of metallic lustre; on particular parts of their bodies, 
 especially the forehead and throat, they have feathers of a scala- 
 like appearance, which reflect the varying hues of precious 
 stones. The Thin-billed Birds are principally to be found in 
 the tropical regions, but many species visit the temperate, zones, 
 and a few are permanent residents of high latitudes. They are 
 arranged into five families: (1,) Promeropida or Vpupida, 
 Hoopoes; (2) Cinnyridm or Nectarinida, Sun Birds; (3.) 
 TrochilidcB, Humming Birds; (4.) Meliphagidce, Honey.Eaters; 
 (5,) Certhiadce, Creepers. '' 
 
 First Family. Hoopoes. 
 
 PromcrapidcB, (Gr. ngo/iBgoip, promer'ops,) or Upupida, (Lat. 
 upupa, a heopoe.) 
 
 The Hoopoes are a small faniily of birds confined to the Old 
 World, and most of them found in Africa and India. They ex- 
 hibit some relations to the Bee-Eaters of the Fissirostral division. 
 One species, tne Common Hoopoe, visits Europe in company 
 with the Bee- Eaters and other Swallow-like birds, but unlike 
 them, walks upon the moist ground and newly turned earth, in 
 search of insects and their larvse ; but the species of the genus 
 Promerops, seek for minute insects in the corollas of flowers. 
 The Common, or European Hoopoe, V. epops, (Gr. epops, a 
 hoopoe.) receives its name from the cry of the male -bird, which 
 is ^'hoop, hoop." It has a very long and slender beak, slightly 
 curved throughout its length, and compressed at the sides; long 
 and rounded wings, and a long and broad lail. The toes are 
 three hiefore and one behind ; the hind toe is long, with a long 
 and nearly straight claw. The head is furnished with an 
 erectile crest, the feathers of whicti are of a ruddy bufi"-color, 
 terminated with black ; the plumage presents striking contrasts 
 of color, black, gray, buff, yellowish- white and white. The 
 length is twelve and a half inches. It has been known to breed 
 in England ; building its nest in hollow trees, and laying from 
 four to seven eggs, of a pale bluish gray hue. The Red beaked 
 Promerops, P. erythrorhyncus, (Gr. redrbeaked,) has a very long 
 wedg«-like tail, but ii without an erectile cre$t., The l^jag, 
 
INSESSORES. 353 
 
 slender beak, is of a coral-red ; the entire plumage varies with 
 metallic blue and green. This brilliant bird is found in South 
 Africa. It lives in small flocks. The Grand Promerops, 
 Epimachus, (Gr. epimachos,) inagnus, (see Chart,) has a gradua- 
 ted tail, three times as long as the body ; the feathers of the sides 
 are lengthened, raised and curled. They, glitter on their edges 
 with: Steel-blue, azure, and emerald-green, like precious stones, — 
 those of the body are of a deep, or brownish black. It inhabits 
 the coasts of New Guinea. Swainson says it is "a bird of such 
 excessive rarity, that only two perfect specimens have been 
 known to exist in Europe." 
 
 Second Family. Sun Birds. 
 
 CinnyridcR, (Gr. xtvva, Mnna, a grass; vqiop, hurion, honey, 
 comb?) Genus Cinnyris, Guv. — or Nectarinidd, (Gr. vextag, 
 nectar, nectar.) Genas Nectannia, Illig. 
 
 The Sun-Birds, so called from their splendid glossy plumage, 
 are arranged into two groups, (1.) Cinnyfirice,— genus Cinny- 
 ris, — of Africa, India and the islands of the Eastern Archipel- 
 ago, which have comparatively slender bills and feet, and the 
 tongue retractile and simply forked ; and, (2,) the Neciarinidte, 
 of South Amerioa and the Pacific islands, which have the beak 
 and feet comparatively strong, and hold an intermediate rank 
 between the Creepers, ('CerthiadcB,) and the Sun Birds, (Cinnyri- 
 diz,) and the Humming Birds, {TrocMhdm.) The Nectarines 
 are to the New W'Tld what the Sun Birds are to the Old ; their 
 tongue ends in a sort of pencil or brush ; and thfey hop from 
 flower to flower, seeking the nectar of each; whilfe the Sun 
 Birds and the Humming Birds make no use whatever of their 
 feet as they extract their food, but in feeding, are poised upon 
 the wing. The Sun Birds and Humming Birds, as M. Vigors 
 remarks, approach each other in the slendernes of their bill, the 
 vividness and changeable lustre of their pluiiiage, and the habit 
 of hovering on the wing when they feed, and being chiefly sepa- 
 rated from each other by the comparatively stronger foot and 
 bill of the Sun Birds. Both groups :of Sun Birds are included 
 by Mr. G. R. Gray in one family, Neciarinidce ; but, Swainson 
 arranges the several generia under the name Cinnyridm. 
 
 Some of theSun Birds add the charm of song to that of brill, 
 iancy of plumage; and the music of one has been compared to 
 that of the Nightingale. Their nest is usually suspended, and 
 of a globe-like form, having an opening on one side, generally 
 near the. bottom. 
 
354 INSESSORES. 
 
 In the case of the Neclariniu, of Sonlh America, the nest is 
 placed in llio worm-paten trunks of mimosa-ti'ees, and contains 
 fruror five egffs, eniirely white. The Sim Birds o^f the genus 
 Metithrcpl'is. (Gr. meli, honey, irepho, to nourish,} included in 
 :he Neciarine group, are founil in the Hawaiian islands. The 
 beautiful, yellow fearhers of IMPse birds, interspersed wiih a few of 
 a scarlet color, are worn as ornaments of the head. "These 
 feathers are among the most celebrated iproduClions ■' of the above 
 named islands. "Each bird yields only a few, and some thousands 
 are required to form a headdress. The wreath, of tiara, is 
 sometimes valued as high as two hundred and fifty dollars. The 
 birds, {Mehthrepies Pacifica) are taken by means of bird-lime, 
 made from the pisonia, and ihe catching of them is practiced as 
 a trade oy the mountaineers. The wearing of these feathers is. 
 a symbol of high rank."* 
 
 Third Family. Humming Birds. 
 Trochilidce, (Gji". TQ6xiXog, trochilos, a trpchil, or wren.) 
 
 The family of Humming Birds is one of grfeat interest. Mr, 
 Gould, in his recently published work, enumerates about sixty 
 genera, and his collection contains more than three hundred 
 species. They are, however, sepal-ated from each other by 
 comparatively slight variations in the length and curvature of 
 the beak, the form of the wings, and the»greater or less deve'op. 
 mentof ihetail, and of other parts. These birds are all confined to 
 this Continent and the West India Islands : some species penetrate, 
 in summer, to high latitudes on each side of the equator. The 
 gorgeous flashmgs and changing lint, and the lustre, as of burn- 
 ished metal, which are, to some extent, seen in the Sun Birds, 
 are in the birds of this family preeminently conspicuous. ' 
 
 They are the smallest of the feathered races ; . (See Charli;) 
 some species are exceeded both in size and weight by several 
 of the insect tribe, while a few species are as large as a 
 Swallow. 
 
 The Humming Birds are not less remarkable for their structure 
 than for the remarkable splendor of their plumage. The exces. 
 sively long wings are moved by pectoral and other muscles, 
 which form nearly the whole of the fleshy substance of the bird; 
 those of the feet " are reduced to the least possible quantity con- 
 sistent with the requisite stability," — all this showing, that they 
 Were adapted by the Creator to spend, as they do, the most active 
 
 • Karrative of the United States Exploring Expedition.' 
 
ZKSESSOBES. 355 
 
 part of a higbly active life in the air. The humming n<Jise made 
 by these birds, is produced by the extremely rapid movement of 
 their wings. 
 
 The tongue is their principal organ for obtaining their food in 
 the honied juices of flowers and insects ; and like that of the 
 Wood-peckers,, it is so framed, that it can be darted out of the 
 bill, as a spring suddenly released from its restraint. It is of such 
 a length, that it can be protruded some distance from the bill. 
 The long and slender beak comes admirably in aid for inserting 
 the tongue into the nectaria of flowers. The sight of the Hum- 
 ming-Birds is very acute within the range required 'for its exer- 
 oise, as is also the sense of hearing. 
 
 The females are without the splendid plumage of the males, 
 and are clothed in modest dress* Some species living, as they 
 do, from ten to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, 
 have the tarsi warmly and largely protected with white plumelets, 
 and look as if they had downy muifs on their legs. • 
 
 Humboldt notices the religious belief of the Mexicans, that 
 Toyamiqui, the spouse of the god of war, conducted the souls of 
 those warriors who had died in defence of the gods, into the 
 mansions of the suii, and transformed them into humming-birds; 
 and it must be owned, they form an image of the soul, scarcely 
 less spiritual than the butterfly of the Greeks. 
 
 The nests of these birds are as wonderful as any that are 
 made. (Plate XI. fig. 9.) They vary greatly in form and 
 structure ; but in all, the soft and delicate materials are so put 
 together as to furnish as much warmth as possible, that being 
 an object of the highest importance when the body of the ani- 
 mal is generally so small, and the quantity of animal heat 
 given out accordingly' diminished. ■ The eggs are two in num- 
 ber, of an elongatecl> form, and in some species, extraordinarily 
 small. These birds are very valiant in defence of their nests. 
 When attending their young, they attack any bii-d, indiscrimi- 
 ijately, which approaches the nest. This display of valor, it 
 is suggested, probably fostered the Mexican belief, that the 
 bodies of these diminutive creatures contained the souls of slain 
 warriors. 
 
 Among the most beautiful species^ are the Sickle-winged 
 Huraming-Bird, T./alaUus, (Lat. from falx, a sickle ;) the Re- 
 curved-bill Humming-Bird, T. recunirostris, (Lat. recurved- 
 beak;) Gould's Humming-Bird, Ornismus, (Gr. Bird-mouse,) 
 Gouldii; the Bar-tailed Humming-Bird, (Plate XI. fig. 9,) T, 
 sparganurus, (Gr. band-tailed ;) the Double-crested Humming- 
 
356 INSESSORKS. 
 
 Bird, T. comutua, (hsA. horned,) in length a little more than four 
 inches. 
 
 Four species are found within the limits of the United States. 
 (1,) The Mango Humming-Bird, T. Mango, found on Florida 
 Keys; four inches and three-quarters in length ; (i,) the Anna 
 Humming-Bird, T. Anna, found on the Roolcy Mountains, to- 
 wards California; three inches and three-quarters in length ; (3.) 
 the Red-throated Humming-Bird, or Red-throated Honey-Suoker, 
 T. colubris, (Lat. serpentine ;) three and a half inches in length;' 
 ranging from Mexico to 57o N. Lat. This is the species most 
 commonly seen in the State of New York, (Plate X. fig. 4b,) 
 and well known for its golden' green color, and its ruby colored 
 throat ; and (4,) the Ruff-necked Humming-Bird, T. rufus, 
 rather more than three inches and a half in length ; discovered 
 by Capt. Cook, who found it abundant at Nootka Sound ; it is 
 met with also in the vicinity of the Blue Mountains of the Co- 
 lumbia River. 
 
 Fourth Family. Honky-Eatees. 
 Meliphagidie, (Gr. /itiit, ineli, honey ; qiAym, ph&go, to eat.) 
 
 The birds of this family in some measure depart from the 
 tenuirostral type in the increased stoutness of the beak. This 
 organ is, in these birds, awl-shaped and arched, and has the tip 
 distinctly notched ; the hind toe is so strong and robust, that 
 it serves as a support to the bird while taking its food ; the tongue 
 is still capable of protrusion, but in a subordinate degree, and 
 is terminated by a brush of hairs. 
 
 These birds are chiefly confined to Australia, where they feed 
 on the nectar and pollen of flowers. As in that country the 
 fields are never without blossom, they have in the luxuriant 
 vegetation, a support that never fails. They also live on insects 
 and berries. Usually, they are of sombre colors, black or olive- 
 brown, without any metallic lustre. Their nests are cup-shaped, 
 constructed in the forks of small branches of shrubs, not far 
 removed from the ground. . The Honey-Eaters are larger than 
 most of the Thin-billed Birds ; several species equal a Thrush 
 iti size, and some are of considerably greater diroensioos. The 
 "Wartjr-faced Honey-Eater, Meliphaga phrygia, is described as 
 sometimes to be seen in great numbers, constantly flying from 
 tree to tree, particularly among those known as the blue gum, 
 from the blossoms of which they extract the honey with their 
 tongues as they pass along. One species is said to pick holes in 
 the bark of trees, and thence to extract insects, very much in 
 
INSESSOKES. 357 
 
 the manner of the Woodpecker ; indeed, these birds probably 
 represent in Australia, the true Woodpeckers, which are not 
 found in that region. The Tui, or Poe-Bird, Prosthemadera 
 Cincinnata, of New Zealand, is about the size of a Black-Bird ; 
 from its great imitative power, it has been called "the Mocking- 
 Bird;" and from its peculiar plumage, the "Parson-Bird." 
 
 Fifth Family.', Creepers. 
 CerlhiadiB, (Gr. ni^Owg, kertliios. Creeper kind.) 
 
 The birds of -this family manifestly deviate from the tenuiros- 
 tral type, and approach the order of the Climbers, {^Scansores .) 
 We therefore follow Cuvier and Charles Lucien Bonaparte, 
 who, while including them among the Thin-Billed Birds, place 
 them on the confines of the present order. (See Chart.) In these 
 birds the tongue is still capable of protrusion, but is no longer 
 divided into filaments ; the tip, however, is sharp, horny, and 
 fitted for transfixing insects, which are sought beneath the bark 
 of trees, in crevices of walls, and siniilar concealed situations. 
 To aid them in taking their insect prey, the beak also is generally 
 slender, sharp-poiated and strong, curved in various degrees; 
 soraetinnes, as in the Wall Creeper, Ticlwdroma, (Gr. wall-run- 
 nei',) muraria, (of a wall,) a species of Southern Europe, the 
 beak is almost straight; and at others, as in the Tree-Creeper, 
 Dendrocolaptes,'{Gr. tree-beater,) found in Brazil, the beak is 
 bent almost to a semi-circle. 
 
 This family are Climbers, but still have not the feet of the 
 Climbers proper, (Scansores,) with which M. Vigors arranges 
 them. The outer toe is not reversible, but the back toe is con. 
 siderabiy larger and stronger than it is in the greater part of the 
 perching birds. 
 
 Some of these birds, as the Tree Creepers, have the shafts of 
 the tail feathers strong and rigid, and their tips are lengthened 
 beyond the barbs, as in the Woodpeckers, and to meet the same 
 exigency, viz. : the wearing away of the more fragile parts by, 
 the constant friction of the tip of the tail against perpendicular 
 surfaces ; in the species now referred to thatorgan being thrown 
 in and pressed against the tree or wall for support in climbing. 
 
 The Common Creeper, Certhia fantiliaris, is not more than 
 five inches io lehgth, of a yellowis' ', brown color above, the un- 
 der parts being white. It is gen«*ally distributed throughout 
 Europe' and the United States. Wilson says: "The Brown 
 Creeper is an extremely active and restless liule bird. In winter 
 it associates with the small spotted woodpecker, nuthatch, titmouse. 
 
S5d INSESSORES. 
 
 &c., and often follows In their rear, gleaning Up those insects 
 which their more powerful bills had alarmed and exposed; for 
 its own slender incurvated bill seem unequal to the task of pen- 
 etrating into even the decayed wood ; though it may enter into 
 holes find behind scales of the bark." It builds, its nest in some 
 rent or cleft in a tree, where a branch has been- broken off, or 
 where a hole has been chiseled by a woodpecker, and deposits in 
 it six or eight ash-colored eggs, marked with dusky reddish spots. 
 The voice of the Creeper is a monotonous cry, not very loud, 
 but often and suddenly repeated, especially in its flight fi'om tree 
 to tree. The food on which it lives consists principally of small 
 beetles, bugs and flies, which it draws from their places of con. 
 cealment. Wilson mentions having found in its stomach, the 
 seeds of the pine tree and large quantities of gravel. Did our 
 ■ limits permit. We would give' details of genera and species 
 found in South America and Australia. 
 
 The Nuthatches, Sitta, are allied to the Titmice on the one 
 hand, and the Woodpeckers on the other. They have a stronger 
 bill than that of the Tree Creepers; and it is straight and pointed 
 like that of the Woodpeckers, used rather to scale off the bark 
 than to perforate it ; and they do not support themselves upon 
 the tail. They run about the trunk and branched of trees, seek, 
 ing for insects and their larvae, berries and nuts ; they are noted 
 for their instinct of fixing a nut in a chink while they pierce it 
 with the bill, swinging the whole body as on a pivot, to make the 
 stroke more eSective. The name Nuthatches is given to these 
 birds on account of the hatches or hammerings which they make 
 on hard nuts in search of the larvae within. From four to six 
 species of these birds are found within the United States. The 
 White:breasted Nuthatch, S. CaroUnensis, is about five inches 
 long, of a slate blue above and pure white beneath ; it ranges 
 from Mexico to Maine. The eggs are whitish, spotted with 
 brown at the larger end, and from four to six in number. 
 The Red-bellied Nuthatch, S. Canadensis, is four and a half 
 inches long and lead-colored. This is a more northern bird than 
 the preceding, ranging from Maryland to Nova Scotia. The 
 Brown-headed Nuthatch, S. pusilla, ranges from Texas to Mary- 
 land. The PvGMY Nuthatch, S. pygmea, is found in California ; 
 if is less than four inches long. 
 
 The Wrens, TroghdytesP^ {Gr. iroglodutes, a creeper into 
 caves.) are properly includedbin the present family, though they 
 have beep differently arranged by some authors. (See Chart.) 
 The House Wren, T. aedon, is a familiar little bird which has 
 become inviolable, like the robin, from the confidence which it 
 
INSESSORES. 
 
 85d 
 
 shows in courting the heighboThood of man. This Wren is of 
 a dark brown above with blackish bands ; beneath it is whitish, with 
 faint or obscure bands. It builds its nest in boxes or houses pre> 
 pared by man, in which it lays six or eight flesh-colored eggs. 
 It is said that it seldom or never builds a distinct nest, but always 
 conceals it in things " placed for its convenience around houses, 
 or in the hollow of trees." The ^est is propprtionably very 
 large. Audubon figures one beautVfully as built in an old hat. 
 The House- Wren shows great antipathy to cats. "Although it 
 does not attack puss, it follows and scolds her until she is out of 
 sight." It ranges as far as the 57o N. L. Audubon thinks it 
 spends the winter southward oi" the United States. Its length is 
 four and a half inches. 
 
 The Winter Wren, T. hyemalis^ closely lesembles the Euro- 
 pean Wren, T, Europcms ; its song" is energetic and musical ; 
 it lays ten or twelve whitish eggs. This Wren is SHiarll,' being 
 only three inches and a half in length. 
 
 . : The Wood Wren, T, Americanus, is nearly the same as the 
 House Wren, but spends the winter within the limits of the Uni- 
 ted States. 
 
 The Mofcking Wren, T. ludoviciartus, is noted for its mimicry 
 and song; it is about, five andi a half inches longi and .ranges 
 from Texas to New York. Baird places the Lyre bird here. 
 
 The Ox-peckers, or Ox-eaters, Buphagidce, genus Buphaga, 
 (Grr. hoUs, an ox ; phago, to eat,) found in Southern Africa, are 
 also included among the Creepers. These birds have a large ob- 
 tuse and nearly quadrangular bill, the lower mandible being 
 stronger than the other, and both swollen towards the poinf, it 
 somewhat resembles a pair of pinchers or scissors. The Ox- 
 peckers fasten themselves with their strong, hooked claws and 
 elastic tails upon the backs of ruminant quadrupeds, such as 
 oxen, buflfuloes, antelopes and camels, and also, some travelers 
 say, upon the backs of > fhe Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, and 
 with their beak dig and squeeze out from their backs the larvae 
 (or maggots) which. the gadflies have deposited. Wherever, by 
 the presence of an elevation, the bird is aware of the existence 
 of a maggot, he extracts it with strong blows of his bill. This 
 treatment the animals willingly bear, seeming to look upon these 
 birds as their benefactors, as really they are, especially in a re- 
 gion where such insects abound. 
 
 What is the 4th Divisioir of the Perchebs? flow does Vigors .regard 
 tliem? What are their characteristics? For what does the bill seem 
 chiefly designed i What is sud of their size and plumage ? What of their 
 
360 INSESSOBES. 
 
 distribution J Name the families into which they are arranged.; Where 
 are the Hoopoes found? What sp. visits Europe ? From what does it re- 
 ceive its name ? What is said of it ? What is the food of the gen. Pro- 
 merops ? What is said of the Ked-Bealied P. ? What of the Grand P.? 
 
 What is the 2d FAMiLy ? Why are they so called ? Into what groups 
 are they arranged? To what regions are the Cinnybid2B confined? What 
 is said of their bills and feet? , Where are the birds of the 2d Gkoup found? 
 To what birds are they intermediate ? What, is said of the Njectarines? 
 How do they differ from the Sun B. and Humming B. in their mode of 
 procuring their food ? Are any lof the Sun B. musical ? What is said oi 
 their nests ? What use is made of the feathers of one sp. of this bird? 
 
 What is the 3d Family? Are they numerous? What is said of the dis- 
 tinction between the sp.? What of their size, structure, and plumage? 
 How and whence do they obtain their food ? What is said of their tongue? 
 What of their eight and hearing ? How are some of them protected against 
 the cold in elevated regions? What does Humboldt notice? What issud 
 of the nests of tliese birds, &o. ? What species are named? 
 
 Mention the 4th Family? What is said of the beak of these birds? 
 To what region are they chiefly confined ? On what do they feed ? What 
 is said of their plumage? Of their size? What sp. are mentioned ? 
 
 What is the 5th Family? Are they strictly Tenuirostral birds? What 
 is said of their tongue ? On what do they feed ? Are, they strictly Cumb- 
 ers? What is said of the tails of the Tree Cheepers? Describe tlie 
 Brown Creeper. Describe the bill of the Nuthatcites. What use do they 
 make of it? Why are they called Nuthatches? What sp. are found in the 
 tJ. S. ? Which is the smallest? What Js the generic name of the Wreks? 
 What is its signification ? Describe the House Wren. What other sp. are 
 mentioned? Where are the Ox-pettkers found? Bepeat what is said ot 
 them. ' 
 
 Name and trace those figured on the chart. 
 
 SECTION VII 
 
 Third Order. CLIMBERS. 
 ScANSORES, (Lat. scando, to climb.) 
 
 The birds of this order are unlike, in their food and in their 
 general structure and habits ; but as a distinguishing character 
 common to them all, they have four toes rising nearly to the same 
 level, the outer toes being turned backwards more or less perma- 
 nently, like the thumb, so that these are opposable to the middle 
 and inner toes, which point in the opposite direction. This pe- 
 culiar disposition of their toes gives these birds great facility in 
 climbing the branches of treesy but it renders walking more diffi- 
 
SCANSORES. 361 
 
 cult to them: As they pass most of their lives in trees, their 
 powers of flight are usually moderate. Their nests are ordina- 
 rily constructed with less skill than those of the Perchers, these 
 birds often employing for this purpose the hollows of decayed 
 trees, and onp family depositing their eggs in this nest of other 
 birds. They feed on insects and fruits, and the species feeding 
 upon each may be known by the greater or less robustness of 
 the beak. 
 
 This order is divided into four families, viz. : (1.) Ramphasti- 
 dtB, (Toucans;) (2.) Picida, (Woodpeckers;) (3.) Psiitacida, 
 (Parrots;) (4.) Cwoulidm, ipMokoOfs.) 
 
 (Swainson also includes in this order the CertMadcB, (Creepers,) 
 which have the rigid tail of the Woodpeckers, but the feet of the 
 Perchers, among whom they were placed by Prince Bonaparte.) 
 
 First Family. Toucans. 
 RamphastidcR, (Gr. 'qafjufaaxiffi, ramphastes, a pike.) 
 
 The Toucans are all natives of Tropical America. They are 
 large birds, clothed with brilliant plumage, and found in the 
 depths of magnificent forests. They associate together in small 
 companies, which are said sometimes to include even distinct 
 species. •"• 
 
 These birds are easily recognized by the extraordinary size 
 of the beak, which in the typical genus, Ramphasios, is nearly 
 as large and as long as the body itself; it is rendered light in the 
 same way as that of the Horn-Bills, being permeated by a very thin 
 and fragile net work of bony fibres, of a honey-comb appear- 
 ance, and is said to be borne with so much of ease and grace as 
 entirely to remove the idea of uncouthness which its appearance 
 suggests to those who look at it only in figures and stuffed speci- 
 mens. 
 
 The edges of the mandibles are both regularly notched at wide 
 intervals, and curved downwards to the tip; the tongue is nar- 
 row, lengthened, and barbei^ on the sides like a feather ; the feet 
 are formed more for grasping than flying, having two toes before 
 and two behind, and accordingly these birds are seen on trees, 
 hopping from branch to branch. Their general movements are 
 light and elegant, but having short, rounded wings, their flight, 
 though rapid, is labored and in str *ght lines. 
 
 Their powers of smell are exquisite ; the nerves of that sense 
 iire so distributed in the beak as to enable them more readily to 
 discover their food. This is both animal and vegetable ; but 
 itiey prefer the eggs and young of other birds ; in obtaining these 
 
SQ2 SCANSORES. 
 
 from the deep hanging nests found in the regions which they in- 
 habit, they use their enormous beaks, the surface of wliich is 
 endowed with sensibility, enabling them to explore the contents 
 of these nests. It is said these birds are remarkably fond of 
 bathing in cold weather. They nestle in the hollows of trees, 
 laying two white and delicatuly rounded eggs. 
 
 The Toucan takes great clire of his bill, packing it away and 
 covering it' carefully with the feathers of its back before sleep- 
 ing, when it exhibits the appearance of a large round ball of 
 feathers. 
 
 Mr. Gould arranges the Toucans into two sections; (1.) the 
 Toucans proper, Ramphasios, (from Gr. ramphos,a beak,) in- 
 cluding eleven species ; (-2.) the Akacakis, PieroglosSiis, (Gr. 
 pteron, wing; glossa, a tongue.) 
 
 In the former the beak is without grooves ; but in the latter it 
 is notched at wide intervals. The tail in the Aracaris is shorter 
 than in the Toucans proper, and is graduated instead of squared. 
 
 The true Toucans are generally black on the upper parts, 
 with vivid colors, chiefly red and yellow, on the throat and breast. 
 The beak is often tinted with brilliant hues which vanish after 
 death. The Toucan, R. Toco, (see Chart,) is one of the largest of 
 this section, being twenty-seven inches in total length, of which 
 the beak is seveir inches and a half. It ranges from the River 
 La Plata to Guiana^ 
 
 The Keel-Beaked Toucan, R. carinatus, (Lat. carina, a keel,) 
 is conspicuous for the number and brilliancy of the hues adorning 
 its beak, which is keeled along the upper edge. 
 
 The Akacaei, P. pluricinctus, (Lat. many-girdled.) has the 
 breast marked with two broad bands of black, the upper sepa- 
 rated from the throat by an intervening space of yellow, dashed 
 with red ; a similar but broader space separates the two bands of 
 black, the lower of which is bounded by scarlet, advancing as 
 far as the thighs^ which are brownish olive. The total length is 
 twenty inches ; the bill four inches and a half. It is a native of 
 Brazil. ft 
 
 Second Family. Parrots. 
 Psittacidce, (Gr. yjltiaxog, psittakos, a parrot.) 
 
 These birds are remark^Ble for their beautiful colors, their 
 powerfbl bill, their fleshy tongue, and their imitation of the 
 human voice. The articulation of some of the species is so per- 
 fect, that when unseen, it is difficult to suppose that the words 
 pronounced do not come from the mouth of man. The power of 
 
moving the upper mandible is much more highly developed iii 
 this fanrily than in other birds, that organ not being connected 
 into one piece with the fekull, by elastic and yielding bony plates, 
 as is the case with the birds in general, but constituting a par- 
 ticular bone, distinct from the rest of the skull, and joined to it. 
 This mobility becomes more conspicuous, for the reason that 
 their vigorous jaws are set in motion by a greater number of 
 muscles than are found in other birds. The advantages of this 
 peculiarity of structure are apparent, when we remember the 
 use which a Parrot makes of the beak, as a third hand, to assist 
 it in climbing from bough to bough, or about the bars of its cage 
 when in confinement. The beak appears to be well supplied 
 with nerves of sensation, as the bird not only seems to enjoy 
 holding its food with the tip of its bill, but sometimes scratches 
 that organ with its foot, plainly showing that there must be sensa-i 
 tion. The thick and fleshy tongue of the Parrots, is a v'ery del- 
 icate organ of taste; it is covered, like that of the Mammalia, 
 with papilla, and being moistened by a constant secretion of 
 saliva, they are able to select and taste different kinds of food.- 
 In some of the Australian species which suck the nectar of 
 flowers, the tongue, while retaining the thick form and fleshy 
 structure common to the family, is distinguished by the peculiar, 
 ity of terminating in a number of very delicate and close-set fil- 
 aments, which can be protruded and expanded like abrush. One 
 of these species, the Australian Lorikeet, is of a predominant 
 azure color, and is sometimes called the Blue-mountain Parrot, 
 Trichoglossus, (Gr. hair-tongued ;) JusBmatodus, (Gr. of blood- 
 color,) — when shown, in confinement, a colored drawing of a 
 flower, it applied the tip of its tongue to it, as if it would suck it, 
 and on another occasion, made a similar attempt on seeing a 
 piece of furniture calico. 
 
 The most prevalent hue of the Parrots, is a soft and lustrous 
 green, varied, however, with scarlet, yellow and blue in profu- 
 sion, usually arranged in broad and well defined masses. 
 
 The Parrot tribe have been arranged into several groups, 
 founded, to a great extent, upon variations of plumage. ^ 
 
 (1.) The True Parrots {PsiUacus) are, for the most part, 
 found in tropical America. Their prevailing color is green. 
 The Ash-colored, or Gray Parrot, P. erythacus, is seen in Africa. 
 This group excels all the others ff powers of imitation. The 
 ^ipecies of the Green Parrots are numerous. The best known, 
 are the Festive Parrot, P. festivus, and the Amazon's Parrot, 
 P. Amazonicus. The latter has superior mimic propensities, but 
 the Festive Parrot is the larger in size. The Amazon Parrot 
 
304 ^CANSOKES. 
 
 can be easily taught to repeat marly words and sentences. It 
 lives on fruit, particularly that of the Mangrove-tree. The 
 Common Gray Parrot, P. erythacus, is thought superior to all 
 others in docility and mimicry ; when well taught, it completely 
 imitates the human voice ; and is clear in its articulation. A 
 Roman cardinal, it is said, "gave a hundred gold pieces" for one 
 of these birds which had learned to repeat distinctly the "Apos- 
 tle's creed." La Vaillant mentions one which had lived.in con. 
 finement ninety-three years. The Parrots of this group are 
 square-tailed, and have no crests. (2.) The Long-bilded Par. 
 ROTS, (Australian genus Nestor,) are the connecting link between 
 these and the Cockatoos. (3.) The Cockatoos, PlyctoIophincB, 
 (Gr. with washed, or folding crests.) are natives of Australia and 
 the Indian Islands. These are also square-tailed, but have 
 crests upon their heads. (Plate X. fig. 5a.) They are white 
 birds, with the crests and under parts of the tail-feathers yellow; 
 quite gentle in disposition, and easily domesticated, with the ex- 
 ception of a large Black Cockatoo, found in Australia. Their 
 imitative powers seldom go beyond a very few words added to 
 their own cry of "Cockatoo." (4.) The Love-Birds, Psiltacula, 
 are a group of beautiful and diminutive birds, nearly allied to 
 the True Parrots, and found on both Continents. They are dis. 
 tinguished by their slightly graduated tails; and they have no 
 furcula, or wish-bone. (5.) The Parrakeets, or Parraquets, 
 PaltBornis, (Gr. palaios, old ; ornis, bird,) are natives* of India 
 and the .adjacent islands. Some eleven or twelve species are 
 enumerated, one of which is found in Australia; their color is 
 greien, with the under parts scarlet. One species is named P. 
 Aiexandri, after Alexander the Great, in whose time these birds 
 were first introduced into Europe. They have ever been noted 
 fbr their beauty of form and movement; their powers of imita- 
 tion, and their show of affection when kindly treated. Amid the 
 luxuries of Rome, the " Indian-Bird " was kept in cages of the 
 most costly materials, nor was any price, however great, deemed 
 extravagant, or beyond its value.i A species which Wilson 
 calls the Parrakeet, but which is named by Audubon Psiltacus 
 Carolinensis, is found as far north as Cincinnati, Ohio. The 
 Parrakeets have long pointed tails. (6.) The Macaws, or Mac- 
 CAWs, Macroceros, (Gr. long-horned,) are American Birds. 
 Those of South America aflU the Antilles, are the largest and 
 most highly colored. Their imitative powers are much less 
 than those of the True Parrots, but when domesticated, they be- 
 come greatly attached. These birds are long-tailed, and the 
 largest of the family. The M. Ararauna, of Brazil, has a 
 
SCANSOEES. 36S 
 
 plumage of rich hue above; the under parts light saffron. It is 
 thirty-nine inches long, including the tail, which measures 
 twenty-four. (7) The Lories, Lorius, are a group found in 
 the Moluccas and the Eastern Islands, — remarkable for the very 
 rich and mellow hues of their plumage ; blending scarlet with 
 green, violet-purple, violet-blue, and orange-yellow. They 
 are lively and active, and of an affectionate disposition, and show 
 great docility in the articulation of words and sentences. The 
 beak of these birds is lengthened, and comparatively feeble ; the 
 tail rounded, oi: graduated. They feed upoa the juice of flowers 
 or the pulp of the sorest fruits. 
 
 Third Family. Woodpeckers. 
 Pieidce, (Lat. picus, a woodpecker.) 
 
 These birds are, in their whole organization, adapted to climb- 
 ing, and eminently entitled to be called Scansores. 
 
 The feet are short, but very strong ; the toes are placed in pairs, 
 two pointing forward and two backward, (Plate X. fig. 23 ;) the 
 claws are large, much curved, and very hard and sharp, ena- 
 blingthe bird to. cling firmly, and creep on trees in all directions. 
 The tail-feathers terminate in points, and are uncommonly hard, 
 so that, being pressed against the bark, they assist the bird in its 
 progress, or in keeping its position. The bill, destined for the 
 laborious operation of penetrating the wood, or stripping off the 
 bark of fprest-trees, is beautifully adapted for th§ purpose, being 
 wedge-shaped, and in one species, (Picus •principalis^ nearly of 
 the color and consistency of ivory, whence it has been termed the 
 Ivory-billed Woodpecker. This bird obtains its food, consisting 
 of the larvae of wood-boring insects, by chiseling away the bark 
 and surrounding wood, until the subtle grub is exposed- The head 
 then acts as a, hammer, of which the beak is the^ face or point, 
 and the curved neck the handle, and being moved by muscles 
 of great energy, the sharp and wedge-like beak-tip is propelled 
 agaiiistthe tree in a succession of strokes given with remarkable 
 force and activity. 
 
 To help in this work of chiseling out its grub- worm food, the 
 - Woodpecker also has a worm-like tongue, barbed at the point, 
 and capable of being protruded to a great length ; for which 
 purpose there is a peculiar structure and arrangement in the 
 muscles at the base of the tongue. By means of its protruding 
 tongue, this bird transfixes the insects which it dislodges from 
 their hiding places with its powerful bill. Added to this, there 
 is on each side of the hea4^ very large gland which secretes a 
 
366 SCANSORES. 
 
 glutinous substance ; this gland being compressed by the mus- 
 cular action which protrudes the tongue, the viscid matter is 
 poured out upon the sides of the tongue as it is thrust forth, and 
 this is sufficiently adhesive to attach to itself small insects, such 
 as ants, small grubs, beetles, &o., which are rapidly drawn in 
 and swallowed. "But as many of the boring larvae are too 
 heavy thus to adhere, and would hold on by their tuberculous 
 feet, or by their strong jaws, the capture of such is effected by a 
 horny tip of the tongue being set with numerous fine barbs on 
 each side, pointing backwards ; the fine point readily pierces tlie 
 skin of the insect, the barbs yielding as it enters, but when once 
 within, it cannot, without much force, be withdrawn, the barbs 
 having expanded within the skin, and so the insidious grub, de- 
 spite his efforts to maintain his tenancy, is digged forth by tlie 
 powerful contraction of the Woodpecker's elastic tongue." All 
 this is to be placed among those bealitiful contrivancfes of the 
 Divine Mind, which are so conspicuous in the "Animal King, 
 dom," and which, in so interesting and striking a manner, exhibit 
 the benevolent and fatherly care of Him, without whose notice 
 not even "a Sparrow falleth to the ground." 
 
 The Woodpeckers are widely scattered over the Eastern and 
 Western Continents. As yet, however, no representative of this 
 family has been found in Australia. The prevailing hue of 
 these birds is black, often handsomely spotted with white, and 
 varied with brilliant red, the latter especially Upon the head. 
 They lay their eggs and bring up their young in capacious 
 chambers,, which are hollowed outof the truhks of trees. Among 
 the birds of this family, is included the Yvnx, more properly 
 Jiinx, (Gr. i'uy|, iunx,) or Wryneck, (Y- torgitiUd,)ofo\d described 
 by Aristotle, and known to classical scholars as referred to in 
 the second Idyl, of Theocritus. Its general color is ash, spotted 
 with brown or black ; its beak is short, straight, and depressedly 
 conical. The\Vryneck is a companion of the Cuckoo, appearing 
 and (Jeparting about the same time ; and in captivity, is a great 
 favorite. 
 
 The species of Woodpeckers are quite numerous. Audubon 
 mentions twenty-one as found in the United States. 
 
 The Imperial. Woodpecker, P. imperialii, of California and 
 the Rocky Mountains, is the largest, being two feet in length. 
 The Green Woodpecker, P. viridis,(Lt\\.. green,) is found on' the 
 European Continent. P. torquatus, (Lat. collared,) is a species of 
 Green, or blackish-green Woodpecker, (Plate X. fig. 5b,) foytid in 
 California and the dense forests bord'Miing on the Columbia River. 
 It has a band of dull white running^<lfer the back of the neck, 
 
S OANSORES. 367 
 
 and joining a patch of a reddish color on the front and part of 
 the breast. The European species is thirteen inches long; the 
 American eleven. The Hairy Woodpecker, P. villosus, (Lat. 
 hairy,) is a constant resident of New York during the whole 
 year. Length eight and a half inches. 
 
 Fourth Family. Cuckoos. 
 CuQulidcB, (Lat. Cuculus, a cuckoo.) 
 
 This family of birds have a beak of a medium length, rather 
 deeply cleft; both mandibles compressed, and more or less 
 curved downward ; the nostrils exposed ; the wings, for the most 
 part, short, but the tail lengthened. Their skin is remarkably 
 thin ; the plumage thick and compact, generally of subdued, but 
 chaste and pleasing hues, with more or less of reflected lustre ; the 
 long tail is bfien graduated, and handsomely barred with black 
 and white. • 
 
 "So faintly," says Swainson, "is the scansorial structure in- 
 dicated in these birds, that but for their natural habits, joined to 
 the position of their toes, we should not suspect they were so 
 intimately connected with the more typical groups of the tribe, 
 as they undoubtedly are. They decidedly climb, although in a 
 manner peculiar to themselves. Having frequently seen dif- 
 ferent species of the Brazilian Cuckoos in their native forests, 
 I may safely affirm, that they climb in all other directions than 
 that of the perpendicular. Their flight is so feeble, from the 
 extreme shortness of their wings, that it is evidently performed 
 with difficulty, and it is never exercised but to convey them from 
 one tree to another. All soft insects inhabiting such situations 
 lying in their route, become their prey, and the quantities that 
 are thus destroyed, must be very great." 
 
 The Brazilian hunters give, to their Cuckoos the general 
 nanie of Cat's-tail, their long hanging tails and mode of climbing 
 presenting some resemblance to that quadruped. Swainson 
 thinks the long tail is given to the Cuckoo as a sort of balance, 
 just as a rope-dancer, with a pole in his hands, preserves his 
 footing when otherwise he would fall. It is a peculiarity of the 
 Cuckoo, that the outer hind-toe can be made to form a right angle 
 with that which is next it in front, so that it is termed versatile,- — 
 a term not, however, strictly applicable, as the toe cannot be 
 brought more than half-way forward, although it can be placed 
 entirely backward. The Cuckoos are really, half perching and 
 half climbing birds, not only in their feet, but in their manners. 
 They are divided into two sub-families; (L) Cuculirm, which 
 
368 SCANSOUES. 
 
 include the genuine Cuckoos, having the bill broader at the base 
 than it is high. These, with the exception of the birds included 
 
 in the genus Molothrus, are the only known parasitic birds, 
 
 making no nests for their own use, but taking possession of those 
 of small insectivorous birds, usually of the Dentirostral tribe. 
 '• The whole care of hatching and rearing the young, is now left 
 to the foster parent ; and as the wants of so large an intruder, 
 additional to those of their own offspring, would be more than the 
 efforts of the selected nurses could supply, an instinpt is im- 
 planted in the young Cuckoo, by which, even from the very day 
 of its birth, it is impelled to eject from the nest the rightful ten- 
 ants of it. This is a well known habit of the Common Cuckoo, 
 whose notes as harbinger of spring, are pleasing,, but whose 
 reputation is bad, on account of the ruthless murders which, in 
 its early days, it is supposed to have committed." The Toucans, 
 however, seem to act as avengers. The favorite nests of the 
 Cuckoo, are those of the Hedge Sparrow, the Pied Wagtail, the 
 Pipit and the Robin. 
 
 (2.) The sub-family, Coccj/zitub, from the generic name, 
 Coccyzus, (Gr. kokkuzo, I sing as a cuckoo,) — have a bill of a 
 lengthened and oval shape, and are not to be regarded as paras, 
 tic. Coccyzus Americanus, (Cuculus CaroUnensis — Wilson,) — 
 is well known by its notes, which seem to represent the word 
 cow, cow, repeated eight or ten times with increasing rapidity. 
 This is the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, which honorably builds its own 
 nest, and lays four or five eggs of a green color. Sometimes it 
 is called the Cow-bird. There are two other American species, 
 viz., the Black-billed Cuckoo, C. erythrophthalmus, (Gr. red- 
 eyed,) and Mangrove Cuckoo, C. seniculus, (Lat. a little old man.) 
 
 What is the Third Order of Birds ? What characteristic is common to 
 them all ? For what does this fit them ? What is said of their powers of 
 flight and their nests ? Into what Families is the order divided ? 
 
 What is the First Family ? Of what region are they all natives ? What 
 is said of their plumage ? How do they associate ? How are they easily 
 recognized? Describe the beak. What other characteristics are giyen? 
 What is said of their flight ? What of their powers of smell ? What food 
 do they use ? What assists them in obtaining it ? What more is said of 
 these birds when Sleeping? How does Mr. Gould arrange the Toucan? 
 State the differences between the two groups? Which is the largest of the 
 Toucans Proper? — What species of the Aracari is mentioned? What other 
 species of Toucans is mentioned ? 
 
 What is the Second Family? For what are the Parrots remarkable? 
 What is peculiar in their upper mandible ? Describe it. Has the beak 
 nerves of sensation ? What is said of the tongue V What pecuUarity 
 
EASOBES. 369 
 
 attaches to some of tlae Australian species ? What fact is mentioned in 
 relation to the Australian Lorikeet? What is the prevailing hue of; the 
 Parrot? Where are the True Parrots for the most part found? What is 
 said of the imitative powers of' this group? Which are the best known of 
 the Green Parrots ? What is said of them? Which is superior in docility 
 and mimicry ? Are the True Parrots cresied, and what is the form of the 
 tail ? What Parrots connect them with the Cockatoos ? Where are the 
 Cockatoos found? How do they differ from True Parrots ? What is said 
 of the color of their plumage? What is said of the Lovfe-Birds? What 
 group is next mentioned ? Where are these found ? What is their color? 
 When were they first introduced, into Europe? For what are they cele- 
 brated? What Parrokeet is found in the U.S.? Where are the Maocaws 
 found? What is said of their size? What species are mentioned? Where 
 are the Lokies found? What is said of them? 
 
 What is the Third Family ? For what are they eminently adapted? How 
 is this shown? What use do they make of the bill? Why is the Ivory- 
 billed W. so called? What organs help them to obtain their food? With 
 what glands is the head furnished? What purpose do these serve? How 
 are they enabled to secure the larger larvse ? What do these marks of adapt- 
 ation illustrate ? What is said of the diffusion of these birds ? How are they 
 colored? Which is the largest species? Where found? How large? 
 What is said of the Wry-neck? Are the sp. of Wry-necks numerous? 
 
 What is the FonnTH Family? What characteristics are mentioned? 
 What does Swainson remark of these birds? What purpose is served by 
 their long tails? What is said of the outer hind toe? What are the 
 Cuckoos really said to be ? What Sdb-Family includes the Genuine 
 CdjCJSOOS? Why are they called Parasitic-birds? Are there any other 
 Parasitic-birds ? Which are the favorite nests of the Cuckoo ? What is the 
 other Sub-Family? Are they Parasitic-birds? What American species 
 are mentioned? 
 
 SECTION VIIT. 
 
 Fourth Order. SGRATCHERS. 
 
 Rasores, (Lat. rado, to scratch ;) or Gallinje, (Lat. ga?lus, a 
 
 cock.) 
 
 This order, which includes the GaZZj»ace<Et or Poultry tribes, 
 consists of birds having bulky forms and strong legs, and espe- 
 cially adapted to live on the dry ground. The Poultry are 
 chiefly confined to the continents, few, comparatively being found 
 on the adjacent islands. 
 
 The, wings of the Scratchers are muscular, but not proportion- 
 ate in size to the bulk of their bodies, so that their power of 
 flight is comparatively small. Most of them have strong, arched 
 beaks, long necks, and large, apnple tails; many have their 
 heads adorned with elegant crests ; the tail has more than the 
 
370 EASOEES. 
 
 usual number of feathers, having from fourteen to eighteen. 
 Their food is, with few exceptions, vegetable, being chiefly de-^ 
 rived from the seeds and grains of plants. These birds multi. 
 ply with great rapidity, are easily domesticated, and as furnish^ 
 ing man with a large quantity of wholesome and delicate food, 
 deserve special regard. Some of them, as the Peacock and 
 Pheasant, are also interesting for the beauty and stateliness of 
 their forms, and the diversity of their plumage. In the few spe. 
 oies of this family which associate in pairs, such as the Ptarmi- 
 gan and Partridge, the male and female birds are, nearly alike, 
 both in size and color. 
 
 The Scratchers are arranged into seven families, viz. : (1) 
 Coiumbidce, Pigeons ; (2) Cracidm, Currassows ; (3) Megqpo^- 
 da, Megapodes, or large-footed Birds; (4) Phasianidce, Pheas. 
 anls ; (5) Tetraonida, Grouse ; (6) CliionidcB, Sheath-bills ; (7) 
 TinamMa, Tinamous. 
 
 FiEST Family. Pigeons. 
 Columhidce, (Lat. Columha, a dove or pigeon.) 
 
 The food, habits, and internal economy of these birds, and the 
 form of their bills entitle them, in the judgment of Cuvier and 
 others, to a place among the Rasores. They, however, show. 
 resemblances to the Perchers, which have led some naturalists to 
 place them in that order. The feet of the Pigeons, though .fol- 
 lowing the type of the Perchers, allow them to spen4 niost:of 
 their time on the ground, and many of them perch very little. 
 They differ from the Gallinaceous birds, in pairing, which is 
 contrary to the habits of the latter, also in having the hind toe 
 on the same level with the others, whereas the Gallinaceous 
 birds have the hind toe higher up. The variations of the Pig- 
 eons from both the Scratchers and Perchers, have indi^c^fiyet 
 other naturalists to erect them into a separate order, Gyratores, 
 (Gr. guros, a circle.) or Ciecling Birds, a name referring to their 
 mode of flying in circles. 
 
 The Pigeons include a large number of elegant and amiable birds, 
 spread over every part of the world. One of their principal pe- 
 culiarities is the crop, which ordinarily is thin, but which, when 
 the young are about to be hatched, becomes expanded on each 
 side of the gullet, and very irregular as to its internal surface. 
 From this organ the parent bird supplies its young with food, pre- 
 viously rendered suitable by the action of a milky fluid that is 
 secreted in the crop ; this fluid, it is said, coagulates with acids 
 and forms curd. This apparatus constitutes among the Birds the 
 
KASOHB^. 371 
 
 nearest approach to the Mammal tribes : hence the term " pig- 
 eon's milk." 
 
 The beak in the Pigeons is of moderate length, and swollen 
 towards the tip,' which is curved downwards; the wings vary in 
 length atid in adaptation to poW-erful flight ; the feet have three 
 divided toes in front, and a single one behind. The structure 
 of the feet varies, however, in different genera. 
 
 In the WooD-PiGEONS, {Columba,) of North America and the 
 Eastern Continent, th(^ Outer .and inner toes in front are equal. ,- 
 
 In the Green Pigeons, i^PiilinopuS, Gr. . feather^footed,) of 
 Australia and the East Indian Islands ; and the Aromatic Vin- 
 AGos, {Vinago,) of inter-tropical Asia and Africa, a group which 
 includes the Thick-billed species of those countries, the inher 
 toe is much shorter than the outer, so that they are more fitted 
 for grasping than walking ; but this proportion is reversed in the 
 Passenger Pigeon, genus Eciopistes, (Gr. ektopizo, to migrate.) 
 In the genus Peristera, (Gr. for dove,) which comprises the 
 beautiful Bronze- Winged Pigeons, of Australia, and the Gkound 
 Pigeons of this continent, the tarsi are higher, the hind toe 
 shorter, ahd the inner toe is the longest. 
 
 The Pigeons generally nestle in trees and in the holes of rocks, 
 laying but few eggs at a time, but breeding very often, so that 
 their increase is very rapid. The prevailing hues of the plum- 
 age in the typical genus, Cbliimba, are various shades of blue 
 and gray, merging, sometimes, into purple, and at others, into 
 white. Many of this family exhibit metallic reflections of great 
 beauty, mostly confined to particular parts, especially the neck. 
 The countenance in these birds is meek and gentle in its express- 
 ion ; the, eye, large, liquid and engaging. The voice has a soft 
 and mournful character; it is known by the term cooi?^. 
 
 The Rock-Pigeon, C. livia, (Lat. livid,) in its wild state widely 
 distributed, is the original stock of the Common, or Dove-Cote 
 Pigeon, and most of the- curious varieties which are fostered by 
 "pigeon breeders." Among the varieties are the Tumblers, so 
 called from their singular habit of falling backwards when on 
 the wing ; the PoUters, or Croppers, so named from their in- 
 flated' crops, of which they seem exceedingly vain, and which 
 thby are enabled to fill so full of air that the head is almost hid- 
 den behind it; the Carriers, or Messenger Pigeons, trained to 
 carry letters fastened under their wings or to their feet, cele- 
 brated in the verse of Anacreon, (Ode, eis peristeran, to the pig- 
 eon!) Victors in the games of ancient Greece sometimes em- 
 ployed these birds to announce their success ; the Crusaders used 
 theml thef figure in Tasso's "Jei*usalem Delivered," who sings 
 
372 EASOBES. 
 
 of one that was attaoke.d by a falcon, and rescued by the hero, 
 Godfrey ; but, though they continued to be used down to modem 
 times, and at last, for such ignoble purposes as heralding the fel. 
 on's death, increasing the gains of stoclc-jobbersj or bearingimes. 
 sages from the race course and prize ring, (see Hogarth's 
 print in the Penny Magazine,) yet since the invention and. ssppli.. 
 cation of the electric telegraph, their " occupation is " almoet 
 "gone." A well trained carrier-pigeon, it is said, has "performed 
 the distance of forty miles in half an hour;" and "one has. been 
 known to j3y nearly one hundred and fifty miles in an hour!" 
 Their more usual rate of flight probably does not exceed forty 
 miles an hour. 
 
 Other " fancy varieties " rtiight be mentioned, but those given 
 must suffice. , 
 
 The astonishing fecundity of the domesticated, pigeon is shown 
 by the fact, that hatching as they dp, nine or ten times a year, a 
 single pair ma)' produce, in four years, 14,760 young ! 
 
 The.TuRTLE-DovE, Turtur, (Lat. turtle-dove,) n'son'«s, (laugh, 
 ing,) or Columha riaorius, is deemed a fitting emblem of con- 
 stant and faithful connubial attachment; it expresses its affection 
 by " billing and cooing in the, gentlest and most soothing accents." 
 This bird reaches England early in the Spring, and leaves late 
 in August ; its length is rather more than twelve inches. The 
 specific name, {risorius,) is given to it from a "fancied resem- 
 blance to the human laugh in its cooings." 
 
 The Carolina Turtle-Dove, Columha (Ectopisles) Caroli- 
 nensis, is twelve inches long, and ranges and breeds from Texas 
 to Massachusetts. The plumage of the upper parts is light yel- 
 lowish brown, with the crown of the head and upper part of the 
 neck, bright greenish blue ; the under parts are brownish yel- 
 low, Wilson says : " This is a favorite bird with all who love 
 to wander among our woods in the spring, and listen to their va- 
 ried harmony. They will hear- there many a sprightly per. 
 former ; but none so mournful as this. The hopele^ss woe of set- 
 tled sorcow, swelling the heart of female innocence itself, could 
 not assume tones more sad, more tender and ofTecting. They 
 are generally heard in the deepest shaded part of the woods, fre- 
 quently about noon, and towards the evening. There is, however, 
 nothing of real distress in all this; it is the voice of love, for 
 which the whole family of doves are celebrated, and none more 
 so than the species before us." 
 
 The Passenger Pigeon, or Wild Pigeon, Columha [Ectopui<^ 
 migratoria, is found m all parts of North America, and in par- 
 ticular districts is, at times, wonderfully abundant. It is usually 
 
RASOBES. 373 
 
 of a bluish-slate color, with white underneath, though there are 
 considerable variations of color. The- Passenger Pigeons have 
 great acuteness of vision ; they are also noted for theii? rapid 
 flight. These Pigeons have been liilied in New York with Caro- 
 lina rice still in their crops. As the digestion of these birds is 
 extremely rapid, they must have flown bet^yeen three and four 
 hundred miles in six hours, giving an average speed of a mile in 
 a minute. Wilson and Audubon have both felicitously described 
 the arrivals and departures of the almost innumerable multitudes 
 of Wild Pigeons which they saw, Wilson estimated one multi- 
 tude seen by him to contain above two hundred thousand millions 
 of pigeons! Audubon judged that a flock seen by him contained 
 one billian one hundred and fifteen millionsl ! The breeding 
 places of these birds are sometimes of very great extent. One 
 of these near Shelby v.iUe, Kentucky, Wilson judged to have been 
 several miles in extent, andi upwards of forty miles in length. 
 These birds usually raisei two broods in a year. Their nests 
 are composed of a few dry twigs crossing each other, and are 
 supported by forks in the branches of trees. On the same tree, 
 it is said, fromfiftytb an hundred nests may often be seen. 
 
 The Bronze-Winged PiGEON, or Ground I)ove, Phaps (Gr. a 
 pigebn) chalcoptera, (Gr. brazen -winged,) group Perislerincs, is 
 an extremely beautiful species found in Australia. The predomi- 
 nant colors are gray tinged with purple^ and brown tinged with 
 green ; the wing coverts ars bluish gray, but the outer webs 
 of every feather have a large egg-shaped spot, exhibiting vari- 
 ous shades of metallic brilliancy, according to the direction of 
 the light. The length of this bird is eighteen inches. Its cooing 
 IS so loud that when heard at a distance it has been compared to 
 the lowing of a cow. 
 
 The 'CilowNEr Pigeon, Lophyrus, (Gr. having a remarkable 
 crest,) crislalus, is a native to the East Indian islands. Thp size 
 of this bird, (28 inches long,) compares with that of a turkey, 
 and its flesh is of excellent flavor. The greater part of the plu- 
 mage is of a fine purple or bluish ash; other portions are of a 
 dark reddish-brick color. It coos and shows the manners of pig- 
 eons, but in structure seems to approach the Curassows. 
 
 The Wattled Grouni> Pigeon, Geophilus, (Gr. lover of the 
 ground,) eak-unculaia, (Lat. wattled,) is a native of South Africa, 
 in size about as large as a turtle dove, but with the body stouter 
 and more rounded. In its bill and plumage it conforms to the 
 Pigeons, but in the naked red wattles of the forehead and chin, 
 and in some .other respects,. it appears to approach the Gallina- 
 ceous Birds. 
 
374 BASOSES. 
 
 The Ground Dove, Columba passerina, (Lat. Sparrow-like,) 
 is an American species, only six and three-fourths inches in 
 length, ranging from Louisiana to Cape Hatteras. 
 
 Second Family. The Curassows. 
 CracifLcB, (Gr. krax, from krazo, to cry out like a crow.) 
 
 The hind toe in these birds is articulated on the same plaoe as 
 the others, touching the ground on its length in walking, so that 
 the! foot is constructed after the model of the Perchers; hence, 
 they are much more arboreal than the Poultry-birds, form- 
 ing their nests among the branches of trees and feeding upon 
 their buds and fruit. The curved form of the claws, their com- 
 pressed sides, and their sharp points indicate that these birds are 
 not habitually occupied in walking and scratching upon the 
 ground ; the toes, unlike those of all other gallinaceous birds, are 
 destitute of any connecting membrane; the tarsi are without 
 spurs, but in other respects the Curassows conform to the dis- 
 tinctive characters of the order. 
 
 These birds are found in Central and South America. 
 
 The Common Crested Curassows, Crax elector, (Gr, alek- 
 tor, a cock,) are natives of Mexico, Guiana and Brazil. They 
 are very common and furnish excellent food ; are about the size 
 of a turkey, and have the head adorned with crests of long, nar- 
 row, erectile feathers, curled at the tips. They usually perch 
 upon trees, are found in numerous flocks and easily domesticated. 
 These birds build their nests upon trees, laying but once a year; 
 the eggs are from five to eight in number, and nearly as large as 
 a turkey's. The plumage is of a deep black, with slight glosses 
 of green above; the under parts are dull white. 
 
 The GuANS, Penelope cristata, do not differ much from the 
 Curassows in their habits. They are known in Brazil by the 
 name of Jacu, (pronounced Yacou,) derived, it is said, from their 
 note. The length is thirty inches. 
 
 The HoAziNS, Opislhocomus, (Gr. opislhen, behind ; home, hairs 
 or bristles,) cristatus, live in pairs or small companies of six or 
 eight, in the flooded savannahs of South America. They seek for 
 their food the leaves of a species of arum which is found in such 
 places. Unlike other gallinaceous birds, their toes are without, 
 or have only rudimentary membranes. In stature and gait they 
 resemble the peacock. The generic name refers to the bristles 
 which diverge from the base of the bill. The name Hoatisin,oT 
 Hoazin, is given to these birds from its imagined resemblance 
 
,E«A«OKES. \375 
 
 when pronounced, to their shrieking cry. They are nearly as 
 large as the Gu^ns. 
 
 Third Family. Me&apodes, or Greatfoots. 
 MegapodiidcB, (Gr. /t*^j«?, migas, great ; ttous, a foot.) 
 
 This family are scattered over Australia and the islands of the 
 [ndian Archipelago. 
 
 Their characters may be given thus : the beak is vaulted, 
 somewhat compressed ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail 
 short, varying in the number of its feathers from twelve to 
 eighteen ; the feet of disproportionate size and strength, the tarsi 
 being stout, elevated, and strongly scaled; the toes long, robust, 
 and armed with strong, flat, rasorial claws. 
 
 The flesh of these birds is white, and much valued for its 
 tenderness and flavor. The eggs are enormously larg^, as com- 
 pared with those of other birds. 
 
 The Brush Turkey, Talegalla Lathami, (of Latham.) is so 
 called from being found principally in the thick brushwood of 
 New South Wales. Mr. Gould has given an account of the 
 curious nests of these birds.- In making them, the bird never 
 uses its bill, but always grasping a quantity of material in its 
 foot, throws it backward to the common centre ; and thus clears 
 the surface of the ground for a considerable distance so com- 
 pletely, that scarcely a leaf or blade of grass is left. After heat 
 is engendered in the mound, the eggs are planted at the distance 
 of nine or twelve inches from each other, and buried nearly at 
 arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end upwards. 
 They are .covered up as laid, and allowfed to remain until 
 hatched. It is said nearly a bushel of eggs is not unusually 
 obtained, at one time, from a single heap ; and as they are deli- 
 cious eating, they are eagerly sought. 
 
 The Mound-making Megapode, Megapodius tumulus, (Lat. a 
 mound,) confines itself to thickets near the sea-shore, and is 
 called the Jungle-fowl. It is of a bright red brown color, about 
 as large as a common fowl, and lays its eggs in mounds, not at 
 intervals, like the Brush-Turkey, but at the bottom of the mound, 
 usually five or six feet in depth. Sometimes the mounds are 
 excessively large. One is spoken of as fifteen feet in height, 
 naving a circumference of sixty feet at its base ! From their 
 small brain, and not sitting upon their eggs, but leaving them to 
 the warmth of the sun's rays, or the fermentation of vegetable 
 matter, the Megapodes are supposed to be the lowest representa- 
 tives of their class. , < '. 
 
 16 ' 
 
876 nAsoEEs. 
 
 Fourth Family. Pheasants. 
 
 PhasianidtB, (Gr. tfaaiardg, phasianos, a pheasant, i. e,, a bird 
 from the river Phasis, in Colchis.) 
 
 Sub-family Pavonina, (Lat. pavo, a peacock,) sometimes 
 ranked as a family, and so presented on the Chart. 
 
 This extensive family includes birds of a large size and mag. 
 nificent plumage; the flesh of all of them is in good esteem, 
 They have an arched beak, and the nostril is covered with a 
 naked and horny scale. The wings are characteristic of the 
 order, in being incapable of rapid or long-sustained flight. The 
 feet are large and powerful ; the tarsi naked, covered in front 
 with large plates, or scales, and have one or more curved and 
 pointed spurs; the claws are slightly curved, and obtuse at the 
 point; the hind toe is placed higher up on the tarsus than the 
 three front ones, so that, in walkingi its tip alone reaches^ the 
 surface. The tail consists of eighteen feathers, which, in all,,are 
 developed well, and sometimes in an extraordinary manner; the 
 tail coverts are also, at times, greatly lengthened. The males 
 generally are of superior size and magnificence to the females, 
 shining with rich, but not, usually, showy hues, reflecting -the 
 refulgence of precious stones or polished metal. Many; par- 
 ticularly the males, are ornamented with wattles, combs, gr 
 feathery crests. The most gorgeous species are found in the 
 warmer regions of Eastern and Southern Asia. 
 
 Europeans date back their possession of the Pheasant twelve 
 centuries before tHe Christian Era. From the most ancient 
 time the Peacock has been a domesticated bird, as the references 
 to it made by the earliest Greek poets, very clearly show. 
 
 The Common Peacock, (Pavo cristaius,) was regularly im- 
 ported from the East in the fleets of Solomon ; and its remarka- 
 ble beauty was referred to at a .period still more ancient, (Job 
 xxxix, 18.) 
 
 The feathers of this bird do not constitute its tail ; they begin 
 to grow far up on the back, so that, when erected and spread, 
 scarcely more than the head and neck of the bird appear in front 
 of them. The true tail is situated beneath, being concealed by 
 these, and consists of eighteen brown feathers, about six inches 
 long. Immense flocks of these birds, identical with the domestic 
 races, are found in the forests of India, — seeming to coveft.them 
 with their beautiful plumage. The flesh of the PeaoooMwhen 
 not old, is juicy and savory, buf is not eaten now so mudT as in 
 
EASORES. 377 
 
 former times, when it formed an important addition to great ban- 
 quets, being served up dressed in its own brilliant plumage. 
 
 The TuEKEV, {Meieagris gallopavo.) was so called .from an 
 erroneous impression, that it came originally from the country 
 of the same name. It appears to have beeii introduced into 
 Europe about the year 1600. The generic name is 'the Lat. for 
 Guinea-fowl ; the specific, is Lat. fromgallus andpavo, combined. 
 
 The habits of the Turkey, in a domestic state, are too well 
 Icnown to need description, and its utility on the score of food, 
 most people are capable of appreciating. A few continue in a 
 wild condition in some of our Western States ; they are partly 
 migratory in their habits, moving in the latter part of October, 
 towards the Ohio and the Mississippi, seldom, however, using 
 their wings, except when attacked, or in order to pass over a 
 river. The stronger ones can cross a river of a mile in breadth, 
 but the weaker frequently fall into the river, and then paddle to 
 shore with some rapidity. C. L. Bonaparte, in his "American 
 Ornithology," speaks of an ingenious method in which the 
 Turkey escapes the onsets of large Owls, by suddenly "drop- 
 ping his head, squatting, and spreading the tail over his back, in 
 which case the Owl glances over him without doing any injury. 
 
 This fowl lays in the spring, usually, from fourteen to eighteen 
 eggs, which are white, mixed with yellow or reddish freckles. 
 Dr. Franklin expressed a wish that the Turkey, rather than the 
 Bald E5agle, had been selected as our national emblem. In point 
 of character and usefulness, it certainly much transcends the 
 latter bird. 
 
 The Common Pheasant, Phasianus Colchicus, is now spread 
 over the greater part of the Old World. Fable says, it was 
 introduced into Europe "by Jason and his companions, who 
 brought' it from Colchis in the good ship Argo." In size, this 
 bird is about equal to the domestic Cock. Its plumage presents 
 the finest tints of beautiful yellow and green, united with the 
 richest ruby and purple, set off with spots of glossy black. The 
 long wedge-shaped tail, partakes of the beautiful coloring of the 
 body, and the whole bird has an air of great elegance. Several 
 varieties have been produced by climate and 'doraestication, such 
 as the White, the Pied, and the Ringed Pheasant. 
 
 The Golden Pheasant, P. picius, is among the rare species. 
 It is a native of China, and remarkably elegant in its plumage. 
 The tail of this bird is longer and more richly tinted than that 
 of the European species; it is distinguished by a crest, which 
 can be raised at pleasure. Cuvier supposes this Pheasant to 
 be the Phoenix of PlhSjr. "But the most splendid of the tribe, is 
 
S78 BASOEES. 
 
 The Aegts Pheasant, Argus giganfews, (Lat. gigantic,) as 
 large as a Turkey, found in Sumatra^ and the South-Easti 
 ern parta of Asia. The "wings, the secondaries cf which are 
 three times as long as the primary quills, are painted and ocel. 
 lated (having little eyes) in a manner which defies description.'' 
 This Bird derives its name from the shepherd Argus, fabled to 
 have an hundred eyes. 
 
 The Guinea Fowls, or Pintados, Numida mekagris, were ori. 
 ginally brought from Africa, and in the swamps and pestilential 
 regions of the Western portion of that Continent, they are found 
 in immense flocks. 
 
 Dr. Livingston says, " the woods were literally alive with 
 them," — that his " guides roasted them on skewers in the off-hand 
 fashion which is common among these people. They think it is 
 waste of time to strip the bird of its feathers before roastiagiit, as 
 the fire itself performs that operation." The flesh of these'birds 
 is considered a great delicacy, as it is tender and well flavored. 
 Even in their wild state, they are not good flyers ; indeed, they 
 make more use of their legs than their wings. Their speed on 
 the ground is surprising ; but when chased for a while, they be- 
 come fatigued, and sit still until they are picked up. Guinea- 
 Hens are easily domesticated, and have been widely distributed. 
 They are frequently seen in the poultry-yard where they are 
 noted for their peculiar cries and unusual gait. During night, 
 they always perch in high situations^ or on trees. In Jamaica 
 where these Hens do much mischiefto some of the crops, they 
 have resumed their wild habits, and are shot like other game. 
 
 DOMESTIC POULTRY BIRDS. 
 
 Gallinacea, (Lat. Gallus, a cock ; Gallina, a hen.) 
 
 The Domestic Fowls are too well known to require a length- 
 ened description. Some of the vai-ieties are the following, viz: 
 
 The Game Fowl, — some years ago much sought after for use 
 in the cruel sport of cock-fighting, which, in some places, is still 
 continued. 
 
 •The Cochin China Fowl, (a variety of the Java Fowl,)— 
 enormously large, and by some regarded as the origin of the 
 Barn-door Fowl; though others suppose the Jungle Fowl, of 
 India, to be the parent stock. The principal advantage .con- 
 nected with raising the Cochin China breed, seems to be ti»l the 
 chickens, from their large size, are ready for market earlier thian 
 those of the ordinary fowl. 
 
 The Bantams, — small, but very courageoua, someUffl|e%,ftwn 
 
BASOBES. 879 
 
 venturing to attack a Turkey. Some of them are feathered 
 down to the toes. . The long neck-feathers of this and the pre- 
 ceding fowl, are used by anglers for making artificial flies. 
 
 The Shanghai Fowl, — introduced from Shanghai, China, in 
 1848, by Capt. Forbes. Their general plumage is of a gold 
 color, variegated with dark brown and red; their movement 
 appears proud and showy, but their legs are rather too long for 
 beauty. 
 
 The Polish Fowl, — a small but beautiful breed, haviTig deep 
 black plumage, with a white tuft on the crown of the head. 
 
 The DoBKiNG Fowl, — a large and delicate variety. Its chief 
 peculiarity i^ the double hind toe, — it thus having five instead of 
 four toes. 
 
 The Malay Fowl, — a long-legged and timorous bird, which, 
 for the first six months, has scarcely a feather to cover its na- 
 kedness ; its flesh, except in pure breeds, is coarse and stringy. 
 
 The Jungle Fowls, — are large and spirited, with plumage of 
 purple and deep golden green, which, in the sun, has a splendid 
 appearance. The Chinese use these birds as Game Fowls. 
 
 Fifth Family. Gbouse. 
 Tetraonida, (jLai, tetrao, a heath-cock, or moor fowl.) 
 
 This family are distinguished from the Pheasants by the abseikie 
 of naked crests and wattles^ that are so common among those 
 birds, as well as of the brilliant colors and the metallic lustre of 
 their plumage. The only naked skin about the Grouse is the 
 space which surrounds the eye ; this, when present, is of a 
 scarlet color. The tail is very short, and, in some species, 
 rudimentary. In the larger Grouse, of Europe and America, 
 and the Pintails, of Africa, this organ is, howevery largely de- 
 veloped. The birds of this family differ from the Pheasants in 
 having the hind toe small and weak, and in some genera, reduced 
 to a mere rudiment. Some are found in the warmer regions, 
 but the larger and most typical part of them, in the cold region^ 
 of the Northern Hemisphere, and on Alpine summits. As a 
 protection against the cold, these have the feet more or less 
 clothed with feathers. 
 
 The Grouse, unlike other birds of the order, for the most part, 
 pair at the breeding season ;. though several species congregate 
 in large flocks. They all lay their eggs upon the ground, usu- 
 ally in large numbers ; in thieir general habits, they are terres- 
 trial, running with much ea?e and swiftness. In cold climates, 
 they sometimes perch on the low stunted trees. They feed on 
 
360 RASORES. 
 
 the imexpanded leaf-buds of trees, upon grains, grass, seedj and' 
 pulse. The flesh of all of these birds is much esteemed for its 
 tenderness and flavor. 
 
 The largest birds of this family, are included in the genus 
 Tetrao. 
 
 The Capekoaillie, or Cock of the Wood, T. urogallus, (Gr. 
 oiira, a tail; gdllus, a cock,) is common in most parts of Nonhi 
 em Europe. The male is a large bird, almost equaling a Tur, 
 key in size, but the female is considerably smaller. In the 
 early spring, the male bird is noted for his '"play," in which his 
 movements are " much like those of an angry Turkey-cock, and 
 he utters a call somewhat resembling feller, feller, peller ; these 
 sounds he repeats at some little intervals, but as he proceeds, they 
 become increasingly rapid, until after a minute or so, he makes 
 a sort of gulp in his throat, and ends with sucking in, as it 
 were, his breath." The nest is made on the ground, and con- 
 tains from six to twelve eggs. Mr. Yarrell gives the length of 
 a specimen of this bird, as three feet four inches. The general 
 plumage is such a blending of black and white, as to give it a 
 gray hue. This bird feeds upon berries and young shoots. 
 
 The Common Partridge, or Ruffed Grouse, T. umiellus, 
 (Lat. a small tuft,) is found only on this Continent, — ranging as 
 far South as Mexico. Its form is bulky, aid it has a slight crest. 
 (Plate X. fig. 6a.) The plumage is mottled with reddish and 
 dusky brown. The length is eighteen inches. The Parlridge is 
 remarkable for producing. a drumming noise, chiefly in the spring, 
 but occasionally at other seasons. 
 
 ■ The Cock of the Plains, or Pheasant-tailed Grouse, T. 
 urophasianus, (Gr. oura, a tail ; phasianos, a pheasant,) is found 
 in the .Rocky Mountains, and in size not much less than a Tur. 
 key, being thirty inches in length. On each side of the lower 
 part of the neck in fronts this bird has a large bare space, capable 
 of being inflated into a hemispherical sac. 
 
 The Pinnated Grouse, also known as the Prairie-Hen, or 
 Heath-Hen, T. cupido, is another species, which in its voice, 
 manners and peculiarity of plumage, is perhaps the most singu- 
 lar, and in its flesh, the most excellent of the tribe found in the 
 United States. It is nineteen inches in length. 
 
 The Quails, Ortyie, (Gr.ortux, a quail,) in the Southern and 
 Western parts of the Union, called Partridges, are also included 
 in the present family. 
 
 The Common American Quail, 0. or Perdix, (Lat* partridge,) 
 Virginiana, is found abundantly from Texas to Massachusetts. 
 
BASOKES. Sdl 
 
 In Texas it keeps principally on the prairies. This bird is 
 nine or- ten inches long; the bill is short and thick, with the 
 upper mandible curved from the base; the color a reddish 
 brown, varied with black and white. It makes its nest on the 
 ground, and lays from eight to eighteen pure white eggs. As it 
 is timorous and restless in its habits, it is hard to domesticate. 
 Its whistle, in the spring, is thought to resemble the words. Buck- 
 wheat, Bob White. The Quail is caught in large numbers by 
 traps, horse-hair nooses, and nets. 
 
 The California Quail, or Partridge, O. California, resem- 
 bles the Common Quail, but has a crest, which it can erect or 
 depress at pleasure. (Plate X. fig. 6b.) 
 
 The Ptarmigan, Lagopus, (Gr. Hare-footed,) albus, inhabits 
 the Northern parts of Europe and America. It has the legs and 
 feet thickly covered with hair-like feathers reaching as far as the 
 claws. (Plate IX. fig. 22.) Like the fur of the Ermine, the 
 plumage changes in winter from an almost tortoise-shell color to 
 a pure white. The length is about fifteen inches. In Norway, 
 the peasants take them in snares. The captured birds "are 
 kept in a frozen state until the dealers come,. and one of these 
 will sometimes sell 50,000 Ptarmigans in a season." 
 
 Sixth Family. Sheath-Bills. 
 Chionidce, (Gr. x^iivi chion, snow.) 
 
 The birds of this small family inhabit the high mountains or 
 dry plains of South America, or the remotest parts of the South- 
 ern Ocean. They resemble the grouse, but have the nostrils 
 surrounded by a sort of sheath ; hence are called Shealh-bills. 
 The typical genus is Chionis, a term suggested by the snowy 
 white plumage of these birds. They are often found far out at 
 sea, but chiefly inhabit the rocks washed by the tide, feeding on 
 sea-weeds and shells, and haye, therefore, been placed by some 
 naturalists among the Wading Birds. The species C. necro- 
 phaga, (Gr. nekros, a dead body ; pliago, to eat,) found in New 
 Holland, is about the size of a large partridge. It frequents the 
 sea-shore, and feeds on dead animal matter thrown up by the tide. 
 The Small Sheath-Bill, C. minor, is found on the dreary and iron- 
 bound shores around Cape Horn ; it is about as large as a Lap. 
 wing. This bird feeds on limpets and sea-weeds, not rejecting 
 animal substances thrown upon the shore by the waves. 
 
382 llASOKES. 
 
 Seventh Family. Tinamofs. 
 TinamidcB, (genus Tinamus.) 
 
 These birds include a very small number of species. They 
 inhabit the immense grassy plains of South America, and are 
 intermediate in form between the Partridges and Bustards, hav- 
 ing the long neck and legs of the latter, and the nostrils covered 
 ■with a naked scale, like the Pheasants. The beak varies in 
 length ; the wings are short, and the tail and hind toe rudimen- 
 tary or entirely wanting. In South America they appear to take 
 the place of the Partridges and Quails. Their appearance is 
 such that they have been said to represent "a Bustard in minia- 
 ture." Swainson considers their flesh, " both in whiteness and 
 flavor, infinitely superior to that of the Partridge and the Pheas- 
 ant." The Size of the Tinamous varies from that of a Pheasant 
 down to that of a Quail. 
 
 The Great Tinamott, TinamTis Braziliensis, is eighteen inches 
 long ; it inhabits extensive forests. The general plumage is 
 grayish brown, inclining to olive, with a mixture of white under, 
 neath and on the sides, and greenish on the neck. The feipale 
 lays twelve or fifteen eggs, the size of those of a hen, and of a 
 beautiful green color, in a nest formed of moss and dried leaves, 
 and placed on the ground among the thick herbage near the 
 root of some large tiee. 
 
 The RuFESCENT TiNAMOTj, T. rufescens, is the most beautiful 
 of the genus. It is fifteen inches and a half in length. It re- 
 sides among thick herbage, and feeds on it night and morning, 
 when it regularly utters its melancholy and feeble cry. The fe- 
 male deposits seven eggs of a fine bright violet color, in a hol- 
 low situated beneath tufts of grass. 
 
 The Andaltjsian Tuhnix, or Hemipode, Tumix fachydromus, 
 [Gt. swift runner,) is found in Spain and the northern parts of 
 Africa. It is scarcely larger than a lark, of a yellowish brown 
 color above, spotted and barred with chestnut, black, and white; 
 the under parts yellowish white. It has three toes before, en- 
 tirely divided ; no hind toe ; hence its name Hemipode, (half- 
 footed.) 
 
 What is the fourth order of Birds? What useful group does it include? 
 What characteristics are given to birds of this order ? To what limits are 
 the Poultry Bikds chiefly confined ? State further particulars respecting 
 the birds of this order. TItame the families which it embraces. In what 
 respects do Pigeons differ from Gallinaceous birds? Have they been treated 
 as a separate order, and under what name ? What chief peculiarity is men- 
 
£ASOSES> 389 
 
 tioned? , What does this apparatus constitute them? What is said of the 
 beak and feet ? State the variatiQUS in the .feet of the different groups. 
 Where do they nestle ? What are their prevailing hues ? What sp. is the 
 origin of the Common, or Dove-cote Pigeon ? Mention the fancy varieties. 
 What fact illustrates the remarkable fecundity of the domestic P. ? What 
 is said of the Turtle Dove ? What of the Carolina Turtle D. ? Eelate the 
 particulars given respecting the Passenger Pigeon ? What is said of the 
 Bronze-winged P. ? What of the Crowned P. f What other sp. are men- 
 tioned? 
 
 Give the general character of the Currassows, the 2nd Familt. Wheie 
 are they found ? Name the different sp. and repeat what is said of them. 
 
 What is said of the 3rd Family ? Where are they found ? Give their 
 characters. -What is said of the flesh and eggs of these birds? Recite 
 what is said of the Brdsh Turkey. What of the Mound-M. Megapode ? 
 
 What is the 4th Family? What is said of the size, &c. ? Give the gen- 
 eral character. Where are the most gorgeous sp. found ? When were the 
 Pheasant Tribe introduced into (Europe ? What is said of the Common 
 Peacock? What of the Tobket? What of the Common Pheasant? 
 Of the Golden P. ? Of the Argus P. ? Of the Guinea Fowl ? Name the 
 varieties of poultry birds. Give particulars respecting them. 
 
 What is the 5th Family?. How is it distinguished from the Pheasants? 
 Where are the Grouse found ? What are their habits ? What genus . in- 
 cludes the largest ? What is said of the Caperoallie ? What of the Com- 
 mon Partridge, or Ruffled Grouse ? What of the Cock of the Plains ? 
 What of the Pinnated Grouse, or Prairie Hen ? By what name are Quails 
 known in the S. and W. States ? What is said of the American Quail ? 
 What of the California Q. or P. ? What of the Ptarmigan ? 
 
 What is the 6th Family ? Mention their habitat ? What suggested the 
 name of the typical genus? On what do these birds feed? What sp. are 
 mentioned ? 
 
 What is the 1th. Family? Is it numerous? Where are these birds 
 found ? To what birds are they intermediate ? What is said of the beak, 
 wings, &c. ? What do they represent in S. A. ? What does Swainson re- 
 mark of their flesh ? How does their size vary ? What is said of the 
 Great Tinamou ? Of the Rufesceht T. ? Of the Andalusian Turnix, or 
 Hemifode? 
 
884 CUKSOBES. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 Fifth Order. RUNNERS. 
 
 CtmsoKBS, (Lat. cursor, a runner, from curso, to run 
 hither and thither.) 
 
 This order contains a small number of species arranged in one 
 family, Siruihimddm. These species differ from each other con- 
 siderably, yet they all agree in having wings which are remark, 
 ably short, while the hind limbs are increased in size and strength 
 of muscle, proportioned to the decrease of those in front. The 
 pectoral muscles are small and slender, and the breast bone ex- 
 hibits a uniform convex surface, like that of a shield, but not 
 keeled, as in the Swallows and Humming Birds. 
 
 The Runners are all birds of large size, most of them equal, 
 ing, if not surpassing the average height and bulk of the Mam- 
 malia, to whjch class they approach nearer than any of the other 
 feathered tribes. ' They are found in the immense plains of the 
 SouthernTlemisphere. Most of them are remarkable for the pe- 
 culiarity of their incubation. Many females occupy one nest in 
 which a great number of eggs are laid, to be incubated chiefly 
 by the male ; when disturbed, he feigns lameness, as is common 
 with birds that nestle on the ground. The hind toe is wanting 
 in all these, except that singular one, the Apteryx, or Kivi-Kivi, 
 of New Zealand, where it is found in the form of a small rudi- 
 ment. 
 
 The OsTKioH Family. 
 
 Struthionidee, (Gr. otqovOos, strouthos, an ostrich.) Genus 
 Struihio, 
 
 This family includes the true Ostrich, the American Ostrich, 
 (Ehea,) the Cassowary, the Australian Cassowary, or Emu, and 
 ■ the Kivi.Kivi, or Apteryx, (for which see chart.) 
 
 These birds are very large, and the neck and legs of great 
 length. Their plumage is loose and flexible ; the thighs short 
 and muscular. The toes vary, the Ostrich having but two, (and 
 only one of these furnished with' a nail somewhat resembling a 
 hoof;) the Cassowary and Emu, three ; the Apteryx, (including 
 the rudimentary hind toe,) has four. (See Chart.) 
 
 The Ostrich, Struthio camelus, or Camel Bird, is so called 
 from its resemblance to the Camel, which is very striking. Both 
 " are furnished with callous protuberances on the chest and ab- 
 
CUBSOBES. 385 
 
 domen, on which they support themselves when at rest; they both 
 He down in the same manner, and the feet and (in some respects) 
 the stomachs of both are similarly constructed ; both are capable 
 of subsisting on a scanty vegetation, of enduring thirst, and of 
 traversing arid sands and desert regions." Anderson says, "their 
 cry resembles that of a lion, so as even to deceive the natives; 
 they are so swift and strong they will outstrip an English horse 
 in speed, with two men mounted on their back, and it takes a 
 long time to exhaust them. Their food, in the wild state,. con- 
 sists of seeds, tops and buds of various shrubs and plants ; in 
 confinement, they swallow, with avidity, stones, pieces of wood, 
 iron spoons, knives, leather, hair, cordage, glass, minerals,' and 
 all sorts of indigestible matter, so that this bird has been called 
 the Ironseating Osti'ich." Although capable of enduring thirst 
 for a long time, yet "they flock daily, about noon, to the pools, 
 where they swallow the water by a succession of gulps. This 
 is one of the most favorable times to shoot them. The Ostrich, 
 like the Capercaillie of Europe, has a plurality of wives, from 
 two to six, each laying from four to six eggs in tfie same nest, 
 which is a simple cavity scooped out in the sand ; both male and 
 female assist in hatching them.* The bird sits astride over them 
 with its legs pointed forward. Some eggs are always placed 
 outside the nest to serve as food for the young ; when hatched, 
 the chicks are about the size of pullets, and of a pepper and salt 
 color, covered with neither down nor feathers, but a kind of 
 prickly external. They are scarcely to be distinguished from 
 the gravel or sand of the plains, or the stunted vegetation among 
 which they dwell. The flesh of the young jis not unpalatable, 
 but that of the old bird is anything but agreeable, tasting much 
 like the meat of the Zebra." Under the Mosaic law the Ostrich 
 was an unclean animal, and the Jews were forbidden to eat it. 
 The Arabs of the present day still adhere to this prohibition. 
 Some of the less fastidious tribes of Southern Africa partake of 
 it with a relish, more especially when fat. The brains of hund- 
 reds of these animals often made a dish at the luxurious suppers 
 of the ancient Romans. They were considered great delicacies, 
 and the Emperor Heliogabalus, it is said, was served with six 
 iiundred of them at a single feast. The eggs of the Ostrich are 
 
 * There is no inconsistency in this statement with the passage Job, xxxix, 
 14, which refers to the Ostrich as found in the torrid zone, where the in- 
 tense heat renders incubation unnecessary, and the bird hence, "leaves her 
 eggs in the earth, and warnleth them in the dust," showing little of mater- 
 nal care or solicitude. The remarks here given from Anderson apply to the 
 bird as seen in the cooler regions of Southern Africa. 
 
386 CUSSOR£S. 
 
 much prized by travelers as well as by natives. They weigh 
 about three pounds, and contain as much as two dozen of the 
 eggs of our common barn-door fowls. One might be considered 
 a sufficient meal for any man, but the Damaras sometimes eat 
 two at a meal. " The shells are valued as ornaments, as well as 
 drinking vessels, or to hold liquids, for which purpose they are 
 covered with a sort of net- work, and slung across the saddle ; 
 grass, wood, etc., serving as substitutes for corks. The Copts 
 suspend them in their churches, passing the cords of their lamps 
 through the shells to prevent the rats from coming down to drink 
 the oil ; they look upon the shells as emblems of watchfulness. 
 Dissolved in vinegar, or reduced to powder, they are used me- 
 dicinally." 
 
 Stones as large as a bean or pea, are said to be sometimes 
 found in the eggs. Barrows speaks of nine found in one egg and 
 twelve in another, of a pale yellow color, about as large as a 
 marrowfat pea, and exceedingly hard, A full grown Ostrich is 
 seven or eight, sometimes nine or even eleven feet high, and 
 weighs two of three hundred pounds, some say thirty stone, (420 
 lbs.) This bird is supposed to live between twenty and thirty 
 years. 
 
 The general color of the female is a grayish or ashy brown, 
 slightly fringed with white. The lower part of the neck and 
 body of a mature male is of a deep glossy black, mixed with 
 whitish feathers. In both sexes, the large plumes of the wings 
 and tail are perfectly white ; the thinner the quill, the longer and 
 more wavy the plume, the more highly it is prized. Seventy to 
 ninety feathers go to the pound ; but though half this number 
 may be obtained from a single bird, only a small portion are of 
 any value. The best plumes are obtained soon ailer the moult- 
 ing season. The price varies, as the market is fluctuating at the 
 Cape of Good Hope, From five to fifty dollars are paid for a 
 pound of the finest feathers. Those obtained from living birds 
 are less liable to be attacked and injured by insects or worms 
 than such as are taken from dead ones. The Damaras and Be- 
 chuanas manufacture handsome parasols from the black feathers, 
 which serve as a sign of mourning, and. to protect the complex- 
 ion ! These Ostrich parasols are used in hunting wild animals, 
 as a Spanish bull-fighter uses a red cloth; just as a wounded 
 beast charges a man, "he thrusts the support of the nodding 
 plumes into the ground, and slips ofT, while the infuriated ani- 
 mal vents his wrath upon the feathers.". The skin is also held 
 in great request for manufacturing defensive armor. Ostriches 
 usually dwell far from the haunts of men, but occasionally ap- 
 
CITRSOEES. 387 
 
 proach the ■settlements, trampling down grain and eating it. Do- 
 mesticated, they are quiet, dull and heavy looking; in their na- 
 tive haunts they are restless, wary and difficult of approach. 
 The senses of touch, taste, smell, and hearing are in these, as 
 also in the other birds of the family, Strongly developed. The 
 eye is well formed ; the sight is piercing, so that the Ostrich has 
 a wide range of vision, and can discover danger at a considerable 
 distance. 
 
 The Amekican Ostrich, Rhea Americana, (the Nhandu Gua- 
 cu of the BrazilianSj^prominently differs from the Ostrich of the 
 Old World, in having three toes, all furnished with claws, and in 
 its smaller size, being only about half as large as the African 
 bird ; it is also thinly covered with feathers. It has the same 
 propensity for swallowing iron, stones, &c., as the Ostrich of the 
 East. Haunting the banks of rivers, it runs so swiftly and cun- 
 ningly asJiot pnly to evade the pursuit of dogs, but the weapons 
 of the natives. These birds, like other ostriches, lay their eggs 
 in the sand. " The males," it is said, " sedulously jerform the 
 office of incubation." The natives pursue them on horseback, and 
 kill them by throwing the " bolas," or leathern thong, loaded at the 
 end with a heavy stone or leaden ball. The Rhea frequently 
 swims across rivers several hundred feet in width, thus exceed- 
 ing the powers of the Ostrich and Cassowary." It feeds upon 
 flesh and fruits, and upon the small fishes which are washed 
 upon the sand; its flesh is said to equal that of geese and swans, 
 and it is easily tamed. 
 
 A second (smaller) species, R. Darwinii, has been discovered 
 in Patagonia, but it is rare. 
 
 The Cassowary, Casuarius Casoar, (or Emeu,) is a native of 
 the Eastern part of Asia. Its wings are shorter than those of the 
 Ostrich, and quite useless in aiding progression ; the head is 
 surmounted with a bony prominence, covered with a horny sub- 
 stance; the skin of the head and upper partof the neck is naked, 
 tinged with cerulean blue and flame color, and has wattles like 
 those of a turkey; the feathers are composed of twolong, thread- 
 like ones, proceeding from the same root and having the appear- 
 ance of hair ; the wing feathers are round, black and strong, and 
 resemble the quills of a porcupine. At the end of the last joint 
 of the wing is a sort of spur. This bird, next in size to the Os- 
 trich, when erect and five feet in height, resembles the latter bird 
 in its general form and aspect, (Plate X. fig. 7,) but differs from 
 it in its digestive organs. The Cassowary lays a small number 
 of:green eggs, which it- leaves to be hatched by the heat of the 
 .climate. Its food " consists of vegetable substances, and it will 
 
388 Ct7RS0RES. 
 
 frequently swallow a large apple entire, trusting to the pebbles, 
 &c., in its stomach to bruise it." The name Em^, formerly 
 given to this bird, is now restricted to the following. 
 
 The Emu, Dromaius, (Gr. Dromaios, running swiftly,) is a na- 
 tive of New Holland, and in size and other respects Closely re- 
 sembles the Cassowary ; but its plumage is thicker as its feattiers 
 are more barbed ; the wings are small and hardly to be distin- 
 guished ; but as a runner, it outstrips the swiftest greyhound. 
 The dogs are shy of this bird on account of its powerful kicks, 
 so powerful that by means of them it can break a man's leg. 
 
 The Kivi-Krvi, Apteryx, (Gr. a, priv. ; pterux, wing,) of New 
 Zealand, is a remarlcably odd bird, appearing to hold amongihe 
 feathered tribes of Polynesia, a position parallel to the Orniihor. 
 hyncus, or New Holland Mole, among the quadrupeds. Its bones 
 are not hollow like those of other birds, and it has no abdominal 
 air cells. It has no wings and only the most simple Rudiments, 
 ending in a sharp hook, which seems to be an instrument of de- 
 fence; it is,also tailless. Upon its very long and slender beak 
 it leans forward as an old man would upon a stick. It is a noc- 
 turnal bird, pursuing its prey on the ground by the smell rather 
 than by the sight. The olfactory openings are near the point of 
 the beak ; ahd thus it scents the worms on which it feeds, far be- 
 low the surface of the ground. In the Zoological gardens, Lon- 
 don, (Eng.,) is the only one ever seen out of New Zealand. Tiie 
 native name, Klvi-Kivi, is given to it on account of its peculiar 
 cry. The apteryx is becoming quite rare in its native clime, 
 and it is thought will, in a few years, become extinct. 
 
 Dinornis. This word represents a genus of struthious or Os- 
 trich like birds formerly existing in New Zealand, and known 
 there by the name of Movie, or Moa ; but now, however, extinct, 
 having been exterminated by human agency within a recent 
 period ; or if any of the species whose bones are found in a fos- 
 sil state are still living, they are probably of the smaller forms 
 and related to the Apteryx, "the only living diminutive repre- 
 sentative of the stupendous Ostrich-like birds which once trod 
 the soil of New Zealand." 
 
 Mr. W. Mantel, son of Dr. Mantel, of Eng., while on a visit 
 to New Zealand, collected between seven hundred and eight 
 hundred bones belonging to birds of various sizes, which were 
 submitted to the examination of Prof Owen. The Professor 
 referred these to the genera Dinornis, Palapteryx, Notornis, and 
 Aptornis. A part of the bones were found on the banks of tlie 
 river Waingougou, on the western shore of North Island. 
 With these were mixed fragments of egg shells. The eggs to 
 
CUBSORGS. S89 
 
 •which the fragments belpnged were supposed to be about the size 
 of a tea cup. In connection with this fact, interest attaches to 
 a discovery recently made in Madagascar. "In a report toJthe 
 French Academy of Science, M. St. Hillaire describes three fos- 
 sil eggs from Madagascar, and small bones belonging to the same 
 bird. The Captain of a merchant vessel trading to Madagascar, 
 one day observed a native using, for a domestic purpose, a vase 
 which much resembled an egg, and upon an examination proved 
 to be one. The native stated that many such were to be found 
 in the interior of the island, and eventually procured the eggs 
 and bones exhibited by M. St. Hillaire. The largest of these 
 eggs is equal in bulk to 135 hen's eggs, and will hold two gal- 
 lonsof water. M. St. Hillaire proposes the name of Epiornis, 
 for the monster biped of which these marvelous eggs and bones 
 are the first evidence brought under the notice of naturalists." 
 Casts of these eggs have been made and are to be seen in vari- 
 ous rhuseunis. 
 
 Gnathodon, (Gr. gnathon, a jaw ; odous, a tooth.) is a genus of 
 birds in the South Sea Islands, described by Sir William Jardine, 
 from a specimen which was presented to him. 
 
 The upper mandible of the beak is strongly hooked, as in the 
 Dodo; the under one is deeply notched; hence the name. The 
 only known spetfies, G. strigirostris, (owl-beaked.) is rather 
 larger than a partridge, having the upper parts of a deep chest- 
 nut red, and the under of a glossy green black. Mr. Gould sup- 
 poses it to feed on fi'uit or grass. 
 
 Didunculus, is a name given to a genus of birds found by 
 Com. Wilkes, in the South Sea Islands, and thought to be the 
 same as the preceding. 
 
 The, Dodo, Didus, about whose proper place much doubt has 
 existed, should perhaps have a position in the present family. 
 To this bird, as now extinct, reference has already been made, 
 (see section on Birds,) but fossil remains of it have been discov- 
 ered, and there is abundant historical and other evidence of its 
 former existence. Clusius, in a work published In 1605, gives 
 a figure of a Dodo copied from a rough sketch taken by a Dutch 
 navigator, who had seen the bird while on a voyage to the Mo- 
 luccas in 1598. Bontius, (1658,) translated by Willoughby, 
 describes it as " for bigness of mean size between an ostrich and 
 a turkey, from which it partly differs in shape and partly agrees 
 with them, especially the African ostriches, if you consider the 
 rump, quill and feathers, so that it was like a pigmy among them, 
 if you regard the shortness of its legs. It has a great, ill-favored 
 
3<J0 CURSOBES. 
 
 head, with a kind of memhrane resembling a hood, .... great 
 black eyes, an extraordinary long, strong, bluish-white bill." 
 
 In the British Museum are the head and foot of one of these 
 birds ; also a painting said to be a copy of a picture taken from 
 a living bird brought from Mauritius or St. Maurice's island, 
 East Indies. 
 
 The Solitary, Le Solitaire, has sometimes been confounded 
 with the Dodo, or represented as a species of that bird. Leguat, 
 who (1631) resided in the island Rodriquez, gives a somewhat 
 fanciful description of this bird as existing in his time on that 
 island. His account of it makes it resemble a turkey, though 
 taller and almost without either wings or tail. Subsequently it 
 appears to have become extinct. Bones were, in 1832, discov- 
 ered in the island^ believed to be those of the Solitary. 
 
 What is the 5th order of birds ? Doea it contain many sp. ? In what 
 family are they included? What ia said of their differences and agree- 
 ment ? What of the muscles of the breast and the breast-bone ? What 
 of their size ? To what class of animals do they approach ? Where are 
 they found? For what are most of them remarkable? Have they any 
 hind toe ? Name the birda included in the Ostrich Family. What is said 
 of their plumage, &c. ? Why is the 0. called the Camel-bird? Point out 
 the resemblances between them. Relate the particulars given by Ander- 
 son. Were the ancient Jews allowed to eat it ? How is it with the Arabs ? 
 How with the tribes of Southern Africa ? What use was made of the 
 brains of these birds by the ancient Romans? What is said of their eggs? 
 What of the egg-shells ? Give the height and weight of a full grown Os- 
 trich. What is the general color of its plumage ? What further is said of 
 them ? What is said of the A. Ostrich ? Where has the second sp. been 
 discovered ? What is said of the Cassowary ? Is this bird properly called 
 the Emeu or Emu? Repeat what is said of the Emu. Where istheAp- 
 TERYX found? What is its native name? Why was it given? Describe 
 this bird. Where is the only one ever seen out of N. Zealand ? Is this a 
 numerous ap.? What does Dinornis represent? What collection of fos- 
 sil bones ia mentioned? To what genera did Prof. Owen refer them? 
 What ia said of the fossil eggs discovered in Madagascar ? What of the 
 Gnathodon? With what other generals it supposed to be identical? Re- 
 peat what is saiiiof the Dodo and Le Solitaire. 
 
 Mention and trace the birda of this order named upon the chart. Let 
 each pupil give an account of one of these birds. 
 
GRALLATOEES. 891 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 AQUATIC BIRDS. (Second Division.) TWO ORDERS. 
 
 First Order. Grallatores, (Lat. grallts, stilts.) Waders 
 or Stilt Birds. Grallce, (N. H. S. N. Y.) 
 
 The Waders or Shore-Birds appear to hold an intermediate 
 rank between the Gallinaceous or Poultry Birds, and the Nata- 
 torial or Swimming groups, which are confined to the water. 
 M. Vigors is of the opinion that they, of all birds, enjoy most 
 equally the advantages of land and water. They are distin- 
 guished by the great length of the tarsi and legs, which raise up 
 their bodies as upon stilts; (Plate IX. fig. 27;) thus elevated, 
 they frequent the banks of rivers, lakes, marshes and the shores 
 of estuaries. The tibia or lower portion of the leg (a) is bare, 
 so that they can wade to a considerable depth without wetting 
 their plumage, and thus seize fishes and other aquatic animals 
 on which they feed. In this they are aided by the length of the 
 beak and neck, (Plate IX. fig. 6.) Such as are more especially 
 aquatic have webs to their toes. Their wings are long and pow. 
 erful, their flight strong and well sustained, enabling them to mi- 
 grate with the seasons, which most of them do ; thus becoming 
 widely distributed. In flying, they stretch out their long legs 
 behind, (Plate X. fig. 1,) as a counterbalance to their long necks ; 
 and the tail being very short, its office as a rudder is transferred 
 to the legs. These birds have the power of maintaining a mo- 
 tionless position upon one leg for a consfiderable time. The 
 most aquatic of them place their nests among the reeds and 
 herbage of marshy places, or as the Herons, {Ardeidce,) they 
 build in company on trees; those that frequent dry and stony 
 places, often lay their eggs upon the bare ground. The eggs 
 are usually colored and spotted, of a lengthened form, with one 
 end much pointed. The young run about as soon as hatched, 
 except in those species which live in pairs. 
 
 - This order includes- the following families, viz.: (1) Chara- 
 driada, the Plovers ; (2) ^rrfeid(B, Herons ; (3) i?os«n'(fcB, Spoon, 
 bills ; (4) Tantalidm, Ibises ; (5) ScolopacidcE, Snipes ; (6) Otida, 
 Bustards ; (7) RallidcB, Rails. 
 
393 GEAI-LATOKES. 
 
 First Family. Plovers. (French pluvier, from Lat. plu. 
 vialis, rainy.) 
 
 ChatadriadcB, (Gr. x'^qadqibg, charadrios, a kind of bird, from 
 Xagiacai, to excavate.) 
 
 The Plovers are distinguished by having long and slender feet, 
 adapted for running ; the toes are rather short; the hind one is 
 either entirely wanting, or so short as not to reach the ground. 
 The wings are large and these birds are swift and strong in 
 flight, moving in circles somewhat after the manner of pigeons, 
 and wheeling round at no great height, uttering piping cries. 
 The head is thiojj, with large dark eyes placed far back ; the 
 beak short and often slightly notched ; the nostrils are pierced 
 in a long groove. Resorting to the sea-shore, with their beaks 
 they penetrate the ground for worms, to obtain which they are 
 said to stamp with their feet, causing the worms to rise. Those 
 with feebler bills resort to meadows and newly ploughed land, 
 where they can more readily obtain their food ; such as have 
 stronger bills also feed on grain, herbage, &c. The colors of 
 the Plovers are chaste and beautiful, consisting of various shades 
 of brown, mingled with yellow, white and black, and often dis- 
 posed in bands. Many of them are active during the night. 
 The Plovers are dispersed over the entire globe. 
 
 The Lapwing, or Pewit, Vanellus cristatus, is a beautiful spe- 
 cies ; in summer spread over Europe and particularly plentiful 
 in Holland, but passing the winter in warm latitudes. The 
 plumage of the upper parts is green, with brilliant reflections; 
 of the under parts, pure white. In its winter dress, the male has 
 the head feathers very long, loose, barbed and curved upwards, 
 forming a sort of crest, which is glossy black. When flying, 
 the black and white colors of this bird make it very conspicu. 
 ous. Sometimes thousands may be seen at once, gleaming in 
 the setting sun, or appearing like a dense, black, moving mass, 
 between its light and the spectator. 
 
 The Lapwings are about as large as pigeons ; their eggs are 
 laid upon the bare ground, and esteemed a luxury for the table. 
 The Lapwing takes its name from the device by which it lures 
 away intruders from its nest, dropping its wings in flight, and 
 appearing as if wounded, to entice them away, and thus often 
 inducing them to follow to a considerable distance. This bird is 
 sometimes kept in gardens, and is useful for the destruction of 
 vermin. Another European species is 
 
 The Great Plover, or Stone Curlew (of Europe,) (Edicne- 
 
GBALLATORES. 393 
 
 mus, (Gr, oiios, a swelling ; knemos, knee or shank bone ;) cre- 
 pitans, (Lat. making a rattling noise,) is about sixteen inciies in 
 length, and esteemed a delicate bird for thie table. The generic 
 name is given to this bird on account of the dilated or swQllen 
 form of the upper part of the tarsus, and the size of the knee- 
 joint in the young birds. Their shrill evening cry pierces the 
 ear, and may be heard, in the night, for nearly a mile. 
 
 The GoT-DEN Plover, Cliaradrius Virginianicus, C. marmo- 
 ralus, (marble-colored,) Aud., differs slightly in size from the Eu- 
 ropean Golden Plover, C. pluvialis, and in having the long axil- 
 lary feathers dull brcwn instead of pure white. It runges from 
 33oto 75o N. L., breeding in the arctic regions. From the gen- 
 eral greenish appearance of their plumage, these birds are called 
 Greenbacks. They are highly prized by the epicures of the fur 
 countries, and they figure largely in the bills of fare of the old 
 English nobles. Th? Golden Plover is about ten inches in length, 
 and found in every continent. The generic name denotes a bird 
 found in cavities or hollows like those worn by a rapid stream or 
 torrent. 
 
 The Ovster-Catchek. or Sea Pie, Hmmatopus, (Gr. haima, 
 blood ; 6ps, face,) ■palliaf.us, (mantled,) is named from the red ap. 
 pearance of the bill and feet, and from the black of the upper 
 plumage, which, contrasting with the pure white under plumage, 
 has the appearance of a mantle. It feeds on oysters and other 
 sea bivalves. The bill in this genus is long and wedge-shaped, 
 with the tip much compressed ; the feet have three toes, all di- 
 rected forward and bordered with a narrow membrane. The 
 Oyster-catcher breeds from Texas to Labrador. Its flesh is tough 
 and unsavory, i 
 
 The Gray Plover, or Gray- Lapwing, Squatarola cinerea, 
 (ash-colored,) has a rather strong cylindrical bill, swollen half 
 way from the tip; the feet are four-toed, (the hind toe quite 
 small.) In the warmer parts of the United States, this bird often 
 has two breeds in a season ; it runs well ; its whistle is like that 
 of the Golden Plover, but not so shrill. If killed in good season 
 it is fine for the table. 
 
 -The Turnstone, Strepsilas, (Gr. strepho, to turn ;) interpres, 
 (Lat. interpreter.) is widely distributed in both continents. It 
 has four toes ; the bill is conppressed at the base, swollen in the 
 middle, and blunt at the tip. The name Turnstone is given to it 
 from its habit of turning over stones to obtain the small crustace- 
 ans and molluscous aninnals which constitute its food. It is 
 known to sportsmen under the names of Brant-bird and Beach- 
 bird. From its fondness for the eggs of the Horsefoot, {Limulus 
 
394 GKALLATORES. 
 
 pn^yphemus,) it is also called the Horsefoot Snipe. Length from 
 nine to ten inches. 
 
 The DoTTEKEL, C. morinellus, has had credit for possessing 
 great powers of mimicry. He has also been charged with so 
 great stupidity that 
 
 "Acting every thijig, he doth never mark the net, 
 Till he be within the Bnare Trhich men for him have set." 
 
 For this, however, thers seems not sufficient reason. When first 
 seen, it shows but little fear of man ; but this might be ascribed 
 to its freedom from persecution in its native wilds; after a short 
 experience of human annoyance, it becomes more cautious. Its 
 " mimicking the action of the fowler by stretching out its leg, 
 wing, or head," may be little more than the actions of oiher birds 
 when aroused from their repose. The Dotterel feeds by night on 
 insects, slugs, and worms; in common with others of the Plovers, 
 it rests and sleeps during the day, and on this account, may 
 allow of a close approach, as is true of the Golden Plover. These 
 things considered, it can hardly be deemed proper to call it a 
 stupid bird. The upper parts of its winter plumage are of a 
 blackish-ash color with a tinge of green ; a portion of the breast 
 and under parts white; the face is white, dotted with blue. Jn 
 their winter migrations, these birds visit Italy and Spain ; they 
 are particularly abundant in the Eastern parts of Europe and 
 Northern Asia, where the larger part of them breed. 
 
 The SwiFT-FooT or Coijbser, Cursorius, (from Lat. curro, to 
 run,) is found in the hot regions of Asia and Africa. One spe- 
 cies, the Black-Bellied Courier, C. Temminckii, inhabits Abys- 
 sinia. The other species, C. Isahellinus, or Cream-coloeed 
 Courser^ is a native of Africa, but has occasionally been seen 
 in Europe. 
 
 Glareola is a genus of Plovers confined to the Old World, 
 and including three species, one of which, the Pratincole, G. 
 Pratincola, (meadow inhabitant,) is spread through the warm 
 and temperate regions of Asia, Africa and Europe. It has very 
 long wings and a greatly forked tail, and is remarkable for its 
 rapidity and power of flight. Mr. Gould speaks of it as "an 
 elegant and graceful bird.'' Its length is nine inches. 
 
 Other species are the Killdeer Plover, Charadrius vodferus, 
 which has its name from an imagined resemblance of its two 
 notes to the word Killdeer, and which breeds from Texas to 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 The Whistling Plover, S. Helvetica, called the Bull and 
 
GEALLATOEES. 
 
 395 
 
 Beetle-Head Plover, common to Europe and America, and re- 
 sembling, in its autumnal dress, the Lapwing of Europe. 
 
 Second Family. Herons. 
 
 Ardeidce, (Lat. ardea, a heron ;) Gruida, (Lat. grus, a crane.) 
 N. H. S. N. Y. 
 
 These birds are decidedly carnivorous in their appetite, feed- 
 ing on fishes, aquatic reptiles, small mammalia, worms, and 
 insects. The Ckanes, in their terrestrial habits and in their 
 food, approach some of the Gallinaceous or Cursorial birds, join- 
 ing with an animal diet, grains, seeds, and herbage. The legs 
 and feet of the Cranes are long and slender, as is also the neck, 
 which is very flexible ; the toes are four in number, the hind toe 
 usually long and resting on the ground ; the beak is long, straight, 
 sharp pointed, firm in texture and very powerful. The wings 
 in this family are, in general, well developed, and some of the 
 birds are capable of high and powerful flight. 
 
 The Herons are the type of the group. They rank as the 
 most beautiful of all the Waders, not so much from the shades 
 of their plumage, though these are chaste and agreeable, as on 
 account of their tapering and graceful forms, the curves of their 
 slender necks, their elegant hanging crests, and the long plumes 
 that adorn various parts of their bodies. They may be seen 
 watching on the margin of the water or within the shallows; on 
 the appearance of their fishy prey, it is transfixed by a sudden 
 stroke of the pointed beak and swallowed entire. In their de- 
 cidedly carnivorous habits, they differ from the Cranes. They 
 are distinguished by their larger and more pointed bill, and the 
 greater length of their legs ; their stomach is a large undivided 
 sac, only in a small degree muscular. All the Herons have 
 comb-like divisions on the inner edge of the middle claw, (Plate 
 IX. fig. 28,) probably designed to free the plumage from insect- 
 parasites. They are generally solitary in their habits ; but they 
 build in companies, usually in trees not far from the banks of 
 rivers. We give some specimens in each division of the family. 
 
 Ceanes. 
 
 The American Crane, Gtus Americana, when mature, has 
 white plumage with the quills and their shafts black ; when young, 
 bluish gray, with the quills and theirshafts brownish white. This 
 is called the Whooping Crane ; it migrates as far North as the 
 68° Lat. Its length is fifty-four inches. 
 
396 GRALLATOBES. 
 
 The Common Ceane, G. cinereus, (ashy,) of the Eastern 
 Continent, is three feet eight or ten inches in length ; in its gen. 
 eral plumage ashy-gray ; migratory and gregarious in its habits ; 
 in its contour and gait somewhat like the Ostrich ; in its strong 
 and muscular stomach, it differs from the Herons. The flesh is 
 well tasted, and was formerly highly prized. 
 
 The Demoiselle, ArUhropoides, (Gr. of human-like form;) 
 virgo, (Lat. a virgin,) or Ardea Virgo, of Linn, is an African 
 bird, but occasionally seen in Europe ; its general plumage is 
 slaty-gray ; length about three feet. One of these birds hatched 
 in the menagerie at Versailles, (France,) and lived there twenty, 
 four years. Great numbers are seen in Egypt during the inun- 
 dations of the Nile, This bird exhibits much delicacy and ele- 
 gance of attitude, and a graceful playfulness in all its move- 
 ments. Its food consists, principally of grain and seeds, though 
 it occasionally eats small fishes, mollusks, and insects. 
 
 The Stanley .Crane, A. Stanley anus, {A, paradiseEuf,) is a 
 beautiful East India species, named after Lord Stanley, late 
 President of the Zool. Soc, Lond. ; it is three feet and a half in 
 length, and in manners and gestures, like the Demoiselle ; its 
 general plumage is bluish gray. 
 
 The Crowned Crane, A. pavonicus, (Lat. of a peacock,) is 
 supposed to be the Balearic Crane, (Balearica,) of the ancients. 
 Its plumage is of a bluish slate color; when full grown it is 
 about four feet in length. Under the throat is a wattle like that 
 of a turkey. This stately biid is found in Northern and West- 
 ern Africa. (Plate X. fig. 8a.) 
 
 Herons Proper. 
 
 Of these there are quite a number of species. The use of 
 these birds in hawking, has already been noticed. The destruc- 
 tion of their eggs was in Europe formerly visited by a heavy 
 penalty ; they seem to have ranked as high at the tables of the 
 great as they did for their exploits in the field ; now, however, 
 their flesh is in low estimation. 
 
 Audubon includes the Egrets and Bitterns with the Herons, 
 under one genus, Ardea, and enumerates twelve species found 
 in America. 
 
 The Common Heron, A. cinerea, is remarkably light in pro- 
 portion to its bulk, weighing scarcely three pounds and a half, 
 though its length is upwards of three feet, and its expanse of 
 wings above five. This Heron is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, 
 and America. 
 
GBALLATORKS. S97 
 
 The Great Blue Heron, A. Herodias, is a species allied to 
 the Common Heron of Europe, and met with in every part of the 
 United States. It is over four feet in length, and six feet in the ex- 
 panse of its wings. The bill is seven or eight inches long and 
 very sharp pointed. This bird is partly nocturnal in its habits ; 
 a portion of its breast is covered with a down which is said to be 
 phosphorescent ; it is to be found from Texas to South Carolina ; 
 feeds on crabs, eels, and various other fish. 
 
 The Greenish Blue Heron, A. virescens, (Lat. verging to 
 green,) is more generally known than most other American spe- 
 cies, being widely spread in spring, summer, and autumn. It 
 has the popular names of Chalk-line, Polk, Fly-up-the-Creek, 
 &c. The length is about seventeen inches. 
 
 The Black Crowned Night Heron, A. discors, (Lat. dis- 
 cordant,) is from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches in length. In 
 many respects it resembles the Common Heron in its habits, 
 breeding like that bird, in company with others, on the topmost 
 branches of trees. During the day it roosts in the recesses of 
 woods in the vicinity of swamps and rivers, which it visits at 
 night in quest of prey. It feeds on fish, aquatic reptiles, sea- 
 lettuce, {ulva latissima) grasshoppers, and other 'large insects. 
 The popular name of Quawk, or Qua-Bird, is given to it on ac- 
 count of its deep guttural cry. It closely resembles the A. nyc- 
 ticorax, (Gr. raven of the night,) the Night-Raven of Europe. 
 
 The Great American White Egret, A. leuce, (white ;) A. 
 egrelta, (Wilson, Aud. and Bonaparte,) is forty inches in length ; 
 of a snowy white plumage, sometimes tinged with yellow. Its 
 food consists of frogs, salamanders, mice, moles, &c. This 
 bird is found from the Equator to 43o N. L. It is closely allied 
 to A. alba, or Herodias alba, the White Heron of Europe. 
 
 Bitterns. 
 
 These are represented in the genus Botaurus, (Lat ioo, to cry 
 out ; taurus, a bull.) They are widely diifused and solitary 
 birds, haunting woody swamps and marshes ; hid all day and 
 feeding at night. As might be conjectured from their haunts, 
 they feed mostly upon aquatic animals. They spread over both 
 hemispheres, but are not found in Australia. Everywhere they 
 are noted for their voracity. The names Mire-Drum and Bull 
 of the Bog are sometimes given to these birds on account of the 
 drumming or bellowing noise for which they are famous. The 
 English name Bittern was formerly spelled Bittmtr, and like the 
 
ggS GRALLATORES. 
 
 generic term, is supposed to refer to its deep-tpned, , buU,Ijke 
 voice. 
 
 The Common Bittern, E. stellaris, (Lat. starry,) was well 
 known to the ancients. It is referred to by Aristotle under the 
 name of Asterias ; in the palmy days of falconry it was much 
 sought for. It is not daunted when wounded, and therefore it 
 was the duty of the falconer to plunge the Bittern's bill into the 
 ground to prevent injury to the hawk ; both the falcon and the 
 falconer were sometimes endangered by the sharp beak of their 
 victim. In the time of Henry VIII., of England, its flesh was in 
 high esteem ; when the bird is well fed it resembles that of a 
 hare, and is not rank or fishy like that of the associate birds. 
 The long claw of this bird's hind toe is prized as a tooth-pick, 
 and in the olden time it was thought to have the property of pre- 
 serving the teeth. The Common Bittern is crested and about 
 two feet and a half in length, being smaller than the Common 
 Heron. TRfe general color of the plumage is dull pale yellow, 
 varied with spots and bars of black. 
 
 The American Bittern, B. lentiginesns, (Lat. freckled,) or 
 Ardea minor, is not quite so large as the Common Bittern. It is 
 familiarly known by tiie names Poke, Indian-He,n, Indian-Pul- 
 let, &c., and migrates over most parts of the U. S. The color 
 is a rusty yellow, mottled and sprinkled with deep brown. 
 
 The Small Bittern, A. exUis, (Lat. small or slender,) is sub- 
 crested and only eleven inches in length ; of a' chestnut color 
 above, but whitish beneath. It ranges from Mexico to 45oN. L. 
 
 The Common Boat Bill, Cancroma cochlearia, (Lat. snail- 
 shells or spoons,) approaches in form quite closely to the Heron, 
 except in the bill, which is not unlike the bowls of two spoons 
 placed one upon the other, with the rims in contact. It perches 
 on trees by the side of rivers, where it lives on fish, and not on 
 crabs, as the name Cancroma indicates, though Linneeus sup- 
 posed it to feed on crabs and so named it, Latham says: "We 
 are certain fish is its most common,' if not only food." This bird 
 is native to South America. 
 
 storks. 
 
 The Storks, Ciconia, are not so aquatic as the other birds of 
 the family, but are among the largest. They build their nests 
 on turrets, steeples, and chimneys, — each pair, after winteringin 
 Africa, returning to the same place in the spring. Their bills 
 are very long and straight, resembling a lengtheiied. cone. They 
 live in marshes, and feed principally on reptiles, frogs, and their 
 
GRALIiATORESi - S99 
 
 spawn, as well as on fishes. Wherever found, the Storks are .a 
 privileged race, on account of the havoc which they make among 
 noxious animals. They migrate in numerous flocks, and are 
 easily tamed. All the species make a clattering noise with 
 their bills. 
 
 The Common White Stokk, C. alba, (see Chart,) is about 
 three feet in length ; when well treated, it approaches, without 
 fear, the habitations of men. In the towns of Continental Eu- 
 rope, domesticated Storks, taken when young, " may often be 
 seen paddling about the markets, where they are kept as scaven- 
 gers to clear the place of thfe entrails of fisll and other offal, 
 which they do to the satisfaction of their employers." In Hol- 
 land, and especially in Germany, this bird is a welcome guest. 
 Dr. Shaw witnessed the annual migration of flocks of these birds 
 from Mount Carmel; each flock that he saw, "was half a mile 
 in breadth, and occupied three hours in passing over." 
 
 Among the ancients, to kill a Stork, was regarded a crime, 
 which, in some places, was punished with death ; and, like the 
 Ibis, this bird became an object of adoration. It is noted for its 
 great affection for its young, but more particularly, for its care 
 of its parents in old age. 
 
 The Black Stork, C. nigra, or A. nigra, is, like the White 
 Stork, a migratory bird, spending the winter in Southern Europe, 
 and passing on to high northern latitudes in summer. 
 
 The Adjutant, Leptoptilus, (Gr. leptos,, thin ; ptilos, down, 
 or plumage,) Argala, is a remarkable bird, native to the warmer 
 parts of India, and highly useful there in devouring noxious ani- 
 mals and carrion, which it does with avidity. It stands from 
 five to seven feet in height, and measures from the tip of the 
 bill to the claws, seven and a half, while the expanse of wings is 
 not less than fourteen feet. The beak is extremely large, stout, 
 and strong; under it hangs a downy pouch, or bag, like a dew- 
 lap, which is capable of being inflated. The upper part of this 
 bird is of an ashy-gray color ; the under part white. The vora- 
 city of the Adjutant is not more extraordinary than its capacity 
 for swallowing ; it makes but one mouthful of a rabbit, a fowl, 
 or even a small leg of mutton, and when domesticated, its habit 
 of purloining, makes, it necessary to keep all kinds of provisions 
 out of its reach. Dr. Latham says, " These birds, in their wild 
 state, live in companies ; and when seen at a distance, near the 
 mouths of rivers, coming towards an observer, which they often 
 do with their wings outspread, — may well be taken for canoes 
 upon the surface of a smooth sea ; when on the sand^banks, for 
 
 17 
 
^00 (tSAlLATOSES. 
 
 men and women picking up shell-fish, or ether things on the 
 beach." 
 
 The African Gigantic Stork, or Crane, C. marabou, (see 
 Chart) resembles the Afgala, but is not so large,-^selclom ex. 
 ceeding five feet in length ; its pouch is also much shorter. 
 Another similar species is found in Java. These species furnish 
 the beautiful plumes, esteemed superior to those of the Qstrich, 
 known by the name of marabou feathers. 
 
 The Jabiru, C. tnycieria, (Gr. mukter, a nostril, or proboscis,) 
 is native to Senegal, in Africa. In the enormous size of the 
 beak, as also in devouring carrion, the Jabiru resembles the Ad- 
 jutant ; the greatest part of the head and body of this bird'is en- 
 tircly Ijare ; the plumage of the latter white ; its size is somewht^t 
 larger than that of the Swan. 
 
 Third Family. Spoonbills. 
 Mostrida, (Lat. rostrum, a beak.) 
 
 The Spoonbills have many characters in common with the 
 Herons, and are often included with them. The peculiar form 
 of the bill has gained for them the name which they bear. It 
 is very long, strong, and much flattened ; the point is widened 
 and rounded so as to present the form of a spoon. The face and 
 head are partially, or entirely naked ; the neck and feet are 
 long; the nostrils basal and linear; the toes are four; in some, 
 the hind toe is very small, and articulated high up; the feet are 
 partially webbed ; the wings are ample, moderate in length ; the 
 first quill nearly as long as the second, which is the longest of 
 all. The Spoonbills live in companies, in wooded-marshes, gen- 
 erally not far from the mouths of rivers, and are rarely seen on 
 the seashore. Their food consists of small fish, spawn, and 
 minute fluviatile testaceous mollusks, reptiles, and aquatic insects, 
 According to circumstances, they build their nests either in high 
 trees, in bushes, or among rushes. The yoimg bird does not 
 take the confirmed plumage of the adult until the third year. 
 The crest makes its appearance at the end of the second year. 
 (Temminok.) 
 
 The Common White Spoonbill, Platalea, (Lat. Spoonbill,) 
 leueorddia, (Gr. leukerodon, a white rose,) is generally distributed 
 throughout Europe, but is most numerous in Holland. It has a 
 very full, long erest of loose feathers on the back of the head. 
 The length is two feet and a half. The old males have a fine 
 white plumage, with a patch of reddish yello* on the breast. 
 This bird winters ia Africa, «ipci ig fouai A9 far South as the 
 
GRALLATORES. 401 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. Its flesh, when Well fed and fat, is said 
 nearly to resemble in flavor that of a goose. 
 
 The Roseate Spoonbill, P. ajaja, is a beautiful, though sin- 
 gular bird, constantly found in Texas and South Florida; it is 
 seen as far eastward as North Carolina. The beak and wings 
 are of a delicate rose-color; the lower parts of a deeper tint; 
 the head is yellowish green ; the neck white. The length is 
 about thirty -one inches. This Spoonbill is usually fond of being 
 with the Herons, whose keen sight and vigilance apprise it, of 
 danger, and allow it to take flight in due time; it breeds in flocks 
 on trees, low bushes, or cactuses. The feathers of the wings 
 and tail are manufactured into fans by the Indians and Negroes 
 of Florida ; and at St. Augustine, form an article of trade. 
 (Aud.) The flesh is oily, and. undesirable for eating. 
 
 Fourth Family. Ibises . 
 TantalidcB^ (Gr. TaytaXos, Tantdlos, a proper name.) 
 
 These are birds which, iti their general habits and conforma- 
 tion, closely resemble the Storks; they chiefly inhabit warm 
 countries, but except in very cold regions, they are to be found in 
 all parts of the world. The bill is very long, robust at the base, 
 and curved at the tip; the face is naked ; the throat dilatable ; the 
 legs are long, and i)ave four toes ; the front toes are webbed at their 
 base as far as the first joint ; the hind toe is very long, and rests 
 upon the ground. The Ibises frequent the borders of rivers and 
 lakes, feeding on insects, worms, moUusks, and occasionally on 
 vegetable matter. They perform powerful and elevated flights, 
 extending their neck and legs.and uttering a hoarse croak. The 
 family includes between twenty and thirty species, which are ' 
 distributed over the globe. Four of these are found within the 
 limits of the United States. 
 
 The Glossv Ibis, Tantalus falcinellus, (Lat. from falas, a 
 •sickle,) is about two feet in length. In the matured bird, the 
 neck, breast, top of the back, and all the lower parts of the body, 
 are of a bright red chestniit; the wing coverts, quills, tail-feath- 
 ers, and the rest of the back, of a dusky green, glossed with 
 bronze and purple; but the bird varies much in ijs plumage at 
 different ages. This Species nestles in Asia, and is found on the 
 streams and lakes iiii flocks of thirty or forty. They migrate 
 periodically to Egypt, and pass in considerable numbers into 
 Europe. The Glossy Ibis is also found in the United States. 
 Audubon saw flocks of it in Texas, but it is only a summer resi- 
 dent there, associating with the White Jbis. Vast numbers of 
 
402 6SALLAT0KES. 
 
 it are seen in Mexico. Cuvier says, this, to all appearance, is the 
 species which the ancients called Black Ibis. 
 
 The White or Sacked Ibis, Ibis religiosa, (see Chart,) is, per- 
 haps, the most celebrated species. Arriving in Egypt about the 
 time that the inundation of the Nile commences, its numbers 
 increase or diminish with the increase or diminution of its wa. 
 ters. It migrates about the end of June, at which time, it is 
 first noticed in Ethiopia. This species does not collect in large 
 flocks, more than eight or ten seldom being seen together. They 
 are about as large as a hen; .the head and neck are bare; the 
 body white ; the primaries of the wings tipped with shining, 
 .ashy black, among which the white forms oblique notches; the 
 secondaries are bright black, glossed with green or violet; 
 the quill-feathers of the tail, white. . This, and the preceding 
 species, were venerated by the ancient Egyptians, who used to 
 rear them in their teBajjles, and after death, to embalm them, 
 Their mummies are found, to this day, in the vast catacombs of 
 ancient Memphis. Herodotus supposed that the Egyptiatis wor. 
 shipped the Ibis for services which it rendered in freeing them 
 from winged serpents. But this is contradicted, by the bird's 
 structure : its bill is not fitted either to divide or pierce serpents, 
 but rather for dabbling in marshes and moist grounds. This 
 species is found throughout the extent of Africa. 
 
 The White Ibis, of the American Continent, Ibis alba, is 
 about two feet in length. It is a constant resident in South 
 Florida, where it abounds, but also breeds along the coast to 
 Texas, — sometimes inland as far as Natchez and Red river, and 
 Eastward to New Jersey. 
 
 Audubon says, Sandy Island, near Cape Sable, in Florida, is 
 remarkable for the number of these birds found thete. He 
 counted forty-seven nests in a single palm-tree. "The nests are 
 fifteen inches in their largest diameter, formed-of long twigs, in- 
 termixed with fibrous roots and green branches of the fi'ees 
 growing on the island; the interior of them is flat, being fur- 
 nished with leaves of the cane and some other plants." The 
 bird lays but three eggs, once a year. Its flight is described as 
 " swift and long continued. Sometimes it rises to an immense 
 height in th^ air, while it performs beautiful evolutions," It 
 feeds on small crabs, slugs, and snails ; showing great ingentlity 
 in procuring oray-fish ; — breaking up the upper part of the niiud 
 which the latter throws up in forming its hole, and dropping the 
 fragments into the cavity. The cray-fish, burdened by the load 
 of earthi makes its way to the entrance of the burrow, whert the 
 
&BALLATOR&S. 403 
 
 Ibis irriinediately seizes it with its bill. This bird is known in 
 Louisiana by the name of " Spanish Curlew." 
 
 The Scarlet Ibis, Ibis rubra, is a splendid bird, sometimes, 
 though' rarely, seen in Louisiana and the adjacent States, but in 
 the hottest portions of this continent, is found in large flocks. This 
 bird flies rapidly, but rarely, except at morning and evening, in 
 search of food. The plumage is scarlet; beak naked; part of 
 the cheeks, legs and feet, pale red. Its length is twenty-nine 
 inches. 
 
 The Wood Ibis, Tantalus hmlator, is an extremely large 
 species, being forty-four inches, with a bill that is nine inches in 
 length. It is found in deep woody swamps, (where it breeds on 
 trees ;) also in fresh water lakes. These birds, after gorging 
 themselves with their fishy or reptile-food, taken in shallow, 
 muddy streams, walk to the nearest margin and arrange them- 
 selves in long rows, with all their breasts turned towards the 
 sun, in the manner of Pelicans and Vultures, and thus remain 
 for an hour or more. In flying, their long necks and legs are 
 stretched out to their full extent, the pure white of their plumage 
 contrasting beautifully with the jet black of the tips of the wings. 
 Although generally fat, they are unfit for food, their flesh 
 being tough and oily. They are resident from Texas to North 
 Carolina. Other species of the Ibis are found in India, Mada- 
 gascar, and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 The Open-beaked Birds, Anaxlomus, (Gr. ana, through ; 
 stoma, monih,) are included by Swainsoh in this family. The 
 generic name was given to these birds by llliger; that of Laoe- 
 p^de, is Hians, (opening and gaping,) They have a straight 
 head and heavy bill, marked with wrinkles running lengthwise. 
 The upper mandible is very straight ; the base thickened at the 
 top, and as high as the crown; the tip notched; the margin 
 dentated; the under mandible is greatly curved upwards, only 
 touching the upper at the base, and at the tip, and thus leaving 
 an opening through or between the two portions of the bill.' Not 
 much is known respecting the economy of these birds, and hence 
 it is not easy to explain the purpose of the unique structure 
 shown in the beak. Cuvier places the genus Tantalus between 
 these birds and the Spoonbills, (Platalea.) 
 
 Fifth Family. Snipes. 
 SeolopacidcB, (Gr. axoXdma^, scolopax, a snipe.) 
 
 The most prominent characteristic of this family, is the extreme 
 length and slenderness of the beak. This is covered with a sofl 
 
404 O-BALLATORESi 
 
 sldn, which is extremely sensitive ; and the 6rgari is much used 
 in probing the soft mild or earths for the capture of minute in- 
 sects. The hind toe is pointed on the tarsus above the level of 
 the fore toes, and so short as to be unable to re'aoh the 'ground; 
 in some of the family, it is wanting. The Snipes have mode, 
 rately long feet and necks ; the wings are long and pointed; and 
 their flight swift and well sustained ; the tail is shdrt and even; 
 the front toes are frequently united by a membrane, more or less 
 large. The plumage is of subdued and varied shades ; black, 
 white, and red being intermingled and contrasted; sometimes, 
 the prevalent hue is a grayish olive. The flesh of these birds is 
 held in high esteem. They frequent marshes, the banks of laltes 
 and rivers, or the sea-coast, on which they run with great swift, 
 ness. With considerable powers of flight, they have also the' 
 faculty, in part, both of swimming and diving. The females are 
 usually larger than the males. They lay four eggs, with but 
 little nest, on the ground, of inland moors or fens. The young, 
 when they escape from the shell, are clothed with down, and 
 immediately begin to run about. The Snipes are widely distrib. 
 uted, and more or less migratory in their habits. 
 
 Mr. G. R. Gray divides them into six sub-families, viz; 
 (1) Numeninm, of which Numemus, (Curlew,), is the typical 
 genus; (2) TotaniruB, typ. gen. 2b<amM«, Tatler, Sand Lark, or 
 Willet; (3) EecurvirostrincB, typ. gen. iZecMmros^ra, A voset;) 
 (4) Tringina, typ. gen. Tringa, Sand-piper; (5) Scolopacina, 
 Scolopax, Common Snipe ; (6) StrepsiliruB, Sirepsilas, (included 
 by others in the CharadriadiBi or Plovers, which see ;) (7) Phal- 
 aropodincB, Phalaropus, Phalaropes. Of these, he enumerates 
 thirty-four British species. De Kay (1843) says, this family 
 contains, at present, upwards of one hundred species, distributed 
 over the globe ; of these, about twenty-eight, (according to Au- 
 dubon, thirty-two,) are in the United States^ 
 
 CtTRLEWS. 
 
 The Long-billed Curlew, Numenius lottgvrostris, is the 
 largest of the genua found in North America,^— fcnwvn to sports- 
 men under the names of Big Curlew, and Sickle-bill. Its length 
 is from twenty-five to twenty-seven inches ; the cblor is blackish 
 brown above, with spots of a red hue beneath. The great length 
 of the bill, (Plate IX» fig. 6,) (seven to nine inches,) distinguishes 
 it from every other species. The Curlew forms a small nest for 
 its young on the ground. The day, the Curlew spends in the 
 sea marshes, but resorts at night to the sandy beaches of the sea- 
 shore. "The number opU'^cteQ at their nightly retreat, it iswi'li 
 
GEALLATOEES. 405 
 
 sometimes amounts to several thousands. The food of these 
 birds consists chiefly of the small crabs, called "fiddlers;" they 
 are also fond of small salt-water shell fish; and thrust out the 
 bill \a its full length into the yei sand in search of sea-worms 
 and insects. The Long-billed Curlew resides in Texas and on 
 the Islands of South Carolina ; but wanders North along the 
 coast, and is occasionally seen in the interior. Dr. Kirtland 
 observed it in Ohio ; others have seen it in Kentucky and Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 Smaller species are the Jack CnRLEW, or Short-billed Curlew, 
 N. Hudsonicus. closely allied to the Whimbrel, of Europe ; it 
 breeds in the Northern regions. This species, in addition to the 
 food of the preceding species, makes use of berries. Its length 
 is sixteen inches. 
 
 The Small Esquimaux Curlew, N. boreatis, is known under 
 the names of Little Curlew, and Dough-Bird, and much esteemed 
 by epicures. Its length is fifteen inches. Nuttall says it ranges 
 from Paraguay to the 70o N. h. m 
 
 Tattleks. 
 
 The Tell- Tale, Tattler, TrAanus vociferus, receives its name 
 from its frequent cries, uttered quite as much fpr its own sake, 
 as tc give warning to others. It ranges widely over the United 
 States, and is found at all seasons. In' Maine and New Bruns- 
 wick, it is called " Humility," — a name that does not seem to 
 agree with its "vociferous habits." These birds "congregate in 
 great numbers in the inland marshes of Florida, and along its 
 rivers, during the winter." Though found near both salt and 
 fresh water, they seem to prefer the latter, selecting ponds of 
 wliich the water is shallow, and the shores muddy, afibrding 
 places where they can walk and wade with ease. In the West- 
 ern country, it is called the "Great Yellow-Shank." The upper 
 parts are generally black, glossed with green, each feather mar- 
 gined with white trianguletr spots; the throat, breast and abdo- 
 men, are pure white. Length about fourteen inches. 
 
 The Spotted Sand-lark, T, macularius, is a familiar bird, of 
 a glossy olive brown color, with blackish waves, — found through- 
 out the Union in small families, along almost every stream, and 
 the borders of ponds and lakes. In allusion to its notes, it has 
 the common name of Peet-weet ; from its repeated grotesque, 
 jerking motions, it is called Teeter, and Tillup. It feeds on 
 insects and Worms; breeds in New York and farther North. 
 Occasionally it is found in Europe, The length is eight inches. 
 
 The Gray Plover, T. Bartramius, is twelve inches in length, 
 
406 EEALLATOHES. 
 
 and is much esteemed* for game, but shy, and not easily'obtained 
 by sportsmen. It is described as Barfram's Tattler and Sand 
 Piper; among its common names, are Geass- Plover and Field- 
 Plover. This bird is 'not found on the coast, — its bill is very 
 short, scarcely longer than the head. In July and August, it is 
 seen in large flocks on its way South. It is fond of grass-hoppers. 
 
 AVOSETS. 
 
 The 4v.0SET, Recurviroslra, (Lat. up-turned bill,) Americana, 
 (see Chart,) is, from its "perpetual clamor and flippancy of 
 tongue, called by the inhabitants of Cape May, the Lawyer; 
 the comparison, however, reaches no further ; for our Lawyer is 
 simple, timid, and perfectly inofiensive." Wilson. The back 
 and under parts, are white ; the wings brownish black, with a 
 broad band of white. The bill is more than twice the length of 
 the head, very slender, tapering to a point, and somewhat' re- 
 curved, or upturned, (Plate IX. fig. 4;) the legs are very long 
 and slender. This bird builds its nest among the tallest grass. 
 The eggs, like those of other Waders, are four in number, pear. 
 shaped, of a dull olive color, with blotches of black. Like the 
 Roseate Spoon-bill, it moves its head "to and fro sideways," 
 while it is passing its bill through the soft mud in search of 
 insects; in deeper water, it immerses the entire head and a part 
 of the neck, after the manner of the Spoon-bill and Red-breasted 
 Snipe. The notes of this bird resemble the syllable dick. 
 Length eighteen inches. The Avoset ranges from Texas north- 
 ward, and is abundant in the Rocky Mountains and the Fur 
 countries. In New Jersey, where it breeds, it is, from the color 
 of its legs, called Blue- Stocking. The food varies with its place 
 of resort, consisting of insects, crabs, fishes, marine worms, and 
 small mollusks. 
 
 The Black-necked Stilt, Himantopus', (Gr. himas, a thong; 
 pons, a foot,) nigricollis, (Lat. black-necked,) has white plum- 
 age with the head, neck, back, and wings, above, black; To 
 this bird is assigned the name of Lawyer, (N. H. S., N. Y;,) 
 it is also called Tilt and Longshanks. (See Chart.) It is a 
 rare species ; but ranges from the Equator to the 41o N. L. 
 Its length is about fourteen inches. 
 
 Note.— Dr. DeKay (see N. H. S. N. Y.) has arrange^ the species of the 
 two preceding genera into a separate family, Recurvirostrida. 
 
 The Knot, or Red-breasted Sandpiper, Tringa cinerea, 
 (Nutt.,) T. canulus, (Linn.,) has a slender, straight bill, rather 
 longer than the head ; the toe^ have a narrow membrane. This 
 
ORALLATORES. 407 
 
 bird varies much in its plumage, and has, therefore, received 
 different names. It is common to Europe and America; rang- 
 ing in the latter, from the tropics to Labrador, and breeding in 
 the Pur countries to a high latitude. The Knot is seen on the 
 shores of New York in May, and is called by sportsmen, the 
 Robin Snipe. From August to October, it migrates Southward 
 in large flocks, when, in pilace of the red feathers, it has a white 
 plumagb, spotted with dusky, ash-colored above; it is then called 
 White Robin Sriipe, and Gray-back, Its length is ten inches. 
 
 Wilson's Sandpiper, T. pUsilla, or the Little Sandpiper, 
 (Plate X. fig. 8c,) is about four inches long, with a slender, 
 dusky green tapering bill, and short neck ; the tail is doubly 
 emarginate. In summer, it is blackish and rufous ; beneath white ; 
 in winter, ash ; beneath, whitish, spotted with dusky. It is 
 known as the Peep, so named from its usual note ; and as the 
 Ox-eye, from the size and brilliancy of its eye. This species 
 pervades North America from IMexico to 680 N. L., and is one 
 of the most abundant of the group, being found in the interior as 
 well as on the sea-coast. 
 
 The Sanderling, Calidris arenaria, or T. arenaria, has a 
 straight bill, shorter than the head ; thin in the middle, and 
 widened towards the tip; the^ail is short, the middle and outer 
 feathers the longest; the toes have a warty membrane on each 
 side. They are three in number, while the preceding genus has 
 four. The female is larger than the male, being about seven 
 inches long. The plumage above is bluish in summer, but light 
 ash in winter ; in both sexes, it varies quite as much as in the 
 Turnstones, {Slrepsilas.) In , flying, these birds have fewer evo- 
 lutions than the Sandpipers. They afford good eating, especially 
 when young. In autumn, they are Very fat, and highly relished ■ 
 by epicures. They are said to occur all over the globe. 
 
 The Rtjff, of the Old World, (female Reeve,) machetes, (Gr, 
 a fighter,) pj^nax, (Lat. combative,) the Combattanl of the French, 
 has a long and slender bill ; legs very long, slender, and naked 
 high above the tarsal joint ; three toes before, and one (short) 
 behind; the tail is rounded. The hues of the plumage are so 
 variable, that it is very diffioult to find any two that perfectly 
 resemble each other; but the prevailing ground color is brown, 
 inclining to ash, with lateral, and under covers, white; in the 
 autumn or winter, the plumage is more spotted, particularly in 
 the under part, and a bunch of feathers or ruff appears on each 
 side of the head in the male. The females, which are called 
 Reeves, are smaller than the males, and have no ruff. The 
 food of these birds consists of worms and insects, which they pick 
 
408 QRALLATORES. 
 
 up in marshy places ; in captivity, they are fed with hread and 
 milk, or boiled wheat. They have sometimes been caught in 
 nets, being decoyed by stuifed birds of their species. The Ruff 
 is a very pugnacious bird ; it weighs seven ounces, and is a foot 
 in length. 
 
 Phalahopes. 
 
 The Red Phalarope, Phalaropits, (Gr. plmlaros, bald or 
 naked ; peus, foot,) fuUcarms, (Lat. from yMZica, coot,) has a 
 long, slender, weak, and strait bill, both mandibles farrowed to 
 the point, and the end of the upper curved over the lower one; 
 the front toes are united up to the first joint ; the others with fes- 
 tooned or lobated membranes, (Plate JX. fig. 25.) toothrd on the 
 edges; the hind toe without a memhrane. The Red Phalarope 
 is found in flocks in Kentucky, on the Ohio, and during flutumn, 
 is often seen at sea, as far as Newfoundland. It breeds in high 
 northern latitudes, as far, as Melville Peninsula. The route of 
 this species towards the warmer regions, is along the Pacific 
 coast. The length is seven and a half inches. These birds are 
 said to breed in great numbers far North ; their flight is rapid, 
 resembling that of the Red-backed Sandpiper ; sometimes they 
 skini over the water, when they increase their distance from 
 each other. They feed chiefly on insects and crustaceans, which 
 live on the surface of the water. 
 
 The Hybehbohean Phalarope, or Lobefoot, Lobipi^ hyper- 
 horeus, procures its food principally upon the water, on which 
 "they alight like Ducks, float as ligiht as Gulls, and move about 
 in search of food with much nimbkhess." Length six inches. 
 
 Marlins or God'wits. 
 
 The Maelin or Great Marbled Godwit, Limosa fedaOj ihas 
 a recurved and tapering hill of great length, and long and slender 
 legs ; the tibia is bare for about one-third of its length ; the toes 
 are four in number; the hind one small, and touching the ground 
 at the tip, — the plumage above is dark brown, varied with red 
 and gray; below, pale reddish brown or buff, with small dusky 
 spots on the neck. The length is from about sixteen to nine> 
 teen inches; the female is considerably the larger. 
 
 This is a very shy and vigilant bird, moving in large flocks, 
 with irregular and rather quick flight, though less rapid than the 
 Curlews. The flesh is tender and much esteemed. It is some- 
 times'called the Red Curlew, the Strait- billed Curlew, and Dough- 
 bird. The Marlins move along the coast in immense^flocks, aS 
 far as Massachusetts, (reaching New York i(i May.) and are 
 
GRALLATOREf. 409 
 
 supposed to cross the land to Saskatchewan, where they breed. 
 (Aud.) They return fropa the North 'in August, remaining in 
 New York' until their removal, in November, to their wintering 
 places South of the United States. They ■ feed on aquatic in- 
 sects, lieeqhes, small marine mollusks, crabs and worms. 
 
 The Ring-tailed Marlin, Lirnosa Hudsonica, called in Bos- 
 ton, the. Goose-Mrd, is sixteen inches long, and breeds in high 
 northern latitudes. 
 
 The Snipe, or Woodcock, Scolopax, — common species, S. 
 Wilsonii, Wilson's Snipe, is about eleven inches long, and much 
 sought by the younger gunners, and sometimes, by the keenest 
 sportsmen. Its summer range is considerably beyond the north- 
 ern bound^iry of the United States. It resembles thp Cooimon 
 Snipe, of Europe, S. gallinago, and ig sometime^ called the Eng- 
 lish Snipe, but is, in fact, a diflferent species. It breeds from 
 Virginia northward, — it does so abundantly in New York. It 
 resides in Kentucky and the Southern States, during the winter. 
 In flying early in the spring, it soars high in the air, making a 
 remarkable booming sound ; its notes are said to diifer from those 
 of the Common Snipe, pf Europe. It is fopd of marshy, swampy 
 places, and selects such for breedjng, On the batck, the brown- 
 ish black fealhers are edged vi^ith cream color, and barred 
 minutely witli reddish brown; the throat and breast are buff, 
 spotted with brown and gray. 
 
 The G-REAT Snjpe, of Europe, S. major, has a tail composed 
 of sixteen feathers, — (the nornial number is fourteen.) Sir 
 Humphrey Davy, in noticing the breeding of this species in the 
 great roy^l decoy, near Hanover, says that they require solitude 
 and perfect quiet, and their food being peculiar, they need a 
 great extent of marshy meadow. T^ey feed on the larvae of 
 Tipv,l(B, (Father Longlegs,) or kindred flies, and, according to 
 the same author, their stomach is the thinnest among the tribe 
 of Snipes. The nest of the Great Snipe, like that of the Common 
 Snipe, is usually placed on the borders of a swamp, and on a 
 tuft of grass, or a bunch of rushes, — often it is found near wil- 
 low-bushes. The eggs are three or four, yellowish olive brown, 
 with great spots of reddish brown. Two other $nipes, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Gould, exceed this in size, — -one found in the billy 
 districts pf India, the other in Mexico. 
 
 The American Woodcock, Rust^cala minor, was separated 
 by Nuttall from the genus Scolopax. It has a straight and 
 knobbed bill, slightly drooping at t)ie tip. 
 
410 geallatokes. 
 
 Sixth Family. Bustards. 
 OtidcB, (Gr. wrlg, otis, a bustard.) 
 
 The proper position of these birds has been a dispiited point 
 among Ornithologists. Temminck ranks them with the Rdn- 
 NEKS, {Cursores,) and includes them with the Ostrich family. 
 M. Vigors also places them among the same birds ; but in loca- 
 ting them on the Chart, we have followed Cuvier and others, who 
 have included them among the Stilt-birds. 
 
 The Bustards are comprehended in one genus, Otis. The 
 bill in these birds, is of the length of the head, or shorter, 
 straight, conical, and slightly depressed at the base; the point of 
 the upper mandible is a little aiiched ; the feet are long, and 
 naked above the knee, with three toes in front, short, united at 
 their base, and bordered by membranes ; {he ^i'ings are of mod- 
 erate size, the third quill longest in each wing. The chin feath- 
 ers and moustaches, (seen in the male bird.) are composed of 
 long wiry-feathers, and the barbs disunited and short ; the 
 scapulars are of a buff orange color, barred, and spotted with 
 black ; the back and tail coverts, reddish orange, barred, and 
 variegated with black ; the greater coverts, and' some of the 
 secondaries, are bluish gray ; the sides of the neck white, tinged 
 with gray ; the lower part of the neck is fine reddish orange ; 
 the under parts white. This description of plumage applies to 
 the Great Bustard, O. tarda. The male bird of this species, is 
 about four feet long, and nine feet in the expansion of the'wings, 
 being (except the Lammergeyer,) the largest of the European 
 birds. Its weight is, on an average, twenty-five pounds. The 
 female is not more than half the size of the male. This bird 
 is noted for its shyness, and its power of running ; the young 
 birds have sometimes been run with greyhounds. And yet, in 
 its wild state, unlike the Ostrich, the Great Bustard, upon being 
 disturbed, rises easily upon the wing, and "flies with much 
 strength and swiftness, usually to another haunt, sometimes to 
 the distance of six or seven miles." It was formerly said, this 
 bird "has a pouch in the fore part of the neck, capable of con- 
 taining nearly two quarts," — but Mr. Yarrell, in dissecting a 
 male Bustaird, " failed to detect this organ." This Bustard is 
 common in some parts of Europe, but is becoming very rare in 
 England. It feeds upon porn, seeds of herbs, colewort, dande- 
 lion leaves, &c., and also upon insects and worms. Turnip-tops 
 are said to be peculiarly agreeable. The eggs of the Bustard 
 are two in number, generally, sometimes three, laid upon tiie 
 
OEALLATORES. 41} 
 
 bare ground, a little hollowed out for the purpose, either among 
 clover, or, more frequently, in cornfields. The flesh is highly 
 estpemed for food ; it is dark in color, and short iri fibre, but 
 sweet and well- flavored. 
 
 The Little Bustard, O, tetrax, is another smaller species, 
 found in Europe and Africa. 
 
 The Black-headed Bitstakd, 0. nigrieeps, is a native of Asia, 
 verging towards five feet in length, and having a crested head. 
 It is found in large flocks in the open country of the Mahrattas, 
 as well as in the highlands of the Himalaya. Its flesh is con- 
 sidered a very great delicacy. 
 
 The African Bustard, O. Denhami, is a magnificent species, 
 which was discovered by Mr.Denham in Africa, near the larger 
 towns. It frequented moist places where the herbage was pure 
 and fresh, and almost always appeared singly. This bird was 
 ever found in company with the Gazelles ;" whenever a Bus- 
 tard was observed, it was certain that the Gazelles were not far 
 distant." The eye is said to be large and brilliant; the Arabs 
 "are accustomed^ to compare the eyes of their most beautiful 
 women to those of the Oubara," — the general name for the Bus- 
 tards in Africa. 
 
 The KoRi Bustard, O. Kori, is a species discovered by Mr. 
 Burchell in South Africa, — the most gigantic of the family, — 
 standing upwards of five feet high. Mr. B. says, "its bodywas 
 so thickly protected by feathers, that our largest sized shot made 
 no impression, and, taught by experience, the hunters never fire 
 at it except with a bullet." 
 
 The Agami, pr Gold-breasted Trumpeter, Psophia, (Gr. 
 psopheo, lo make a noise,) crepitans, is an interesting bird, de- 
 riving its name from the peculiar noise which it makes without 
 opening its bill. It is about the size of a Pheasant or large 
 Fowl, being twenty-two inches in length ; has long legs, and a 
 long neck, but a very short tail, consisting of twelve black feath- 
 ers, over which the rump-plumes hang droopingly. It inhabits 
 the forests of South 'America, where it is found in numerous 
 flocks; it is a swift runner, and when pursued, trusts more to 
 its legs than its wings. When domesticated, it shows great fond- 
 ness and fidelity; and is so regardful of its owner's interests, 
 that it attacks the dogs and other animals that venture near him. 
 Sometimes it is used to protect domestic poultry from the onsets 
 of birds of prey. 
 
412 geallatoses. 
 
 Seventh Family. Rails. 
 Ealiidm, (Genus, rallus, a rail.) 
 
 The Rails are separated from the other families of this order 
 by the shape of the body, (Plate X. fig. 8b,) which is compressed 
 and flattened at the sides, in consequence of the narrowness of 
 the sternum. The compressed and keel-like form assists their 
 motion in the water, and as M. Vigors remarks, " is intended to 
 counterbalance the deficiency in the formation of the foot, which 
 separates them from the truer and more perfectly formed water, 
 birds." It is certain that the greater portion of these birds are 
 excellent swimmers ; and in such habits, as well as in the short- 
 ness of their tarsi, they are found to deviate from all the remain- 
 ing groups of the present order. 
 
 The Rails have been designated by that name on account of 
 their peculiarly harsh notes. They differ from the Sand-pipers 
 and Plovers in the great size of the leg, and the length of the 
 toes. Swainson speaks of the structure of their bodies as spe- 
 cially adapted to the tangled recesses in which they live, consist- 
 ing of reeds and aquatic vegetables, which clothe the sides of 
 rivers and morasses. Their flesh is delicate, and from living 
 chiefly upon aquatic seeds and vegetable aliment, they may be 
 regarded as aquatic Gallinacece. Many of them build nests of 
 accumulated materials, and lay a great number of eggs. The 
 length of the toes enables these birds to walk, without sinking, 
 on aquatic herbage, or in the soft mud of morasses. Although 
 their feet are not webbed, they swim and dive with a facility un- 
 surpassed by that of any of the ducks. The sternum is narrow ; 
 wings short and sustained by feeble muscles ; hence, the flight is 
 but for short distances, and is slow and heavy ; while on the 
 ground, whether among the reeds or tall grass of the meadow, 
 they thread their way with surprising ease and celerity. 
 
 Among the well known species is the Common Gallinule, or 
 Water-Hsn, Gallinula chloropus, (Gr. chloros, green ; pons, a 
 foot.) This bi'rd swims in the open water of rivers and ponds, 
 and with much grace and swiftness, constantly nodding its head ; 
 it also dives with great skill and rapidity. It is shy and easily 
 alarmed, in which case it dives under floating herbage, and re- 
 mains with its beak above water until the danger is over. On 
 account of this habit, it is impossible to take it unless accompa- 
 nied by a dog. The nest of the Water-hen is built among 
 sedges and reeds near the water, and contains from five to nine 
 eggs, of a ci-eam color spotted with brown. These birds show 
 
GKAf.hA.TOtLSS>, 418 
 
 great sagacity in protEOting their young, as the latter do in obey- 
 ing the monitory signals of" their watchful parents. The young 
 have their legs a,nd fe§t of their full size even vi^bile the feathers 
 are oply beginning to appear, showing how the organs of flight 
 are subordinate to those of walking and swimming. The female 
 has, contrary to the usual rule, a richer plumage th^n t^e male. 
 The pike is the chief enemy of the Water-hens, and destroys 
 many by darting at them from under the cover of water^ilies or 
 other plants. 
 
 Other species are (I) the Salt Water Meadow Hen, Jtanv,s 
 crepilam, fourteen inches long, sometimes called the Clapper 
 Rail, or Mud lien, which is seen in New York the last of April, 
 leaves for the gouth in October, and during the season is very 
 abundant. It lays from eight to fifteen whitish eggs with reddish 
 spots, whieh are highly valued and much sought for; (2) tbeFi?ESH 
 Wateh. Meadow Hen, or Great Red-Breasted Rail, R. elegans, 
 a rare species eighteen inches in length ; (3) the Mud Hen, or Vir- 
 ginia Rail, R. Virginianus, (Plate.X. fig. 6b.) length ten inches; 
 (4) the Sora Rail, Ortygometra, (Qr. migrating with the quails,) 
 Carolina, the same as the English Rail, or Coot, O. krex, (.Gr. 
 krex, a nkme derived from its pry,) and the species of the South- 
 ern States ; numerous in. New Jersey, and ranging to the 62o N. 
 L. ; length nine inches ; (5)the New^York Rail, O. Nqveioracen- 
 sis; length five and one-half inches; a shy bird, and not .seen 
 in flocks like the precenfing species; feedijigon seeds and aquatic 
 insects; breeding extensively throughout the United States; (6) 
 the FjDOBiB^ Gallinule, GalUnuIa galeata, (Lat. helmeted,) four- 
 teen inches in length, closely allied to the European species, G. 
 ekUropus, (referred to ^bove,) and ranging from Mexico to Mas- 
 sachusetts. 
 
 Sub-family. Flamingoes. 
 PhoenicoptifUB, (Gr. cpoivixdvcxBges, phoifiikopteros, red-winged.) 
 
 These birds are included in one genus, PhQenieopierus. Their 
 proper position has beena rpatter pf considerable doubt. Swain- 
 son places them wit>h the Ducks, among the Swimmers, though 
 he remaifks: "The Flamingo, which has the longest legs in the 
 Natatorial order, is so good a walker that it only swims occa- 
 sionally." We give them a place among the Grpljapres, to 
 which order they have more commonly been assigned, but im- 
 mediately before the Swimmers. The genus Phoenicopterus has 
 the bill strong, higher than it is large, toothed and conical to> 
 wards the point ; the upper mandible is suddenly bent, eurved 
 
414 GRALLATORES. 
 
 at its point on the lower mandible, which is larger than the up: 
 per ; the legs are of excessive length ; the feet also very long, 
 three toes in front, hind one very' short and articulated high up 
 on the tarsus ; the wings 'moderate ; first and second quills 
 longest. 
 
 The European Flamingo, P. ruber, is found in the warmer 
 parts of Europe, but is contimon in Asia, and the coasts of Af. 
 rica. The beak is evidently adapted to its long and flexible neck. 
 When this bird wishes to feed, it merely stoops its head to the 
 water ; the upper mandible is then lowest, and as is the case 
 with the Duck, the edges of the beak filter what is received. 
 Pestilent marshy places, which urge man to a distance, are 
 boldly and safely frequented by this bird. Its plumage is a deep 
 brilliant scarlet, except the quill feathers, which are black. Ar- 
 ranged in a line, these birds appear like a file of soldiers ; but 
 the miasma of the regions in which they dwell, is more deadly 
 than the rifle, and its breath more surely fatal than the ball of 
 the cannon. The nest of the Flamingo is a conical structure of 
 mud, with an opening on the summit, in which are placed two 
 or three dusky white eggs, somewhat larger than those of a 
 goose. The nest is so high as to permit the bird to sit, or rather 
 stand, her long legs hanging down on each side at full length.' 
 The height of this bird is five or six feet, (see fig. on Chart;) 
 The flesh is said to be pretty good meat ; the young are thought 
 by some equal to a partridge. Juvenal, in his Satires, notes the 
 Flamingo, {P)ioenicoptertis ingens,) as among the luxuries of the 
 table ; the brains and the tongue formed one of the favorite 
 dishes of Heliogabalus. By some, however, the flesh is thrown 
 away as fishy, while the feather's are used to ornament other 
 birds served up at special entertainments. 
 
 The American species, P. ruber, or P, chilensis, scarcely dif- 
 fers from the European. It is remarked that "the development 
 of the gizzard in this genus makes it very probable that vegeta- 
 ble substances form part of the diet of the Flamingo ; but it is 
 not likply that large fish, or indeed water animals of any great 
 size, are ordinarily devoured by these birds. The bill is a col- 
 ander, admii-ably Contrived for separating the nutritious portions 
 whether animal or vegetable, from the mud and other useless 
 parts." The Red Flamingo is found in the warmer regions of 
 North America. C. L. Bonaparte says it is very rare and acci- 
 dental in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. In South America 
 and the West India Islands it is also found. It is particularly 
 abundant in the Bahamas, where it breeds. 
 
GEALLATOHES. 415 
 
 What is the 1st order of Aquatic Birds? To what birds are they inter- 
 mediate ? Mention their distinguishing characteristics. What is peculiar 
 in their flying ? What power do they possess ? Where and how do they 
 build their nests, &c^? What Family does the order include? How are 
 the Plovers distinguished ? What use do they make of their beaks ? What 
 is said of their plumage and diffusion? Repeat what is said of the Lap- 
 wing or Pee-wit. What is the generic name of the Great P. and why 
 given? Is it an American sp. ? What is said of the Golden P. of A.? 
 How does it differ from the Golden P. of Europe ? What is it sometimes 
 called? What is the generic name of the Oyster-catcher and why given? 
 What is said of it? What of the Grav P.? Of the Turnstone? Of the 
 Dotterel? Of the Swift-foot? Of the" Pratincole ? What other sp. are 
 mentioned? 
 
 What is the 2nd Familt? What Groups of Birds does this include? 
 What is said of the Cranes? Of the Spoon-bills? Of the Herons? Repeat 
 what is said of the A. Crane. What of the Common C. of Europe? Where 
 is the DEMOiSEtLE found? What is said of its plumage, size, &c. ? How 
 long did one of these birds live in Versailles, (Fr. ?) ,What is said of the 
 Crowned Crane? Are the True Herons numerous? What use was for- 
 merly made of them, and how were they esteemed for food ? In what ge- 
 nus does Aud. include the Egrets and Bitterns ? What is said of the Com- 
 mon Heron ? What of the Great Blue Heron? Of the Greenish B. H. ? 
 Of the Black-Crowned Night H. ? Of the Great American White Egret ? 
 What is said of the diffusion, ifec. of Bitterns? For what are they noted? 
 What popular names have been given them and why ? To what does the 
 English name Bittern refer? Was the Common B. formerly sought in fal- 
 conry ? In what estimation has its flesh been held ? What use was ma^e 
 of its hind claw? How does it compare in size with the Common Heron? 
 What is said of the American Bittern? Of the Small B. ? Why is the 
 Common Boat Bill so named? On what does it feed ? How do Storks com- 
 pare with the other birds of this family? Where do they build their nests? 
 What is the shape of their bills ? Why are they a privileged race ? What 
 is the length of the Cominon White S. ? What is said of its familiarity 
 and of its appearance in European towns? What did Dr. Shaw witness? 
 For what has the S; ever been noted ? How regarded among the ancients ? 
 What is said of the Black Stork? Where is the Adjutant found? Describe 
 this bird. What is said of its, voracity? What does Dr. Latham say of 
 these birds ? What is said of the Marabou Crane or Giant Stork of Af- 
 rica? Where is a similar species found ? What name is given to the beau- 
 tiful plumes of these birds ? What is said of the Jabiru ? 
 
 s What is the 8d Family ? With what fampy are these birds often in- 
 cluded ? Give their characters and habits. What is said of the Common 
 White Spoonbill? What of the Roseate S. ? What is the generic name 
 of the Open-Beaked Birds? Describe the beak. . Where does Cuyier 
 place them? 
 
 What is the 4th Family? To what birds are those of this family allied? 
 What countries do they chiefly inhabit? What characters are given ? On 
 what do they feed? How many species does this family include? Hpw 
 many in the V. S. ? Where is the Glossy. Ibis found ? With what ep. known 
 to the ancients is it identical ? At jrhat time does the sacred Ibis appear 
 
416 NATATOEES. 
 
 in Egypt? What is said of its size and plumage? How was this and the 
 preceding sp. regarded by the ancient Egyptians? What is the length of 
 the American White Ibis? What- Island is noted as a resort for these 
 birds ? How many of their nests did Aud. count in a single tree ? What 
 else is said of the White I. ? . Give an account of the Scarlet I. Of the 
 Wood I. Where are other species found? 
 
 What is the Bth Family ? What is the most prominent character of this 
 family? What use is made of this organ? What other characters are 
 mentioned? What is the color of their plumage? To what places do 
 they resort? What is said of their distribution? How does Mr. G. E. 
 Gray divide them ? Which is the largest of the Curlews ? What is the 
 generic name ? What other sp. are mentioned ? What is the generic 
 name of the Tattler? Why is the Tell-Tale Tattler so called? Whatis said 
 of it? What of the Spotted Sand L. ? Of the Gray Plover ? OftheAvo- 
 set? Of the Blue-necked Stilt? Of the Knot? Of Wilson's Sand-Piper ? 
 Of the Sanderling? Of the Ruff? 
 
 Mention the 6th Family. In what genus are they comprehended? What 
 is said of the bills, &e. ? How large is the Great Bustard? Does any other 
 European bird exceed it in size ? For what is it noted ? Has it a gular 
 pouch? What else is said of it. What sp. of Bustards are mentioned? 
 What is said of the Agama, or Gold-breasted Trumpeter ? 
 
 What is the '7th Family ? How are they separated from the other fami- 
 lies of this order ? How are they aided by their keel-lilie form ? In what 
 respects do they deviate from the other groups of wading birds? Why are 
 they called Rails ? What does Swainson say of their structure ? What ia 
 said of their flesh, nests, toes, &c. ? What of their motion in the air and 
 on the ground ? Which are the different sp. and what is said of them? 
 What Sdb-Family is mentioned ? What is said respecting their proper po- 
 sition? Give the characters of the gen. Phoenieopterus. Where is the 
 European Flammgo found ? What places does it frequent ? What is said 
 of it? Does the American sp. differ much from the E. ? Upon what does 
 it feed? Do vegetable substances form any part of its diet? What may 
 its bill be called, and why ? Where is the Red Flamingo found? 
 
 SECTION XL 
 
 Second Obdeb-. Web-Footed Birds. 
 
 Natatoees, (Lat. Swirrimers.') Anseees, (Lat. anser, a goose.) 
 
 Linn. 
 
 We come now to the last order of birds, viz. : those which are 
 web-footed. These are numerous and widely distributed. Mov- 
 ing in an element which is everywhere essentially the same, we 
 find, as we might naturally expect, that these birds are repre- 
 sented, not only by peculiar genera in every part of the world, 
 but that particular species, as of the Ducks, the Ternsj and the 
 Petrels, encircle the globe. 
 
NATAT0RE8> 417 
 
 Tii4 foot of the Grains is not w«bbed, but has each toe sepa- 
 rate arid flattened, (Plate IX. fig. 26.) somewhat like that of the 
 Coot in the last ord.er, with this exception, the S\yiiiimers are all 
 marked by having the toes united by a membrane, giving to the 
 foot the form of a powerful oar, as in the common Duck or 
 Goose, (Plate IX. fig. 24.) In those species which are eminently 
 aquatic, the feet are placed far back on the body, (see Auk on 
 the Chart,) which renders their gait clumsy and shuffling on land, 
 hut gives to tlie backward stroke of the foot in the water an im- 
 petus that hef^s them in swimming ; the tarsus is also flattened 
 sidewise, diminishing the resistance to progression in the water. 
 
 The form of the body is flattened horizontally, (not laterally, 
 as ia the Waders) the better to float on the surface. The plu- 
 mage is remarkably thick and close, particularly on the under 
 parts of the most aquatic kinds ; besides which the skin is cov- 
 ered with a dense coat of soft down. The outer surface is usu- 
 ally polished and satin-like, probably from the oily secretion 
 which the bird frequently applies to it. The larger part of the 
 Swimmers have a copious and peculiarly oily secretion of fat. 
 
 As Cuvier remarks, these are the only birds in which the neck 
 is longer than the legs, which is sometimes the case to a consid- 
 erable extent, for the purpose of enabling them to search for 
 food in the depths below, while they swim on the surface.- The 
 tail is generally short, and so are the wings; hence, flight is in 
 most feeble, and in some altogether denied : and yet it must be 
 noted, that in the order Natatores are found examples of the long, 
 est wings, and the. highest powers of flight of the entire class of 
 Birds, as, for example, in the Frigate Pelican. The Petrels and 
 Terns have also great Jength of wing. 
 
 The web-footed fowl resort to fens, morasses, broad riyers, 
 inland lakes, rooky coves, &o., and they are found also on the 
 ocean's wide expanse. The marine kinds are more numerous in 
 the polder seas of the North) than.in those of tropical regions. 
 
 This order Includes the following families: (1) AnatidcB, 
 Ducks ; (2) dolymbidcB, Divers ; (3) AkidcB,, Auks ; (4), Procel- 
 laridce, Petrels ; (5) Laridcs, Gulls ; (6) Fehcanidce, Pelicans. 
 
 First Family. Ducks. 
 AnalidcB, (Lat. anas, a duck.) 
 
 This numerous family have the beak thick and broad ; high 
 at, the base, and covered throughout almost its. whole extent with 
 a soft skin, the tip alone being horny ; the edges are cut into thin 
 parallel 4dges, or small teeth ; the tongue is large and fleshy, 
 
418 NATATOHES. 
 
 with its edges toothed ; the wings are of moderate length. The 
 males have, for the most part, the wind-pipe enlarged Hntoa bony- 
 chamber, varying in form and size ; sometimes this tube is much 
 prolonged, and bent back in folds within the swollen keel of the 
 breast bone, peculiarities of organization probably connected with 
 the loudness of the voice. The gizzard, especially in the land 
 species, is large and muscular. 
 
 The Ducks mostly build their nests upon the ground, but some 
 on trees, and lay numerous unspotted eggs. The young are at 
 first covered with soft down, and can run and swim as soon as 
 they leave the shell. The laminated structure at the edges of 
 the mandibles, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) has often been referred to as 
 showing special adaptation to the habit of feeding in birds of this 
 family, enabling them to take with facility minute animals which 
 swarm in rivers, and those equally numerous found on the sides 
 of rivers and inland streams. By means of their broad beak, 
 they capture at one effort, considerable numbers, and as they ar^ 
 drawn forth, covered with mud, this offensive part is thrown out 
 between the interstices, or tooth edges of the mandibles, (Plate 
 IX. fig. 5,) which, however, are not sufficiently wide to allow of 
 the passage of the insect food at the same time, so that the beak 
 operates as a sifter, expelling the refuse, but retaining the food. 
 It is probable that the large and fleshy tongue is an assistant in 
 this separating process. 
 
 Geese seem to form the connecting link between the Swim- 
 ming and Wading Birds, retaining as they do the manners of the 
 Waders, but walking much more than they swim. Their food 
 consists more of grains jand insects than of fishes ; their legs are 
 long, and they have a considerable space above the tarsal joint. 
 These birds, in common with the Sv^ans, have rather longneclcs, 
 
 The True Ditcks include a large variety of species and are 
 found in almost every part of the world. 
 
 TheSnovELER, or Spoon-bill, A. dypedta, (Lat. furnished with 
 a shield.) is in length from seventeen to twenty inches ; it is 
 named from its broad, shovel-like bill. Usually it breeds far 
 North, but to this there are exceptions. Some think its flesh ex- 
 ceeds that of the Wild Duck. 
 
 The Mallard, or Wild Duck, A. loschas, (Gr. hoskas, a mal- 
 lard, from boske, a pasture,) is the parent of our domestic broods. 
 The ordinary length is about two feet, but one variety is said to 
 measure thirty inches. Its flesh is much esteemed. Richard- 
 son says " the Widgeon or Wild Duck is a strange eater of 
 grass ; " to this the specific term refers. 
 
 The SoFT-BiLLED Shoveler, Malacorhyneus, {Gt. malakos. 
 
NATATORES. 419 
 
 soft ;. r^MBto, a bill,) found in Australia, has a very peculiar 
 bill) the edge of the upper mandible having on it a thin mem- 
 brane or skin, which hangs down like a wattle on each side. 
 
 The Tame Duck, (from A. boschas,) is nearly omnivorous in 
 its indiscriminate appetite and its voracity.- In the natural state 
 ■ the Duck is a little more particular in its diet. 
 
 The Green Winged Teal, A. Carolinensis, is during the 
 autumn and winter, common in all our fresh water lakes and 
 ponds ; its flesh is very well tasted. Length fourteen inches. 
 
 The Pin-tail Duck, A. acuta, (Lat. sharp,) affords similar 
 food to the preceding. It is about two feet long> This Duck is 
 particularly abundant on the shores of Lake Ontario ; ranging, 
 however, during winter and spring, across this Continent; and 
 breeding in high northern latitudes. 
 
 , The Black Duck, A. obscura, (Lat, obscure ot dark,) breeds 
 from Texas to Labrador. Its length is about two feet. Few 
 Ducks are more highly prized than- this species. 
 
 The American Widgeon or Bald-Pate, A. Amerieana, is 
 very generally distributed. It feeds chiefly on aquatic vegetar 
 bles, and is esteemed for its delicate flavor. Length from 
 eight-een to twenty inches. The Widgeon of the Eastern Conti- 
 nent, A. Penelope, is also found in this hemisphere. i , 
 
 Sub-Family Fuligilirm, (from Ijsi.. fuligo, soot.) Sea-Ducks. 
 
 The Sea-Ducks include four genei'A, with a variety of species. 
 They principally frequent the sea • but many of them are to be 
 found in the fresh water lakes and rivers^ where the water is 
 deep. Their plumage is very close and thick, in. comparison 
 with that of the True Ducks, {Arms,) and the covering of the 
 female differs much in hue from that of the male. The Sea- 
 Ducks are not good walkers, though they can run or shuffle 
 along rapidly. They swim remarkably well, but low in the 
 wateir, and excel in diving, on which they rely when in danger, 
 more than on their power of wing. Usually, they fly low, labori- 
 ously, and with a whistling sound. They are mostly found at 
 the north ; but sornd species are spread over the entire globe. 
 Large flocks migrate periodically, chiefly on the line of thesea- 
 coast,flying and feeding generally by night. They often make 
 their nests near fresh water; both parents, in several of the spe- 
 cies, strip off their, down as a covering for their numerous eggs. 
 
 The genus Somateria, (Gr.. soma, body; eria, wool, or teiro, 
 to Wear away,) includes Ducks which are peculiarly marine ; 
 according to Sir John Richardson, never found. in fresh water. 
 
420 NATATOKES. 
 
 Their food consists principally of moll usks found in the Arctic 
 Sea. I 
 
 The Eider Duck, S. moUissima, (Lai. very soft,) is remarka- 
 ble for its exquisite and elastic down, so valuable in cohimerce, 
 and so essential in preserving the proper balance of animal heat 
 in the icy regions in which it dwells. The beak is prolonged 
 on the forehead into two narrow flat plates, which are separated 
 by an angular projection of the frontal plumage. This species 
 is, in severe winters, seen as far South as the Capes of the 
 Delaware. Northern explorers have repeatedly attested its 
 value. Dr. Kane writes thus of its appearance. "The Eider 
 Dtick is an awkward animal on the wing, and hardly graceful 
 in the water. The position of the legs, set very far back, throws 
 the body, Penguin-like, nearly upright; and they move about 
 erect, but easily, and with animation." His party gathered two 
 hundred eggs from a gleaned field, one morning before break- 
 fast. A whaler which th6y miet, had four hundred and fifty 
 dozen eggs on board : formerly, from a quarter to half a million 
 of eggs were, during a single season, taken from Melville Island'. 
 
 The Duck and Drake build the nest in company^ and line it 
 with down. This is of two kinds, — the dead down and the live 
 down; the former is taken from a dead bird, and is of inferior 
 quality ; the latter is that which the Duck strips from herself to 
 cherish her eggs ; its lightness and elasticity are such, that it is 
 said, two or three pounds of it squeezed into a ball, will swell 
 out to such an extent as to fill a case large enough for a foot 
 covering of a bed. The skin of the Eider Duck, with th6 
 feathers on, forms an article of commerce, particularly among 
 the Chinese. The length is twenty-five inches. 
 
 The King Ducks, S. spectahilis, (Lat. deserving notice,) are 
 also found in the Arctic regions, but in their migratioli do not 
 pass so far South as the Eider Duck. According to Sir John 
 Ross, they afford a valuable and salutary supply of fresh pro- 
 vision to the crews of vessels employed in the Northern Seas, 
 and their down is equal to that of the Eider Duck. 
 
 The Surf Duck, Oidemia, (Gr. from oideo, to swell,) seek their 
 food at sea chiefly, and have their name ' from frequenting its 
 shores. The prevailing color is black in the male and brown in 
 the female. T?he generic name was suggested by the swollen 
 appearance of the beak. The species O. fusca, (Lat. tawny,) 
 has a very thick and close plumage, and is called the Velvet 
 Duck. The down is similar to that of the Eider Duck. They 
 are very numerous at Hudson's and Baflin's Bay, The length 
 is twenty.four inches. 
 
natatoreS. 421 
 
 The Canvass-back Ducks, Fulignla, {La.t.fiiUgula, a fen-duck,) 
 liaJisnetia, {hota,mca\ pameof the tape-Grass, of which this species 
 are very fond,) — breeds from 50o N. L. to the extreme northern 
 limit of the Fur countries. About the middle of October it arrives 
 on the sea-coasts of the United States. This Duck is shy, but much 
 esteemed, as fev\r birds grace the table better. It haunts the .sea, 
 its bays and estuaries. The length is twenty-four inches. In 
 swimming, the tail is erected, and from the shortness of the neck, 
 is nearly as high as the bird's head, so that, at a little distance^ the 
 bird seems to have two heads. 
 
 The Spirit Duck, Clanguld, (Lat. clango, to clang ;) alheola, 
 (partly white ;) is abundant during the summer, on the rivers and 
 fresh water lakes of the Fur countries; in autumn and winter, 
 common in the United States. It is a most expert diver ; the 
 artful way in which it conceals itself after it has vanished under 
 water, has given it the name of Spirit Duck or Conjurer. Its 
 flesh is not in high repute. In Pennsylvania and New Jersey, it 
 becomes so fat, it is called "Butter-Box" or "Butter-Ball." 
 Length fourteen inches. 
 
 The Long-tailed Duck, Heralda glacidlis, (icy,) — the Old 
 Wife and Swallow-tailed Duck, of Hudson Bay residents, — is 
 noted for its very long tail of fourteen feathers. It swims and 
 dives with all the expertness of the Spirit Ducks. The young 
 Ducks are juicy and tender; the old ones not much valued for 
 the table. This species is found in the Arctic regions of both 
 Continents. Length twenty to twenty-one inches. 
 
 Gkesg. 
 
 The Snow Goose or White Brant, Ans&r Hyperiofeus, 
 breeds in high northern latitudes. It is from twenty-seven to 
 thirty-one inches in length. Its feathers are valuable, and 
 Richardson says, its flesh is far superior to that of the Canada 
 Goose in juiciness and flavor. 
 
 The Brant, A. hernicla, is deemed one of the most savory 
 birds; its length is about two feet; it breeds near the Arctic 
 Ocean ; is found on both Continents^ 
 
 The Bernicle, or Barnacle Goosr, Bemicla ieueopsis, (Gr. 
 white- faced,) is found in the northern regions of both hemisphere^. 
 
 The Gray-lag Goose, A.ferus, (Lat. wild,) in length two feet 
 and nine inches, is the origin of the Common Domestic Goose. 
 The latter is too familiar to require description. It has been 
 , known to live over eighty yearsv 
 
 The Wild Goose or Cravat Goose, A. Canadensis, is from 
 forty to forty-two inches in length. In its contour, especially 
 
422 NATATOEES. 
 
 about the neck, it seems to approach the Swans ; the patch of 
 white feathers on the neck contrasting with those of dark shade, 
 has the appearance of a cravat. .It breeds most abundantly in 
 Labrador and high northern latitudes. In the Fur countries its 
 arrival is anxiously looked for, and hailed with great joy. At 
 Hudson's Bay, three thousand or more are sometimes killed and 
 barreled up in a year. 
 
 The Egyptian Goose, Chenalopex, (Gr. a goose or duck, 
 Pliny,) Mgyptiacus, is a beautiful species, which passes over 
 occasionally from Africa into Europe ; it is particularly numer- 
 ous in the island of Sicily. The upper part of the plumage is 
 reddish irown ; the under parts are buff, mingled with blackish 
 lines. This Goose is figured on the monuments of the ancient 
 Egyptians, and was regarded by them with veneration ! 
 
 The Goosanders or Mergansers, form a sub-family, — Mer. 
 ganirue, including, according to Prince Bonaparte, two genera, 
 Mergus, (Lat. a diver, from mergo, to dip,) the Smew, and Mer. 
 ganger, (Lat. from mergo, to dip, and anser, a goose,) the Goos- 
 ander. 
 
 The Smew or White Nun, Mergus alhellus, (Lat. from alius, 
 white,) is found in the Arctic regions of both Continents; it is 
 migratory in; autumn, but especially in winter. Its food consists 
 of small crustaceans, water insects, moUusks, and small fish. 
 The nest is placed on the borders qf rivers and lakes, and con- 
 tains twelve whitish eggs. The Smew (when old) has upon- 
 the head a tufted crest of pure white ; the edges of both mandl- 
 hies of the beak, have saw-like teeth directed backwards; the 
 point of the upper rhandible is curved, and with the horny nail, 
 forms a hook. (Plate IX. fig. 5.) The length of the Smew is fif- 
 teen or sixteen inches. 
 
 The Goosander or Jackdaw, Mergus merganser (or Castor,) 
 having also a saw-like and hooked bill, (Plate IX. fig. 5,) builds 
 its nest among rolled pebbles on the banks of waters, or in bushes 
 and hollow trees, and lays twelve or fourteen whitish eggs. 
 The flesh of this and the preceding species, is rank, and by;iio 
 means in request for the table. Its native abode corresponds 
 with that of the Smew ; it migrates southward on the approach 
 of winter. The very old male has a large and thick tuft on the 
 head; the plumage of the upper parts is deep black; the under 
 parts, which in the Smew are white, are in the Goosander tinged 
 with yellowish rose-color, (changing to white in stuffed speoi- 
 mens.) The length is twenty-six or twenty-eight inches. 
 
matatoees. 423 
 
 Second Family. Divehs. (Short-winged.) 
 ColymhidcB, (Gr. x6iu,ujSos, kolumbos, a diver.) 
 
 These birds are more entirely aquatic than the Ducks, and 
 remarlcable for their powers of diving, and the great length of 
 time which they can remain immersed. They have narrow, 
 straight, and sharp-pointed bealcs ; the head is small ; the legs, 
 ■ placed near the extremity of the body, are flattened sidewise, so 
 as to present a thin edge before and behind ; the toes are armed 
 with broad, flat nails. In one genus, Colymbus, including the 
 Loons, — the toes are united by a membrane, and there is a 
 short tail; the two other genera, (including the Grebes,) have 
 the toes divided midway to' the base, and bordered with white 
 oval membranes, and have no traces of a tail. Owing to the 
 position of their feet, these birds are poor walkers, though ex- 
 tremely powerful and fleet swimmers and divers. They have 
 short wingSi'and their ability to fly is consequently quite limited; 
 but under the surface of the water, the wings are expanded and 
 employed as fins. The thread-like, or downy plumage, is re- 
 markably thick, and has a silvery gloss. The Divers' food 
 varies with the situations which they frequent. It consists of 
 fishes with their fry and spawn; crustaceans, water insects, &c.', 
 and occasionally vegetable substances. The Grebes are widely 
 scattered over fresh waters ; the Loons are confined to the oceans 
 and coasts of temperate and arctic regions. These birds dive 
 so instantaneously, that it is difficult to shoot them, — disappeai*. 
 ing, as they do, at the first flash of the gun, and not returning 
 to the surface within some two hundred yards, and then merely 
 to raise the head for a moment and again disappear. The stomach 
 of the Grebes, is generally found to contain a mass of their own 
 feathers. These are probably conveyed thither in the bird's pro- 
 cess of oiling its plumage, or, as has been said, "making its 
 toilet." The largest, and finest species of Loon, is the Great 
 Loon or Divek, Colymbus gladalis, (Plate X, fig. 9.) This bird 
 is thirty-two inches long, — the neck and head are black, glossed 
 with purple or green ; their upper parts black, marked with white 
 spots; set in rows ; the under parts pure white. The cry of the 
 Great Diver is melancholy in its tone, resembling the howling 
 of a wolf, and is said to portend rain. The flesh is dark, tough, 
 and unpalatable. The eggs are two or three in number, of a 
 deep olive color, spotted with brown, and about as large as those 
 of a Goose. 
 The Res-throated Loon or Scafe-Grace, Celymiussepteri- 
 18 
 
424 NATATOBES. 
 
 trionalis, (Lat. northern,) is another species, breeding from New. 
 foundland northwardly. Length twenty-five inches. 
 
 The Grebes, {Podiceps.) have been variotisJy placed by dif. 
 ferent naturalists. De Kay includes them with the Coots, in a 
 separate order, Lobipedes, (Lobe-footed,) and ranks thorn imme. 
 diately Je/bre the Swimmers. We have followed Cuvier and 
 pthers, in placing them with the Swimmers, and in the present 
 family. Among the species are the Horned Grebe, P. cornu. 
 tus, (Lat. horned,) in length fifteen inches; comraon to Europe 
 and America, and known by the names Dipper, Water. Witch, 
 &o. ; the Crested Grebe, P. cristatus, in length nineteen inches; 
 commonly found in secluded ponds and lakes in the interior, but 
 also seen on the sea-coast. It ranges from Mexico to 6So N. L. ;— 
 is found also in Europe; the Red-necked Grebe, P.ruhricollis, 
 (Lat. red-necked.) not quite so long as the preceding, and scarcely 
 seen South of New York. 
 
 Third Family. Attks. 
 AlddcR, (Lat. alca, alk or auk.) 
 
 The birds of this family, have a structure which pre.emi. 
 nently adapts them to an aquatic life, and are, in their resorts and 
 habits, exclusively maritime. The beak in these birds varies 
 in length, and is more or less compressed ; both mandibles are 
 much curved and notched ; the nostrils are almost entirely closed 
 by a naked membrane ; the feet small and entirely webbed; the 
 legs short and placed far back, so that, in sitting, these birds assume 
 an erect position ; the tail has sixteen small feathers. In moving 
 under water, the Auks make no use of their feet, but hold them 
 out behind, as the Waders do theirs in flying, and use their short 
 wings In the manner of fins, so that they may be said to /y, be- 
 neath the surface. " Their movements, under water, precisely 
 resemble those of the Dyticida, or Common Water-Beetles; the 
 principal motion being more or less vertical, instead of horizotiW 
 as in the Grebes and Loons; they are, therefore, together with 
 the distinct group of Penguins, the most characteristic divers of the 
 class." Their food, obtained by diving, (an operation in which 
 they are assisted by their wings as well as their feet,) consists 
 of small fishes, crustaceans, and other marine animals. The 
 Auks are frequently seen in immense numbers on rocky islets, 
 and precipitate cliffs that overhang the sea, on the shelves and 
 edges of which they lay tiieir eggs, one only being deposited by 
 each bird. The female, while sitting in an erect, positioii, keeps 
 the egg between her fjet for the purpose of incubation* ' Many 
 
NATATOKES. 425 
 
 families gain their subsistence by procuring the eggs and young 
 of these and similar birds. The storm-lashed and iron-bound 
 coasts of Northern Europe and America, and the frozen islands 
 of the Arctic Seas are the dreary homes of the Auks ; some of 
 them roam hundreds of miles out to sea. 
 
 The Penguins occupy, in the Southern Hemisphere, the place 
 filled by the Auks or Puffins in the Northern. Their wings are 
 very small, — mere rudiments, covered with an integument, re- 
 sembling scales, and entirely powerless as organs of flight; but 
 they not only aid the bird in its divings and evolutions under 
 water, but also as a sort of front extremities when progressing on 
 land. .Being without the power of flight, and unable to run, this 
 bird may be easily overtaken on land; but when it reaches the 
 water, it has no difficulty in distancing it? pursuers, swimming 
 like a fish, and springing several feet over any obstacles which 
 it meets in its course. The Penguins are peculiarly remarka- 
 ble for having a kind of ball and socket union in the vertebrae, 
 corresponding, in some degree, to what is seen in the reptiles. 
 
 The Great Auk, Alca impennis, (Lat. wingless,) is almost 
 wingless, i. e. its wings are very small, entirely incapable of 
 raising it in the air, but serving admirably as paddles to the bird 
 when diving under water. The Lump-fish is said to be a spe- 
 cial favorite of the Great Auk. Audubon says, " the egg is 
 very large, measuring five inches in length and three in its great- 
 est breadth ; the shell is thick and rather rough to the touch ; 
 color yellowish white, with irregular lines and blotches of brownish 
 black," which have been supposed to bear some resemblance to 
 Chinese characters. Newfoundland is one of the breeding places 
 of these Swimmers, and the Esquimaux who frequent that island 
 are said to make clothing of their skins. The Great Auks are 
 widely diffused in the northern hemisphere, but in high northern 
 latitudes they "swarm." They may be seen on floating ice, but 
 do not wander beyond soundings. The winter plumage, which 
 begins to appear in autumn, "lealves the cheeks, throat, fore part 
 and sides of the neck, white. In spring, the summer change 
 begins to take place, and confines the white on the head to a large 
 patch which extends in front and around the eyes ; the rest of 
 the head, the neck and upper plumage is deep black." The 
 length of the Great Auk is about three feet. 
 
 The Razob-Bill, or Black-Billed Auk, A. tarda, has wings 
 so far developed as to answer for the purpose of flight, though 
 the bird uses them with great effect as oars, when swimming 
 under water. Its length is about seventeen inches. These 
 Auks breed from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to along the coast of 
 
426 NATATORES. 
 
 Labrador. Thousands of them are killed on that coast for the 
 sake of the breast feathers, which are very warm and elastic. 
 The eggs are about as large as a turkey's, being great in proper, 
 tion to the size of the bird. Of these, incredible numbers are 
 collected at Labrador and in its vicinity. The Razor-Bill is 
 seen on the coast of New York State every autumn and'wintbr; 
 it is common in Europe. ,,,, 
 
 The Common Puffin, of Coulter-Neb, Fratercula ArcUearm 
 Mormon fratercula, (Mormon Arcticus, DeKay,) has a beak mon. 
 strously large, rivaling in its development those of the TouGails 
 and Hornbills, and from its enormous size and the sharpness of 
 the edge, rendering this bird a formidable antagonist. This or. 
 gan is shorter than the head, higher than its lengtb, somewbat 
 triangular in outline, and has its sides cut into furrows, (Plate IX. 
 fig. 11.) The generic names applied to the Common PuflSn, re." 
 fer, in their signification, to its singularly grotesque appearance, 
 with its short, thick-set form, its erect attitude, and above all, its 
 extraordinary and brightly colored beak. It makes a burrow fot 
 itself on the lofty cliffs, but sometimes avoids this labor by occu- 
 pying that of a rabbit which stands in awe of the formidable 
 bill, and readily gives up his habitation. From the lofty cliff, 
 the Puffin plunges fearlessly into the sea, and returns witb its 
 beak full of fish, which are secured by their heads, and lie in a 
 row along the* Puffin's bill. The length of this bird is from 
 twelve to thirteen inches. 
 
 The Little Guillemot, TJria alle, or Mergulus alle, is from 
 six to ten inches in length, sometimes, but rarely, seen on the 
 coast of New York, its range being from 39o N. L. to the northi 
 pole. It is also called Sea-Dove, Sea-Pigeon, Pigeon Diver, or 
 Ice-Bird. During the breeding season, it collects in vast num- 
 bers along the north and east coast of Baffin's Bay. Dr. Kane 
 says it was not uncommon to kill more than a hundred in the 
 course of a couple of hours. The long-sought- and lamented 
 Sir John Franklin killed and salted down so many of these birds 
 as to augment his resources by nearly a two years' supply: of 
 food. " No other bird migrates in such numbers, or contributes 
 so largely to the pleasures of the table." (Grinn. Arct. Exped.) 
 The size of this bird compares well with that of a partridge; 
 the feet are short, plunged into the feathers far back beyond the. 
 equilibrium of the body ; it has three toes, all front and f?ntirely 
 webbed. While taking their food, consisting of small fish, crus- 
 taceans and medusae, they can be approached so near as to be 
 knocked down with poles and boat hooks. The whalers some- 
 times shoot the-m with dried peas. Upon the. bare xeck.the; 
 
NATATORES. 427 
 
 lay, in company, each a ' single egg of a pale green, blotched 
 with darlt brown spots. So close are they together, that the birds, 
 when sitting nearly upright, almost touch each other, covering 
 the ledges ot the rocks upon which their young are hatched, and 
 from whence they take to the water in five or six weeks. 
 
 The Penguins, Aptenodytes, (Gr. a, priv., ptenos, winged ; 
 dwtes, a diver,) seem to be among the Natatores what the Os- 
 triches are among the strictly terrestrial birds. Swainson re- 
 marks that " the hind toe in the Penguins and Cormorants is 
 placed almost as far forward as in the Swifts. In the Penguin 
 the tarsus is so short as almost to be confounded with the sole of 
 the foot, and is probably rested on the ground when the bird 
 walks, just as in the bear and other plantigrade quadrupeds. 
 The whole foot is remarkably flattened, as if to enable the bird 
 to cover a greater breadth of ground," (Classification of birds, 
 Vol. I.) 
 
 The bones are described as very hard, compact and heavy, 
 having no aperture for the admission of air ; but they contain, 
 especially the bones of the extremities, a thin oily marrow. The 
 sensations of these birds are by no means acute. One writer 
 relates that he stumbled over a sleeping one and kicked it some 
 yards without disturbing its rest. Another states that he left a 
 number of these birds apparently lifeless, while he went in pur- 
 suit of others ; but they afterwards got up and marched off with 
 their usual gravity. 
 
 The habits of the Penguins are highly interesting, and have 
 frequently been described. Their camps, towns, and rookeries, 
 so called) are largely descanted upon by southern vpyagers. 
 Those at the Falkland Islands have attracted particular atten- 
 tion.* The rookeries are said to be designed with the utmost 
 order and regularity, though they are the resort of different species. 
 But in the midst of this apparent order, there seems to be a want 
 of good government, the stronger species stealing the eggs of the 
 weaker, if they be left unguarded. The King or Patagonian 
 Penguin, A. Patachonica, (Plate X. fig. 9b,) is said to be the great- 
 
 * The rookeriea at the Falkland Islands above referred to, sink into insig- 
 nificance when compared with a settlement of the King Penguins recorded 
 by Mr. G. Bennett, who saw at the north end of Maoquarrie Island, in the 
 South Pacific ocean, a colony of these birds which covered an extent of 
 thirty or forty acres. He describes the number of Penguins collected to- 
 gether in this spot as immense, but observes that " it would be impossible 
 to guess at it with any near approach to truth, as during the whole of the 
 day nnd night, 30,000 or 40,000 are continually landing, and an equal num- 
 ber going to sea." 
 
4'JS NATATOKES. 
 
 est thief of all. Three species are found in the Falkland Is. 
 iands. Two of these, the King Penguin and the Macaroni, A. 
 chrysocome, (Golden-haired or feathered,) deposit their eggs in 
 these rookeries. Tiie Jackass Penguin, A. demersa, (Lat. from 
 demergo, to plunge in,) which is the third species, has its English 
 name from the horrible brayings which it sets up at night. This 
 makes its nest in burrows on downs or sandy plains, and does 
 not appear to take invasion so quietly as the other species. 
 
 H. T. Cheever, in his "Island World of the Pacific," when 
 referring to his landing on the Falkland Islands, says : « What 
 was our surprise to find what we had thought a facing of white 
 stones, to be innumerable Penguins, standing erect and in the 
 rank and file of battle array, upon the declivity of the rocks, 
 and occupying at least two acres, in dense columns, away back 
 to the moss and greiss. On every out-jutting angle or hollow, 
 there was a dusky nest with a bird sitting upon it, and so unac- 
 quainted with man that we could climb up and lay hands upon 
 them before they would move." He continues: "To those who 
 have never seen a picture of a Penguin, it would be impossible 
 to convey an idea, by description, of this odd amphibious crea- 
 ture. It has the head, bill, and two web-feet of a bird, and 
 stands erect on land, sometimes two and a half and three feet in 
 height. They have no wings nor proper feathers, but two fins 
 or flippers, like the seal. Their motion on land is by successive 
 hops in the most awkward manner conceivable. When going 
 down a declivity, the center of gravity is often thrown too far 
 forward, and away they tumble, and scramble, and roll over, 
 until they get to the sea, in which they dive and swim with great 
 swiftness. They are often seen singly, or two and three together, 
 far out at sea. Their cry or bark is like the inarticulate human 
 voice ; and sounding, as it often does, from the surface of the 
 ocean like the cry of a man in distress, it startles and appals 
 one." 
 
 The largest species of the Patagonian Penguins is said to be four 
 feet and a quarter in length, and to weigh forty pounds. When sit- 
 ting or attempting to walk, they have been compared to a dog 
 that has heen taught to sit up and move in a minuet. Their 
 short legs drive the body in progression from side to side, and 
 were they not assisted by their flipper-like wings, they could 
 scarcely move faster than a tortoise. This awkward make of 
 the legs, which so disqualifies them for living on the land, ad- 
 mirably adapts them for life on the water, inasmuch as they serve 
 for propellers, and being placed so far behind' the moving body, 
 and worked the more swiftly for being short, they push forward 
 
NATATORES. 429 
 
 ^ith great velocity ; witTi their heads erect, and their fin-like 
 wings hanging down as half arms, they " loolc like so many chil- 
 dren with white aprons on." Hence they are said to " unite in 
 themselves the qualities of men, fowls, and fishes ! Like men, 
 they are upright; like fowls, they are feathered; and like fish, 
 tliey have fin-like instruments tliat beat the water before them 
 and serve for all the purposes of swimming rather than flying." 
 They are covered more warmly with feathers than any other 
 bird, so that the sea seems entirely their element. 
 
 Fourth Family. Peteels or Fulmars. 
 ProcelJaridee, (Lat. from proeeJla, a storm.) 
 
 The form of the beak in the birds of this family is very re- 
 markable ; it appears to be constituted of several separate pieces 
 soldered together. The upper mandible has the basal part sep- 
 arated from the tip by a deep, oblique furrow, and has on its 
 summit a tube, (or two tubes united into one,) containing the nos- 
 trils ; the point of this mandible taiies the form of a curved and 
 pointed claw or nail ; the lower mandible is likewise seamed in 
 a similar manner, arid its tip is hooked downwards. (Plate IX. 
 fig 10.) * 
 
 The front toes are united by a membrane ; the hind toe is re- 
 duced to a mere claw, which is elevated upon the tarsus and 
 sometimes wanting. The wings are usually long, and the flight 
 powerful. 
 
 The Petrels are eminently birds of the ocean, rarely approach- 
 ing the land, except in the breeding period. Some of them ap- 
 pear to be almost always on the wing, following the course of 
 ships for days together without alighting. Their food consists 
 of small moUusks and crustaceans, and the oily particles which 
 float upon the surface of the sea. In high latitudes, some of 
 them feed with much voracity on the fat of slaughtered whales. 
 Hence their flesh becomes apparently saturated with oil ; and 
 when alarmed, many of them occasionally eject fetid oil from 
 their nostrils, as a defence. This family includes a number of 
 species, about eight of which, are found in America. 
 
 The Common Fulmar, ProceUaria glacialis, (Lat. icy,) or 
 Fulmarus glacialis, is considered the type of the true Petrels, 
 having a stout, thick bill, with the upper mandible considerably 
 hooked at the tip, and sulcated or furrowed ; the lower mandi- 
 ble is straiglit and slightly truncated ; the nostrils are united in 
 a single, tube; the" legs of only moderate letigth. This bird is 
 a, native of the Polar regions, but is found, though in less num. 
 
430 NATATOEES. 
 
 bers, in' the Northern Seas of Europe and America. It is not 
 uncommon off the coast from New York to Nova Scotia. The 
 rocky St. Kilda, one of the western islands of Scotland, is the 
 only place of annual resort for this bird in the British dominions. 
 (Shelby.) It is from sixteen to eighteen inches in length ; breeds 
 in high latitudes, never coming to the coast except for the pur- 
 poses of nesting, or when driven thither by gales. The bill, iris 
 and feet are yellow ; the bead; neck, and lower parts pure white ; 
 the back and wings, of a grayish blue. Scoresby says : " The 
 Fulmar is the constant companion of the whale-fisher. It joins 
 his ship immediately on passing the Shetland Islands, and accom- 
 panies it through the trackless ocean to the highest accessible 
 latitudes, ever keeping an eager watch for any thing thrown 
 overboard ; the smallest particle of fatty substance can scarcely 
 escape it. It never'dives but when incited to it by the appear- 
 ence of a morsel of fat under water." Though like Mother 
 Carey's Chicken, it follows in the wake of ships, its food is of a 
 somewhat higher grade, being restricted to the garbage of the 
 vessel, blubber, &c. This bird is the Mollemoke of Dr. Kane. 
 The Slender-Billed Fulmar, P. tenuirostris, is a species 
 named by Audubon. Its length is eighteen inches and a half. 
 It is (»mmon near Columbia river ; is easily taken with a hook 
 baited with pork, and during a gale is so tame as almost to allow 
 itself to be taken with the hand. 
 
 The Southern Seas are visited by several species of Petrels. 
 The largest, the Nelly or Break-Bones, P., gigantea, is a com- 
 mon bird, both in the inland channels and on the open sea. "In 
 its habit and manner of flight," says Darwin in his Voyage of 
 Adventure, "there is a very close resemblance to the Albatrcss, 
 and, as with the latter bird, a person may watch it for hours to- 
 gether without seeing on what it feeds, so it is with this Petrel. 
 The Break-Bone is, however, a rapacious bird, for it was ob- 
 served by some of the officers of fort San Antonio, chasing a 
 diver. The bird tried to escape both by diving and flying, but 
 it was continually struck down, and at last killed by a blow on 
 its head. At Port St. Julian, also, these Great Petrels were seen 
 killing and devouring young gulls." These large Petrels are 
 called by the sailors, Mother Caiey's Geese. 
 
 The Shbabwatek, Puffinus, differs from the true Petrels by 
 having a longer bill, and the tubular nostrils open, not by a com- 
 mon aperture, but by two distinct orifices. 
 
 The Wanberins or Large Shearwater, P. cinereus, (ashy- 
 colored,) is twenty inches in length, and of a sooty brown color. 
 It is frequently seen off the shore from the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 
NATATORES. 431 
 
 to that of Mexico. According to Mr. Darwin, it is common to Cape 
 Hocn and- the coast of Peru, as well as Europe. The flight of 
 these Wanderers of the ocean is very rapid and long protracted. 
 In calm weather they are fond of alighting on the water, in com- 
 pany with the Fulmars, and when at play among themselves^ 
 swim with great buoyancy and have a gracefbl appearance. 
 
 Th& Puffin, or Sheaewatbr, P. anglorum, is a species that 
 once largely inhabited a small islet near the southern part of the 
 Isle of Man, but has of late deserted it. It is now abundant on 
 the coaist of South Wales. It has been found in the ivicinity 'of 
 Newfoundlandl In the Orkney Islands it is called the Lyue, 
 and is much valued, both on account of its serving as food, and 
 for its feathers. This bird is described as standing nearly erect 
 and flying'with great rapidity. "It feeds on marine animal sub- 
 stances of all kinds, and when taken squirts out an oily fluid from 
 its nostrils, in the manner of the Petrels." It breeds in burrows, 
 laying one egg, which is white and about as large as that of the 
 domestic fowl. The upper parts of the body are of a lustrous 
 black ; the under parts pure white ; the sides of the neck speck- 
 led with black and white ; length thirteen inches. 
 
 The LITTLE Shearwater, P. obscarus, is of a brown color 
 above ; beneath, white ; in length, ten or eleven inches. It is 
 common to Europe and America ; ranges northwa-rdly from the 
 coast of Mexico to that of New York. 
 
 The geraus Thalassidroma, (Gr. Thalassa, the sea ; dromos, 
 a race,) including the smallest of the web- footed birds, has been 
 separated from the rest of the Petrel group. They are of noc- 
 turnal or crepuscular habits, and seldom seen except in lowering 
 or stormy weather, when they frequently follow in the track of 
 shipsi At other times and during clear weather, they are con- 
 cealed inthe holes of rocks and in burrows, and only come forth 
 at night in search of foodi Their flight equals in swiftness that 
 of the Swallowi tribe, which they resemble in size, color, and 
 general appearance. They breed in the crevices of rocks or in 
 burrows, like the rest of the family, layingbut one egg, which 
 is white and comparatively large. 
 
 The Stormy or Least PETREt, T. pelagica, (belonging to the 
 sea,) or P. pelagica, is known to sailors under the name of 
 Mother Carey's Chicken, and by them regarded as the precursor 
 of .a storm. This is the smallest of the Web-footed Birds, being 
 only about six inches long. In the length of its wings and 
 its swift flight, it is like the Chimney Swallow; in its plumage it 
 is bliack with purple reflectionsj except the rump and a portion 
 of the tail, which are white. It is met with on every part of 
 
432 NATATOEES. 
 
 the ocean, diving of swimming over the surface of the heavy 
 rolling waves of the most tempestuous sea, quite at ease and in 
 security. Long before seamen can discover any appearance of 
 a storm, these birds, as if; foreseeing and fearing its approacli, 
 flock together in large numbers, making a clamorous, piercing 
 cry, thus warning the mariner of his danger.' So oily is the 
 Stormy Petrel said to be in its texture, that the inhabitants of the 
 Faroe islands draw a wick through its body and use it as a lamp. 
 A most singular peculiarity of this bird is its faculty of standing 
 and even running on the surface of the water, which it does 
 with the greatest facility. According to Buffoh, it is from this 
 practice that these birds are called Petrels, the name being, de- 
 rived from the Apostle Peter, who,, as Saored Scripture informs 
 us, walked upon the water. This species is not observed to 
 breed on the American coast,. though it is not uncommon on the 
 Banks of Newfoundland. 
 
 Wilson's Petrel, or Mother Carey's Chicken, T. Wihomi, 
 is a little over seven inches in length ; in the color of its plu. 
 mage of a dark grayish brown, with some portions of white. 
 It is less lively than the common Stormy Petrel. ; 
 
 The Fork-Tailed Petrel, T. Leachii, is eight inches in 
 length ; of similar plumage with Wilson's Petrel, but less active 
 and does not breed so extensively on the American coast. 
 
 The genus Diomedea, (a proper name,) comprises, among 
 other species, the Albatross of China, J), fuliginosoi (Lat. 
 sooty ;) the Yellow and Black-Beaked Albatross, I), chlo- 
 rorhyncos, (Gr. yellow-beaked;) (this has been taken on the Pa. 
 cific not far from Columbia river;) and the Common Albatross, 
 D. etulans, (Lat. wandering.) The beak in these birds is very 
 ^strong, hard, long, and straight nearly to the end, where it sud- 
 denly curves. The upper mandible appears to be composed of 
 many articulated pieces, furrowed on the Sides and crooked at 
 the point ; the lower mandible is smooth and cut short; the 
 Vings are very long and narrow with the primary quill short and 
 the secondaries long; the feet short; the three toes long and 
 completely webbed. 
 
 Albatross is a word said to be corrupted " from the Portuguese 
 Alcatraz, which was applied by the early navigators of that na- 
 tion to cormorants and other large sea-birds." 
 
 The Common Albatross, D. ewulans, (Lat. wandering,) is the 
 largest sea-bird known. The top of the head is a muddy gray, 
 but the rest of the plumage is white, except a few of the wing- 
 feathers, and several transverse black bands on the back. The 
 range of these birds, is very extensive. They are not confined 
 
NATAtORES. 433 
 
 to the Southern Ofeean, as has been supposed, but are equally 
 numerous in northern latitudes, (excepting, perhaps, the tropics.) 
 From its often breeding with the Penguin, it has been supposed 
 to have a peculiar afTection for that amphibious creature, and a 
 pleasure in its company. Their nests are seen together on unin- 
 habited islands, where the ground slants to the sea. As if for 
 hiutual protection, the Albatross raises its nest on a hillock of 
 heath, sticks, and long grass, about two feet high, and lays one 
 egg; around this, the Penguins, in a circle, make their lower 
 settlement in burrowed holes in the ground,-^commonly, it is 
 said, eight Penguins to one Albatross. 
 
 "The Albatross," says Cheever, "is the most beautiful and 
 Ipvable object of the animate world which the adventurer meets 
 with in all the South Pacific ; when on the wing, it is the very 
 ideal of beauty and grace. The capture of a whale a thousand 
 miles from land, will bring them trooping from afaf, as a carcass 
 in Mexico or Louisiana, will the Turkey-Buzzards. I have 
 watched them singly, keeping company with our ship, and have 
 seen them gathered by hundreds when the cutting-in of a whale 
 along side, allured them from a circuit of five hundred miles. 
 They sit upon the water light and graceful as Swans, and feed 
 on small marine animals, mucilaginous zoophytes, the spawn of 
 fish, and blubber. Not unfrequently, they measure eleven feet 
 from tip to tip of the outspread wings, and weigh from seventeen 
 to eighteen pounds." Another voyager, (Ive's,) mentions one 
 shot off the Cape of Good Hope, "which measured seventeen feet 
 and a half from wing to wing." 
 
 In the Arctic Exploring Voyage, Dr. MeCormick met with one 
 weighing twenty pounds, and having twelve feet stretch of wings. 
 The Albatross does not seem to be a quarrelsome bird, but when 
 attacked by its enemy, the Skua Gull, it seeks safety in flight. 
 Sometimes, however, it does so by dipping its body in the water, 
 its formidable bill appearing to repel its assailants. When it 
 wishes to rise on the wing, " it has to tread water a long way, 
 like a running Ostrich, before it can attain its due momentum 
 and soar aloft; and when captured, and set at liberty in the ship, 
 it can never, of itself, rise from the even surface of the deck, but 
 we must toss the noble bird overboard, or lift him quite clear of 
 the ship's rail, before he can raise his glorious pinions, and mount 
 aloft in the air." 
 
 Billets of wood with inscriptions upon them, are often attached 
 to these birds before setting them loose ; in repeated instances, 
 such birds have been captured in different and distant latitudes 
 by other ship.s, and curious information has thus been communi- 
 
434 KATATOBES. 
 
 cated. " They are caught by baiting a hook with pork or blubber, 
 and fastening a piece of wood near the bait, so that it may be 
 kept floating, and letting it tow aslern. Superstitious sailors 
 sometimes ascribe the high winds and bad weather to their having 
 killed an Albatross." 
 
 Fifth Family. Gtjlls. 
 Laridce, (Gr. Mgog, laros, a mew or gull.) 
 
 These web-footed and well known sea-birds, are numerously 
 dispersed over every quarter of the world, and, in some parts, are 
 met with at certain seasons, in prodigious multitudes. Th^y 
 assemble together in rather promiscuous and straggling flocks, 
 and greatly enliven the beach and rocky cliffs, by their' irregular 
 movements, while their shrill cries are often deadened by the 
 noise of the waves, or nearly drowned in the roaring of the siirge. 
 Occasionally, taking a wide range over the ocean, they are seen 
 by navigators many leagues distant from the land. They are all 
 greedy and gluttonous, devouring, almost indiscriminately, what- 
 ever conies in their way, whether of fresh or putrid substances, 
 until they are obliged to disgorge the contents of their oyerloaded 
 stonipchs ; still, they can endure protracted hunger. The large 
 kind of Gulls are most common in the cold climates of the North, 
 where they breed and raise their young, feeding chiefly upon the 
 remains of dead whales, which they find floating on the sea, 
 among the ice, or driven on shore by the winds and waves. 
 The True or Typical Gulls, (Larus.) are much more decidedly 
 land birds than any other of the order. Those of the sub-genus 
 Xema or Laughing Gulls, in particular, roam much inland ; feed 
 on , insects and worms ; build among herbage in low nests near 
 the sea; lay eggs of an olive color, marked with large brown 
 spots; and undergo seasonable changes of plumage; all of 
 which may be said of the Plovers. To the Wading Birds, the 
 Plovers especially, the Gulls, (Larus,) approach in their general 
 form, in attitude, in the long and slender tarsus, with the hind 
 toe small and set high up, (as in the Lapwing, Vanellus,) in the 
 naked space above the heel, and even in the form of the beak, 
 straight, slender, and swelling towards the tip, — and also in the 
 internal structure. 
 
 We quote from Swainson some remarks, pointing out clearly 
 the differences in the three sections into vvhich the Gulls have 
 been arranged, viz: Fork-tailed Gulls, {Rynchops ;) the 
 Thiiee-toed Gplls, {Larus,) and the Foue-toed Gtjlls, 
 (Lestris.) 
 
N^TATORES. 435 
 
 " The, Terns, or SearS^allows, (Sterna,) constitute the fissiros- 
 tral type ; they have remarkably long wings, and slender bills ; 
 the tail ia forked; and the plumage, generally, is of a delicate 
 pearl-white, with more or less black upon the head; the species 
 are numerous, and occur in both hemispheres. The extraordi- 
 nary genus, Rhynchops,, or Skimmer, although pos^^ssing much 
 of the general habits of the Terns, is eminently distingijishefl by 
 the singular form of its bill, tfee upper piapdi^le of which is con- 
 siderably shorter than the upfler, and appears as if one-third' of 
 the length had been broken off; three species: have been de. 
 scribed, to which, we adql a fourth ; they skim over the surface 
 of the ocean with great, swiftness, and scoop up small marine 
 insects and, other animals. The True or Typical GuH, (Larus,) 
 are a numerous race,, dispersed over every clime, and so. closely 
 resen\bling each other iq plumage, that many of the species are 
 even now but imperfectly ifnderstood ;. they are much like the 
 Terns in general appearance, but the bill is stronger, and the 
 upper mandible is much more curved towards the end ; many 
 are of larger size ; and all, rapacious devourei's of fish,, and of 
 every marine animal,, dead ov alive, which is cast upon the shore ; 
 they particularly abpijnd in northern latitudes, but seem to 
 range over the wide world of waters. The Parasitic Gulls, 
 (Lestris,) are the raptorial representative in this family, and are 
 almost confined to cold regions.; they are known by their stronger 
 conformation,, their different shaped bill, and the rough scales 
 upon their feet ; these birds, like the frigate cormorants, derive 
 their chief supply of food by robbing their more feeble congen- 
 ers ; they pursue the largest Gulls, and. make them disgorge or 
 relinquish their hard-earned prey. The Black-toed and the 
 Arctic Gulls belong to thisigroup, and both are occasionally seen 
 on the northern shores ofjBritajn." i 
 
 FOKK-TAJLED GuLIiS. ,, 
 
 The Black Skimmer, Rhynphops, (Gr. rhujichos, beak ; ops, 
 face;) nigra, (Lat. black.) This singularly endowed bird (r©., 
 ferred to above) is dispersed in large flocks from Texas to New 
 Jersey. It reachesthecoastpfNewyork State in May ; breeds on 
 saqd beaches or islunds; at night, ascending streams, sometimes 
 to the distance of one hundred miles. The length of the male 
 bird is twenfy inches. The hill, for half its length, is a rich 
 carmine, inclining to vermilion; and the feet are of the same color; 
 the claws, black. The upper parts are a deep brownish black ; 
 the secondary quills, and fijur or five of the priitiaries, tipped 
 with white; the tail-feathers of the male, are black, broadly 
 
436 NATATOKES. 
 
 margined with white, (in the female they are white ;) the under 
 parts are white, with a roseate tinge. This bird is known under 
 the names Shearwater, Rdzor-tiill, Cutwater, Skimmer, Flobigull, 
 and Shippang, Its eggs are three or four, white, 'blotched with 
 shades of brown, laid in a slight hollow in the sand. Audubon 
 says, "The flight of the Black Skimmer is perhaps more elegant 
 than that of any water-bird with which I am acquainted. The 
 great length of its narrow wings, its partially elongated forked 
 tail, its thin body and extremely compressed bill, all Appear con. 
 trived to assure it that buoyancy which one cannot but admire 
 when he sees it on the wing. It is able to maintain itself in the 
 heaviest gale ; and I believe no instance has been recorded of 
 any bird of this species having been forced inland by the most 
 violent storm." These birds show much sagacity in finding their 
 place of rendezvous in the morning, after having been scattered 
 during the night in all directions in quest of food ; and evince 
 great enmity to Crows and Turkey Buzzards, driving them as 
 marauders from their breeding grounds. All possess great 
 power and endurance in flight; their long forked tails and 
 pointed wings, indicating both strength and swiftness. 
 
 Of the Terns, twelve or more species might be enumerated. 
 But we can only refer in particular to — the Common Tern, Sterna 
 hirundo, (Lat. swallow,) found in abundance on the southern 
 shores of Europe, and in many parts of Asia and Africa. This' 
 species, from fourteen to sixteen inches in length ; is sometimes 
 called the Big Tern, — in Massachusetts, the Mackerel Tern. It 
 ranges on this Continent from the tropics to the Arctic circle. 
 
 The Cayenne Tern, S. Cayana, is larger than the Common 
 Tern, in its size and its robust tarsi, resembling the smaller Gulls. 
 It breeds from Florida southwardly, but is met with from the 
 intertropical regions to 55° N. L. Length from sixteen to 
 nineteen inches. 
 
 — The Noddy Teen, S. stolida, (Lat. dull,) receives its common 
 name from the breeding places of this species, one of the Tor- 
 tugas Keys, called Noddy Key. The Sooty Terns, S.fuliginosa, 
 breed on an island a few miles distant. The Noddy ranging 
 from Florida southwardly, has been frequently celebrated by 
 travelers who have crossed the equator. Its color is sooty brown ; 
 the bill, black; the crown, white; the tail, wedge,shaped and 
 long. The Noddies form regular nests of twigs and dry grass, 
 which they place on the bushes or low trees, but never on the 
 ground. The female lays tlyee eggs, of a reddish yellow color, 
 spotted with dull red and purple. "When seized in the hand, 
 tile Noddy utters a rough cry, not unlike that of a young Amer- 
 
NATATORES. 437 
 
 ican Crow taken, fratn the, iiest.: .On such occaslorisy it does not 
 disgorge its ifood, like the Cayenne Tern and other species, 
 although it bites severely, with quickly repeated movements of 
 the bill, which, on missing the object aimed at, snaps like that of 
 our larger Fly-Catchers." Length about sixteen inches. 
 
 — The Silvery or Little Tern,.S. argenlea,\iljat. silvery,) is 
 closely allied to the S. minuta, (Lat. small or minute,) of Europe. 
 The upper parts and tail, are a deep pearl gray'; all beneath, 
 silvery white. It is larger than the corresponding European 
 species, and the entire upper parts, (with the tail,) are, of a lighter 
 shade. Length frprp nine to ten inches. ' The, eggs are light 
 yellowish white, with, angular dark brown spots. The Silvery 
 Tern breeds from Texas to .Labrador. 
 
 Thrjee-toed Gulls. 
 
 The GffLLS, Larus,a.re represented by thirteen or more species 
 on this continent. In these the hind toe is very sm.all, and articr 
 ulated hi^h up on the tarsus; in one species entirely wanting. 
 
 The Great Black-backed Gull, L. 'marinus,. is the largest 
 Gull that is seen on the American coast, and described as ex- 
 ceedinofTy bold, voracious, and predatory in its habits. Its length 
 is fi'om twenty-eight to thirty inches; the expanse of wings about 
 five feet and a half. It breeds on the coast, fi'om Labrador 
 northwardly; ranging in the winter, to New York, and niigra- 
 ting as far South as Florida. It is also common in many parts 
 of the North of Europe, where it finds a home. Its nest is made 
 of grass, rushes, and other materials, and contains three or four 
 eggs, of an olive green, marked with very dark broWn. Audu- 
 bori remarks, "This bird must be of extraordinary longevity, as 
 I have seeii one that was Kept in captivity more than thirty 
 years." The back and' wings are a deep bluish black; the 
 quills, with blaick shafts, tipped with white; in the summer, the 
 head and neck are pure white ; in winter, the same parts are 
 white, with brownish streiaks. 
 
 The CqMMON American G^ll, L. zonorhyncus, (Gr. zone or 
 ring-billedi) has a mantle of bluish gray; the head, tail, and 
 under parts, white ; the outer quills are black, tipped with white. 
 In the quills, however, the plumage changes with the age and 
 season. It is popularly called the Brown Winter Gull, — a name 
 referring to the plumage of the youqg, rather than of the adult. 
 The ring on the bill is not always found. The length of this spe- 
 cies is nineteen inches. It is allied to the L. canus, (Lat. gray,) 
 or Gray Gull, of Europe, breeds from Maine northwardly,— and 
 
488 KATATOEES. 
 
 during the winter, is seen as far South as Mexico; sometimes it 
 appears on the Facifio coast. 
 
 The FoHE-TQED Parasitic Gnus. Jagers, or Skuas. 
 
 These birds all breed in high northern latitudes, spreading 
 themselves into the interior on lakes and rivers ; but in the winter 
 are seen in temperate regions^ and on this Continent as far South 
 as Mexico. The bill is of moderate length, cylihdrical, and 
 hooked at the tip ; the hook and tip, of separate pieces,- the hind 
 toe is small, and on a level with the others; the tail is even or 
 rounded ; the central pair of feathers very much lengthened. 
 Of the several spe<;ies, we can refer particularly only, to 
 
 The Akctic Jager, Lestris, {Gv. a. finager,) parasiticus, which 
 is seen in great numbers in the northern regions. Like the other 
 ^Skuas, itobtains the greater part of its subsistence by pursuing and 
 bufieting the peaceable Gulls, and compelling them to give up the 
 produce of their toils. But the Jagers also feed on fish, insects,, 
 and worms. Temminck particularly mentions the Janthina, or 
 Oceanic Snail, as forming a portion of their sustenance. "In 
 truth, no animal substances seem to come amiss to them," The 
 nests of these birds are composed. of dry grass and mosses, and 
 placed on unfrequented heaths, at some distance from the shore; 
 the eggs are two, of a dark olive green, with irregular blotches 
 of dark brown. Captains Parry and (loss speak of this bird as 
 abundant at Baffin's Bay and in the islands of the Polar Sea. 
 It is said, that it "is frequently met with inland, seeking, its food 
 along the water courses which occupy the bottom of ravines;, 
 differing in this respect from the Pomarine Jager, L. pornqrinvd,,, 
 which is exclusively a Sea-bird." "The length of the Arctic 
 Jager is twenty-three inches. The plumage is "close, elastic, 
 soft, and blended ; " on the upper part^ blackish gray ; the neck 
 and lower parts, white, the former tinged with yellow. 
 
 Sixth Family. Pelicans. 
 Pelecanidee, (Gr; neXstt&v, pelecan, a pelican.) 
 
 The Pelican family are charapterised by havipg the hipd toe 
 united with the .others in a single membrane, so that the whole 
 four toes are webbed. The bill is, generally, longer than the 
 head, strong, and sometimes compressed.; the mandibles are 
 dentate, (toothed,;); the nostrils mere slits, the aperture to which, 
 is scarcely perceiyeible. With the exception of the. Phaeton or 
 Tropic-bird, — which, in npany respects, agrees vith the Gu11s,t- 
 there is more or less of naked skin about the face and throat ; 
 
NATATORES. 439 
 
 the skin of the throat is capable of being dilated ; the wings are 
 long and powerful ; the feet short and robust ; the tail consists 
 of twelve, fourteen, twenty or twenty-four feathers. 
 
 Though their completely webbed feet seem to be perfect oars, 
 peculiarly adapting these birds to an aquatic life^ yet a very large 
 part of them do not swim or dive at all, but perch on trees. 
 They all fly well, and some, from the broad expanse of their 
 wings, have uncommon powers of flight. Soaring far out over 
 the ocean, when a fish first arrests their attention, they plunge 
 down upon it, and instantly rise again into the air. 
 
 The birds of this family nestle and roost either on rocks or 
 lofty trees ; Ihe eggs are encased with a soil;, absorbent, chalky 
 substance laid over the hard shell ; the young are, at first, cov- 
 ered with long and flossy blackish down. They remain a great 
 while in the nest, and when they leave it, are generally equal 
 or superior to the adults in weight. The species are not very 
 numerous, but are found in the seas and around the coasts of 
 most parts of the globe. The plumage is usually black, (often 
 glossed with metallic reflections.) and white. 
 
 This family may be arranged into the Pelicans proper, (Toli- 
 palmes, of Cuvier,) the Cormorants, the Darters, the Frigate 
 Birds, the Gaunets, and the Phaetons. 
 
 Pelicans peoper. 
 
 The True Pelicans, Pelecanus, are large and heavy birds, 
 with very long, rather narrow, and rounded wings; the tail is 
 short, broad, rounded, with twenty to twenty-four feathers, which 
 are broad, and abruptly pointed. A pouch which hangs under 
 the lower mandible, is capable of containing a large quantity of 
 water. It has been said by some writers, that this pouch "ena- 
 bles these birds to dispose of a superabundance of fish, which 
 they take, either for their own use, or the nourishment of their 
 young," and this has been the generally received idea. Audu- 
 bon, however, who often noticed flocks of these birds, says "the 
 idea that the Pelicans keep fish or water in their pouches to con- 
 vey them to their young, is quite erroneous." He states, as the 
 result of his observations, that the water is immediately forced 
 out between the partially closed mandibles; and the fish, "unless 
 larger than those on which they usually feed," are instantly 
 swallowed, though afterwards disgorged for the benefit of the 
 yo>ang. The Pelicans have long been celebrated as symbols of 
 maternal love. Books of emblems have depicted this bird as 
 tearing open the breast to nourish its young with its blood, but 
 this representation is^ot well founded. The fact appears to be, 
 
440 NATATORES. 
 
 that the bird, in the process of feeding its young, crushes the fish 
 between its mandibles, and thus stains its white breast with 
 drops of blood. The Pelicans are rarely seen more than sixty 
 miles from land. They are gregarious, and numerous in Asia 
 and Africa, as well as in Europe and America. 
 
 The Common White Pelican, P. onocrotalus, (Gr. onokrota. 
 los, a pelican,) is an European species, with which that of P. 
 Americatius, or the American White Pelican, very nearly 
 agrees. The American, however, differs from the European 
 bird in having a " long, thin, bony process in the upper mandi. 
 ble." " The male of the American species is sixty-one and three, 
 fourths inches long; bill thirteen and three-fourths inches ; ex- 
 panse of wings one hundred and three inches." In this species, 
 the feet and pouch are pale yellow, as are the long feathers on the 
 breast, and the tuft on the back of the head. 
 
 The Brown Pelican, P.fuscus, (Lat. brown,) is, when ma- 
 ture, fifty-two inches in length ; the expanse of wings is eighty 
 inches. It is very abundant on the American coast as far north- 
 ward as North Carolina ; breeds on trees, and also on the ground ; 
 the pouch is usually from six to ten inches in depth, and will 
 hold a gallon of water. This membrane is sometimes dried, and 
 used for keeping snuff, gun-powder, and shot. The quantity offish 
 which the Brown Pelicans consume, is extremely large. They 
 often times become so overburdened with food, that flight is diifi- 
 cult. Audubon examined one which had in the stomach up- 
 wards of a hundred small fishes; sometimes "he found in thai 
 organ a great number of live, blue colored worms, measuring 
 about two and a half inches in length, and about the thickness 
 of a Crow-quill." The bodies of these birds are greatly inflated 
 by air-ceils; their bones are very light; and they are hard to 
 kill. The Black-headed Gull, which is abundant along the 
 coast of Florida in spring and summer, closely watches the 
 motions of these Pelicans, in order to seize the small fishes which 
 in letting off the water from the bill, they sometimes allow to 
 escape; for that purpose, the Gull alights on the Pelican's bill, 
 or on his head, and seizes the prey when apparently just on the 
 eve of deliverance, — the Pelican, meanwhile, exhibiting no 
 symptoms of annoyance or anger. 
 
 The Cormorants are included in the genus Fhalacrocorax, 
 (Gr. phalakros, bald ; korax, raven.) They are widely spread 
 over many parts of the world, and every where remarkable for 
 their voraciousness. The bill in these birds is about as long as 
 the head, rather slender, nearly straight, and compressed towards 
 the end, the upper mandible ending in a powerful hook ;. the sao 
 
NATATOSES. 
 
 441 
 
 under the throat is small, by no means comparing in size with 
 that of the Pelicans proper; the nostrils are oblilRrated, but in 
 youth open, (Aud. ;) the wings of moderate size and broad ; the 
 tail of moderate length, very narrow and much rounded, having 
 twelve or more strong shafted feathers. These birds differ from 
 others of the family in being excellent divers. Their plumage 
 is soft and generally blended, compact on the back and wings ; 
 usually of dark, but often rich colors, varying with age and the 
 season of the year. They are capable of domestication and are 
 trained to catch and bring in fish. The Chinese who use them 
 for this purpose, put a ring around the neck as a hindrance to 
 their devouring the fish. To increase the power of swallowing, 
 it should be noted that the Cormorant has an additional bone pe- 
 culiar to itself, on the back part of the head, called the xyphoid 
 (sword-like) bone, which, moving with facility in each direc- 
 tion, by the action of the muscles attached to it, enlarges the 
 opening of the gullet for the more easy passage of any unusu- 
 ally large fish. 
 
 The Common Cormorant, P. carlo, (Lat. charcoal,) is spread 
 over a considerable portion of Europe, especially the north. It 
 is a common bird in England; in this country ranges in the win- 
 ter and is plentiful as far south as New York ; breeds in New- 
 foundland, Labrador and Baffin's Bay. It swims very low in 
 the water ; even in the sea its body is deeply immersed, so that 
 little more than the head and neck can be seen above the sur- 
 face ; and most expertly does it dive after its fishy prey. It 
 perches on trees, wliere it is occasionally known to build its nest, 
 but it mostly selects rocky shores and islands, preferring, accord- 
 ing to Selby, the summits, and not, like the Green Cormorant, 
 the clefts or ledges. The nest is said to be composed entirely of 
 a mass of sea-weed, frequently heaped up to the height of two 
 feet, in which are deposited from three to five eggs, of a pale 
 bluish-white, with a rough surface. Ravens and Peregrine 
 Falcons have been observed to have nests on the same rocks 
 with those of the Cormorant, and in some instances, close to them. 
 This bird is sometimes three feet and four inches in length. 
 
 The Green Cormorant or Shag, P. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) 
 does not perch on trees like the others. As illustrating the depth 
 to which this bird dives, Mr. Yarrell says: " The Shag has been 
 caught in a crab-pot fixed at twenty fathoms, or a hundred feet 
 from the surface." The specific name is given to it from the 
 crest or tuft of wide outspread feathers which appears in the 
 spring on the back part of the head, and is capable of erection. 
 The Shag is withto the white feathers on the neck and thighs 
 
442 NATATORGS 
 
 which ave seen in the Common or Great Cormorant. The length 
 is two feet, one or two inches. 
 
 The Violet Green Cormorant, P. resplendens, (Lat. glit- 
 tering,) is the most beautiful species which has been found within 
 the limits of the United States. The gloss of its silky plumage 
 suggested the specific name. This bird has been found in abund- 
 ance near the Columbia river. The length of the female is two 
 feet three inches. 
 
 The Daeteks, or Snake-Birds. 
 
 These birds, wTiioh are included in the genus Pbtus, have 
 bills longer than the head, slender, pointed, and finely serrated at 
 the extremity ; the tarsus is partly feathered above ; the neck is 
 much lengthened; the tail long, spreading and much rounded. 
 The necks of these birds, often rapidly moved and bent, sug. 
 gested the name of Darter, or Snake Bird. (Fig. on Chart.) 
 
 The American Anhinga, or Snake Bird, P. Anldvga, is a 
 common and constant resident from Florida to Georgia, and it 
 passes up the Mississippi as far as Natchez. In the southern 
 parts of Florida it is called the " Grecian Lady." This bird is 
 seen only occasionally in the immediate vicinity of the sea, de- 
 cidedly preferring rivers, small bays, or lagoons in the interior 
 where the land is level and lies low. It is quite remarkable in 
 its appearance and manners, often standing erect with the wings 
 and tail spread out in the sunshine, and throwing its long slen- 
 der neck and head, in every direction, by sudden jerks and 
 bendings. Though adapted for protracteid and powerful flight, 
 as is shown by its form, long wings and large fan-like tail, this 
 bird spends more than half its time by day in the water. On 
 the approach of any danger, it sinks its body and swims with its 
 head and neck only above the surface, when these parts, " from 
 their form and peculiar sinuous motion, somewhat resemble the 
 head and part of the body of a snake." The nest of the Snake 
 Bird is found in different situations, sometimes in low bushes 
 not more than eight or ten feet above the water ; at others, on 
 large and tall cypresses, overhanging the borders of rivers or 
 other streams. The nest is of a circulair form and two feet in 
 diameter; the eggs of a sky-blue color. 
 
NATATOSES. 443 
 
 Frigate Bikds. 
 
 These birds, though in some respects nearly resembling the 
 Cormorants, yet at the same time, differ from them in the very 
 broad expanse of the wing, by which they are rendered the 
 most powerful of the Swimming Birds. They also differ from the 
 Cormorants in their feet, the webs of which are deeply^notched, 
 and in the form of the tail and beak. The tail is very long, 
 deeply forked, and of twelve feathers; the bill is longer than 
 the head, strong, and broader than high, except towards its 
 curved extremity. The Frigate or man-of-war birds, seem par- 
 ticularly fond of the Flying fish, darting at it themselves when 
 near the surface of the water, or obtaining it from other birds 
 which they force to drop their prey. Often they sadly persecute 
 the Boobies. Indeed, these birds are eminently raptorial. Ray 
 speaks of their eagle eyes, vulturine claw?, and kite-like glid- 
 ings. Their immense extent of wing and dashing habits have 
 obtained for them the name of the swiftest ships of war that 
 sweep the seas. 
 
 The Frigate or Man-of-War Birds, are included in one getius 
 and species, Tachypetes, {Gr. tachus, swift; peiao, to fly,) or 
 Fregata aquilus, (Lat. from aquila, an eagle.) Their length 
 i$ three feet five inches ; the expanse of wings is eight feet ; 
 some accounts make it fourteen feet! Audubon says: "The 
 Frigate Pelican is possessed of a power of flight which I con- 
 ceive superior to that of perhaps any other bird." This bird is 
 very common on the' intertropical American coasts, and in the 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans, but alwaye within reach of land. 
 It resides constantly on and about the Florida Keys, where it 
 breeds in vast numbers, on trees. Sometimes the nest is built 
 on elevated rocky cliffs. 
 
 Gannets, or Boobies. 
 
 These have bills differing somewhat from those of the Frig, 
 ate Bird, being long and resembling a lengthened cone which 
 is very large at the base and compressed towards the sligntly 
 curved point; the edges of the mandibles are serrated; the 
 hind toe is articulated to the inner surface of the tarsus, and 
 all the four toes are united by a membrane ; the wings are long ; 
 the power of flight is however not equal to that of the Frigate 
 Bird ; the tail is wedge-formed. 
 
 The Common Ganwet of Europe, Sulaalla, .(Lat. white,) is 
 sometimes called the SoLAif Goose. Its length is about thirty- 
 
444 NATATORES. 
 
 four inches. The head and neck are of a buff color, all the 
 rest of the plumage white, except the wing primaries, which are 
 black. This species is also included among the birds of Ma- 
 deira and South Africa. 
 
 The American Gannet, S. Americana, is thirty-seven inches 
 in length. Near the base of the upper mandible is "a sharp pro- 
 cess and suture," which this bird can move in a small degree in 
 swallowing a fish. This was formerly supposed to be identical 
 with the European Gannet, but is now considered a distinct 
 species. 
 
 The Booby Gannet, S.fusca, (Lat. tawny,) has the head, neck, 
 and all the upper parts dusky brown ; the under parts white ; 
 the face, bill and feet yellow. Its length is thirty-one inches. 
 
 The term Booby is more particularly applied to this species 
 on account of the stupidity which it shows when assailed, calmly 
 waiting to be knocked on the head, as these birds often do when 
 sitting on shore, or when perching on the yard of a ship till the 
 sailor climbs to their resting place, and takes them off with the 
 hand. Notwithstanding all that has been said and written about 
 the stupidity of this bird, its dullness may be questioned ; it may 
 not, like other birds, associate danger, certainly not at first, with 
 the appearance of man ; its wings are so long, and its legs so 
 short, that when once at rest, it has difficulty in setting the for- 
 mer in motion, and when surprised has no resource but its beak, 
 which is seldom feared by the aggressor. Audubon says: "I 
 am unable to find a good reason for those who have chosen to 
 call these birds boobies." It has been affirmed by many writers 
 and eye-witnesses that this bird suffers greatly from the persecu- 
 tions of the Frigate-bird, and the Lestris or Skua Gull, which force 
 it to disgorge its food. All the old voyagers abound in entertaining 
 stories relating to this subject, and it is hardly credible that aW were 
 mistaken. Audubon, however, says, "this / have never wit- 
 nessed." The nest of the Booby is placed on the top of a bush 
 at a height of four to ten feet ; sometimes on ledges of rocks cov- 
 ered with herbage. It lays one egg, of a dull white color, about 
 as large as that of a common hen. This bird ranges from 
 Georgia southwardly, but is occasionally seen farther north. It 
 is found in large numbers on Noddy island, one of the Tortugas^ 
 in company with the Noddies. 
 
 Tropic Birds, or Phaetons. 
 
 These birds, (Phaeton,) are distinguished by two long slender 
 tail feathers, and well known to navigators as the harbingers of 
 
NATATOKES. 445 
 
 the tropics. They are characterized by extraordinary length 
 of wing and feeble feet ; they are hence well formed for flight, 
 and disport in the air far out at sea; on land they are seen perch- 
 ing on rocks and trees. 
 
 The Common Tropic Bird, P. csihereus, is somewhat larger 
 than a partridge. The bill is red, with an angle under the 
 lower mandible, as in the Gulls. The eyes are surrounded with 
 black, which ends in a point towards the back of the head ; three 
 or four of the largest quill feathers, towards their ends, are black 
 tipped with white ; all the rest of the plumage is white, except 
 the back, which is variegated with curved lines of black ; the 
 legs and feet are of a vermilion red. These birds are seldom seen 
 but a few degrees north or south of either tropic. They glide 
 along, most frequently without any motion of the wing, but at 
 times, this smooth progression is interrupted by sudden jerks. 
 When they perceive a ship, they never fail to sail around it as 
 if to reconnoitre. They ordinarily return every evening to land 
 to roost in the midst of the rocks where they place their nests. 
 The long feathers of the tail are used by the inhabitants of the 
 South Sea Islands as ornaments of dress. 
 
 What is the 2nd order of Aquatic Bieds? What is said of their distri- 
 bution ? What Qf the Grebe's foot ? What is said of the feet of the other 
 Swimmers ? What of their motion on land and in the water ? What is 
 remarked of their plumage ? What peculiarity of these birds is noticed 
 by Cuvier? Have any of them very high powers of flight? What is said 
 of their flesh? What are their resorts? How many families does this or- 
 der include ? 
 
 Give the leading characteristics of the 1st Familt. What is said of their 
 nests and young ? Upon what do they feed ? How does their beak aid 
 them in obtaining their food ? Are they assisted by any other organ ? 
 What birds form the connecting link between the Swimmers and Waders ? 
 Do the True DaoKs include many species? What is said of the Shoveler 
 or Spoon-bill? What sp. are referred to and what is said of each? What 
 Sitb-Family is mentioned ? How many genera does it include ? Where are 
 the Sea Duoks mostly found ? What is said of their migration ? Where 
 do they make their nests ? How do they cover their eggs ? Which gen. in- 
 cludes peculiarly Marine Duoks? For what is the Eider D. remarkable? 
 What is peculiar in its beak ? What does Dr. Kane say of its appearance, 
 &o. ? What facts show the great numbers of these birds at the north? 
 What is said of their nests ? How many kinds of down and how do they 
 differ ? Illustrate the elasticity of the live down. Where are the King- 
 Ducks found? What is said of their flesh and down? What is said of the 
 Surf D.? What sp. is mentioned? Why is it called the Velvet D. and 
 what is said of its down ? Where is it very numerous ? Where are the 
 breeding places of the Canvas-backs? When are they seen on the coast , 
 of the U. S. ? What else is said of them ? What of the Spirit D. ? Of 
 the Long-tailed D. ? Mention the different sp. of Geess. ~ Which of th«s« 
 
446 NATATOKES. 
 
 is the origin of the Common Domestic Goose? What is said of the Egyp. 
 tian Goose? What Sub-Famut is named? How many. gen. has it? Whiit 
 is said of the Smew? What of the Merganser? 
 
 What is the 2nd Family ? Are they more or less aquatic than the Ducks? 
 What is said of the beak, &c. ? What of the Loons and Grebes ? What 
 is said of their abiUty to wallc and fly? What of their power as swim- 
 mers and divers? How do they use their wings under water? What is 
 said of their plumage and food? Which are Ocean birds ? Which Fresh- 
 water? What of the diTing of the Grebes ? Of their stomach? Which 
 is the largest of the Loons ? What is said of it ? Which are the other sp. ? 
 What is said of them ? 
 
 Which is the 3rd Family? What is said of their structure and habits? 
 What characteristics are given? In moving under water do they use 
 their feet ? What insects do they resemble in such motion? Of what does 
 their food consist, and how do they obtain it ? Where are they seen in 
 immense numbers? What is said of their eggs? In which hemisphere 
 are the Auks found? What birds fill their places in the Southern H.? 
 What is said of their wings? Of their movements in water? For what 
 are the PENGbiKS peculiarly remarkable ? What is said of the Great Auk? 
 Of the Razor or Black-billed A.? Of the Common Puffik? Of the Lit- 
 tle Guillemot ? What relation do the Penguins sustain to the Swimming 
 Birds ? What does Swainson remark ? What is said of the bones of the 
 Penguins ? What of their sensations? What of their habits?* Which of 
 their rookeries have attracted particular attention? Are they arranged 
 with order? What is said of their extent? Describe the characteristics 
 and habits of the Penguins, as given by Cheever. 
 
 Which is the 4th Family ? Give its characters. What are its habits? 
 How many sp. in America ? Which is the type of the Teub Petrels? In 
 what localities is it found ? To what class of persons is it a constant com- 
 panion? What is this bird called by Dr. Kane? What other sp. are men- 
 tioned ? Do they frequent the Southern Sea ? Which is the largest ? What 
 does Darwin say of it ? What names do sailors give these large P. ? How 
 does the Shearwater differ from the True Petrels ? What is said of the 
 Large S.? Of the Manx Puffin ? Of the Little S. ? Wha( genus has berai 
 separated from the rest of this group ? What is their size ? Mention their 
 habits? Which is the smallest of the Web-footed Birds? What do sailors 
 call it ? What is said of its plumage ? What interesting particulars are 
 given? What is said of Wilson's Petrel? Of the Forked-Tailed P.? What 
 sp. of the Albatross is mentioned ? What is said of the origin of the name ! 
 What is the size of the Common Albatross ? Describe its plumage. What 
 is its range ? For what bird has it been supposed to have pecuUar affec- 
 tion ? What is said of its beauty and loveliness ? What more is said of it ? 
 
 Which is the 5th Family ? What is said of the distribution and habits 
 of these birds ? Where are the larger Gulls most common ? Which of the 
 Swimmers are most decidedly land-birds ? What Gulls roam inland ? What 
 order of birds do the Gulls resemble ? Into what sections are they ar- 
 ranged? What distinctions does Swainson make? Which of the Forked? 
 Tailed Gulls are mentioned? What is said of the Black Skimmer ? How 
 ^lany sj. of the Tkkn ? What is said of the Common Tern? Of the Cay- 
 
NATATORES. 447 
 
 enne T. ? Whence does the Noody T. derive its name ? What is said of 
 it? What of the Silvery T.» How many sp. of the Three-toed Gulls? 
 What is said of the Great Black Backed G. ? Of the Common G. ? In 
 what latitude do the Jagera breed? What characters are given? How 
 does the Arctic Jager obtain its food? Upon what moUusk do they feed? 
 What else is said of Jt ? 
 
 What is the 6th Family? How is it characterized? Do they Swim or 
 diye ?, What is said of their powers of flight ? In what, places do they 
 build their nests ? What is said of the eggs ? Are the sp. numerous ? 
 Into what groups are they arranged? What is the size of the Teue Peli- 
 cans? What use do they make of their pouch? What is Audubon's opin- 
 ion relative to this subject? For what have the Pelicans been celebrated? 
 How have they been depicted? Has this been done with good reason ? 
 What is said of the Common White P. ? Of the Brown P. ? What gen. 
 includes the Cormorants ? How do they differ from others of the family ? 
 What bone is pecuUar to the C. ? What is said of the Common C. ?, Of 
 the Green C. or Shag? Which is the most bes,utiful sp. in the U. S. ? What 
 gen. includes the Darters or Snake Birds ? What suggested the name ? What 
 is said of the Anhinga or American Snake B. 1 What group do the Frig- 
 ate Birds resemble? How differ from them? Of what fish are they par- 
 ticularly fond? What other fish do they persecute? What does Ray say 
 of them? Whiph is the only gen. and sp.? In what respects do the Gan- 
 nets differ from the Frigate B. ? What name is sometimes given to the 
 Common G. of Europe ? In what other regions is it found? What is said 
 of the A. Gannet? Of the Booby? How are the Tropic Birds distin-. 
 guished and characterised ? What is said of the Common Tropic B. ? 
 
 GENT;RAL EXERCISE ON THE CHART. 
 
 What is the first division of Birds on the Chart ? Into how many orders 
 are the Land Birds arranged? Name each, giving some pecuUarity or 
 characteristic. Name the Sub-Orders, and the forms or peculiarities of the 
 bills upon which the divisions of Perching birds are based. Name and trace 
 the families in each order. Which order is most numerous ? Which the 
 least numerous ? Which contain the largest birds? Which the smallest ? 
 Which are the most beautiful? Which the most ordinary? How are the 
 Water Birds divided? What kind of feet have they? Which wade? 
 Which swim? What is the form of each? Which the most awkward? 
 WBich most useful? How do the bills vary in all the different orders? 
 How the toes, wings, legs and necks? 
 
 The Sixth Family Halctonid.*, King Fishers, were inadvertently omit- 
 ted on page tSll. They are distinguished by their beautiful silky blue 
 and green plumage. Sixty species are described, chiefly Asiatic and Afri- 
 can, mostly of small size. Some naturalists divide them into 4 Sub-fainilies : 
 1. BuccONiN.4;, (Puff-birds;) 2. Halcyonin.*:, (Broad-billed King Fishers;) 
 8. AloedininjE, (Narrow-billed King Fishers;) aud 4. Galbulin^, (Jack? 
 mars.) The Belted King Fisher, (Alcedoalcyon,) the only one fqu,i;id. in 
 the United States, frequents mill dams aud rapid streams with high banks, ' 
 The female is sprinkled over with white specks, and usually lays five white 
 eggs in a hole which she digs in the bank, aud occupies the saine nest for 
 years. jg 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE Xn. 
 
 Fig. 1st. Skeleton of a Tortoise, with the under part (sternum or plastron,) 
 removed to show how the back-bone and ribs are expanded and imj. 
 ted together, forming the carapace, dorsal plate, or buckler. 
 
 H. The three-branched shoulder. I. Humerus, between the shoul- 
 der-joint and the elbow. K. Ulna. L. Kadius, both bones of the 
 fore-arm. R. Femur, or the thigh bone. S. Tibia, the largest, and 
 Fibula, the smallest bones of the leg. 
 
 Fig, 2d.- Skeleton of a Bird, consisting of A. Cranium or Skull. B. Cer- 
 Tical vertebrae. C. The anchylosed or immovably fixed vertebras of 
 the back. D. The caudal vertebrae. E. Ribs. F. Breast-bone. G. 
 -Furcula, or merrythought. H. Clavicle, or collar-bone. H*. Scapulaj 
 or shoulder-bone. I. Humerus. K, L. Bones of the fore arm, ulna, 
 and radius. M. Metacarpus of hand. N. Phalanges of fingers. R. 
 Femur, or thigh-bone, o, o. Patella, or knee-pan. S. Leg, tibia 
 and fibula. T, T. Os calois, or heel-bone. 17, U. Metatarsal bones. 
 V, V. Metacarpal bones. 0. Ilium. P. Pubis, and Q. Ischiimi, bones 
 of the pelvis. 
 
 Fig. 8d. Skeleton of a Fish, showing the five sorts of fins, some of which 
 are often absent, a, b, first and second dorsal fins on the ridge of the 
 back, varying in number and form ; c, the caudal or tail fin, as impor- 
 tant to a fish as the rudder to a ship ; d, anal fin, on the under part 
 of the tail ; e, -one of the ventral fins which correspond to the hind 
 feet of quadrupeds ; f, ode of the pectoral fins, which are analogous to 
 the fore feet of quadrupeds, or the wings of birds. 
 
 Fig. 4th. Skeleton of a Frog, showing the absence (or mere rudiments,) of 
 r-ibs, and its long hind limbs adapting it for sudden springs and Ipng 
 leaps. 
 
 Fig. 6th. Skeleton of a Boa-constrictor, consisting of skull, a ; vertebral col- 
 umn, b ; and ribs, c. The ribs, 804 in number, come forward in succes- 
 sion, like the feet of a caterpillar, and form 152 pairs of levers by 
 which the animal moves from place to place. The jaws, d, hitve 
 on each side, a double row of sharp, strong, close-set teeth, pointing 
 backwards, thus giving a firm hold of its victims. 
 
 Fig. 6th. Skeleton of a Chameleon, showing how the toes and tail are 
 adapted for clinging to the branches of trees, and that the trunk is 
 mounted high upon the legs, forming in this respect an exception to 
 most reptiles. 
 
?i.xir. 
 
THIRD BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. 
 
 HERPETOLOGY, (Gr. Igw^ros, herpetos, a reptile, from S^H, 
 herpo, to creep.) 
 
 II. GRAND DIVISION OF THE T^BTEBfiATES. (Gold-1)looded Animals.) 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 The second grand division of the Vertebrates, or Cold-blooded 
 Animals, includes Reptiles and Fishes. 
 
 Reptilia, (Lat. reptilis, a reptile, from repo, to creep.) Rep- 
 tiles. The science which treats of Reptiles is called Herpe- 
 toiogy, (or Erpetology.) They form one of the most remarkable 
 of the vertebrate classes of the Animal Kingdom. They are 
 highly characterised by the vertebral column, the articulations 
 of which, in most recent adult forms, are spherically convex at 
 one extremity and spherically concave at the other. The num. 
 ber of vertebrae varies exceedingly. As, for example, in the 
 Surinam toad, {Pipa.) there we seven, and in the Python upwards 
 of four hundred. The ribs also occur in various stages of de- 
 velopment. A general survey of these creatures brings to view 
 wonderful varieties of form and structure by which they are 
 adapted to different localiticis. Some dwell on the land ; others 
 in the ocean. Many of them are found in rivers and morasses, 
 and some are even arboreal in their habits, living amidst the foli- 
 age of the trees,' intertwined with the branches, or flitting, with 
 bird-like swiftness, from leaf to leaf or from branch to branch, 
 in pursuit of their insect food. Though found in difl^rent lati- 
 tudes, the hotter regions of the globe are the great nursery of the 
 Reptiles ; in tropical countries, they actually teem, swarming in 
 sandy deserts, among dense and tangled brushwood, in humid 
 
452 HERPETOLOGT. 
 
 forests, and extended pestilential swamps. They are termed 
 Cold-blooded Animals, their natural temperature being not 
 much, if at all, above that of the atmosphere or water in which 
 they dwell. Their power of producing animal heat is very lim- 
 ited, so that the system is at once affected by the lowering of the 
 temperature of the medium which they inhabit. In our climate, 
 and indeed in Cliniates considerably nearer t6e meridian, they 
 all undergo a state of torpidity, in some sheltered retreat, to 
 which, as a refuge, their instinct directs them, and where they 
 remain during the season of winter. Their blood, though cold, 
 is red. In these, and in fact in all cold-blooded animals, the 
 vital principle is much stronger than in those whose blood is 
 warm. A frog has been kept aliv« forty days after having been 
 subjected to the total privation of its lungs. The brain, which 
 in reptiles is considerably inferior to that of birds, though supe- 
 rior to that of fishes, is not so essentially requisite to the exer. 
 cise of their animal and vital functions as in the mammalia; for 
 they continue to live and to execute voluntary movements for a 
 considerable time after being deprived of it, and even after the 
 loss of the head ; their muscles also are strong and preserve 
 their irritability for some time after life would appear to be ex- 
 tinct; their heart continues to pulsate for hours after it has been 
 torn from the body. In the reptiles this organ is strikingly pecul. 
 iar. In warm-blooded vertebrates it consists of two auricles 
 and two ventricles ; the left ventricle furnishing the system with 
 blood, which, in the capillary vessels of the lungs has been 
 acted on by the external atmosphere. In Reptiles the heart con- 
 sists of but one ventricle and two auricles ; and of these the 
 right auricle receives the vitiated blood returned from the sys- 
 tem to the heart ; the left auricle receives the arterialized blood 
 returned from the lungs; and both, auricles convey their con- 
 tents into the cavity of the ventricle. The vitiated and the arte- 
 rialized blood thus become more or less mixed together ; part 
 of this mixed fluid is sent through the great arterial trunk, as a 
 supply to the system, and part thTough the pulmonary arteries to 
 be further oxygenated in the lungs, this ventricle having in it- 
 self the branching arteries both of the body and the lungs. 
 Such is the circulation in the tortoises, lizards, and snakes. The 
 blood of Reptiles is characterized by the possession of the larg- 
 est globules to be found in the entire sub-kingdom of Vertebrates. 
 Those in the tailed Batrachians, as the Siren, &c., are visible to 
 the naked eye. As in fishes and in birds, these globules are 
 elliptical in theii; outline, whereas in the Mammals, excepting the 
 Camelida, they are circular. 
 
HSRFET0L06Y. 453 
 
 The Amphibia; at an early stage of their existence, are fur- 
 nished with gills, and, like fishes, respire in water; thegills, indue 
 time, become obliterated, and lungs developed, as in the frog, 
 the newt, &c., (Plate XIII.) Others, however, of this group, 
 though they acquire lungs, never lose their gills, and are at the 
 same time both aquatic and aerial in their respiration, or capa- 
 ble of breathing both in air and water. Such are the Proteus, 
 the Siren, and the Axolotl. The former are 'called Caduci- 
 branchiate, (Lat. caducus, falling or perishable; branchia, g\]]s ;) 
 the latter are termed Perennibranchiate, (Lat, perennis, durable ; 
 bmnchice, gills.) In the latter Amphibians, the ventricle receives 
 Mood from the auricles, and transmits it into an enlarged arte- 
 rial vessel or bulb, which soon divides into separate branches, 
 one being destined for each leaf of the gills essentially like those 
 of a fish ; here these arterial vessels sub-divide into five capil- 
 laries, and these at length, (as in fishes.) gradually pass into 
 branchial veins which at last emerge into two vessels, and these 
 unite to form the aorta, or great arterial trunk. Into this aorta, 
 the blood purified in the gills, or branchise, is conveyed without 
 being first sent back to the heart ; and from this aorta, it is dis- 
 tributed throughout the system. But besides the branchial, these 
 Amphibians have also a pulmonic, (hat.ipalmo, a lung,) circula- 
 tion. By the pulmonary artery proceeding from the aorta, a 
 portion of the blood which has already been partially oxygenated 
 in the gills, is conveyed to the lungs, where it is still .further 
 purified. It is then sent through pulmonic veins to the left auri- 
 cle, and from that to the ventricle, whence, mixing with the vitia- 
 ted blood of the system, it is sent to the gills, and thence to the 
 aorta, from which a portion again passes to the lungs, the rest to 
 the system, and so on in a perpetual succession. 
 
 Tlie Caducibranchiates, at the commencement of their exist- 
 ence, have only gills truly developed, and the circulation is bran- 
 chial or fish-like. The lungs are, at this period, in a rudimen- 
 tary state, and the pulmonary arteries exceedingly minute. In 
 process of time, however, a new impetus is given to the pulmo- 
 nary arteries and to the lungs, at the expense of the branchial 
 arteries and the gilk ; as the former develop, the latter decrease, 
 until at the last, the branchial apparatus, entirely, perishes, no 
 trace of it being left; while certain vessels, which formed a 
 junction between the branchial system of arteries and the pulmo- 
 nic arteries, enlarge, and now add only to the pulmonic circula- 
 tion. Thus the circulation in the frog and newt changes, by a 
 wonderful transition, from that of a fish to that of a perfect rep- 
 tile ! while in the Proteus and its allies, it continues to be that 
 
454 heufetologt. 
 
 of the fish, with the addition of a modified state of pulmonary 
 circulation. We advert thus particularly to these peculiarities, 
 because they present proof so striking of divine contrivance. 
 
 Reptiles have either four limbs, (Plate XII. figs. 1, 4, 6,) two, 
 (see Chirotes or Bipes on the Chart,) or none, (Plate XII. fig. 5j) 
 the ribs are sometimes very numerous, (Plate XII. fig. 5,) some- 
 times wanting or merely rudimentary, (Plate XII. fig. 4;) irithe 
 latter case, the ribs assist greatly in terrestrial locomotion. There 
 is no true distinction between the chest and abdomepj^no dia- 
 phragm or muscular expansion, dividing, as in quadrupedsy these 
 two cavities. As the blood is of a low temperature, these ani- 
 mals need neither fur nor feathers for the retention of the vita} 
 heat. They are therefore covered either with horny plates, or 
 with scales, or have the skin entirely naked. Their sight is ii^ 
 general extremely acute. On this sense they depend in their 
 pursuit of food, and for their perception of the approach of ene- 
 mies. The senses of taste, smell, and touch, in reptiles are com. 
 paratively feeble. With regard to hearing, considerable varia- 
 tion appears in different groups. In serpents, the sense is very 
 acute, and they evidently derive pleasure from musical notes, a 
 fact well understood by the serpent-charmers of the East. In 
 lizards, also, the sense of hearing appears to be quick ; in tor- 
 toises and in the Amphibians it is probably much more obtuse. In 
 most cases the internal organs of hearing are entirely covered by 
 the scaly investment of the head, or by the naked skin. In liz- 
 ards generally, the tympanic, or drum.like membrane, is stretched 
 over the external orifice of the ear, and is on a level with the 
 scaly covering of the rest of the head ; but in the crocodile, the 
 external orifice, instead of being thus permanently closed, is pro- 
 vided with a firm, movable lid or operculum, by means of which 
 the aperture may be either stopped or kept open. While bask- 
 ing on the margin of a river, or lying there in ambush for prey, 
 the crocodile is able to raise the ear-lid, in order to listen atten- 
 tively to every noise ; but when he dives beneath the water, 
 either for safety or to drown the victim he has' seized, the en- 
 trance of water into the auditory cavities is prevented by, the 
 firm shutting of the lid, which accurately fits the orifice. 
 
 Reptiles are ordinarily produced from eggs. Many of them 
 exhibit extraordinary fecundity. None of them, unless tlie 
 Pythons be an exception, ever perform the process of incubation. 
 They bury their eggs in the sand, deposit them in warm places 
 of concealment, or leave them floating in the water exposed to, 
 the rays of the sun. In due time the young are hatched. In 
 some Reptiles whicti produce eggs, as the Viper, the young is 
 
BERFETOLOGY. 455 
 
 % 
 
 already formed and advanced within the egg at the time the pa- 
 rent deposits it. This reptile, in many northern and temperate 
 regions, seems to represent the multitude of deadly snakes that 
 infest the torrid regions ; while the harmless ringed snake takes 
 the place of the huge Python of Bengal and Java. In the coun- 
 tries of the Polar circles, the snake, the lizard, the toad and the 
 frog ■ are never seen. The absence of the snails, insects and 
 small animals upon which reptiles usually feed, excludes them 
 froiTi those dreary regions. The larger part of them are carni- 
 vorous; the Tortoises, however, are vegetable feeders. A few 
 feed both on small animals, as slugs, insects, &c., and on leaves 
 and fruits. 
 
 Reptiles probably number as many as two thousand species. 
 They are either terrestrial, or aquatic, or both, and hibernate in 
 temperate regions, passing nearly the whole winter in a state of 
 lethargy. An extensive division of the Serpents have hollow 
 fangs which they can erect at pleasure, when they open their 
 mouths to bite, and these fangs have apertures, from which they 
 eject into the wounds made by them, an active and deadly poi- 
 son. 
 
 From the earliest times the forms and habits of Reptiles have 
 attracted attention. They are found represented on the monu- 
 ments of the ancient Egyptians, and numerous allusions to them 
 are contained in the scriptures of the Old Testament. Nor 
 should it be unnoticed that among the organic remains which the 
 industry and science of inquiring minds have lately brought to 
 light, none present forms more wonderful, or proportions more 
 gigantic, than some of the Fossil Reptiles. 
 
 Reptiles are divided into four orders, viz. : (1) Chelonia, 
 Chelonians ; (2) Sauria, Saurians ; (3) Ophidia, Ophidians ; 
 (4) Amphibia, Amphibians. 
 
 These orders pass into each other by certain gradations of 
 form, traceable in all, but most evidently so in the Saurians and 
 Ophidians, all these gradations clearly pointing to the existence of 
 one grand scheme, of which the parts respectively link together in 
 admirable harmony. 
 
 EEPTILES. 
 
 What ia the 3d branch of Zoologt? Of what does it treat? To what 
 Grand Division of Vehtebeates do they belong ? What is said of the ver- 
 tebral column ? Of their form, habitat, &c. ? Why are they called Cold-. 
 Blooded animals ? What is their condition during winter ? What is said 
 of the strength of the vital principle in Reptiles ? How is this illustrated f 
 
456 CHELONIANS. 
 
 / 
 State what is peculiar in the heart of Reptiles. _ Explain the circgilation of 
 the blood in Tortoises, Lizards, &c. What striking facts are ^ven respect. 
 ing the blood of Reptiles? What is at first the condition of the Amphibia? 
 What change do they undergo ? Is this true of all of them ? How do some 
 of them dift'er ? Explain the circulation in both divisions. How many limbs 
 have Reptiles ? Does their internal structure differ from that of Quadru- 
 peds ? What' is said of their covering ? What of their organs of sense ? 
 How are they usually produced ? How do they dispose of their eggs ? How 
 is it with the Viper ? What is said of the diffusion of Reptiles? Upon 
 what do they feed? How many species do they include? Name the Ok- 
 DEEs into which they are divided. Feint out on the Chart some aninials be- 
 longing to each of these orders. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 FiKST Oeder. CHELONIANS, or Tortoises. 
 
 Chelonia. (Gr. Xshhi/ij, chelone, a tortoise.) 
 
 The Tortoises may be arranged into the following divisisns, 
 viz: (1) Land Tortoises; (2) Marsh and River ToetoisEs; 
 (3^ Marine Tortoises or Turtles. 
 
 They differ most widely from the general form of the class; 
 for (1) They are clothed with a natural armor, not like that of 
 the Armadillo, a simple, horny addition to the skin, but a part of 
 the skeleton itself. The skeleton is, in fact, thrown to the out- 
 side of the body, so as to form an external bony envelope, covered 
 with a horny or leathery sheathing, and enclosing, as in a box, 
 the internal organs, and other parts of the bony frame-work 
 which do not immediately enter into its composition. Tortoises 
 may be likened to Frogs, so enveloped in horny armor as to* be 
 restrained by it from jumping. 
 
 The upper piece, or dorsal buckler, is termed the carapace. 
 This is usually more or less arched, and consists of an expansion 
 of the ribs into wide flat bones, all united firmly together, and 
 also to the edge of the flattened spinal processes, — the whole 
 forming a consolidated plate. (Plate XII. fig. 1.) To the 
 margin of the plate thus formed, is added a third set of bones, 
 regarded as representing the sternal ribs of the Crocodiles and ' 
 other Lizards, and assisting to complete th"fe circumference of 
 the carapace. 
 
 The lower plate, or abdominal buckler, is termed the plastron 
 or sternon. This, instead of being prolonged forwards into a 
 keel to afford attachment to large muscles, as in the Birds, is ex- 
 tended sidewise for the protection of the body. It consists of 
 
GHELONIANS. 437 
 
 nine bony ' portions, of which eight are in pairs ; the ninth is 
 single,, and occupies the front part of the plastron. 
 
 (2) The Chelonians are also distinguished from other Reptilies 
 by the entire absence of teeth. As a compensation for this, 
 however, the jaws are cased in horny coverings with cutting 
 edges, resembling the hooked beak of a Parrot,, and with which 
 they crop and mince the vegetable substomces on which many 
 of them feed. The armor in which the animals are encased, 
 seems to be their most effectual defence. In the Land Tortoises 
 the carapace is usually much arched and firmly united, so that, 
 without injury, it can sustain a very great weight; the plastron 
 in these also exhibits the highest degree of solidity, and is united 
 to the carapace by an extended lateral surface. At the line of 
 its union, it is sometimes slightly movable, but in most, it is 
 fixed by an unyielding suture. Its front and hind margins are 
 generally indented or notched, for the more easy egress of the 
 neck and tail ; but sometimes they simply end in a cross line ; 
 or, on the contrary, are prolonged into a point. In the Land 
 Tortoises of the genus Pyxis, (Gr. puxis, a box,) — species ^racA- 
 noides, (Gr. spider-like,) — the Arachnoid Tortoises of India, the 
 plastron is furnished with a transverse hinge,. giving a power 
 of motion to the front part, so that the animals can redraw their 
 head and fore-limbs within the carapace, and close the plastron 
 upon it. In another genus of the same group, Cynixis, of Guiana, 
 the carapace, instead of being one solid whole, has the posterior 
 portion distinct from the front portion, and movable, so as to clos'e 
 upon the hinder margin of the plastron, and shut in the hinder 
 limbs and tail. In the aquatic species, the shell is generally 
 more flattened, so as to present less resistance to the water. 
 Some of them swim with considerable rapidity, and are much 
 more active in their habits than others of the order. The shell 
 of such has its parts less firmly united, and is, in some degree, 
 flexible ; it also affords much less complete protection to the 
 body. 
 
 Notwithstanding the horny beak with which the jaws of Tor- 
 toises are in general furnished, the sense of taste is decidedly 
 higher in these than in other Reptiles. The broad, thick, fleshy, 
 and movable tongue, is 'provided with salivary glands, and nerves 
 of taste, but is not capable of being protruded from the mouth. 
 It is not an organ of taste merely, but filling out the entire cavity 
 of the mouth, assists in the process of respiration ; for " Turtles 
 swallow the air they breathe." 
 
 The eyes are larger in proportion, and more movable in 
 Tortoises than in other Reptiles. They have three eye-lids ; two 
 
458 CHEtONUNS. 
 
 external, continaed from the common skin of the head, and vary, 
 ing as to form in different genera; one, internal, resembling the 
 nictitating membrane of birds; and moved by muscles appropri. 
 ate to that ofBee. The form of the pupil is round, as in birds. 
 The iris is always colored, usually dark, but in some, red, or 
 even milk-white. 
 
 Tortoises have no movable external ear, but in all are found 
 the tympanic orifice and membrane which are wanting in Sauri. 
 ans, and the sense of hearirig is consequently well developed. 
 The sense of smell appears to be at a low degree. The nostrils 
 open on the most anterior part of the upper jaw or mandible, and 
 are close to each other. In the River Tortoises,' and in the 
 Matamata, a Marsh Tortoise, of South America, the nostrils are 
 prolonged into a sort of flexible proboscis, which the animals can 
 raise for the purpose of respiration, between the large, floating 
 leaves of water plants, while they lurk with their bodies con- 
 cealed below them, and immersed in the water, — lying in wait 
 for their prey, * 
 
 The males of the Tortoises are, in general, smaller than the 
 females, and commonly distinguished by the plastron, which is 
 slightly concave. Tortoises have a voice, — that is, fthey have, 
 more or less, the faculty of uttering distinct sounds. Theyivary 
 in their food according to the localities which they are accus- 
 tomed to frequent. Some live on marine plants; others on small 
 animals, in addition to vegetable food. They require but little 
 nourishment, and can pass months, and even years, without eat- 
 ing. Turtles, in their growth, are exceedingly slow, coming to 
 maturity the latest of all the Reptiles. But, at the same time, 
 they are very long-lived. Land Tortoises have been known to 
 live one hundred and twenty yearfs, and some have even reached 
 more than two hundred years. 
 
 According to Agassiz, their eggs, up to the seventh year, are 
 of small size, — numerous, yet not distinguishable into sets; but 
 with every succeeding year, there appears a larger and larger 
 set of eggs; each set being made up of the usual number which 
 the species lays, so that a Turtle of eleven years old, for the first 
 time, contains mature eggs ready to be laid in the spring.' The 
 larger eggs always appear in regular sets, of a definite number, 
 and these coincide "with the number laid by that particular species 
 at one time. Four sets can be readily distinguished ; one of 
 them mature eggs; another about half tbe.size; a third still 
 smaller; and the fourth smaller still, (about the size of a large 
 pin's head ;) below these, it is difficult to distiilguish the differ- 
 ence in size. "Turtles," eays Agassiz, "lay once a year; 
 
CHELONIANS. ;459 
 
 therefore, it follows that an egg requires fouf years from the 
 time there exists a marked difierence among the eggs of different 
 sizes, to acquire its full maturity."!* Fresh-water Tortoises lay 
 their eggs in moist ground, or in dryer places near the water; 
 Marine Turtles lay theirs in hot sand ; the Land Tortoises lay 
 theirs upon dry ground. The time of the extrusion of the ani- . 
 mal varies from six weeks to three or four months. 
 
 The divisions of the Chelonians vary, as made by different 
 naturalists. Agassiz, who prefers names which have priority of 
 dale, divides the order Testusinata, or Chelonia, into two sub- 
 orders. 
 
 I. Amydx, with seven families. 
 
 !1) Testvdinina, Land Tortoises. 
 2) Emydoid^ {S)anostermida>, V ^. ^„j ^^^^ 
 (4) ChelydroidtB, (5) Hydmspidce, > t" * • 
 (6) ClielyoidcB,. (7) Trimychida, ) J-0«0"e8. 
 n. Chelonii, with two families. 
 
 (1) ChelonioidcB, (3) Sphargidce, Marine Turtles. 
 
 First Sub-Oedee. AMyD;E. Digitated. 
 
 This sub-order includes, besides the Land Tortoises, tha 
 Marsh and River Tortoises, intermediate in form between the 
 Marine and Land Tortoises. The Marsh Tortoises proper, are 
 sometimes arranged into two divisions, viz: (1) the Pleurodera, 
 (Gr. pleuron, a side ; deire, neck,) — so named because the head 
 is concealed, not by being drawn back in a straight line, but by the 
 nepk folded to one side of the opening of the shell. The arms 
 are also incapable of being completely drawn within the cara- 
 pace and plastron. Seven is said to be the number of the genera 
 included in this division. None of the species belong to North 
 America, but many to South America. (2) The Cryptodera, 
 (Gr. krupto, to conceal ; deire, neck,) in which the cylindrical 
 shaped neck can be folded back upon itself under the center of 
 the forepart of^the carapace. The pelvis is articulated to the 
 internal surfsibe of the carapace, while in respect to the plas- 
 tron, it is free; i^his gives to many of the Marsh or Pond Tor- 
 toises a power ro move the under portions of the osseous box; 
 and this, accordingly, has a less degree of solidity ; whereas, in 
 the Pleurodera, the p'elvis is firmly fixed to the roof of the cara- 
 pace above, and to that of the plastron beneath. The species of 
 this division are very numerous, and many are found both inj 
 North and South America. 
 
 * Contributions to the Natural History of the United States. Vol. 1j^ 
 
460 CHELONIANS. 
 
 FiKST Family. Tesiudinina, (Lat. Testudo, a tortoise.) 
 Land Tortoises. First Sub-Order, Amydae. 
 
 Tlie Tortoises of this family exhibit the greatest symmetry of 
 form, and are, on various accounts, entitled to the first rank in 
 the order. They are distinguished by their highly arched cara- 
 pace, and still more, by their short, clubby feet, terminating in 
 flat, spade-like nails. The outward armor is entirely ossified, 
 and harder and thicker, in proportion to the animal's size, than 
 in the Aquatic Tortoises. The shield is covered, externally, 
 with epidermal scales, and the skin everywhere more or less 
 protected with them ; on the most exposed parts, they are thick 
 and stiff, and form a continuous hard covering. The neck and 
 legs are short, and can be drawn entirely within the shell. ' 
 (See Radiated Tortoise on Chart.) 
 
 The Land Tortoises show nothing of the fierce dispositions 
 exhibited by most of the other groups, — never attacking or 
 making resistance, but resorting to the shield, and trusting to that 
 alone for protection. Their feet, which, in shape, have some 
 resemblance to those of the Elephant, are adapted to walking on 
 solid ground only; when placed in water, these animals endeavor 
 to walk, as if upon land, having no swimming motion. Their 
 movement bn dry ground is firmer and more steady, the weight 
 being almost equally supported by both pair of limbs; and they 
 can travel for a distance at a pace less slow than any other Tor- 
 loises. The fore feet have, usually, five toes,'§nd the hind ones, 
 four, which are furnished witb«short conical claws, well adapted 
 for digging. The food of the Land Tortoises is entirely vegeta- 
 ble. They appear most fond of the succulent stems of plants 
 and fleshy fruits. "I have often," says Agassiz. "seen our 
 Gopher gnawing the stumps of cabbage, and apples falling from 
 the trees in my garden, as the Squirrels do, holding'them between 
 their feet," The lungs are very much larger inAe Land Tor- 
 toises than in any other family of the first sujfihider. Their 
 size is also, on the whole, larger than that of Jk other family 
 of that divisbn. ^ 
 
 The Land Tortoises include four genera. ^ 
 
 (1) Ciniaiys, of which there are two or fhree species found in 
 Guiana. In these, the hind part of the carapace is net united to 
 the front part, and is movable, so that the animals can shut in 
 their hind limbs and tail. 
 
 (2) Pyxis. ■ {Gr. .puxis, a box.) This genera includes the 
 T^d - ~ 
 
 T^d Box Tortoises, hRving the front part of the plastron mova- 
 
CHELONIANS. 461 
 
 ble on a hinge, so that they can conceal the head and fora 
 limbs within the carapace. 
 
 (3) Homopus, (Gr, homos, like each other; poits, foot,) in- 
 eluding Land Tortoises which have the carapace and pastron 
 immovable. They have but four nails on the fore feet, while 
 the other genera have five. The Vermilion Toktoisk, H. are- 
 olatus, (Lat. divided into areas, or spaces.) is a species of thia 
 genus, found in Eastern Africa and Madagascar, and one of the 
 smallest known of Land Tortoises, being seldom more than five 
 inches in length. 
 
 (4) Tesiudo, having the carapace and plastron immovable. 
 Of this genus, only one species is indigenous to North America, 
 viz: T. Carolina or T. Polyphemus, — Xerobates {Gr. xeros from 
 xera land ; baino, to go,) Carolina, Ag., — ^the Gopher ToiiToisE, 
 ranging from Florida to Georgia. It is'from fifteen to seventeen 
 inches in le'ngth. Its strength is so great that it can move 
 easily with a man standing on its back. In habits, it is noc 
 turnal ; its flesh is excellent, and much sought after for the 
 table. In sandy districts, it excavates holes in the ground, which 
 much impede the movements of horsemen. 
 
 The Elephantine Toktoise, T. Indica, (T. Elephantina.) Cyl- 
 indraspis, (Gr. rolling or cylindrical shield,) Indica, is from 
 three to four feet in length ; and every way a huge animal. It 
 sometimes has been known to weigh not far from three hundred 
 pounds. The Elephant Tortoises are found in great numbers in 
 the Galapagos islands, but, comparatively, not large, — averaging 
 sixty pounds in weight. They are eagerly sought by crews of 
 vessels. When captured, they serve for fresh meat, as they can 
 be Jtept for a year in the hold of a ship without food or drink. ^ 
 
 "Phe GREEjAor Eueopean Tortoise, T. Graca, is a *ell known 
 species, foundTn the South of Europe. 
 
 The GEOMEiTKic Tortoise, T. geometrica, is a bea^iful little 
 creature, about six inches in length, found in South ^rica and 
 Madagascar.' It has its specific name from the radiating lines 
 of yellow, ftrming angular figures on the plates of the carapace. 
 
 The Charcoal Tortoise, T, carbonaria, is common in Brazil 
 and other parts of South America. The carapace is deep blacK, 
 and eighteen inches long. This kind is sold as a great delicacy 
 in the markets at Garaccas. 
 
 The Radiated Tortoise, T. radiata, a handsome species, is 
 a native of Madagascar, whence it is frequently taketl*^ to the 
 Capeof Good Hope, and to the Mauritiusand Bourbon isles. The 
 carapace is hemispherical ; the plates are simple aD^l|Pk, with 
 a yellow, central spot, whence diverge lines of the safflrct)lor ; the 
 plates of the plastron are ornamented with black and yellow. 
 
462 CHELONUNS. 
 
 Second Family. Emydoidce, (Gr. B/i6g, emus, a fregh-water 
 tortoise.) 
 
 This is a most numerous family, including a large number of 
 well known species, which present great varieties of habit, size, 
 and structure. Dumeril and Bibron unite the Emydoidce and 
 Chelyoidce into one family, under the name of Eiodites, refer- 
 ring the Emydoidee to the division Cryptodera, and the Chelyoida 
 to the division Pieurodera; Our limits do not alloHf us to detail 
 minutely the distinctive peculiarities of this family, or to assign 
 at lai'ge the differences existing in the various sub-divisions un- 
 der which it is exhibited. 
 
 In these Tortoises, the box in which the animal is enclosed, is 
 less thick and strong than in the Land Tortoises, not becoming 
 completely ossified until late in life; its figure is oval, for the 
 most part, broader behind than before. All the bony plates show 
 great constancy and regularity of arrangement. The outside of 
 the whole shield is covered with scales, as is, more or less, the 
 skin of the head, neck, limbs, and tail; the tympanum is visible, 
 and the eyelids are of equal height. 
 
 Nearly the whole of these are eminently Marsh Tortoises. 
 Almost all of them can withdraw and conceal their limbs within 
 the carapace and plastron ; but in the Platysternon, (Gr. broad- 
 sternon,) the plastron or sternon from its width, suffices to con- 
 ceal the limbs when folded ; yet the head remains constantly 
 exposed. The food of these Tortoises is both vegetable and 
 animal. None of them catch active prey, or are in any way 
 ^rocious ; when hard pressed, however, they defend themselves 
 by biting. They lay their eggs on dry land, in boles which they 
 dig with their hind legs; the land species, from two or three to 
 five or seven ; the water species, from ten or fifleen to twenty, 
 thirty, or even more. (Agassiz.) The shell of the eggs is never 
 brittle, but rather flexible, and less calcareous than in some other 
 families. 
 
 The genera Emys and Cistudo, are prominent representatives 
 of this family. In the Emys, the fore feet have five toes; the 
 hind feet, four; the plastron is bi-oad, immovable, solidly united 
 to the carapace, and covered with twelve plates; the head is 
 about the ordinary size ; the tail long. 
 
 Emys MiMenlergii, or Muhlenburg's Tortoise, is the smallest 
 known^ecies, about four inches in length; found in New Jer. 
 sey anoftl^teastern part of Pennsylvania. 
 
 E. rugosa, (Lat. wrinkled,) or E. ruhriventris, (Lat. red- 
 
CHKLONIANS. 463 
 
 bellied,) — ^the Flychemys, (Gr. ptucTie, a fold ; emys,) rugosa, of 
 Agassiz, — is found as far South as Virginia, and North as far as 
 the neighborhood of New York City. It is known by the name 
 of the Red. bellied Terrapin, and as food is prized by epicures. 
 Length from ten to seventeen inches. (Agassiz says fifteen 
 inches.) 
 
 Emys concinna, (Lat. polished, beautiful,) is a handsome spe- 
 cies, found in Georgia ; in length, according to Agassiz, fifteen 
 inches. This, and the preceding species, are the rarest of the 
 family. 
 
 E, concentrica, is found both in North and South America. 
 New York is said, by DeKay to be its northern limit. It gives 
 the preference to salt-water marshes, and is therefore called the 
 Salt-water Terrapin. The flesh of this species is in particu- 
 lar request for the table. The plates of the carapace are olive- 
 green, with concentric lines of brown, whence the specific name, 
 oojicentWcffl. Sometimes it is called £. jia/MSiw. These Tortoises 
 bury themselves in mud during the winter ; they are then very 
 fat, and taken in large numbers. The length is from seven to 
 ten inches. 
 
 E.picta, (Lat. painted,) or Chrysemys, (Gr. gold-colored Emys,) 
 picla, Ag., — is probably the most essentially aquatic Tortoise 
 of the entire family ; in fact, it soon perishes, if removed from 
 the water. The Painted Emvs (see Chart) is very common in 
 the United States, but 'on account of the ill flavor of its flesh, 
 never used for food. The plates of the carapace, which is con- 
 siderably depressed, are of a deep brown color; the plastron is 
 of a yellow- or gold color. For the variety and beauty of its 
 markings, this may be esteemed the handsomest o( all the frq|li- 
 water Tortoises. It seems to enjoy much the rays of the sun, 
 and sometimes floats in the water with the head just emerging 
 frbm the shell, luxuriating in the genial temperature. It inhab- 
 its stagnant ponds or lakes, and is never found in rivers or run- 
 ning streams. Its length is from five to nine inches. When 
 young, its contour is circular rather than oval. It is remarkably 
 slow in coming to maturity, not laying eggs before it is seven 
 years old. 
 
 E, guttata, (Lat. speckled,) the Spotted Tortoise, is a small 
 species found throughout the Union. Its length is about four 
 inches. The carapace is black, or deep brownish black, with 
 distant rounded yellow dots, occasionally with a few orange 
 spots. It shows a preference for streams and ponds which have 
 a muddy bottom. On a warm day. Speckled Tortoises may be 
 seen basking in (he sun, on a log or rock ; but on the approach 
 
464 CHELONIANS. 
 
 of any person, they slip suddenly into the water. This species 
 is the Nanemys, (Gr. dwarf-emys,) guitaia, of Agassiz. 
 
 The genus Cistudo, (Lat. a box.) includes Tekeapins, or Box 
 ToKToiSES. These, like the Emydes, have five toes on the fore 
 feet and four on the hind ones. The head is very high ; the 
 plastron, broad, oval, and divided by a transverse hinge into two 
 movable portions or valves, by means of which the whole body 
 may be shut in. The beak of the upper jaw projects downward 
 in the middle ; the lower jaw is sharp pointed in front ; the hind 
 foot plantigrade. These Tortoises never take to the water from 
 choice, and would be drowned if detained there. Indeed, they 
 are so inuch on dry land as to be sometimes called Land Tor. 
 toises. 
 
 The Carolina Terrapin, or Box Toktoise, C. CaroHnaj or 
 C. Virginia, (Agassiz,) is found in New England, also westward 
 as far as Michigan, and southward as far as the Carolinas. In 
 its- general habits, in the vaulted form of its carapace, and in the 
 structure of its feet, which are but slightly palmated, it appears 
 to be a link between the Marsh and Land Tortoises. This spe- 
 cies is not aquatic, preferring woods and dry places and living 
 on vegetables and insects ; occasionally, however, it is met with 
 in swamps and moist places. Of all the Marsh Tortoises, it has 
 the shortest and most convex carapace. The general color is 
 dark brown with stars and blotches. The flesh isnotTtiuch es- 
 teemed, but the eggs, which are about as large as a pigeon's, are 
 thought to be excellent, and are much sought for. The length 
 of this species is from five to seven inches. 
 
 Blanding's Box Tortoise, C. Blandivgii, has a shell less 
 raised than that of the Carolina Terrapin, and the lower jaw is 
 hooked instead of the upper, as in the Carolina species. Its 
 length is from seven to eight inches. This species was first ac- 
 curately described and figured by Dr. Holbrook, in his valuable 
 work on North American Herpetology. According to Agassiz, 
 who deems this a "true Emys," the oldest name is E. meUagris. 
 The European Box Tortoise, C. Europcea, is widely dif- 
 fused. It differs from the Carolina Terrapin in giving the pref- 
 erence to still waters, ponds and marshes, in the mud of which 
 it delights to bury itself. This species is particularly fond of 
 ssnall fishes. These it kills previously to devouring them, but 
 rejects the air sac, which rises and floats on the surfsMJe, so that 
 the abundance or scarcity of these animals in any pool or sheet 
 of ^ter, is judged of by the numbers of these floating air sacs. 
 TJie' flesh of the European Box Tortoise, though not very deli- 
 .t^ate, is nevertheless eaten. 
 
CHELONIANS. 
 
 465 
 
 Third Family. Cinosternoidm, (Gr. Ktveca, Mneo, to move; 
 aziQjiov, sternon.) Mud and Musk Tortoises. 
 
 The Tortoises of this family have long and narrow bodies, 
 covered by a shield which is entirely ossified. The marginal 
 plates are twenty-four in number ; the plastron is divided into 
 three sections, and, " at least in the adult species, is made up of 
 eight plates, there being no odd one, as in all the other families 
 of the sub-order." (Ag.) The shield or carapace is covered 
 with large horny scales ; the head is large, elongated, and pyr- 
 amydal in form ; the mandibles are liooked, and in the under 
 jaw covered with fleshy excrescences. In the female, the tail is 
 short ; in the males, thick and long. Their legs are slender, ill 
 fitted for land travel, but easily carrying the body through the 
 water over the bottom. As a family, they are dwarfish in their 
 forms, the largest not being more than nine inches long, and the 
 smallest not more than four inches. These Tortoises smell 
 strongly of musk. Their disposition is a blending of shyness 
 and ferocity. " They remind us," says Agassiz, " of the Insec- 
 tivora among the JWammalia, the rapacious habits of which are 
 in strange contrast with their size and feebleness." Their 
 movements are abrupt and quick, but have little power ; their 
 food is chiefly animal ; their habits aquatic, though sometimes 
 they bask in the sun on the shore. They lay only from three 
 to five eggs, having the shape of a lengthened ellipse with very 
 blunt ends, and a glazed, shining sur^ce, much smoother than 
 that of the other turtles' eggs, and also quite thick and brittle. 
 
 This family, entirely American, is represented by the genera 
 Cinosternon sxiA Slemotharus, {Gr. sternon ; thetiros, a. hinge.) 
 The former has b9th the front and hind parts of the plastron 
 movable upon an intermediate fixed position ; the latter has the 
 plastron solid, with the front part movable. 
 
 Cinosiernon represents the Mud Tortoises, or Cinosteroids. 
 Several species are described. 
 
 C. Pennsylvanicum, or Thyrostemum, (Gr. ihuron, porch ; 
 sternon,) Pennsylvanicum, (Ag.) is very common in various parts 
 of the United States. It inhabits ditches and muddy ponds, and 
 often takes the hook. Its food consists of frogs and small fishes. 
 The length is seven or eight inches. 
 
 Stemothmrus, or Ozotheca, (Gr. ozo, to smell ; tJieke, repos- 
 itory,) Ag.. of sub-family Ozothecoida, includes the Musk Tor- 
 toises. Of the species the Musk Tortoise, S. odoralus, or 0. 
 odorata, Ag., is the most common and the smallest one known, being 
 
466 CHELONIANS. 
 
 less" than four inches in length. It is common in marshes and 
 ditches from Maine to Florida. The carapace is gibbous or ob- 
 long, of a brownish color, with streaks of green. The color and 
 marking are, however, not easily detected, as the animal is usu- 
 ally covered with mud, and an agglutination of water plants. 
 It is sometimes called Mud Terrapin, and, on account of its dis- 
 agreeable odor, Stink-Pot, and other names equally savory. 
 
 FoTjRTH Family. Chelydroidm, (Gr. x^Mgog, cheludros, a 
 water-tortoise.) 
 
 Snapping Turtles. 
 
 The body of these Tortoises is high in front and low behind, 
 the upper surface is "like a shed-roof falling backwards, curved 
 down on either side, lowest about the middle, less and less to-' 
 wards the ends." The carapice projects beyond the attached 
 surface of the body, except at the neck, where it is joined with 
 the plastron ; the latter is not movable, of a cross-like shape, and 
 covered with twelve plates. The head is very large and cov. 
 ered with small plates ; the upper mandible is hooked ; below 
 the under mandible are two small wattle-like excrescences. The 
 tail is extremely long, compressed and surmounted by a ridge 
 of strong scales, as in the crocodile. The limbs are very robust, 
 and the nails of the toes are strong, hooked and sharp. The 
 head, though of great size, can be withdrawn within the cara- 
 pace ; but not so the tail and limbs. " The animal lives mostly 
 in the water, but makes considerable passages over land. It does 
 not, like the TVionychida, remain burrowed in the soft muddy 
 bottom, but rather lies in wait for prey under shelving banks, or 
 among the reeds and rushes." 
 
 This family is represented by the Alligator Tortoiss, or 
 Snapping Turtle, to which naturalists have given various 
 names, among which are Ckelonura, (Gr. chelone, tortoise ; pura, 
 a tail,) Serpentina, (Say ;) Gypoehelys, (Gr. gups, a vulture ; 
 chehis, a tortoise,) Serpentina, (Agassiz.) Both internally and 
 externally, it exhibits an approach to the alligatpr, and perhaps 
 may be viewed as an intermediate link. When adult, it exceeds 
 three feet in its total length. So great is the strength of its jaws 
 that a large one has been seen to bite off a piece of plank more 
 than an inch thick. It eats frogs, other aquatic reptiles, and 
 even fish ; it swims with celerity, and is prone to snap at every 
 thing coming near it. Woe to the unwary duck or other animal 
 that swims unguardedly'within its reach. The Alligator Tor. 
 toise is a native of Carolina and the warmer districts of North 
 
CHELONIANS. 467 
 
 America. This Tortoise, according to DeKay, lays from sixty 
 to seventy eggs, about the size of a small walnut. 
 
 Fifth Family. Hydraspida, (Gr. Iidqa, hudra, a water-snake ; 
 aanlg, aspis, a shield.) •■ 
 
 This family includes four genera, viz. : Platetnys, (Gr. pla- 
 tus, broad; emus, eniys;) Ehinemys, (Gr. rhin, nose; emus, 
 emys ;) Phrynops, (Gr. phrunos, a rubeta, or venomous toad ; 
 dps, face;) Hydraspis. The whole are included by Wagler in 
 one genus, Platemys. They have the head flattened and covered 
 with a single delicate scale, or with a number of small irregular 
 plates ; the jaws are simple ; two barbels appear under the chin ; 
 the carapace is very much flattened ; the plastron is immov- 
 able ; there are five claws on the fore feet, four on the hind. 
 One species is found on the banks of the Macquarie River, 
 (Australia ;) other species are found in South America, living in 
 marshes or else on the banks of rivers. So far as the head and 
 neck are concerned, some of these animals, as the Chelodina of 
 New Holland, appear more like a snake than a tortoise. 
 
 Sixth Family. Chelyoidce, (Gr. x^i^vg, chelus, a tortoise.) 
 
 The Tortoises of this family have a shield that is thick, com- 
 pletely ossified, and regularly divided into plates ; the head is 
 extraordinarily large, flat and triangular ; the jaws are weak, 
 neither pointed nor sharp edged, unfit for catching large active 
 prey, or for tearing any tough vegetable or animal matter ; the 
 mouth is broad, '.but very close when its roof and floor are 
 brought together, being well adapted for catching and swallow, 
 ing minute animals ; the legs are strong ; the feet broad and 
 compact, with long and sharp claws, the fore feet having five, 
 the hind feet four. This family includes but one genus, Chelys. 
 The only recognized species is the Matamata, C. matamaia, (an 
 aboriginal name,) found in Qayenne and Guiana, having the neck 
 furnished with long cutaneous appendages, and two barbels on 
 the chin. The head looks as if it had been crushed, and this, 
 together with its fringes and skinny enfoldings, gives it a singu- 
 larly grotesque appearance. Decidedly, it is the most remark- 
 able of the Pond or Marsh Tortoises. When full grown, the 
 Matamata is about two and a half .feet in length. 
 
468 oja^LONiANs. 
 
 Seventh Family. Trionychidce, (Gr. rjets, treis, three ; "oi/«J, 
 onux, nail.) 
 
 Soft-Shelled on River Tortoises. 
 
 These Tortoises are distinguished by the complete absence of 
 scales from the body, the shell being covered with a soft skin. 
 The feet are broad, webbed, and move horizontally ; of the toes, 
 three on each foot are provided with nails or claws, whence the 
 term Trionyx, (see derivation above.) The form is that of a flat 
 orbicular disk, slightly elongated, with a long pointed head pro- 
 jecting upon a lengthened, slender neck. The structure of these 
 animals is well adapted to life and motion in the water. They 
 swim with great facility. In this process they are aided, not by 
 their flattened and webbed feet alone, but by the loose and flex- 
 ible skin of the body, forming a narrow flap or border around the 
 edges of the shell, and performing the office of a fin. The soft 
 carapace is generally dark colored, variegated with brown; but 
 the plastron and all the under parts arc pale, like the turbot. 
 The plastron is not entirely ossified in the Trionyx proper, and 
 is united to the carapace by cartilage. These Tortoises live 
 mostly on the muddy bottom of shallow waters, burying them- 
 selves in the soft mud, leaving only the head, or a small part of 
 it exposed. Sometimes they remain under water as long as half 
 an hour, without coming to the surface to take breath. They 
 are rarely seen on land, where, to them, locomotion is labored 
 and unsteady. They lay from a dozen to twenty or more eggs, 
 of a spherical form, having a- thick but brittle sihellj and about 
 the size of a musket ball. 
 
 They feed upon fish, reptiles, and mollusks, especially Ana- 
 dontas and Paludinas, fragments of which have been found in 
 their intestines. Two genera represent this family. 
 
 (1) Gymnopus, (Gr. naked-footed,) or Platypeltes, (Gr. pMus, 
 broad ; pelte, shield ;) (2) Cryptopus, (Gr. krupto, to hide ; pous, 
 foot,) or Aspidonectes, (Gr. aspis, shield ; nectes, a swimmer,) 
 Agassiz. The type of the genus Gymnopus, or Platypeltes,- is 
 the Trionyx ferox, the species of this country earliest known to 
 foreign naturalists. Tiie Tryonyx ferox, or P. ferox, (Lat. 
 fierce,) is found from Georgia {o Western Louisiana. Though 
 fierce, it is not very large. Agassiz says the largest tortoise 
 which he ever saw or heard^ belonging to this species, was one 
 foot and a half in length. .4ls!^e generic name, PZailjipete* in- 
 dicates, the carapace is broaS^ The great breadth of the carti- 
 laginous circumference of the dai'apace, and the narrowness x>f- 
 
CHKLONIANS. 469 
 
 the plastron, are distinctive marks of this tortoise. In its native 
 regions it reigns as a tyrant, producing great havoc among the 
 finny tribes ; it is very voracious, and eagerly seizes a hook 
 baited with a fish. 
 
 The females visit the shore in May to lay their eggs. These 
 are globular in shape and brittle ; they are hatched in July. It 
 is said that in its fierceness and voracity, this Tortoise will at- 
 tack small quadrupeds, aquatic birds, and young alligators. The 
 Trionjffflof the Nile, G. Mgyptiacus,. is much valued in Egypt, 
 on account of the services it renders in devouring the eggs and 
 young of the crocodile. 
 
 Tortoises of the genus Cryptopus, or Aspidonectes, have the 
 plastron broad, and capable of closing up in front, so as to shut 
 in the retracted head and limbs ; in the rear they have a cartila- 
 ginous valve on each side, for shutting in the hind limbs. 
 
 A, spinifer, (Lat. thorn-bearing or prickly,) is a species com- 
 mon in Lake Champlain, and ia most of our western rivers. 
 Length fourteen inches. 
 
 Second Sub-Orbee. Chelonidje, or Chelonii. Sea Turtles. 
 Pjnnated. 
 
 The entire structure of the Sea Turtles shows an express 
 adaptation to aquatic habits. Not only is the carapace greatly 
 flattened, but the limbs, in which the toes are not externally dis- 
 tinct, are likewise flattened and modified into large oars. On 
 land, these animals shuffle along in the most awkward manner, 
 and make, with toilsome efforts, only a slow progress ; but they 
 plough the waves, dive and ascend with admirable address and 
 dexterity. They swim almost entirely by means of their front 
 limbs ; the other pair acting independently and being chiefly 
 useful in aiding to balance the body, and guide the general 
 course. They feed chiefly on marine plants. The gullet of 
 these Turtles is lined with long cartilaginous processes, all tend- 
 ing towards the stomach. These appear designed to prevent the 
 return of the food when the water which is swallowed in con- 
 nection with it is regurgitated. 
 
 The Sea Turtles never resort to the shore, except to deposit 
 their eggs. They lay them at night and in large companies. 
 Those of most of the species are both nutritious, and agreeable 
 to the taste. "American Sea Turtles," says Agassiz, "lay their 
 eggs towards the end of May, or iasthe beginning of June. They 
 lay a large number of them, about one hundred at a time, or 
 even more^ which they deposit on shore, in the diy sand. Their 
 
470 CHELOMIANS. 
 
 eggs are not large, in comparison to the size of the animal, and 
 no.t perfectly spherical, their orbicular outline being more or less 
 irijpgular." "I have no reason," he says, " to trust the reports 
 that they lay eggs more than once a year." Other writers, how. 
 ever, say "thrf process is repeated three times a year." The 
 eggs are almost unprotected by a shell, and hence it is necessary 
 that the sand in which they are laid to be hatched by the heat of 
 the sun, should be soft and movable. To obtain a suitable local- 
 ity for their eggs, they often travel many hundred leagues. As. 
 cension Island is to them a favorite place of resort. At the 
 breeding season the Turtle-fishery is carried on. The flesh 
 oC thek females is in the highest estimation, and at this sea- 
 son, it is supposed to possess its best quality. " The fish, 
 ers suddenly advance from their watching places, and despatch 
 the Turtles with clubs, or turn them quickly over upon their 
 backs, in doing which, it is often necessary to use levers, 
 several men at the same time combining their strength. A few 
 skillful men, in the course of three hours, may turn over, and 
 thus secure forty or fifty turtles." On the coast of Guiana, haul 
 nets are employed for the capture of these creatures. In the 
 Chinese and Indian seas, and also on the shores of Mozambique, 
 boatmen take them by availing themselves of the natural powers 
 and instincts of certain fishes, named poissons pechews, or Fish- 
 fishers. The Turtles are usually met with in the warm latitudes 
 of the ocean, and especially towards the torrid zone. 
 
 First Family. Chelonioidtz. 
 
 This family are characterized by having the carapace very 
 broad, more or less depressed, of a somewhat heart-shaped out- 
 line, covered with horny scales, and bordered by a distinct mar- 
 ginal rim; also by having a flat nail on the thumb of eachpad- 
 die. Three well defined genera are found along the coast 
 of the United States; the greatest difference between them 
 has relation to the structure of the mouth. Their food consists 
 of aquatic plants, sea-weeds, and the like. In size, they much 
 surpass the average size of the Amydm ; yet they are shy and 
 inoffensive, not biting when hard pressed, but striking with their 
 powerful flappers, and endeavoring to escape by quickening 
 their speed. They lay their eggs at the end of May or begin- 
 ning of June. 
 
 The Green or Esculent Turtle, Chelonia mydas, is consid. 
 ered the most important of the Turtles', its flesh being in great 
 request as a luxury for the table, and as furnishing abundant Kod 
 
CHELONIAHS. 471 
 
 wholesome food to voyagers in tropical climates. It has twelve 
 pair of scales of a greenish color, but they do not overlay each 
 other, and are of no use in the arts. Green Turtles are very 
 common in shallow parts' of the sea near the islands and the 
 shores of continents, within the tropics, where they may be seen 
 in great numbers among the sea. weeds, grazing like a herd of 
 cattle ; occasionally coming to the surface to breathe, and some- 
 times femaining there, basking in the sunshine. They are often 
 caught at sea in calm weather, a harpoon and line being used. 
 The usual length is four or five feet, and the weight from four 
 hundred to eight hundred pounds; but this Turtle has been 
 known to "reach the length of eight feet, and a weight of fif- 
 teen hifhdred pounds." The flesh of the smaller ones is, how- 
 ever, the more highly esteemed. 
 
 The coast of Florida is one of the resorts for the females, 
 which deposit each, every spring, between one hundred and two 
 hundred eggs in the sand, where they hatch in about seven or 
 eight weeks. But scarcely a thirtieth of this number gain the 
 sea, or live a week after reaching it. Birds and beasts of prey 
 thin the number of those hatched ; and crocodiles and rapacious 
 fishes are ready to seize upon such as escape destruction on 
 land and gain the water. 
 
 The Tortoise Shell Turtle, Chelonia imhricata, or Eret- 
 mochelys, (Gr. eretmoi,, an oar; chelus, a tortoise,) imhricata, 
 (Ag.,) has the horny muzzle somewhat lengthened into a sharp 
 point, and the lower jaw'is received into a groove of the upper, 
 so that the food can be cut as well as bruised by it. The shield 
 has twelve pair of scales. They overlap each other, at least 
 one-third of each lying over the one behind it ; hence this spe- 
 cies is named imhricata, (imbricated.) The plates increase only 
 in front. As they enlarge there, "the older parts move back- 
 wards, where they are worn off by external mechanical agencies. 
 This process goes on so fast that in a specimen of two feet in 
 length, no trace of those primary scales which covered the whole 
 shield, during the first year, could be found. This mode of 
 growing and moulting, if we may call it so, is very similar to 
 that in the human nail." (Ag.) The flesh of this Turtle has 
 a disagreeable flavor, probably arising from the nature of its 
 food. The animal is chiefly sought for the plates of the cara- 
 pace, called " Tortoise Shell," and which are much thicker and 
 stronger, as well as more clouded in color than those of any 
 other species. The shell procured from the live Turtle is thought 
 to be the finest. The epidermis, or outer shell, is said to change 
 ev«ry year. The shell is removed from the bone of the cara- 
 
472 CHELONIAJSS. 
 
 pace by presenting its convex surface to a glowing fire. The ap: 
 plication of boilinff water to llie shell when lemoved, so mollifies 
 it that it may be acted on like a soft mass, and by pressure in 
 metallic moulds, made to assume a great variety of forms. A 
 single Turtle yields about ten or twelve pounds of Tortoise 
 Shell. When the stripped animal is set at liberty, the shell 
 grows again ; and hence it sometimes happens that in after 
 years, the stripped Turtle is recaptured, and subjected to a sec- 
 ond ordeal, but the shell in that case obtained is very thin. The 
 Tortoise Shell Turtle never reaches so large a size as the Green 
 or Esculent Turtle. Sometimes it is called the Hawk's-bill Tur. 
 tie. . (See Chart.) It is found in the warmer latitudes of the 
 seas and coasts of this continent, and also in the seas Sf Asia. 
 
 Com. Wilkes, in his " Exploring Expedition," states that the 
 chiefs in the Fejee Islands, keep Tortoise Shell Turtles in pens. 
 Tortoise Shell " sometimes sells in Manilla for from two to three 
 thousand dollars the picul, (one hundred and thirty-three English 
 pounds.") 
 
 The Loggerhead TxjStle, C. caretta, or Thalassochelys!i{GT. 
 Sea-Turtle,) Caotmna, differs from the tortoise shell Turie, in 
 having thirteen pairs of scales, and these not imbricated'. The 
 flesh is not much valued, though wholesome. The Loggerhead 
 Turtle feeds upon fish and mollusks. It yields abundance of 
 oil, for which alone it is sought. This species is numerous in 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 Second Family. SphargicUe, (from Gr. aqoagoj'ea), spharagett, to 
 roar loudly.) 
 
 These Sea-Turtles have the bony structure of the carapace 
 covered with a thick layer of leathery skin, instead of plates or 
 scales ; the form may be compared to a flattened cone, with an. 
 gular sides ; the skeleton is light, and the shield narrow and 
 small, compared with the size of the animal ; in the full grown 
 Turtle, the skin is quite smooth ; but in the young is tubercu- 
 lous. The paddles are without any distinct nails. These Tur. 
 ties are the largest in size and lay a great number of eggs. 
 Only one species is as yet recognized. 
 
 The Leathery Turtle, Sphargia coriacea, (Lat. leathery.) 
 This has jaws of immense strength, the lower one being sharp 
 edged, and turning up at a point which when ti)e jaws are closed 
 is received into a central indentation or notch of the upper jaw. 
 The carapace is heart-shaped and has seven longitudinal ridges 
 at equal distances ffona each other. (See Chart.) The eyei 
 
CHELONIANS. 473 
 
 open almost vertically, which gives to the animal a strange as- 
 pect. This Turtle exceeds all others in size ; the carapace is 
 sometimes fifteen feet in circumference, and nearly seven feet in 
 length. It sometimes weighs more than eighteen hundfed 
 pounds. Agassiz states he has seen those that weighed over a 
 ton. The Leathery Turtle feeds upon marine animals, as well 
 as plants. When aged, it is said to carry on its carapace "a 
 world of parasites." This gigantic species is found in the Med- 
 iterranean, and in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It breeds on 
 the Tortugas or Turtle islands, on the Bahama islands and Keys, 
 and on the coast of Brazil, laying, on an average, about three 
 hundred and fifty eggs, in two sets. A large sized specimen of 
 this species, taken off Sandy Hook in 1816, is now in the Ameri- 
 can Museum, New York city. The Leathery Turtle was known 
 to the ancient Greeks, and of its carapace the first lyre is sup. 
 posed to have been formed ; the seven ridges on the back sug- 
 gesting the adoption of seven strings, which was the ancient 
 number. Hence, it is sometimes called the Lute Tuktle. 
 
 ' CHELONIANS. 
 
 Into what divisions may this Order be arranged ? In what respects do 
 they widely differ from the' general form of the class ? What is the shield 
 of the back called? Of what does this consist? What in the Tortoises 
 represents the sternal or breast ribs of the lizards, &c. ? What is the name 
 of the lower plate of the armor ? What is said of it ? What is the sec- 
 ond, distinction between CHELONIANS and other reptiles? How are they 
 compensated for the want of teeth ? What is said of the armor of the 
 Land Tortoises ? What is pecuUar in that of the genius Pyxis ? In that 
 of the genus Oinixys ? How is it in the aquatic species ? What is said 
 of the organs of sense in Tortoises ? What of their food ? Of their pow- 
 ers of abstinence? Of their growth? Of their age? What does Agassiz 
 say of their eggs? Into how many Scb-Obders does he divide tlie order 
 Chelonia? Name the families included in Amyd^e, or DioiTATEn Tortoises. 
 Also those included in Chelonii or Pinnated, (finned, ) T. What groups 
 besides the Land Tortoises does the Sub-order Amydse include ? Into what 
 two divisions are the strictly Marsh Tortoises sometimes arranged ? Are 
 the sp. of this Sub-order numerous ? What is said of the forms of the 
 Land Tortoises ? What of their distinguishing characteristics ? Of their 
 disposition, habits, &c. ? Name the sp. w'hich are mentioned. Which of 
 these are found in the IT. S. ? What is said of it ? What can you say of 
 the others ? 
 
 Which is the 2ud and most numerous Family ? How does the box or 
 armor of these T. differ from that of the Land T. ? Where are the largest 
 part of them found? How is it with the Cisiudo ? What gen. are promi- 
 nent in this family ? Which is the smallest sp. of Emys ? Which is the 
 largest ? What is said of the Salt Water Terrapin ? Which is the most 
 essentially aquatic? What is said of it? Which gen. includes the Box 
 
 20 
 
474 CHELdNIAItS. 
 
 Tofe*6i6E? What is siiid of the Carolina I'erhapin? Of the Enropeftfl 
 Box T. i 
 
 ■\yhioh is the Srd Family ? Describe them. Of what does Agassiz say 
 they remiiid ua? What is said of their movements, food, &c. ? On what 
 continent are they all found ? What genera represent this family ! Whicfi 
 genus includes the Mud Tortoises? Which the Musk T. ? 
 
 What is the 4th Family? Describe them. What turtle represents this 
 family 1 How does it resemble the Alligator ? What is said of its strensth 
 food, &0.J ^ ' 
 
 What is said of the 6th Family ? How many gen. does it include ? Where 
 are they found? What other reptiles do some or all of these resemble? 
 
 What is the 6th Family ? Name their characteristics. What gen. does 
 it include ? What is the only recognized sp. ? What is said of it ? 
 
 What is the 7th Family? In what respects are these distinguished ? 
 For what element does the structure of these animals fit them? What 
 helps them in swimming ? In what waters are they usually found ? Upon 
 what do they feed? What gen. are mentioned ? What is the type of tli6 
 gea. Platypeltes? What is said of it ? What of the THowya: of the Nile? 
 What is said of the plastron of AspidoneoHs? What sp. of this gen. is 
 mentioned ? 
 
 What is the 2nd Scb-Order ? How does the structure of the Sea Tbk- 
 TLES fit them for aquatic habits? What is said of their motion ? Which 
 limbs do they use in swimtoing 1 What is the chief use of the hind limb? 
 On what do they feed ? Are they ever found on shore ? When do they 
 lay their eggs and what is said of them ? What is 'to theitt a favorite breed- 
 ing place? At what time is the T. Fishery carried on ? How are the Tur- 
 tles secured? How do the Chinese boatmen take them? In what lati- 
 tudes are the Sea T. found? What is the 1st Family? How is it charac- 
 terized? How many well defined gen. on the coast of the XT. S.? What 
 is said of their food, &c. ? Which is the most important of the Sea Tdr- 
 TLE? Why? Where is it very common? How often caught at sea? 
 What is said of the size and weight? What resort for the female is men- 
 tioned? What is said of their eggs? Do their young, when hatched, all 
 reach the sea? How many pair of scales has the Tortoise-shell T. ? Why 
 are they said to be imbricated? At what part do the plates increase? What 
 effect has this upon the older part ? What does this mode of growing and 
 moulting resemble'? For what ig this animal chiefly sought ? Which shells 
 are the best? How is the shell removed from the carapace? How is it 
 made to assume various forms ? Is the shell renewed upon the stripped 
 animal? Where is this T. found? How does the Loggerhead T. dife 
 from tl)e Hawks-bill or Tortoise shell T. ? For what is it sought? 
 
 What is the 2nd Family ? From -what is the family name derived? What 
 Sea T. does it include ? What is said of the jaw, carttpaoe, &c. of the 
 Leathery T. ? What of its size, weight, &c. ? Where is it found? What 
 breeding places are spoken of? Why is it sometimes called the Ldtk T.? 
 
 How are the CheloAidae or Teatudinata usually divided, as given on th« 
 Chart? What it Prof/ Agassi*' int diviiipn gf them as there shown? ' 
 
SAURIANS. 475 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Secokd Ohdee. Saueians. 
 Sauria, (Gr. aaigog, sauros, a lizard.) 
 
 This order contains a numerous assemblage of animals re- 
 markable for tiie differences in their size, whidh Varies from a 
 few inches to thirty feet ; and not less so for dsfferences in re- 
 spect to strength, form and habit. All, however, agree in cer- 
 tain essential characters. Many species, generally of great 
 dimensions, are known only in a fossil state. 
 
 The general contour of the body is lengthened; the skin is 
 protected either by horny plates, by scales of various sizes and 
 figures, or by granulations. The limbs areusually four in num- 
 ber ; the toes armed with claws. The body always terminates 
 in a tail, which is frequently of cpnsiderable length. The eyes 
 are protected by eye-lids, except iti certain instances ; and in 
 most species a tympanic membrane covers the orifice leading to 
 the internal organs of hearing. The ribs, unlike those of the 
 Tortoises, are distinct and movable; and there is a sternum or 
 breast-bone, which is not found in serpents. The jaws are 
 armed with teeth, as in snakes ; but the bones of the jaws are 
 firmly united together, and not separable into distinct parts, as 
 in the latter atlimals. ' 
 
 The eggs of the Saurians have a hard calcareous shell ; the 
 yburig undergo no metamorphoses or changes like those of the 
 newt and frog. 
 
 The tongue, in these animals, differs greatly in its form, and 
 in the degree of freedom which it enjoys. In the Crocodile it 
 is undeveloped and scarcely distinguishable from the general 
 floor of the mouth, between the branches of the lower jaw. la 
 other groups, it is broad, fleshy, and free only at its point ; in 
 the Chameleons, it is fleshy, cylindrical, and capable of being 
 projected to a great distance, and then completely redrawn. In 
 some genera, it is slender and deeply forked, like that of a snake, 
 and whert at rest drawn into a sheath ; while in others, it is flat, 
 very movable, and notched or forked at the tip. It is, in all, lu- 
 bricated with a glutinous saliva, but does not appear to be en- 
 dowed with a high sense of taste. 
 
 In most of the Saurians, the body is so remarkable for its 
 lertgth and cylindrical figure that, as Aristotle has observed, they 
 resemble snakes with the addition of limbs. "Among all the 
 reptiles," says M. BibroDj "these undoubtedly approach nearest 
 
476 SAURIANB. 
 
 to the Mammalia, both in the variety and rapidity of their differ, 
 ent movements, especially if we compare their progression with 
 that of Tortoises. There are, indeed, among the Saurians, spe- 
 cies which enjoy many modes of progression ; for they can creep, 
 walk, run, climb, swim, dive, and even fly. Nevertheless, the 
 elongated and heavy trunk of these Reptiles is not supported by 
 the limhs without eifort ; they walk in general, with constraint 
 and slowly, forthe arms and thighs are short, slender, but slightly 
 muscular, and directed outwardly ; while the elbows and knees 
 are too angular to support with ease the superincumbent weight. 
 Still, however, notwithstanding this conformation, so faulty in ap- 
 pearance, (though not in reality,) they are capable of executing 
 a great variety of movements, all bearing on progression." 
 
 The form of the tail, the length of the body, the structure 
 of the toes, and the shape of the claws determine the character 
 of the movements, and correspond with the general habits of the 
 animal. 
 
 The hotter climates of the globe are the great nurseries of the 
 Saurians. Persons who live in northern latitudes are ordinarily 
 not likely to form any adequate idea of the variety of these crea. 
 tures, which tenant their favorite abodes. 
 
 " In the intertropical latitudes, they obtrude themselves upon 
 notice ; they are in the common pathway, and even haunt the 
 abodes of men ; they swarm among the trees ; they lie motion, 
 less upon the surface of the water, enjoying the hot rays of the 
 sun ; they cover banks and walls or crumbling ruins, and min- 
 gle their sparkling hues with those of the blooming vegetation 
 amidst which they nestle." 
 
 Like the snake tribe, the Saurians moult their skin during the 
 spring or summer, appearing afterwards in bright colors. 
 
 None of the Saurians are poisonous; none have poison fangs, 
 thougb the ancients regarded many as venomous in the extreme. 
 Of these an imaginary animal termed the Basilisk, (Basilicus,) 
 was especially celebrated ; a name which modern naturalists 
 apply to a genus peculiar to South America. 
 
 Though the Lizard race do not possess the medical properties 
 which have been ascribed to them, many of them, as the Igua- 
 nas, hold a high rank as articles of luxury for the table; and 
 the flesh and eggs of the Teguixin or Monitor, a large species 
 found in Brazil and other parts of South America, are esteemed 
 for food. 
 
 The Saurians *re divided into the following families, viz. ! 
 (1) Cfocodilidee, Crocodiles; (2) Chamaeleonida, Chameleons; 
 
SAUKIANS. 477 
 
 (3)' GeckotidcB, Geckos i' (4) Iguanidce, Iguanas ; ■(5) \Yara.mdcB, 
 Varans ; (6) Teida, Teguixins ; (7) Laceriidte, Lizards ; (8) 
 ChalcidcB, Chalcides ; (9) Scincida, ScinUs. 
 
 First Family. Gkocodiles. |<_5 «,„^* 
 CrocodilidtB, (Gr. KQox68ei.htg, krokodeilos, a crocodile.) 
 
 This family includes three genera, closely related to each' 
 other, and agreeing in .the general details of their structure. 
 They are the largest of the Lizards found in America. They 
 are called Alligators in the southern parts of the United States, 
 and Caimans in the Antilles and South America. In Africa and 
 Asia they are called Gavials. Those of America are distin- 
 guished by a broad and rounded snout; those of Africa' by an 
 elongated flat snout, and those of Asia by a pointed one like the 
 beak of a bird. They differ from other reptiles in the tongue, 
 which is thick, flat, and attached so much to the mouth that the 
 ancients believed this member was altogether wanting. "To it, 
 of all animals," wrote Herodotus, "nature has not given a 
 tongue." The power of swimming is shown by the palmated 
 feet, and by the lateral compression of the tail, which thus acts 
 as a large and piJwerful fin ; the tail is no doubt used as a wea- 
 pon of dtefence, being armed with a serrated ridge of strong 
 square scales. The lower jaw is rather longer than the upper, 
 and both are armed with a single row of pointed teeth, tlie num- 
 ber of which does not vary with age, as in other animals. The 
 Crocodiles are all inhabitants of the rivers and fresh waters of 
 warm countries ; but are most abundant in those latitudes which 
 approach nearest to the equinoctial line. Their mode of feed- 
 ing is very peculiar. They do not swallow their prey upon 
 seizing it, nor is it ever eaten while fresh ; but the victim is first 
 drowned, and then conveyed to some hole at the edge of the wa. 
 ter, where it is suffered to putrify before it is devoured. Their 
 food consists principally of fish, crabs, and such other animals as 
 they can catch. They seem to manifest an affinity to the Tor- 
 toises in the coverings of their bodies, being defended, like them, 
 by plates or shields ; with this difference, however, that in the 
 Tortoises the plates are compactly united at the edges, while in 
 Crocodiles they are sufficiently far apart to admit the free mo- 
 tion of all parts of the body and limbs. Owing to a peculiarity 
 in the vertebrae of the neck, which bear upon each other by 
 means of small false ribs, that render motion sidewise somewhat 
 difficult, these creatures can not turn about with much facility, 
 
478 SAUKIANS 
 
 and may be avoided without difficulty, wheij^ on land they at. 
 tempt the pursuit of man. 
 
 The Crocodiles of the Nile were rega,rded as sacred by the 
 ancient Egyptians, and sometimes, when caugljt young, they 
 were so tamed as to follow in the train of their religious proces. 
 sions. In some localities they have been killed of the length of 
 thirty feet, (Swain.) Those of Egypt and Senegal, (ATrica,) 
 are less numerous, but more dangerous than those of this conti- 
 nent. No living species of this family is found in Europe, nor 
 has any yet been detected in Australia, tut remains have lieen 
 discovered which indicate the former existence of this animal jn 
 territory now included in the British dominions. 
 
 AUigaior (Lat. a binder) Champsa,, (Gr. Cropodile, Hesipd.) 
 Alligators. (See fig. on Chart.) 
 
 These have the head broad ; the muzzle wide and rounded \' 
 the teeth of unequal length ; the fourth or canine tooth of the 
 lower jaw, (counting from the fore part of the jaw,) is the longest 
 and is received into a corresponding cavity or pit in the upper 
 jaw, when the mouth is closed, so that it is concealed. The 
 hinder limbs are rounded and destitute of rigid scales; the webs 
 between the toes are short. 
 
 The Alligators pursue fish with much dexterity, driving a 
 shoal of them into a creek, and then getting into the midst of 
 their prey and devouring them at pleasure. They also seize 
 and feed upon dogs, frogs, pigs or ottier animals incautiously ap- 
 proaching too near to their lurking places. The usual method 
 of capturing the Alligator is by baiting a large four.pointedhook 
 and suffering it to float in the river. When the creature has 
 swallowed the hook, he is hauled on shore and killed. Audubon 
 gives an interesting account of the chase of a wounded Ibis by 
 one of these animals. It had almost reached the terrified bird, 
 " when," says he, "by pulling thyee triggers at once, we lodged 
 the contents of our guns in the throat of the monster. Thresh- 
 ing furiously with his tail, and rolling his body in agony, the 
 Alligator at last sunk to the mud ; and the ibis, as if in grati- 
 tude, walked to our very feet, and then lying down, surrendered 
 to us." 
 
 The principal species are the Caiman with bony, eye-li^s, A. 
 palpebrosus, (Lat. from palpebra, an eye-lid,) found in Cayenne 
 and Brazil, also in the Mississippi, as high as the Red River, in 
 Carolina apd Florida, and sometimes twenty feet in length. 
 
 The Pike-Nosed Alligatoe, (see Chart,) A. Zmciuss (Lat. a 
 
 £ike,) found it) the. southern rivers of North America. In 
 louisiaha, the Alligators of this species bury themselves in 
 
SAURUNS. 479 
 
 mud, where they become stiff, without being frozen. So intense 
 is their lethargy, when the cold is severe, that they may be cut 
 deeply without being roused. Their eggs are less in size than 
 those of the Crocodile, being not much larger than a hen's. A 
 peck of them are sometimes taken out of the place of deposit in 
 the sand. 
 
 The Spectacled Caiman, A. sclerops, (Gr. skleros, hard; 
 aps, face.) is a native of Cayenne, Brazil, and Paraguay. It has 
 its English name from a ridge across the forehead, and another 
 before each eye, showing some resemblance to a pair of specta- 
 cles. The eggs are as large as those of a goose ; usually about 
 sixty are deposited. The Indians esteem them as food, and even 
 relish the flesh of the Yacare, as the animal is called in Para- 
 guay. 
 
 Crocodilus. The Crocodile. (See Chart.) 
 
 This genus is distinguished from the preceding by the sudden 
 narrowness of the muzzle behind the nostrils, which produces a 
 large notch for the lodgment of the fourth tooth of the upper jaw, 
 when the mouth is closed. The hinder margin of the leg is orna- 
 mented with a series of ridged scales, and the hind toes, espe- 
 cially the three outermost, are joined by webs to their point. 
 The sublime description of the Leviathan in the book of Job, 
 (chap, xii.,) evidently relates to the Crocodile. The most favor- 
 able season for catching the animal, is the winter, when it usually 
 sleeps in sand banks, enjoying the warmth of the sun ; or else, 
 in tiie spring, while the female is "watching the sand islands, 
 where she has buried her eggs." Sometimes it is harpooned, 
 the coat of mail which protects the animal, being pierced by the 
 weapon. The eggs of this formidable creature are but little 
 larger than those of a goose. Many of them are destroyed 
 yearly by birds of prey and quadrupeds, particularly the Ich- 
 neumon, Herodotus speaks of a bird called Trochilus, (sup, 
 posed by some to be one of the Plovers,) which entered the jaws 
 of this animal unmolested, and picked out, and devoured the 
 hdellas, suckers or gnats. These insects also infest the mouths 
 of the Caimans, of South America. Two species of this genus are 
 found in this hemisphere, viz : the C. rhomhifer, (Lat. rhombus, a 
 rhomb; _/ero, to bear,) found in Ciiba; and the Sharp-nosed 
 Crocodile, C. acuius, (Lat. sharp,) found in St. Domingo and 
 Martinique. The other species all belong to the Eastern Con- 
 tinent. 
 
 The Common Crocodile, C. vulgaris, is found in the Nile, the 
 Senegal, and the Ganges, and along the coast of Malaba^i 
 
480 SAURIANS. 
 
 The Helmeted Crocodile, C. galeatUs, (Lat. helmeted,) is 
 found in Siam. 
 
 The Two-Ridged Crocodile, C. liporcatus, (Lat. Us, twice; 
 porcatus, ridged.) occurs in the Ganges, in the rivers of Pondi. 
 cherry, and in those of Java. 
 
 The Cuirassed Crocodile, C. catapJir actus, (Gr. ktttaphractos, 
 mailed,) is found in the river Galba, near Sierra Leone, (Africa.) 
 
 ' The Gavials. ! 
 
 Gavialis. This genus is at once distinguished by the length 
 and narrowness of the jaws, which are prolonged in a straight 
 beak-like snout, armed with ranges of formidable teeth. Of this 
 genus there is but one known species. 
 
 The Gavial of the Ganges, Gavialis Gangeticus, (see Chart,) 
 one of the scourges of that celebrated river. The dying Hindoo, 
 exposed upon its bank, and the dead body committed to its 
 waters, become, not rarely, the food of this ferocious animal. 
 
 "In the jiving sub-generaof the Crocodilean family," observes 
 Dr. Buckland, ('Bridgewater Treatise,' pp. 20,) "we see the 
 elongated and slender beak of the Gavial of the Ganges, con- 
 structed to feed on fishes; while the shorter and stronger snout 
 of the broad-nosed Alligators, gives them the power of seizing 
 and devouring quadrupeds that come to the banks of rivers in 
 hot countries. As there were scarcely any mammalia during 
 the secondary periods, whilst the waters were abundantly stored 
 with fishes, we might, a priori, expect that if any crocodilean 
 forms had then existed, they would have most nearly resembled 
 the Common Gavial; and we Have hitherto only found those 
 genera which have elongated beaks in formations anterior to, 
 and including the chalk, while True Crocodiles, with a, short and 
 broad snout, like that of the Caiman and the Alligator, appear 
 for the first time in strata of the tertiary periods, in which remain's 
 of the Mammalia abound." 
 
 Fossil Crocodiles. 
 
 These have been found in the Eocene or early tertiary depos- 
 its of England. About seventy fossil member.s of the Crocodile 
 family are known; but not many belong to the United Statesa 
 In their structure, they conform most nearly to the Gavial of the 
 Ganges. 
 
 The genus Sleneosaurus, (Gr. stenos, narrow or straight; 
 sauros, a lizard), affords the nearest link to the living species of 
 the crocodile family. 
 
 The genus Teleosaurus, (Gr. teleios, perfect ; sauros, a lizard,) 
 
SAUBIANS. 481 
 
 resembles the living Saurians in the general contour of the head 
 and jaws, but differs from them widely in the conformation of the 
 muzzle, and the opening of the nose. Many species of the fossil 
 Crocodiles were of enormous size, much larger than the living 
 ones of the present day. 
 
 Sub-Family. Marine Fossil Lizards. 
 
 Enaliosauria, (Gr. evilws, enalios, marine ; aaiqag, sauros, a 
 
 lizard.) 
 
 This group includes some very extraordinary fossil Saurians. 
 Little else than the bones have ^heen preserved, and from these 
 alone the structure and habits are inferred. It is hence impos- 
 sible to speak with certainty in regard to many parts of the living 
 organization ; while yet it is made quite clear, that in tiiese ex- 
 tinct and gigantic reptiles, the extremities were flattened into 
 fin-like flippers, connecting them with the Chelonia, and, to- 
 gether with other peculiarities of their structure, pointing out the 
 animals as exclusively aquatic. The Enaliosaurians "inhabited 
 the seas of Europe during the Trias and Jura formations." We 
 are not aware that any species have as yet been discovered in 
 North America. ' The two genera, are, 
 
 1st, Ichlliyosaurus, (Gr. ickihus, a fish; sauros, a lizard.) 
 (See Chart'.) This reptile is, according to Prof. Owen, a singu- 
 lar compound, in which the characters of the 'fish, the cetacea, 
 and the bird are engrafted upon an essentially Saurine type of 
 structure. Dr. Buckiand, in his "Bridgewater Treatise," says 
 of it, " It presents combinations of form and' mechanical con- 
 trivances, which are now dispersed through various classes and 
 orders of existing animals, but are no longer united in the same 
 genus. Thus, in the same individual, the snout of a Porpoise 
 is combined with the teeth of a Crocodile; the head of a Lizard 
 with the vertebrse of a Fish ; and the' sternum of the Ornu 
 thorhyncus with the paddles of a Whale." The general outline 
 of an Ichthyosaurus "must have most nearly resembled the 
 modern Porpoise or Grampus, It had four broad feet or paddles; 
 and terminated behind inalotigand powerful tail." The/Struct- 
 ure of the skeleton is like that of a Saurian; but the vertebral 
 column consists of more than a hundred vertebree, each of which 
 is hollow, and fashioned like those of fishes. The form of the 
 sternal arch and the broad surfaces of the clavicles are adapted 
 to give great strength to the chest, and enable the animal to 
 breast the most disturbed waters. Dr. Buckiand remarks, that 
 " the bones composing the arch are combined nearly in the same 
 
4Q3 SAUHUNS. 
 
 manner as the Ornithorhyncus, of Australia, which seeks its feod 
 at the bottom of lakes and rivers, and is obliged, like the Ichthy. 
 osaurus, to be continually rising to the surface to breathe air." 
 To this sternal arch the front paddles are articulated; they are 
 nearly one.half larger than the posterior paddles, and in thispaitt 
 of the structure the cetaceous type appears to have been flattened. 
 The bones of the head, the length of the muzzle, and the teeth, 
 sometimes antlounting to one hundred and eighty in number, pre. 
 sent analogies to those of the Crocodile. The eyes, however, 
 were extremely large, much larger than those of the latter ani- 
 mal, and we can easily imagine, glared ferociously as the mon- 
 ster darted towards, its prey. Six different species have been 
 enumerated. The commonest species, I. ienuirostr.es, (Lat. thin. 
 beaked,) reaches the length of fourteen feet.; The species J. 
 platyodon, (Gr. platus, broador large, and odpus, tooth,) haa 
 been seen in speciniens thirty feet long. The teeth are some, 
 times two and a half inches in length ; and the drbit (of the eye) 
 one foot in diameter. The verlebrse are one hundred and twenty 
 in number. There is no evidence whatever that one species has 
 succeeded, or been the result of the transmutation of a former 
 species. 
 
 It should be added, that the iir^t remains of the Ichthyosaurus 
 were collected by a lady, — Miss Anning, — from the .cliffs of 
 Lyme Regis, Bng. The Ichthyosaurians are abundant through- 
 out the Lias and Oolitic formations, 
 
 Plesiosaurus, (Gr. plesios, next; sauros, a lizard.) This 
 genus was first described by Conybeare, in 1831. Its most 
 remarkable character pertains to the vertebras of the neck, 
 which are from twenty to forty in number, (see Chart ;)i— more 
 than in any other known animal. Conybeare conjectures, that 
 as this creature breathed air, and had frequent need of respira- 
 tion, it usually swam upon or near the surface of the water, 
 arching back its long neck like the Swan, and plunging down- 
 wards at the fishes coming within its reach. Cuvier asserts,— 
 " To the head of a, Lizard, the Plesiosaurus united the tail of 
 a Crocodile; a neck of enormous length, resembling the body of 
 a Serpent ; a trunk and tail having the proportions of an ordinary 
 quadruped ; the ribs of a Chameleon, and the paddles of a 
 Whale." The greater length of its extremities would seem to' 
 indicate that movement on land was probably less difficult for 
 this creature than for the Ichthyosaurus. It was, probably, in 
 general, about ten feet long; though some species of this genos 
 and the preceding one, must have exceeded twenty feet in length. 
 
SAUSUNS. 483 
 
 Prof. Owen enumerates no less than sixteen species of this extinct 
 and most anomalous animal, 
 
 Plerodactylus, (Gr. pteron, wing ; daktulos, a finger or toe,) The 
 Ptehodactyle, (see Chart,) The researches of geology have 
 broiight to light this Flying ( fossil ) Lizard, which received its name 
 from Cuvier. The construction of the skeleton fully proves that it 
 was capable of flying, or of skimming from one spot to another. 
 The wings were, probably, much like those found in the Bat. 
 The neck was very long and bird-like ; the head la,rge ; the jaws 
 armed with pointed teeth ; and the tail very shorU't Six or seven 
 species of this genus have been distinguished,; one is almost the 
 size of a Thrush ; one of a Common Bat ; and another consider, 
 ably larger than the first. To these extinct reptiles, the little 
 Dragons, {Draco) have but a distant resemblance. The food of 
 the smaller species consisted of insects, the larger preying upon 
 the fishes, or the marsupials of their day. T|iese very singular 
 animals have only, within a comparatively short period, been 
 admitted" to a place among the Reptiles. 
 
 Jguanodon, {Iguana, and odous, a tooth.) This name has 
 been given to the fossil remains of an extinct aniijial related to 
 the Iguana ; but which attained a far more enormous bulk. 
 The bones were discovered by Dr. Mantell in the strata of 
 Tilgate forest, Eng. The teeth are so much like those of the 
 Iguana, as to show beyond question, its relation to this gigantic 
 Saurian, which could not have been less than seventy feet in 
 length. The teeth of the Iguanodon disclose some peculiar me- 
 chanical contrivances, fitting them for cropping tough vegetable 
 food, such as that furnished by the plants found imbedded with it. 
 
 SAUKIANS. 
 
 What is the Second Order of Reptiles ? Give the general characteris- 
 tics of this order. What did Aristotle observe respecting the Sahrians? 
 In what respects do they come nearer the Mammalia than other reptiles? 
 In what climates are they most numerous ? At what season do they moult 
 their skin? Are medicinal properties justly ascribed to them? Into how 
 many families are they divided? What is the First Family? How many 
 genera does this family include ? How do they compare in size with the 
 rest of the Lizards? Where are they called Alligators ? Where Cai- 
 mans? Where Gatials? How are these Bevferally distinguished? In 
 what particulars do they differ from other reptiles? What evinces their 
 power of swimming? How are the jaws armed? Where are Crocodiles 
 most abundant? What is peculiar in their mode of feeding? How are 
 they related to the Tortoises? How did the ancient Egyptians regard 
 them? Is any species found in Europe or Australia ? What characters of 
 the Alhsator are given? What is said of its pursuit of fishes? How is 
 it captured? What incident is related by Audubon ? Mention the princi- 
 pal species. How does the gen. CrocodUut differ from the gen. Alligat^f 
 
484 SAtJBUNS. 
 
 Mention the species found in this Hemisphere. Also the othe* species' and 
 their localities. How is the gen. Gavialis at once distinguisfaed ? What 
 is said of the Gavial of the Ganges? What is the remark of Br. Buckland? 
 What is said of Fossil Crocodiles ? From what is the name Enaliosauria 
 derived ? ^ Upon what is this group of marine Fossil Lizards founded ? What 
 two genera does it include ? What does Prof. Owen say of the Ichthyosau- 
 rus? What does Dr. Buckland say respecting it? What further is said 
 of it? How many species hare been enumerated? Who first described 
 the gen. Plesiosaurus? What is its most remarkable character? What was 
 the conjecture of Conybeare ? What else is said of this gen. ? How many 
 species have been enumerated? What is Said of the Pterodactyle ? 
 What of the Iguauodon? Of the Chameleon? Illustrate this order from 
 the Chart, tracing the gen. and families as there given. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Second Family. Chameleons. 
 
 ChamcBleonidcB, (Gr. x'^/iaMav, chamaileon, a Chameleon, 
 Chameleon-kind.) 
 
 These are a group of singular reptiles, not immediately rela. 
 ted to any other family, but perhaps succeeding the Crocodiles 
 as fitly as it would any other reptiles. It contains but a single 
 genus, Chamcekon; the first peculiarity whereof consists in the 
 absence of scales, — instead of which, the surface of the skin is 
 covered with horny granulations of unequal size, but of sym- 
 metrical distribution; (2) the body is of a deep, compressed 
 form, surmounted on the back by a sharp ridge ; (3) the Parrot, 
 like structure of the feet, (Plate XII. fig. 6,) longer in proportion 
 than those of any other Saurian, having each five toes, divided 
 into two opposing sets, one including two, and the other three, 
 armed with five sharp claws, and connected together as far as 
 the claw's by the skin. 
 
 The internal organ of hearing is entirely hidden ; the head is 
 very large, and seems to be set upon the shoulders; the upper 
 part usually showing an elevated crest or casque ; and a ridged 
 arch is over each of the large orbits to the muzzle. The mouth 
 is very wide ; the teeth are sharp, small, and three lobed. The 
 eyes, though in themselves small, appear extremely minute ; the 
 whole of the ball, except the pupil, being covered with skin, 
 forming a single circular eye-lid with a central dilatable aperture, 
 The furrow between the ball of the eye and the edge of the 
 orbit is very deep; and the eye-lid closely attached to the ball, 
 moves with it. Each eye has the power of motion independent 
 of its fellow 1 — 80 that we may see the axis of one directed up- 
 
 lMiha£ 
 
8AUEIANS. 4Sl 
 
 wards or backwards, while that of the other is in a contrary 
 direction, giving a strange and most ludicrous aspect to the ani- 
 mal, in unison with its general contour and slow movements. 
 In consequence of this independent motion of the eyes the animal 
 when agitated, appears, in its movements, as if it were joined to 
 another, with which it has no unity of .purpose or action. For 
 this reason, the Chameleon never goes into the water. He ■ can- 
 not swim ; when in the water his power of concentration is lost; 
 and he tumbles about as if in a state of intoxication. Moreover, 
 he may be asleep on one side, and av/ake on the other! 
 
 As Cuvier observes, the only part of the Chameleon which 
 moves with quickness, is its tongue. This organ is cylindrical 
 and worm-like in shape, capable of being greatly elongated ; it 
 terminates in a fleshy tubercle, and is lubricated with a viscous 
 saliva. When not in use, it can be withdrawn into the mouth, 
 but is thrust forth with noiseless and arrow-like rapidity after in- 
 sects, slugs, and the like, which come within its reach. On these 
 the animal lives, and not "on air," as many of the ancients sup- 
 posed. The gummy secretion at the tip of the tongue enables it 
 to secure its food readily. When fully protruded, the tongue 
 reaches to a distance equal to the .length of the animal's body. 
 "An insect on a leaf at an apparently hopeless distance, or a 
 drop of water on a twig, disappear as if by enchantment, before 
 the Chameleon," so marvelously rapid is the movement of its 
 tongue ; and here, doubtless, is the origin of the old idea relating 
 to the airiness of its food. The structure of the grasping power 
 of the tail in these animals can hardly fail to remind the beholder 
 of the Spider Monkeys, and distinctly points to their arboreal 
 habits ; when they descend to the ground, their actions there 
 appear strange and awkward. The females of. this group dig a 
 hole in the ground for the reception of their eggs, which they 
 cover with earth and dry leaves. 
 
 In captivity, the Chameleons have little in their habits or 
 manners that is phasing or attractive. Like all the Lizard 
 tribe, they are capable of enduring long-continued abstinence from 
 food, and apparently without injury. 
 
 Fifteen species, mostly African, are described as belonging to_ 
 the genus Charmdegn, 
 
 The Common Chameleon, C. vulgaris, is found in the south 
 of Europe, as well as in. Africa. This species, the emblem of 
 hypocrisy and inconstancy, is the one so vyell known to the an- 
 cients, and respecting which so much has been said relative to 
 its power of changing its form, and taking the polor of near ob- 
 jects, and which was believed " to live on air." 
 
486 SAVBUNS. 
 
 The FoKKED-NosED Chameleon, G. JjjIMim, (I^at. divided 
 into two pai'ts,) is a very singular species, found in the Moluccas, 
 India and Australia, having the top of the head flat, and tiie 
 snout prolonged into two distinct branshes. 
 
 The Warty Chameleon, C. verrucosus, (Lsat. warty,) is one 
 of the largest species, averaging twenty inches in its total length. 
 It is a native of Madagascar. 
 
 Third Family. Geckolida. The Geckos. 
 
 The Geckos are a numerous family, divided by Cuvier into 
 seven sections, according to the structure of the toes, but bear, 
 ing a strong resemblance to each other in their general charac- 
 ters, and are distinguished for their nocturnal habits. Their 
 flattened form and broad head give them a peculiarly disagree- 
 able appearance, which is increased by their sombre and rather 
 toad-llke hue : whence they have been subjected to the unfounded 
 imputation of being venomous creatures, producing, by their 
 touch, rnalignant disorders of the skin. Their limbs are short 
 and the toes, which are nearly of equal size, are flattened and 
 expanded on their under surface, either throughout the whole or 
 a greater part of their length ; the dilated parts, or the disks, are 
 often marked with regular but minute plates, so ranged as to pro. 
 duce a striated surface, and acting as suckers. The nails are 
 sharp, hooked, and retractile, like those of a cat, so that their 
 points may not become worn or blunted. The tongue is fleshy 
 and broad, but short and capable of little protrusion, and notched 
 at the tip, which alone is fi-ee. The eyes are large and full, 
 with extremely small eye-lids, which, as in the Chameleon, form 
 only a single membrane, leaving, however, a large aperture, and 
 exposing the nictitating membrane. The pupil, as in the cat 
 and other nocturnal animals, is linear when undilated, and con- 
 tracts under the influence of light. 
 
 The orifices of the ears are placed on the sides of the head, 
 the tympanum being considerably below the surface. The 
 mouth is extremely wide ; the teeth are small, uniform, and im- 
 planted along the inner margin of the jaws; the nostrils are 
 placed laterally. 
 
 The skin is more or less covered with granulations or horny 
 tubercles ; and in some species, it is extended along the sides 
 and limbs into a kind of marginal fringe. 
 
 The voice of these reptiles is a sort of clucking cry, of which 
 the term Gecko, uttered in a shrill tone, is an imitation. 
 
 Their food consists of insects and caterpillars, which they 
 
SAHmiATStS. iWf. 
 
 , ' . 
 
 often obtain by waiting in ambush for them,, or by pursuing them 
 into the holes and crevices to whioh"they retreat for refuge. The 
 imbricated suckers of the feet permit these reptiles to traverse 
 ceilings, andsuspisnd themselves on the under side of a leaf, 
 while watching the movements of their prey. 
 
 Their sharp, hooked-like claws enable them to climb the bark 
 of trees with perfect facility ; to penetrate ^he cavities and cleftg 
 of rocks, and to ascend walls for the purpose of finding chinks 
 or hollows in which they conceal themselves during the day, rest- 
 ing motionless, and affixed by the feet, with the back downwards. 
 
 We must not fail to notice the singular power which, the 
 Geckos have of reproducing the tail when it is lost by accident. 
 Indeed, the tail appears to be brittle ; and when broken off, it is 
 soon replaced; but a swelling at the base of the reproduced 
 member, marks its line of union. 
 
 These reptiles, (though persecuted, seem partial to the habita- 
 tions of men ; attracted thither by the flies which swarm in the 
 regions of their abode. It is useless to try to seize them. Their 
 power of adhesion is instantly overcome in the case of danger; 
 in their quick escape, not the slightest noise or rustle is heard, so 
 that they vanish as if by magic. Mrs. Mason, of the Baptist 
 mission in Burmah, says: "The first reptile that attracts the 
 attention of new comers, is the Gecko, or House Lizard. They 
 are every where ; under the sides of tables and chairs ; in the 
 closets and book-cases, and among the food and clothing. They 
 sometimes tumble from the roof upon the tables, but they usually 
 come striiggling with a centipede, or some other vermin in their 
 mouths." So far from having any wish to destroy them, Mrs. 
 Mason says thair services were invaluable, the best •' help " she 
 had. " This harmless little creature," she continues, " is repre- 
 sented by English, French, and German authorities, as ' a species 
 of poisonous lizard ; ' yet I have had them rest on the back of 
 my hand, and hang suspended from my fingers, without the 
 slightest disagreeable effect being produced." This is the ani- 
 mll mentioned in Prov. xxx., 28, correctly rendered by Jerome, 
 
 " The Gecko taketh hold with her hands, 
 And dwelleth in liings' palaces." 
 
 The Geckos are arranged, by some naturalists into seven ge- 
 nera, based upon the distinctive form of the toes and including 
 about sixty species. They are foujid in Asia, Africa, America 
 and Australia. 
 
 The Common Gecko, G. verus, (Lat. true,) was noticed by 
 
488 SAURtANS. 
 
 Pliny and others of the ancients, under the name of Stellio, (Lat. 
 a newt, or an animal having star-liice spots upon its back.) 
 
 The Banded Gecko, Diplodactylus, (Gr. dipldos, double; 
 dactulos, finger,) vittalus, (Lat. banded or filleted,) is a singu. 
 lar species, found in Australia. 
 
 The Leaf-Tailed Gecko, Phyllurus (Gr. phullon, & leaf; 
 oura, tail,) platurus, (Gr. plains, broad ; oura, tail,) is a curious 
 New Holland species, first described by Dr. Shaw, having' a 
 tail which is flattened horizontally in the shape of a leaf. 
 
 The Wall Gecko, Platydactylus, (Gr. broad-fingered,) mura. 
 lis, (Lat. of a wall,) is a species common in southern . Europe, 
 where it attracts attention by its power of ascending smooth pef. 
 pendicular walls. It is this species which is called by the Ital- 
 ians, Tarantola, or Tarantula. 
 
 The Leaf-Fingered Gecko, Phyllodactyla.{Gir. leaf-fingered,) 
 tuherculosus, (Lat. pimpled or tuberculated,) is found in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 The Smooth Gecko, G. Itzvis, (Lat. smooth.) or PlatydaUuIvs 
 tkeconyx, (Gr. theke, a hag or sheath ; onux, a nail,) is a native of 
 South America and the Caritbee Islands. Specimens of this spe- 
 cies, in which the tail has been broken off and replaced by another 
 of imperfect growth, are seen in cabinets. 
 
 FouHTH Family. Iguanidce. The Iguanas, or Thick-tongued 
 Lizards. 
 
 These form a very numerous group erf reptiles, of which the 
 genus Iguana, (aboriginal name,) may be considered the type. 
 The whole have been comprised, (see Chart.) in forty-six genera 
 and one hundred and fifty species. Further discoveries, together 
 with modifications of former classifications, have increased the 
 number of genera to over fifty. Of the entire number of spe- 
 cies belonging to this family, about one hundred are natives of 
 America. North America possesses a considerable number^ but 
 not more than three splecies are found within the limits of the 
 United States. 
 
 In all the genera of tl^e Iguanas, the body is covered with 
 horny plates or scales, oflen keeled, spinous or tuberculated, but 
 never investing bony centres or rings. Nearly all have a horny 
 ridge or crest along the middle of the back and tail. The teeth 
 vary in their inode of attachment, but are never rooted or fixed 
 in sockets. The tongue is of moderate size and free at the ex- 
 tremity only ; it is thick, fleshy and spongy or velvety on its sur- 
 
SAURIANS. 489- 
 
 face, never cylindrical, nor playing in a sheath. The eyes are 
 protected with movable eyelids. The fingers are free, distinct, 
 and all furnished with claws. The auditory orifice is usually 
 visible, and often surrounded with pointed scales. 
 
 The senses of sight and hearing in the Iguanas, appear to be 
 well developed ; taste they seem to have in a fair degree, but 
 not smell ; the touch is moderate. 
 
 MM. Dumeril and Bibron divide these reptiles into two sub- 
 families; (1) the Pleurodonta, (Gr. pleuron, side; odous, tooth,) 
 having the teeth palatine, or in a sort of furrow running alons; 
 the jaw bones and to which they adhere simply by their inner 
 surface. All the genera are American, witii the exception of 
 one genus, Brachylophus, (Gr. brachus, short; lophos, crest,) 
 found in India. 
 
 (2) The Acrodonia, (Gr. aferos, the highest part or snmmit; 
 odous, tooth,) having the teeth soldered to the ridge or upper 
 edge of the jaws, of which they appear to be a continuation, and 
 from which they rise. Our space allows us to notice but a few 
 of the genera and species. 
 
 I. Iguana, distinguished by having a long flap or fold of skin 
 under the throat, on the part nearest the chin, somewhat like a 
 dewlap, and by having two series of palatine teeth, a long com- 
 pressed tail, and a dentated crest along the back. 
 
 The animals of this genus are arboreal in their habits, but 
 often, however, visit the ground, and occasionally take to the wa- 
 ter, in which they swim with ease and rapidity. They are easily 
 tamed, though they retain a degree of fierceness, and will often 
 attempt to bite. The female visits the sea shore, or the borders 
 of rivers, in order to deposit her eggs in the sand. 
 
 The incessant destruction of these creatures for the sake of 
 their flesh, has rendered them exceedingly scarce in localities 
 where they were once abundant. Their eggs are much es- 
 teemed. When attacked, they seldom attempt to escape, but 
 gaze at their assailants, inflating their throats prodigiously, and 
 assuming as formidable an air as possible, They show them- 
 selves to be Very tenacious of life, and are generally killed by 
 plunging a sharp instrument into the brain. A well known spe- 
 cies inhabiting South America and the West India Islands, is 
 the Iguana tuberculala, (Lat. having tubercles.) often reaching 
 five feet in length, and sometimes measuring even six; the sides 
 of the neck are covered with tubercles, wiience the specific name. 
 The general color of this species is green, more or less tinged 
 with olive ; or yellowish, marbled with a brighter tint ; the tail 
 is ringed with dusky black. It is fierce in its aspect and dispo- 
 sition. On account of the excellence of its flesh, the animal 
 
490 SAURIANS. 
 
 has also the specific name sapidissima, (Lat. most savory ;) it 
 does not, however, suit " some constitutions." 
 
 II. Anolius, or Anolis. This genus is distinguished by an ex- 
 pansion of the skin on the last joint but one, (or the penultimate 
 joint,) of the toes ; by the possession of two rows of palatine 
 teeth ; by the absence of pores from the thighs. In some species, 
 both the back and tail are without a ridge or crest ; in others, a 
 crest consisting of minute scales runs along the middle line of 
 the back, and sometimes along the tail. 
 
 Like the Chameleons, the animals of this genus have the 
 power of changing their color. They are smaller in ?ize, thp 
 largest being not more than a foot in length ; climb the branches 
 of trees with great facility ; and even rest upon the leaves, 
 secured by the disks with which their toes are provided. The 
 males are said to make a barking noise like that of a small dog, 
 and to curl the tail over the back while running. In these ani- 
 mals, as well as those of the preceding genus, the middle parts 
 of the body and the tail are more slender and fragile than the other 
 portions, so that they often suffer a break, followed, however, by 
 a reproduction and consequent deformity. One species is found 
 in the United States, viz. : the Cakolina Anolis, A. Carolinen- 
 sis. It is very abundant in the southern sections of the Union, 
 •where it is known as the Green Lizard or Chameleon. This is 
 a veiy beautiful animal, of a light golden green above and green- 
 ish white beneath ; the throat pouch, when inflated with air, is 
 of a vermilion color. It keeps about gardens, and often, in search 
 of flies, enters the windows of houses, and can even walk upon 
 glass by means of the disks of the toes. 
 
 The Great Crested Anolis, A, velifer, (Lat. sail-bearing,) 
 is one of the species which have upon the back a sail-like crest. 
 
 III. Basilicus, (Gr. basiUkos, a kinglet.) This genus-varies 
 from the Jgiuma, in the absence of femoral pores, and in having 
 a more contracted dewlap. A triangular fold of thin skin, sus- 
 tained by a cartilage, and rising vertically from the middle lon- 
 gitudinal line of the back of the head, gives a singular aspect to 
 the animals of this genus, which appear as if crowned with a 
 raised hood or pointed cap. An elevated, serrated ridge or crest 
 of scales passes along the middle of the back and tail, in the 
 males of one or two of the species, supported by bony appenda. 
 ges, and presenting ther appearance of a continuous fln. 
 
 The MiTBED Basilisk, B. mitratus, (Lat. mitred,) found in 
 Mexico and regions further south, receives its name from the 
 conspicuous pointed hood or crest on the occiput or hind, part of 
 the head. It should be noted that the Basilisk of modern natu- 
 
SAUBLUIS. 49} 
 
 ralists, is not to be confounded with the Malignant Basilisk, or 
 serpent of the African deserts, pictured by tlie fancy of poets, 
 whose very glance the ancients believed to be fatal to all who 
 dame within its influence. The true Basilisk or Cackatrice is, 
 notwithstanding its formidable appearance, a perfectly harmless 
 reptile, possessing great activity and seeking it» insect food among 
 the trees. 
 
 IV. 'Aniblyrhyncus, (Gr. amhlus, blunt ; rhunchos, a beak or 
 muzzle,) is an anomalous genus found in the volcanic Galapa- 
 gos islands, so noted for their peculiar forms. The head is 
 short and has a blunt muzzle; the scales of the body are not 
 tuberculated ; the skin of the throat is dilatable, but not formed 
 into a dewlap ; a high crest appears upon the hack and tail. 
 Two species are found in the Galapagos islands, one terrestrial 
 and burrowing under ground, A. suhcHstalua, (Lat. somewhat 
 crested ;) the other marine, A. cristatus, (Lat. crested,) living 
 exclusively on the rock-bound sea, feeding on sea- weed, and sel- 
 dom found at much distance from the shore. ''It is of a dirty 
 black color ; stupid and sluggish in its movements. The limbs 
 and strong claws are admirably adapted for crawling over the 
 rugged and fissured masses of lava which every where form the 
 coast ; on the black rocks, six or seven of these hideous reptiles 
 may oftentimes be seen basking in the sun." (Darwin's "Voy- 
 ages of the Adventure and the Beagle.") 
 
 V. Tropidolepis, (Gr. tropis, a keel ; lepis^ a scale,) is a ge- 
 nus confined to North America, and embracing ten species, The 
 Lizards which it includes have rough carinated (keel-i'ike) scales 
 on the back and sides, while those of the other parts are imbri- 
 cated. The body is depressed and oblong in shape ; the head 
 short, depressed and rounded in front ; the neck contracted and 
 smooth beneath ; the thighs have a series of distinct peres, but 
 there is no crest either on the back or tail. 
 
 The Brown Swift, T. undulatus, (Lat. varied with waves,) is 
 found within the Atlantic states as far'north as New York, and 
 also in the Western States. It is often seen running along fences 
 or among trees, particularly in hilly or sandy districts, abounding 
 in pine trees, among which it seeks its insect food ; and hence 
 is called the Pine or Fence Lizard. This little creature, from 
 five to eight inches long, is venomous in its/ aspect, but really 
 harmless. Like the Chameleon, it changes its color. It is 
 very active, and therefore called Swift. 
 
 VI. Phrynosoma, (Gr, phrunos, a toad ; soma, body.) (Hoi- 
 brook,) 
 
 The genus Agatna formerly included both Tropidolepis and 
 
492 SAUBIABS. 
 
 Phrynosoma, but as now restricted, it contains no American spe- 
 cies. The genus Phrynosoma is closely allied, to the preceding. 
 It includes several species inhabiting Texas, Mexico and Califbr. 
 nia. The short, squat, nearly orbicular bodyj the feeble limbs, 
 the long spines fringing" the hind part of the head, and the 
 shorter ones scattered along the back, give the animal quite a 
 singular appearance. The species which are most numerous 
 are P. cornuta, (Lat. homed,) or spinosa, (Lat. spiny ;) P. or- 
 biculare, (Lat, orbicular.) They are named Tapayaxan, or Horned, 
 Frog, from their fancied resemblance to the latter animal. These 
 species feed Upon insects, which they take by stealing upon 
 them imperceptibly: ihey have the strange habit of ieigaiDg 
 death when handled or even approached, 
 
 '' Second Sub-Family, Acrodonta, without palatine teeth, and 
 the greater part without any external auditoiy orifice. All the. 
 species are found in the old worJd. We barely notice some of 
 the ihore prominent genera. 
 
 I. Draco, (a dragon,) including eight or nine species found in 
 India, Java, Sumatra, etc. 
 
 These Lizards are of small .lize, and at once distinguished 
 from all other Saurians, by the possession of a pair of parachute 
 appendages, formed by the horizontal extension of the wings of 
 the sides, and resembling those of a butterfly. They are the 
 only living representatives of the fabulous dragons of olden time, 
 celebrated in romance and fable. The " wings" can be folded up 
 or expanded at will, but they can not be made to strike the air, 
 and raise the animal after the manner of a bird or bat ; they, 
 however assist this little dragon, only a few inches in length, in 
 fluttering from branch to branch in search of insects, or when, 
 like the Pteromys, or Flying Squirrel, it shoots from tree to tree. 
 One of the most common species is the D. Daudini, of Bibron, 
 or D. volans, (Lat. flying,) of Gmelin, found in Java. 
 
 II. Stellio, (Lat. a newt or stellion,) is a genus characterized 
 chiefly by having the tail encircled with rings oA large scales 
 that are often spinous. It furnishes the only European repre- 
 sentative of the present family, viz. : S. vulgaris, the Common 
 Stellion. 
 
 III. Grrammatoplwra, (Gr. Grammata, letters ; plioreo, I carry,) 
 so called from a fancied resemblance of the tubercles of the 
 neck to letters. The back' is without a crest, but' has cross-rows 
 of large scales. Some have a fold across the throat. One spe- 
 cies is the G. muricata, the Murioated Lizard. 
 
SAtTKIANS. 493 
 
 Fifth Family. VARANiDiE. Varans. 
 
 The Varans are worthy of particular attention on account of 
 the light which they shed upon the organization of certain fossil 
 Saurians, They are also interesting on account of the size of 
 some of the species, which is inferior only to that of Crocodiles. 
 
 These reptiles are covered with non-imbricated tubercles; i. e., 
 they do not overlay each other, like tiles on a roof. These are 
 set in the skin, rounded (except on the under part of the body, 
 where they are angular in shape,) and arranged in circular 
 bands or rings. The body is elongated, rounded, and without 
 dorsal crests ; the toes are distinct,, very long, and armed with 
 strong claws. The tail is more or less compressed, and at least 
 twice as long as thg body ;, the tongue is fleshy and very extensi- 
 ble, being, when fully protruded, twice as long as the head ; it 
 is of a slender figure, and deeply forked at' the tip, like the 
 tongue of a snake. 
 
 The Varans are divided into two distinct groups, viz : (1) the 
 eminently Terrestrial group, which have the tail nearly conical in 
 shape, and which dwell far from the water, in desert and. sandy 
 places ; (2) the Aquatic group, consisting of those which inhabit 
 the banks of rivers and lakes. In this latter group, the tail is 
 compressed laterally, and surmounted by a ridge, formed by two 
 series of flattened scajes. In these the tail is an important organ 
 of progression in the water; they lash it rapidly and powerfully 
 from side to side, and thus propel themselves along with great 
 celerity, cleaving the water like an arrow. The body, in con- 
 sequence of the air with which the lungs are filled; floats on the 
 surface, and is directed by this powerful organ, at once a rudder 
 and an oar. 
 
 The motions of these animals on land, are quick and active. 
 It is not certain that any of them are arborejil, or able to climb 
 trees, but they can scramble up rocks an'd craggy precipices. 
 They run with facility; but owing to the length of the tail and 
 manner in which they work it from side to side, pressing, at the 
 same time, against the ground, their movements are sinuous, like 
 those of a serpent; and they can spring upon their prey. 
 
 The pupil of the eye is circular, and yet many are said to be 
 nocturnal in their habits; others, however, are undoubtedly 
 diurnal. 
 
 The food of the Varans consists of the larger kinds of insects, 
 such as locusts, crickets, and beetles, — of birds, eggs, and small 
 mammalia. It is said, "they unite themselves in packs on the 
 
494 SAxmiAKS. 
 
 borders'of lakes and rivers, to attack quadrupeds which un^us. 
 pectingly approach to quench their thirst." M. Diimeril quotes 
 Latour as saying that he had "seen them hunt down a young 
 deer which was crossing a river, and succeed in drowning him ;" 
 and, on one occasion, had "found a bone of the thigh' of a sheep 
 in the stomach of one of these animals which he dissected." ' 
 
 No evidence exists that they ever attempt to injure man unless 
 previously molested by him. 
 
 Such are the animals which, in certain parts of their organ- 
 ization, bear the closest resemblance to the extinct Saurians. If 
 the habits attributed to these Varans bear any relation to those 
 of the Saurians now swept from the earth, then "we might have 
 in those annihilated giants, no bad reptesenlativfes of the dragons 
 of our wildest legends." 
 
 The species of this family are not numerous, though widely 
 distributed. But one belongs to the North Amel'ica, viz : the 
 Mexican Heloderma, Heloderma horrida, one of the Aquatic 
 Varans. In Mexico, the belief is general, but erroneous, that the 
 bite of this species is fatal. Others are found in Asia', Africa, 
 and Ooeanica. Only two species of Terrestrial Varans are 
 known ; one is peculiar ^ the island of Timor, (F. Timoriensis ;) 
 the other is 
 
 The Desert Vaean of Egypt, V. arenarius, the Ouaran.el. 
 hard of the Arabs, — about three feet in its total length. It is 
 less active than the aquatic species, and especially than that in- 
 habiting the Nile. 
 
 The Varan of the Nile, V.Niloticus or Monitor NiloUcus, 
 Nilotic monitor, is a noted aquatic species, attaining the length 
 of five or six feet, and common in the Nile. It was held in 
 great veneration by the ancient Egyptians, probably, saysCuvier, 
 because it destroyed the eggs of the Crocodile, of the approach of 
 which it is said to warn persons by a hissing noise, and hence 
 was called monitor. There are several conspicuous fossil Sau- 
 rians, some of which seem to be allied to the Varans, and which 
 are represented in the Cretaceous "(Lat. creta, chalk) system of 
 the United States, 
 
 (1) The Geosaurus, (Gf. ge, the earth, sauros, a saurian.) 
 This name was given to this fossil by Cuvier, not in reference to 
 its habits as a living animal, as it was no doubt aquatic, but in 
 "allusion to the earth, — the Ge (rij) of the Greeks, as the fabled 
 mother of the Giants." Remains of this animal were first ob- 
 tained from the white lias, at Manheim, Franconia. According 
 to DeKay, remains have also been found in the marl of the green 
 sand in New Jersey, and named G. MtchelU, after the Tate Dr. 
 
Samuel L. Mitchell, (Ann, of the Lye. of New York, Vol. III.) 
 Cuvier judgfed from the remains, that the animal was inter- 
 mediate between the extinct Enaliosauria, or Sea-Lizards, and 
 the living ones. The length of this fossil species is estimated at 
 from fifteen to twent|^-five feet. (2) The animal of Maestritcht, 
 Mosasaurus, (Lat. tmsa, the Latin name of Maastricht, and Gr. 
 saUros, a lizard,) named by Conybeare from a fine specimen ob- 
 tained from Maestricht, at the time of its capture by the French 
 array. Specimens of this fossil, M, maximilicmi or M. major 
 have been obtained from New Jersey and the banks of the 
 Yellow Stone River. DeKay gives the length, from four- 
 teen to fifteen feet ; but Dr. Bucklafld judges the animal to have 
 been twenty-five or twenty-eight long, (see his " Bfidgewater Trea- 
 tise,") and so constructed as to "possess the' power of moving in 
 the sea with sufficient velocity to overtake aJid capture such 
 large and powerful fishes as, from the enormous size of its teeth 
 and jaws, we may conclude it was intended to devour." 
 
 Sixth Family. Teidce. I'eguixins. 
 
 The LacertidcB have been arranged, by M. iDumeril, into tvro 
 divisions, viz: (1) Pleodonta, (Gr. yZeois, full, not hollow; ocbas, 
 Oionioi, a tooth,) distinguished by having solid iand rooted teeth ; 
 (2) Coelodonta, (Gr. koilos, hollow",) which have the teeth hol- 
 lowed by a sort of canal, and but slightly adherent to the bones 
 of the jaws. The latter are peculiar to the Old World ; the 
 Pleodonta are confined to this continent, and none are included 
 in the family Teida, which have the head-plate horny, and the 
 scales small and granular, and sometimes with large plates. 
 This division is clearly separable from the Helioderms, of Mex- 
 ico, which have the head shields and scales of the body tubercu- 
 lar and the teeth groved within the ridge of the jaw. 
 
 The present family of Lizards includes twelve genera, which 
 may be divided into two groups, the one with the tail compressed 
 or flattened vertically ; the other with rounded tail; or they may be 
 divided into those in which the front has the cross-folds, with 
 six-sided scales between ; (3) those in which the throat has a 
 collar of large shields. 
 
 Those which have compressed tails, show a marked resem- 
 blance to the Crocodiles, which is increased by their great size. 
 The tail is flattened somewhat like an oar, and the surface being 
 increased by caudal crests, these animals are able to move in the 
 water, which they inhabit, with nearly or quite as much facility 
 as. the Crocodiles, 
 
496 SAFRIANS. 
 
 ' The species Crocodihirus, (Gr. Crocodile-tailed,) laeetlinus,\s 
 nearly six feet in length ; inhabiting the waters of Guiana and 
 Brazil. This is sometimes called the Tupinamhis. 
 
 The Teius Teguixiri, or Teguixin Monitor, of Gray, Tupinam- 
 Us Monitor, (Daudin,) is the true Tupinambij, the Sauvegarde, (the 
 Safeguard,) of Cuvier. This is one of the most noted species. 
 In their habits, the Safeguards are highly aquatic. They are, 
 indeed, able to run with great swiftness along the ground, and 
 they dig for themselves burrows or hiding places in the earth, 
 but when hard pressed, are sure to take to the water. They are 
 found in South America, and reach from four to six feet in 
 length. Sometimes they are seen as long as eight feet. 
 
 D'Ayara states, that " they feed on fruits and insects," and that 
 "they also eat serpents, toads, young chicks and eggs." He 
 also relates that '"they are fond of honey; and in order to 
 obtain it without injury from the bees, they come forward at in. 
 tervals, and as they run away, each time, give the hive a blow 
 with their tail, until, by repeated attacks, they weary out the in- 
 dustrious insects, and drive them from their home." 
 
 ■ The Thorictes, (Gr. from thorax, coat of mail,) draccena, is a 
 very large species found in Guiana,, and, in some instances, 
 being almost seven feet in length, of which the tail occupied five 
 feet. This, and the species Crocodilurus lacertinus, were for. 
 merly included in the genus Ada, divided into the two genera 
 by M. Bibron. 
 
 The genus Ameiva includes six species, some of which have 
 the tail more rounded or conical, and two plates on the throat. 
 These are more terrestrial or arboreal in their habits. 
 
 The genus Cnemidophorus, (Gr. knemis, a greave or leggin; 
 pJioreo, I carry,) is interesting as including the only representa- 
 tive of the family in North America. This is the C. sex-Uneatus, 
 (Lat. six-lined,) which is abundant in the Southern States, and as 
 far North as North-eastern Maryland. It is easily known from 
 the other Lizards by the six yellow lines along the back, and the 
 long tail. When pursued, it runs with almost incredible swift- 
 ness; climbing trees with great facility, but not leaping from 
 branch to branch, like the Green Lizard, Anolis Carolinensis. 
 
 Acrantus, (Gr. akrantos, imperfect,) is a large South Ameri- 
 can genus, which has but four toes visible on the hind feet. 
 
SAUBIAKS. 497 
 
 Seventh Family. Lacertidee, (Lat. lacerta, lizard.) 
 
 Slender-tongued Lizards. 
 
 This family includes the Coelodonta, already defined ; and 
 which are found in the Old World. No true Lizard has yet 
 been discovered either in Australia or the Polynesian islands. 
 
 In many respects, these and the American Teidse agree. The 
 body is rounded and elongated ; the tail generally exceeds the 
 body in length, and is always well developed ; the head is pyra- 
 midal, flattened above, and covered with plates; the tympanum 
 is distinct, and sometimes externally apparent; the feet have each 
 four or five separate toes, armed with .hooked claws ; the eyes 
 have the nictitating membrane in addition to the ordinary eye- 
 lids; the mouth is very wide, and its edges are covered with 
 large (labial) plates; the teeth hollowed and placed in a groove 
 within the ridge of the jaw. 
 
 The True Lizards inhabit all the warm countries of the Old 
 World, and some of those which are considered temperate ; but 
 in the latter, they pass the winter in a torpid state. When ex- 
 cited by the heat., of the sun,' they are extremely active and 
 vivacious, — the most so indeed of all the Saurians. It is, how 
 ever, only by sudden darts, and for short distances, that they 
 perform their movements. If these animals do not soon gain 
 their burrows, or hiding places, they become fatigued, and fall 
 an easy prey to their enemies. Hence, they never undertake 
 long excursions from their native spot, or from the retreat which 
 they have chosen. In their course over the ground^ or when 
 making their way among tangled herbagei, the movement of their 
 bodies is serpentine. They help themselves onward not simply 
 by their limbs, but also by the body, and especially the tail. The 
 latter. is so brittle, that it breaks offfeasily, but it is soon renewed ; 
 the renewed part being clearly distinguishable by a difference of 
 coloring from the rest, and the vertebrae, instead of being hard 
 and bony, are cartilaginous. 
 
 Although quite inoffensive, Lizards defend\themselves with 
 much energy when attacked, and bite more sharply than might 
 be supposed. The larger part of them feed upon insects; 
 though some of them prey upon small animals, such as mice or 
 frogs. 
 
 The typical genus, Lacerta, contains species which are widely 
 spread over Europe and Africa, and remarkable for their brilliant 
 colors, as well as their quick movements. The Lizards of this 
 genus are easily distinguished . by the throat collar of broad 
 
 21 
 
488 HAimiAHS 
 
 scales; the tongue is long and forked; the scales of the tail 
 are disposed in rings; a minute plate of bone above ptotects 
 the orbits of the eyes ; a long row of pores runs down each thigh; 
 the palate is toothed. 
 
 The Eyed Lizard, L. oceUata, oi Southern Europe, attains to 
 aliout sixteen inches in length. Its ground color is a bright 
 glossy green, ornamented with round eye-shaped spots of gol(i 
 and blue, and with rings and irregular markings of black.- It is 
 very bold and resolute ; when attacked by a dog, it fastens itself. 
 on the muzzle of its enemy, and will suffer itself to be killed be, 
 fore it will let go its hold. The female lays seven or eight 
 oblong eggs. 
 
 The Green Lizahd. L- viridis, is an elegant species, but. in 
 size is much less than the preceding. It is readily tamed, and 
 taught to come to the hand for food; will He coiled in the hand 
 without attempting to escape; on account of its beauty and grace, 
 fulness, it is often kept in cages furnished with an inner com. 
 partment filled with dried moss or bran ; amidst which it buries 
 itself in order to pass the winter. It seldom bites; and, indeed, 
 its bite is said to be "a pinch scarcely to be felt." 
 
 The Sand Lizakd, L. agilis, is considerably larger than the 
 Green Liziivd ; is a native of England and most parts of the 
 Continent of Europe. Its general color is a sandy brown, spot- 
 ted with black on the sides, each spot having a white or yellowish 
 dot in the center. Unlike the Green Lizard, it is impatient of 
 confinement, and soon pines to death, never growing familiar. 
 It is sometimes a foot long, measuring from the nose to the ex- 
 tremity of the tail. The female buries her eggs in the sand, and 
 leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the sun. 
 
 The ViviPAKotrs or Scaly Lizard, Zooioca, (Gr. zoos, living; 
 tikta, to bring forth,) vivipara. This species of the sub-genus 
 Zootoca is characterised by the palate being toothless. This is 
 also found in Great Britain and in the Continent of Europe, and 
 is " a pretty, active little creature, frequenting dry, sunny banks, 
 thickets and copses." It seldom exceeds five or six inches in 
 length, and is very gentle and harmless. It differs fram the 
 preceding species in producing living young. The eggs are 
 hatched before exclusion, and not deposited in the sand; hence, 
 the term applied to it, "viviparous." This Lizard ordinarily 
 produces four or five young, often seen in company with the 
 mother, and for sometime, probably, guided by her, but lively 
 and alert, and capable of procuring their own food. This species 
 presents various markings, but in most, the upper parts are of b 
 greenish or olive brown, with lines of dark brown on th& ^w\ 
 
GATTKIANS. 499 
 
 and side ; the under parts orange, spotted with black, or, in the 
 female, pale gray, with a tinge of green. 
 
 The genus OpMops, (Gr. ephis, serpent ; ops, eye,) is princi- 
 pally distinguished by having no eye-lids, or merely rudimentary 
 ones, like the Serpents. 
 
 The species Ophiops elegans, is of an olive color above, with 
 two lines of yellow on each side of the body, having two rows 
 of black spots between them. 
 
 Eighth Family, Chdlcida. ChalcidBs. 
 
 This and the succeeding family of Skinks, each conduct to the 
 Ophidia, or Snakes. These two families have, therefore, some- 
 times been regarded as constituting an intermediate order be- 
 tween the Saurians and Ophidia, and termed Saurophidia, or 
 Lizard-Snakes. Some of the genera of the present family are, 
 by Cuvier, classed with the Snakes, as they are without limbs, and 
 resemble the latter in other respects in their structure. 
 
 The animals of this family are readily distinguishable by the 
 arrangement of the scales or markings of the skin, and by the 
 lateral furrow found in many species. Some of them are fur- 
 nished with four legs ; others with but two ; while another poj'- 
 tion of the family are entirely serpent-like in their appearance, 
 in consequence of the absence of these members outside of the 
 skin. The trunk of the body blends with the bead and tail, 
 without any distinct lines of division, and is covered with scales 
 which, instead of being imbricated like those of fishes, are ar- 
 ranged in whorls or rings enclosing the body. Where the scales 
 are absent, furrows in the hardened skin exhibit similar mark- 
 ings. The teeth are not implanted in the jaws, but appended 
 along the margin or internal edge, — thus showing the true 
 pleurodont character; the tongue is free, but not very extensi- 
 ble; it is broad, and covered with papillae, and is notched at the 
 front; the ears are apparent externally in some species, while 
 others present no such indications. The eyes are generally 
 small and slightly developed;' Some species have movable eye. 
 lids; in others, these organs are not movable; while a few have 
 the entire ball of the eye covered by the skin. 
 
 The Reptiles are confined chiefly to Africa and. America; 
 Mexico, California, and the Southern parts of the Union have 
 quite a number of species, some fifty of which have been de- 
 scribed and arranged in sixteen or more genera. They have 
 been divided into two sub-famiJiest according as the skin is cov- 
 ered with scailes, or destitute of them. (1) PtyehQ>pkura,.(Qr. 
 
500 SAURIANS. ^ 
 
 piuche, a fold ; pleura, side,) distinguished by a fold of the skin 
 upon the side ; (2) Glyptoderma, (Gr. gluptos, graved or carved- 
 derma, slcin,) distinguished by square or card-like divisions 
 sometimes colored, and then, lilte mosaic work, extending in reg, 
 ular order over the skin. The first sub-family have scales ar. 
 ranged in the manner described above. All have a fold or 
 furrow on each side, and are in possession of eye-lids. 
 
 Of these may be mentioned the Ophisauros, (Gr. serpent, 
 lizard,) found in North America, having, with the head of a lizard 
 the body of a snake, and the snake-like manners which such a 
 form involves. It is called the Glass-snake, from the fact that the 
 body is very brittle, and may be broken by a slight blow. 
 
 Two species exist in the United States; viz: (1) O. ventralit, 
 which is limited to the Southern or South- Eastern States; (2) 
 O. Kneatus, which is met with in the South- Westj and as far 
 North as Michigan. 
 
 II. Genus Pseudopus, (Gr. pseudos, false ; pous, foot,) include 
 ing reptiles which, in their form and movements;' resemble 
 snakes, — having no front limbs, and hind limbs whiehi«re mere 
 scaly, undivided appendages. 
 
 The ScHELTOPUsiK, (P. Pdllasii, Guv.,) is so named by the 
 natives of the desert of Naryn, near the Volga, (Russia.) It is 
 a native, not of Europe only, but of Africa and Asia. This rep- 
 tile is eighteen inches long; of a reddish yellow or chestnut 
 color, clouded with black. It frequents wooded valleys land 
 gives chase to small Lizards, which, together with insects, con- 
 stitute its food. Being of a quiet and inoffensive: disposition, it 
 is, when captured, sometimes kept alive in rooms. It is re- 
 corded, however, that on one occasion, one of these reptiles so 
 kept, got access to a nest of young birds, which it soon demol- 
 ished, and, no doubt, fully enjoyed. 
 
 III. Genus Chalcides, includes species chiefly found in South 
 America, having both fore and hind limbs, but in a rudimentary 
 condition. The front pair terminate in three or four scaly 
 tubercles; the, posterior pair are represented by two slender 
 spines ; the tongue is arrow -like in figure, with a sharpjttwo- 
 clefl point ; the surface is covered with large, flat, imbricated 
 papillae, resembling in form and arrangement, the scales ofa 
 fish. Four species are described. One, (C. Schkgii,) a native 
 of Java; the others are found in Guiana, Columbia, and Chili. 
 These reptiles have no external ear, by which they are distin- 
 guished from the following genus. 
 
 IV. Genus Chdmaesaura, (Gr. chamai, on the ground; sau- 
 ra, a lizard,) which has an outward auditoiy cavity, and the 
 
SAURIANS. 601 
 
 rudimentary limbs without any sub-divisioh, or but one toe on 
 each foot.- The only species is the C. anguina, of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, having the head covered with many side shields or 
 scales, and the cylindrical and elongated body covered with 
 elongate, keeled scales. 
 
 V. Genus Saurophis, (Gr. Lizard-Serpent,) — includes reptiles 
 with more highly developed extremities^ eaph foot having four 
 toes. The only species known, is the S. tetradactylus, which 
 inhabits the southern part of Africa. 
 
 The other genera of this sub-family have four toes on each 
 foot, of these we can only refer to the genus. 
 
 VI. Gerrhonottis, (Gr. shield-back,) of which there are eight, 
 species, seven inhabiting Mexico, and one California. In these* 
 reptiles, the thighs are destitute of tiie pores.' They produce 
 their young alive ; and in their habits, closely resemble the 
 Lizards. , ■ ■ 
 
 VII. Zonurus, (Gr. zone, belt ; oura, tail,) is a genus in which 
 the limbs are four and robust; the feet each furnished with five 
 toes ; the tail is short, and the head triangular and flattened ; the 
 scales of the back and sides are square, in a close cross series. 
 
 The CoRDYLE Lizard, Z. griseus, (Bibron,) or Cordylus 
 (Gr. a knotty club,) griseus, (Cuvier,) is an example of this 
 genus. It is a native of South Africa, where it is common. 
 
 VIII. Tachydromus, (Gr, swift runner,) is a genus found in 
 Cochin China, China, Borneo, and Java, distinguished' by having 
 keeled ventral shields ; and the throat with keeled scales. It 
 has, like the preceding, foiar limbs, but they are less robust; five 
 toes, but three not fully developed, and a greatly elongated form. 
 
 The Tachydromb, T. seoiUneatiis, (Lat. six-lined,) receives 
 its specific name from having three lines extending longitudi- 
 nally on each side. ■'.:-. 
 
 Second sub-class. Glyploderma, (Gr. carved-skin.) This 
 division nearly corresponds with the i&mi\y AmphislfaemdcB, of 
 some authors. The lateral furrow peculiar to these reptiles, is 
 faintly seen in the more typical Chalcides referred to above. Most 
 of the species have been classed by some with ttie Ophidia, which 
 they greatly resemble. From the latter, however, they are dis- 
 tinguished by their Saurian liead and tongue ; and by having 
 the vertebrae united by fibrous or thread-like cartilage. 
 
 I. Genus Amphishaena, Double Walkers, so called from the 
 strong resemblance between the front and hind extremities of the 
 membranous body, the head, tail, and intermediate part being of 
 the same circumference. Appearing to have a tail at each end, 
 they are supposed to be capable of progression in either direction. 
 
502 SAITBIANSi 
 
 M. Bibron enumerates ten species, of which two are natives of. 
 Africa, the rest of America. 
 
 The DusKy Amphisbaena, A. fuliginosa, and the White Am, 
 FHisDAENA, A. alba, are species measuring nearly two feet in 
 length; found in Brazil and Cayenne. They bore the ground 
 like worms, and, it is said, move either way with equal faoitity. 
 They are often found in the earthy habitations of the T^mite. 
 Ants, which they follow through their winding galleries, fpr the 
 purpose of feeding on them. The flesh of these creatures, dried 
 and reduced to a fine powder, is sometimes administered as an 
 infallible remedy in cases of broken bones, or dislocate4 joints; 
 on the inference, that as it has the power of uniting its own body, 
 if cut in two, and of healing, in so marvelous a manner, amputa. 
 tion in itself, it has at least the power of curing a simple fracture 
 in another! 
 
 II. Genus Chirotes, (Gr. from cheir, hand,) has no hind limbs, 
 but has a pair of short front limbs placed near the head, and what 
 is remarkable among Saurians, each having five fingers, or at 
 least four fingers or toes, armed with claws, and a tubercle rep- 
 resenting the fifth. The possession of a sternum distinguishes 
 thesd reptiles from the Amplusbaena. The body is snake-like; 
 the head, neck and trunk, are of equal circumference. Only 
 one species is known ; 
 
 The Channeled Chikotes or Biped, C. canaliculatus, (Lat. 
 channeled,)— eight or ten inches in length, a native of Mexico, 
 and extending to the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The 
 eyes are almost imperceptible, covered with transparept skin, but 
 destitute of eye-lids. Its upper surface is yellow ; the under, 
 white, and the whole body covered with little square compart- 
 ments, disposed circularly. In the absence of hind feet, while 
 the front ones are present, this creature presents a strong resem- 
 blance to the Siren, a genus of the Batrachians. 
 
 Ninth Family. Scinks, (or Skinks,) or Lepidosaukians. 
 Scincidm, (Gr. axfyxps, skinkos, a kind of lizard.) 
 
 We come now to the last family of the Saurians, which, tothe 
 general characters of the order, join many distinguishing pecu- 
 liarities. They have the head covered with; large plates, which 
 have angular and regular shapes. These render them distin- 
 guishable from all the other &milies of the order, except the 
 True Lizards and the Chalcidians, which, as we have seen, pos- 
 sess them also. The rest of the body is invested with scales, of 
 greater or less magnitude, anpl of variable fSrms ; but always 
 
SAUBIASS. 503 
 
 arranged in a qidncutue or five -fold order, and overlaying each 
 
 other like the tiles of a house, as we see in large scaled fishes, 
 as, for instance, the Carp. The scales of the under parts and 
 sides, are nearly of the same size and shape as those of the back. 
 This distinguishes them from the True Lizards, in which the 
 ventral scales are much larger than ^hose of the back, with the 
 outlines angular. There are no lateral furrows or folds of skin 
 extending along the flanks ; this again separates them from the 
 Chalcidians. The tongue is free, fleshy, notched at its point, 
 without a sheath, and covered either altogether, or in part, with 
 papillae. The whole surface of the scales being generally 
 smooth and polished, many of these reptiles- glide easily into 
 small crevices ; and they creep by giving a tortuous and snake- 
 like motion to the trunk and tail. Th6 limbs vary in different 
 groups, being four, two, or none; when present, they are short. 
 
 The Skinks include about a hundred species, variously, dis. 
 tributed over the globe. The largest number of species is foiind 
 in Australia, which has nearly forty peculiar to itself. Asia 
 claims the next largest number; then comes Afiica, and after- 
 wards America. Europe numbers scarcely more than six or 
 eight species. Five species are found within the limits of the 
 United States. 
 
 The Skinks have been arranged into three sub-families, dis- 
 tinguished from each other by peculiarities relating to>the eyes. 
 
 I. Saurdphthalmia, (Gr. sauros, a saurian ; ophthalmos, an 
 eye.) The members of this sub-family have^movable eye-lids, 
 which Can be brought together so as to entirely cover the eye. 
 Most of them have four feet, but some have two, while others 
 appear to have none. All are without femoral pores. The 
 lowest form of this group is the AfionHas, (Gr. a serpent that 
 darts from a tree on its prey.) Of this, only one species is 
 known, the Aeonlius nieteagris, found at the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Though much like a serpent in the absence of feet, and of a, 
 tympanic orifice, it possesses most of the characters of the Skinks. 
 The tongue, as in the Blind or Slow Worm, is flat, apd like an 
 arrow-head, with scarcely any notch at the tip. The eye* are 
 very minute, and there is only a single eye-lid, which proceeds 
 from the lower part of the orbit. The scales are smooth and 
 imbricated. 
 
 II. Genus Anguis, (Lat. a snake,) is probably the best repre- 
 sentative of the Serpentine or Footless Skinks. This is Charac- 
 terised by a cylindrical aad snake-like body and tail, as well as 
 by the absence of limbs. The eyes, as in the preceding species, 
 are very minute. Only one species is known, viz : tha Smw 
 
604 SAITRIANS. 
 
 Worm or Blind Worm, A.frdgilis, {L&i. brittle.) When irri- 
 tated or alarmed, the Slow Worm, by a forcible contraction of 
 all the muscles of the body, becomes perfectly stiff, and- then 
 breaks in two, with the slightest blow, or upon an attempt to bend 
 it. Hence, Linnseus applied to it the \.Mm fragilis. 'i'his beau- 
 tiful and harmless reptile, is found in various parts of Europe, 
 appearing early in the spring, and going into winter: quarters in 
 October. It feeds on insects, earth-worms and slugs ; being 
 particularly partial to the latter. The Slow Worm is said to 
 shed its skin like the true snakes. The female produces her 
 young alive, in July or August, or at least lays from ten to six- 
 teen eggs, from which the young soon escape; development 
 having considerably advanced previous to the deposit. The 
 general color is yellowish brown or yellowish gray, with lines 
 and spots of black ; the under parts are white, with whitish retic-. 
 ulations or net-work. 
 
 III. Tropidophorus, (Gr. iropis, carina or keel ; phoreo, to 
 carry.) In this genus there are four strong limbs, each with 
 five compressed toes. The body is fusiform or spindle-shaped. 
 The scales upon the body are thick and striated, but rounded on 
 the muzzle ; the tail has four spinose keels above, but is smooth 
 on the sides. The species T, Codndnensis, is a native of Cochin 
 China. It is, on the upper parts of the body, of a color inclining 
 to olive, or a yellow brown. The neck is banded, the color 
 being brown ; with marks of a much deeper shade, representing 
 a succession of figures like the letter X; spots of deep brown 
 also appear on the tail ; and a row of whitish points along the 
 lower parts of the sides. 
 
 IV. Genus Seps, (Gr. a small serpent) exhibits a form some- 
 what snake-like, it being much elongated, but still provided with 
 four limbs. These, however, are very small and weak, and 
 have toes of unequal length. This is represented by a single 
 species, S. chalddcs. This curious reptile is a native of South- 
 ern Europe, and, except in the possession of limbs, resembles the 
 Slow Worn). Like that reptile, it brings forth its young alive, 
 and ifeeds on insects, earth worms and slugs. It is said' to be 
 perfectly harmless, though some suppose it to be a poisonous 
 animal. It spends the winter in its ground-burrow, but emerges 
 again in the spring, and lives during summer in sunny spots 
 covered with herbage and underwood. 
 
 V. Tetradactylus, (Gr. four toed.) This genus has four toes 
 on each foot. 
 
 VI. Champsodactylus, (Gr. with crooodile-toes,) has five toes in 
 front, and four behind. 
 
•AUEIAHS. 605 
 
 Vn. Heteropus, (Gr. with unlike kit,) has four toes in front 
 and five behind. 
 
 VIII. Trachysaurus, (Gr. rough lizard,) has five toes to each 
 toot. The Rough Skink, T. rugoms, of New Holland, attains 
 to a very large size, and is very singular in its appearance. 
 
 IX. Plestiodon, is a genus found in the United States, also 
 having five toes to each foot ; the fore feet short and scaly, with 
 five sharp nails; the hind feet larger, with long; slender toes, 
 also furnished with nails. The species P. fasciatus, (Lat. 
 banded,) was formerly SeinJeus fasciatus, (as in the Chart.) 
 The body has five yellow lines upon it, from which the specific 
 name is derived ; the color above is bluish black.' The length 
 is from six to eight inches. This reptile is common in the South- 
 em parts of New York State, and has been seen as fat" North as 
 Massachusetts. It is found in Japan. The species P, erythro- 
 cephalus, (Gr.- red headed,) ia twelve inches long, and found 
 from Pennsylvania to Florida. One species, P. Americarms, 
 which is the largest, is said to attain the length of twenty-five 
 inches. In the Southern States, they are called Scorpions, and 
 regarded as poisonous, but not justly. The larger species are 
 capable of inflicting a severe bite. ' The smaller ones are found 
 about old logs, and sometimes under the bark of trees. A species 
 of this genus is found in Egypt, 
 
 X. Scineus. This genus, as now restricted, includes but one 
 species, S. o/^cjwaZis, peculiar, to Northern and Western Africa 
 and Syria, having the tongue notched and scaly, the teeth con- 
 ioal and blunt, and two rows on the palate; the muzzle is 
 wedge-shaped ; the scales are srnooth and shining, like those of a 
 fish. The limbs a,re four, with five toes on each foot. The tail 
 is conical and pointed. The upper parts are usually yellow, or 
 of a silvery gray, mingled with brown and blackish. The under 
 parts are, generally, of a silvery white. It is termed by Bruce, 
 El Adda. In ancient times, it was regarded as an efficacious 
 remedy in various diseases, especially those of an eruptive na- 
 ture. According to Pliny, it was useful for curing wounds 
 made by poisoned arrows, and, at the present day, it is kept by 
 the druggists of Southern Europe; though its reputation has 
 greatly waned. " It runs with considerable rapidity, and, when 
 alarmed, it buries itself in the sand with singular quickness, 
 burrowing, in a few moments, a gallery of many feet in depth. 
 When caught, it struggles to escape, but neither attempts to bite, 
 nor to defend itself with its claws." 
 
 II. Sub-family Opiophthalmoi, (Gr. serpent-eyes,) including 
 Skinfcs, in which the eyes, like those of Serpents, are either 
 
SOS SAURIANS. 
 
 Without eye^lids, or else-have them in the form of a naitbw ring, 
 partly or entirely surrounding the eye. Most of the species are 
 found in New Holland, The genus Hysteropus, (Gr. hmteropus, 
 hind-footed,) {Bipes, Cuv,,) is without fore feet, and the hind ones 
 are but short, flattened appendages, without any division into toes. 
 III. Sub-family TypMopthalmoi, (Gr. blind-eyes,) includes 
 Skinks which are entirely blind, having eyes so minute as to be 
 completely rudimentary. Of this division, there are but two 
 genera, each with a single species, viz : the Dibamus, of New 
 Guinea, with hind oar^like feet ; and TypUne Cuvierii, of South 
 Africa, without any feet whatever. 
 
 'WTiiclj is the Second Family of the SAtiRiAN REpntEs? What is its only 
 gen.? What charaoteristica are given? What is said of the organ of hea^ 
 mg i Of the mouth, teeth, &c. ? Describe the eyes. What peculiar power 
 has each eye ? How does this animal therefore appear wheil agiteted? 
 How does he act when in the Water? Which is the only part of the C, that 
 moves quioUIy ? Describe the tongue and its uses. In what respeet is the 
 Chameleon like the Spider-Monkeys? What sp. are referred to? 
 
 What is the Thikd Familt? Gfive its characters. What is the origin 
 of the name Gecko ? On what does the animal feed ? How is it ablo to 
 traverse ceilings and the under side of leaves ? How does it use its sharp 
 hook-like claws? What singular power does it possess? Repeat the He- 
 marks of Mrs. Mason. What is the number of sp. ? Where are they found! 
 Which are referred to ? 
 
 Wliat is the Fot;RTB Family? Which is the typical gen. Of this femily! 
 What is said of the number of gen. and sp. which it includes ? Give their 
 general characteristics. Into what two Scb-Families have they been arrang- 
 ed? What issaidof thegen. ij'JKmo/ What sp. of it are referred to? What 
 is said of the geii. Anolis ? What sp. are mentioned ? What is said of the gen. 
 Sasilieua? What of the Mitred Basilisk ? "Wh^t of the gea-Amblyrkytieiui 
 What sp. are named?. What of the Tropidohpis ? What of the BsowH 
 Swift ? What of the gen. Phrynosoma ? Which are the most numerous 
 sp. ? Where are all the sp. of the Second Sub-Family found? Which is 
 the first gen. mentioned? What is said of it? What other gen. is 
 mentioned ? 
 
 What is the Fifth Family ? Why do the Varans deserve particular at- 
 tention ? Desoribe them. Into what groups are they divided ? Give their 
 peculiarities. Are they nocturnal? Upon what do they feed ? What is 
 the remark of Latours ? What sp. belong to N. A. ? What is said Of it? 
 What two sp. of Terrestrial Varans are known ? What is said of the V. or 
 THE Nile? What Fossil Saurians allied to the Varans are mentioned? 
 
 What is the Sixth Family ? Into what divisions have the Lackrtid* 
 been arranged ? Which of these is confined to this contitient, and included 
 in the Teidae? Does it include the Helodorma of Mexico? How many 
 gen. and groups does it contain? Which group resembles Crooodilcs? 
 What is said of the Ti^riambia? Give the other name. What is said of 
 
OFRIfilANS. 507 
 
 the tsavixis Monitor? What very large sp. is foiind in Gniana? What 
 -representative of this family ia found in X. A.? How is it known from the 
 other Lizards ? 
 
 What is the Seventh Family ? T9 which Continent are they confined ? 
 Describe the habits of the Trde Lizards. What is said of the gen. Lacerta I 
 Describe the Eyed-IAzard. The Gkeen L. What of the Land L. ? Of the 
 ViVIPAKOCS or SOALT L. ? 
 
 What of the Eighth Family? To what order is this and the succeeding 
 family closely related? How have they been regarded? How are the 
 Chalcides readily distinguished ? What further characters are given ? To 
 what regions are these BeptUes confined ? Are any found in the TT. S. ? 
 How many sp. have been described ? Name the sub-families into, which 
 they have been arranged? What gen. is found in N. A,? Why is it 
 called the Glass-Snake ? What sp. in the IT. S. ? State particidars in 
 regard to the other gen. and sp. 
 
 What IS the Ninth Family? Give the peculiarities of the family? How 
 many sp. ? Name their localities. How many sub-families ? How distin- 
 guished from each other ? Describe the geh. and sp. Name the first sub- 
 fami^. What is said of the second sub-family ? What of the third ? 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Third Order. — Ophidians or Sebpents. 
 Ophidia. (Gr. Sipi;, ophis, a serpent.) 
 
 The Ophidians are partiqularly distinguished by the total a.b. 
 sence of external limbs in a majority of the species, or else the 
 limbs are so rudimentary as to be discoverable only by dissection, 
 or on very close examination : so that, as Cuvier remarks, they 
 are more truly deserving of the name of Reptiles than any other 
 order. 
 
 They possess an elongated form, vcith vi^hich is conjoined not 
 only great flexibility, but amazing strength. Their upper sur- 
 face is covered with narrow and somewhat pointed scales, of 
 small or moderate size, imbricated or disposed like tiles ; these 
 are called squama. The under surface is covered with broad 
 transverse scales or plates, called scuta, of which the hind edge 
 in one overlays the front edge in the other. The top of the head 
 is also usually covered with plates. The whole of the delicate 
 and pellucid outward membrane which covers the scales, is shed 
 entire, and renewed once a year,- or perhaps oftener ; it is some- 
 times called the slough. All serpents pass the winter, or cold> 
 est part of the year, in a torpid state ; when coming out from 
 this state, the skin is cast or exuviated ; it is first detached 
 
608 OPHIDIANS. 
 
 around the head, and is pushed off gradually, heing turned inside ' 
 out, like the finger of a glove. This rejection of the slough 
 was to many of the ancients, a sign of a renovated state of ex- 
 istence ; they regarded these reptiles as leading a protracted life 
 of annually renewed vigor and beauty. The internal frame, 
 work or skeleton of serpents is extremely simple, consisting of 
 the skull, the vertebral column, and the ribs, (Plate XII. fig. 5.) 
 The breast bone is wanting ; so also are the bones of the hips, 
 and of the limbs, excepting Where the hind pair exist in the form 
 of hook-like stylets, as in the Boas. A reference to the plate of 
 the skeleton just referred to, must satisfy any one of its elegance, 
 and also suggest the idea of its flexibility, which an examination 
 of its parts will fully confirm. 
 
 The vertebral column consists of a series of bones united to 
 each other by beautiful balUand-socket joints ; the head of each 
 separate vertebra being received into a deep cup-like cavity of 
 the one succeeding it. The 'whole of the spine is, in reality, a 
 chaia of these joints, firmly locked together, each movable to 
 such extent as is consistent with the safety of the spinal cord. 
 
 Serpents are capable of twisting themselves in the most extra- 
 ordinary manner; but their pliability consists less in the mobil- 
 ity of each joint separately, however great this be, than in the 
 number of joints into which the vertebral column is divided. 
 Two ribs, one on either side, arise from each of the distinct 
 bones of that column. Its bones are exceedingly numerous, 
 being always more than a hundred, and in some species amount- 
 ing to more than three hundred. 
 
 The ribs, forming a large portion of a circle, embrace nearly 
 the whole circumference of the body ; and to these reptiles are 
 the efficient agents of locomotion. They each severally play on 
 a convex protuberance of the respective vertebras, and are acted 
 upon by powerful muscles, which move them bacl^wards and 
 forwards. Instead of being attached at their exti^mity to a 
 breast bone, as is the case in the Mammals and Lizards, each 
 pair, by means of a slender cartilage, is connected with one of 
 the scuta, or shield-like plates of the under surface. The ribs 
 may be likened to the limbs of the millipede or thousand-legged 
 worm ; they support the weight of the snake, and in its progres- 
 sion, work like the legs of that insect. 
 
 Although destitute of linibs, yet some serpents are fcapable 
 of rapid advances. On the surface of the ground, their pro- 
 gression is made in tvvo ways. The ordinary movement, when 
 the body is straightened out entirely in contact with the ground, 
 is by a succession of short steps, taken by the numerous ribs, as 
 
OPHIDIANS. 509 
 
 is seen in the millipede ; the ribs moving in pairs, and each pair, 
 as advanced, carrying forward with themselves, the scales to 
 which their extremities are fixed, and which serve as so many 
 points of resistance to a backward movement. But the reptile 
 makes a more rapid progress by throwing the body into large 
 curvatures, the fore part being fixed, and the rest brought up by 
 the action of the muscles and ribs; the hind part of the body 
 being next fixed, and the fore part thrown forwards, and so on, 
 alternately. 
 
 The most rapid movements are probably made when the entire 
 body is gathered up into one vertical loop, like a bent spring, the 
 head and tail being more or less approximated ; the sudden 
 straightening of this loop or spring, with the tail as the fulcrum 
 or point of resistance, may enable the animal to spring forward 
 at one operation, to a distance greater than the length of the 
 ' body. 
 
 The exceeding flexibility of their bodies enables many spe- 
 cies toclimb trees in pursuit of their prey, and on these, some 
 are habitually found ; others are constant inhabitants of the 
 water. 
 
 The bones of the' face, excepting in a few species, have a high 
 degree of mobility, and on account of their peculiarities, deserve 
 special notice. 
 
 The lower jaw is not directly articulated with the upper, as in 
 other animals, but connected with it by' two bones which are 
 movable upon each other. The extremities of the lower jaw 
 also, instead of being anchylosed, or immovably fixed, ai*e con- 
 nected by an extensile ligament. Thus, unlike what is seen in 
 the Mammals, where the bones forming the jaws and face are 
 firmly locked together, those of the snake have no connection 
 but that which is made by ligaments and skin, tlence the ser- 
 pent tribe can swallow their food undivided, and many times 
 larger in bulk than the circumference of the body. In this pro- 
 cess they are aided by the expansibility of the skin, the gullet, 
 and the stomach ; but something additional was needed to com- 
 plete their capability of swallowing: such enormous masses of 
 food ; how shall such masses be made to pass through the jaws ? 
 Here is a diffioulty which, without some peculiarity of structure 
 must have been insuperable, but which, in the case of these rep- 
 tiles, is fully met by the attachment of the lower jaw to bones 
 movable upon each other, and allowing of a sort of natural dis- 
 location, so that the jaw gives way in the act of swallowing, and 
 recovers itself when the prey is fairly engulphed. The head 
 of the snake may hence be pointed to as exhibiting one of the 
 
510 OPHIDIANS. 
 
 beautiful and striking instances of marked adaptation and h«r. 
 mony, so extensively apparent in the works of God. 
 
 Serpents can hardly be said to have two lungs, one of the two 
 being generally abortive, or merely rudimentary. 
 
 All of them have teeth, but the'se serve only to retain their 
 food, and are not adapted to mastication. ■ In the harmless snakes, 
 (or rather those which are not poisonous,} the upper and under 
 jaws are furnished with a number of small, but very sharp teeth, 
 pointing backwards, (Plate XII. fig. 5 ;) the palate is also armed 
 with two similar rows, so that there are six lines of teeth in the 
 mouth. The venomous species not only have the jaws very 
 small and freely movable upon a bony peduncle or footstalk; 
 but each branch of the upper jaw has a long, recurved, pointed 
 tooth, traversed by a canal or tube, leading from a large gland 
 situated beneath the eye. The fluid secreted by the gland passes 
 through this tube into the bottom of the wound which the poison, 
 fang inflicts. When not called into use, the poison-fangs lie 
 concealed along the roof of the mouth ; but when about to bite, 
 the snake raises them up, and in the act of biting, compresses 
 the poison-glands, by means of a peculiar muscle for that pur- 
 pose, and thus instils a few drops of the deadly fluid into the 
 puncture. These large fangs are, in truth, the only teeth in the 
 vpper jaw; the others above are arranged in two rows on each 
 side, alongHhe bones of the palate. The branches forming the 
 lower jaw are slender, and but partially furnished with teeth. 
 
 It is common to hear persons speak of the sting of theserpentj 
 but from the explanation here given, it will be noticed that prop- 
 erly speaking, the serpent has no sting ; the fatal wound is pro- 
 duced by a bite. 
 
 Most species of venomous serpents are ovo-viviparous, i. e., 
 the young are hatched before exclusion and born alive, whence 
 the general name of Vipers — a contraction of Vivipares, (horn 
 alive) — though with a few of this division, whether they be so 
 born or not,- seems a matter dependent on the latitude and the 
 mean temperature of the region in which they dwell. Some of 
 the non-venomous or harmless snakes are also ovo-vivrparous; 
 the others are oviparous. The eggs are often more than thirty 
 in number, rounded and agglutinated in bead-like rows, by a 
 sort of mucous substance. The shells of the egg in oviparous 
 serpents, although cretaceous, are soft like the eggs of the com- 
 mon hen when she has not enough calcareous matter in her food, 
 called soft eggs. Their color is ordinarily yellowish or grayish 
 white. "The Creator has in this as in other instances, benefi- 
 cently provided against the increase of dangerous animals, by 
 
OPSIPIAKB. 511 
 
 assigtting a. small number of young to the venomous species, 
 while many of the harmless kinds are extremely prolific. The 
 females often take care of their young for a time. On the ap. 
 proach of danger, they have been seen to receive the whole fam. 
 ily into their throats, and when it has passed, to restore them 
 again to the open air. 
 
 The voice or hiss of serpents, which is often exerted, is more 
 or less loud and piercing. It is the expression of anger or im- 
 patience ; the warning of an attack, or the signal of defiance. 
 
 Their senses exhibit different degrees of development. They 
 cannot be said to possess that of touch in a high degree, though 
 they have what is sufficient to regulate their progression, and 
 indicate the kind of surfaces with which their bodies are brought 
 into contact. 
 
 The tongue is soft, fleshy, bifid (or divided into two branches) 
 at its extremity, and working in a sheath. It is never venomous, 
 as is commonly supposed. As an organ of taste, it cannot be 
 very susceptible. The prey is swallowed entire, and. under pir- 
 cumstances which afford little or no opportunity for the exercise 
 of taste by the tongue. 
 
 The sense of .smell, judging from the structure and habits of 
 these reptiles, cannot be very acute. 
 
 The eyes are generally very small, not protected by movable 
 eye>Iids, nor by a nictitating membrane, so that they always ap- 
 pear to be fixed or on the watch. Jt is remarkable that the trans- 
 parent cornea seems to form part of the skin and epidermis, 
 with which it is detached at each moult of the reptile. Vision, 
 excepting for a time previous to a change of .the skin, when it is 
 evidently less perfect, appears sufficiently acute in reptiles of the 
 present order. 
 
 Serpents sometimes grow from a length of twelve or fourteen 
 inches, when they are first excluded, to .that of twenty-five or 
 thirty feet, and attain to a great age. They are extremely tena- 
 cious of life, often surviving very severe wounds. Instances 
 have occurred in which the head, severed from the body, has, 
 after a considerable time, not only retained vitality, but bitten 
 With fury. 
 
 The popular opiniori that serpents are Capable of exercising a 
 power of fascination over their intended victims, is perhaps not 
 ' well founded. The most eminent ornithologists refer the etfects 
 produced upon birds by the presence of these reptiles, to the fear 
 amounting to terror which is thus Occasioned, and to the instinc- 
 tive solicitude for their young; which induces them to approach 
 these reptiles too nearly for their own safety. The serpent 
 
612 OFHIDIANS. 
 
 tribes are indeed very generally regarded with feelings of horror 
 and aversion, for which it would not be difficult to account ; and 
 yet to some these reptiles have furnished objects of religious 
 veneration. The ancient Mexicans adored the Boa, and in the 
 blindness of their superstition, sought to propitiate it with human 
 victims. Among the bronze relics of the Egyptians, is a figure 
 of the Cobra, with expanded hood, which was probably regarded 
 as the image of a divinity, or one of the household gods. Fig. 
 ures of the Hindoo Chrisna sometimes present him entwined by 
 a large Cobra, which is fixing its poisoned fangs in the heel; and 
 igain they represent him as crushing the head of, the- Serpent, 
 while he triumphantly tears the creature from his body.. The 
 origin of these emblems cannot well be doubted ; they, in all 
 probability, spring from traditions related to the great prophetic 
 promise of scripture, Gen. iii. 15. " The serpent stands as an 
 emblem of the principle of evil to be ultimately destroyed with 
 the poison of death itself, by the seed of the woman," 
 
 The divisions of the present order have been variously given 
 by systematic naturalists. We like the arrangement of Mr.J. 
 E. Gray, who divides the order into five families, viz. : (1) Co. 
 luhridce; (2) Boidee ; (3) Hydrida ; (4) Viperida ; (5) Crota. 
 lidcB. (On the Chart the reptiles of the last two families are, 
 for convenience, arranged among the BoidcB.) 
 
 Between three and four hundred species are enumerated, of 
 which about one-fifth are venemous. But few species of Ophi- 
 dia have beeQ found in a fossil state. 
 
 First Family. ColuhridcB. (Lat. coluber, a serpent.) 
 
 This family of the Ophidians includes snakes the larger per. 
 tion of which are harmless, but few being provided with poison- 
 ous fangs. They are distributed over the globe, and are more 
 numerous, considered both as individuals and species, than any 
 other family of the order. 
 
 Dr. Gray arranges them, together with the Boidce and Hydri- 
 da, into the sub-order Colubrina, of which he gives the follow- 
 ing definition : "Jaws strong, both toothed, sometimes with fangs 
 in front or grooved teeth behind. Head moderate or indistinct ; 
 crown often covered with regular shields." The section Colu- 
 bridtt have the belly covered with broad scales ; the tail conical 
 and tapering, and rarely compressed ; the nostrils are open and 
 placed at the side of the muzzle, near the top. The head is 
 usually covered with large regular plates, the variations of which 
 
' OPHIDIANS. S13 
 
 as to number and shape, afford good specific distinctions. The 
 Colubridse are mostly oviparous and carnivorous. 
 
 The leading genera of this family as found so numerously in 
 the United States, are Coluber and Tropidonoius, (Gr. tropis, a 
 keel; notos, back.) 
 
 The genus Coluber includes most of the larger familiar spe- 
 cies which have smooth scales, without the keel, or longitudinal 
 ridge along the center, which appears in the Tropidonotus. The 
 body is usually slender and cylindrical. The snakes of this 
 genus are rarely seen in water; they deposit their eggs in de- 
 cayed vvood, sand, or other localities. 
 
 Of the well known "species found in the United States are (1) 
 the Chain , Snake, C. getulus, from its quick movements also 
 called the racer ; length four to six feet ; (2) the Milk Snake, 
 C. eximius, (Lat. select or distinguished,) sometimes, from its 
 chestnut colored spots and light colored ground, called the 
 Chequered Adder; also named the House Snake; it is not un- 
 frequently found in dairies and cellars in which milk is kept, 
 which it is said to seek with avidity; length two to five feet; (3) 
 the Grass Snake, or Green Snake, (see Chart,) C. vernalis, 
 (Lat. vernal,) is found from Massachusetts to Pennsylvania, has 
 been numerous in the marshes about Salina and Cayuga, (N. Y. ;) 
 length from twelve to twenty-four inches ; (4) the Ringed Snake, 
 C. punctatus, (Lat. dotted.) (see Chart;) it emits a disagreeable 
 odor ; occurs from Maine to Louisiana, under rocks and the 
 bark of decayed trees ; length twelve to eighteen inches ; (5) 
 Black Snake, C. constrictor, (Lat. one who binds together); 
 abundant in all parts of the land and from three to six feet in 
 length. It climbs trees with great facility, and moves very rap. 
 idly over the ground. This, as well as the species above men- 
 tioned, is called the Racer, on account of its pursuit of terror- 
 stricken persons fleeing before it, an enemy it were wiser reso- 
 lutely to face. Its climbing power renders it formidable to birds 
 and young squirrels in their nests. It has been supposed to ex- 
 ert a fascinating influence over birds; we have already intii.' 
 mated that the unusual actings of a bird in its presence may be 
 occasioned chiefly by the danger threatening its brood, which' 
 the reptile might devour at a single meal ; (6) C. Alleghaniensis, 
 is a larger species of Black Snake, from five to eight feet in 
 length, said, however, to be much more gentle than the other, 
 seldom showing any disposition to bite, which the Common Black 
 Snake is very likely to do. Both of these species, and indeed 
 all the Colubrines in North America, are non-venomous and 
 harmless. The Black Snakes and some of the other larger spe- 
 
514 OPHIDIANS. 
 
 cies are exceedingly bold and resolute, and defend themselves 
 obstinately when attaclted. They even engage in deadly con. 
 flict with the Rattle Snakes; and owing to their superior agility, 
 are generally victors, evading the poisonous thrusts of their an. 
 tagonists, and seizing the opportunity to strangle them in their 
 folds, like the Boa or Python ; indeed, the specific name, Con- 
 strictor, is given in allusion to the mode in which the Black 
 Snake kills its prey. 
 
 The snakes of the genus Tropidonoius, differ from the True 
 Colubrines, in possessing the power of flattening or depressing 
 the body. This enables them to swim well, and hence, they are 
 all more or less aquatic. They are generally viviparous, the eggs 
 being developed previous to exclusion. 
 
 Of this genus, (1) the familiar Striped or Garter-Snake, T. 
 \ tcenia, (Lat. a ribbon,) or T. sirtalis, (two to five feet long,) is 
 the typical representative. Though frequently found about the 
 water, or in marshy places, it is as often oji high dry ground, 
 and has been noticed at an elevation of two thousand feet above 
 tide water. When irritated, without the means of escape, it 
 raises its scales so as to give the body a Toughened appearance ; 
 and under such circumstances, it will bite, leaving a troublesome, 
 though not dangerous wound. Its feci^ndity is so great, that in 
 one instance, it is said, eighty-one yourig, each over nine inches 
 in length, were taken from a single female.; (2) the Water. 
 Snake, T. sipedon, also called the Water-Adder, sometimes the 
 Moccasin-Snake, and erroneously thought to be poisonous, is 
 found rather abundantly in the Northern States, and also, to some 
 extent, in the Middle States. This Snake is from two to five 
 feet in length ; it moves in the water with great ease, and maybe 
 said to live in it habitually. In the Southern State?, its place is 
 supplied by the beautiful Green-Snake, Leptophis, (Gr. leptos, 
 thin ; opkis, snake,) ceslivus, about two feet in length. Another 
 species, L. saurita, is found in the Northern, and, to some ex- 
 tent, in Western States. It is the Ribbon-Snake, or the Little 
 Garter-Snake, as it is called in New York, of a chocolate brown 
 color, gentle but very nimble, climbing trees with facility. 
 Length from one two feet. These are the only species of the 
 genus Leptophis. Both have long and slender bodies, carinate 
 scales, and very long tails. 
 
 The Sand-Snake, Psammophis, (Gr. sand-snake,) jffoge/Zj/br- 
 mis, (Lat. of whip-form,) is a long, slender, and exceedingly 
 swifl species, found in South Carolina and Florida, — its tail 
 having unimbricated scales, and being one-fourth its length. 
 
 The Diamond-Snake, Coronfilla ^ayi, is conspicuous for \\$ 
 
OPHIDIANS. 515 
 
 minute white specks, scattered over a dark, ground. It is one of 
 the Snakes til at often engage in successful conflict with the 
 Rattle-Snake. 
 
 The Harlequin or Scarlet-Snake, Elaps fulous, (Lat. red' 
 or tawny,) is found in Carolina, Louisiana, and Upper Missouri. 
 It is distinguished by having a fang permanently fixed on each side 
 of the upper jaw, with which may he connected a rudimentary 
 poisonous gland; but the animal is considered entirely harmless. 
 The head is scarcely larger than the body ; the length twenty 
 inches. 
 
 Tlie Red-Snake, Calamaria amcsna, (Lat. delightful to the 
 eye,) is a beautiful little serpent, of a reddish brown color, from 
 six to twelve inches in length, and found in the Eastern and 
 Middle States, under stones and logs. It has a small head, 
 smooth scales, and a short, abrupt tail. 
 
 The Hog-nosed-Snake, Heterodon, (Gr. different or unequal 
 teeth,) phtyrhinos, (Gr, broad-nosed,) is two feet in length, — 
 called also the Buckwheat-nose, (from a fancied resemblance 
 between that grain and its rostral plate,) — and also the Deaf 
 Adder and Yellow Viper. This species is well known, through- 
 out the United States, and H. niger, (Lat. black,) is known as 
 the Black Vipek, about three feet in length, and found in 
 Georgia and Tennessee.- Both present a formidable appearance, 
 from flattening the head and whole body when irritated ; but are 
 entirely harmless. Passing over many colubrine species found 
 in the United States and elsewhere, we name the Q. quadrilinea- 
 tus, (Lat. four lined,) which is the largest of the European Ser- 
 pents, often attaining to six feet in length, and found in Spain 
 and Italy. This formidable, "though not venomous snake, is 
 probably the Boa, of Pliny. 
 
 We must also not omit to notice an African genus, Deirodon, 
 (Gr., deire, neck; odous, tooth,) — which strikingly illustrates 
 the special adaptations to particular uses and ends, which are 
 presented in the animal kingdom. This snake is said to live 
 almost entirely on the eggs of birds, and for this its entire organ- 
 ization seems expressly designed. The mouth, when full grown, 
 has no teeth whatever, so that the egg is readily received into 
 the open jaw, and there is no hazard of its being prematurely 
 broken. The inferior spinous processes of the seven or eight 
 lower cervical vertebrae, shoot forward with the gullet or Eesopha- 
 gus, where they are overspread with a layer of hard cement, 
 and made to resemble long, sharp teeth. The eggs, in their de- 
 scent, press against these teeth, and are sawed open length- 
 wise, — then crushed by the contraction of the gullet, and carried 
 
516 OPHIDIANS. 
 
 into the stomach ; the shell, as well as its contents, subserving 
 the purposes of food. 
 
 Second Family. Boidm. Boas and Pythons. 
 
 This family includes species which, although not venomous, 
 are exceedingly terrific on account of their gigantic size and 
 amazing strength. In these, the ventral shields are narrow, 
 transverse, and often six sided ; the pupil is oblong and erect, 
 excepting in the genus Tortrix. But perhaps the most marked 
 peculiarity, is their possession, — contrary to the general rule in 
 serpents, — of hooked-like claws, connected internally with a 
 series of bones, representing, though imperfectly, those of the 
 lower limbs. The tail is prehensile, and can be firmly twined 
 around any object. The Boas are natives of South Atnerica ; 
 the Pythons of Asia and South Africa. Some serpents, kindred 
 to these, are also seen in Australia. 
 
 Imagination finds it diflficult to picture more formidable objects 
 than the reptiles of this group; and yet, if we can credit the 
 statements of ancient writers, serpents far more terrific than these, 
 were once found in the Eastern Continent. Livy refers to one 
 which "had its lair on the banks of the Bagradas, near Utica, 
 and swallowed many of the Roman soldiers in the army of 
 Regulus," and which was finally killed by stones discharged from 
 military engines. The skin, afterwards taken to Rome by 
 Regulus, it is» said, "measured one hundred and twenty.three 
 feet ! " This, however, may be an exaggeration, or the term 
 " feet," is, perhaps, to be understood in a more limited sense than 
 that which we assign to it. 
 
 The Boas, properly so called, sometimes reach the length of 
 forty feet. In their entwining folds, acting with the combined 
 energy of thousands of muscles for crushing their victims, they 
 possess a power which no man or animal can successfully resist. 
 To climb, to swim, to dart along the ground, are endowments of 
 these powerful reptiles, and they avail themselves of each as 
 occasion requires. 
 
 In the Boas, the head is covered with small scales to the muz- 
 zle ; and the scuta of the tail are undivided. In the Pythons, 
 there are plates over the anterior part of the head, and the 
 scuta of the tail are divided. 
 
 The Emperoe Boa, Boa constrictor, (see fig. on Chart,) is 
 characterised by a broad chain extending along the back, and 
 consisting alternately, of large, blackish, and somewhat hexa- 
 gonal marks, and of pale, oval dashes or spots. The epithet 
 
OPHIDIANS. 517 
 
 " Emperor," given to this Boa, indicates the religious veneration 
 with which it was regarded anciently by the natives in Mexico 
 and South America. It is more terrestrial in its habits tha;n the 
 Anaconda; resorting to dry places, among bushes, trees, and 
 rocks. It climbs trees with great facility, and hangs suspended 
 from them by its prehensile tail, ready to drop upon and crush 
 any unfortunate creature that may pass beneath. Its length is 
 from thirty to thirty-five feet. 
 
 The Anaponda,_ Boa scytale, (Gr. skutale, a club or rod,) or 
 Eunecies, (Gr. a good swimmer,) murinus, (Lat. from mus, 
 mouse.) This species is of a brownish color, with a double 
 series of roundish,' black blotches running along the back. The 
 spots on the sides are annulated and ocellated, the disks being 
 white, surrounded by blackish rings. The trivial or specific 
 name, murinus, is given to it, because it is said "toll? in wait for 
 mice." These, together with fish, frogs, etc., are truly " small 
 game" to this creature, which constricts, and swallows down 
 whole Sheep, Peccaries, Agoutis, etc. When the prey is dead, 
 this, and the other Boas, thrust out their tongue, vibrating in 
 token of their desire of food; the jaws and throat become lubri- 
 cated with saliva, as a preparation for swallowing the enormous 
 meal. The position of the mass in the alimentary tube indicates 
 the completion of the process. When gorged with food, the ani- 
 mal is for some time torpid and defenceless, and may easily be 
 killed. Occasionally, it is destroyed by shooting, lassoing, etc. 
 The thick skin is frequently tanned, and converted into leather 
 for .boots and saddles. The Anaconda is said to attain the 
 length of from thirty to forty /eet ; but the common specimens 
 seen in museums and menageries, rarely exceed ten or fifteen. 
 Among the other, species, are 
 
 The Aboma, Boh cmchris, (Gr. spotted,) — found in South 
 America and the West Indies, is one of the largest of the family, 
 sometimes attaining a gigantic size. It is of a yellowish color, 
 with a row of large brown rings, running the whole length of the 
 back, and variable spots on the sides. 
 
 The BojOBi of the Brazilians, or the Green Boa, B. canina, 
 or Xiphosoma, (Gr. sword-body,) caninum, (Lat. dog-like,) having 
 a muzzle which shows some resemblance to that of a dog. 
 
 The Coral-Snake, Tortrix cdrallinus, found as far North as 
 Florida, and often kept tame in houses, belongs to this family. 
 
 The PvTHONS are natives of East India and its islands, and of 
 Southern Africa. Two species are distinguished by placing 
 their eggs in a group, and covering them with their bodies. 
 On» of these, is 
 
618 OPHIDIANS. 
 
 The TisER Python or Rock-Snake, Python, (Gr. puthon,} 
 tigris, a native of India and Java, and elegantly marked. It is 
 said to be as large as the largest Boa, but more slender, and 
 greatly to be feared. Stories are told of the tiger falling a prey 
 to this formidable reptile. 
 
 The Reticulated Python, P. reticul'atus, is found in Hindos- 
 tan, Ceylon, and Java. It is said to - increase until it reaches 
 thirty feet in length, and can " manage a buffalo," crushing it 
 in its huge folds. It is one of the most brilliant species of the 
 entire family, "the whole body being covered with a gay lacing 
 of gold and black." 
 
 The Pythons, in the British Zoological Gardens, " are fed with 
 rabbits, which they destroy by winding round and crushing 
 them ; they are then easily swallowed ; the expansive power of 
 the jaws permitting a very small specimen to manage such 
 animals.'^ 
 
 *.;. • 
 
 ■ Third Family. Marine Snakes. 
 HydridcB, (Gr. Wga, hudra, a water-snake.) 
 
 The truly Aquatic or Marine Snakes, are all confined to the 
 intertropical regions. They are mostly found in the seas and 
 rivers of the East Indies. These singular reptiles, excepting 
 that they are destitute of fins, are not unlike the eel, particularly 
 in the form of the tail, which is expanded in a vertical direction, 
 and flattened laterally, so as to act the part of a paddle. Some 
 «pecies, however, have conical tails, and these are thought to 
 live in fresh water. In the Indian Seas, numbers of these snakes 
 collect together, forming shoals, which may be seen swimming 
 about in pursuit of fishes and other prey. It is very seldom 
 that the true sea snakes visit the land. Sometimes they coil 
 themselves up on the shore, where they lay their eggs. It is 
 supposed that they live on sea-weed. They are often found 
 asleep on the surface of the sea, when th^y are easily caught, 
 as they are unable to descend without throwing themselves 
 on their backs, probably for the purpose of expelling the air 
 from their capacious lungs. They are frequently thrown 
 ashore in the surf, to the terror of the natives. ' Occasionally, 
 they are carried up rivers by the tide; but they cannot long live 
 in fresh water. The fishermen of the Eastern seas, often take 
 them in their nets, and greatly dread them on account of the 
 poison of their bite. 
 
 The species are said to be, without exception, venomous. Dr. 
 Cantor, who was in the service of the Bast India; Company, 'and 
 
QFBIBUNS. 619 
 
 had favorable opportunities of studying the peculiarities of these 
 serpents, captured by him in fishirig nets, refers to the case of a 
 British ofBoer, who " diied within an hour or two after the bite of 
 a serpent caught at sea;" and also to numerous experiments of 
 his own, " in which fowl, fish, and other animals, invariably died 
 within a few minutes after the bite had been inflicted." We 
 l-efer to these facts, because it has been stated, that " the Marine 
 Serpents are harmless." 
 
 Rev. John Williams, in his " Nai'rative of Missionary Enter- 
 prises in the South Sea Islands," says: "That in the Samoa 
 group are water snakes, some of them beautifully marked with 
 longitudinal stripes of yellow and black, and others with rings 
 alternately white and black." He adds, "the natives esteem 
 both the Land and Sea Snakes as good food." 
 
 The Marine Snakes, in common with the Boidje, have" nar- 
 row, elongated scales on the belly,' nearly resembling those on 
 the back; the ventral shields are narrow, hexagonal, or band- 
 like, — the eyes and nostrils look upwards, the latter usually 
 placed in the middle of a shield, with a slit or groove on its outer 
 edge ; the fangs are of moderate size, and intermixed with the 
 maxillary teeth ; the pupil is small and round. 
 
 Of the species with compressed teeth, or true Marine Snakes, 
 aretheTwo-coLOREDPELAMYS, Pelamys bicolor, with hexagonal 
 scales, found in the Pacific Ocean ; and the Banded Sea-Snake, 
 Chersydms, (Gr. chersudros, an amphibious serpent,) _/as6iJc(tu«, 
 (Lat. banded,) or C. granulatus, found in meadows. (For figure 
 of which see Chart.)' 
 
 Fourth Family. Vipers. Sub-order Viperina, (venomous 
 snakes.) 
 
 Viperid(B, (Lat. vipera, a viper.) 
 
 This family contains nine genera and twenty species, found 
 chiefly in Asia and Africa; none of them have been discovered 
 on the American continent. Unlike the Colubrine Snakes, these 
 have few if any teeth in the upper ,jaw ; but they have, in com- 
 mon with the Crotalidse, glands secreting a poisonous fluid, which, 
 on occasion, they, discharge through their fangs in front. These 
 glands are connected with muscles which are capable of exerting 
 a powerful compression, and thus of ejecting the venom with 
 great force into a wound. The shields of the muzzle in this 
 family, are broad and band-like; the scales keeled, except in 
 the genus Acanthophis, (Gr. ^piny-serpent;) the tail ia short 
 and tapering. - .:..'. 
 
520 OPHIDIANS, 
 
 The Common Viper, of Europe, Viper a lerus or V. communis, 
 is greatly feared, though its venom is said not to be as virulent 
 as that of the kindred reptiles found in hotter regions of the 
 globe. It does not often happen that death follovi's the bite of 
 this species in the case of human beings. Ammonia or harts- 
 horn, given internally, and fomentations applied to the part, to 
 be gently rubbed afterwards with oil, are the remedies usually 
 employed. To persons laboring under general debility, or to 
 children of weak and irritable constitution, especially if the rep. 
 tile be in full energy, during the heat of summer, the bite of the 
 Common Viper is known to prove fatal. The surest remedies 
 for its bite, are the immediate removal of the poison by suction, 
 washing, excision of the part, &c. The Viper, as already intima- 
 ted, brings forth its numerous young alive. These, though but a 
 few inches in length, crawl about, and are as fierce as the parent, — 
 throwing themselves into an- attitude of defence when molested, 
 and hissing with anger. Mice, lizards, and nestling birds, are 
 the feod of this species. 
 
 The EspiNG, of Sweden, or Aspic, of England, V. chersia, is 
 perhaps only a variety of the Common Viper, — but is even more 
 virulent ; seldom, however, more than six inch'es in length. The 
 rapid reproduction of the Common Viper renders ineffectual the 
 many eiforts which are made for its extermination. 
 
 The genus Naja contains. the Hooded or Spectacled Ser- 
 pents, Cobra de Capello, — characterized by having the head 
 covered with large plates, and the skin of the upper part of the 
 back dilatable, or capable of such expansion as to form a sort of 
 hood, impressed with a mark somewhat like a pair of spectacles. 
 (See Chart.) Their bite is deadly in the extreme. They are 
 found in Ceylon, from six to fifteen feet in length. The hood 
 and spectacles show themselves when the reptile is enraged and 
 preparing for an attack. The extension of the membranous 
 skin serves as a warning to those who are within reach of the 
 animal. The Naja tripudians, (Lat. dancing,) N. larvata, (Lat. 
 frightened, distracted,) are species of India. To N. iripudimls, 
 the Portuguese originally gave the name of Cobra de Capello. 
 The Naja haje, (see Chart,) is an African species, and indubita- 
 bly the one which the ancients have described under the title of 
 the Asp, or Aspis of Egypt, or of Cleopatra. The Najahs of 
 South Africa are said, when irritated, to expel poison from the 
 points of their fangs, and are supposed to have' the power of 
 ejecting the poison to a distance. > 
 
 The Cobras are the serpents upop which the serpent charmers 
 in India and Egypt chiefly practice their arts, and which are 
 
OFBIDIANS. dSl 
 
 often taught to dance to their rude music. It should be noted 
 with reference to the contest in (the presence of Pharaoh betweea 
 Moses and Aaron and the magicians of Egypt, (Exodus viii., 
 9 — 12,) that it is stated, on good authority, the modern Egyptian 
 jugglers possess the power of throwing the N. haje into a state 
 ofcatalepsy, and' Tendering it still and immovable, in other words, 
 changing it into a rod, by pressing the nape with the fingers. 
 
 Dr. Cantor has brought to notice a new genus of snai«es, nearly 
 allied to the Cobras, called Hamadrydds, (Gr. hama, together 
 with ; drus, an oak or any tree,) which has a few maxillary 
 teeth beyond the poison fangs, thus connecting the venomous 
 serpents to the harmless, that have a complete row of maxillary 
 teeth. According to Dr. C, the Hamadrydas feeds upon other 
 serpents. It is said to be from eight to twelve feet in length, and 
 exceedingly fierce, not merely ready to defend itself, which is all 
 the common Cobra does unless greatly provoked, but quick to 
 attack and to pursue when opposed. ' Its poison is a "pelli^cid 
 tasteless fluid, in consistence like a thin solution of gum arable 
 in water," and reddening litmus paper, like that of other mem- 
 bers of the family. 
 
 The Cerastes or Horn Snake, (see Chart,) is a native of 
 Egypt and Lybia, and characterized by having a group of ele- 
 vated horn-like scales over each eye. Its general length is about 
 two feet. The color is sandy red, with irregular brownish 
 markings .; hence it cannot easily be distinguished from the sands 
 of the desert, in which it dwells ; so that it may be trodden upon 
 unsuspectingly by man or cattle, and inflict a poisonous wound 
 before its presence is perceived. It moves with great rapidity 
 and in all directions, forwards, backwards, and side wise, which 
 makes it the more dangerous. 
 
 Another most deadly, snake, called the Death Adder, and 
 Black Snake, Acanthophis tortor, (Lat. torturer,) is found in 
 Australia. The small woods and sandy heaths around Botany 
 Bay are largely infested with it, and every where it is greatly 
 dreaded by the colonists, on account of thejtiortal wounds which 
 it inflicts. It is hideous in its aspect and thick in proportion to 
 its length," which is two or three feet. The genus AcantJwpMa 
 links the Viperine group to the Rattle snaJces ; the tail terminat- 
 ing in a single horny spine, instead of being invested as in the 
 Rattle Snakes, with dry scaly pieces, resembling so many bell- 
 like appendages, and forming a rattle. The head is covered in 
 front with large plates ; the scuta, or plates beneath the tail, are 
 double. 
 
522i OFHIBUNS. 
 
 Fifth Family. Rattle Snakes. 
 Crotalida, (Gr. xgiraXov, kroialon, a rattle or bell.) 
 
 The Crotaline group, including Rattle Snakes, exhibit the fol. 
 lowing .characters : the face has a large pit on each side ; the 
 head is large behind, crown flat, covered with scales or small 
 shields; the jaws weak, the upper with long fangs in front, and 
 no teeth ; the belly is covered with broad band-like shields, and 
 there are no spurs or rudimentary feet. The species are all more 
 or less venomous ; a part of the family are viviparous, the rest 
 ovo- viviparous. 
 
 The Crotalus, or Rattle Snake, is the type genus of this fam- 
 ily. All the species are distinguished from the others of the 
 group by the presence of a rattle at the end of the tail, (see 
 Chart.) This consists of a number of joints of a horny texture, 
 loosely joined together, so that when rapidly vibrated, they make 
 a distinct whirring noise, which has been compared to that of 
 peas shaken about in a dry bladder, or to the sound produced by 
 the locust, and is heard at some distance. The rattles vary in 
 number according to age ; the basal bell or rattle is the last 
 formed and the largest ; one is erroneously said to be added 
 every year. The head is covered with scales, but in one sub- 
 genus with plates. 
 
 Rattle Snakes, especially when irritated, exhale a disgusting 
 odor. The peccary is said to destroy and devour them, as does 
 the common hog also ; but horses and dogs avoid them. They 
 are sluggish and inactive in their movements ; and, though 
 highly venomous, seldom attempt to inflict any injury upon man 
 unless molested by him. His approach calls forth the noise of the 
 rattle, which usually, precedes any blow. These reptiles never 
 ascend trees, always capturing their prey upon the ground. 
 Usually they rest coiled spirally, in paths, or clear spots in the 
 woods, waiting for their prey, upon which they dart,- when 
 within the proper distance. In mid-winter and during hard frosts 
 these serpents intertwine themselves together, in ball-like masses, 
 and become totally torpid. At that season they may be handled 
 without danger. They eat indifferently all kinds, of birds, but 
 not frogs, to which the Black Snake is so partial. Their food 
 also consists of small animals, such as rabbits, squirrels, rats, 
 &0., and sometimes even dogs are killed by them. Two or 
 three species pf the genus Crptalm are found in North America. 
 
 The Common or Banded Rattle Snake, C, durissus, is dis. 
 persed abundantly throughout the United States, though rarely 
 
OPBIDIANsf 523. 
 
 net with north of the parallel of 45o, It is particularly numer- 
 )us in the region of, the Alleghany mountains. The length is 
 lot often more than four feet. . . , 
 
 The Diamond Rattle Snake, C. adamanteus, (Lat. aSaman- 
 ine,) is more formidable than the preceding species. This is 
 ibund on' the coast'of the States south of North Carolina. It 
 las been known to exceed eight feet in length, and in thickness 
 .0 equal that of a stout man's leg. Those of this species are 
 ieen much about water, and are therefore called Water Rat- 
 tles, to distinguish them from the common species, wRich keeps 
 )n dry land. 
 
 The Cascavella, C. horridus, is common in South America. 
 The kindred genus Crotalophorits, (Gr. krotalon, a. ratt\e; phoreo, 
 o carry,) has several species in North America, "which are usu- 
 illy termed Ground, Rattle Snakes. .These have the head cov- 
 ired with shields, and the rattl|is very small. The Miliary or 
 [iiTTLfi Carolina Rattle Snake, C miliarius, though but 
 welve or fourteen inches in length, is dreaded on account of the 
 ntensity of its venom. . 
 
 The Massasagua, C. Kirtlandij is another species found in 
 lorthern Ohio and Michigan. • Length twenty-seven inches'. 
 
 The BoiQUiRA, or as the natives term it, the Queen of Ser- 
 )ents, is found in Brazil. 
 
 The MiNiMARU, or Jergon, Lachesis (Gr. name of one of the 
 FarccR, or Fates) picta, is a species found in Peru, having the 
 lead heart-shaped and covered with scales, and a thick upper 
 Ip. It haunts the higher forests, while in those lower down its 
 Dlace is filled by its ho less fearful relative, the Bush-Master, 
 L rhombeata, (Prince Max,), which is from six to eight feet in 
 ength. The genus is characterized by double scuta beneath 
 he tail, which ends in a short horny point. 
 
 The Copperheads, (genus TrigonocephaIus,tr'iangu\ar.hea.deA,) 
 ire perhaps even more to be dreaded than the iRattte Snakes, 
 lince they are equally venomous and give no warning of their 
 )resenoe. 1 
 
 The Copper-Head, T. contoVtrix, in length two to three feet, ■ 
 s most extensively distributed. Damp meadows are its favorite re- 
 lorts, where it shows itself to the peril of persons who are engaged- 
 n mowing or passing through theA. It sometimes finds its way 
 nto damp cellars, where, however, it makes itself 'useful by des- 
 roying rats and mice. This and the Banded Rattle Snake are 
 he only reaHy venomous kinds found iii the middle and north- 
 irn States. 
 
 f he Water Moccasin, T. -piscivorus, (Lat. piscis, fish"; voro, 
 
524 &HIIIUH3, 
 
 to devour,) is the pest of southern plantations. This species, 
 like the harn>Iess water snakes of the Middle States, may be seen 
 lying oyer bushes which overhang the water, into which they, 
 plunge on the slightest alarm. 
 
 The Lance-headed Viper, T, lanceoIatus,ia abundantly dig. 
 tributed through several of the West Indialslands. It attains 
 six or seven feet, and sometimes even nine feet in length, and 
 is greatly dreaded. It is said to be remarkable for its activity, 
 and to abound among the sugar plantations, in which many of 
 the laborers fall victims to its bite.^ 
 
 . What is the Srd Okdeb of Reptiles ? How are they particularly distin- 
 guished? What does Gut. say of them? What is said of theij; form! 
 What of their covering ? Describe the upper and lower scales. State the 
 difference in their arrangement and give their respective napies. At what 
 time and in what rtianner do they change their skin? What are the parts 
 of the skeleton ? Describe the vertebral column. How do you account 
 for the flexibility of Serpents ? What is said of the number of their bones? 
 What are their agents of locomotion ? How? To what may the ribs be 
 compared? What is said of their various modes of progression? Why 
 do. the bones of the face deserve especial notice? How is the lower jaw 
 articulated ? How are its extremities connected ? How are these things 
 related to the serpent's swallowing its food ? Have they two lungs ? What 
 is said of their teeth ? What is peculiar to the venomous species? Describe 
 the action of the poison fang ? Does the serpent sting ? What is said of 
 the young of venomous serpents? " What of the non-venomous? How is 
 the goodness of the Creator herein displayed ? Do serpents care for their 
 young? What is said of their voice or hiss? What of their senses? 
 What of their growth and tenacity of life ? What of their powers of fSia- 
 cination? How were they regarded by the ancient Mexicans, Egyptians 
 and Hindoos? Into bow many families does Mr. J. E. Gray divide this 
 order? In what family are the last two included on the Chart? How 
 many sp. are enumerated? What proportion is venomous? Have any 
 been found in a fossil state ? 
 
 What is the 1st Family ? What does it include ? What family compose 
 the Spb-Order Colubbina ? What are the characters of the Colubridffi ? 
 What its leading gen. ? What well known sp. of the gen. Coluber is found 
 in the U. S. ? -Bepeat what is said of them severally. How does the gen, 
 TVopidonotus differ from the true Colul^rines ? State what is said of the 
 two sp. mentioned. What of the other gen. and sp. of this family? 
 
 What is the 2nd Family? Why are the sp. of this family very terrific? 
 What is said of their shields? Name a more marked peculiarity.' Is the 
 tail prehensile? Where are the Boas found ? Where the. Pythons? What 
 statements are made by Livy? What is said of the size, &c., of the Boa? 
 Bepeat what is said of the Euperob Boa. Of the Anaconda. Of the 
 AaoMA. Of the> BojoBi or Ctreen Boa. Of the Coral Snake. What two 
 ■p. of Pythons are mentioned ? What is said of them? How are the F. 
 in Zoological gardens of London fed* 
 
AMPHIBIA. 525 
 
 What is the 8rd Family ? Where are they mostly found ? In what re- 
 speota do they resemble thg Eelf, Do true Sea Snakk8 visit the land? 
 Are they easily caught? Can they Kre in fresh water? Are tfaey venom- 
 ous? What is said by Dr. Cantor? What by the Rev. I. Williams? 
 What kind of scales have the Marine Snakes? What species of true Ma- 
 rine Snakes are mentioned ? 
 
 What is the 4th Family? How many gen. does it contam? , Are any 
 foundon this continent? What is said of their teeth and Shields? What 
 is said of the bite of the CioUMON Viper of Europe? What remedies' for 
 this bite are mentioned? What is Baid of the young, &c., of the Viper? 
 What of the Esping or Aspic? What gen. contain the Hoode]) lor Spec- 
 tacled Serpents? How characterized? What is said of their bite? 
 When do the hood and spectacles appear? What sp. are mentioned? 
 Which is the Asp of Cleopatra ? What is said of the powers of jugglers ? 
 What new gen. has Dr. Cantor brought into notice? What is said of the 
 Cerastes or Horned Snake? What of the Death Adder? What link does 
 this form? ' 
 
 What is the 6th Family? By what characteristics are they distinguished? 
 What is the type of this family? How is it distinguished from the others? 
 Describe the Battle Snake. What is said of their habits and movements 7 
 What is their condition in mid-winter ? What is said of their food ? Men- 
 tion the sp. found in N. A., also those of S. A. 
 
 What gen. includes the Copper-heads ? Why are they to be especially 
 dreaded? What sp. is found in the Xorthern and Middle States? What 
 are its favorite resorts? What is said of the Water Moccasin? What of 
 the Lance-headed Viper? 
 
 Name and trace those figured or mentioned on the Chart. 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 Fourth Ohdek. Amphibia, (Gr. 'a/itpi^iog, amphihios, having 
 a double life.) 
 
 The Reptiles of which we have treated in the preceding sec 
 tions, are covered with plates, shields, or scales. , In those of the 
 present order, the skin is naked, smooth, and often moist, or lu- 
 bricated with a fluid secretion,' which, in som^ cases, is acrid and 
 apt to irritate the skin of the persons who hitndle it Ai^ in 
 snakes and lizards, the skin is frequently shed ; in some species 
 in shreds; in others entire. In some, as in the frog, the blood, 
 through the delicate vessels of the skin, as well as in the vessels 
 of the lungs and gills, undergoes those changes which are nee- 
 essary for the maintenance of animal life, This cutaneous res- 
 piration can, however, take place only while the skin is kept 
 moist ; the same remark may be made respecting the gills of 
 fishes, of tadpoles, and various Crustacea. To meet this exi> 
 
626 AMPHIBIA. 
 
 ■gency, the Reptiles have a skin which is capable of secreting a 
 fluid by which it is preserved in a hiimid condition. The healthy 
 action of the sliin, co-operating with that of the lungs, is really 
 essential to their existence. Dr. Townson, of England, in his 
 tracts on the " Respiration of the Amphibia," states from actual 
 experiment,, that a frog, when placed on blotting paper well 
 soaked with water,' absbi'bed nearly its own weight of the fluid 
 in the short time of an hour and a half; and, it is believed, these 
 reptiles never discharge it, except when they are disturbed or 
 pursued, and then only to lighten their bodies and facilitate their 
 escape. The forrriof the Amphibians is variably. Besides the 
 naked skin, we may mention, as general characters of the pres- 
 ent order, that the skull is united to the column of vertebrse by 
 two condyles, (Gr. kondulos, a protuberance or knot on the end 
 of a bone,) situated on the back of the head ; the teeth are gen- 
 erally numerous, of small and equal size and clp^e set ; the toes 
 usually unfurnished with claws ; the ribs either wanting, (Plate 
 XII^ fig. 4,)! or rudimentary. and not attached to the breast-bone; 
 and the animals are oviparous, the eggs having soft, not calcare- 
 ous shells, A change of form and habit, as we have stated in 
 our general description of the Reptilps, occurs in many, which 
 begin their existence with branchiae, or gills, that afterwards be- 
 come obliterated ; while in others, the branchise continue through, 
 out their lives. Several prominent naturalists, "including Prof. 
 Agassiz, are' inclined to separate the Amphibiaris from the Class 
 of Reptiles, regarding them as possessing the distinguishing 
 characters upon which classes are founded ; but as this point 
 seems not perfectly settled, and they have usually been numbered 
 with the .Reptiles,, they are go .arranged ori the Qhart, ; ; 
 
 The Amphibians may ,be divided into two sub-orders. 
 
 First Sitb-order. Caducibkanchiata, (Lat. caducus, perish- 
 able ; branchim, gills.) 
 
 The distinguishing characteristic of this sub-order is that the 
 Ampjiibia which it includes, commence life vrith gills for the 
 aSration of the blood, i. e.,' the air effects, through the medium 
 of the gills, a change corresponding to the arterialization of the 
 blood through the medium of the lungs, in other animals. The 
 gills, however, are pdssessed only in the early or tadpole state) 
 they become gradually obliterated, and lurtgs are developed. ' ' 
 
 This sub-order includes five families, viz.: (1) Caciliida, 
 Caebilift; (2) Ranidee, Fi-osk; (S) Bufoidce, To&is; (4) Salaman- 
 dridce, Salamanders ; (b) Amphiwmda, Menoponriia, &c. 
 
AMPHIBIA. S27 
 
 FiEST Family. Cmciliida, (Lat. ccecilia, from ceecus, blind ;) 
 Apodous, (or footless.) 
 
 The Reptiles of this family, Cuvier, following Linnseus, 
 plaped in his third and last family of Opiiidians, calling them 
 naked serpents, and observing that those who placed it among the 
 Balrachians, "did not know whether the form underwent a meta- 
 morphosis or not." Muller, however, has proved that the Csecilia 
 has, at a very early period, gills, which are soon lost. The 
 name Csecilia was given to these Reptijes on account of their 
 supposed blindness. The eyes are, in fact, exceedingly small, 
 and nearly hidden under the skin. Cuvier asserts that in some 
 species the eyes are wanting altcgether. The Csecilia are 
 named by Dumeril, Ophiosomata, (Gr. opMs, a snake ; soma, a 
 body.) Tiiey have a snake-like body, destitute of limbs, and with 
 vertebrse resembling those of fishes, short ribs, and no sternum 
 or breast-bone^ They are undoubtedly to be regarded as a con- 
 necting link between the Ophidians and the Amphibia. Their 
 skin is smooth, viscous, and marked with a regular series of 
 ring-like furrows ; and the scales, which are very minute, are 
 not to be found, except by an examination of the substance of 
 the skin itself. The head is depressed ; the tongue is thick, 
 rounded and velvety; the skull united to the vertebrEs by two 
 tubercles or condyles, as in the other Batrachians, whereas there 
 is only one in snakes. There are both ; maxillary and palatal 
 teeth. In their intestines, Cuvier says there is to be found " a 
 quantity of vegetable matter, vegetable earth and sand." Nine 
 species of this singular, groiip are described as belonging to 
 Asia apd America. These Reptiles are ovoviviparous, producing 
 their young alive, to the number of six or seven. Not much is 
 known respecting their general habits; they bury themselves in 
 the soft mud of marshy places, piercing through it, in a worm- 
 like manner, often to the depth of many feet; they creep slowly 
 on the ground, and, when in water, swim like an eel, striking to 
 the right and left with their tail. 
 
 The Ringed CiECiLiA, C. annulata, (Lat. ringed,) which is 
 figured on the Chart, is an inhabitant of Brazil, Cayenne/ and 
 Surinam. It is remarkable for the bluntness of the tail, the dis- 
 tinctness of the rings, extending from the h6ad over its whole 
 length to the tail, and for the position of the false nostrils, be- 
 low and a little before each eye. 
 
628 AMPHIBIA. 
 
 Anouea, or Tailless Amphibia. 
 
 This group comprises the Frogs, the Toads, with their allied 
 ibrms, constituting, in the whole, a numerous assemblage. In 
 these animals, the form of the body is short and broad. Duriiig 
 the tadpole state, there are no limbs, but a long compressed tail, 
 is their organ of locomotion, (Plate XIII. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4;) in this 
 state it is called a tadpole ; subsequently fourlimbs are developed, 
 (figs, b and 6,) and the tail disappears, (fig. 8.) The skull is very 
 short and broad. Ribs are wanting ; the seven or eight anterior 
 vertebrae only are distinct ; the tympanic orifice is open ; the 
 breathing is at first effected by gills, and afterwards by lungs. 
 Warm and temperatej but moist climates are the localities most 
 favorable to the Anourous Amphibia. 
 
 Second Family. Ranidce, (Lat. raria, a frog.) Peogs. 
 
 In this family of tailless Batrachians, the posterior legs are 
 long and formed for leaping ; the hind toes are webbed ; teeth 
 are found both on the upper jaw and on the palate ; the mouth 
 is wide ; the tongue folded back, broad, soft, fleshy, and notched ; 
 the eyes are prominent, and they are protected by a movable 
 membrane well adapted to guard, them against those injuries to 
 which, from the Frogs' mode of life, they would be peculiarly 
 liable. In the tailless Frogs, which are nocturnal in their habits, 
 the pupil is linear. The ears are extremely small, yet by the 
 answers which the Frogs make to fiach other, even at a great 
 distance, by croaking, they show that they have powers of hear. 
 ing which meet their wants. To enter into a more minute des- 
 cription of these harmless, and in gardens, highly useful Reptiles, 
 seems unnecessary. All are familiar with their croak, their 
 mode of leaping apd swimming, their bright eyes and their col- 
 oring. The Frogs, like other Reptiles, pass the colder months of 
 the year in a state of torpor, buried deep in the mud at the bottom 
 of ponds or slulggish streams, and so mingled together as to form 
 almost a continuous mass. In the spring they emerge, when 
 they begin their singing, which has some meaning besides mere 
 noise, each male Trog having a different note from his neighbor. 
 
 The Ranidse are more or less accustomed to dwell in the 
 water or its neighborhood, voraciously consuming the larger in- 
 sects, and especially slugs, which are a favorite food. It is, 
 therefore, the ofiinion of some, that instead of being wantonly 
 and cruelly destroyed, they ought to be protected. The Fi;og 
 
AKFBraU. ^^ 
 
 seizes ite food wiA great rapidity, uebig itetoQgue fi>r that pur- 
 pose, which, being quite as long as the animal's body, darts at 
 prey with arrow^like speed, and it is swallowed entire, secured 
 Dy the glutinous .edhesive secretjonyhich lubricates the extrem- 
 ity of that organ. This rapid swallowing seems to indicate 
 that the taste is not very acute. The fopal axis of a Frog's eye 
 is precisely as far distant as the length of each Frog's tongue, 
 and at that angle these animals catch their prey. 
 
 The eggs of Frogs are gelatinous and numerous; some natu- 
 xalists represent the number as thirteen hundred, and even as 
 many as fourteen hundred. The black points discernible in the 
 •egg& arethe germs of the Tadpole, or , immature young. The 
 tiievelopmetit is rapid, but few days elapsing, in some place9, be- 
 fore the young is hatched, though where the climate is less mild 
 it is not hatched before the expiration pf a mpnth or more. The 
 tad'^le state isquickly passed, and the metamorphosis becomes 
 complete. With the disappearance of the gills ' and tail, the 
 habits, of the animal are changed ;•' atmospheric air now becomes 
 the Sole element Of respiration. While yet tjidpoles, they were 
 the prey of fishes; now they become the prey of thp. weasel, the 
 snake, and various kinds of water-fowl, which feed eagerly upon 
 -them. Very fe>v^out of every thousand that are hatched survive 
 the summer. Frogs are capable of being tamed, and instances 
 are related of their visiting houses regularly at the hour of meal- 
 time, and partaking of offered food. A story is related by Mr. 
 Bell of one which had such strong partiality for'; warmth, that 
 during the winter setison's,' he " regularly and contrary to the 
 cold-blooded tendency of his nature, came out of bis hole in the 
 evening and directly made for the health in front of a good 
 kitchen fire, where he wquld continue to bask and enjoy himself 
 .till the family retired to rest . . . frequently nestling under the 
 warm fur of the eat, whilst the cat appeared extremely jealous 
 of interrupting the comforts and convenience of the frog."^' 
 
 Besides the change of form in the Frogs, and the power of the 
 naked skin to act upon the air in such a way as to fulfil, in a 
 great degree, the office of lungs, and the fact that aerated water 
 may be made to subserve this process of cutaneous respiration ; 
 besides, also, their power of long abstinence from food, their hy- 
 bernation, and their age, as great as thirty -six years, in the case 
 of the tailless species, startling stories are told of their issuing 
 forth alive from the heart of trees, or the solid rock, after the 
 confinement of centuries. The experiments of Dr. Buckland, 
 however, favor the idea that frpgs and toads cannot live more 
 
than one or two yekM,' completely iESccltided from 'air and; desti, 
 tute of food, n 
 
 Sixteen genera of these Amphibia have been enumerated, 
 three of which are found in North Ameriea; It is worthy of 
 being noted that Frogs were introduced into Ireland from Eng, 
 l^ftd, as late as the year 1696, by Dr. Gwythers, a 'fellow of the 
 UniiHersity of Dublin, (and we add here that still more recently 
 were snakes imported into that country.) ' ' 
 
 The Bull Frog, or Croaker, Rana pipiens, (Lat. chirping,) 
 is peculiar to North America^ and found throughout the Unibn. 
 It is very large, thfe body being from six to twelve in'ches. long, 
 and a • half pound or more in weight. Sometimes they have 
 been known to "measure two feet from one extended extremity 
 to the other." This species are noted for their bull-like bellow, 
 ings, which may be heard to a great distance. They are vora- 
 cious and predatory, devouring insects, fish, and even snakes. 
 Their hind legs are used for food and are " excellent eating." 
 These Frogs are sometimes reared specially for the table. 
 
 The Maksh Fkos, E. paMstris, (Lat. marshy,) is one of our 
 most beautiful frogs, and ' extremely active. Length, three 
 inches. 
 
 The Edtblk, or Green Frog, E. esculenta, found in Conti. 
 nental Europe and in parts of Asia and Africa, is essentially 
 •aquatic, inhabiting either running or stagnant streams. The 
 ■crbak of the male in the summer months, where the numbers are 
 large, is said to be almost intolerable. The meat of these frogs 
 is described as delicate and well flavored. In Vienna, (Austria,) 
 they are considerably used, being preserved for eating, and fat- 
 tened in " froggeries." . 
 
 The Wood Frog, E. sihatica, (Lat. woody,) is- found from 
 Massachusetts to Virginia ; it isin length two and a half inches. 
 'If^may be at once known in the woods by its wonderful and rap- 
 idly repeated leaps, which render its capture very difficult.' To 
 this nearly corresponds thb Red or Common European Frog, JJ. 
 temporaria, (Lat. temporary or changeable. ) 
 
 In the West Indies and South America is a species Cystignathis 
 (Gr. vesicSited jaw,) oceZZa#Ms,> called Bull Frog, and distinguished 
 by the entire absence of a web on the hind feet, which can clear a 
 wall five feet in height. The palm of the hand is provided with 
 quite large tiiberoles ; that at the base of the inner fingei; is the 
 largest of al]. The first phalanges are marked beneath by similar 
 tubercles. Small tubercles also appear under the articulations of 
 the first and second phalange?, except 'under the inner toe. I<i 
 
AUFHIBIA. :^ 
 
 the Antilles these frogs are reared in a state of domestiotktipp, 
 and said to become familiar. >, ,■,>, 
 
 The genus Ceratophrys, {Gr. horned eye-lid.) includes frogs 
 of beautiful colorsj found in South America, having a granular 
 or tuberculous skin, with the edge of the upper eye-lid prplpnged 
 to a point, resembling a horn. The species C. granosa, (Lat. 
 full of grains,) is figured on the Chart, r . , 
 
 The Painted Fsog, Biscoglossiis, (.Gr. orb-like; tongue,) pic- 
 tus, is somewhat remarkable for its rounded tongue, and the 
 markings of its skin. : - , 
 
 The Thimble Frogs, DactyJethra, are a peculiar kind of 
 Frogs found in Africa, and derivirig their name from having 
 some of their toes enveloped at their tips by a conical horny 
 claw or cap. 
 
 ^ The Tree Frogs, (fZyZada,) are arboreal in their habits, and 
 capable of leaping, like birds< among the branches. They are 
 described as beautiful, both in form and coloring, The foot of 
 these Frog^ differs in its structure from that of .'the other animals 
 that make their home in trees ; it is not a grasping organ, nor is 
 it furnished with claws for clinging, but has suckers somewhat 
 like those we have described as belonging to the Gecko. The 
 enlarged and rcnindfed tip of each finger, both of the fore and 
 hind pawsj^'has an apparatus consisting! of a little cushion moist 
 with a thick glutinous fluid, iind applying : itself so closely to the 
 surface it touches, as to support the animal's weight. It disen- 
 gages or fixes its fingers at will. The cushioned apparatus is like 
 > an air-pump at the extremities of the fingers, givjng. the animal 
 the ability to walk on the, ceiling, on the polished surface (if a 
 mirror, even to suspend itself by one finger, if so disposed. 
 Tree Frogs are numerous in some of the Southern and Western 
 States. The frogs of the genus Hyla, (Gr. huh, a wood,) differ 
 from the common frog, (Rana,) in the greater length of the hind 
 legs, and also in the male having. a membranous sac under the 
 throat, which is distended during their hoarse and 6fi-repeated 
 croaking. So alert, are these Frogs that they have been known 
 to clear an interval of twelve feet ip descending from one branch 
 to another. Their leaps are also made with much addres^and 
 precision, indicating great distinctness and power of vision. 
 
 It must not be supposed that these Frogs pass all their lives 
 on trees. On the contrary, like others of th6 race, they are at 
 first aquatic animals, and when, adult, visit the water to deposit 
 their egigs, which is generally done in April. They also hyber- 
 nate in the mud at the bottom of lake? ' and marshes. At this , 
 time their cioakings are so lOiid anddiacordant, that "they might 
 
be tiiken for the c*y of a pack of hounds ih full chase;" and 
 in the stillness of night, "the din of their united voices may f re- 
 quently be heard at the distance of a league, especially on the 
 approach of rain." After the young are hatched by the heat of 
 the sun, as in the case of the Common Prog,, they continue/ in 
 the tadpole state about two months, swimming in the water and 
 feeding upon insects and worms. When the tail and gills have 
 disappeared, they, with unerring instinct, take to the woods. 
 The Tree Frog lives about thirty -six years. It is slow in attain, 
 ing its full growth, which does not take place until the fourth 
 year; nor does it breed before this period. Its fine green color 
 is not perpetual ; after the breeding season, the animal becomes 
 of a reddish brown, which soon changes to gray, mottled with 
 reddish ; the color next assumed is blue, and this again changes 
 to green, livhich is the summer tint. The agreeable colors and 
 sprightlines8 9fthis frog, occasion it, not unfrequently, to be kept 
 in Cages. 
 
 The NoliTHBliN Tree Frog, H. versicolor, (Lat. changing 
 color,) is spread over a large part of the United States. This 
 Frbg is particularly clamorous in rainy weather. Dr. DeKay 
 says he has been assured " that it possesses ventriloquial powers 
 in no inconsiderable degree." It appears to assimilate its color 
 to that of the tree on which it rests. This species is very simi- 
 lar to H. mridis, of Europe, (see Chart.) 
 i 
 Third Family. Bufoidm, (Lat. lufo, a. toad.)- Toads. 
 
 In the Toads, the tailless Batrachian structure has its highest 
 development. Cuvier distinguishes them as having an inflated 
 body, B warty or tuberculous skin, and a tumor of variable size 
 behind each eye, consisting of a gland froni the pores of which 
 exude an unctupus and offensive fluid. They have no teeth ; the 
 hind limbs do not much exceed in length the fore pair. They 
 crawl rather.than leap, and after passing froni' the tadpole state, 
 retire from the neighborhood of water to dry situations. Their 
 saliva has been supposed tp be poisonous; but this js a mistake. 
 There are, however, glands on the skin of the back and sides, 
 that give out a fluid which in soi:;ne species is acrid, capable of 
 producing irritation in a very sensitive skin, and probably intend- 
 ed for the defeiiceof the Toad against the attacks of carnivorous 
 animals. 
 
 Toads are nocturnal ip their habits, evening and night being 
 the principa,!, season of theii: activity, and their favorite slugs then 
 »l8aHBEe«(pii!ig. ahrQa4 . ^if^ hibernate in hoJeE; ui th^ |;roun4 
 
usanaix. '^8 
 
 the interstices of walls, or other similar retreats, in the spring 
 emerging ifrotn their state of rest and seeking the water in order 
 to deposit their eggs« in the form of strings of jelly three or four 
 feet long, with a double row of black dots, when their loud croak 
 may he heard at a considerable distance. They are two or three 
 weeks later than the Frogs in depositihg their eggs, after which 
 process they return to the land. In August, the tadpoles, having 
 completed their transformation, leave their native element for the 
 land, dispersing themselves in all directions. ' ■ 
 
 Of the genus Biifo, about twenty species are enumerated ; 
 .several are found in the United States, hkt only one is seen in 
 the northern parts of the Uniotit These have simple toes and a 
 distinct tympanum. 
 
 The cfbiiMON Amejucan Toad, B, Americanus, (B. vulgaris, 
 Storer,) is about three Inches in length. It is furnished with a 
 sac for holding the water which it obtains through the skin. The 
 skin, shed at certain intervals, is, according to Mr. Bell, swal- 
 lowed as soon as it is detached. 
 
 The Natter Jack, or RunninS ToAd, B. calamiia, is a spe- 
 cies of toad of a yellowish brown color, with a bright yellow line 
 'rniinlrig' down the middle of the back. It never 'leaps, nor does 
 it crawl with the usual toad-pace, but its motions are more like 
 running. This species is found in Ireland. 
 ,• The Bahia Toad, Phryniseus nigricans, -ia a s^efeies''noticed 
 by Mr. Darwin, at Bahia Blanca. He graphically says of it, 
 " If we imagine, first, that it had been steeped in the blackest 
 ink, and then, when dry, allowed to crawl over a board freshly 
 painted with the brighest vermilion, so as to color the soles of its 
 feet and parts of its stomach, a good idea of its appearance will 
 be gained." Instead of being nocturnal, like other toads, it 
 crawls about during the heat of the day, over dry sand-hillocks 
 and arid plains. 
 
 The Mitred Toad, B. inargdritifir, (Lat; pearl-bearing,) re, 
 ceives its name from the peculiar conformation of the head. It is 
 an American species. 
 
 The SnR^NAM Toad, (see Chart,) Pipa Surinamensis or mon- 
 strosa. Is from six to eight inches in length, and four to five in 
 breadth. It has a large and triangular head, is without teeth or a 
 tongue ; its tympanum is concealed beneath the skin ; its eyes are 
 small and placed near the margin of the upper jaw. The skin 
 is of dirty brown color, thickly studded with reddish tubercles. 
 The general uncouthness of its appearance is increased hy a 
 phenomenon almost unexampled in the animal kingdom. The 
 female has the back pitted wi|h a great number of smalt oells, 
 
534 AUFHISU> 
 
 and in these the male carefully places the eggs which she has 
 deposited. When this has been done, she repairs to the water : 
 the sitin of the bade now swells ; the pits deepen, and in due 
 time the Tadpoles appear; on the back they pass the Tadpole 
 state, and do not emerge till they have lost their tail and their 
 limbs are developed. • The female then returns to the land. 
 This Toad is not unfrequently found in houses. The Pipa is 
 not restricted to Surinam, but is found in various parts of South 
 America. 
 
 Tailed Amphibia. Ueodela. (Gr. oigi, oura, a tail; d^loj, 
 { delos, manifest.) , 
 
 This division is one of peculiar interest to the naturalist, as 
 well from the variety of forms which it include?, as from the 
 successive changes which these forms exhibit. They are charac- 
 terised by their permanent tail, their rudimentary ribs, the pos- 
 session of four or two limbs, the absence of a breast bone, the 
 simple lungs, the teeth in both jaws, and the want of an external 
 ear. These amphibia are widely dispersed oyer the northern 
 temperate portions of both' continents. North Anjerici^ and 
 Japan possess the largest variety of forms. . , 
 
 FounTH Family. Shlamandrida, (Gr. ffala/jAvSga, sahmatdra, 
 a salamander.) 
 
 Newts. 
 
 Of these, some species are terrestrial visiting the water only 
 in the breeding season ; others make it their permanent or nearly 
 permanent abode. The Tadpoles, or young of "the Newts, un. 
 dergo a transformation, essentially resembling that of the Toads 
 and Frogs, with this difference, however, that the tail merely 
 changes its form, and is never lost.' In their general appearance, 
 they resemble! Lizards. The jaws have minute teeth, and a 
 double row ftlso extends down the palate. 
 
 Land Newts. (Occasionally found in water.) 
 
 The Land Newts, included in the genus Salamandra, have the 
 tail, when the animals are adult, round and tapering; on each 
 :side of the head is a gland, similar to that of Toads; the tongue 
 is short and thick, enlarged above, and attached by a slender 
 root in the center. The breathing in the first aquatic or tad. 
 pole state, is by external gills ; aflerwards atmospheric by lungs. 
 , These reptilea frequent humid places, and take up their abode 
 
AMrrasu. 535 
 
 in^the soft grdtindii among decayed trees in wooded districts, 
 in ditches and shady spots, and in caves android crumbling 
 biiildings. They are ^luggishi and; slow in their movements, not 
 ■often quitting their retreat, except dtiriog rainy weather, and at 
 night.' The couragei in danger! for which they have been re- 
 nowned, is^nothing more than stupidity. Flies, worms, slugs,'&c,, 
 constitute their food. Their size varies from two to seven inches, 
 and they also show great varieties of color. Fortexample, we have 
 the Yel'low-beUied Salamander, witli i the, upper pfsrts reddish 
 brown ; thfe Violet-colored ; the Red-backed ; the Slate-colored, 
 (with' orange beneath ;) the Salmon-colored ; the, Blptehsd, (gray, 
 with large bluish-black blotches ;) the Yellow, (spotted with bleick,,) 
 otherwiseithe Long-tAlled, Salamander ; the Grannlfited, (greenish 
 above, varied with:gray and brown beneath ;) the,- Red ; the Scar- 
 let-; the Black; the Spectacled Salamander, 450. : The number of 
 spetoies is very large, even as found in the United States, and 
 this general reference to them must suffice. 
 
 They are said to pass the' winter in a kind, of underground 
 burrow, numbers assembling tbgether, and intertwining them,- 
 selves for the sake of mutual' warmth. Like other reptiles, they 
 shed their cuticle ; they are ovoviviparous, forty or fifty being the 
 produce at the same time, of a single female. Though tenacious 
 of life, a little salt or vinegar thrown on the Sa,lam!inder, pro- 
 duces convulsions; and death. From some species, there exndes 
 a milky or glutinous secretion, which is occasionally projected 
 several inches ; it is acrid, and of a powerful odor, and is de- 
 scribed as fatal to small animals. In this fact, we perhaps have 
 the origin of Pliny's statement, that tfee Salamander "infects 
 viith its poisbrii the vegetables of a vast extent of country, and 
 even spreads death around, like a pestilence." -This,, and the 
 ancient stones of its being a body of ice, and uninjured by the 
 strongest heat, and of its hiavihga deadly, bite, are now regarded 
 as utterly ^groundless; ; It may be, however, that larger and 
 more formidable species formerly existed,! >. • 
 
 The Teiton is:distiDguished by its fish-like tongue, which is 
 attached' more or less at its borders, and has only th? front ex- 
 itreraity free. Of this genus,, there, are several species found in 
 brobks . and marshy places, — varying in length from three to six 
 inches. The Tiger TrIton, T. tigrinus, is of a bluish-black 
 color, with numerous irregular blotches over the head, ,body, 
 tail, and extremities. ; The .length ris from six to seven inches, 
 including the tail, which , is longer than the bpdy. Spiecimens 
 of this Newt have been obtained from the vicinity of Oneida 
 Lake, (N. Y.) 
 
636 . mEEIBI4. 
 
 The largest Watef Newt of England, is tbe Chested TataroK, 
 T. cristatus, about six inches in length, and which feeds on 
 aquatic insects, the Tadpole of the Frog, and even the smaller 
 Species of Water Newts. The manner in which the female de. 
 posits her eggs, is very singular. When present, she chooses 
 the leaf of the smart- weed, (Polygormm Persicaria,) as the place 
 for the deposit. "She first applies her head to; the edges of a 
 leaf, and turns it with her snout in such a way that the lower 
 surface of the leaf is turned towards her breastj then, with her 
 fore -paws, she passes the turned leaf beiieath her body, seizes 
 it with her hind-paws, and conducts it beneath the venti folding 
 it, at the same time, and forming with it an angle, the opening 
 of which is directed towards the tail. The egg, in escaping 
 from the vent, would thus pass through the middle of the angle 
 formed by the leafl but the Salamander (or Newt) stops it- in its 
 fall by, her hind feet, shuts up this angle with themviand thus 
 forms in the leaf a fold in which the egg is held. Still, on the 
 removal of the feet, the egg would fall to the bottom of the water ; 
 but the careful parent, before she quits the leaf, folds it so firmly 
 with her hind feet, that the gluten with which the envelop of the 
 egg is surrounded, sfireads from the pressure on the two internal 
 surfaces of the leaf, and prevents the folds from opening." , (See 
 Plate XIII. fig. 9, which represents the Triton on the leaf; also, 
 for the figures in the same plate, representing the animal as it 
 appears in the transition from the tadpole to the perfect state, and 
 the explainations of these figures, as attached to the plate.) 
 
 Aquatic Newts. 
 
 These are distinguished by having the tail flattened on the 
 sides, and by the absence of glands from the sides of the head. 
 The body is covered with watery excrescences. 
 
 These reptiles spend nearly all their lives in water. They 
 are remarkable for the facility with which they- successfully 
 reproduce their tail when it is cut off. 
 
 The' males, during the breeding season, are distinguished by 
 a high membranous crest upon the back^ and another one along 
 the upper side of the tail. The limbs are short and ibeble,!and 
 progression in water is effected by the paddleJike action &f the 
 tail. It should be remarked, that as the Land and Water Newts 
 are, some of them, at least, closely alike in anatomical structure, 
 some naturalists reject this division, and have introduced other 
 distinctive terms. 
 
AUFHIBU. 6S7 
 
 Fifth Family. AmpMumida, or Menopomida. 
 
 These tailed Batrachians are nearly all found in North Amer- 
 ica. The gills, after a short time, suddenly disappear, leaving 
 orifices upon the neck, and the respiration is performed . by the 
 lungs alone. They are not known to undergo any transforma- 
 tions. Among them are included the genus Menopoma, charac- 
 terised by having a robust and flattened body, with the head 
 distinct from the neck, and the skin wrinkled into numerous 
 folds. The tail iS' broad and much compressed, and the soles of 
 the feet have a marginal fold of skin, qualifying the animal for 
 rapid movement in the water. It rarely leaves that element 
 ejfcept at night. These creatures, sometimes twenty or twenty- 
 four inches in length, are extremely voracious, feeding on in- 
 sects, fish, and in some instances, on small mammals. They are 
 of a slate or blackish color. As they bite at a hook, they are 
 sometimes caught by the angler, to his disappointment, and per- 
 haps terror, though, as their teeth are very small, they are not 
 capable of doing him any serious injury. 
 
 The Ground Puppy, Alleghany Hell-bender, M. Allegha- 
 niensis, is a species found in the Alleghany river, coming from 
 the Mississippi waters. Its tail is nearly as long as its body. 
 
 The Amfhiuma has an eel-shaped body, with the head and 
 neck continuous. The limbs are exceedingly minute, and di- 
 vided in one species into two, in another, into three jointless toes. 
 
 The Three-toed Amphiuma, A. tridactylum, (three-toed,) is 
 found in Alabama and Arkansas. The largest member of the 
 present family Megahhatrachus, (Or. great batrachian,) is found 
 in Japan. Specimens of it have been seen more than three feet 
 in length, and weighing eighteen pounds or upw.ards. 
 
 ISecond Sub-Order. Perennibrancbiata. (L<at. perennis, 
 enduring ; branchiee, gills.) 
 
 The name of this sub-order is applied to Ainphibians, respect- 
 ing some of which diversity of opinion has been entertained, 
 and still exists. Though they acquire lungs, at least rudiment- 
 ary ones, respiration is aquatic by means of gills which are 
 external and persistent, — the animals continuing in a perfect 
 tadpole state, by an arrest of development. These singular 
 forms the Chart arranges in one family. 
 
 Family. Proteida, (Gr. IlQuxeig, Proteus, a proper name.) 
 
 The name which DeKay gives to these reptiles, is Sirenidie, 
 (Gr. siren.) More recently they have been included in a sub- 
 
538 AMPHIBIA. 
 
 order of the Vrodelan Batrachians, termed Trematodera, a name 
 referring to the perforations or apertures on the side of the neck 
 which remain through life. 
 
 The first genus we shall notice, is Proteus, of which there is a 
 single species, P. anguinus, (Lat. snalty.) Few reptiles have 
 excited more interest than this curious species, — an apparent 
 link between the amphibia and fishes. Its branchiEe are not, 
 indeed, covered as in fishes, but are exposed, presenting the form 
 of a beautiful pinit tuft on each side of the head ; the body is 
 eel-like, as are all its movements ; the tail is compressed ; the 
 eyes are rudimentary,— with small black dots under the skin, (as 
 has been discovered by dissection;) the jaws are furnished with 
 minute teeth. The limbs iare very small and feeble, and, in 
 fact, almost useless; the toes are three on the front, and two on 
 each hind limb. The skin is smooth and delicate. 
 
 The Proteus dwells in the subterraneous waters of the great 
 cavern of Adelsburg or "Grotto of the Maddalena," situated near 
 the main road from Trieste to Vienna, (Austria.) " These sub- 
 terranean waters communicate with, and supply a small late in 
 the celebrated cavern ; and it is in this lake, where no sunlight 
 ever enters, inclosed by barriers of piled up rock, deep in the 
 bowels of the earth, that the Proteus is found, reposing in the 
 soft mud, precipitated by the fluid, and lining the rocky ,basin." 
 At Sittich, which is about thirty miles from the cavern, it is also 
 noticed, though rarely, being " thrown up by water from a sub- 
 terranean cavity." 
 
 According to Sir Humphrey Davy, the Protei are seldom 
 found in dry seasons, but are often abundant after great rains. 
 The length of a moderate-sized one, is about a foot ; XiiB tljick. 
 ness varies from that "of a quill^ to that of the thumb." The 
 nature of its food is not certainly known ; though its numerous 
 teeth would indicate it to- be carnivorous. The skin" is of a pale 
 flesh color, but when exposed to the light, it approaches olive 
 brown. The light appears to act upon it with a power that is 
 too stimulating, and the animals, when exposed to it, creep under 
 any object that may shelter them from its influence. In the 
 mysterious nature of the Proteus, and its singular dwelling-place, 
 how manifest is the hand of the Creator, assigning to everything 
 the bounds of its habitation, and so organizing every thing, that 
 it shall accomplish its allotted destiny. 
 
 The Menobrandhus, (Gr. enduring gills,) or Phanerdbranthis, 
 
 iGr. manifest gills,) of Fitzinger, is clearly allied to the Proteus, 
 t has a body moderately elongated ; the tail is deep and flat- 
 tened at the sides ; the head is flat and large. There are two 
 
AMFBIBIA. 539 
 
 rows of small conical teeth in the uppetjaw, and' one row be- 
 neath. The branchial tufts are large. The toes are four on each 
 foot. The species called the Banded Proteus, or Big Witch 
 Lizard, M. lateralis, {Necturus lateralis,) is of a brownish color, 
 with blackish spots, and often a dark lateral line. It is stouter 
 and longer than the Proteus, the length varying from one to 
 three feet. It is found in " the great northern lakes of this 
 continent. A spotted species, M. maculatus, is found in Lake 
 Champlain and Lake George^ and a third species, M, punctains, 
 having more uniform markings than the others, lives in Santee 
 River, South Carolina. The Menobranchus has been found in 
 the Erie Canal, (N. Y,) The animal appears to move slowly 
 in the water, but the powerful ta.il must render it able to move 
 with much celerity. Though its flesh is white, and perhaps 
 savory, it is looked upon by fishermen with disgust and ^version. 
 
 The term Siren represents eel-like animals,, having three gill- 
 tufts on each side, and utterly destitute of hinder limbs. The 
 front limbs are feeble; the. toes are four in number, small and 
 clawless. The lower jaw has teeth, the upper none ; but there 
 are ranges of teeth on the palate. The eye is very small, and 
 the ear hidden from view. The gills in these animals have less 
 externa] development than in the Menobranchus; but, on the 
 other hand, the lungs perform their part more completely^ 
 
 The Lacei!Tin6 Siren, (S. lacertiha,) is 'probably the largest 
 species, reaching the size of three feet^ It is black above ; 
 dusky beneath; and found in the muddy marshy grounds of 
 South Carolina and Florida. 
 
 The AxoLOTL, Siredon pisciformis, of Mexico, is common to 
 the lakes in the vicinity of the city of Mexico. It is found in the 
 coldest mountain waters. The length of the Axolotl is eight or 
 ten inches ; its general color green^ spotted with black. The flesh 
 resembles that of an eel, and is considered quite agreeable. The 
 gills and gill-openings of this animal are highly developed ; a 
 continuous flap extends across the throat ; the tail is compressed 
 and fin-like. 
 
 Respecting this creature naturalists . have been much per. 
 plexed. Many doubt whether the gills be permanent, and are 
 of the opinion that the Axolotl is nothing more than 'the tadpole 
 of a large species of Salamander, or ' else of some species, the 
 perfect form, of which is yet to be discovered. 
 
 Fossil remains of Amphibia have been found both- in Europe 
 and America. Traces of batrachian foot-marks are thought to be 
 discernible in the new red sand-stone of Massachusetts and Con- 
 
540 AMFHIBIA. 
 
 necticut; and in the coal measures of "Westmoreland county, 
 Pennsylvania, are found foot-prints which are regarded as those 
 of airbreathing vertebrates. 
 
 What is the 4th Order of Reptiles? Describe their skin. How is it ex- 
 uviated? With what furnished ? What liind of changes do the vessels of 
 the skin undergo ? What is necessary in order to their action? How is 
 the skin moistened? What is said of its healthy action? What is the re- 
 mark of Dr. Townson? What is said of the form of the Amphibians I 
 What other characteristics are mentioned besides their naked skin ? What 
 changes of forn» and habit do they undergo ? How do some naturalists 
 regard them ? Into how many orders are they divided ? What is the Ist ? 
 Name its distinguishing characteristics. How many families does it include? 
 What is the 1st Family? Where did Cuv. place it? What has been proved 
 by Muller ? Why was the name Cseoilia given to these reptiles ? How 
 are they characterized? What ia said of their habits? What sp. is men- 
 tioned? What is said of it? 
 
 What do the Tailless Amphibians include ? What characters of this 
 group are given ? Name the 2nd Family. Give its characters. In what 
 condition do they spend the colder months? Upon what do they feed? 
 How do they secure their food? What is said of their eggs? What changes 
 do these animals undergo ? Can they be tamed ? How long do they prob- 
 ably live without air or food? At what time were they introduced into 
 Ireland ? What Frog peculiar to N. A. is mentioned ? What is said of 
 it? What other sp. are named? Give some account of thein. Describe 
 the Tree Frogs. In what respects do they, differ, from common frogs? Do - 
 they never leave the trees ? What is said of their young, &c. ? What 
 sp. are mentioned ? What is the next Family ? How does Guv. distinguish 
 them? Is their saliva poisonous? What is said of their skin? Of their 
 habits ? How many sp. of them ? Which are named ? State what is said 
 of them? How are the Tailed Amphibia characterized? What is the 
 4th Family of Amphibians ? What division is made of the Newts? Des- 
 cribe the Land Newts? What places do they frequent? What is said of 
 their size and color? Of the number of species? What else is said of 
 them ? How are the Tritons distinguished ? In what places are the sp, 
 found? What is said of their size ? Describe the Tiger Triton ? Which 
 is the largest Water Newt of England ? In what manner does the female 
 deposit her eggs ? What are the characteristics and habits of the Aquatic 
 Newts? What is the 5th Family? Where are they nearly all found? 
 Do they undergo any transformation ? How is the gen. Menopoma char- 
 acterized? What further is said of these animals? What sp. is referred 
 to? Describe the Amphiuma? What Sp. are mentioned and what is said 
 of them? What is the 2nd Sub-order? Bepeat what is said of it._ In 
 what family does the Chart include these Anvphibians? Has it received 
 any other name? What genus is first noticed? Can you give its ch»i> 
 aeter ? What is said of its places of abode ? What does Sir Humphrey 
 Davy remark respecting it? What is its size, &c.? Give the characters 
 of the genus Menobranchus ? What is said of the Banded Proteus? 
 What other sp. are men1^0|ied? Describe the animals included in the gen- 
 eric term Siren. Which is the largest sp. ? What is said of the Axolotl! 
 What of Fossil Amphibians ? 
 
 Name and trace the Amphibians figured on the Chart. 
 
M-xm 
 
EXPLAKATIOlir OF I*LATE XHL 
 
 THE FBOO IN ITS DIFFEBENT SIAOSS. 
 
 1. Just emerged from the egg, a tadpole, fishlike creature. 
 
 2. Gills, in branching tufts, on e^h side. 
 
 8. The blood is seen to course through the gill filaments. 
 
 4. The gills begin to disappear, the eyes are formed, and the little tadpole 
 
 or poUywog begins to devour vegetable matter with voracity. 
 6. Ceases to respire water and the hind legs begin to show themselves. 
 
 6. The fore legs appear and the tail is being absorbed. 
 
 7. It breathes by lungs, the tail has disappeared, and the legs are perfected. 
 
 8. The full grown Frog, hvi^ upon insects, niioe, birds, &o. 
 
 OJtEA.T TTATEE NEWT IN DIFFERENT STATES. 
 
 May 6th. The young Salamander Tadpole or Kewt just escaped from the egg- 
 May 18th. The fore feet have lengthened, and the eye^ are perceived. 
 'May 28th. The hind feet begin to appear, and the fore feet are well devel- 
 oped. , 
 June 12th. The hind feet almost developed, and lungs extend half way 
 
 down the trunk. 
 July 18th. It has arrived at the maturity of its tadpole state, and after the 
 
 2'7th respires atmospheric air, having attained its perfect state. 
 9. The G-reat Water Newt depositing its eggs on the leaves of the smart- 
 weed, or amphibious knot-Weed, (polygonum jaersicaria.) She is folding 
 the leaves pver to protect the eggs. 
 
FOURTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGl. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY. (Gr, tx^ig,, ichihus, a iish; U^os,hgos.. 
 discourse.) 
 
 Class, Pisces. Fishes. Cold-Bloodeb Vertebrates. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 We come now to that part of Zoology which treats of Fishes, 
 their structure and form, their hahits and uses, and their olassi- 
 ficatiorr. The Fishes, as a classi possess a greater number of 
 species than any other of the primary divisions of the Vertebrates; 
 and, indeed, the species not improbably exceed in number those of 
 the Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles taken together. Our limits 
 will therefore allow us to do nothing more than present a gen. 
 eral view of this part of the Animal Kingdpm, followed by suc- 
 cinct notices of the orders and families. 
 
 The most prominent characteristics of Fishes are (1) that they 
 generally have cold red blood ; (2) they breathe by gills instead 
 of lungs ; (3) they have a two-chambered heart; (4) they use 
 fins as organs of progression ; (5) they have the skin naked or 
 covered with scales of varied structure ; (6) they are almost 
 incredibly prolific. 
 
 The blood, generally cold, assumes the temperature of the 
 surrounding element. It should be stated, however, that in some 
 of the swift Oceanic Fishes of the Mackerel family, such as the 
 Tunny and the Bonito, the blood is found to be lOo higher than 
 that of the surface of the sea, even within the tropics. The 
 blood-disks are sometimes circular, and sometimes oval; they 
 are larger than those of the mammalia and birds, smaller than 
 those of reptiles, especially the amphibia. The gills consist of 
 bony or cartilaginous spines, usually placed parallel with each 
 
ICHTHYOLOGY. 545 
 
 Other like the teeth of a comb, but sometimes arranged in bunches. 
 These organs are analogous to lungs in terrestrial animals, being 
 adapted to extract from the air contained in the water, the oxy- 
 gen which is needed- for the renewal of the blood. The breath- 
 ing apparatus formed by the gills is double in form, placed on 
 each side of the neck. Most commonly it consists of several 
 series of laminae, or membranous plates, fixed upon slenda' 
 arches of bone. Over these thin membranous plates branch ouV, 
 innumerable blood vessels, whose walls are so thin as to permit 
 the fluid contained in them to absorb the oxygen with which they 
 are brought in contact when the fish takes in water througn me 
 mouth. In order to carry off the water when deprived of its oxy- 
 gen, and to bring in fresh portions to be successively respired, 
 a constant current is produced over the surface of the gills, by 
 the action of the fish while taking in water at the mouth, and 
 throwing it out on each^ide, behind the gills, through orifices which 
 it has for the purpose, called the gill-openings. The apparatus for 
 breathing is protected by large bony plates, or opercular bones, 
 making up the chief portion of the sides of the head. These are 
 four in number, and are termed the opercuhim, the sub-oper- 
 eulum, the pre-operculum, and the inter-operculum. The jirst 
 of these covers the gills. The hrancMostegous rays, often 
 mentioned in descriptions, are situated under the opercular 
 bones. In the Sharks, Squdlida, (Let. squalus, a sea-fish,) and 
 the Rays, Saidce, (hat. raia, a ray,) the gills are attached at 
 their outer margin, with a separate orifice to each, through which 
 the water escapes. The orifices, usually five in number, are, 
 with the mouth and nostrils, on the under surface, and completely 
 hid when the fish is laid on its belly. 
 
 The heart consists of' but one auricle and one ventricle. The 
 blood collected from the venous system, is accumulated in the 
 single auricle, thence it is sent into the ventricle, and this drives 
 it into the gills where it is cl^anged from venous to arterial blood, 
 and thence circulated through the body in arteries, aided by the 
 contraction of the surrounding muscular fibres. Hence it will 
 be perceived the heart never contains any but venous blood, the 
 arterial first proceeding from the gills. 
 
 Most of the bony fishes hdve a membranous bladder, com- 
 monly of a lengthened form, placed along the body between the 
 spine and the bowels, and having a structural relation to the 
 lungs in the higher Vertebrates. This is filled . with air, and 
 well known as the air-bladder, or swimming-bladder. When- 
 ever possessed, it aids more or less the process of respirationi It 
 also serves another important purpose, which is to enable the fish 
 
546 ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 to vary its specific gravity, and thus float at any desired eleva- 
 tion in the water. In appearance it varies ; sometimes, as in the 
 Sea-Porcupines or Hedge-Hog fishes, (Biodon, double toothed,) 
 and their allies, it is two-lobed ; in the Electric Eels and the Carp 
 fishes, Cyprinid<B,{Gr. kwprinos, a carp,) it is divided by a trans, 
 verse partition, which in the latter allows of inter-communication, 
 through a narrow orifioie. In the (Pimelodus catus,) or Com- 
 mon Cat-fish, Family Siluridce, (Gr. silourqs, a sheat-fish,) it is 
 divided into four canities or cornpartments. In many species there 
 are closed or blind tubular processes proceeding from various parts 
 of the surface ; in others the bladder is sub-divided into as many 
 irregular cells; all this showing it to possess the rudimentary re- 
 mains of the lungs of air-breathing animals. In marine ifishes the 
 bladder usually contains a gas having in it a greater proportion of 
 oxygen than of atmospheric air, while in those of fresh water, ni- 
 trogen predominates. The species which are without the air-blad. 
 der, or have it only in a rudimentary state, are generally Ground 
 Fishes, keeping close to the bottom. Sometimes the possession 
 of an air-bladder exposes fishes to danger; Gurnards, Triglida, 
 (Gr. trigla.) and Conger Eels, (Anguilla conger,) at times ap- 
 pear to distend the air-bladder so much that it loses its elas- 
 ticity or power of contraction, or as fishermen say, these fishes 
 '' blow themselves^" becoming unable to sink or to make their 
 escape. The Sea-Porcupine, (Plate XIV. fig. 7,) has the habit of 
 filling its body with air, and of floating helplessly in this condition 
 at the surface ; but in the case of this fish, the air is taken, not 
 into the bladder, but into the huge stomach. 
 
 A writer speaks " of a gentleman of his acquaintance who 
 had a Gold-fish which swam about for more than two months, 
 with its belly upwards, appearing perfectly healthy and lively," 
 and who attributed this change in the natural position of the fish 
 to an enlargement or defect in the air-bladder. 
 
 Water is the well known sphere of life and motion to fishes. 
 The Flying fishes, Exoccetus volitans, (Plate XIV. fig. 3,) and 
 some of the Gurnards can indeed raise themselves into the air and 
 keep their position there for a few seconds ; some of the Frog-fishes,, 
 LophidtB, (Gr. lophos, a neck or crest,) and Eels, AnguiUidtB, (Lat. 
 anguilla, an eel,) can crawl upon the exposed mud or sand in the in- 
 terval occurring between the ebb and flow of the tide ; and the An. 
 abassidae, or Climbing Perches leave the water in order to obtain 
 food ; but these are only deviations from a general rule. Some in. 
 habit fresh water only ; some only the sea; others can exist in both, 
 either by periodical migration, or at pleasure. Near the city of 
 Bristol, (Eng.,) the Eels are known annually to ascend the trees 
 
ICHTHYOLOGY. 547 
 
 whose branches hang into a pond, pass over to, the opposite 
 branches and drop into an adjoining stream, and thus migrate to 
 far distant waters. The trees at such times appeared to be quite 
 alive with the eels. (Gosse.) Eels descend rivers to spawn in the 
 brackish waters of estuaries. Salmon ascend rocky rivei's from 
 the sea, leaping cascades and overcoming various obstacles to de- 
 posit their eggs in fresh water. "" 
 
 The form of the fishes is decidedly the one best adapted to facili- 
 tate progression through such a medium as water, being commonly 
 that of a, spindle, swelling in the middle anti tapering to each 
 extremity. To this, however, there are exceptions. The 
 Skates, Eaiidce, and Flat-fishes, Planida, are flattened horizon- 
 tally ; the Chaetodons, or Hair- Tooths, Chadtodontidce, and the 
 famed Dories, Zeina, (Gr. from Zeus, Jupiter,) a branch of the 
 ScombridcB, (Lat. scomber, a mackerel,) are flattened vertically ; 
 some are of a globe-like form, as the Diodon and the Sun-fish, 
 Orthagoriscus, (Gr. a sucfking-pig ;) some of serpent-like form,- 
 as the Eels and Lampreys, Petromyzon, (Gr. stone-sucker ;)v and 
 some, as the Ribbon-fishes, Cepolidm, resemble in -length and 
 thinniess the fabric after which they are named. 
 
 Th^ organs of motion in this class are fins. These have 
 the form of a delicate membrane, investing a series of bony 
 or cartilaginous rays, and which is more or less transpar- 
 ent. These rays are slender bones, consisting, in some cases, of 
 a single piece, stiff and spinous ; in other instances, they are 
 made up of several pieces jointed together, and hence flexible ; 
 the latter are frequently divided each into two or more branches 
 at the tip. The bony character of the fin rays aflbrds a basis for 
 two of the orders, viz. : Acanthopterygii, Spiny-finned Fishes, 
 and Malacopterygii, Soft-finned Fishes. 
 
 The fins of Fishes are of five kinds, which have received 
 their names from their position upon the body, viz.: (1) the 
 dorsal or back fins, (Plate XII. fig. 3a,) usually single, but some- 
 times divided into two or three fins, at varying distances from 
 each other ; (2) the caudal or tail fins, (c.) which in the true 
 fishes are vertical, but in the fish-like mammalia are horizontal ; 
 (3) the anal or vent fins, (d ;) (4) the pectoral or breast fins, (f;) 
 (5) the ventral or belly fins, (e. ) 
 
 The pectorals and ventrals are arranged in pairs, and corres- 
 pond to the fore and hind limbs in other vertebrate animals ; the 
 pectorEils, for instance, representing the wings in birds ; the ven- 
 trals the feet. The dorsal or medial fin aids in keeping the body 
 in a perpendicular position in the water ; scarcely any fishes are 
 without this fin, many have two dorsal fins, and a few, as the 
 
 23 
 
548 ICnTHYOLOGT. 
 
 Haddock and God, have three dprsals. The . anal fin corres. 
 ponds to the dorsal, but is placed beneath the body, just behind 
 the vent. The principal instrument of motion is the tail fin. 
 In those fishes which swim most swiftly, the tail is forked, eaoli 
 division being pointed, as are also the pectorals; while in those 
 of less active or sluggish habits, the tail fin, as well as the pec- 
 torals, is commonly short, even or rounded. The rapid and 
 powerful strokes of this fin, given obliquely right and left upon 
 the water, urge the fish rapidly on in a straight course. The 
 pectorals and ventrals do not appear to be much used for com- 
 municating motion ; their chief office is to balance the bodyj or 
 for turning, and for rising and sinking in the water. 
 
 Fins without distinguishable rays, or in which the' rays are 
 covered with a mass of fatty matter, or else entirely absent, are 
 called adippse. A fin of this description is found on the back 
 of the Brook T,rout, {Salmo forUinaUs,) in the rear of the main 
 dorsal fin. 
 
 The bones are less dense and compact in their structure than 
 'those of the other Vertebrates, yet some of the Spiny-rayed 
 Fishes possess considerable hardness. In the third group, GTron- 
 jDRcwraaiyGii, or Cabtilaginotjs Fishes, (see Chart,) which in- 
 '^eludes ithe formidable Rays and Sharks, the skeleton is com- 
 posed of gristle or cartilage instead of bone.'- Some of the species 
 of •this.onder seem, however, to make an approach to the osseous 
 div'isicias. 'JThisis especially true, (1) of the Spoonbill, Folydon, 
 reiiculatits, ap. extraordinary fish, two feet or more long^ found in 
 the Mississippi, k^own at once by its snout, which is excessively 
 prolonged, vppyjjSat and lanceolate, and in length nearly equal to 
 the whole , body ;^ (■^) the Common or Short-Nosed Sturgeon, 
 Acipenser {Lat.,, a Sturgeon,) brcvirostris, which has the body 
 covered by hard bonyctubercles ; (3) the Chimcerida, or Sea 
 Monsters, so named ,<ffqpi. the fantastic sh"ape of their heads, 
 which have a singular ho^'^h^P^t) appendage, tipped with spines 
 and somewhat-like a erestjfjppn theirsnout, (seeCliart.) The body 
 of one species, Cfhimmfq i^reefl^,. which looks almost as much like 
 a reptiTe as a fish, ter,mina(es gradually in a long slender filament. 
 
 The cone-shaped, cavities of t\\^:i!ertebrm, or joints of the spine, 
 are in the F'^hes filled with a- jelly-l^ke substance, continued 
 through the whole spine, by ,means, of a.fjple pierced through the 
 center of each vertebra} jqint. ■ Thpughi,thft tubular perforation 
 is usually smE^ll, yet„in .many of the , gristly, or cartilaginops 
 fishes, it is of so great a di^imeter ,as,tQ red\ice>the vertebrse to 
 mere cartilaginous rtnga. 
 
 Connected with , the, vectpb^ above and bel9w pe spinous 
 
ICBT]JK)LOQY 649 
 
 processes for the attacliment of muscles. Within the cavity of 
 the belly the inferior processes are absent, but are replace# by 
 laterafones, to which the ribs are attached. These are usually 
 numerous, slender and flexible bones, each of which sends off a 
 branch of almost equal length and thinness. Some species, as 
 the Herring and Pilchard, CiupidtB, (from clupea, a shad or her- 
 ring,) send off thread-like branches from ea,ch of the vertebrse, 
 so that the bodies of these fishes seem to be filled with long and 
 slender bones. 
 
 The form of the skull y&ries much in the different orders, but 
 generally it consists of pieces corresponding to those which form 
 the head in other vertebrates. The line of distinction between 
 the head and body it is difficult to draw, in consequence of the 
 entire absence of a neelc. 
 
 Teeth are very numerous, sometimes being found in almost 
 all the bones Of the mouth. They are usually simple spines, 
 curved backwards, but the fbiyn is often much modified. The 
 teeth of the voracious Sharks, for example, are flat and lancet- 
 like, the cutting edges being notched like a saw. In some spe- 
 cies of these terrible fish they are so numerous that upon open- 
 ing the mouth " the eye sees nothing'but a forest of pointed teeth, 
 any one of which, if detached, would be sufficient to inflict a 
 most severe wound," In the Sharks of the genera Pristis, (Gr. 
 SaW-fish,) and MustelUs, (Hound-fish.) the teeth differ, being flat, 
 blunt, and tesselated. It is a remarkable provision that in some 
 species the teeth are arranged in series of rows of which the outer 
 one only is in use, the others remaining flat in the mouth until 
 called into exercise by the injury or destruetibn of the outer row. 
 The front- teeth of the FhounBers, {Platessq,) are compressed 
 plates; the Wrasses,' LabridcB, (from Gi". labros, greedy^) 
 have flat grinding teeth ; the Sheep's-Heads, {Sargus, or Spams 
 ovis,) have the grinding surface convex ; the Gilt-heads, Ghry- 
 sophrys, (Sea-Breams,) have round, flat grinding teeth, ar- 
 ranged like the stones of a pavenieht, and often with strong 
 pointed canines in front, able to Crilsh and grind to powder the 
 shells of the crustaceans and moUusks Upon which they feed ; 
 the beautiful ChaetodoUs of warm climates, have, as the name 
 denotes, teeth which resemblis bristles ; the Perches have teeth 
 on the upper and lower jaw, slender, minute, numerous and 
 <ilosely set ; the bold and fierce Pikes have teeth scarcely less 
 formidable in Size, form and sharpness than the canines of car- 
 nivorous animals. 
 
 The number as Well as the form of the teeth greatly varites. 
 ' While the Pike, the fetch, the :Cat.fish, and many others have 
 
g50 I0HTHYOLOG7. 
 
 the mouth crowded with almost numberless teeth,:the Carp and 
 the Roach, Cyprinidm, have only a few strong ones in the throat 
 and a single flat one above ; and the Sturgeon, the Pi^e-fish, 
 Syngnaihus, and the Sand-launce, Ammoec^tes, (Gr. sand-bedded^) 
 are entirely toothless. > 
 
 The skin is either naked .or covered with scales which appear 
 in various states of development, as true imbricated scales, as 
 isolated scales, as spiny bristles, hard, bony;, enamelled plates. 
 Most of the fishes have on their sides a longitudinal row of scales, 
 in each of which is a perforation. These perforations were for. 
 merly thought to secrete mucus ; but Prof, ^gassiz has proved 
 them to be the openings of tubes, which together with similar 
 tubes opening on the skuU, penetrate all parts of the frame and 
 freely admit water, which serves to counterbalance the external 
 pressure. 
 
 The colors of Fishes, including asthey do all shades and lus. 
 tres, are not surpassed even by those of the Birds. The hues 
 are, however, evanescent, disappearing immediately after death. 
 The effect of fear in changing the color of the human.hair ia well 
 known. From the statement of a writer in the "New Sporting 
 Magazine," it would appear to have a similar effect upon some 
 Pishes, particularly Trout. 
 
 The brain is small and the face has not much expression ; the 
 tongue is njostly cartilaginous, and sometimes covered with teeth. 
 This, connected with the fact that the food is almost always swal- 
 lowed whole as soon as it is seized, seems to warrant the infer, 
 ence that Fishes have not acute taste. The.£ense of smell they 
 probably possess in considerable perfection, the olfactory nerves 
 being very large, and distributed over a great extent of surface. 
 There is no external eai", nor even an auditory orifice, yet there 
 is a complex internal apparatus of large size for the reception 
 of sounds. 
 
 The eyes are distinguished by their almost immovable posi- 
 tion ! the cornea is flat, but the crystalline lens is perfectly spher- 
 ical ; the latter is familiar in the form of a white globule in a 
 boiled fish, the transparency being destroyed by heat.j eye-lids 
 are not present. From the density of the watery medium inhab. 
 ited by Fishes, a large number of the rays of light are absorbed 
 and lost in passing through it ; hence the eyes of fishes are very 
 large, so as ito collect as many of the remaining rays as possible;, 
 they are *}S(> .of bcilHant hues. These hues are owing to a 
 •Membrane callfiiij Ithe choroid, spread around the back of the eye, 
 Gomjjosed) to a large extent, of highly i reflecting microsoopio 
 crystalsi The ey0a <of some fipeoiesi^leam like quadrupeds. 
 
ICHTHYOLOBY. . . 55] 
 
 Generally they are placed opposite to each other on the two 
 sides of the head, so as to look sidewise, but in species that ha- 
 bitually live in deep water, they are placed on the top of the 
 head, and look upward; In one genus of Sharks, called, on this 
 account Hammer-heads, the heiad is enormously widened, so as 
 to present two long lateral procfesses, at the extremities of which 
 the eyes are placed ; the shape of the head, much resembling 
 that of the hammer used in caulking ships, (see Hammer-headed 
 Shark on the Chart.) We must not omit here to notice the fact 
 that aspecies'of blind Hah, AJmblybpsis, (Gr; amhUs, dim. opsis, 
 vision,) spelcms, (Gr. spelaim, a cave.) has been found in the 
 Mamttjoth Cave in Kentucky. The Saw-fishes have the snout 
 prolonged into a straight bony blade, along the edges of which 
 are set pointed teeth directed outward. 
 
 Some of the species are endowed with a property quite pecu- 
 liar to this class qf Vertebrates. This is the power of giving 
 electric shocks, at will, to other creatures, possessed by the Tor- 
 pedo, (Plate XIV. fig. 13 ;) and the Gymnotus, or electric 
 eel. The electric organs consist of numerous six sided cells 
 containing a number of delicate membranous plates, sepa- 
 rated from each other by a transparent jelly-like fluid. In 
 the Torpedo, the plates are placed vertically, and form two masses 
 one on each side of the head ; in the Gymnotus, they are hori- 
 zontal and form four sub-organs, one pair on each side of the 
 body. 
 
 The organs of voice are, in fish, entirely wanting. The Cat- 
 fish, Pimelodus, is, however, said to knake a peculiar sound by 
 the vibration of its cirri, or barbels, (Plate XIV. fig. 8.) The 
 Weak Fish, Otoliihus regalis, makes a peculiar and seemingly 
 abdominal grunting when caught, as does also the Black Drum, 
 Pogonias chromis. 
 
 The food of fishes is, for the most part, animal. Some browse 
 the sea- weeds that wave around the rocks of the coast, and oth- 
 ers nibble the soft parts of fresh water vegetation ; but the great 
 majority are carnivorous. The soft-bodied animals of the sea, 
 such as the Actinite, the Medusa, the Annelidki and the naked 
 Mollusca, afford fodd to multitudes ; others are furnished with 
 strong teeth to grind down the newly formed pairts of coral, and 
 devour the living polyps ; and a large number feed greedily on 
 Star-fishes, Crustacea, and the Shelled Moltusca. In fresh wa- 
 ter, worms, leeches, and the larvae of insects satisfy the appe- 
 tite of many. Besides these sources of supply, Fishes every- 
 where feed upon Fishes, the larger upon the smaller. Their 
 voracity is extremely great, no limit to their appetite appearing 
 
5^2 iCHTBVo^oex. 
 
 l>u( the aotual capacity of the stomach.'" Sonne, as the Trout, 
 
 .act ^^iS part of <2/rajite over their fellovs. ^ , 
 
 Fishes are almost incredibly prolific. One species, thp Blenny, 
 produces its young filive, sometimes two or three hundred at a 
 Jinie, and able to prpjvide for , thqir own support. A species of 
 viviparous fish, but two inches in length, inclusive of the caudal 
 fin, aHfd containing twenty4wp perfect fish, has also beeji found 
 in a capal connecting with Lafce Ppntchartrain. Larger speci. 
 menshaye been repeived by Agassiz from Lake Erie,,apd. also 
 from Qalifornia. But, generally, the continuation of the race is 
 acicpmplished by means of eggs, calledj in the aggregate, ^awn ; 
 and before exclusion, roe. The eggs are deposited in various 
 places; I oil .sticks, ^tpnes, grass, furrows in the sand, etp. In rare 
 cases, as the Goby of the, ftlfiditerranean, some North Amer. 
 ican CyprinidcB or. Carps, and the Hassars, Callichthys, ofDern- 
 erara, a ijest for tbe receptionof the spawn is biijltj ponjsisting 
 of a single pile of stonjBS,,or else, as in the last named fishes, a 
 pipre complicated structure of grass and. sticks. The Siicikr 
 back, (G-as^erosteiiS,) forms , of sea- weed and common coralline, 
 .pear-shaped, nests, which hang from the rocks, variously inter, 
 mingled . with each other. The Shark, instead of depositing 
 almost innumerable eggs in a season, like the Cod or th^^Her. 
 .ring, produces two eggs, of a square or oblong form, (sep fig, on 
 Chart,) the. cpat of which , is composed of a tough, horny and 
 semi-transparent case ; each corner is prolonged into a tendril, 
 of 'jwhich tbetwo which are pext to the tail of the enclosed fish, 
 are: stronger and more prehensile than the oth^r pair. The 
 lisp ofthese.teijidrils. appears to be their entanglement among the 
 stalks pf sea.weeds, and the consequent mooring of the egg in a 
 situafipn pf protection and comparative security. The part of the 
 skin near the head, is weaker and more easily broken thian any 
 other : part,'^a provision for the easy exclusion of the animal, 
 which occurs before the entirp absorption of the yolk of the 
 egg,-!TTthe renr^ainder being attached to the body of the young 
 fish,.i!BncJflsed in a capsttle,' which for awhile it carries about. 
 The ppsitioa pf the animal while within, the egg. is, with tfee 
 bead, dpiibled hapk towards the tail, — one very uniavpralljle ifor 
 the process of breathing by in,tprn^l gill?. But as a provision 
 
 * fljjkt » Jepture .deUyered jbefore the Zoologica,! Society of Dublip, Dr. 
 Houston. exhibited, ks 'a fair sample of a fish's ftteakftist,' p. F'rog-fish two 
 feet' and a half long, in the stomach of which was a Cod-fishi two feet in 
 length; the Cod'a stomach contained ; the bodies of two Whitings of otdi- 
 narjt'size; andthe Whitings, in their tfurn, held the half digested remaios of 
 aiany,|m(^er;^sh^,;t9p ni|U9h broken up to be identified.!' 
 
ICHTHYOLOQV. 
 
 553 
 
 for this emergency, on each side a filament, of the substance of 
 the gills, projecSts from the gill-opening, containing vessels in 
 which the blood is exposed to the action of the water. These 
 processes are gradually absorbed after the fish is excluded, until 
 which the internal gills are incapable of respiration. This pre- 
 sents an analogy with the FrOgs and Newts. We advert to it 
 thus particularly as impressively manifesting the Divine benevo- 
 lence when the object of so much contrivance and care, is the 
 dreaded and hated Shark! The horny cases jUst referred to ■■ 
 are frequently found on the sea-shore, and are called Sea-Purses, 
 Mermaids'-Purses, &c. Some species, as the Penny Dog, Galetis 
 vulgaris, and the Smooth Hound, (Mustelus lavis,) bring forth 
 their young alive, without any capsule or covering at all. 
 
 Some species, as the Pipe-fishes, (Syngnaihus,) are ovo-vivipa- 
 rous. What is very singular, the male Pipe-fish is provided with 
 a pouch, into which he receives the spawn as it is deposited by his 
 mate, and in which he carries it about until the young are 
 hatched. And, as if to make the resemblance to the Marsupia:ls 
 complete, the young are in the habit of retiring for shelter into 
 the paternal pouch, for sorhetime after they are dblfe to leave it 
 and roam at their own pleasure. It is somewhat remarkable, 
 that it is the male, generally, who assumes the care of the eggs, 
 and the construction of the nest. Instances are not wanting, of 
 eti-iking parental devotedness and foresight. ° 
 
 The following Table of Mr. Harmar, (Phil. Trans.,) shows / i 
 the different degrees of fecundity in different species of fishes. 
 
 KAME OF FISH. 
 
 Carp, . . 
 Cod, . ^ . 
 Flounder^ 
 Herring, . 
 Mackerel, 
 Perch, . . 
 Pike, . . 
 Roach, 
 Smelt,' . . 
 Sole, . . 
 Tench, . 
 
 Weight of 
 Fish. 
 
 ozs. drs. 
 25 5 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 66 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 6* 
 
 8 
 
 
 Weight pf Number of 
 spawn. 
 
 grs. 
 
 2.5'71 
 12.540 
 
 2.200 
 480 
 
 1.223 
 765, 
 
 6.100i 
 861 
 149, 
 642i 
 
 206,109 
 
 3,686,760 
 
 1,357,400 
 
 86,960 
 
 646,681 
 28,323 
 4:9,304 
 81,586 
 32,278 
 
 100,362 
 
 3S3.252 
 
 But far more productive than these, is the Salmon, (Salmo 
 Salar,) for "the ovarium of one female, has been known to pro- 
 duce 20,000,000 eggs ! " 
 
 Prof. Dana estimates the greatest number of eggs in the Thick- 
 
554 ICnTHVOLOGY. 
 
 lipped Grey Mullet, {Mugil Chelo,) to be *I3i)00,000 ; in the 
 Cod-fish, (Gadus Morrhua,) 11,000,000; in the Turbot, {Pku. 
 ronectes maximus,) 9,000,000 ; in the Plaice, (P. plalessa,) 
 6,000,000; in the Carp, {Cyprinus carpio,) 600,000 to 700,000; 
 in the Perch, {Perca fluviatilis, ) 71,000. 
 
 It has been estimated that the progeny of a single Herring, if 
 allo\yed to multiply, undisturbed for thirty years, would not only 
 be sufficient to meet every demand for this fish, but become even 
 inconveniently numerous; and that, too, notwithstanding' hardly 
 one among the millions of young Herrings comes to rhaturity, in 
 consequence of the ravages made by rapacious fish, and by other 
 means. Although so extensively used, the supply of this fish is 
 always found equal to the demand.' The same might be said of 
 the Cod, the Mackerel, the Tench, &c. 
 
 The longevity of fishes ^eems to be undoubted, however it be 
 true that few reach their natural term of years. Pike and Carp 
 kept in fish ponds, have been known to live to a great age, A 
 Pike taken in Prussia, in 1754, bore a ring which testified to its 
 having been placed in the pond two hundred and sixty-seven 
 years before ; how old it was when put in was unknown. Carp, 
 it is clearly shown, have attained the age of a century. Buffon 
 speaks;of one that was one hundred and fifty years old. 
 
 "Cartilaginous fishes," says Swainson, "continue to grow all 
 their lives; and as many of these, particularly the Rays, habitu- 
 ally live in the deep recesses of the ocean, and thus seldom run 
 the risk of being captured by man, we may probably attribute 
 their enormous and almost incredible size to their great age." 
 It is thought to be " a rare thing for a fish to die of natural de- 
 cay." But owing to the ravages made among them, the actual 
 average of life is with fishes of comparatively short duration. 
 They are capable of enduring great extremes of temperature, — 
 a fact which may be regarded as indicating their low place in 
 the scale of organization. Experiments have shown that several 
 species of fresh-water fish can live many days in water so hot 
 that the hand could not be held in it a single minute. Eels have 
 been alive in hot springs, in which the temperature is pretty 
 regularly 113o Fahr. But such cases are far less wonderful 
 than that recorded by Humboldt and Bonpland, who "saw living 
 fishes, apparently -in health and vigor, thrown up from the bottom 
 of a volcano, with water and hot vapor that raised the thermom- 
 eter to 210o Fahr., — a heat only two degrees less than that of 
 boiling water ! " 
 
 On. the other hand, the cold of freezing does not always destroy 
 the life of fishes. Eels and Perch are conveyed from place to 
 
ICHTHYOLOGT. , .,_ ^' 555 
 
 place in a frozen state, which revive on being thawed. So is it, 
 according to Dr. Richdrdson, with the Grey Suclcing Carp. 
 Gold fishes which have been thawed out of a solid body'of ice, 
 have completely revived. 
 
 Species which live near the 'surface of the water, have les? 
 tenacity of life than those which seek the deep waters. Mack- 
 erel, Salmon, Trout, and Herrings, of the former kind, die almost 
 as soon as they are taken out of the water ; while Carp, Eels, 
 Tenches, Skates, and the Flat-fishes, which live near the bottom, 
 and have a low standard of I'iBspiration, and a high degree of mus- 
 cular irritability, with less necessity for oxygen, sustain life for 
 sometime after they are taken out of the water, and their flesh 
 
 • continues good for several days. 
 
 The Eels, Milraenidce, and the Blade-eels, Ophidiadce, show 
 extraordinary tenacity of life ; even removal of the skin, and the 
 
 ' division of the body into parts, not immediately producing death. 
 
 The flesh of the larger part of fishes is useftil for food ; though 
 
 that of some species is somewhat indigestible. Fish of fresh. 
 
 ■ water are more generally' edible than those of the sea ; but as a 
 whole, are not so savory. Fishes are also valuable for other 
 purposes: some for the oil which they yield ; the air-bladder of 
 the Sturgeon furnishes the isinglass of commerce; the roes of 
 the Sturgeon, Pike and some other fish, furnish caviar; the sha- 
 green skin of some Placoids is employed for polishing and for 
 making ornamental coverings. The bones are used for fish- 
 hooks and other purposes. 
 
 The first scientific Classification of Fishes is that of Artedi, 
 which was made in 1738 ; the next, that" of Linnasus, made be- 
 tween twenty and thirty years later. 
 
 The Classification of Cuvier is generally adopted, and the one 
 to which the Chart most nearly conforms. The entire class 
 of Fishes is first divided into Osseous and Cartilaginous. 
 
 .The Osseous Fishes* are sub-divided into Spine-kAyed and 
 'Soft-rayed. 
 
 They are also arranged into three sections, — I. Pectinihran- 
 cftii, which have the hraricMee, or gills, in continuous, comb-like 
 ridges, and include all the ordinary and typical fishes. This 
 section is comprehended in two orders. 
 
 I. AcANTKOPTEEyGii, (Gr. spine-rayed,) — distinguished By 
 having the anterior part of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins, 
 furnished with simple, spiny rays. The Parches, Mullets, Gur. 
 nards. Mackerels, &6;, belong to this order. 
 
 II. Malacofterygii, (Gr. soil-rayed,) having all the fin rays 
 
g5g ICHTHYOtOSY. 
 
 soft and flexible, with 'the exdeption, sometimes, of the first ray 
 of the dorsal and pectoral fins. There are alio three Sub-or- 
 ders, founded either upon the position of , certain fins, or their 
 absence, as (1) the Abdominales, in which the ventral fins are 
 situated far behind the pectorals, as in the Carp, Tench, Bream, 
 Dace, Roach, Pike, Salmon, etc.; (2) the Sui-brachials, or Suh. 
 hrachiatit (terms derived' from the Latin suh, wcxAbt ; hrachialis, 
 armlet, or brdehiumf arm,) in which the ventral fins are imtnedi. 
 ately beneath the pectoral fins' or armlets, (or even a little before 
 them,) — as in the Clodfish, Haddock and Whiting. To this 
 group also belong the Flat-fishes, — -such as the Plaice, Flounder, 
 , Turhot,; Sole, etc.; (3) the Apodes,\Gr. footless,) including the 
 Eels, which receive this name from their possessing no ventral fina. 
 
 The other sections of the Osseous division are, (3) Lopho. 
 branchia, (Gr. tuft-gills,) including Bony Fishes which have the 
 gills in tufta, (not pectinated,)^ and arranged in pairs along the 
 branchial arches y (3) P/eCto^na^Ai, those in which the bones of 
 .the head are closely combined, including the Gymnodoniida or 
 Nafced-toothed Fishes, the BmlistidcB, or File-fishes, and the Os. 
 traoionicUB, or Trunk-fishes. 
 
 The Cartilaginous Fishes are sub-divided (1) into those 
 which have the gills free, Eleutheropomi, (Gr. free-covers or 
 operaula.} The gills jn these, are pectinate or comb-like, and there 
 is only a single gill opening. Of these, the Sturgeons furnish 
 an example ; (2) those with fixed gills, {Branchiis fids,) and 
 which have more than one gill opening on each side,— including 
 the Sharks, (SquaEdce,) the Rays, (Raiidm,) and the Stone-Suck- 
 ers, (PefrowijzonidtE,) 
 
 The division Plagiostomi includes those Cartilaginous Fishes 
 which have on the under side of the face, and at a greater or 
 less distance from the extremity,, the broad transverse mouth, — 
 such as the Sharks and the Rayjs. The gills in all are fixed 
 with five or six gill-openings. 
 
 Tli« Cydostomi, (Gr. with circular mouthsj) are those Cartila. 
 ginous Fishes which breathe by a "series of c^ls," the gills 
 not being comb-shaped fringes, but forming sacs or pouches by 
 the union of two opposite ones along their edges. Here are 
 found the' Stone-Suckers, so called because the animal applies its 
 circular lip to the surface of a stone or other solid body in the 
 water, aiid. drawing in the. piston-like tongue, produces a vacuum 
 in the moOth, while the pressure of the super-inoumbent body 
 of the water causes the Ijp to adhere to the stone with immense 
 tenacity, until, by the protrusion, of the tongue, the vacuum is 
 voluiitarilyi destroyed. 
 
ICHTHYOLOOT. g57 
 
 The lowest and most anomalous of air the species of Fishes, 
 is the BRANciiiosTOMA. or Lancelet, {Amphipxus lanpeolatus,) 
 usually about two inches in length, and generally distributed 
 throughout the seas of Europe aind North Africa. So unique is 
 the structure of this mingte creature, that, on the Chart, it is 
 dissevered from the Stone-Suckers. " A vertebrated animal 
 without a brain, a fish with the respiratory system of a mollusk, 
 and the circulatory system almost of an Annelide," — -presents a 
 combination of characters which has challenged ita right to a 
 place among the Vertebrates, and seems to justify its separation 
 from the Lampreys, with which some naturalists have ranked it. 
 
 The Myxines, or Glutinous Hags, of the most Northern and 
 Southern seas, are almost equally strange in form- and structure, 
 having been classed by LinuEBUs and other writers, among the 
 Worms. 
 
 Their place is filled in the higher parts of the Southern hem- 
 isphere, by the equally curious and nearly allied genus, Hepta- 
 irema.* 
 
 The Lepidosiren, (Gr. scaly-siren,) is the conneeling link be- 
 tween FisHE^' and Reptiles, being so dubious in its organisation, 
 that its true position is disputed. Most naturalists of Continental 
 Europe consider it to be a reptile, while Prof. Ow6n confidently 
 maintains its claim to a place among the Fishes. If assigned to 
 the Reptiles, its position would be as & fourth order of the Batra- 
 chians. 
 
 Prince Bonaparte divides the Fishes into four orders, viz : 
 Acanthopterygii, Malacopterygii, Plectognathi, and Cartilaginei. 
 His arrangement is by mahy highly esteemed. 
 
 Agassiz names the orders of , Fishes from their scales, (his 
 classification being applicable to the fossil as well ^s the living 
 forms,) viz : 
 
 (1) Ct^noids, (from Gr. ktenos, a comb,) in which the scales 
 consist of plates whose posterior or free margin is pectinated, or 
 comb-like, as in the Perch, Bass, Pumpkin-seed, 6;c. 
 
 * The name Ifeptatrema (meaning seven apertures or perforations) was 
 given to this genus by Dumeril. It is found, however, that' the number of 
 apertures varies. Mr. C. Girard deseribes one of these fishes' of the Soiith- 
 ern Hemisphere, as having J<mrtem, breathing holes. (See " U. 8. Naval 
 Astronomital .EBpe<K<ii5»,"|njbli8hed at 'Washington, p. C, 1$65.) He adopts 
 the generic name of MiiUer, Bdellostoma, (Gr. Bdello, I suck; stoma, 
 mouth,) founded, on the structure, of ^the njouth, and calls the speci- 
 men which he figures, Bdellostoma polytrema, (Gr. many perforations.) 
 
5^8 lOHTHTOLOST. 
 
 (2) Cycloids, (from Gr. kuklos, a circle,) those whose scales 
 are entire, as in the Salmon, Trout, Shiners, &c. 
 
 (3) Ganoids, (from Gr. ganos, splendor,) having scales of 
 an angular form, composed of horny or bony substances, covered 
 with a thick coat of enamel, so that they become teeth-Ilke in 
 their structure, as in the Gar-pike. 
 
 (4) Placoids, (from Gr. plax, a plate or slab.) thus named from 
 the irregularity which the scaly coverings exhibit, so that the skin 
 resembles 'shagreen as in the Sharks, Rays, &c. 
 
 What is the fourth branch of Zoology ? Of what does it treat ? What is 
 said of the number of fishes? "What are their most general characteristics? 
 What is said of their blood? Describe the breathing apparatus and the 
 circulation of the blood. What have they analogous to the lungs in 
 higher vertebrates? What purposes does it subserve? State its variation 
 in different fishes. Of what kind are the fishes which have not the air- 
 bla4(}er? How does its possession, expose to danger ? What habit has the 
 Sea-Poreupine? What is related of the Gold-fish ? What fishes sometimes 
 leave their proper element? Kelate facts respecting the migration of Eels. 
 What is the usual form of fishes? What exceptions are mentioned? What 
 are the organs of motion ? Of what do they consist ? What orders are 
 based upon differences in their structure ? Of how many kinds are the 
 fins ? Name them, and describe their uses. What additional fin is men- 
 tioned ? How do the bones compare in structure with those of other verte- 
 brates? What forms the skeleton of the Cartilaginous Fishes? What is 
 said of the vertebrse of fishes? What of the bones of the Herring and 
 Pilchard? What of the head ? Describe the teeth, with their variations as 
 to form and number? What is said of the skin? What of its color- 
 ings ? Of the senses of taste, smell, and hearing ? Of their eyes ? What 
 causes their brilliant hues? Where are the eyes placed ? Are these organs 
 wanting in any species of fish? What power is peculiar to some of this 
 class? Describe the electrical organs. Have they a voice? Do any ^ve 
 forth sound? Describe their food. Are any fish viviparous? What are 
 the eggs in the mass called? What before exclusion? Where are they 
 deposited? What fish construct nests? Are any ovo-viviparous? What 
 singular facts are mentioned in regard to the male fisjjes ? What of the 
 Shark's, eggs? Which is the most prolific fish? Give other instances from 
 the table. What facts show the longevity of fishes? What their capacity to 
 endure heat and cold? Which species show the greatest tenacity of life? 
 What is said of their flesh? Ejplaln the classifltation of Fishes as given 
 on the Chart. Which is the most anomalous of all the species? What 
 other strange fish are mentioned? Which connect the Fish and Reptiles? 
 Into how many orders are the Fishes arranged by Prince Bonaparte ? Give 
 their same, and also the orders of Agassiz and Muller ? 
 
 Which of Agassiz' orders of fish figured on the Chart has a hetero-circal 
 or uneven tail or caudal fin ? How has this order been otherwise divided? 
 tTpon what are these divisions based? Name the prominent fish in each. 
 Trace each family upon the Chart, giving some prominent characteristic of 
 each. Nome some of the fish in each family,' giving both the common, 
 
ICHTHTOIOG?. 559 
 
 generic, and specafic names when they are mentioned. Which is the most 
 numerous family? Which is the smallest? Which most useful for food? 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 Miillcr'a classification of fishes (made in 1846) is the most recent, but.it 
 has since been sorftewhat modified. This gives eleven orders, viz : 1. Dbr- 
 MOPTERi, in which he includes the Amphioxidse or Lancelets, placed in the 
 sub-order Pharyngobranchii ; and the Myxinoidei, (Myxines,) and Petro- 
 myzontidas, (Stone-Suclcers,) in the sub-order Marsipohranchii ; II. Mal- 
 AcopTEKi, with sub-orders Anodes, Abdominales ; III; Pharynf/ognqthi, 
 with suhiorders, Malacopterygti, (including Scomberesocidse) and Acanihop- 
 iei't/j'M, (includmg Ohromidffi, Cyclo-Labridae, Cteno-Labridse ;) lY. Anacan- 
 THiNi,l with sub-orders 'Apodes, (including Ophididae,) and Thoracici, (in- 
 cluding Gadidae, Pleuronectidse, and Echineidse;) V.- Acanthoptebi ; VI. 
 Plectobnathi ; VII. LophObeanchii ; VIII. (Janoidei; IX. Protopteri, 
 which includes the one famiily Sirenoidei, made up of Zepidosiren paradoxa, 
 of Brazil, and Zepidosiren or Protopterus annectens, of the Gambia Kiver, 
 Africa; X. Holooephali, (including Chimaeroidei and Edaphontidse ;) XI. 
 Plagiostomi. 
 
 Agassiz, in the " Essay on Classification," contained in his recently pijb- 
 lished worl£, thus remarks, — "I am satisfied that the differences which, exist 
 between the Selachians, (the Slcates, Sharks and Chim8erae,).are of the same 
 kind as those which distinguish the Amphibians from the Reptiles proper, 
 and justify their separation, as a class, from the Fishes proper. I consider 
 also the Cyclostomes as a distinct class, for similar reasons ; but I am still 
 doubtful whether the Ganoids should be separated also from the ordinary 
 Fishes. This, however, cannot be decided until their embryological devel- 
 opment has been thoroughly investigated, though I have alr,eady collected 
 data which favor this view of the case. Should this expectation be realized, 
 the branch of Tertebrata would contain the following classes : — 
 
 1st class: Myzontes; with two orders, Myxinoids and Cyclostomes. 
 
 2d class : Fishes proper ; with two orders, Ctenoids and Cycloids. 
 
 3d class : Ganoids ; with three orders, Coslacanths, Acipenseroids and 
 Sauroida; and doubtful, the Siluroids, Pleotognaths and Lophobranches. 
 
 4th class : Selachians ; with'three orders, Chimserse, Galeodes and Batides. 
 
 6th class : Amphibians ; with three orders, Csecilise, Ichthyodi and Anura. 
 
 6th class : Beptiles ; with four orders, Serpentes, Saurii, BHizodontes and 
 Testudinata. 
 
 7 th class : Birds ; with four orders, Natatores, Grallaa, Rasores, Insessores, 
 (including Scansores and Accipitres.) 
 
 8th class: Mammalia; with three orders Marsupialia, Herbivoia and 
 Oarnivora,'' 
 
ggQ ACAnTHOFTESY:GU. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 OssEOTTs Fishes 
 
 r First Ordee. AcANTHOPTERyGii, (Gr. 'Sxavda, akantha, a spine ; 
 nzigor, pteron, wing.) 
 
 The Ctenoids, or AoANTHOFTEEyGiUNS, including three. 
 
 fourths of all known fishes, are almost all marine. They are 
 
 ornamented with hard, shining, tooth-like scales of beautiful 
 
 f colors. The spiny fins of most of them arp constructed for long 
 
 I continued motion. , 
 
 FAMILIES. 
 
 (1) PercJtte, (Gr. perie, a kind of fish.) 
 
 The Perches. These comprise one-seventh of all spine, 
 rayed Fishes. Most of them, including the Gropers or Mailed 
 Perches, are marine, but the typical species, the Common Perch, 
 of Europe, {Perca ftuviatiUs,) with two separated dorsal fins, 
 the rays of the first spinous, of the second flexiblei, is found only 
 in fresh water. To this nearly corresponds the Yellow Perch, 
 P. Jlavescens, the most conspicuous of the numerous North 
 American species, and found both in salt water and fresh. In 
 1825, Yellow Perch were transported froni Skaneateles to Otisco 
 Lake and Onondaga Lake, and appeared to thrive ailer the trans- 
 fer. They are common in ponds and streams, and in all the 
 great lakes. The eggs of the Perch are of the size of a poppy 
 seed, and joined together by a viscid substance, in long strings. 
 Among the most remarkable fishes of this group are those' in- 
 cluded in the genus PoLynemus, (Gr. polus, many ; nema, a 
 thread or filament,) distinguished by having the ventral fins in- 
 serted farther back than the pectorals, and also for having nu. 
 merous long flexible .filaments placed near the latter fins, from 
 four to ten on each side, and sometimes twice the length of the 
 body. Interest attaches to these fishes from the fact that the 
 bladders of several species yield pure isinglass. The Suleah 
 Fish of India, P. sele, is the one from which it is said to have been 
 first procured. Shoals of this species are found in the estu- 
 aries of the river Ganges ; they are three to four feet in length, 
 and eight to ten inches in depth. The species P. Aviericanus 
 has several rays attached to the pectoral fin. It is about a foot 
 in length, and of a silvery color. All the fishes of this family 
 
ACANTHOFTERYGII. 56] 
 
 agree in the toothed or comb-like edges of the scales, and in 
 having serrated of spined gill-ooversi and fins destitute of scales. 
 The ItooE-FisH, or Stripeo-bass, Labrax lineatus, is a fish 
 that has the tongue covered, with teeth or prickles; the oper- 
 cula are somewhat different from those of th^ Perches prbper, 
 but in other respects it closely resembles them. It is much es- 
 teemed, especially when taken in autumn. These fishes are 
 brought into market, (dead,) during the winter, and sold in great 
 ntimbers. Like the shad, with which they are taken, they run 
 . from the salt waters into the fresh for the purpose of spawning. 
 (For other genera and species of this numerous family, see 
 Chart.) 
 
 (2) TngKdcB,' {Gr. trigla, a surmullet.) 
 
 Che Gurnards, or Mailed Cheeks. These have enormous 
 pectoral fins, yet live near the shore. The name Gurnard is 
 supposed to be derived from the French word grander, to grumble 
 or emit sounds. Cuvier called them " Fishes with hard cheeks," 
 referring to the encasement of the head and face in a solid buck- 
 ler of bone, which is their most obvious character. Like other 
 bottom fish, they live for some time out of the water. 
 
 The Piper, Trigla lyra, is rather an uncommon European 
 species. Thq Red Gurnard, T. cuculus, a well flavored fish, 
 occurs on the coast of the United States. Other American spe- 
 cies are found in the genus Frionolus, which closely resembles 
 Trigla. Among the Gurnards is included the Flying-fish, Bac- 
 iylopterus (Gr. finger-wings) volitans, (Lat. flying.) having very 
 large pectoral fins divided into two portions and serving as wings ; 
 but it is not so good a flyer as the Flying-fish, ExoccBtus, belong- 
 ing to the Pike family. To this family also belongs the genus 
 Gasterosteus, (Gr. bony-belly,) including quite small, but very 
 active and voracious fish, found in both ffesh and salt water, and 
 popnlarly called Sticklebacks. They are only from one to two 
 and a half inches long, butso elastic is the Three-spioed Stickle- 
 back, (represented half the usual size, Plate XIV. fig. 2,) that 
 it leaps nine times its length, in perpencticular height, from the 
 water. Its extraordinary voracity is shown by the fact that it 
 has been known to devour in five hours, seventy-four young dace, 
 and on the following day, sixty-two ; (some dace, it shoujd be 
 mentioned, are exceedingly small.) Several species of Stickle- 
 backs' are found in the waters of the United States. In some 
 parts of England, these fish are so numerous as to- be used for 
 manure. They ai'e so pugnacious as to destroy each other ; and 
 yet some of them manifest great care in building and watching 
 tiieir nests. 
 
562 AOANTHOPTEEYGII. 
 
 (8) Scmnidce, (Gr. skiaina, a sea-fish.) 
 
 The Maigres, These resemble Perches, but live in the sea, 
 and attain to a great size. They make a sort of purring sound. 
 The air-bladder is longj tapering, and fringed along each side, 
 giving it a singular appearance ; the head is generally enlarged 
 with cavernous swellings. Among the American fishes of this 
 family are the Weak-fish, OtoUihus regalis, abundant, on the 
 Atlantic coast, and an excellent salt-water fish. It is called 
 Salt-water Trout on thp southern shores. The Red-bass, or Sea- 
 bass, Corvina ocellata, is taken off the coast as far north as Long 
 Island Sound, and for food, is highly prized. The Lafayette, 
 or Chub, Leioslomus obliquus, abounds on the coasts of the Mid- 
 dle States, and is in some estimation for food. A species, L. 
 xanihurus, (Gr. yellow-tail,) known as thq Yellow Jack, or 
 Yellow Tail, is found off the coast of South Carolina. The 
 KiNG-FisH, Umbrina nehulosa, distinguished from others of the 
 family by a cirrus or tuft on the under jawi', is thought by many 
 to be the best fish which appears in the New York market. 
 The Drum, Pogonias chromis,{Gr. pogonias, bearded; ckromis, 
 a fish,) is a large and fine flavored fish. 
 
 (4) Sparida, (from Lat. sparus, gilt-head.) 
 
 The Sea Breams. These fishes have flat grinding teeth, 
 sometimes strong pointed canines in front. The common Gilt- 
 head, chrysophris, (Gr. chrusopkrus,) aurata, can crush such 
 thick stony shells as the Periwinkles, Whelks and Turbos, (or 
 Tods ;) a more voracious fish is scarcely known. The famed 
 She^pshead, Sargus ovds, abundant on the coast, and much es- 
 teemed for food, is of this family. 
 
 (5) Maenidoe, (Gr. maine, a small sea-fish.) 
 
 The Mendo'les. This is comparatively a small family, (not 
 mentioned on the Chart.) The common Mendole, Maena vulga- 
 ris, is considered so utterly worthless that the name Is used at 
 Venice as a term of derision. A W6st India species decom- 
 poses with remarkable rapidity, the flesh becoming soft almost 
 immediately after it is-dead. The species of the genus Smarts, 
 (Gr. a sea-fish,) are sought for in the Mediterranean. One spe- 
 cies is called the Kins-Fisher of the Sea, S. alcedo, in allusion 
 to its beautiful tints. 
 
 (6) ChdetodontidtB, (Gr. chaite, hair or bristle ; odous, tooth.) 
 The Chaefodons. These are thus named because their teeth 
 
 are so long, fine and slender as to resemble the bristles of a 
 brush. Cuvier called them Squamipennes, to express the man- 
 ner in which their fleshy fins are covered with scales, like the 
 rest of the body, which is flat or round, and thin, with long bat- 
 
ACANTHOFTEBYQII. S63 
 
 like fins. The scales reflect the most brilliant hues. The spe- 
 cies are numerous and tropical. The Archers, Toxotes, (Plate 
 XIV. fig. 4,) eject water out of the tubular mouth with such pre- 
 cision as to bring down any insect witliin their reach. In Java, 
 they are kept in glass vessels for amusement, an insect being 
 suspended by a thread above for the fish to shoot at. 
 
 (7) Anabassida, (from Gr. anabaino, to ascend.) Climbing 
 Perches. 
 
 This family includes but one genus, Andbas, fishes whose res- 
 piratory organs are so constructed as to enable them to sustain 
 life for a space of time out of water, by having small apertures 
 or some receptacle where they can preserve sufficient water to 
 moisten their gills. There is but one species, A. scandens, (Lat. 
 climbing.) When a pond is dried up in which these Perches 
 are found, it is said they are guided by a remarkable instinct in 
 traveling towards the nearest water. Swainson says the Climb- 
 irig Perch "quits the water and ascends the roots of the man- 
 grove trees, (in East India,) an effort it accomplishes by using 
 its Ventral fins as little feet." (These fish are by some natu- 
 ralists included in the family Labyrinlhibranchice, a name refer- 
 ring to the vascular membrane, folded together in a number of 
 laminse, and occupying the upper part of the front branchial 
 arches, and which serves to retain water for moistening the gills 
 during the travels of these fishes on the land.) 
 
 (8) Scombridm, (Lat. scomber, a mackerel.) This includes 
 the Mackerels, an important, as well as numerous family of al- 
 most entirely marine fish, found in all seas. Many are pelagic, 
 •(roving far frorn land.) They are tak^n in such quantities as to 
 prove them to be inexhaustible. They live near the surface and 
 are among the fishes which quickly decompose. The TuNNr, 
 Thynnus, of the Mediterranean, is from three to four and even 
 fifteen feet in length. Fried in 'cutlets, this fish resembles veal, 
 the flavor being quite as much like that of flesh as of fish. The 
 BoNiTA, (Scomber pelamys,) found on our coast, is a species ot 
 Tunny, which in the tropics pursues the Flying-fish. 
 
 The Sword-fish, Xiphias gladius, the largest of the order, be-~ 
 ing from twelve to fifteen feet long, has the beak lengthened 
 into a longj powerful weapon, which it soijnetimes drives with 
 such violence as to penetrate to a great deprf) into the timbers of 
 ships. The Pilot Fish, Naucrates ducior, follows vessels, and 
 thus acts as a guide to the Sharks. Among the other American 
 fishes of this family found on our coast, are the following ; the 
 Spanish Mackerel, Gymbium, (Gr. kumbion, a small bowl ;) 
 the Cbab-Eateb, Elacate, (Gr. a distaff;) the Carolima Lichia, 
 
564 ACANTHOFTKEYGII. 
 
 Lichia Carolina; the Teachinote, TracMnotus ; the Yellow 
 and Spotted Mackerels, Caranx crysos, (Gr. yellow or golden,) 
 and C. punctatus, (Lat. spotted ;) the Haik-finned Blepharis, 
 {Bhpharis crinkus,) Which is the Zeus crinitus of Akerly, kin. 
 dred' to the well known Dory or John Dory, Z. faber, an Euro, 
 pean species nnuch esteemed by epicures, and of" which strange 
 things have been often recited ; the Shiner, Vomer, (Lat. a 
 plough-share ;) the Seriole, SerJoZa, (Lat; a small jhr;) the 
 Blue Fish, or Green Fish, Temnodon, (Gr. temno, to cut ; 
 odous, tooth ; so named from the very sharp teeth,) sometimes 
 called Horse Mackerel ; the principal species, T. mltator, be. 
 ing the Tailor, or Skip-jack of the more southern waters, 
 "twenty of which," it was formerly said, "would fill a barrel;" 
 the BdTTLE-HEADED DoLPHiN, CorypfuBna, (Gr. korus, a helmet; 
 phdino, I display.) gloMceps, (globe-heiaded.) The fishes of this 
 genus, including the fishes generally known as dolphins, and 
 celebrated for their' beauty, are, however, rarely found off the 
 coasts, being mostly inhabitants of mid-oceaii. The species C. 
 hippUris, is famed for its beaiitiful play of colors when dying. 
 The' Ddlphins are conspicuous enemies of the Flying-fish. Other 
 fishes of this family are, the LampUgus, a rare and exceedingly 
 beautiful fish, and the Harvest-fish, RJiombus. 
 
 (9) OepoUda, or Taniadcei. (Lat. fcenia, a ribbon.) 
 
 This is a small family of fishes allied to the Mackerels. They 
 are chiefly distinguished by an elpngated, flattefted shape ; their 
 general appearance being that of a bright silver ribbon. They 
 have the popular names of Ribbon-fish, Lath or Deal fish. The 
 body is riot thicker, except in the middle, than a sword. Most 
 of the species inhabit the Mediterranean. The eleven-rayed 
 Band-fish, Cepola rubescens, (Lat. turning red,) is seen on the 
 coasts of England ; it displays brilliant colors ; sometimes is 
 called Fire-flame and Red-ribbon. As showing the appropriate- 
 ness of the name Ribbon-fish, it is related, that a specimen of 
 this species, "though nineteen and a half inchesiii length, hav- 
 ing been carefully/b^^e'd lip like a ribbon, passed to Belfast, (Ire- 
 land,) in a' franked letter of the ordinary size and legal weijrht, 
 vi'z., less than an ounce." (Magazine of Nat. Hist.) The 
 Silvery Hair- Tail, Trichiurus, (Gr. hair-tail.) lepturus, (Gr. 
 thin-tail,) having a tapering tail, ending in a filament, is found 
 ofT the coast of. the U. S. 
 
 (10) Teuthidce, (Gr. TeutMs, a kind of fish.) 
 
 This is another, not numerous family, sometimes called Lan- 
 cet-fish, resembling the Mackerels in appearance and some othef 
 respects, but peculiar for the cutting spines in each side of the 
 
Ai;Ax«i'tiu±"rciiifiTU« 565 
 
 ^ail, and a horizontal spine before the dorsal fin. They have but 
 one I'oW of teeth, and are among the sniall number of the class 
 that feed entirely on vegetable substances; The Doctor-fish, 
 Acanthurus, (Gr. spine-tail,) paruleus, (Lat. dark blue,) has 
 caudal lancets which are short, hard, and glassy, and are en- 
 closed in a yellow membranous sheath. It is common on the 
 coasts of the West India islands, South Carolina and Florida. 
 The SuRGEON-FisH, A. phlebotoitiui, (Gr. vein-cutting.) is another 
 species found off the coasts of the United States. The caudal 
 lancets of these fishes are analogous to the horns of ruminating 
 animals, and to be regarded rather as defensive than offensive 
 Weapons. 
 
 (11) AiherintdcB, (Gr. dtherinU, from ather, a thorn.) 
 
 This is a f5,mily sometimes included in the Mugilida, called 
 Silver-sides, from threi silvery band on the side ; the two dorsal 
 fins are.fgr apart ; the anterior one spinous. The genus Atherina is 
 represented by several species of small fishes. Silver-sides used to 
 be caught in New York Hairbor, and sold for bait, under the 
 name of Anchovies and'Sea'smelts. The^e small fishes were for- 
 merly supposed to be all included in the genus Atherina, but 
 Mr. Charles Girard, (see " United States Astronomical Expedi- 
 tion,") has, within a few years, proposed three additidnal genera, 
 of which several species are found in S. A. 
 
 (12) MugilidcB, (Lat. mugil, a miillet.) 
 
 The Mullets are lengthened, and often cylindrical in form, with 
 a somewhat projecting snout, and' an extremely small mouth, 
 placed beneath. They inhabit both salt and fresh water; indeed, 
 a change from salt to fresh water seems necessary to them. A 
 number of species of the genus Mvgil are found in the United 
 States. The Common Mullet, M. albula, is throughout the 
 greater part of ;the year, taken in large numbers on our Southern 
 coast. These fishes have liot been considered carnivorous; but 
 the shells obtained from the stomach of one of them by Mr. 
 Thompson, of Belfast, (Ireland,) filled a large sized cup. They 
 swim In large shoals near the surfa'Ce ; Gosse says- that the Grey 
 Mullets, M. cdpito, assemble to feed every evening at a certain 
 knocking, and are the dnly fish with which he is acquainted, 
 that select for food nothing that has life, except that they some- 
 times swallow the Sand- Worm. 
 
 (13) The GobideB, Gobies, and Blennidiz, Blennies, are, on 
 the Chart, inpTuded in one family, both having flexible and 
 slender^dorsal spinous rays. They have no swimming bladder. 
 Some of the Gobies proper; have no visible soaks. This numer- 
 Dus family of small unimportant fishes,- have not even beauty to 
 
566 ACANTHOFTEEYGII. 
 
 recommend them. They are soft to the touch, being invested 
 with a mucous slime; hence the generfo name, Blenna. (Gr. 
 mucus.) 
 
 The Wolf-Fish, or Sea-Cat, Anarrhieas lupus, is much larger 
 than others of this family, being a formidable, voracious fish, 
 from three to eight feet in length, with a broad cat-like face, and 
 a grinning mouth, bristling with stout, sharp teeth, so strong as 
 to crush the hardest shells, and. even stone. 
 
 The genus Zoarces, (with three American species,) has the 
 dorsal, anal, i^nd caudal fins united. 
 
 The Butter-fish, Gunnellus mucronatus, (pointed,) has a. long 
 compressed body, and the ventral fins rudimentary.. 
 
 The German Dragonet, Caliionymus lyra, is an exception to 
 others of the family, in having beautiful colors. It has no visi. 
 ble scales. 
 
 In Italy, Blennies are fried in numbers, like Sprats in Eng. 
 land, and eaten by the poorer classes*, Some species of the 
 genus, Zoarces, and probably others, produce their young alive 
 by dozens. The Shanny, PhoUs, (Gr. a scale,) deposits its 
 eggs on the roofs or sides of cavities in rocks, near the Ipw water 
 mucks, and being of a bright amber color, with a polished sur- 
 face, it appears as if paved with round stones. The Physis, of 
 the Mediterranean, foritns a nest of sea- weed in which to deposit 
 its spawn, and attends upon the. young. , 
 
 (14) Lophidce, (Gr. lophos, a crest.) 
 
 These are distinguished by the lengthening of the carpal 
 bone, by which, as on an arm, the pectoral fin is supported. 
 The family includes some of the most singular looking fishes in 
 the entire class, such as Frog, or Toad Fishes, &o., grotesque 
 and reptile-like; without scales ; hiding themselves in the mud, 
 and attracting their prey by agitating the filamentary processes 
 on the head. The feet-like pectoral fins assist them to crawl on 
 the bottom of the sea, and also upon land. These, on account of 
 thesoft.and yielding nature of the skeleton, were formerly classed 
 with other Cartilaginous or Soft-rayed Fishes, (see Lopkius 
 Americanus, SqualidcB, on the Chart;) but Cuvier demonstrated 
 its fibrous structure, and fixed its position among the bony 
 fishes. , 
 
 The Antennarius, (Lat. from antenna,) is found in tropical 
 seas. It is said to crawl about the fields, for two or three days 
 at a time. So tenacious of life are the fishes of this genus, that 
 they have been transported alive from tropical seas to Holland, 
 and sold " for twelve ducats a piece." Their voracity is great, — 
 in fact, they seem to be mostly mouth and stomach; On the 
 
MALACOPTERyail. 567 
 
 coast of Scotland, these "Sea-Devils" are met wilh^ four and 
 even five feet long. The Mouse-fish and Toad-fish are sinall 
 species of this family, 
 
 (15) Lahrida, (Lat. labrum, a lip,) — a family deriving its 
 name from the fleshy lips appended to the jaws. It, has been 
 divided into two sections, Cyclo-labridcB, having cycloid -scales, 
 and Cteno-labridce, having a dorsal fin supported in , front by 
 spines. This family includes the Wrasses or Rock-fishes, — 
 numerous small fishes of brilliant orange and blue color, ar- 
 ranged in stripes with wavy lines. The genus Ctenolabrus is' 
 represented by the Nibber or Common Bergall, C. caruleus, 
 found on the coast from New Jersey northward. On account of 
 its prevailing color, it is also called the Blue-fish, Blue Perch, 
 Gunner or Conner, and Chogset ; the last mentioned name being 
 derived from the Mohegan tongue. The flesh is insipid and 
 vi^atery. The Tautoga Americana, the Compion Black-fish 
 or Tautog, ,(in the Mohegan dialect,) much valued for the 
 table, — is found on the coast between Massachusetts and Ches- 
 apeake Bay. 
 
 Second Order. Malacopterygii, (Gr, /i&Xaxig, malakos, soR.; 
 msquv, pieron, wing or fin. 
 
 The Cycloids. These fishes are a step lower in organization. 
 Soft-fins or rays distinguish them from those of the preceding 
 order. The genera and species are less numerous, but as fur- 
 nishing food for man, the order is the most important of all, in- 
 eluding such fish as Salmon, Pike, Herring, Co,d, Carp, Turbot, 
 Halibut, &c. The order comprises all the Ground Fishes, — 
 those which are restricted to fresh waters, and lie in wait for 
 their prey, 
 
 SuBtOeder. Abdominales. 
 
 The fishes of this- sub-order have the ventrals behind the pec- 
 toral fins, and not attached to the humeral or shoulder-bone. 
 
 -f 
 
 (16) Silurida, .{Gr. sUour OS from seio, I move; oura, the taiLj]^ 
 This is a family represented by the Cat-fish, Bull-pouts, Bull-' 
 heads, and Horned-pouts, (Pimelodiis,) — the last name being 
 derived from the fleshy filaments, (cirri or bai'bels,) floating from 
 the mouth. These cirri are supposed to aid them in obtaining 
 food, while groping in the mud. They are without scales, and 
 covered with a 'slimy coat of mucus. Some South American 
 species haVe large angular, bony plates, and are, therefore, said 
 to be mailed. The Oceanic Cat-fish has only six barbels. 
 
568 MALACbttERYGII. 
 
 The Sheat-fish or Sly Silure, (see Chart,) Siiuriis glanh, (Gr.' 
 a kind of shad,) is the only species of Europe, and perhaps the 
 largest of European fresh-water fishes,; — attaining the length of 
 ten, twelve, or even fifteen feet. 
 
 One species, Silurus electricus, (the Mdlapterurvs ekctricus, 
 of later writers,) an inhabitant of the Nile and of the rivers.of 
 Central Africa, has electric properties similar, or intermediate 
 to those of the Torpedo and Gymnotus, though the organs are 
 of much finer texture. 
 
 Ofthe American fresh-water forms the njost noted are included 
 in the genus Pime?od!MS,(Gr. PinieU, fat,) distinguished by having 
 an adipose dorsal fin. One species, found in the Mississippi, has 
 been known to weigh one hundred pounds. The genus Noiutus, , 
 (Gr. back-tail, ) includes the Stone Cat-fish. It has its generic 
 name from having the back fin confluent with the tail-fin. 
 
 The Pimelodus cyclopum, ^(Hunfiboldt,) of South America, in-'^ 
 habits the highest regions in which fish are known to live, 
 occurring at Quito, 16,000 feet above the level ofthe sea. They 
 are found in subterranean lakes, and sometimes are ejected from 
 the craters ofthe Cotapaxi and Tunguaraga volcanoes.. 
 
 In this family are included the Bund Fishes, Amblyopm 
 speleBus, (DeKay,) ofthe Mammoth Cave, (Kentucky,) in which 
 the eyes are invisible, or appear in a rudimentary state, on the 
 dissection ofthe fish. It is said "they are acutely sensitive to 
 sounds, as well as to undulations produced by other causes in 
 the water." (Silliman's Journal, second series, Vol. XVII.) 
 
 (17) CyprinidcR, (Gr. kuprinos, a c^rp.) This family includes 
 by far the greater part, of fresh- water fishes, though the flesh of 
 not very many is valuable for food. Few of them are found in 
 tropical waters. The Carps have no teeth in the mouth, but 
 they appear in various kinds upon the posterior branchial arch, 
 (or pharyngeal bone.) These and eels live a hundred years. 
 
 The species Cyprinus Carpio, (Lat. a carp,) is highly prized 
 
 for food. It is particularly abundant in Europe, and has been 
 
 naturalized in waters of the United States, especially in the 
 
 Hudson River.* 
 
 -r» The Gold-Fish, Cyprinus auraius, of our parlors, «o conspic- 
 
 ' * These fish were fi(st BuocessfuUy introduced by H. Robinson, of New- 
 burgh. The spawn is deposited among the grass along the sides of the 
 ponds or rivers which they inhabit. These fishes reach the size of three or 
 four inches the first year, and sometimes become quite large, though the 
 size varies considerably. The Breanjs are from five to seven inches long; 
 thi; Chubsuckers from seven to twelve; the Sijckers front seven to eighteen. 
 They, together with the Dace, Sheepsliead, Killi-fish, Bed-fin, &c., are found 
 In the waters of New York. 
 
MALACOPTEEYGII. 56& 
 
 uous among fresh-water fish for the beauty and variations of their 
 colors, are of this Jfamily. The true home of these fish is a lake 
 in China, whence they have been taiien, and introduced to other 
 countries. When kept in globes, care should be taken not to 
 give them more food than they can eat at a time, as the uncon- 
 sumed portion, dissolving in the water, may afiect their breath- 
 ing. The eggs should be removed to another vessel, or else the. 
 fish will eat them. 
 
 The Gudgeons, C, gohio, appear to delight in slow rivers, and 
 swim together in shoals. They seize the bait with avidity, and 
 hence afford excellent amusement to anglers. 
 
 The Slimy Tench, Tinea vulgaris, is common in lakes of the 
 European continent, and sotjnetimes found in ornamental waters 
 and ponds, b\}t is seldom found in rivers, being fond of still and 
 muddy waters. It is considered a very prolific fish, and of quick 
 growth- The Tench ranks among the most useful fresh-water 
 fish of Europe. j 
 
 The Bleak, Cyprinus alburnus or Alburnus lucidus, is another 
 European specie^, from the scales of which is chiefly obtained 
 the silvery matter used in the preparation of artificial pearls. 
 
 The Variegated or Carp Bream, Ahramis versicolor, is a 
 savory fish, sometimes called the Yellow-bellied Pe jch and Wind- 
 Fish; found in the Connecticut and Hudson Rivers, and in other 
 waters. . When a light breeze ruffles the water, thousands of 
 these fish are sometimes seen darting to the surface. Near 
 Peekskill, N. Y., it is called the DaCe, from its resemblance to 
 Dace of Europe, C leuciscus. 
 
 The Barbel, of Europe, Barbus, (Lat. from barha, a beard ;) 
 vulgaris, — named from the cirri or barbs attached to its mouth, — 
 frequents the deep and stiH parts of rivers,— is very numerous 
 in the Thames, Eng. Its flesh is coarse and unsavory, and held 
 in little estimation. 
 
 Several species of Dace are foun^ in North America. Among 
 them are the Black-nosed Dace, Leuciscus atronasus, (Lat. black- 
 nosed ;) the Spawn-Eatee, L, Hudsonius, supposed by fisher- 
 men to live entirely on the spawn of other fishes, — first described 
 by DeWitt Clinton, formerly governor of the State of New York ; 
 the Shiner, L. chrysopferus, (Gr. yellow-finned ;) the Silvery 
 Dace, L. argenleus, found ii^ Massachusetts; the Pigmy Dace, 
 L. pygnuBus, which is only an inch long. Other species are 
 sometimes quite small. -" 
 
 The Suckers, Catastomus, (Gr. kata, against; slomd, mouth.) 
 embrace many species known by their very fleshy lips, which 
 can he applied to any object like a sucker. Diflerent names are 
 
570 MALACOPTEEYGU. 
 
 applied to the several species, such as Mullet, Buffalo-fish, Red- 
 /Horse, &c., &c. 
 
 The species of Cyprinidm are extremely numei;ous in Amen- 
 can waters, and many, no doubt, are yet to be described. But 
 we must not omit to notice two singular species; the first, Cy- 
 prinodon umbra, remarkable as being one of the inhabitants of 
 the subterranean lakes in Austria, where darkness perpetually 
 reigns ; the second, the Four-eyed Loach, Anahleps tetrophthal. 
 mus, (Gr. four-eyed,) found in the Brazilian rivers. " It is," says 
 Mr. Edwards, in his "Voyage up the Amazon," "always seen 
 swimming with the nose above the surface of the water, and pro- 
 pelling itself by sudden starts. The eye of this fish has two 
 pupils, although but one crystalline and one vitreous humor and 
 but one retina. It is the popular belief that, as it swims, two of 
 its eyes are adapted to the water, and two to the air." 
 
 (18) EsocidcB, (Gr. isox, a. kind of pike.) The Pikes, (E«oiB,) 
 are the most voracious and destructive of all fresh-water fish. 
 Their lengthened form enables them to live in shallow waters, 
 and even when considerably large they sometimes are found in 
 small brooks. The Trout alone can compete with these fishes, 
 and not often are both found in the same waters. Lacepedfi calls 
 them the Sharks 6f our ponds and rivers. Only one species, E. 
 lucius, is tbund in Europe ; sometimes attaining a length of 
 nineteen feet, and a weight of seventy pounds. A skeleton of 
 one has been preserved at Manheim, which weighed three hun- 
 dred and fifty pounds, and was probably between two hundred 
 and three hundred years old. The Species are numerous in the 
 waters of this Continent. Those of Lake Erie and other Northern 
 lakes, as the Muskalonge or Muskellunge, E. noHlior, E. eslor, 
 are very large. The more Southern species are smaller. The 
 American species form two divisions; one of which has the oper- 
 cular or gill covers entirely scaly, and dark reticulated mark- 
 ings; the other having scales only on the upper half of the gill 
 covers, and m.a.tked with light spots on a dark ground. 
 
 The Common Pickerel, E. reticulatus, abounds throughout the 
 Eastern and Middle States, and in the waters of Ohio. 
 
 The Banded, Gar-fish, Belone truncata, has very minute, soft 
 scales, and the upper part of the body is of a beautiful transparent 
 sea-gre£n. 
 
 Xhe Scomheresox, or Bill-fish, (S. Storeri, Mass. Report,) has 
 a broad silvery band on the body ; and is, hence, sometimes 
 called the Silver-Gar. Both these fish have the head and snout 
 very much elongated ; the Bill-fish has the dorsal and anal fins 
 divided into flnlets, as in the Mackerel,-T-henoe, the name Scorn- 
 
MALACOPTEEYGII. 571 
 
 heresdii, tt Mackerel-Pike, The two last named g^'era are 
 sometimes united in a separate family, (ScomberesocidsB.) The 
 Plying Pishes of tropical seas, Exocmtus, (Gr. M^rnxoirog, 
 exolcoitos, (sleeping out of the sea,) — wer6 so named because 
 believed by the ancients to sleep on the beach. -They have 
 the specific name voUtans, (Lat; flying,) frorfi havinjj the pectorar 
 fins so enlarged as to resemble wings, (Plate XIV. %. 3. ;) when 
 in the air they move so rapidly as to' resemble birds mtirethan 
 fish. They fly straight forward, remaining out of the water thirty 
 sefconds or more at a time. Two o? three hundred of them are 
 sometimes seen, together. 
 
 (19) Fistula'H^dce,' (haX, from Jlstuh, a pipe or tube.) This 
 family includes the Pipe-mouthed and Trumpet fishes having 
 tubular mouths, which, it is thought, they' use in drawing up 
 thisir food, like a syringe. The genus Pistuldria, (the fobacco- 
 pipe' Fish,) has' several species on our coast. The Trumpet-, 
 fish, Centriscus, besides the tubular snout, has a short coni- 
 pre^ed body, of which the head forms the larger portion. 
 
 (20) Salm6nidce, (LaX. salmo, a sklmion,) 
 
 This is the Trout family, inhabiting both fresh and salt wa- 
 ter, and the mpst completely toothed of all the fishes. They 
 agree with the Herring family in the structure of the uppe/r 
 jaw, and are distinguished by having a spnall fatty fin behind 
 the true dorsal fi'n. Their flesh is unrivaled ; all the members 
 of the family are eagerly sought for by anglers, from the sal- 
 mon or lake trout, the inackerel trout, the white fish of the large 
 lakes, and the Bass of' Otsego, to the small frost-fish or smelt 
 caught in Lake Champlain, through holes in the ice, to which the^ 
 fish r,Ush in crowds to ' breathe the fresh air. Different causes 
 have been assigned for the various shades of color in the flesh 
 of Salmon.^ Such as live upon fresh water shrimps and other 
 sniall* crustaceans, are sai(l to be the brightest; those feeding 
 upon aquatic vergetables dull, and the darkest of all. 
 
 DeKay thiriks it doubtful whether any trout' feed on vegetables. 
 Those ' of ponds are externally dark coloted ; those in clear 
 streams With sandy bottoms, are bright; and those in salt, brack-; 
 ish 'streams are not onl^ bright externally, but have the fl'^feh 
 more of the Salmori color. The' niost COn^ictiOU^ spediei' is the 
 Sdlrtum salar, (Lat. a kind of trout,) which is the true Salmon 
 found on the northern shores of both Eui'ope aiid Amerioa; and! 
 ascending the rivers in summer; Sometifn.es attainirtg'.'a weight 
 of fifty pounds or more. Itis'not only valuable'for food, but the 
 women of the Tungodses, in Siberia, taii the skin so ks to render 
 it flexible, for the jiuriposes of clothiiig, .... 
 
 The Bitob* TsbriT, S. foriUnkM,id inii with iif6m Maine to 
 
 1 9.A 
 
572 MALACOPTEHYGII. I 
 
 the southern parts of Virginia. This seldom exceeds four peunds ' 
 in weight. Dr. Mitchell speaks of a Salmon of Lal(e Huron, 
 which weighed one hundred and twenty pounds, but the Lake 
 Salmon are not now often found to exceed eighty pounds. To 
 the prolific nature of the Salmon we have already . referred. 
 These delicious fish were formerly quite abundant ; indeed, it 
 is not many years since they were, in Massachusetts, a perfect 
 drug. We have read of a boy who was apprenticed in New. 
 buryport, with the special condition in his indentures, that he 
 should not be obliged to eat ^ salmon more tlian three times a 
 Week. 
 (21) Clupdda, (Lat. clupea, a river fish or shad.) 
 The fishes of this family, including, Herrings. Pilchards, Sprats, 
 Sardines, Anchovies and Shad, are among those esteemed as 
 most useful and indispensable,, Both the maxiJlaries and inter, 
 maxillaries are employed to form the margin of the upper jaw. 
 These fish are excepdingly abundant. Four hundred thousand 
 Anchovies are said to have been taken at one haul, on the coast 
 of Sardinia. These latter f\sh are preserved with salt, after 
 removing the head and intestines. They are about the size of 
 the little finger, and used as a condiment. 
 
 Herrings, (^Clupea harengus,) are now supposed to live in the, 
 vicinity of the places where they, are caught, approaching the 
 shore to spawn in such numbers that the watef is filled with 
 loose scales rubbed ofi" in the crowd. The Herring fishery .along 
 the coasts of Europe and America, gives employment in sum- 
 mer tp many thousands of people. The consumption in Europe 
 alone of two thousand millions of these fish, annually, does not 
 s6em to decrease their numbers.. They are valuable in com- 
 merce, either pickled or smoked. To prepare the Red oi; 
 Smoked Herring, the fish are sprinkled with salt, and lie about 
 six days in heaps on a brick qr stone floor. Rods are then 
 passed through<tiie; gills, care being taken not to have them touch 
 each other. These rods are suspended in tiers, in ovens, hold- 
 ing from ten to twelve thousand, where the herrings are smoked 
 for a month with hard wood, and after being cooled, are packed 
 for market. The Emperor Charles V, in 1556, erected a mon- 
 ument, and ate a herring over the grave of a fisherman of Zea. 
 land, who had improved the art of pickling herring. Several 
 species of Herring are caught on the coasts, and in the rivers 
 of the Atlantic States, Some idea of the extent of the herring, 
 fishery in Maine may be obtained from the fact that at Treat's 
 islftncj, there were in five days, caught, salted, and stored up for 
 smoking, what would make or pack five thousand boxes. Some 
 kinds of Harriog.Arf ussd instead .of guano, for enriching land. 
 
MALACOPTEHYGir.. 573 
 
 Sardines are a smalj species of .Herring, niBcfeo prized as a 1*61- 
 ish« . From forty to fifty thousand are often tahen,' at a 
 single haul in the Mediterranean, |he Baltic and the Atlantic. 
 The American Shad, 4Zp«a iprtestabilis, (Lat. excellent,; or Ai 
 safi^issima, (Lat. most savory,) is a tieautiful- and savory fish 
 which enters our rivers between January and-May, the time va- 
 rying with the latitude,, passing to a considerable. distance from 
 the mouths of the rivers in order to: spawn. They descend the 
 Hudson riv-er during the latter part, of May, when they are 
 called Back Shad, and are leap, and scarcely fit i to ■ eat. Shad 
 are caught in large seines, and in gill-nets attached .to long 
 spears, and often set in from seven taten fathoms of, water. They 
 are taken in large numbers inithe H'udsop and other rivers, and. 
 more especially in Chesapeake and Delaware Bays. In ahund-: 
 ant seasons they are sold at,fro?n six to ten dollars per hundred, 
 and.p^ked away in salt. This species is -of much finer, flavor' 
 than the tQojhjhqn Shad, 4» «*«/^w'*, of Europe. . v'l 
 
 The Alewites, A. tyraanus, appear in great nupnbers! ia 
 Chesapeake Bay, from March- to' May, In New York iwaters, 
 they appear with the shad, about the first of April, but not in 
 numbers sufficiently large to form a separate fishery. Thtey 
 are numerous on the coast of Massachusetts, apd- very good food. 
 
 The MossBONKEH, A weraiifldan, is valuable and largely used 
 for manure, and in some places as bait for, mackerel ^ cod, and. 
 halibut. This fish also has the names, iBony-'Jish, Hard-head, 
 and Mpnhadan, "the last being the name given by, the Manhat.- 
 tans." It is dry, full of bones, and without flavor, and therefore 
 is seldom ^aten. , 
 
 SUB-BKACHIALS., 
 
 These are distinguished by having the ventral fins under the 
 pectorals, and, the pelvis immediately attached ip the, bones of 
 the shoulder. 
 
 (22) T^e Gadidce., or Cod FisH'.'family, hay^ an elongati^d bp^y, 
 OQvered'withi'soft scales not extending on the lieiji,d. , The geniis 
 Morrhua represents the true Cod. The best known species is 
 the Mor'rhua vulgaris, found in the seas of Europe as far south 
 as Gibraltar, and in those of America as far as. Newfound- 
 land ; its maximum size is sixty qr seventy pounds. The spe- . 
 cies commonly found through the whole year off the coast,6f the 
 United States, and going into deei» \yater in 'the; spring, i? Jif. , 
 ^OTeri'cana, from one to three ^et in length. Occasionally it' 
 attains an immense size, §i)e.ciinehs are sometim.es taken which 
 
574 MALACOPTERYGIIi.- 
 
 widgh seventy or eighty pounds. Dr. Stomf Speiaks of tine 
 which reached the enOTmous weight of one hundred and seven' 
 pounds; a cod of fiftyi pounds, however, is thought tO Be very 
 large. The Cod-fishery, it is well known, is extensively foUoWed 
 in the Eastern States, particularly Masskchusetts ; giving em. 
 ployoient to &,large nuniber of persons and requiring an amount' 
 of tonnage which ranks only second tb that employfed in the 
 whale, fishery.. Fishing v^ssrf^i of' all nations' are found off the 
 Banks df Newfoundland. Cod fish are taken with lio'dkS 6r 
 seines sunk to a considerable depth in the sea. The'months of ' 
 May and June are the season for securing them. ' They are pre- 
 served by simply salting them green, or they are sated and then 
 dried. The oil, olevM jecori, from the liver of the cod, is quite 
 largely. u*d as a medicine, and considered to be highly Valua- 
 ble, especially in pulmonary complaints. The roe is also exfen. 
 siv«ily used as bait for herrings. Other fishes of this family: are 
 the Power Cod, M. mMuta, from four to «ight inches long ; the 
 Tour Cod, or Frost-fish, M. pruinosa, (liat.' frosty,) a savory 
 fish, and caught in large .quantities^; the Haddock, M ceghfitvUs,' 
 nearly as common in our market as the Cod,"but inferiybr in size 
 < and as an article of food; the WinTipfG, Merhngus vulgaris, an 
 European specrpS ; (the name Whiting 'is alSo applied to the 
 American species, M. alhidus, Lat. whitish;) the Burbot, Lota 
 vulgaris^ isconsiderably esteemed ; the Cusk, BrOsmiuS iMgaH's, 
 (Sliorer ;) the Hake or Codttng', Pliycis Arnericamis. These are ■ 
 all equally palatable with the Common Cod; the Cdal-fish, Jf; 
 carhonariiis,'{lj&.%. from carho, a coal,) ranging on bBth shores of 
 the Atlantic ; M. purpureus, (Lat. purple-colored,) abundant on 
 the shores of New England and sometimes on that of New 
 York, and known under the name of Pollack. 
 
 (23) ,Planidm,. or Pleurimectida, (Gr. pleuronectes,^ side-swim- 
 mer,)' the"P£A'i?-FiSH Family. ■ "' ■ ' , ' , ' 
 
 These, from their want of symmetry, really stand alone among 
 the Vertebrates. The eyes are both on one side of the head, 
 usually on? above the other, and often varying in size. Ttie 
 upper surfice ■ of these- 'fishes resembles the ground in which 
 they lie in Wait for their prey ; the under surface, from being 
 never exposed to the action- of light, is white. The upper and 
 wTiitfe Surfa.Ce are really to be regarded as the too sides, right 
 and feft. So that instead of being depressed, it is compressed, or 
 flattened vertically, like the Chaetodons, though the latter, like 
 othfer.fehreis,' sWim with the baclt iipperijtjost, notwithstanding their 
 thiniiess; but the Turbot sWims or grovels along th,?. bottom up. 
 oti m aide, the Cblor^ftd' Sidfe, i?i^h^ 0* Ibft, being uppermost. To ' 
 
tMs^htB'iteirm'PIeur&ifeiitea tef&r^i , @efiay designates the Flat^, 
 FISH, haytag theeyesiandi colored surface on the right,, as dex. 
 tral specie^,, pind the Elqunberis, which iave the eyes a^nd col- 
 ored surface op the left, as sinistrM species. Of the latter is the 
 Oblonp Fhovi^DEii,, f,lates$a ohlonga, (Plate XIV. fig. 5,) fottnd 
 on our, (joaatft iancl:;fi!o>Tij,fifte§ij to twenty jnphes; in length. 
 The Turbot, Mhomhus maximus, is considered the best of.:EcDr0i. 
 pean, fifiihes, .'Che, SfijiTTBiD or Watery TtrjiBOTt Pieurgneittes 
 fnl(^C:^h|tus,,ox Mhomius .(i^Q$uSt (StoTBTf) i$ fQ\ind on our coct^J: 
 and soRietimes called the English Tu^bots but. is dilstiqguished 
 frqm that J^h-by the absence pf the numerous tubercles on the 
 iefilpne4 side, which ohariioteri?e ;tfee, latter. . ■■>[(:' 
 
 The "Halibut, {Hippoglossus vulgaris,) ha?, a longer ,b!Gi$lyjiH)il 
 sharper teeth than others of the family. Sometimes it reaches 
 a great size. K)i. ^to)«r,sp&^ks of one ilhat (\yjei^ed six hundred 
 pounds, though' a Halibut weighing two hundred pounds is con- 
 sidered large. The fins are regarded b^ epicures' as la Very 
 choice part df'this' Mii'-- There are several species of -Flat-fish, 
 P/aieMffl, most of which are prizeld' for food. 'Th*!' FtdOK, P. 
 fiestci, 'brA the' Di%, P; ZJMaiUftti are European species. The 
 CoMicoN &OLE, AiMrm mo^/is^' iis' found abundantly on our At. 
 lanti&ffioasti ' ' • •" 
 
 (24) Cyclopterideet (Gr. circular or cupshaped fins.)' The 
 
 •LuMP-FISHES, or LuMP-SUCKEfeS. ' ' ' 
 
 ' These are a 'small' tatnily, having the v^ttal fin's so united as 
 to form a soift of riup-shaped disk, with aiftinnel-shaped cavity 
 in the Center, by whitth they adhere firmly to any solid object. 
 •The tody is 'rough,- being covered with very bony tuhercles. 
 They are called SffcK-Eis on a.^tbdunt "of a 'curious sort bf suck- 
 ing'disk, by means of which they adhere to the rocks of the 
 ibottdm, or to any other substance* The skel^on^ it' so soft' that 
 «ome hrembersiof the family" are sbid to dissolve after death into 
 a mucilaginous jelly, in whifafi^hardly finy trace^of bone remains. 
 'fhese''fish'!Si'e #e'j)resented by' ^hree gelie*a: 'Lepidogasler, Lum- 
 pus, and Liparis', the tivo latter 'having'American speoiea:- The 
 LuMP-strciPEE, iiiMTiptes avglofurn, ' ioT ' Cyclopieriis ceeruleus, is 
 Called in 'gobtlandj the CocK-PADDtE. , 'In, England i«' las the 
 name of Sea Owl, as well as Lump-fish and Lump-sucker. It^ 
 appearance is remarkably grote!^c|uei ' The ventral' unite With 
 thfe pectoral ' fins; and form; a sirii;le disk. Some of the family 
 have tw<J disks,' one formed hy ■ the pectorals, the other by the 
 ventrak ; tenoe the^e fifeh havfe been called Discoboli, (Gr. throw- 
 ers oftthe DisCirs, or quoit.^j ' They al-o now sometimes included 
 with the BleMniea. Penhaht says' that' -one^'of the 'JLQniip'tfiiSii@i 
 
676 UALACOFTERYOII. 
 
 .thrown into a pail of waiter^ adhered so firmly to the bottom &at 
 the pail, was lifted by taking hold of the tail of 'the flsb. 
 . ^(25) Echeneidm, (Gr. echo, to hold ; neusy a ship.) 
 
 This family is Represented by the genus Echeneis, the name 
 referrlBfg to the' flattened disk of cartilaginous plates, covering the 
 top of thft head, 'and enabling the fish to attach itself to other 
 ■bodies. 
 
 The Common Stoker, E.'remora, (Lat. delayj) is found 
 throoghoutithe Atlantic Ocean. It has sometimes been taheh 
 from ■ the bbltom of vessels in the harbor of New York. One 
 species, the White- Tailed Remora, \E. aZitcaMdbj'(Lat. white- 
 tail,) is called the ShAek-suckerj from being frequently found 
 iattacb'ed to that fishj - ' 
 
 ^. •''■■' Sub-Order A'poDESj'(Gr. footless.) ■ 
 
 TChese. are .livithput ventral fins., , ', .,,;v 
 , {26)' Ajiguillidee, (JLaf. from anguilla,.&n. eeljior Jfetraewidj^ 
 (Gr,,giwf4inflfj,a'kind offish.) . i, , . 
 
 This is the. Eel family, which have long* , snake-llifce bodies 
 and small scales so imbeidd^d; jn,, the. soft, slimy skiji, as to be 
 scarcely perceptible. The dorsal, anal, and cauda],:;fins are 
 jinlted^.and the rays so ideljciit^j as ;to .be-^vith diffioulty enumer- 
 ated. They have been estimated to be as many, a^ three hund- 
 red and, twenty, dr. three hundred, aqd forty. During, the season 
 of its activity the eel iai a voracious; feeder. Conger or Sea Eelsj 
 Angvilla conger^ (Lat. sea-eel,) ov Conger, occidentalis, (Lat. 
 western,) are lai^er than the Common Eejls. Yarrell, in his 
 British Fishes, says . that,, "speqii^j/eqg. of Conger EeJs weighing 
 ■eighty-sixpoundsjione husdre4.i»nd four pounds, and; even on6 
 hundred and thirty pounds, h'g^e. been recprtjed,, some of, them 
 measuring more than ten fejet long and eighteen inches in cir. 
 oumferenCe." , (See fig. on Chart.) 
 
 " Tile ancient .?.ofl)^OS reared these fish with grpat care, in 
 consecrated ponds,, apd'.tliey. even decorated .(heiji,. with jewels. 
 Six- thousand were served up at one entertainment given toCse- 
 sar when he .entered; upon,, Jjis. dictatorship.",., The branchial 
 pouches of Eels ngnable .thgnti to, crawl and renriain some time out 
 of .waternand thus they can, move, from pne plape, to, another in 
 search pf fbpd^being hardly inferior, to, any other fish in the 
 power of ienduringiabstinence fromitheir natiye ^ement. Tfhey 
 are Strongly susceptible of* m^nptifi or galyanip influence. Their 
 eggs are so diminutiy« as to escape ob.servatipn, whiph may have 
 gives rise ^p tbe aptipn tljat^hese. fisjj, are viviparous. 
 
MALACOPTERYGIU 577 
 
 The Electric Ebl; Gymmtus {Gr.gumnos, naked ; notos, back,) 
 
 electricus, -has no tail fin, and the scales are imperceptible. It is, 
 sometimes five or six feet long. By its electric shocks, it knocks 
 down men and horses, and by -repeating its.discharges is able to kill 
 them. It can be obtained only after its electric power has been ex- 
 hausted by successive shocks. The Indiansof South Americadrive 
 .wild horses into the muddy ponds in which these Eels abound, 
 in order to secure them. Two specimens, taken in the waters 
 of the Amazon, have been sent to Professor Henry, of the Smith- 
 sonian Institute. The Gympotus, (see Chart,) and the Torpedo are 
 able either to emit or withhold this electric power. . 
 
 (N. B. The Electric Eels are sometimes separated from the 
 Common Eels, and formed into the family GymnotideB.) 
 
 SiTB-OeDER LOFHOBRANCHU, OB LOFHOBHANCHIA. (Crf. tuft-gills.) 
 
 , The fishes of this sub-order are characterized by having the 
 gills in small tufis along the branchial arches, instead of being 
 comb-like. In this and the following sub-order the internal 
 skeleton is bu^ partly pssified. 
 
 . (87) SyngnaihidcB, (Gr. «i^n, together ; ^na^^pn, jaw.) Pipe. 
 Fishes. 
 
 i These fishes have the body covered with angular, bppy plates, 
 so arranged that the body itself is many sided. The gill-covers 
 are large, but soldered dovrti for the greatest part of .flieir edge, 
 leaving only a s^iaU orifice for the discharge of the water which 
 has been respired. Tj^e male pipe-fish, Syngnaihus, has a pouch 
 or pocket in which he. receives the eggs as they are laid. In 
 this he also carries the. yoqng for some tirpe. Some species are 
 without ;pouphes, but have indentations on the, abdomen where 
 .the eggs are placed. 
 
 The Sea-Horse, iifip^ocampMs, (Gr. a sea-horse,) has eyes 
 which move independently, and is the only fish known to have a 
 prehensile tail. It is found in the Hudson river from five 
 to six inches in length. When dried this fish curls up and in 
 form resembles a horse. (See fig. on Cha,rt.) 
 
 The @HORT-NqsEp Sba-Horse, . H. brevirostris, .is found on 
 'the coasts of Greaf Britain. , It is about five inches long j some- 
 times it is found coiled up. in oyster shells. 
 
 Sx;b.6rder Plectognathi. (Gr. plaited or twisted jaws.) 
 
 This sub-order is distinguished \j the interior union of some 
 of the bones of the head. 
 
578 MALACOPTERYGIR 
 
 (38) Gymnodontid<s, {GLuaked-teeih.) Balloon and Globe- 
 fishes. 
 
 These can scarcely be said to have real teeth ; but the jaws 
 are covered with enamel so divided into plates as to answer the 
 purpose of teeth. 
 
 In the Sea Pobcotine, Diodm, (Gr. two teeth,) each jaw has 
 a single piece ; hence the generic name. The form of this fish 
 is sornewhat cubical ; it has the singular property of puffing 
 itself Up into a globular ball, (Plate XIV. fig. 7,) and in this 
 shape floating on the surface. The length varies in different 
 specieS) from' two to seven inches. In the Puffer or Balloon- 
 fish, Teiraoio?!, (Gr. foiir teeth,) the suture in the middle of each 
 jaw give^ it the appearance of four teeth. Like the Diodon it 
 can inflate and contract itself at pleasure. When it inflates 
 itself tlie formidable spines with which the body is covered, be- 
 come erected. Its flesh is unwholesome if not poisonous. The 
 Puffer can bite severely, and can emit water in self-defence; its 
 spines are also an pffectiial guard, , but the most curious thing 
 about it is thai when, handled, it emits a beautiful red excretion, 
 which stains ivory and paper a permanent Carmine red. 
 
 ^e small Globe Fish, Acdnthqsoma (Gr. spiny body) can- 
 natiim, (Lat. ridged,) is armed with 'spines and susceptible of in- 
 flation, (Plate XIV. fig. 6.) It is quite small, being only one 
 inch in length. The color' is of olive brown above, silvery be- 
 neath. The Globe Fish, T. leevigatus, (Lat. smoothed or pol- 
 ished,) is from one to two feet in length. The Common Puffer, 
 T. turgidus, (Lat. swollen,) is from six to twelveinches long. A 
 species 6f electrical Globe-fish, T. Uneatus, is found in the Nile. 
 The' Sun Fish, or Moon Fish, Orthagoriscus, (Gr. a sucking 
 pig.) appears as if the fins were set in or near the head, and the 
 tail abruptly cut off, so that its aspect is most singular. The 
 Sun-fishes are without spines, and have not the power of infla- 
 tion. A species found on the coast of Fraflce weighs over three 
 hundred jjounds. 
 
 Balislidm, (Gr. from lalista, a military engine resembling a 
 stringed bow.) File-Fishes. 
 
 These are fishes of a less grote'sque appearance than the D,io. 
 dons and Tetraodons, found most largely ifi the still waters of 
 tropical s^.is. - The body is compressed ' and has a lengthened 
 conical or pyramidal snout, ending in a small mouth having dis- 
 tinot teetl;i in .both jaws. The skin is roughened with scaly gran- 
 ulations' or prickles; in the typical forms there are two dorsal 
 ofins,; ,ip_ptl\ejrs,,l!ie ffpat (l(^Vf al fin is sometimes represented by a 
 single spine. The ventral fins are often wanting or else indis- 
 
PX.XIV. 
 
EXPLANATION Olf PWT^. XIV. 
 
 Ctenoids, (.T0|Othed scai'ei)': 
 
 rigj 1. Percli; a, analfin; h, tentral'finj u, caadalfin; d, dtfrpalfinf d2, 
 
 second idor?sl,fi&; e, pectoral fin. , ; " 
 
 Fig, 2. Three-spined Stickleback. . , , ' 
 
 Mg. S. Flying-fisE ; a,, long wiiig-like pectoral 6iia. 
 Fig. 4.' Archer-fish, with a mouth fitted ifor Shooting iiia^itS, - 
 
 •■:■' ■''■ OTauoiDs, (Round scalesi) 
 
 Fig. 5. Plaice, showing the eyes both placed on one side, as is usual ja the 
 
 Flat-fishes. ' . 
 
 Fig. 6. "Short Bead-fish. ■' -■■■■■■'■ • ; " ' 
 
 Fig. 7. Porcupine or Balloon-fish. 
 Fig. 8. Bull-pout, or Cali-flsh; a, biarbels or oirn^ 
 
 , GrANoiDS, (Enameled seales.) 
 
 Fig. 9. Buffalo Bony Pike, or Gar fish; a, lohg'narrowjaws, coreredoiithe 
 inside with rasp-like teeth ; a row Jiorders the edge, of bony pointed 
 .f • oaes. 
 
 Plaooids, (Kat-scales.) 
 
 Fig. 10. Spiny Dog-fish i a, branchial openings on each side, in the pJiice 
 of gills for breathing; b, the heterjjoercal tail, as in all Sbarjis and 
 Sturgeons; the back bone runs to 9.; point above t^fiitai',, whieh js 
 placed below like a triangular rudder. 
 
 Fig. 11. Bay ; body flattened out like.aid^h ; tail longand slender, with the 
 dorsal .fins upon it ; pectoral fins large, uniting with the snout in front. 
 
 Fig. 12. lAinphioxus, of Ean^eliet, the lowest form of Yertebcates. '^ 
 
 Figrt3. Torpedo, .or Jfu«1jrfish, •, ,,., 
 
382 MALACOPTERTGIU 
 
 tinot. One of the dorsal fins is fronted with a strong bony 
 spine. The bones or rays of this fin are so contrived as tO' act 
 in concert for suddenly elevating it at the pleasure of the 
 fish. It is a singular fact that if the foremost or largest ray be 
 pressed ever so hard, it will not stir ; and yet if the last or least 
 ray be pressed very slightly, the other two immediately fall 
 down with it, just'as'^a- cro's^-boW is let ott'^IS^- pulling down the 
 trigger. To this peculiarity there is a reference in the name 
 of the typical genus Salistes. The.fjshe^.flf this genus are cov- 
 ered with large and hard rhomboidal scales. The Dusky Bal- 
 jST^s,. B.faligi^QSUSi ^Lat. dusky.) twelve inches long,- is foqiid 
 off the coast of , the United States. The 'Massachusetts File- 
 fish, Monocanthus, (Gr, a single spine,) has very small scales, and 
 a single large spine in place of the first dorsal fin. Its length is 
 from three to five inches. Trie Long-tailed Unicoen-fish, 
 Aluteres ciispicauda, [h&t. pointed or. spear-tailed,) has the skin 
 covered with small and almost invisible granules. Length from 
 six to hiiie inches. i - = .1 j; i . ,1 , , 
 
 (30) Ostracionidce, (Gr. ostrakion, a shell or , covering.) 
 Trunk Fishes. 
 
 These are a group of singular fishes, found principally in the 
 American and Indian seas. They are enveloped in a bony 
 crest or covering, so united as to form an inflexible shield, leav- 
 ing oflly, the tail^ |ins, mouth, and a small part ofrthe gill-open- 
 ings capable of motion, passing through) openings in the Arma- 
 dillo-like shield. There are no ventral fins, and but one dorsal. 
 These fish have little flesh, but a large liver, abounding in oil. 
 The surface, in some species, is arrned with spines. There is but 
 one North American genus, Laclephrys. The species L. ccmie^i- 
 «««, (camel)-likei),has the back elevated into a spine, and is three 
 and a half inches in length. 
 
 -i-- 'Ganoids. 
 
 ! These are characterised by having the scales bony, and 
 covered, externally j-with enamel, generally angular and contih. 
 uous. Most of them are extinct species. 
 
 (31) Saurida. This name has been employed by Agassiz to 
 designate the fishes of this group, which also comprises the 
 Polypierus, (Gr. polus, much or many; pteron, fin,) of the Nile. 
 This latter (fresh-water) fish is usually about eighteen inches in 
 length, and partakes both of the osseous and cartilaginous kinds; 
 but is thought by some to be " most nearly allied to those species 
 of the genus Esox, which are furnished with large, long, and 
 bony scales." Its color is sea-green. It is called by the Egyp- 
 
CHONDEOPTEBTOI^, 583 
 
 tians, BicMr, and is said to be one the best of the Nilotic fishes 
 for the table. The back has a long row of finlets. (See Chart.) 
 
 The AuAaATOfL-GAn,' Lepidosteus, (Gv.' lepis, scale; osteon, 
 bone ) is confined to North America. The scales are smooth and 
 of adamantine hardness; the upper jaws consist of many 
 pieces. (Plate XIV. fig. 9.) o 
 
 The Buffalo Bony Pike, L. bison, is sometimes three feet in 
 length. 
 
 The Flat-nosed Bony Pike, L. platyrhytKhus, (Gr. broad- 
 snout,) is two feet in length) and found in Florida and the West- 
 ern rivers. 
 
 Placoids. (Gr. nidi, plax, a plate or tablet.) Plate-like scales. 
 
 CAjiTiLAamous Fishes. CHONSii.0FT£RYGii,.(Gr. cartilage- 
 winged or finned.) 
 
 The skeleton in these fishes is not entirely destitute of calca- 
 reous matter, but this is arranged in separate grains, and does 
 not form fibres or plates. The gelatinous substance, which in 
 other fishes, fills the intervals of the vertebra, and communicates 
 from one to other by a small hole, forms in several genera of 
 this division, a continuous cord, which perforates them all. 
 
 First Order. Eii^n^rHEROPOMi, (Gr. sleiOeggst ekutheros, free ; 
 Tna/ia,, poma, cover.) 
 
 The fishes of this order have peClinalted or' comb-like gills, 
 \tfhich are free, as in ordinary fishes, with one large external 
 opening on each side, furnished with a strong operculupi or 
 cover; they are without rays; the upper jaw, formed by the 
 palatial bone, is firmly united to the maxillary ; the intermaxil- 
 lary bone is rudimentary. 
 
 (32) ChimcBridtB, (Gr. cMmaira, fabulous monster,) Sea- 
 
 MONSTERS. 
 
 These are so called from the fantastic shape of the head, 
 which has a singular hoe-shaped appendage, tipped' with spines 
 upon the snout. The second dorsal fin extends to the tip of the 
 ■tail, which is drawn out into a long slender filament. This eggs 
 are large, coriaceous, and have flattened hairy margins ; these 
 are esteemed by the Norwegians, who use them mixed up with 
 their pastry. The only species of the genus ChinuBra, viz: C> 
 monslrosa, is abundant iti the' Arctic seas. (See Chart.) 
 ■ (33) Sturionida. The Sturgeons. 
 
 These fiebes have tlie body covered by hard bony tubercles or 
 
5^4 CHpND,ROPTERyem, 
 
 pjates., .The mouth, sitUE^ted beneath the head,, is, small and 
 .topthless; it is placed on a sort of foot of three joints, hy means 
 of whjc:h it can be protruded and retracted at pleasure. On its 
 under siirface, as in most cartilaginous fishes, are several cirri, 
 beard Of, wQrrrirlike appendages, which hang down in front. It 
 is so much like India-rijbber, that hpyiB put pieces of it in. their 
 balls, tq make thepn bound. TJie body i.s long and tapering, 
 ending in a tail unequally forked, the upper lobe being consid- 
 .era,Wy the logger. Sturgeons live on small fishes and worms. 
 They gro^.lp.a, great size, many of; them measuring more than 
 twenty feet long, and some weighing '■more than two thousand 
 pounds. The roe is remarkable for its quantity of eggs, con- 
 .taining .aometimes one hundred and fifty millions, and weighing 
 one-fourth of the whole fish. It in fact constitutes its chief value, 
 as fi:om"it caviar, — so much prized, is furnished. For preparing 
 it, the roes, taken out and placed' in tubs, are cleansed with 
 water;; the. fibrous parts, by which the eggs are connecjted, being 
 removed, the spawn is rinsed "in white wine or vinegar, and 
 sipread to dry. It is then put into a vessel and salted, 'being 
 crushed.. down at. the same time with the hands, and afterwards 
 inqipsed in jipen bags to drain oiT the moisture. , Lastly, it is 
 packet! in, tubs, pierced in the bottom, that any remaiaing moist- 
 ure may yet drain off, and closed down for domestic use or ex- 
 portation. Sometimes it is said to be preserved, after having 
 been salted and seasoned, by being rolled up into large balls, 
 and immersed in vessels of oil ; or the rolls are inclosed in wax, 
 sothat.the air may be more effectually excluded. (Gosse.) The 
 flesh pf the Sturgeon is another article of considerable .com- 
 merce. It ip smoked or broiled in slices, and pickled, and in 
 this forni exported. So fat and unpalatable, (as some regard it,) 
 it was deenied by the ancient Romans one of the most sump- 
 tuous dishes; and at all "great dinner-parties, this fish was 
 .always iCfiVWdi by servants decked with garlands and flowers, 
 and attended by a band of musicians. On the Hudson River, it 
 is called "Albany Beef," from its frequent exposijre in the 
 market?; 0,5 that city. The swimming bladder of the Sturgeon is 
 also profitably. If cut open and washed, and its silvery glutinous 
 skin be exposed for some hours to the heat of the sun, and.sepa- 
 rated from thp.e^t^rqal skin, it furnishes the best isinglass, the 
 value and vses of which are veil known. They migrate during 
 tl<e early.,s^mmer,n)pnths, deposit their spawn, and return again 
 to the s^a.. Those; pf North America are almost fresh- water fish. 
 The chief species are the Cpmmon Sturgeon, Acipenser, (Lat. 
 f^^turg^gn,) ^^i(«jq, of , t^e «sft9 <V»4 rjivera of .Europe ; the Be- 
 
CHONDE0P1»EEYGI& S89 
 
 XTTGA or Isinglass Stitrgeon, A- hmoi. of the Caspian Sea, 
 probably the largest species, sometimes weighing, it is said, 
 three thousand pounds^ and from which the caviar of commerce 
 is made in great quantities ; the Sterlet, A. ruthenus, of the 
 Mediterranean, Black and Caspian seas, which is said to yield 
 caviar of a very superior sort; the Lake Sturgeon, A. ruhicun- 
 dus, (Lat. ruddy,) four feet long, of a yellowish red on the 
 back, and olivaceous red on th» sides, found in Lakes Ontario 
 and Erie, and thte upper lakes; the Sharp-nosed Sturgesn,;^. 
 •^Hsyrhincits, (Gr. sharp-nosed;) seven feet long, and fouad ia the 
 rivers of the United States. A species of the genus Scaphirhyti^ 
 eus, (Gr. boat-nosed,) viz: the Shovel-fish, S. platyrhynchiis, 
 (Gr. broad-nosed,) is found in the Mississippi river. Of the 
 genus Polyodon, (Gr. ni3ny toothed;) is the Spoon-bill, P. 
 folium, (Lat. a leaf,) (previously referred to,) and also an inhabitant 
 of the Mississippi. This fish has an enormous gill-cover, with 
 a large branchial aperture, nearly. like that of the generality of 
 ■fishes; and it is also furnished with an air-bladder: hence, 
 though placed next to the Sharks, Swainson appears to doubt the 
 propriety of such a position of it. It has a snout greatly ex- 
 tended, much dilated, and; together with the head, nearly as long 
 as the body ; the tail is highly heterocercal, and the skin entirely 
 naked. 
 
 Second Order. Plagiostoma. (Gr. jrWyros, plagios, trans- 
 verse ; aidfia, stoma, mouth.) Gills not free. 
 
 - ^he fisli|BS of'this order have a cartilaginous cranium, in which 
 the parts are not separately discernible. The cartilaginous, 
 teetji-bearing jaws are attached to the skull, also by cartilages. 
 The gills are fixed by their external edges, with five small ex- 
 ternal openings on each side. ' The face is prolonged in front ; 
 and on its under side is situated the broad transverse mouthy 
 the ventrals and paetoj'als, soft and fleshy, like the other fins, are 
 always present ; the pectorals, in the male, having long append, 
 ages on their internal margins. The covering of these fishes 
 consists of shagreen, or of -plates variously modified^ The 
 'Swimnfling-bladder is wansingj the teeth are placed on the roof 
 ofthe mouth and the lower jaw. • The order includes two fami. 
 lies, SqualidcB, (Sharks,) and JRaiidce, (Rays.) 
 '•-'' {Si) SqnaUdm, (Lat. sqmfusja. kind of sea-fish.) The Sharks. 
 This dreaded family of fishes are distinguished by having the 
 branchial opefnings lateral, the eye-lids free, the pedtofal fins 
 distinct from the bead; the body slender, and eomewbat spinille- 
 
586 CHONDROPTERTGII. 
 
 shaped. The mouth is generally placed far beneath the end of 
 the nose ; and the upper part of the tail is longer than the lower. 
 These fish are generally of a large size, sometimes Tilmost 
 gigantic. They are carnivorous, and very voracious. Some 
 of them are universally dreaded on account of their ferocity, 
 their appetite for human flesh, their strength, and the formidable 
 array of teeth with which their moulh is furnished. These are 
 triangular, finely serrated, and exceedingly sharp, lying quite 
 flat in the mouth ; but when seizing their prey, are raised by 
 the action of muscles by which they are joined to the jaw. To 
 this, and the singular method in which these formidable creaturies 
 are continued, we referred, however, in the -general description 
 of the Fishes. The most useful part of these fishes is the liver, 
 from which oil is obtained ; a Shark twenty feet in length, yield- 
 ing about two barrels. The rough skin is used for polishing 
 ivory and wood, and for making thongs, &c., for carriages ; con- 
 verted into shagreen, it serves for covering snail cases and 
 boxes. The flesh is not eatable, being coarse, and of a disagree- 
 able flavor. 
 
 The White Shark, Carcharias, (Gr. marine-dog,) vulgaris or 
 Squalus Carcharias, found in tropical seas, has been known to 
 cut a man's body in twain at a single snap; and it is stated that 
 human bodies have been found entire in the stomachs of these 
 terrible monsters. It is suggested, that their insatiate voracity 
 may result from the great quantity of gastric juice with! which 
 they are supplied, causing them to digest with great rapidity, 
 and from the tape and other worms which abound in their intes- 
 tines. Their sense of smell, is acute, so that they discover their 
 victims at a distance ; and they follow in the wake of ships for 
 the purpose of devouring whatever may be thrown or fall from 
 them into the sea. The White Shark is said to measure, some- 
 times, thirty feet in length, and to exceed one thousand pounds 
 in weight. 
 
 The Thresher Share, Carcharias vulpes, has the upper part 
 of the tail nfearly as long as the body, or even longer. The tail 
 is its principal organ of defence; it literally threshes its ^nemies. 
 Sometimes it is called the Fox-Shark, and the SwiWGEB-iTAiL. 
 This species, which is from twelve to fifteen feet in length, is 
 found on the coasts of North . America as far North as NoVa 
 Scotia. 
 
 The Small Blue Shark, C. obscurus, from two to six feet in 
 length, is frequently, taken on our coast. 
 
 The Mackerel Porbeagle or Mackerel Shark, Lamna, (Gr. 
 a plate,) punctata, has a pyramidal snout, with the nostrils 
 
. CHOMDSOFTERTfill. 587 
 
 under the base, and the gill-openingsall in front of the pectorals; 
 there are no pectoral orifices. Its general color is a dark slate. 
 . The oil of its liver is much esteemed by curriers.' The length 
 is from four to ten feet. The surface under the lens, exhibits 
 numerous minute plates; to this its generic name has reference. 
 
 The Hound-fish, Mustelus: cards, has blunt teeth, fornning a 
 closely compacted pavehierit in each jaw, with temporal orifices. 
 The lower lobe of the tail-fin is short. Its length is from two to 
 four fee!t. 
 
 The BASKiNa Shark, Selachus maximus, has the gilUopenings 
 all before the pectorals, long, and nearly surrounding the neck ;^ 
 it has no air-holes behind the eyes; the teeth are small, of vari- 
 ous forms, but generally conical. This speCies is; over thirty 
 feet in length. It is said its liver will yield eight barrels of oil. 
 It has the popular name o£ Basking iS/iari,> from its habit of con- 
 tinuing for some time in one place. It is sluggish, inactive, and 
 less fierce than 'the :other speciesj and inhabits the< Northern seas, 
 but is occasionally seen off our coast. 
 
 The Small Spotted Dos-fish, Scylliuni caniculd, has a prom- 
 inent andl slightly pointed jaw, with the nostrils pierced near the 
 mouth, and a cylindrical shaped body,' It keeps near the bottom 
 of the water, and feeds on fish and small crustaceans. This, and 
 the larger Dog.ifish, Soi^lUum cdtulus,- 'siTe found on the British 
 and French coasts. The- larger species is three or four feet in 
 length, and does much damage to the fisheries on account of its 
 voracious habits. In Scotland, these fish are said to form no 
 -inconsiderable part of the food of the poor. The species S. ca- 
 tuliis, is sometimes called the Rock-Shark. This, or a similar 
 species, is fdiind on the coast of the United States. 
 
 The Spiny Dos-Fish, Spinas acanthias, (Storer,) is easily 
 trecCgnized , by the spiracles or air-holes which are placed, one 
 on each side of the temple,Just behind the eye. It has a sharp, 
 strong spine in front of each of the two dorsal fins. (See Plate 
 XIV. fig.. 10.) Its teeth are in several rows, small and cutting. 
 The color is slate ; the length from one to three feet. This 
 .species is very numerous about Cape Cod, where they are much 
 •sought fo.r.the!oil which they furnish. Of the immense numbers 
 dfithem foundi in tropical seas, some idea may be formed from 
 the fact, that in the single harbor of Kingston, (Jamaica,) from 
 •one hundred to one hundred arid filly thousand are destroyed 
 annually.. Twenty thousand, it is said, have been taken in a 
 seine atone time. ;.•!• 
 
 - . .The K^HQTSL^visa, SquaUna\<mgel'us, seems, in its form, to unite 
 together the Sharks and the Rays. Swainson include^ it with 
 
588 CHONBBOFTfiRVffill. 
 
 the Rays, remarking that this and the species S,BumeriUt found 
 on-the American coast, have the two etocsaU and, the caudal fin 
 in shape and situation the same as what is seen in the Torpedoes. 
 The length of the American species is from three to four feetj 
 It is said to have acquired the name of Angel-fish from its ex. 
 tended pectoral fins having the appearance of wings; and it is 
 . called) Monk-fish, because: its rounded head appears, as if envel- 
 oped in a hood. 
 
 The Saw-fish, Pristis, (Gr. pristis, a saw,) has. the body 
 flattened in front, with the gill-opienings beneat\i,,a3 in the Rays; 
 but they are chiefly' distinguished by a very long snout,, whichjs 
 in form like the blade of a two-.edged sword, and armed on each 
 side with pointed hony spints. This saw-like weapon, the fish 
 often buries in the flesh of the whale and other marine animals. 
 The Saw-fish is sometimes iiicltided with the Rays. 
 
 •(35) Eaiidce, the Rays. 
 
 These are a family, of fishes which have the body flattened as 
 in the Saw-fish, and the pectorals greatly enlarged, as in the An- 
 gel-fish, both which, in their structure, seem to approach the' pres- 
 ent group. In the Rays, the pectorals are very broad .and 
 continuous with the hes(d, sometimes stretching out. in, front of 
 it in the form of lobes, so that; these fishes present an appear- 
 ance disk-like, or more or less rhomboidal, the snout forming one 
 corner, and the projecting tail another ; the, other two corners 
 being the angles of the pectoral fins ; the ventrals, ini the males, 
 have appendages like those of the Sharks ; the dorsal fins, two, 
 sometimes three in number, are small, ande placed' far back on 
 the slender tail. • The eyes are on the upper surface, as are also 
 the temporal spiracles ; the mouth, the nostrils, apdthe gill-open- 
 ings are placed in the under surfa,ee, and thus concealedi from 
 view. The mouth is small and set with numerous teeth, which 
 are placed in close array, like paving stones. As in many of 
 the Sharks, the eyes have a nictitating membrane or skin which 
 can be drawn over the eye at pleasure, and serves as an eye-lid. 
 The young of the Rays are eaveloped.:af birth in capsules of 
 a thin horny or leathery substance to w hich filaments are attached. 
 The prolongations of the angles of the envelope give it some re- 
 seniblance in shape to a hand-barrow. But the most distinguish- 
 ing peculiarity of the Rays is their barbs or prickles, varying in 
 length, according lo the size of- the fish, by which they are able 
 to tear the flesh and: inflict severe wounds. These fishes are 
 strictly ground feeders, groveling along on the soft muddy, bst- 
 tota, and moving with a peculiar undtila^dg action of the pecto- 
 ral fins. i : i , ; ■ ; . , 
 
CHONDKOPTEETGII. 589 
 
 "Soflne of the Species of the tropical seas grW -to a great size 
 and are proportionally ferocious. 
 
 The Rays; . People, Rata, include several species, some of 
 which are found' on our coast, such as the Clear-Nosed Ray, 
 ■R. Diaphanes, (Gr. clear,) frpnione to .three feet long, caught 
 ,wjth pod-fish, and sometimes eaten ; the Prickly Ray, R. Amer- 
 ' icana, from one to two feet long, (Plate XlV. Rg. 11 ;) the Spot- 
 ted iRay, R. ocellata. When captured, this species whips its 
 tail about with great activity, and hence has the name of Whip 
 Ray; the riED&E-HOG Ray, R. erin^ceus, length about eighteen 
 inches; the Prickly-Sting Ray, Pasiinaca, (Lat. sting-ray,) 
 hastata, (Lat. from liasta, a spear,) having two or more spines 
 or barbs in the tail, which is lojiger than the body; the whole 
 length is,froi;n five to eigKt feet; this species is numbered among 
 the edible rays ; the Smooth Skate, Rata I<zvis, in length from 
 two to four: feet ; the Thornback, R. Cldvata, (Lat. knotted or 
 thorned,) has large a,nd, numerous spinous tubercles. 
 
 The Eagle Rays, C^phaloptera, (Gr. head wings,) often grow 
 tg an enormous size, spepim^ns having been seen twenty-five 
 feet in length and thirty in i)readth. One was taken at Barba- 
 does a few years ago, which weighed thjirty-fiy^ hundred pounds 
 .and required seven pair of oxen tp.di'aw it.on>hore ! (Kirby.) 
 The Eagle Rays are nearly or quite as dangerous to man as the 
 Sharks. , They are known to fishermen under the name of 
 " Devil Fish." The species C. vam|pir^s, the Oceanic Vampire, 
 is from sixteen to eighteen feet ip, length. It is very powerful, 
 sometimes seizing the cablps of sff<all vessels at anchor, and 
 drawing the vessel for several miles,, with gregf velocity. Pass- 
 ing by some other divisions, we must refer to the 
 
 Electric Rays, or Torpedoes, Tbrpeafmid^, fishes which have 
 Jong been celebrated fpr their ^lect,rical, powers, whpe their shape 
 is so singular that they loofc more like gigantic tadpoles than 
 fish, (Plate XIV. .fig. 13.) The head is entirely surrounded by 
 the pectoral fins, which give to it in some species, a completely 
 circular appearance j the tail is thipk, fleshy, and only moder- 
 at,ely long, terminated by a di,stinct," large,' and triangular fin. 
 The electrical organs constitute a pair of galvanic ba.tteries, 
 arranged in the form of perpendicular ^hexagonal columns, 
 placed on each side of the head and gills, the small cells being 
 , filled with mupus. These, fishes are less powerfully eleptrical 
 ;than the Gymnotus, but can benumb the arm of a person touch- 
 ing one of thein< 
 
590 CHONDROPTEEYGII. 
 
 Third Ordkb. Cyclostomi, (Gr, xixlog, kukbs, a circle ; ardfia, 
 stoma, a mouth.) 
 
 The fishes of this oi'der have already been referred to as hav- 
 ing sac or purse-shaped gills. These are fixed and open out- 
 wards by several apertures. The mouth consists of a circular 
 fleshy lip, with a cartilaginous ring supporting it ; this peculiarity 
 gives name to the order. 
 
 (36) PetfomyionidcB, (Gr. stone-suckers.) These have length, 
 ened, cylindrical, eel or worm-shaped bodies, destitute, both of 
 pectoral and ventral fins, but Itaving foldings of skin above and 
 below, serving the purpose of xlorsal, caudal and anal fins, 
 though wittiout any supporting rays. 
 
 The Sea Lamprey, Petromyzon Americanus. In making its 
 
 furrow, preparatory to spawning, it uses its sucker-like mouth ; 
 
 ^ with it separately removing stones of large size, and thiis quickly 
 
 constructing a large furrow. It is from two to three feet in length. 
 
 The Mud Lampreys, Ammocates, (Gr. sand-bedded,) include 
 several species which differ from the true Lampreys chiefly in 
 the form of the mouth, which is not suctorial, but composed by 
 the projecting upper lip, the lower one being transverse. 
 
 These fish are found in large numbers, in sand or mud flats. 
 They are from three to four inches in length, varying in thick- 
 ness "from that of an earth worm to that of a swan's quill." 
 They are dug up from a depth of foiir or five inches below the 
 leyel of the water, and used as bait for fishes. 
 
 The Myxinoids or Glutinous Hags, Myxynoidei, approach the 
 lowest form of the Vertebrates, arid by'Linneeus and other writ- 
 ers, are classed with the Worms. These curious animals are 
 eel-shaped, and measure, when full grown, about a foot and a 
 half. The head is scarcely distinguishable from the body, and 
 is obliquely truncated in front, ending in a large round mouth, 
 the frame-work of which is a membranous, maxillary ring, fur- 
 nished above with a single tooth. The tongue has in each end 
 two rows of strong teeth. The Hag has no eyes ; the branchial 
 openings are two' in number ; the skin is covered with slime, 
 furnished from a row of pores on each side of the belly. An 
 obscure fin runs along the hinder portion of the back; and is 
 continued round the compressed tail. The color is of a dark 
 bl'uish-brown above, and whitish beneath. 
 
 The Hag or Borer, M. glutinosa, is' found in ■(he northern 
 seas of Europe. It does iriischief by entering the mouths of 
 fishes caught in the lines of the fishermen and eating up eU 
 the fleshy parts of their bodies, leaving only the skin and bones. 
 The name Borer is given to it, because, as is said, it pierces a 
 
CHOKDSOFTKRYGII. 591 
 
 small aperture, and thus makes its way into the body .of- Cod, or 
 other fishes which- it attacks. -(See general account of Fishes.) 
 
 Fourth Okder. Branchiostoma, (Gr. hranchia, gills ; stoma, 
 
 mouth.) 
 
 •The, term here used to designate an order, is sometimes em- 
 ployed »s generic, and the name Amphioxidm, .(37,) given to the 
 family 'of which it constitutes the Sble genus. Mullerj (see his 
 cUssiflbktion,) ranks it in' the sub-order Pharyngobranchii, 
 (Gr. throat-gills,) a name referring to the position of the branchial 
 sac. This extraordinary animal, at an early period thought to 
 be'^ mollusk, was first discovered on the British coast, during 
 the! latter part of the last century. Muller is no doubt correct 
 in say^ihg, "it,i;S evidently a vertebrs^ted animal and a fish," 
 though it has 'more the aspect , of a worm than a fish. Yarrel 
 jtj.his, "History of British Fishes," calls it the LiANciLET, ^m- 
 phioms lanceolatMs, (Plate XIV, fig. 12.) it has a naked skin 
 and no fin except the dorsal,'which extends over the entire length 
 of the back. The m;outh is entirely inferior, elongated or circu- 
 lar, the margins having a I'ow of filaments.' 
 
 The vertebrse are reduced to a single, cartilaginous column 
 'or thread, flexible, transparent, an(L sca,r,cely to be distinguished 
 from the horny 'pen enveloped in the flesh of some of the Cut- 
 'tle-fish. There is no trace of a brain, and the heart " presents 
 entirely" the form and distribution of blood vessels and extends 
 over .wide, spaces," characte,rs of themselves sufficient to distin- 
 guish the jBmncAzWoma i from all other, fishes. The blood is 
 white.' Muller considers it confieeted withthe Cyclostomatous 
 ■fishes through its dorsar chord 'and the absence of jaws; but as 
 inferior to them ,in jiibt haying a distiriet brain and in the pecu- 
 liarities of its respiratory system. The Lancelet is only about 
 two inches in length,'and livesiin sandy ground at a depth of be. 
 tween ten and twenty fathofns of water. ' It probably buries 
 itself in the sabd. Other curibus particulars Could be given 
 relating to this lowest of the Vertebrates, did pur limits permit, 
 Jbut here we close our account of the Fishes and of the sub-king- 
 dom Vertebrates, to which they belong. 
 
 It is difiicult to-state with accunrcy t|ie number of spepies be- 
 loiiging respectively to the' several famifies of Fishes, as new 
 researches, made' ft'om time to time( vary the assigned numbers. 
 The following tabular viewi is given, however, as an approxima- 
 tion to a true account : 
 
592 
 
 1 Perfcldse, 
 
 2 TriglidEE, 
 8 Scienidae, 
 
 ,,4 SparidtB, 
 
 ' 5' Maeriidae, 
 6 CbaetodontidEB, 
 1 Anabassidae, 
 
 8 Scomberidae^ 
 
 9 Cepolidffi, 
 
 10 TeulihidaB, 
 
 11 Atherim(^, 
 
 12 MugilidsB, 
 18 Gobidae, 
 14Tjophid8B, 
 16 Labridse, 
 .16 SUurids, 
 ■11 CypjinidEB, 
 18 EsocidsB, 
 
 CHONDROPTEKYCm. 
 
 600 sp^ciea. 1 
 
 260 
 
 
 260 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 84 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 528 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 19 Fistularidsfe, 
 20 , Salijupnidf^i 
 
 21 Clupidse, 
 
 22 Gadid», 
 
 23 Pleuronectidae, 
 
 24 Cyclopteridae, 
 26 Echen^idEB, 
 
 26 Anguillid^,' 
 
 27 Syngnathidae, 
 
 28 Gymnodontdds. 
 
 29 Balistidffi, , , 
 
 30 Ostracionidae, 
 81 Sauridse, 
 32 ChimseridaB, 
 38 Stuvionidae, ' 
 ,^ Squalidae, 
 36 Raiidae, 
 
 36 tetromyzoiitidsB, 
 
 37 A^nphioxidie, ' 
 
 20 s 
 
 132 
 
 180 
 
 110 
 
 IBO 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 176 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 ,110 
 
 SO 
 
 24 
 130 
 
 •k' 
 
 ,»i 
 
 What 13 ihe 1st Order pf OgsEOtrs or Bort FiShes? What other najne 
 has it? How '5s it characlierized ? Wlnat is the number of thepERCHTam- 
 ily? Are '{liey marine or fuesh water fiehV Wliicfe is the typical speoieB? 
 What other Sp. closely reeetnl)!? it? Wi(at is saiid of th» Striped Bas?.? 
 Which are among the mostixemarkable ^ghea of this groap ?■ What is ^if| ,o^ 
 them. In wliat respects are all the percheB alike? How are the Gurnards 
 characterized? Whence is the name'de^ived? "Wliat did Cut. call'them? 
 What sp. are mentioned ? What two remslrkabje fish-are found in this faiiiily? 
 State what is said of them. What is the Sd Faiult? What is said cif 
 them ? What of the -^th an^ 5th Ffimj|ieB ? Why are the, Cbaetodons pp 
 Xi^lled? What.does Ciiv. na^ne thetfl?. Why? Vhat js,geculigr ij),th,e 
 ,A.rchers? What gen. includes the ClimbinO PerchkS? What is said of 
 thepi? What is the next Family? What is said of their numh^rs? 
 What is said of ther Tunny, Bonito, and Sword-fish? Name Ihe Mother sp. 
 What is said of the Bottle-Jieaded Polphin? Which is the 9th Family? 
 Why are they called Bibbqij-Sshps ? Wlijit fjaet sjiows .^he V^m^ ito be ajp- 
 propriate ? What ^p. is foiind on our coast? What is the next Family ? 
 What fishes do they resemble? What-iS kid' of ihe Doctor-fish? ''What 
 of the Surgeon-fish? What is the 11th Family? State what is said of 
 it. Name the next Family. Kepeattwhatiis saidjof them. In w(haji respect 
 are the Blennies , an jl, Go.biep ^Jilte ? Wkf'^' other, characters are ,^Ten? 
 St(ite ,whait is aaifi oi the ftp. . referi^d to- How ar^e the Loppip.*; distin- 
 guished? What singular lopking fishes does this fainily inclride ^ What 
 is said of thfe [Aptepharius ? Why are the LabridsB So liamed ? What two 
 sections do they include? What is said of the Wrasses or Sock-fishes^ 
 What sp. are mentioned ? , 
 
 Name the 2diOiipEji of FisHES. '. What 5a sajd of tteir organization? 
 E(pw distinguished frbiA ^e preceding order? Why is it esteemed impor- 
 tant? What Scb-Order 13 fii'st Mentioned? How dhSracteriied ? What 
 is the l&t^i .FaKhly ? What fishe? represent it ? • What isisaidjpf the Horii- 
 pouts? Of the Sheat-fish or Sly-Silure? What isjp^culjjr tpjjbe ff.,^ef^} 
 cm ? What is said of the gen. pimelodus f What large sp. is referred to ? 
 What remarkable S. American sp. is ipentioned ? What is said of the 
 
CHONDKOPTERyGHi > 593 
 
 R,iNp-ft8aES?v What !s the Wth PiMiLTf How numerous are they?. Are 
 they found in Tropical waters ? iWhat is said of their teeth? Where is 
 the sp. Oyprimta carpio particularly ■ abundant ? Who first introduced it 
 into Amerieafi waters? • What is'salid of the Gold-fish, the Gudgeon, and 
 the Siimy. Tench? What fish furniishes the" silvery matter for artificial 
 pearls? Name other fishes of this family. What remarkable sp. are found 
 in Austria and Brazil? How are the PiitES characterized? What does 
 LiSepede call them? ■ What is the only European sp. and what ii said of 
 it? Are the American sp. numerous ? How are they divided ? What sp. 
 are mentioned;? What is said of the Bill-pish ? ' What of the Flying-pish 
 otEiocmtus? What family inolild6s"the'Pipe arid Trumpet fishes? What 
 is'said of them ? • Whifih is the 20th Faiiiily? How are they charaeter- 
 izBd? How regarded by anglers ? What is said of their color ? Which 
 is the most odnspicuous sp. ? What is said of the Brook Trodt? What 
 of their numbers in. formisr times?. What is the 21st Family? How are 
 they esteemed ? What is said of their abundance ? What of the Her- 
 EiNO fishery ? How are the Red or Smoked Herring prejiaretl;? For what 
 are the H. used besides food? What is said of Sardines?; What of 
 Seuid;&c.? 
 
 How are the StiB-BRAOHiALS distinguished ? Whichis the 22ud Family? 
 Which is tte best; known sp. ? Which is common on the U.S. coast? 
 What is said of it? What other sp. are mentioned? Which is the next 
 FAMiLirf In wha^ respect do they stand alon? among vertebrates? 
 Describe them. How does DeKay designate* the Plat-pish? How the 
 FLonNOER? What sp. of Turbot are mentioned? What is said of the 
 Halibut? What is the 24th Family? How are they characterizetf? 
 Why called Suoeees ? What genera represent them ? What is said of 
 the Lump-sucker? What does Pennant state ? What is the next Family ? 
 What gen. represents it? To what does the name refer? What sp. are 
 mentioned? What is said of them? What is the next Scb-ordek? Name 
 the 26th Family ? How are they characterized ? What is said of thenum- 
 ber of fin rays ? Which sp. are the larger ? What does Yarrell say ? 
 What enables these fish to remain out of water ? What is said of their 
 eggs ? Repeat what is said of the Electric Eel ? What is the next Sdb- 
 OEDER ? How is it characterized ? What is the 27 th Familv ? Give their 
 general characters ? What is remarkable in the male Pipe-fish? What 
 in the Sea-Hokse ? What is the next Sob-order ? How distinguished? 
 What is the 28th Family? Have they jeal teeth? What have they instead? 
 What is said of the Sea Porcupine? What of the Puffer, or Balloon-fish ? 
 What of the small Globe-fish ? What other Globe-fishes are named ? What 
 is said of the Sun-fish? Mention the next Family? What is said of it? 
 What is said of the Trunk-fishes ? How are the Ganoids characterized ? 
 What is the 31st Family? What is said of the Polypterus of the Nile? 
 What other sp. of this family are mentioned ? 
 
 What is said of thfe Placoids orX^ARTiLAoiNous Fishes ? Name the 1st 
 Order? How is it characterized? What is the S2d Family? What is 
 said of it? What is the next Family? What is said of their covering? 
 What of their mouA and body ? Of their size ? In what respect is the 
 roe remarkable ? What valued food does it furnish? How is it prepared ? 
 
594 CHONDROFTESYail. 
 
 From what part of tli» Sturgeon is isinglass obtained, and hdw is it pre- 
 pared? Whatsp. of Sturgeon are mentioned and what is said of them? 
 What is the 2nd Order of Cartilasinous Fishes ? How is it charaoterl: : 
 ized? What is the 34th Family? What is said of tieir site, voracity ,1 
 &o.? What is said of the White Shatk? Of the Thresher ,S.? What 
 other sp. are mentioned? What is said of the Spiny Dog-fish and the. 
 Spotted Dog-fish ? Of the Angel-flsh and Saw-fish ? ; What is the 35th 
 Family? Give theiir oharactetB? What sp. of Eats Proper are mentioned? 
 What is said of the Eagle Eats ? Of the Electric Bay ? What is the 3d 
 Okdeb of CARTitAGiNous FisHES ? What peeuliarity. gives name to the 
 order? What is the 36th Family? What is said of this Family? . What 
 of the Sea Lamprey? What of the Mud Lamprfey ? Of -the Myxinoids or 
 Glutinous Hags ? What is the 4th OiinER of GabtilaginoIbs Fishes? How 
 is the term sometimes employed?. What Family does it include? How 
 does Muller rank it ? What is it called by YarreU ? Describe thie fish. 
 
 Name and trace from the Chart some of the largest fish, giving a sketch 
 of each from the book. , Which is the largest of the Mackerd iFamily ? 
 Which next? Which is the largest of the Flat-fishes? In what do they . 
 differ from all other fish? Which of the Placoids is the largest? How do 
 the caudal fins of this order differ from thpse of other orders ? What fam- 
 ilies present the most singular fotes? Which are ii^arly round? 'Which 
 long and slender? Which three or four sided? Describe the Sun-fish and 
 Chimsera from the Chart. Which fish crawl upon land or climb trees, and 
 in what orders are they found 
 
PL.xy 
 
 -tN^iCTS. Denaaftera. 
 
 S'tr^aiptera. 
 
 Coleoptera. 
 a, 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. 
 
 INSECTS WITH BITING JAT7S. 
 
 Fig. 1. Larva of a beetle, usually consisting of thirteen segments ; a, the 
 head; b, the three segments of the thorax, to which the legs and wings 
 are attached ; c, the nine segments of the abdomen. 
 
 Fig. 2. The Lady-ljirii. or Lady-bug, jCocfitieUa,iseptf^wu;ffl,ta; a, pupa 
 with the/outer case, b, larva ; mj, pupi ;''>d, complete insect. 
 
 Fig. 3. Wasp-fly, Stylops. 
 
 Fig. 4. Earwig, .Forjicula; a, the large posteriomf ings ; b, anal forceps; 
 c, the ajitehnsB with fourteen joints. . • ■ 
 
 Figures 6, 6, 1, 8, 9, belong to the four sections of the Order Orthoptera. 
 
 Fig. 6. Cockroach, Blatta orientalia. 
 
 Fig. 6. Walking-leaf Insect, Phyllium aiecifolium ; a, foliaceous expansions 
 upon the feet ; b, the true Wings, far exceeding in size the wing covers. 
 
 Fig. 7. Praying Mantis, Mantis religiosa, named from the attitude they as- 
 sume while waiting to grasp their prey with their raptorial feet, a. 
 
 Fig. 8. Walking-stick, iW>alking-lfee1;Ie or Spectre, Spectrum-ifemoratum, 
 without wings or wing covers, can scarcely be distinguished from the 
 •branch on which they rest, p 
 
 Fig. 9. Katydid, Platyphyllum concavum,; a, the curved ovipositor, about 
 one-fourth of an inch long. 
 
 Fig. 10. Caddis-fly, Phryganea ; a, front wings, fibrous with branching 
 nerves ; the Mnd wings are largest, but folded when at rest. 
 
 Fig. 11. Dragon-fly or . Darning-needle, Libellula; the compound eyes, 
 nearly cover the entire head, and contain about 12,000 lenses. 
 
 Fig. 12. Hornet, Vespa erabro; a, antenuEe ; b, head; c,. thorax; d, abdo- 
 men; 1, the coxa or hip joined, to the body; 2, trochanter, or second 
 joint of the leg ; 3, femur or thigh ; ,4, tibia or shank ; 6, tarsus, com- 
 posed of five or less joints, and terminated by two hooked claws. 
 
 WITH MOUTHS FOR SDOKING, PUMPING, OR PIERCING. 
 
 Fig. 18. Cabbage. Butterfly, Pontia fyrassiea ; a, the knob at the end of the 
 antenuEB, distinguishing butterflies from moths or millers, whose anten- 
 nae are featliery or saw-like; b, anterior wings; c, posterior wings. 
 
 Fig. 14. Cochineal Insect, Coccus cacti ; a," the male, with red body, white 
 wings and two setae or bristles c, at the apex of the abdomen ; b, the 
 female, without wings, having shorter antennae, and a beak of which the 
 male is destitute. ' 
 
 Fig. 15. Blow or Blue-bottle Fly, Musca vomitoria; a, the onljr pan- of ' 
 wings, which are transparent and without scales or dust. There are 
 no wing covers, as the lower wings are reduced to two small knobbed 
 threads, called haJterers or poisers. 
 
 Fig. 16a. Flea, Pulex irritana; b. Jigger or Chigoe, P. penetrans, feet 
 long, bristly, and adapted for leaping. 
 
 Fig. 17a, Louse, Pediculus ; b, Lepisma. 
 
 Fig. 18a. Thousand-legged Worm or Millipede, lulus terresiris, has usually 
 two pair of feet to each segment, each foot ending iii a claw. The 
 feet in, different sp. vary from 12. to 300 pair, b, Brush-tailed Centi- 
 pede. 
 
 Fig. 19a. Scor^ion,^ Scorpio afer; the extended tail-like abdomen ending 
 with the sting; b. Spider, Arachnida; no distinct head, eyes from 
 two to eight, neither wings, anteuue, or upper lip ; c, Tick Ixodes, 
 
SECOND SUB-KINGDOM. 
 
 ARTICtJLATES. (Lat. articwlus, a joint.)^ 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 '^ In lealving the Vertebrated' Animals, we, in the descending 
 scats, first conae to the class of Akticitlates, {ariiculata.) Thege 
 rank first among the Invertebrated Group, or those animals 
 that are destitute of a back bone. They are so named because 
 the different parts of their body are composed of movable 
 pieces articulated or jointed to each Other. They deviate from 
 the Molluscous animals in generally possessing a skeleton; but 
 
 ■ the skeleton, unlike that of the Vertebrates, is exterior instead of 
 interior, being composed of a series of rings, protecting the in- 
 ternal parts, and servirig as points of attachment for muscles. 
 Though exhibiting considerable diversity of character among 
 themselves, the Articulates are usually provided with a skin, 
 which is either soft, as in the leech and earth-worm, or horny 
 and crustaceous, as in the 9rab and craw-fish. Some families 
 are destitute of feet, but the greater portion possess these mem- 
 bers. When limbs are present, they are never fewer than six. 
 Articulated animals have the trunk of the body, for the most 
 part,'long, cylindrical, and divided transversely into segments. 
 In the lowest of the series, where there are no appendages for 
 locomotion, and all the movements are effected by the body ' 
 itsel/, as in the common worm, — the segments appear to be per- 
 fectly simple, but, as ascending in the scale, we observe that 
 gradually, the- segments develop lateral organs, which are of 
 kinds quite various, according to the character of the animal. 
 
 In many of the AnneUdans, and in the Myriopoda or Centipede 
 tribe, especially, the articulated character of these animals is 
 conspicuous, the segments being numerous, and all of nearly 
 equal size, and each possessing a short pair of legs, which are" 
 themselves also jointed. In the Crustaceans and' the Arachnidn 
 or Spiders, — the divisions are reduced to eightorten jn nmnbpr; 
 and in the Insects, to six. Where the design is to lighten the 
 
AETICULATES. 599 
 
 body, there the segments are reduced in number, and size, as in, 
 the insects and the crabs; iathe Ahnelidans, as the Earth-worms 
 and Lug- worms, we find the number of segments increased. ■ 
 
 The animals of this class are active; hence, their skeletons 
 are light and thin. The milScles or organs of motion are at- 
 tached to the interior of the skeleton ; but as this is hard and 
 unyielding, it is necessary that it undergo a process of exuvia- 
 tion, which occurs in all the Articulate animals, going on through 
 all the Stages of their existence. Phosphate of Lime, which 
 enters into the bones of the vertebrate classes, constitutes also 
 the material out of which the skeletons of a majority of these 
 animals are formed. Considering their size, it may be doubted 
 whether any other animals possess so large an amount of muscu- 
 lar power as the Articulates. The bulk of their bodies is really 
 made up, in great part, by the muscles which move them. 
 Throughout the animal kingdom, the muSoular power corres- 
 ponds with ^e amounf of respiratory action, and the development 
 of animal heat ; in various forms of the Articulates, this law is 
 rematkably displayed. 
 
 The strongest resemblance to each other, exhibited by these 
 animals, exists in the nervous system. The brain is extremely 
 small. Two nervous cords, surrounding the sesophagus or gul- 
 let, run along the centre of the lower surface of 'the animal; 
 these cords are studded, at regular intervals, with knots or 
 ganglia, forming so many centers from which the nerves pass off 
 to the different segments. 
 
 The head also has its ganglia, in which the cords terminate 
 anteriorly. In cases where the members are not distributed 
 along the entire body, but limited to one part, as in Insects, 
 Arachnidans, and the higher Crustaceans, there is a corresponding 
 concentration of the ganglia in that particular part; indicating 
 by its degree, the elevation of the animal in the serieS. 
 
 The organs of sense are very imperfectly devjeloped, and in 
 some instances, entirely wanting, excepting that of sight. 
 
 No organ of smell has been discovered, unless it be assigned 
 ■to the antennae. Some naturalists have described organs of 
 hearing in the insects, while others regard the antennae as instru- 
 ments for the exercise of^that sense, and also of feeling. 
 
 The digestive apparatus is, for the most part, in accordance 
 with the carnivorous habits of the Articulates. Where animal 
 food is eaten, the process of digestion is less complicated than 
 where vegetable food is used. 
 
 The lengthened form of these animals impresses its character 
 upon their digestive, and also upon their circulating, apparatus. 
 
 35 
 
600 ARTICULATES. 
 
 In most of the Articulates, the blood , moves forward in one or 
 more large dorsal arterial vessels, from which side branches are 
 given off, terminating in various trunks that convey the blood 
 backwards to the dorsal vessel. The blood is more highly or- 
 ganized, has a deeper color, and contains a larger quantity of, 
 corpuscles and fibrin than in either the Radiates or Mollusksi 
 
 Respiration is accomplished by organs which, in all cases, are 
 perfectly symmetrical in those of this class which, like the Crus. 
 tacean^, habitually live in water by means of branchiae or gills; 
 in others, by means of trachea or air-tubes, which receive air by 
 certain lateral openings, called Stigmata, (Gr. dots or marks.) 
 In rare instances, there exist cellular cavities, analogous to lungs. 
 The Articulates may be arranged into the following classes: 
 I. Insecta, Insects; II, MyRiAPODA, Thousand-legged Worms, 
 &c. ; III. Abachnida, Spiders, &o. ; IV. Crustacea, Crabs and 
 Lobsters; V. Cibrhofoda, Barnacles; VI. Annelida, Aaneli. 
 dans or Worms. (Plates XV. and XVI.) ,' 
 
 Fifth Part. Entomology. (Gr. ivTo/ia, entoma, an insect; 
 i^jog, logos, a discourse.) 
 
 First class of Articulates. Insecta, (Lat. from inseeo, to cut 
 . into.) Insects. 
 
 The name given to this class refers to the divided structure 
 of the body or trunk of the anirhals which it includes. This is 
 generally composed of thirteen (sometimes fourteen) sections, of 
 which one forms the head; three the intermediate thorax, and 
 nine the abdomen. The head of a perfect insect has usually 
 three pair of jointed appendages. The first pair are called 
 antenncB or feelers. They are affixed to the sides of the' head 
 for the most part, between the eyes and the mouth, and have 
 from one to sixty joints or articulations. 
 
 All true insects have six jointed or articulated legs, attached to 
 the thorax, and, usually, two or four wings, situated upon its 
 three rings. (Plate XV. fig. 12.) The abdomen, which is fur- 
 nished with many rings, contains the digestive organs. The 
 breathing process is accomplished by means of spiracles or pores, 
 on the side of each ring, for admitting the air, which is thus 
 made to permeate the whole body. 
 
 Insects have a circulating apparatus, of which the central 
 organ, corresponding to the heart or the aorta in the higher orders 
 of animals, is a vessel or tube running beneath the skin of the 
 back, from which the whits and eold blood is distributed in tis. 
 
ARTICULATES, 501 
 
 sued channels or veins. The eprpusoles have forms lifee those 
 which are found in animals of the superior grades.;,; The ner- 
 vous system consists of a iymmfetnical arrangement of nervous 
 tlireads in two ,UneSj. situated on the face of the abdomen, and 
 connected by knots or ganglia, at eyeyy ring of the body. " 
 
 The mouth of insects, although made up of the same essential 
 parts, has these modified into -two principal forms of structure, 
 onfe of which is adapted to chew, and the other to suck food. 
 The former are named mandibulate^ (from Lat. mando, to. chew ;) 
 the latter, haustellate, (from Lat. ha.juaten-um,,-a. siicker.) In the 
 order Hymenoptera, hoiwever, biting mandibles are united with 
 sucking jaws. (Plate ,XV. fig., 12b.) , > 
 
 But the .most striking peculiarities of insects' relate to the 
 changes or metamorphoses which they undergo during their stages 
 of growth, corresponding, in some degree, with the developments 
 made in other animals, yet differing from them in beingf station- 
 airy at certain periods. (Plate XV. fig. 2.) 
 
 By far the largest part are oviparous. , The eggs are generally 
 oval, but they are seen in other forms, — sometimes round and 
 sometimes cyliiidrical. Some are ' smooth ; and shining; others 
 are beautifully sculptured. They vary as to color, but white 
 and green predominate.- 
 
 The Flesh-Fly, Musca eamaria, is ovoviviparous, the eggs 
 being hatched within the body. 
 
 The larva state of insects commences when the egg is con- 
 verted into a footless worm, resembling the higher Entozoa, or 
 the inferior Annelidans, in its organization, and continues until 
 the wings hegin to appear. The term larva, (a mash) was ori- 
 ginally adopted by Linnseus, who regarded insects, while under 
 "this form, as masked. It is applicable to the young of all insects. 
 In the Scaly-winged Insects or Butterflies, (Lepidoptera,) and 
 most of the Sheath-winged Insects or Beetles,' {Coleppterai) the 
 larva, at the time of its escape from the egg, has the rudiments 
 of three pair of legs upon the thorax, — though these are little 
 more than simple claXvs, except in the Carnivorous Beetles. The 
 sofl,' white larveaof the Beetles are called Chubs ; those of certain 
 Flies or Two-winged Insects, {Diptera,) are called Maggots ; 
 those of Butterflies, Moths,<and Millers are termed Caterpillars. 
 The young of the Hemiptbra, including Bugs, Cicada, Plant- 
 Lice, &c. ; and of the Obthoptera, including the True Locusts, 
 Crickets, CockroacheSj &c:, do not emerge' from the shell until 
 they have a close resemblance to the parents in every thing, 
 excepting wings;; and. they can .hardly be regarded as having' 
 the characteristics of real Idrvce. 
 
602 A£TICnLAT£S. 
 
 In the larval state, insects eat most voraciously, — indeed, their 
 entire energy seems to penter in the eating process-. Their 
 growth is' great, and often rapid. The comparative weight of 
 that remarkable insect, the Great Moth, Cossus ligniperda, to 
 that of the young one that has just crept out of the egg is, as 
 72S000 to 1,- — an increase of .seventy -two thousand times! This 
 insect occupies three years in attaining to its perfect state. The 
 Maggots of Fiesh-Flies are said to increase in weight two hun- 
 dred times in twenty- four hours. Caterpillars,. in the,same time, 
 consume three times their weight of food. 
 
 Larvae are subject to moalti)9gs,or changes of the skin; the 
 number varying with the species. This moulting is most strik. 
 ingly exhibited in the Silk- worm, ^omjya: mori, which casts its 
 outer skin five times in a month. While undergoing this pro- 
 cess, the larva does not eat, but it absorbs the fat beneath the 
 outer skin, which favors casting* it off. 
 
 The larval state is the one in which insects continue the 
 longest, varying, however, in duration, from hours to months 
 and years. '■' 
 
 The Caterpillars of several Butterflies and Moths, live in large 
 societies, in habitations or tents, sometimes of a pyramidal 
 form, and which are constructed by their. united skill, 
 
 When the worm has fixed- itself in some suitable a:nd secure 
 retreat, the pupa is formed, and encased in the last skin, which, 
 in two Winged insects,. becomes more rigid; or else a new and 
 beautiful case is made, — a robe of silk, impervious to water, 
 being laboriously woven from a single thread, which is formed 
 and spun from the juices of the body, — impressively illustrating 
 the instinctive power of the insect as related to its successive 
 developments. • 
 
 The name of the third state, pupa, (child or doll,) refers to the 
 8\yathed appearance of most insects during its continuance, it 
 resembling, in miniature, a child trussed up in swaddling 
 clothes. 
 
 ' This fitate has two modifications. (1) That of those which, 
 in general form, - resemble their iarvse; (2) That of those which 
 are entirely unlike their larvae. Of the first kind are the He- 
 miptera, &c,, — which have the pupa somewhat incomplete, and 
 possess rudimental wings ; also those which have an inconliplete 
 pupa, and are also without wings, as Lice, Pediculus, which, 
 and the Spring-tails, Podura, together with some other wingless 
 insects, undergo no metamorphosis, coming forth from the egg 
 almost in the condition inwhioh they remain all their lives- 
 
ARTICULATES. 603 
 
 Of the second kind, a^e those ,which undergo a complete met- 
 amorphosis. , These include thb'se in which no trace of a future 
 insect can be.perceived, as in thp Fly, Musca, and others of the 
 dipterous or two- winged , insects ; those in which the. thorax and 
 abdomen are distinct, and enclosed in a horny case, as in.. the 
 
 \Butterflies; and those in which the parts are covered by a mem- 
 brane, but distipot, as in the order Hymenoptera, and some of 
 the Two-winge.d Insects. .. 
 
 In,, the Colepptera,, Lepidoptera, Pymenoptera, Diptera, and 
 some of the Neuroptera, the pupa state is one of complete inac- 
 tivity as, to all! manifestations of t^jiimal life, while ye^.the interior 
 fprmatiye processes are carried on.wit^i extraordinary eijergy. 
 In the egg, the development, in the case of these insects, was onjiy 
 cariied .far enpugh, to enable the larvse to come .forth, and to 
 obtain their own .food. In jth^.pupa state, it is continued , at th^ 
 expense of the nutriment which they h^d collected and'stored 
 up within their bodies, so that the passage into the pupa state 
 Riight almost be compared tp a second entering into the egg. 
 
 Pf those which are not, like the Silk-wprm, protected by a 
 cocpon, some suspend themselves by their hinfl extremity ; others, 
 as the Butterfly, Papilio, attach themselves, with th? head above, 
 and a thread around the body to keep it in its position. Some of 
 these hanging pupae exhibit bright colors and golden spots, whence 
 
 .. ,,the name Chrysalis, (from Gr. chrusos, gold.) 
 
 in the Ant-tribes, the .NjButers do not acquire wings. .Some 
 of them, which are t\»fo o.r three tiroes as large as ^he rest, and 
 somewhat difierently formed, are named ."soldiers," it being 
 their special cilice to defend the nest, rather^ than to nurture 
 young ; . and in the White Ants, Termites, '^h,e " soldiers " a.ppear 
 to be pupse arrested in their development, while the V workers" 
 
 ".have the characters of permanent larvse. ' • . 
 
 The period of inactivity in the pupa state, greatly varies ia 
 duration; some insects remaining inactive for . years, or months, 
 while others pass through that state jn a fe\v days or hours, and 
 reach the fourth or last stage, when the insect is called Imago, 
 (Lat. image.), .Now, having laid aside its mask, arid cast off its 
 «wft(2(Z/zng', bands, it.l?ecomes a proper z'me^e p,r representafiyeof 
 its species. Whenever an insect is sppkpn pf without the restrict- 
 ing terms larva and /jwpa,, it should be remembered, the imago 
 state is meant. , In t)iis state, the three principal parts pf head, 
 thorax, and' abdomen, are distinctly perceptible.} the insect now 
 isats much , less .food than when in.iits first state. Some, indeed, 
 live so short a tf^e as to need,QQ food, as the Silk? worm and the 
 
604 
 
 ABTICULATES. 
 
 (Jad-flies. The May-fly or Day-fly, (Ephemera,) comvnita.iis 
 eggs to the Water, ind dies in a few hours, though including it& 
 larva and pupa states, it had previously lived tvifo or three 
 years. The Butterfly needs only a little honey ; the Fly daintily 
 Sips its food, while the larvsB of both eat most voraciously. 
 
 Some insects are able to endure abstinence fVom food for a 
 lotig time. The Ant-lion, Myfmeleon, (Gr. mtlrmeoi, arit; hon, 
 lion,) can remain for six months, tininjured, without food, though 
 daily devouring an insect of its own sizeyvhen it can be obtained; 
 , Beetles have been kiiown to live two or three years without food 
 'of any kind. Most insects feed themselves, but the ybung of 
 those Vvhich live in societies, and contitlbe longer than most oth- 
 lers in the adult state, as the Bees, Wasps, Ants, &c., are fed by 
 the older ones, which also stcire up food for future use. 
 
 Most insects are extremely prolific. They kTe, as we have 
 seen, produced from eggs laid by the female; though there is 
 One i-emarkable exception to this rule in the Aphis or Plant-Hbe, 
 (order tiemiptera,) which increases by a process of gemmation 
 or budding, somewhat aftelr Ihk manner of the Polypi,^— females 
 beii'ig thrown off" at onC6 for several generatiohs, of whi6h each 
 has th?' j)ower to multi'ply its kind in the same way, — even to 
 the se\^eiith or ninth geheratioh ; when eggs are again laid, and 
 the gemmating or budding process is again renewed. Accbrd- 
 ing to calculations base'd upon observation, the whole brood in a 
 season from a single Aphis, Will amodttt to the immense number 
 of 1;000,0(!>0,000,000,000,000 ! but the insect is extremelyfee- 
 ble; "the touoh destroys it; the winds, rains, and cold, sweep 
 off its lumbers by hundreds of thousands." (Emmons.) 
 
 The ^ueen-Bee, Apis fheWficd, (Lat. ^loney-bee,) lays fifty 
 thousand eggs; the female White-Ant, Termei itllicosa, has an 
 abdOnhen fifteen hundred or tW6 t!housand tirWes as large as the 
 rest of the body, and lay;a eighty thousand feggs in twenty.four 
 'hontS,and forty or fifty millions in a year. 
 
 Ihse'cts usually deposit their eggs where the young larvje may 
 fiird appropriate food. T^Wia, the Silk- Worm places hers on the 
 leaves bf the MuTberry, kbrus mtthicttuiis, (hut. many,stalked 
 mulberry.) The Hessiah-fly, Ceddomya destrv,ctor, deposits its 
 eggs Updn the yowng leaf of the wheat, where it joins the stem 
 Or Straw (culm) near the tehrth; whilb the Wheat-fly, C. tritid, 
 places hers in the Wheat^head ; the Gad or Horse-Fly, Oestnti, 
 (Gr. oiittos, a gad-flyt) equi, (Lat. of a horse,) deposits hers in 
 hundreds upon the hairsof the horse. Ichneumon Flies, Ichneu- 
 mr^dcBi d^bsit theirs in or upon the bodies of Caterpillars and 
 oihbr la*v», byfiieaus of ft i^ftrp and fetrong abdbminal tube or 
 
ARTICULATES. €05 
 
 ovipositor (egg-placer) of great length. The larva/ ofthe Pimpla 
 lunaior, according'to Prof. Emmons, sometimes, in company with 
 the Siren, deposits its eggs in young maple trees, introducing the 
 ovipositor into the wood, sometimes to the depth of three inches. 
 There is indeed scarcely any organized substance upon which 
 insects are not adapted to prey. Growing vegetables and- fivirig 
 animals are alike subject to their attaclks, — these, when dead, 
 also supply with food innany kinds of insects; and even when 
 such substances are decomposed or much decayed, they furnish 
 nutriment to particular species. Hence, though sustaining much 
 damage by the injury which the insects do to plants and trees, 
 man also derives important benefit from them, by their removal 
 of putrid substances, the noxious exhalations of which would 
 poison the air, and thus detract greatly from his health and com- 
 fort. They are frequently useful to plants in bringing the pollen 
 to the pistils, and thus effecting the continuance of the species in 
 cases where it could not be done except by extraneous methods. 
 Large Grasshoppers are in the Levant, dried and consumed for 
 food; some savage nations eat the large grubs which are found 
 in rotten wood. The Great-Moth, Cossus, which the ancients 
 esteemed as a deRcacy, was a larva of some kind ; and a species 
 kindred to this one is at this day eaten in Brazil. Ants are also 
 eaten by the natives in that country. While attending to these 
 uses of insects, we may also refer to that which is made of the 
 Cantharides or Blistering Flies, — to that beautiful dyeing material, 
 cochineal, furnished by insects of the genus CoccMs, — to the galls 
 formed on oak trees by the genus Cynips, and which are em- 
 ployed in the arts; to the art of Ca.prification or causing figs to 
 ripen by suspending upon the trees branches of the wild Fig. 
 tree, {Caprijicus,) v/lmch \s infested by an insect that pierces the 
 fruit and hastens its maturity; and to manna, useJi as an agreea- 
 ble food in the East, which, though not directly produced by 
 insects, ,is made to flow from the Tamarisk mannifera, (manna 
 bearing,) by the puncture of a small species of Coccus. The de- 
 struction of the larvae of some insects by those of others, is in 
 soijne instances, actually enormous, so that the undue multiplica- 
 tion of insects, which might result from the very great, nutnber 
 of their 'eggs, and from their rapid growth, is counteracted not 
 only by the influence of the many beasts, birds, reptiles' and 
 fishes, which feed upon tb^m, but also by the numerous onsets 
 which insects make upon each other. In these, they sometimes 
 show considerable contrivance, availing themselves of traps, ex- 
 cavated in the sand, by which they secure their prey, as in the 
 case of the Ant-lion, an insecti in its perfect state, resembling the 
 
e06 AETICT7LATE3. 
 
 Dragon-fly. If by any means any poor, unwary insect, found in the 
 neighborhood of the Ant-lion larva, seems likely to escape, jets 
 of sand arrest his progress, and carry him to the bottom of the 
 pit-fall, where he is instantly seized; his juices subked out, and 
 the body jerked out of the den, which, if injured, is soon re- 
 paired, and ready for another victim. A plan quite similar to 
 this is also adopted by the larva of a F\y, {Leptis vermileo.) 
 ■ The locomotive powers of insects are unsurpassed by those of 
 any other animals. These are peculiarly conspicuous in the 
 Dragon-flies, Termites, Bees and Ants. Even the Swallow is 
 unable, in this respect, to match the Dragon-fly or Darning, 
 needle, which can elude its pursuer by flying backwards and 
 forwfards, right and left, without turning its body. Its twenty, 
 four thousand eyes guard it against surprise, by enabling it to 
 see in all directions. The wings of Musquitoes are said to 
 vibrate three thousand times a minute. 
 
 The organs of sense in Insects have a high degree of devel- 
 opment. This is more particularly true of the sight. ' Of the 
 two kinds of eyes found in adult insects, compound arid simple, 
 the latter, termed ocelli, (eyelets,) and slemruata, (stems,) are 
 alone present in the larvse, though these are sometimes entirely 
 without visual qrgans. In perfect insects, the eyes are com- 
 pound, that is they consist of many eyes, each of which is per- 
 fect in itself, having the proper humors and lenses necessary for 
 the exercise of vision. In addition to the compound eye, which 
 often fills up the largest part of the head, insects sometimes have 
 simple eyes upon the forehead, generally three in number, set in 
 the form of a triangle, which are suited to view only such ob- 
 jects as are near. , Tlie compound eye is immovable, round, 
 oval, or kidney-shap^, and examined under the microscope, kp. 
 pears reticulated, this appearance being occasioned by the hex- 
 agonal lines which bound each eye or lens. The number of 
 lenses, each fitted for vision in its own sphere, is almost incred- 
 ibly great. The number in the Dragon-Fly has already been 
 mentioned ; that of the common Fly is 4,000 ; of the Butterfly, 
 from 6,000 to 30,000 ; and of the Mprdella Beetle, 25,000 ; 
 while that of the ant has but fifty lenses. 
 
 There seems no doubt that insects have the sense of hearing, 
 for though the precise organ which is subservient to it has not 
 been fully ascertained, there is abundant evidence that they are 
 guided and influenced by sounds, one of the most striking in- 
 stances of which is that the male of some Insects, such as Cica- 
 dcR, Crickets, &c., emit peculiar sounds, which attract the fe- 
 males to them. A nocturnal butterfly, Acherontia atropos, pro- 
 
COLEOPTEHA. 607 
 
 ■duces a plaintive cry which i^said to proceed frbm tjite Jiead. 
 These sounds are 'pl'oduced entirely by meehanicd means, atid 
 
 ■ cannot be considered vocal. ■ ' : ■ 
 
 It is thought 'by some naturalists that' the organ of heitrang is 
 situated in the base of the antennae. These are supposed to be 
 ' also the chief organs of touch. ' '(Plate XV. fig. 4e.) 
 
 Insects seem to possess the sense of smell. The Flesh-fly 
 deposits eggs itt the thick fleshy petals of the Cafrion-flbiver, 
 (Stapelia,) deceived by its odor, which resembles tainted meat. 
 
 Many insects, particularly the Coleopterai' which include the 
 • gnap-Bug,. £Za<er, and the Fire-fly, Z<a7?zpj/m, are luminous at 
 night. Several North American species of the Sphinx, or Hawk 
 Moth, seem to be phosphorescent, by dim candle-light,' o^ when 
 shaded from direct light. 'When the light is extinguished, noth- 
 ing appears, however,' exceptinga peculiar reflection. 
 ' -Insects are essentially terrestrial, but many, as the Whirligigs 
 or ,Water-Fleas, (Gyrinus,) swim on fresh water; and some, as 
 the Skippers, {HydrOmelridm,) walk with the body raised above 
 
 ■ it, the tips of their feet touching the surface ;' and a genus Halo- 
 hatesi,(Gr.hals,Xhe sea; baino, to go,) is seen in the Southern 
 Atlantic, far out from the land. 
 
 The Insects are divided by Kirby and Spence, into twelve or- 
 ders, as presented on the Chart, viz. : 
 
 1. Coleoptera. 
 
 2. StrepsiptergJ 
 
 3. Dermaptera. 
 
 4. Ortboptera. 
 6. Tricoptera. 
 6. Neuroptera. 
 
 '7. Hymfenoptera. 
 : S. Lepidqp^ra. , 
 9. Hemiptera. 
 
 10. Diptera. 
 
 11. Aphaniptera. 
 
 12. Aptera. 
 
 Fikst.Obde«. Coleoptera, (Gr. xoi,s6s, koleos, a she?ith; 
 msqbv, pteron, a wing.) Beetles. , Mouth mandibulate. 
 
 These insects are almost incredibly numerous, between seventy 
 and eighty thousand species being found in th» cabinets of col- 
 lectors. In the Royal Museum at Berlin, Prussia, is a single 
 collection of forty thous&nd species. The Singular forms and 
 brilliant colors of many of these insects, the size of their bodies, 
 the solid texture of their" integuments, which renders preserva- 
 tion cdmparatively easy,' and the- nature of their •' habits, which 
 aflbrds every facility for their capture,' have combined to render 
 Beetles objects of peculiar attention and interest to entarablogists. 
 
 The upper wings of these Infeects are horny or leathery,' arid 
 shield oi' sbeMhe the lower ones; the metamorphosia is perfect, 
 
608 C01*^BOFTEBA. 
 
 the pupa being torpid; the mouth is imandibulate or chewing. 
 The wing-oases are palled elytra, (Gr. coverings,) and are un- 
 suitfd for flight. Many of these Insects, particiularly in the lar- 
 va state, are quite injurious to vegetation ; but at the same time, 
 they are, as a whole, very useful lin diminishing the numbers of 
 other noxious or destructive insects, and in removing fungous 
 and offensive matters. 
 
 (.1) The Tiger Bketles^ CicindelidcB, {imm gen. Gicindela, 
 Lat. a glow-worm.) so called on account of their fierceness and 
 vorabity, are found in sandy localities and dusty roads. They 
 feed upon Mother insects, are good runners, and fly with facility. 
 Those of the genus Cieindela are the most numerous. 
 
 2. GaoupfD Beetles, Carabidce, (from gen. Car&bus, a crab, 
 i. e., crab-like,) are those which are commonly found under 
 stones and rubbish, and generally, but not always, nocturnal. 
 They are predaoeous, feeding upon insects and larvae. The 
 colors are black, with blue and purple hues. 
 
 TheCATERPiLLAH HuNTEHs, GabsoTna, {Gt. beautiful body,) in- 
 dude species baying colors in which green and blue predominate. 
 They are found in trees, and lessen the number of injurious in- 
 sects which infest them. 
 
 . 3. The Diving Beetles, DyticidcB, (from gen. Byticus, a 
 diver,) are large hardy insects, sometimes seen in water bordergd 
 with ice. They feed upon minute fish, larvae and worms. 
 
 4. The Lady Birds, or Lady Bugs, CoccineUidcB, {gen. Cocci, 
 nella, from Gr. kokkos, a berry, i. e., berry-like,) are well known, 
 small, hemispherical insects, having brightcobrs and often marked 
 with spots. (Plate XV. fig. Id.) They feast on gourd-like plants, 
 such as melons arid pumpkins, but are of great service, both in 
 their larva and perfect state, in destroying the Plant-lice. Thelar- 
 va is of a long oval shape, with a pointed tail ; of a black color, 
 with red and White specks, and a rough surface, (Plate XV."fi». 
 2b.)' It changes to a short, blackish, oval chrysalis, or pupa 
 spoMed with red, (a, o,) and which gives birth to its beautiful 
 inmate in May or June, (d.) The eggs of these insects may be 
 seen upon the under surface of leaves, in a cluster of thirty or 
 forty, placed in contact and gummed by one end to the leaf. 
 These hatch within a few days. 
 
 5. The WateRtLOVers, Hydrophitid/B, (gen. HydropUhs, Gr. 
 water-loven) are found in ponds and ditches, or in stagnant 
 waters, which they seem to prefer. 
 
 6. Caebion Beetles, SzTp/Kdffi, (from Gr. siZpiie, a cockroach, 
 i. e., CQofcrOaoh-like.) These include the Sesiton Peetle, Necro. 
 phonts, i{Gtu »«Anw, ft dead My i jpAprea, I cany.) This 4s 
 
COI.E0PTEBA. 609 
 
 about an inch in length, of a black hue, and extremely fetid. 
 It is noted on account of its finding the carcases of small ani. 
 mals, such as mice, rats, birds, frogs, &c., shortly after death, 
 burying them by woi'liing the earth from beneath them, and af- 
 terwards covering them. In these dead animals, the Sexton Bee- 
 tie deposits its eggs. 
 
 7. Dung Beetles, Geotrupidoe, (Gr. ge, the earth ; trupao, to 
 bore.) These, with other similar families, are, in their larva 
 state, incapable of much locomotion, and generally live in the 
 ground. 
 
 8. Scavenger Beetles, ScaralcBidm, {gen. Scarabaus, from 
 Gr. Skarabos, a beetle or scarabee.) ^These Beetles use the 
 flat shield of their heVids for working in the ground and in the 
 dung upon which they feed. One species labor in pairs, the one 
 beetle pushing their ball backwards with the hind feet, and the 
 other walking up the' ball on the opposite side, thus making, it 
 roll. The Copris rolls together a small ball which it immedi- 
 ately buries. 
 
 9. Stag Beetles, LucanidtB, (gen. Lucanus,) include some 
 very large sized beetles, distinguished by having the antenne 
 terminated by a large jointed club. The males of Lucanus cer- 
 viCs have singular horns affixed to the head and thorax. (Plate 
 II. fig. 8.) ♦ 
 
 10. Giant Beetles, DynasticUe, (gen. Dynastes, Gr. a ruler.) 
 These include some of the largest of the order. The males 
 have horns or tubercles arising from the head or thorax. A most 
 remarkable species is the Hercules Beetle, Dynastes Henules, 
 found in South America, measuring sometimes not less than five 
 or six inches in length, having a horn of enormous length in pro- 
 portion to the body, proceeding from the upper part of the 
 thorax. Its larva continues about six years, and is three or four 
 inches long. It is sometimes eaten fried, and esteemed a luxury. 
 
 11. Rose Beetles, Cetoniidce, (of which Cetonia, is a prom- 
 inent genus.) form an extensive group, including several which 
 are distinguished for their- brilliant colors. The common Rose 
 Chafer, C. aurata, may be cited as an example, found in roses 
 and upon the flowers of the privet, an insect nearly an inch 
 long, of a shining green color above, and copper-red beiteath, 
 with white marks in the elytra. In its larva state, it feeds upon 
 moist rotten wood, and is often met with under ground, in aoits' 
 nests. 
 
 12. Springing Beetles, Blaterida, (gen. Elater, a charioteer.) 
 These have a strong spine situated beneath the thorax, which fits 
 at {ileaaure into a small cavity ou the upper part of the abdomen ; 
 
610 COLEOFTEKA. 
 
 thus enabling the insect, when laid upon its back, to spring up 
 with great force and agility, in order to regain its position. 
 Their larvae are Icnown in New England and New York, by the 
 name of Wire-worms, and are injurious to corn and herbaceous 
 roots. One species, Elater noctilucus, (Lat, shining by night.) 
 is one of the most brilliant of , the fire-flies which inhabit South 
 America and the West India islands. In Cuba, ladies use these 
 phosphorescent insects as or-naments for the hair. (See Chart.) 
 
 13. WooD-BoRERS, PtimdcB, (geans Ptinus,) is a rather nu- 
 merous family of insects, of small size, oval form and destruc- 
 tive habits. They are of obscure colors, and counterfeit death 
 by withdravviing their head and antennae, and contracting their 
 legs. The Wood-Borers are found in old houses, which their 
 larvae perforate in every direction ; also among furniture, 
 books, &:o. 
 
 The Death- Watch, Anobium, (Gr. ano, I end ; Mos, life,) 
 tessellatum, (tesselated or checkered,) is of this family. It 
 strikes its jaws upon the wood in which it has^its ^bode, so as to 
 imitate the ticking of a watch. Tne generic name we suppose 
 to refer to the superstitious notion that when its beating is heard 
 it is a sign that some person in the house will die within a 
 year, and jpenoe is derived the name Death Watch, (See Chart.) 
 
 14. Fire-flies, or Glow-worms, LampyridcB, (leiading genus 
 Lainpyris, Gr. lampitris, a glow-worm,) have a lengthened, 
 depressed body^ and flexible elytra. In some species the 
 females are wingless, and in others they have only short elytra. 
 They prey, in the larva state, upon the bodies of snails, and not 
 upon plants. When alarmed, they draw in their antennae and 
 legs, and remain motionless, as if dead. The common Glow- 
 worm, seen in the Middle States of the Union, is the female of 
 the species Photuris, (Gr. phos, light; oura, tail,) versicolor, 
 
 .(Lat. of changeable color.) 
 
 15. Corn and Ncjt Weevils, CureuUonidiB, (CurcuUo, a corn-' 
 worm or weevil.) This family of Snouted Coleopterous insects 
 includes the Diamond Beetles and other splendidly colored spe- 
 
 , cies, as well as the Corn or Grain Weevils. The Nut Weevil, 
 Bcilaninus, (Gr. from halanos, acorn or nut.) nucum, (Lat. of nuts,) 
 see Chart, is often found in the Chinquapin nut, and sometimes 
 renders worthless almost the entire crop, which, ib a short time, 
 become wormy. 
 
 16. CocKCHAVE^s,. Melolonthida, (leading genus 7lfe?o?o?i/fta.) 
 are well known and destructive insects. An instance is given of a 
 farmer whose crops were completely destroyed by the larvse pf 
 
STEEPSIPTERA. 611 
 
 the common Cockchafer, "of which eighty bushels were gathered 
 up." 
 
 The genus Phynophaga, (Gr. phuUon, a leaf; pJiago, to eat,) 
 includes several species, which are. furnished with strong jaws 
 for cutting the leaves of plants. They are injurious both in the 
 larva and the perfect state; in the former, eating the roots of 
 ■ grass, &c., and' in the latter, the tender leaves of fruit and other 
 trees. Formerly they were included in the genns Melolontha. 
 They 9,re well known by the name of Horn Bugs, though their 
 more appropriate name is May Beetles. 
 
 17. Pea Bugs, Wheat WeevUs, &c., Bruchidce, (geniis .Bru- 
 . chus, Gr. brouchos, a lopust— locust-like.) "I^he Pea-bug, Bru- 
 
 ■ehu.1, is a small hairy insect, gray and rather egg-shaped, which 
 deposits its eggs in the pea-pod in jts early state, and, in which 
 they are hatched. Multitudes of, the larvse are destroyed in pre- 
 paring green peas for the table. The Calandra granaria, or 
 Ctjrn Weevil, of Europe, is a species that has been introduced 
 into this country from Europe, in, samples of grain, to wf'ich it is 
 very hurtful. Linnaeus calls it CwrcwZzo ^mraaria;. . 
 
 18. Blistek Beetles, Cahtharidce, (Gr. KantKaris.) Among 
 these are the C. vesicatoria, (Lat. from, vesica, a blister,) of a 
 beautiful changeable or metallic green color, about three-quarters 
 of an inch in length, and well known for its medical uses. In 
 Spain, Portugal, and Italy, these insects are abundant. Potato 
 vines and other plants are, in rhid-summert often infested by in- 
 sects allied to the Spanish-flies. 
 
 N. B. The above account includes all the families of Beetles 
 to which the Chart refers, though but a small part of the entire 
 number. 
 
 Second Order. STREPSiPTERA,(Gr. o-Tgererds, s<rep(os, twisted; 
 Tnsgbv, pteron, wing.) 
 
 Thisorder of insects is named by Latreille, Rhipiptera, (Gr. fan- 
 wings.) They have the front wings repljtced ,by a kind of twisted 
 ■halterers ; the posterior are large and folded like a fan. (Plate XV. 
 .fig. 3.) The tarsihave from two to four articulations. The^ mouth 
 is armed with two slender acute jaws wide apart, and twp pointed 
 palpi, or feelers. The orderincludes a limited number of inse^cts, 
 arranged in the two genera Xenos, (Gr. a guest or stranger,) and 
 Stylops, (Gr. stulos, a stylos or graver ; 6p«,:face.) The larvae 
 are vermiform, and have six feet. The pupae are inactive. 
 They are all small, mite-like creatures, t^e largest not being a 
 
612 OSTHOFTEBA* 
 
 quarter of an inch in length. The larvse are parasitic on the 
 bodies of the wasps and Bees, where they lose their feet and be. 
 come larvae of a different form — an instance of retrograde met- 
 amorphosis. The perfect insects are very short-lived, but very 
 active- They were first observed by Kirby. 
 
 Third Order. Dermaptera, [Gf. dij^fia, derma, skin ; megbr, 
 pteron, wing.) 
 
 The insects of this order are by some included among the 
 Orthopteba to which in the organs of the mouth they corres- 
 pond, and which they resemble also in being active and in feed- 
 ing during the pupa state. But they differ from them in the struc- 
 ture of the wings, which fold both longitudinally and transversely 
 to bring them under the elytra, (wing-covers.) This order in- 
 cludes the Ear Wigs, {Forjiciila.) Flaie XV. fig. 4, which live 
 in damp places and feed on vegetable food. These insects have 
 the tarsi three-jointed ; their antennae are long and slender and 
 made up of many articulations. The Ear- wig sits. oVer her 
 eggs and assiduously watches the young when they appear. 
 
 FouBTH Okdeb. Oethopteea, (Gr. dgdbs, orthos, straight; 
 mB§6v, pteron, wing.) 
 
 f In this order the metamorphosis is imperfect, the elytra, or 
 wing covers are coriaceous and veined, with the inner margins 
 overlapping; in some cases the wings: are wanting, or so small 
 as to be entirely useless ; the mouth is mandibulate, (with jaws,) 
 and this organ and the thorax are much like those of the Bee- 
 tles. The body is generally long ; the head vertical, and the 
 antennas slender. The feet are well developed; but though 
 some are very active, others are remarkably slow in their move- 
 ments. The order includes (1) Cockroaches, Bhttidce, (genua 
 Blalta, P\a.le XV . fig. 5,) hiding by day and seeking food by 
 night, and in tropical countries extremely troublesome. Scald- 
 ing or fumigating them in their hiding places is one of the best 
 methods of exterminating them. They sometimes even penetrate 
 the brick walls of buildings, destroying both animal and veget- 
 able substances; (2) the Pkayinb Insects, Mantidce, (Gr. 
 Mantis, a prophet.) which use their fore legs as arms and hands, 
 ind when waiting for their prey, raise their feet as if in suppli- 
 cation, (Plate XV. fig. 7,) whence their name. They eat other 
 insects, are great fighters, and when confined will eat each other. 
 The smaller kinds of these insects are seen occasionally in New 
 England and New York ; (8) Spbctbes, Phaamida, (Gr. fhama, 
 
'OvmonsRA. irlS 
 
 a spectre or apparition,) These have the lyings somewhat unde- 
 VBkjpeid or entirely -absfent. They eat leases,. live ppon trees, 
 and present some very curious forms. Some are called walking, 
 sticks, from their resemblance to a stick. One species, found in 
 the Moluccas, is ten inches long. PhylEum, (Plate XV. fig. 8,) 
 is a , genus that has wings which look like a leaf, whence the 
 name, which means a Walking- Letif. One or two of these rie- 
 linarkable' insects are met with in New York and in some of the 
 Eastern States ; (4) the Crickets, Achetidm, {acheta, a chirper,) 
 which, although they present a general likeness to the Grass- 
 lidppfers, differ from them in their habits, being entireliy terres- 
 trial, and having, more or less, the power of burrowing. They 
 appear'to live both upoti vegetable and animal food, which they 
 search for at night. The Crickets are good runners, but do not 
 fly as well as the Grasshoppers; (5) LoetJsfs, Locustida, (Lat. 
 locusta, a locust.) The abdomen of the female has a sharp, flat- 
 tened ovipositor; the males rhake a loud stridulation, or whiz- 
 zing, by means of their tipper wings. These insects are quite 
 arboreal in their habits, and . from the 'green color of many of 
 them, they are hardly perceptible among the foliage. They 
 sometimes appear in great numbers; (6) Grasshoppers, Acridii^ce, 
 (Gr. alcris, a ' locust.) The female is without an ovipositor. 
 The males of these insects make their peculiarBoise by rubbing 
 their hind. thighs against the wing-covers. To this family be- 
 longs the Katydid, Platyphyllum, (Gr. broad-leaf.) concavum, 
 (Lat. conCave or hollow,) — ranked among the Grasshoppers. 
 This singular insect is of a grass-green color, and derives its 
 name from the notes which it sends forth. It reaches its perfect 
 state in September, depositing its eggs in a nest which with its 
 ovipositor it had previously prepared in the soft earth. (See 
 Plate XV. 9, and explanations.) , 
 
 This order has been divided into four sections, founded on differ- 
 ences of habit arising from, the peculiar , construction of the 
 organs of locomotion. (Plate XV. figsl 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.) (1) 
 The Runners,' (Orlhoptera cursoria;) (2) the Graspers, (Orthop- 
 tera raptoria ;) (3) the Walkers, (Orthoptera ambulatoria ;) ,(4) 
 the Jumpers, (Orthoptera saltatoria.) The Runners include the 
 Cockroaches ; the Grasfees, the Praying Insects ; the Walkers, 
 the Walking Sticks, &c. ; the Jumfess, the Grasshoppers and 
 Locusts. 
 
gl4 NEUEOFIEKA. 
 
 Fifth Order. Trichoptera, (Gr. dgiS, ihrix, hair, Ttxeqov, 
 pteron, a wing.) 
 
 The genus Phryganeai (PMe XV. fig; 10,) which is the only 
 one of this order, is by some joined with the geaera Hydropsyche 
 and Limnophilus, to form the family Phryganeidse, and referred 
 to the order, Neuroptera. The insects of this order have four 
 membranous and reticulated wings ; the posterior pair are the 
 larger; the front pair are generally hairy, — hence the name of 
 the order. The name of Caddis- flies has been given to these 
 insects which come from the various species of case-worms. 
 The larvae are inactive, residing in water, in a case formed of 
 bits of shells or sticks, or of sand or saw-dust. , The pupa is 
 inactive. The Caddis- fly is often used as a fish bait. 
 
 Sixth; Order, Neuroptera, (Gr. vevQov, neuron, nerve; Jtisgiiv, 
 pteron, a wing.) 
 
 This ord^r of mandibulate insects exhibits a considerable 
 variety of characters. According to Westwood, it includes 
 twelve families. It is estimated to include. not far from a thou- 
 sand species. These insects have usually four reticulated 
 nervures, (wings with horny divisions, thin, and laee-like.) The 
 wings are of unequal size ; instead of the hind- wings, there, are 
 sometimes only pedicles or stems. The antennee are usually 
 short and bristly. The pupasare sometimes active and sometimes 
 torpid ; the larvae are six-footed and very active, mostly predaceous, 
 and either terrestrial or aquatic. 
 
 The DKAGot^-TLms, Libellulidce, (genus Lihelluta,) ■ inciude 
 nearly two hundred known "species. 'To these, We have already 
 referred. While on the wing, they deposit their eggs in water 
 and in it pass both their larva and pupa state, gliding through it, 
 or crawling about in the mud at the bottom. The hinder part of 
 the body has several leaf-like processes, which can be drawn 
 together or opened at pleasure. These close the opening of a 
 cavity having very muscular sides. When • the Dragon-fly 
 wishes to move rapidly, it opens this cavity, which thus becomes 
 filled with water ; then by contracting the walls of the cavity, 
 it throws out the water forcibly, like a stream from a syringe ; 
 aided by the re-action produced by the jet against the surround- 
 ing fluid, the creature shoots forward, with its legs closely" 
 packed along the sides. The pijpa is no less active, fierce and 
 voracious than the larva, diflering from it only in having upon 
 the thbrax the rudiments of wings, which in Uie perfect insect 
 
NEUEOPTEKA. 615 
 
 are so admirable for their firmness, transparency and gloss. 
 Even after it lias reached the imago state, itsTerocious manners 
 still continue. It has even been known to devour its own body, 
 when confined and deprived of musquitoes and the other insects 
 upon which it usually feeds. 
 
 ' The AyT-hions, Myrmeleonidce, (^enns Mgrmeleon, Gr. ant- 
 'llon,) are distributed throughout the world. These are terrestrial, 
 spider-like in their appearance, and short and thic,k, having man- 
 dibles strongly toothed on the inside, so that the insect may suck 
 the juices of its victitas, and so constructed that it can hold its 
 food' firmly, though unable to chew it. To the curious devices 
 which the larva of this insect employs for entrapping its prey-, 
 we have already alluded. 
 
 The Ant-lions have been found under the limestone ledges of 
 Schdharie, and the larvae have also been seen beneath such 
 ledges near Burlington, Vt. (Emmons.)' 
 
 The May-flies, EphemerideB, or' Ephemeral-flies, are so 
 named from the Greek word ephenieros, (diurnal,) in allusion to 
 the extreme brevity of their existence. Their larvae live in the 
 water; they take refuge under stones, arid in the earth and mud, 
 feeding upon its slime. In their perfect state these insects gen- 
 erally liVe but a few hours, taking no nourishment ; but if the 
 sexes be kept apart, it is said, they ViiW live from one to three 
 weeks. Sometimes they issue forth in such numbers that "the 
 ground is covered by their bodies when they die, to such a 
 thickness as to make it worth while to cart them away as ma- 
 nure. The swarms of one species with white wings have been 
 so abundant as to resemble a fall of snow.-^ 
 
 The Termites, TermiiidcB, which include the genus Tenrtes, 
 (Gr, ierma, an end,) are distinguished by wings having few 
 transverse nervures or horny divisions, and folding horizontally; 
 the tarsi are four-jointed; the antennae short and moniliform ; 
 the body is white and oblong in shape. 
 
 The head of the White Ants, as they are called, though differ, 
 ing from the true ants, is large and rounded ; and besides the 
 ordinary compound eyes, they have three ocelli or simple eyes, 
 situated on the upper surface ; the antennas are long, and com- 
 posed of about eighteen joints. 
 
 The Termites are chiefly confined to the tropics, though some 
 few species extend into the temperate regions. Swainson, Kirby 
 and Spence, and other writers who have observed the operations 
 of these ants, either in Africa or South America, present many 
 interesting particulars respecting their wonderful economy and 
 habits. These insects unite in societies, composed each of an 
 
616 NBUROFTGBA. 
 
 immense number of individuals. In the warmer regions, the 
 ravages of some species are often fearfully great. A species 
 discovered by Latreille at Bordeaux, (Fr.,) frequently attack the 
 virood work of houses, in which they form innumerable galleries, 
 all leading to a central point. In building, they avoid piercing 
 the surface of the wood-work ; and hence it appears sound, when 
 the slightest touch is sometimes sufficient to cause it to fall to 
 pieces. 
 
 One of the largest and best known specjes is the Termes belli- 
 casus, or Warlike Ant, (see Chart,) found on the coast of Africa. 
 These Ants build conical nests or edifices, sometimes of enor. 
 mous size, nearly as hard as stone, and very commonly twelve 
 feet in height, (see Chart.) They are often quite numerous, ap. 
 pearing almost like huts of savages ;, and Mr, Cummings says, 
 "are of the, greatest service to the hunter, enabling him to con. 
 ceal himself with facility on the otherwise open plain." 
 
 The male and female, or Kijig and Queen, have their royal 
 chamber near the center of the hillock, and never leave it. 
 They are both perfect insects, but the wings which they once 
 had are lost soon after their admission to their plaos of abode. 
 To the almost numberless eggs dropped by the Queen-mother, 
 we have already referred. In times of scarcity, the Hottentota 
 feast upon these eggs, which they call rice, on account of their 
 resemblance to that grain. They usually wash them, and cook 
 them with a small quantity of water, declaring that they are 
 savory and nourishing. When they find out a place where the 
 nests are numerous, it is said they soon become fat from eating 
 the eggs, even when previously much reduced by hunger. 
 "Sorastimes they will get half a bushel out of a single nest." 
 
 The larvae, in their full grown state, are perhaps a quarter of 
 an inch in length. They are far the most numerous and the 
 workers of the , colony, building, foraging and nursing. The 
 soldiers or fighters are comparatively few, not more than one to 
 a hundred of laborers; but they are many times larger,, and 
 armed with sharper and more formidable jaws. They appear 
 as defenders when the nest is assailed, and will even attack the 
 assailants, biting with considerable force. The species T.fron- 
 talis, of South America, works galleries in logs and stumps of 
 trees, and in the ground also, plasterii^g them with a hard 
 mixture of olsy. 
 
HEMENOFTEBA. 617 
 
 Seventh Order. Hymenoftera, (Gr, 'v/iiiv, humm, a mem- 
 brane ; megov, pteron, a wing.) 
 
 In the insects of this order, inferior in numbers only to the 
 Beetles, the nervure^i or veins of the wings, form the basis of 
 numerous sub<divisions. The wings differ from those of the 
 Neuroptera in beihg of a less delicate construction, and having 
 fewer nervures. The mandibles are distinct, but better fitted for 
 imbibing nourishment by suction than by mastication; the body 
 is of a hard consistehce ; the antennse are variable, but for the 
 most part slender, showing twelve artiiiul'atitins in the male, and 
 thirteen in the female ; the tarsi are generally pentamerous or 
 five-jointed. Thesfe insects are also peculiarly (distinguished by 
 the prolongation of the body in the case of the females, into ah 
 organ which in some is a stingj in cithers an ovipositor, ririnstru- 
 ment fol^ depositirig Ihte eggs — ^^usually having the pdwer of bor- 
 ing a hollow for their reception. The Hymenoptera are 
 among the most reniarkaHe of the class, for their instinctive fao- 
 'jilties, their social 'qiaaWties and habits, and their powers of loco- 
 rtiotion. The Bess,' the Wasps, the AntSj the Saw. flies, the'Ich- 
 Metjmons and the Gall-flies have, from the remotest periods, been 
 objects of attentiop to the observers of fttiture. 
 i The oi^der is 'sometimes arranged into two sections, viz. : the 
 TEREBRA.NTIA, in which the female has a saw or borer fiirthe 
 depdsition of eggs ; and the Ac(Jleata, in which the abdomen 
 of the females and neuters is possessed of a sting, which is con- 
 nected with a poison reservoir. The former section includes 
 seven families j the latter seventeen. 
 
 Teeebr*nti* — Borers. 
 
 The Saw-flies, TenihrediitidoB, (Gr. Tenthredon, from tentho, 
 to gnaw,) are the only ones of the order which have feet. The 
 larvsB feed upon leaves or vegetable matter. The ovipositor of 
 the ferpale: appears to combine the properties of a saw and file. 
 The Saw,flyj tr«n/;ftre^o., is also named Cimiex ulmi, (Lat. of an 
 elm.) because it inhabits the Elnj. 
 
 The Wood- Wasps, or Horn -Tails, TJroceridte, ({torn Gr. oura, 
 a tail ; keras, a jiorn,) are a family of insects which often do great 
 mjachieif to fruit trees and also to forest trees, especially resin- 
 ous ones. 'ITie females haye an ovipositor in the form of a slen- 
 der horn, consisting of five pieces— rtwo outside grooved and 
 forming a hollow tube ; ^he other and iriner pieces are hee- 
 dies, with which the trunks of trees are pieifced to maike a 
 
618 HYMENOPTEEA. 
 
 place of deposit for the eggs. The grub-like larvae burrow in 
 the greefi solid matter of trees and eat the wood. 
 
 The IcHNEtTMON-FLiES, Ichneumonidm, (Gr. ichneumon,) have 
 narrow bodies and rather long antenna; the feet are long and 
 adapted for running, and the ovipositor is .straight. These insects 
 fly and move about in a restless manner, keeping their antennas 
 'in a constant vibratory motion. They perform a useful part in 
 preventing an undue multiplication of Moths and Butterflies, 
 upon-the larvae of which these flies deposit their eggs, but through 
 so small an opening as not to check the growth of the larvae. 
 When the larva passes into the pupa state, the eggs of the ich- 
 neumon hatch, and the progeny feed upon it, so that, in the end, 
 instead of a butterfly, there cdmes forth a brood of ichneumons. 
 This is a very numerous family, including thousands of species. 
 The Gall-flies, C.ynipideB, (genus Cynips,) are a small family 
 of insects, the larvae of which are parasitic in plants, where they 
 cause the excrescences called gaZ&. .1 
 
 The family EvaniideB, (genus Evania,) includes the Ameri. 
 CAN Hatchet Wasp, Pelecinus (Lat. a hatchet) politrupaior, 
 (Lat. a furbisher or polisher,) (see Chart,) which is seen by the 
 road sides in the fall of the year, flying, slowly, as if borne down 
 by its long and slender abdomen. 
 
 The Snake Wasps, Ophidion, (from Gr. ophis, a serpent,) (see 
 Chart,) of which there are several species, have the abdomen 
 three times as lodg as the thorax, and the antennae nearly the- 
 length of the insect, which is about one inch. This wasp is seen 
 late in the summer or the beginning of, autumn, hovering over 
 brambles, &c., looking after caterpillars as a place of deposit for 
 its eggs. The genus Evania is parasitic in ship Cockroaches. 
 
 aculeata-stingeks. 
 
 The Spider Wasps, Sphecidee, (geiius Sphex, Gr. a wasp,) 
 have an elongated body; the abdomen is attached by a long, 
 slender peduncle, (see fig. on Chart,) and armed with a stiiig. 
 These wasps are extremely active and difficult to capture. 
 In the perfect, state, they suck the fluids of flowers, but the 
 larvae are furnished with animal food by the adult. 
 , The Wasps, Vespidm, (genus Vespa, Lat. aA*'a|lp,)likethebe^, 
 include males, females and workers. Like the bees also, they 
 are social and dwell in small communities, though there are 
 some solitary species, among which no neuters are found. The 
 Wasps and Horpets are natural paper makers, societies of them 
 
HYUENOPTEBA. 619 
 
 living, during summer, in nests divided into hexagonal cells, 
 opening., downwards, formed of paper-like material, which is 
 impervious to water. During a season, two or three broods are 
 raised successively/in the .same set of cells. The nests may be 
 seen on trees, so|netimes from twelve to sixteen inches in diame- 
 ter. The small " Yellow Jackqts," as they are termed, build 
 under ground. 
 
 The Paper- Wasp, J'olistes (Gr. the founder pr chief of a 
 state,) /Macflto, (Lat. swarthy,) either fastens its comb to the 
 branch of a tree, or to the shelving parts of a house. 
 
 The Paste-board Wasps, Chartergus, (Gr. paper-work,) make 
 their nests of a solid and rather thick paste-board. Their struc 
 tures have been seen in Pennsylvania, but are more common in 
 South America. , 
 
 The Common Hornet, (Plate XV. fig. 12,) V. crahro, (Lat. a 
 hornet,) is considerably l?irger and more ^rmidable than the 
 Wasp, building its nests in decaying hollow trees, or beneath 
 their roots, and in timber yards, or under the eaves of barns, etc. 
 Its sting, as is well known, often produces serious consequences. 
 
 The Large American Hornet, V. maculata, (Lat. spotted,) 
 often enters houses to catch flies. 
 
 The, Akt?, Fonnicidffi, (/ormica, an. ant,) a well known and 
 interesting family, to be distinguished, however, frpni the White 
 Ants already described, as belonging to another order. In addi- 
 "tion to the males and females, which form a sni^ll part in any 
 community of ants, and which are alone furnished, with wings, 
 there &re ,nev-ters, or workers, by which the labors are chiefly 
 performed,, i^ot only constructing the nests, but feeding and tak- 
 ing care, of the young grubs. These alon^.survive the winter, 
 in our climate . remaining torpid during that season ; but it is 
 otherwise with them in the torrid zones. ■There'they are active, 
 night and day, during the entire year ; to these the words of , 
 inspiration, (Proverbs vi.,) have particular reference, — so inde- 
 fatigable is their industry — that to them the indolent and inactive 
 may well be pointed for lessons of instruction. '.' Go to the ant, 
 thou sluggard, consider her ways and be wise." 
 
 The Red Ahis, Formica rubra, construct their nests upon the 
 branches of trees. These are sa,id to be the only ones which 
 feed upon their own species. Extremely lively represeptations 
 have been given of the wars sometimes carried ,on between two 
 or three Ant-cities, equal in size and population, and situated at 
 a,bout one hundred paces from each other. 
 
 Of this ant aminute species, Myrmica domesiica, is found in com- 
 panies, either und^r stones, ot els^ ija old galls upon oak shrubs, 
 
620 BYMBNOnEKA. 
 
 which th«y enter by the opening that is made when the Cynips 
 leaves. • A fevf of these, which have large heads, 'appear to be 
 the workers. These ants often swarm in houses. 
 
 The Slave-makins or Rufescent Ants, F. rufescens, make 
 war upon other ants, for the sole purpose- of propuring slaves to 
 labor for them. Most of the slave dealers are reddish, while 
 those who are captured to become their servants are black. Be- 
 sides adults, however^ larvse and pupse are seized, and brought 
 up by their captors, commencing their labors when they reach 
 their perfect state ; yet their masters do some part of the work. 
 According to Westwood, the large Yellow Ant of the United 
 States, makes slaves of the Black Ants. 
 
 Certain AntS, called Cow-Keepers, are very fond of the 
 liquid matter which is given out by the Aphides, or Plant-lice, 
 and actually attend upon these "Honey-flies," as Swainson calls 
 them, for the purpose of obtaining it. They even have the 
 power of making them yield it at their pleasure, by patting the 
 abdomen of the ^/)fc's alternately on each side; and thusthey 
 " milk their cows." They are called " Cow-keepers," Tor the 
 reason that they sometimes seem to claim a right to the Aphides 
 inhabiting a particular branch or stalk, and resist the approach 
 of strangers. To rescue the " CoWs " from their rivals, they 
 will take the Aphides into their mouths, keep guard around them, 
 sometimes enclose a certain ngmber in a tube of earth, or other 
 materials near their nests, so that they may be always at hand 
 to supply them with the desired food. The most remarkable 
 Cow-keeper is the Yellow Ant, F.flava, of Gould, which secures 
 within the common nest, a large number of Honey.fiies of the 
 species Aphis radieum, (Lat. of roots,) which derives its food 
 chiefly from the roots of grass and other plants. The Yellow 
 Ants, it is said, bestow upon these little creatures care and solic- 
 itude equal to that which they give to their own ofl'spring. In 
 India, the honey-like secretion which the Aphides cast upon the 
 ground, is so abundant in quantity that the natives collect it when 
 dry, and sell it in the country bazaars as a sweetmeat. The 
 honey, it is said, may be kept for seven or eight years, without 
 losing its sweetness. In Brazil, the insects not only furnish ants 
 with milk, but, ruminant-like, have horns growing out of their 
 heads ; and hence are called the "cattle " of the ants. 
 
 The Driver Ants, of South Africa, according to the observa- 
 tions of Dr. T. S. Savage, an American missionary to that re- 
 gion, include in their communities. Neuters, Soldiers,^ Workers, 
 and Carriers. These do not construct nests, but live tempora- 
 rily in crevices, sometimes "ranging about in vast armies," and 
 
btmenoftska; 621 
 
 when they enter houses, causing rats, lizards, &c., and even 
 man himself to flee. They travel at night or in cloudy weather, 
 as the direct rays of the sun are almost immediately fatal to 
 them. "I know of no insect," says Dr. Savage, "more fero- ' 
 cious and determined upon victory. It may literally be said 
 they are against everything, and everything against them. 
 ' Conquer or die,' is their motto." They are useful in keeping 
 down the more rapid increase of other noxious insects, and also in 
 consuming much dead animal matter. 
 
 The Solitary Bees, Andrenidce, consist only of males and 
 females. The species of the genus Andrena, are quite numer- 
 ous. They make their appeartinCe in the early spring and sum- 
 mer months, and have very much the appearance of Hive-bees. 
 The females collect pollen from the stamens of flowers, rather 
 by means of the general hairiness of the body than with the pos- 
 terior tarsi. They burrow in the ground in sandy districts, 
 especially, if exposed to the sun, often to a considerables depth. 
 
 Of the Bees proper, Apidm, (Lat. apis, a bee,) there are sev- 
 eral groups, differing from each other, to some extent, in their 
 qiialities and habits. The Ptjmble (Bumble) Bees, Bombus, 
 (from Gr. bomhos, a humming or buzzing.) construct their nests 
 under ground, in ifields and pastures. The females, which are 
 unlimited as to numberj assist the neuters in working. The 
 larger females alone survive the winter, and in the first fine 
 days of spring, construct their cells, and rear a brood of workers, 
 which, in due time, assist in the construction of new cells. The 
 honey which these bees collect, ie of an inferior kind, and their 
 wax is jiot so clean, or so capable of fusion as that of the True 
 Honey-Bees. They are thought to live about ten years. 
 
 The Mason Bees, Megachile, {Gr. great lips or jaw^) /nwra^ia, 
 (Lat. from murus, a wall,) build their cells by agglutinating 
 grains of sand and gravel. 
 
 The Upholster Bees, M. papaveris, (Lat of a poppy.) line 
 the holes which they excavate for their young in the earth, with an 
 elegant coating of leaves or flowers, preferring, for this purpose, 
 the brilliant scarlet furnished by the leaves of the wild poppy. 
 The species M. centuncularis, (from Lat. centunculus, patch- 
 work,) coat their dwelling with the leaves of trees. 
 
 The Carpenter Bees, Xyclopa, (Gt. Xulon, ^frood ; Ifcopto, to 
 cut,) bore with great labor out of solid wood, long cylindrical 
 tubes, and divide thpm into various cells, in which the young are 
 placed with a quantity of poUenrpaste. 
 
 The Violet Carpenter Bee, X violacea, is common about 
 Paris, and in the gardens of Southern Europe. Among these 
 
622 BYMJENOFIERA. 
 
 bees, the females perform all.the labor; the males have no stings. 
 The species X. viclima, is found in the United States, and bores 
 in the lower surface of white-pine structures. 
 
 But the most important, and, indeed, the most interesting of the 
 family, is the Common Hive Bee, Apis mellijica, (Lat. mel,, 
 honey ; facio, to make.) The Hive includes three kinds ; the 
 Female; the Male or Drone; and the Worker, (see Chart for 
 figures showing the relative^^size, &c., of each.) The bees col- 
 lect honey, pollen, and propolis, feeding their young with the 
 former two, and using the latter for filling up crevices in their 
 cells, and for the needed repairs. The wax is secreted by the 
 \yorkers, and appears between the segments of the lower side of 
 the abdomen, in the form of small scales. 
 
 Every hive is under the government of the Queen Bee. She 
 is lady paramount, and suffers no other queen to share her do- 
 minion. At the swarming season, the old queen becomes so 
 sadly disturbed by the encroachments of the young queens, that 
 she rushes forth from the hive, attended by a large body of her 
 subjects; thus, the first swarm is formed. In seven or eight 
 days afterwards, the queen next in age departs, also taking with 
 her a supply of subjects. When all the swarms have left the 
 original hive, the remaining queens fight until one gains the 
 throne. The Queen Bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs. 
 About eight hundred of these prove males or drones, and four or 
 five queens; the remainder are workers. The cells are six- 
 sided. Those in which the drones are hatched, are much larger 
 than the cells of the ordinary working bees. The royal cells 
 are much larger than any others, and are of an oval shape. 
 When a worker larva is placed in a royal cell, and fed in a 
 royal manner, it imbibes the " principles of royalty," and becomes 
 a queen accordingly. This practice is resorted to if the Queen 
 Bee die, and there be no other queen to take her place. 
 
 The form of the cells is such as to afford the greatest space 
 and strength, with the least amount of material. How the bees 
 are enabled to give them this form, unless by a divinely im- 
 planted instinct, it is difficult to tell. Three figures will admit 
 the junction of their sides without vacant spaces between them, 
 viz : the square, the equilateral triangle, and the hexagon, the 
 last being the strongest and most convenient. And this is the 
 very form in which the bees build their cells. The bottom of 
 each cell, on one side, meets three on the other, and is supported 
 by the divisions between them ; and it is formed by three plates 
 that meet at an angle, which profound mathematical investigation 
 demonstrated to be the very angle which combines the greatest 
 
LEFIDOFTERA. 623 
 
 Strength with the least material. Kirby^ and Spence say, — 
 -" Maraldi calculated that the great angles were 109o 28', and 
 the smaller ones 70o 32'; and Kdnig calculated that they ought 
 to be 109o 26', and 70o 34', to obtain the greatest strength with 
 any given amount of material." But subsequent examination 
 showed that the bees were right and Kbnig wrong. 
 
 Eighth Oedek. Lepidoptera. (Gr. isTrts, lepis, a scale; 
 meqov, pteron, a wing.) 
 
 These insects, comprehending, perhaps, one- fourth or one-sixth 
 of the entire tribe, have a suctorial mouth and rudimentary man- 
 dibles. Their metamorphosis is complete. The beautiful Butter- 
 flies are the representatives of this order, and also of all those 
 winged visitants that flit about our lamps during the evenings of 
 summer; the one, are diurnal; the other nocturnal. They all 
 have four membranous wings, usually covered with minute scales ; 
 the mouth is suctorial, consisting of a tubular thread-like organ, 
 which, when not in use, is rolled into a compact spiral coil; 
 their bodies are soft and covered with hair; the feet are penta- 
 merous, (have. the tarsi five-jointed;) generally, they are hairy 
 and of equal length; though sometimes the front 'pair are so 
 small as to be of no use in walking. The Lepidoptera feed upon 
 the juice of flowers, but, in the perfect state, they, sometimes 
 need none. They may be arranged into three great divisions: 
 (1) the Butterflies Proper, Papilicmidm, (Papilio,) which have 
 thread-like antennas and bear a knob, (Plate XV. fig. 13;) (2) 
 the Sphingidce, {Sphinx,) or the Hawk-ftJoths, which have the 
 antennae, thick in the middle, and at the tip often hooked; (3)' 
 the Moths (in general) having the antennee somewhat naked, of 
 bristle form, or else feathered on the sides. 
 
 I. The Butterflies Proper include at least three hundred spe- 
 cies, sometimes most gorgeously colored, of which large diurnal 
 ones are found in the United States. The Butterfly, P. iumus, is 
 one of the most conimon species; in its markings and forms, re- 
 sembling the P. machaon, or Swallow-tailed Butterfly of Europe. 
 (See Cjhart.) 
 
 Cabbage Butterflies, Pontia, (Gr. a sea-green surface,) 
 Brassica, {hat. cabbage.) These ate common arid destructive 
 in our gardens. (Plate XV. fig.' 13.) The eggs are yellowish 
 and laid on the under side of cabbages, turnips and radishes ; the 
 pale green worms come out in about a week, and attain their" 
 full size of an inch and a half^ in three weeks. 
 
 The Haie Streaks, genus Thecla, derive their name from the 
 28 * 
 
624 tEFiCOFTEBA. 
 
 delicate, Straight, or zig-zag lin^s on the under side of the rings. 
 Some species frequent hedges, others the oak and aSh trees. 
 
 "The NymphalidcE, {Nympha, a nymph,) include many beauti. 
 fgl Butterflies, called Red and 'White Admirals, Painted LAbiES, 
 Frittelaries, the front legs of which appear incomplete, but in 
 their ability for strong flight, they are more than compensated for 
 the deficiency of their feet. The genus Vanessa includes many 
 species, of which "V. lo, Peacock Butterfly, is pictured on tlie 
 Chart. 
 
 The ToKToiSE-SHELL Butterfly, V. urticce, (Lat. of a nettle,) 
 nearly resembles the Peacock Butterfly. The Caterpillers live in . 
 societies, changing their skins frequently, and constructing a new 
 tent on another part of the plalit at each moult, until the last, when 
 each individual feeds by itself, and the society is dissolved. 
 
 The Skippers, HesperiidiB, (leading genus Hesperia,) have 
 the four hind shanks furnished with two pairs of spurs. They 
 have a jerking kind of flight, from which their popular name is 
 derived ; and in many respects, they approach the moths. 
 
 The TiTYRUs Skipper, Eudamus iityrus, often strips the locust 
 tree of its foliage. It forms its habitation of the leaves of that 
 tree bound together by silken threads, and also feeds upon its 
 leaves. 
 
 II. The Hawk-Moths, SphifigidtB, (leading genus SpMtuc,) are 
 also named Humming-Birds, being capable of flying for a long 
 time, and of poising themselves in the air, like the Humming- 
 Bird. (See Chart for figures of SjiMnxligustri, or Privet-Hawk. 
 Moth, in the larva, pupa, and imago or perfect state.) Many 
 beautiful species of Hawk-Moths are seen on fine summer 
 evenings. The Philampelus, ' (Gr. vine-lover,) Satellitia, is of 
 this family, (for figure of which see Chart.) 
 
 III. Moths. 
 
 . The TiGER-MoTHS, Arctiida, (Arctia,) have thefeelers and 
 tongue usually short and thick, and the antennae doubly feath. 
 ered; both the Caterpillars and Moths are downy. They fly 
 only at night. The family includes diflferent genera, but we 
 can only name the American Tiger-Moth, A, virgo, o{ a pink 
 red color, with two oentrtl, ^fiangular spots, and other markings ; 
 and the Great- Tiger Moth, A caja, (see Chart.) an English 
 insect, but one that is representpd in the A. Americana, which it 
 closely resembles. The latter has the base of the fore wings 
 marked with white hranching spots, which partly resemble a 
 cross; the wing beiycind the middle is also marked With a white 
 irrogular cross, something like an X. 
 
BB»IFa»BA> 635 
 
 The SiEE-WoSMS, iBowJyeKiiie, (teadiftg igeniis Bemhp;,) repi- 
 resent sortie of the largest affld-'most beautifol species bf) nocturnal 
 Butterflies; among which is the jl«aoMSZiBna,<SrGiiEEN Emperor 
 MbTH, which is about five inchies in the expa-nse of wings, (see 
 Chart;) the Caterpillar is Also of a bluish green e'olor; when in 
 motion, tht'ee inches in length, and in feeding, preferring the 
 leaves of the hickory. For figures of the Bomhyx mdri^ or Silk- 
 Worfti in its^difierent Stagfes, see Chait. The larvae have sixteen 
 feet, — i-feed upon leaves; and spin the silken cocoon out of a 
 single thread, with the' assistance of a gummy matter,- which soon 
 hardens. Other species than th^ Bomhyx mati, (Lat. of the mul- 
 berry,)are reared for the silk, and more of it might be obtained, 
 if warm wateir dissolved the gum of the cocoon, as it does in the 
 true Silk- Worm. The Tineida, (^Tinea,) are the smallest Moths 
 in the section. These infest woolens, furs, etc The test way 
 10 protect «ueh articles figainst these Moths, is to put them to- 
 getherivith tobacco-leaves, camphor, or turpentine, in a tight bagi.. 
 early in the Spring, before the eggs of this insect are laid. 
 
 The HoNEy-coMB Moth, T. cerella, (Lat. from cera. wax,) is 
 notoirious for its depredations upon the wax of the Bee-Hive. 
 
 The Leaf-RoIlERs, TortriciSm, ( Tortrix, i.e., twister or roller,) 
 comprehend many species of ihsedls, the larvae of Whidh do great 
 damage to the fruit of apple 'and tiie foliage of forest trees. The 
 larvae of the Carpocapsa, (Gr. fruit-eater,) ^owone'^Jat (Lat. from 
 pomum, fruit, apples, &o.,) known as the Apple- Worm, came to 
 this country with the apple, and this worm has become natural, 
 ized among us. , ■ - , 
 
 Ninth Oedee. Hemiptera, (Gr. '»?/t«fo-i/s, Aewwito, ]nalf ; irtagdv, 
 pteron, wing.) 
 
 This order is distingiiished by having the rostrum or jaw 
 compounded, i. e., formed for piercing and sucking. ; The insects 
 whicli it includes, live upon vegetables and animal juices, those 
 feeding upon vegetables being the most numerous. ; The name 
 Hemiptera, first used by Linnaeus, refers to a characteristic of 
 some of the order in having a tbiekbDing on the basal part of the 
 anterior wings, while the ofther pant is thin' and transparent. 
 Others apply to it the term Mhyntkdtdf (Gr. ^liunclm, beak ot 
 gape.) Having re'fer'enoe to the dhariacter of the- moUth. The 
 toetawiorphosis m this order is only semi-complete, both : the 
 lai'va-Bud pupa being -active, and,'at'«tll times, taking food. 
 
 The ' ordarviiiiiGlvdes two sections, Viz: MewQpt:era, (Gr., like- 
 wiiBgs,)3nd Het6i!Oiptei»^:(£cividiffiei9Bnt wilii^t)^in tite first of 
 
62S EEMIFT£BAi 
 
 which the wingsiiare of a trtiifotm; itj the second, of a varied 
 texture. (To the section Hbmopteiiai, Latreill^i gives, the namQ 
 Hemiptera, while Leach, calls it Omoptera.) — Westwood divides 
 the Homoptera, which he considers a, distinct order, into three 
 sections, viz: ,Trimera,i (Gr; .three partSj.) Dimera, (two parts,) 
 Monomera, (one part or division,) — these terms having reference 
 to the divisions of "the tarsi ; and the Heteroptera into, two sec 
 tions, Hydrocorisa, (residents of water,) and Aurocsorise, (resi^ 
 dents of air.) 
 
 Of the Homopterous division,, having the four wings all of a 
 firm membraneous texture, are the Bark-uce, oi: Scai-e-insects, 
 Cocddee, (typ. gen. Coccus.), (Plate XV. fig. 14.) -.Of th?se 
 there are several species, — found on the leaves and bark of dift 
 ferent plants. The Coceui cacti (of the cactus,) is, on account 
 of its beautiful crimson color, used as a qoloring-matter. . It is, a 
 native of Mexico,'and feeds upon a particular kind; of Cactus, 
 called Indian-fig, and extensively cultivated, for, the express pur- 
 pose of rearing it. The annual amount of Cochineal exported 
 to ;£urope is, according to Humboldt, eight hundred thousand 
 pounds; and it requires about seventy thousand insects to make 
 a pound. Lao or Shell-lac, employed for making sealing-wax, 
 is the product of a species of Coccus. The Mealy-Bug, Coccus 
 adonidum, (of Adonises or flowers,) found ;in hot-houses, is red- 
 dish^ but covered, with a white, powder-like substance. The 
 Coccidce. belong toWestwiood's Monoraera. 
 
 The , Plant- LICE, : or 'V'lae.-ir&iiers, AphidcR, (leading genus 
 Aphis,) infest the roots of vegetables, (often doing them great 
 injury,) and also the leaves of most plants, such as roses, asters, 
 apples, pears, peaches, cabbages, &c.,-7-each plant having ita 
 own peculiar species. " Their'bodies are soft,' of' an oval form 
 and have upon the abdomen two tufts or pores. The females 
 are usually wingless; but not always. The upper wings corres- 
 ponding to the wing-covers in the Hemiptera, Proper,, are the 
 larger and lised for flight or as aids in leaping. To the prolific 
 powers' of the Plant-lice reference ha? ah-eady been made. A 
 young leaf that curls, or that has an uflhealthy appearance, is 
 probably' infested with these lice. Fumes ofitobacoo, turpentine 
 or sulphur, are a remedy against. them, and also against the 
 Mealy-Bug«, The ApUdeehaX^ag to the JDimera. 
 
 The Woot-FLY, or the Apple-tree-blight, Eriosoma, (Gr. erion, 
 wool ; soma, body,) is an insect of a woolly appearance ; without 
 wings,, but wafted from tree to tree by its cotton envelope. Its 
 microsoopio eggs,— covered with the same soft, downy substance 
 as (he bcdy), are found ia the crotches aad cWkB of Uees, where 
 
BEKIFTEEA. iSS? 
 
 they hatch; and produce the Apple-tree-blight. THS wounds of 
 this: insect produce warts ajid exftrescences 6n the surface of the 
 trees, and finally result in its death. ■ " 
 
 The. Jttmping Plant- lice, PsyllidkB,'{iPsylla, ' Gr. PsAlla, a 
 gnat,) are similar to the Plant-'lice, but- more active. These are 
 dimerous ; they have ' ten' articulated antennae, and the ' femsiles 
 have an ovipositor. ■ ' ' ' 
 
 , The .LANTEKN-FLiESjVFwZgOMdis, (i^M/^oru, Lat. frotn ftil^eo, 
 to shine,) include a number of trihieroiis spfecies of 'tright cblbrs 
 and large size. Manyof them have a euriOus prolongation of 
 the foredieadjisometlmeisnearly as large as the rest'of the body. 
 Whether they are luminous or noU is a point not positively set- 
 tled. ■They "probably give but light at particular seasons. The 
 e^eoifa F.cand^lckiiii^dX. from candela, a candle,)iS'yellow, and 
 the elytra black, marked with yellow spots. It is said a Chinese 
 edict iexists against young 'ladies'- keeping Lantern-flies. 
 .: The; Harvest- Flies, CicadidiBi {Cicada,) are distinguished by 
 thcSir robust body, their large and triangular head,' with three 
 stemmata, their prominisnt' eyes ^! the antenh^ short atid thin, 
 with six articulations, and, usually, by large tran'^pareiit wings. 
 The; Harvestrflies are! (rimerous.'-' They hii'We'long been partic- 
 ularly; notJoed. on adcount of the noise made by the male, differ, 
 ing in different species. The species' which has attracted most 
 attentiobj is G. septendecim, (Lati Sevfenteen,) the Se'v'enteen 
 Yeaks Locust, which often does very great damage' to trees. 
 The female, with her ovipositor,' inserts her eggs'in their tender 
 branchies, which causes them to die, so that the tops of the forests, 
 sometimes, on jtbis ^account, look as if 4hey had been scorched' by 
 fire. ; Mi^ M. A. Morris- has ascertaibed that trees al^b' suffer 
 miic^ifrqni tbeiiZarvis of: th^se- locusts, 'iVhiCh penetrate six inches 
 under, grouhdjiaiid reach:th^"mdts.'' 'She says further, that the 
 larvae are destroyed by those miners, the' MoleS. ■ 
 , -Tiie DoG-DAr HARvBST-FL'Vi Cj cote'cwZam, (Lat. frbm eanicula, 
 the ,dog^tar,)t-i-according to the obSerration 'of Mr. ETarris, has, 
 for many years in suCcessicfn,' beeii regularly heard at Ctirn- 
 bridge,; on- the twenty.flfth day of July; between the hours of ten 
 in the forenoon andtwo in the afternoon. Its body, is thicket 
 and' proportionably shbrter 'than that 'of ■ the Seventeen- Years 
 Locust,'' )butits habits are' qiaitelsiinilar.' ' • •■■-•■''■^ ' • 
 
 The HETElioPTftftA; w;fiioih;hA'v'6 the u'ppbr Willis partly thic|t, 
 and partly. thin;' JftdJUJte^sgv'eV^lfalniilies.'' ^Aiiiong thebfe are thfe 
 
 Notonectida, (Gr. back-swimmers,) the True Watert-Bugs, 
 (Hydrocorisa,)— named from their habit of swimming with the 
 back below. These, from the peculiar appearance of the body, 
 
$39 sxmatmnA. 
 
 t^Tfi spmetitnesr called Boat-; ifliest The hind feet are long and' 
 fringed) held out when at rest, like a pair of oars, and used like 
 them in swimming. The lar^ise aad, puipEe differ from tfeei perfect 
 ps^ct only in their smaller size and' the absenae of wings. 
 
 H^pm^tridfB^, Water-Mbasurebs, or Skippers, (Aurooorisa.) 
 These live I on the;Sur,faQe of standing or running waters, and 
 sometimes move with great rapidity. 
 
 Tbi^ boat-shaped insects Qf titSt genua Hjfdrometrai (Gi*. hudor, 
 water,;'.m«i7f>i;,, measure,) are furnished with forei feet suited to 
 locipMnotioii,, , Thei^g.move over the water rather slowly. Their 
 larvsp have the ahdp^nen extremely stnall, which is also true of 
 the; Oceanic Halobates, (Gr. halst the sea; baitio, to gOj) which 
 secerns tO; confirm the general idea of Agassiz, (^ee our account 
 p^the. Tu,rtl^8;i) tiiat fresh- water forms are of higher gjrade than 
 the;;CTjrine|..' , . - ■ 
 
 EeduviideBi (Genus Reduvius.) Thes8< avei anotfaer family< 
 of Skippers* which; are, active and predaceoua, their strong beak 
 or Tosl(rum enabling tberh to pierce inbeots that have a covering 
 t9lerahly. h^fd. The puncture; which ithey make is ^aidi to he 
 i^athpf ppisonou^. ; : ; 
 
 Qmieidcfi, or liiandBuga, (AuKjoorisa,) include the Bed-bugy 
 CiwP* ^«(:<»Za?Mjv(jsee; Chart;)) so odious, aodi so widely spread. 
 It i^ said fhjs bug was.,";ttqknown!:&J Ekiglaqd until afteir the 
 Grffpat Fire of London, in 16flS, when it wasi introduced in the 
 J5r,tiinher imported for rebuilding the city." - Westwobd^ how. 
 ever, asserts,, it was knflwni there, as eaarlyras 1503- 
 
 ,,CQWM?e?, (geinua C(Wffl!s.) Theaa auei small, elongated bugs, 
 fi^nd in smaSI, fnjits, some' of them of a red arid yellow color 
 •bgrderJDg the elytra and uppeir surface. Onife spe^s is ■ the 
 Scjir^SH-BuG common on the leaves; of the squash and pumpkin, 
 •WS>iph!lays its eggs, about the la^tiof June. Mt should be crushed 
 with the foot before that time* ; . t 
 
 §.c^telkri^.i (genua k&'iaeila.Htm) I. These insects derive 
 their f^ajijy ,nftme.from,lwvi:ii% tlie, ecutelllim, (dimi of saw^mva 
 shield,) so large as to cove?; tb0 aihdomea and wingsi These are 
 the b^g?, of uppleasw* swwU;! found , on strawberi<y-vinMi. and 
 other ib^ripa,: ,adme,,0f; fhera arieiafopv* the medium stie of in. 
 seot^ aijid npt,, a feW;;?ire, clothed ini ; bright colorsi, Those; of the 
 genus Pentatoma, (Gr. iiy^seetionsj) are anjotigi the i most com- 
 mon. Like others jpf, the family, they seenete an ifUscented 
 flHid., TM anteniMB ata divided into five JQintSji-hwienoe the 
 nanap., 
 
SIFTEBA. 629 
 
 Tenth Oedeb. Diptera, (Gt. *»?, dis, twice or two; ma^v, 
 pteron, wing.) 
 
 These insects are distinguished by the possession of only two 
 wings and a pair of small knobbed appendages, (as in the com- 
 mon fly and the musquitd,) called halterers or poisers. The 
 wings are membranous, ahd, without any covering, except a few 
 hiair-like spales, which, in some species, appear at the base. 
 They are never folded upon themselves, remaining expanded 
 when at rest, as in the insects of the preceding order. Their 
 nervation is quite different from that exhibited in the other orders. 
 The mouth is suctorial, and in many, has a fleshy proboscis, that 
 encloses lancets capable, of penetrating flesh, or the softer parts 
 of vegetables. In a few genera, as the Oestrus or Gad-fly, the 
 inouth is closed. These insects are all small; but what is 
 wanting in size' is made up in numbers. They are every 
 where, and also are atteildants upon man, — sometimes to his 
 great annoyance ; but it should be remembered, they are highly 
 useful in cleansing the earth's surface' of impurities, both animal 
 and vegetable. In this order the transformations are imperfect. 
 The pupae sometimes take the incomplete form, — shaving the 
 limbs visible, and without a cocoon. The larvae aVe white and 
 flqshy, cylindrical in shape, and without feet. They are seen 
 in, carrion and in galls; or in living caterpillars; and sometimes 
 among vegetables pickled- with vinegar, and in the brine of salt 
 works. We can only refer to some of the more conspicuous 
 families. 
 
 I . CuUcidts, represented by thegenus Cukx. (Latra gnat.) This 
 family inbludes the numerous Gnats and Musqjiitoes, C. pipiens, 
 (Lat. peeping.) distinguished by the tufted antenree of the males. 
 ' The pupse of these are active ; the larvae are inhabitants of water; 
 hence, th^se insects are abundant, chiefly in damp situations. 
 Mankind are attacked by the female gnats alone; the lancets of 
 the mouth being in the males fewer and weaker. These insects 
 la,y two or three hundred eggs in stagnant water, joined together 
 so as to form a little raft floating upon the, water, where they 
 hatch in about three days, producing small greenish vvornns, that 
 in fifteen.days become the wrigglers of open rain-water casks and 
 stagnant pools, breathing, through the tail, and darting first one 
 way, and then another. From- this pupa state, they emerge as 
 full-grown Musquitoes, Gnats, Midges, dzc^, breathing, through 
 openings in the sides, and ready to, pierce the flesh, suck the 
 blood, and instil their inflammatory poispn into, the Wouods made 
 by their pqiated prQboscis.;-^four, or ^ ve generations may l)a 
 
630 DIPTERA. 
 
 produced in a summer. A few small fish kept in a cistern or 
 open water cask, destroy the larvae of the gnats as fast as they 
 hatch, and prove a sure defence against these annoying insects, 
 so far as this source is concerned. 
 
 In warm clim&tes, these insects are a serious trouble ; it there 
 becomes indispensable to protect beds against them'at night by a 
 netting of gauze, called a Musquitd-bar. 
 
 2. TipulidcB, (hat.tipula, a vvater-spinner,) known as the Daddy- 
 long-legs. These, in their slender body and ^feet, considerably , 
 resemble the gnats. Their antennae have, usually, from fourteen 
 to sixteen articulations. Among them are found the insects 
 which do the most serious injury to the crops of the farmer. 
 These are represented in the semis Cecidomyia, including the 
 Hessian-fly, C. destructor, (Lat. destroyer;) the Wheat-fly, 
 the pest of wheat-fields, C. tritici, (Lat of wheat;) the Willow- 
 Fly, C. salicis, (Lat. of a willow,) — found in a reddish gall upon 
 low willow-bushes. 
 
 The Wheat Midge Parasitr, Platygaster, (Gr. broad- 
 belly,) tipulce, (Lat. of the tipula,) — ^a minute fly, somewhat je- 
 sembling the Winged Ant, — pei'fortns the part of a public bene, 
 factor, by depositing its eggs in the larvae of the Wheat-midge,— 
 (a single egg in each,) and thus preventing' the development of 
 great multitudes of them in the perfect form, though, like some 
 other benefactors, it has been charged with committing the very 
 injuries which it has instrumentally limited. There have been 
 collected in Europe twenty thousand species of insects preying 
 on wheat. 
 
 3. Muscida, ({iat. musca, a fly.) This is a well known and 
 numerous family, as may be inferred from the fact that not much 
 short of eighteen hundred species are described as existing in 
 Europe alone, which is probably not half the entire number, 
 Meigen, a German, described six hundred species which he col- 
 lected in a distance of ten miles circumference. The type of 
 the family, is the common House-fly, (Musca domestical) h\iX 
 great diversity is exhibited in the habits of different species. 
 Among the various kinds, are the Flesh-flies, Sarcophaga, 
 (Gr, flpsh-feeding ;) the Cheese-flies, PrqpftiZa, (Gr. very fond,) 
 casei, (Lat. of cheese,) — the larvae of which (skippers) infest 
 cheese ; and the species, P. petasionis, (Lat. of gammon,) are 
 found in smoked bams. ■ 
 
 Plague-fly. During the prevalence of the Yellow Fever in 
 Norfolk, Ve)., not very long since, the Plague-fly, as it is called, 
 made its appearance there in large numbers. This is a flat in- 
 efect, With black back and red belly, and has very large wings. 
 
Its-pfeseno^^. during the time of p^lilence, is Regarded as a good 
 omfen; it beihg; supposed to dfevoup the malaria. M' ' 
 
 Bot-flies. 
 
 [^A.Q§sf,rid<z, (Lat. pesirMfl,,. ;a gad-bee,) fhe flies,-,of j this 
 family, the tervae of which are known by the name of l)Ots, 
 infest different quadrupeds; and a species ^foutid in Peru, as- 
 sails man himself. The -horse licks^them off: his coat; they 
 are then hatched by the warmth arid, moisture of ithe mouth, and 
 conveyed to the stomach ; sometime* they ai-e laid in the skinof 
 the ox, 'Antelope, etc., and on the head of .shddp.' They are 
 called' gastric, cutaneous, and cervical, according to the place in 
 which' they breed. From the O. Jo»i« "(bovis.Lat. of an ox,) oxen 
 run to the water for protection. > The' Oestrus tarandi depositaits 
 eggs under the skin of the Rein Deer. The presence'of these 
 insects occasions much annoyance' and terror to these and other 
 animals,: upon whom the larvee are deposited. 
 
 , Gap-flies. 
 
 5. raJfflMi^j(Lat. iaJanws, an ox-fly, or gad-fly.) This family 
 includes thff largests insects of the order, having prominent e^es, 
 and a mouth which, in the female, has six, and the' raale,'fbpr 
 
 ■ piercers. ■- Many of the perfect insects are greedy of flesh and 
 insects,. — and sorrie are so even 'in the larva- state... They often 
 become a great- pest to cattle-.- In Africa, it is said, even the 
 lion is afraid of them. The males of these insects draw their 
 
 . nourishment frpln flowers ; the females albne are blbbd-suckers. 
 
 v' ' ' , 
 
 Eleventh Oeder. Aphanipteea. (Gr. ttifavT\g, aphanes, not 
 lasinikai-, mBQbfi, pter on, wing.) ' 
 
 This Order includes the tribe of Fleas, Prilicidm, (Lat. pulex, 
 a flea,) having no proper wings, but simply two scales on each 
 side. ' All of them are very minute in size, and Mmilar in their 
 habits. In their perfect state^ they are parasitic..' The larvae of 
 Fleas, (Pulex irritans, (La». .provoking,) issue from the egg in 
 the form of very small worms, that attain their, full size in about 
 twelve days, and feed upon anirpal matter. In the silken cocoon 
 which they weave for themselves, they pass in i quiet the- pupa 
 state. The Chigoe, Jigger, &c., P. pertetrans, (Lat. pierrfng,) 
 is numerous in the West Indies and South America. ' It often 
 buries itself deeply in the sjcin, bpth of men and animals, depos. 
 iting an immense number of eggs, which, when hatched, are 
 extremely irritaUngi and sometimes produce uljs^rs and death. 
 
-882 ,,,#«?»»♦• 
 
 Agwinet these imeets, woimwo?^ is ;a<remfi4y«f For tiiistpr^r 
 Latreille propoaed the name Siphqwostoma, ,(Gi'. siphfan, tir 
 sucker-mouth.) 
 
 TWELFTH Ordee. APTEHlA, (Gr. ^nTBQog, 'a^teroii, windless.) 
 
 Thefe wingless insects LatreiUe arranges into ijvo oriJerSjT- 
 (1) THysANATTRA, (Gr. fttosonw, 'hairs ; iowrfl, tail,)— whitjh in. 
 eludes the S(mAa-iLioK,d5c.,.Ley84wJ<i«,(from ie;)M»ia, lascflle,) — 
 so named from their minute silver colored scales. They haye .a ' 
 rowofmovBfble appendages, jresembling false legs, on each side 
 of the abdomen, which is terminated by long joiated hairs or 
 bristles ; and also the SPBiNfi.tAiii.s, PoduridtB, .(from Podvm, 
 ;Gr. fous, a foot; oura,.a. tail,) that have the la'bdomen lengthened 
 into a forked tail, by which they are enabled to make surprising 
 
 .leaps. aSome .species are Ibund on trees or among moss j others 
 beneath stones, or, at the time of / a itbaw, they are i sometimes 
 seen hopping about on the snow. 
 
 (2) Parasita, which includes theiiifferent kinds of lice, Pedicu. 
 
 ■ Wdiasi (frbtii Lat. FedieubJtS, a ilouse^)— almost entirely destitute 
 of eyes, most prolific and most t disgusting ; — their very name 
 
 ..presents a warning against a want o\ cleanliness; also Bird-:lioe, 
 
 ; NirmidcB. which infest birds,, not feeding upon blood, ibgt ob" 
 taining their, food from the. leathers^ in, which they :areibuBd. 
 
 Which: is the 5i!icoNi)Sna-KiN.SD(m? 'Why.are tjieyso named? Hqw 
 do they difflfer frofla the ^ertebratesfind iMoUusks?' What is said of. their 
 skin, limbs and body? In which division is the articulated character of 
 these animals most conspicuous ? How is it In the Crustaceans, Spiders, 
 &c.? What is remarked qf their, muscles? Of what jnateiial is the.pkele- 
 ton' of most of them formed ? What is said of their muscular power"? In 
 what respects dd th^Se animals most resemble each other? Describe it. 
 W.^^t Is said qf their senses? Of their; digestive apparatus, &c.? Into how 
 ih'any Classes niay they te arrangeid? ' 
 
 •What is the Fifth Past of Zoologt P What is; the First CiiAss op M- ■ 
 ncoLATES? To what dpes the name, Insects refer? Of how ipanj sections 
 is the body HSjially oqnf posed ? What is said of thp .antennae ? JlQW many 
 legs and wings liave true Ipsecfe? 'Wnat contains the digestive oi'gans? 
 ' Bow is the breathing atdom^lish^d ? Describe the circulation arid nervous 
 system. What is said of tfie mouth ? What forms the inost striking peau- 
 Imiity? Whatisisaidof the eggs? When docsitha larva state ooijimenqe? 
 What is said of it as relateclta ^Iff^reQt inse<Hs!? Whtit is th^ third. stat$ ? 
 Name its modifications. Describe It as i presented in t)io different orders. 
 What is the Inspolln its last or pprfect state called? How dogs it differ 
 froti) the Insects as exi^Wg in 'the Other -states'? ' Can i insects long abstain 
 from food?' What facts 'illustrate thtir prolific , nature ? Where do they 
 
UTRIAFPDA. 093 
 
 riouB?, What ia said of.their locomotire powers? 0£ their oreans of 
 
 sense ? Are they all terrestrial ? 
 
 WhatiatheFiRsiORDEiioFlNSECTsr Whatissaid of its numbef? Of 
 ite various forms,, oplors,,iie.? What characters of this order are ^en? 
 What IS said of the Tiger Beetles? Give particulars respecting the other 
 families named? What is the Second 0«dbr? What characters are given? 
 In what two genera are its insects included? What is said of them? What 
 is the Tbud Order? In what other order are these insects sometimes in- 
 cluded? Why? How do- they differ from it? Describe the Earwigs. 
 What is the roDBiB Orpeb? Give its characters. Name the sections into 
 which the order has been divided. Upon what are they- founded? De- 
 scribe the families referred to. What is the Fifth Order? What genera 
 does it include ? Describe the wings of these insects. Why called Caddis- 
 flies ?^ What is the Sixth Order? What characters are given? How 
 many families is it said to include ? What is. said of the Dragon-flt ? Of 
 the Aht-lion? Of the May-flies? State particulars respecting the Ter- 
 mites. What is the Seventh Order ? What chaiacterjstics can you give ? 
 In what respects are these insects remarkable ? What two sections does 
 this order include? What is the chief peculiarity of each? What is said 
 of the Saw-flies ? Describe the different species of Wasps. Of Ants and 
 Bees. What is the EiaHiH Order? What are its lea,ding characteristics? 
 What division of insects does it include? What are its leading characteris- 
 tips ? Give some account of the Butterflies. Of the Hawk-Moths and 
 Moths Proper. What is the Ninth Ordkb? How is it distinguished? 
 What two sections does it include ? How are the Homoptera characterised ? 
 What is said of the Bark-lice? Of the PlantJice? Of the Harvest-flies or 
 CioadidsB ? . Of the Tree-hoppers? How are the Heteroptera characterised? 
 Describe the Families mentioned'. What is the Tenth Obdeb? Bow are 
 these insects distinguished, &c. ? Describe the families referred to. What 
 does the Eleventh'^Ordbb indud'e ? What is said of them? What is the 
 Twelfth Order? How does Latreille arrange it? What is Said of tb« 
 Sugar-lice? Of the Spring-tails? Of the Lice-Tribe? 
 
 SECTION II. ' 
 
 Second Glass. Mveiapoda, (6r. (ivglos, murios, innumerable ; 
 noOg, pous, a ifoot.) 
 
 The Articulates of this class occupy a 'position between in- 
 sects and worms. They agree with the Annelidans in the 
 lengthened extension of their trunk, ip the similarity of the seg. 
 ments from one end of the body to the other, and in their cylin- 
 drioal-form. They, however, have more complete eyes than 
 8,ny of .the Worms; and in their breathing apparatus and other 
 parts of thejr organization, are more like the Insects. From the 
 latter they differ in the absence of. wings, and in having the body 
 divided into a series of segments, each gf which is provided with 
 a pair of. legs. 
 
634 CHItOFODA. I 
 
 The Class is divided irito two orders : I. Chilopoda ; 11. Chi- 
 
 liOGNATHA. 
 
 In both orders, the first segment, or head,, is furnished with nu- 
 merous eyes on each side, and also with a pair of jointed anten- 
 nae ; the mouth is fitted for mastication, being provided with a 
 pair of powerful cutting jaws ; in the centipede and its allies it 
 has also a pair of appendages formed by a metamorphosis of 
 the-legs of the first segment of the body. These are adapted 
 not only to hold and tear its prey, but to convey poison into the 
 lifounds thus made, the poison being ejected through a minute 
 aperture near their points, (Carpenter.) The covering of these 
 animals is firm and of a horny character. The nunnber of feet 
 varies from twelve pair to upwards of three hundred. 
 
 The muscular apparatus consists of a series of distinct mus- 
 cles for moving the segments and legs. When the young is 
 hatched, it consists of but few segments, but these increase in 
 number until it is fully grown, by the sub-division of the last 
 segment but one. The firstnumber of segments is eight or nine ; 
 but they continue to increase until the number is sixty or seventy. 
 The larva has no legs, these organs not appearing until after the 
 first exuviation of the skin. During their growth, the Myria- 
 poda have considerable power to reproduce lost portions of their 
 body, such as the legs and antennqs, but this power is lost when 
 theifdevelopnrient' ceases. The bite of these animals is said to 
 be more injurious than that of scorpions, but not often fatal. 
 Ammonia is the best remedy. 
 
 FiEST Order. Chilopoda, (Gr. x^ii^g, cheilos, lip ; stous, ■pous, 
 a foot ; i. e., lip formed from foot.) 
 
 Centipedes. 
 
 This Order contains sixteen genera, including_about one hund- 
 red species, and arranged into four families. The name Scolo. 
 ■pendridcs, was formerly given to it, but is now appropriated to one 
 of the families of which the leading genus is Scolopendra. 
 
 The Centipede, Scolopendra, (Gr. centipede,) has fourpairof 
 eyes, a flattened body containing, with the head, twenty-two seg- 
 ments, and one pair of legs to each segment. Under the second 
 lip, which is formed by the second pair of dilated feet, and ter. 
 minates in a sharp hook, is an opening through which a poison- 
 ous fluid is thrown out. These animals are nocturnal; and in 
 the West India Islands and the hot parts of this continent, they 
 are formidable pests. They often find their way into beds, in 
 the most cleanly houses. Their bite is extremely painful when 
 
CHILOGMATHA. ^ 935 
 
 first given, and is followed by local inflammation and fever. The 
 Centipedes of this genus live upon animal matter, and run rap- 
 idly. They grow to be five or six, and even twelve inches in 
 length. 
 
 The Electric Centipede, Geophilus, (Gr. loving the ground,) 
 electricus, possesses electrical properties, giving PUt at night a 
 light nearly equal to that of the glow-worm. Some species of 
 this genus will live a day or two in. water, and for the space 
 of two weeks, parts of the body will stir after being separated. 
 
 The Centipede, Sculigera, (Lat. shield-bearing,) coleoptrata, 
 is widely diffused on the Eastern continent. It is found in the 
 United States, to whjich it is supposed to have been introduced in 
 s^iipRing. 
 
 Oijjer prominent species are the L.ong-horned Centipede, 
 (see Chart,) and the Brush-tailed Centipede, (Plate XV. fig. 18b.) 
 
 Second Order. Chilognatha, (Gr. ,jr«'^S) cheilos, a lip; 
 Yvidog, gnaihos, a jaw ; i. e., lip formed from the jaw.) 
 
 Millipedes. 
 
 This order includes the Millipedes, which have two pair of 
 feet, (Plate XV. fig. 18a,) attached to each pf the numerous seg. 
 ments, and usually terminated by, a simple claw. They are 
 nearly allied to the Centipedes, but tjjie bqdy, instead of being 
 flattetied, is often cylindrical. These animals move 'slowly ; 
 when disturbed or at rest, they roll themselves up into the form 
 of a ball. Their eyes are composed of numerous hexagonal 
 lenses, as in the insect tribes. The spiracles or breathing holes 
 are situated behind each pair of feet. Besides these, there are 
 outlets for odoriferous glands, situated on the sides. The Milli- 
 pedes usually feed upon putrescent matter. They are included 
 in fourteen genera, with atx>i|t eighty species, embraced in six 
 families. , ^ 
 
 The Gally-Worm, or Thousand-Legged Worm, lulus ter- 
 rp*<m, (see Chart.)'has about forty segments, to which are at- 
 tached innumerable feet, in pairs or fours. When disturbed, this 
 worm gives forth a fluid qf a very disagreeable odor, from the 
 orifices on the sides of the body. '< 
 
 There are five species pf the genus lulus. The Bordered 
 luLTTS, /. marginalus,' (Lat. bordered,) is about three inches long, 
 blftckish, with a rufous border on the segments. This is com- 
 mon in the United States. 
 
 The Pill Centipede, Glomeris, (a ball,) is a myriapode re- 
 sembling the wood louse in its form, audits habit of rolling itself 
 into j» ball, f 
 
6S6 ASXCBNIDA. 
 
 Thied Class. Arachnida, (Gr. (ig&x'"!) arachne, a spider,) 
 
 These animals, including Spiders, Mites, and Scorpions, are 
 separated from Insects on account of tiieir external form, struo. 
 I ture and liabits. They differ from Insects in having no antennm, 
 in the eyes, which are in most species eight, and even when two 
 in number, are never placed on the side of the head ; in the legs, 
 which are usually eight, though in some species six, and in others 
 ten in niTmber ; in the breathing apparatus, consisting bf radiated 
 wind-pipes, communicating with a sort of gills inclosed in pouches 
 in the lower part of the abdomen. 
 
 The skin of the Arachnida is in general rather leathery and 
 horny ; like the bones of the larger animals, giving support to 
 the soft parts, and attachment to the muscles, the- legs- being "ex- 
 ternally united to a common breast pla(e, from which they xadiate. 
 
 The greater portion of these animals are carnivorous, and 
 furnished with organs adapted to their predatory life. 
 
 Nerve-kaola, or ganglia, make up the nervous system of the 
 Arachnida. These are uniform in their composition, and more 
 concentrated than in the Insects. 
 
 The organ of hearing in these aninrjals is not known ; though 
 it is certain that 'they hear. The eyes of Spiders and Soorpi- , 
 ons, externally formed in exactly the same manner, " are smooth, 
 glittering, and without divisions; and are as much dispersed as 
 those that are disposed at random over the body. The Wolf- 
 Spider, which catches its prey by leaping on it, has its eyes 
 placed in the same manner." 
 
 Male spiders are uniformly much ', smaller than the femal^ 
 being often not one-foul-th as large. 
 
 The female spider lays nearly one thousand eggs in a season. 
 These are soft and compressible, before Ihey are laid, lying in 
 the ovarium, or egg- bag, within the spider's body, squeezed to- 
 gether in a flat manner, but when laid, assuming a round form. 
 The eggs are excluded unlike those, of birds, from a cavity just 
 behind the breast. Here there is a hook-like organ which the 
 spider can move in such a manner as to direct each egg to the 
 exact spot in the nest cup where it would have it placed. The 
 sense of touch in this ofgan must be very acute, as by touch 
 alone it can be guided, the eyes being so situated in the upper part 
 of the head, that they cannot be brought within sight of the nest. 
 
 Latreille arranges the Arachnida ihto two orders: — 
 
 I. Pulmonaria, (Lat. pulmo, a lung.) which have pulmonary 
 sacs or air-pipes for respiration, sirpilar to those of Insects, and 
 frorn six to tw^lve^yelets. These include the GouKON Spiders, 
 
ASAOHHJJH. 637 
 
 .iJ&»«rt?i!fe,i(l4*t..a»vweifi5^a spider,) usually having eight feet, 
 
 (Plate KV.. fig. I9"b,) ,The, palpi or feelers resemble small feett, 
 
 Httiithout aclaw pt JhA tip. "Ilhe frontal oties are terminated by a 
 
 , movable hook curving downwards, having on the under side a 
 
 iislit for the emissiptn of a poisonous .fluid which is secreted in a 
 
 ..gland of the preceding joint. Though much is said o,f the eif- 
 
 fects of.spider-hites, ^' there is etjU wanting evidence on which to 
 
 rest the cha^ige of poisoning man hy biting him," pven against 
 
 .•fif^eifs of. tropical olLrpates. , Sometimes, however, ^he bite of 
 
 the larger ones produces unpleasant iiiflammation. At the same 
 
 time, people " have been known to eat them with bread, as a great 
 
 ■■delieacyi" '■ ■ ' ,' . > :i!i i...^ ..:■,,._,■ ,:; : 
 
 The most remarkable office of spiders is that of weaving their 
 
 •, iWehS) by raeanB of a silken thread drawn from fleshy warts sit- 
 
 . iiiated. on the abdona^n, .four to six in numhe;r, containing thou- 
 
 iiSanda of openings, .from each of which descends a thread, so 
 
 . thin asito be invisible to the naked, eye until all are formed into 
 
 a common thread. Qne set of warts or spinnerets js employed 
 
 \'m- producing threads which ^are. glutinous, while another set pro> 
 
 duces those whichare smooth. This maybe shown by throwing 
 
 eome dust upon .a spider's web like that of the .Garden Spideb, 
 
 j^ira (Gr. pej»;6y to affix,) diadema, .Wfhich weaves one of the 
 
 stiiongest, , when it will be fouiid to adhere to those which are spi- 
 
 ■nally arranged, but not to thpse whiph radiate from the )Center, 
 
 , whiph are the stronger ones. Their wehs have been manufac- 
 
 .;tHJ!ed,into-stp(?kings and, gloves ; tq ohtain one pound of spider's 
 
 {Sil)lc^ however^ the webs of six hundred tho,usand spiders would 
 
 be needed. -: " , 
 
 .A curious tfai,ng 'in rthe. natural history of spiders is their 
 
 -power of reproducing their. limbs .after they have Deen broken 
 
 - off; ' in such cases it is tiever a part of a leg which is reproduced; 
 
 'but if a part of a leg be removed, it proceeds to throw off' the 
 
 nresidue, and after the■l^extInauU, the missing limh again appears. 
 
 The 'Mason, or Trap-doob Spider, .3^^a?e', , (Gr. rmigale, a 
 
 mouse-spider,) ccEmerata/;ja,^ constructs a, sort of tube in which it 
 
 ,:dw!©lls andlies.in wait fpr such aninials as cotne within reach. 
 
 Some of the holes or tubes are closed hy:a trap door. The 
 
 lai^est species is found, in Sputh Amqri^a. 
 
 The LtyQOsa ,[<jtT. ZmA;o«, aJtind of ..spider,) tarantula, the Ta- 
 • KANTtTLA of Italy, is the .poisonous species the hite of which, it 
 has been supposed, .could he, cured hy music. Some species of 
 the same genus are found in the United States, 
 c. I The; jPedJpa?yi,i(I^at; feelers to the foot.) differ from the Spi. 
 ders proper,' chiefly in the great developmenLpf the palpi pr; feel- 
 ers, which form long arms, ending in a piif|^-like claw. 
 
638 TBACBEARIA. 
 
 The Scorpions, Scorpionida, form the larger part of this di- 
 vision. These have a jointed, tail-l'ike extension of the abdo. 
 men, ending in a curved spur. (Plate XV. fig. 19a.') They are 
 found in temperate as well ^s tropibal regions', living under stones, 
 in damp places, and even in houses. They are particularly fond 
 of the eggs of spiders and insects. Their sting is said to be- 
 come increasingly poisonous as the animal grows older. 
 
 The generality of Scorpions, as Scorpio Europaus, have six 
 eyes ; but there are some of the most formidable kind, as Scor- 
 pio afer, the African Scorpion, which haVe eight. 
 
 Second Order. Trachearia, (Gr. tQaxBia, tracheia, &yriai- 
 
 pipe.)- . 
 
 This includes those forms of the class which have two orfoiir 
 eyes, and breathe by means of trachial tubes or air-pipes', simi- 
 lar to those of Insects. These include, (1) the various forms of 
 lyiites, AcaridcR. such as the Cheese- Mites, Acarus, the Itch. 
 Mite, A. scabiei, (of itch,) named from the cutaneous disease of 
 which it is the origin ; the Str&AR-MiTE, ^. saccharinum, found 
 in the brown sugar of commerce j the Red SpiDEii, A. lellarius, 
 the pest of hot houses and green houses, &o. Camphor and 
 sulphur are the best remedies for removing these minute, and 
 some of them almost miorosdopic animals. These are not now 
 considered as ranking among insects, differing from them as they 
 do, in structure, and having in most cases, like spiders, eight feet, 
 while no insect has more than six feet. (2) Ticks, lUdnia, 
 ricinus, a tick,) embracing the genus Ixodes, (Gr. sticky,) (PI. 
 XV., fig. 19.) some species of which are free, and others parasitic. 
 The lattertare without eyes. They are well known from attack- 
 ing sheep, ooWs, horses, dogs, and even tortoises, burying their 
 Suckers so deeply in the skm tha,t they cannot be renioved with- 
 out tearing the flesh. They deposit a prodigious quantity of 
 eggs, which are discharged from the mouth. (3) Shepherd 
 Spiders, or Harvest-men, Phalangidce, genus Phalangium, (Lat. 
 a spider,) of which the greater part live upon the ground, or{ 
 plants, or at the roots of trees, and are very active ; others, which 
 are less active, hide themselves between stones, or in mosses. 
 Their legs are long and slender, the tarsi consisting of more than 
 fifty joints. These spider-like creatures are Itnown as Harry, 
 long-legs. (4) The Sea Spiders, NyniphonidcB^ are also in- 
 cluded in this order, though sometirhes referred to the class 
 Crustacea,. Our Ifmits do not allow us to enumerate a^/ the 
 families, or to give any further particulars respecting those 
 which are meutiojii*}. 
 
Tt.XVI. 
 
 EntDDios'tta.ca 
 
 CRUSTACEANS. 
 
 'Cetradecapoda. 
 
 a * 
 
 1 2 
 
 i C5 
 
 ANNELI DANS, OR WORMS: 
 ISibulLbrajicluates . QoTsibi'aivcfhiates. Altfanohiates. 
 
 6 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVL 
 
 CRUSTAOEAHS. 
 
 Kg. l.'iA. Kino Cbab, Mollucca Ciiab or Horse Foot; a, the opening 
 through which the animal emerges when casting off the old shell ; b, 
 small feet in front of the mouth, considered by some naturalists as 
 antenriee, or feelers; c, the other five pair of true feet surrounding the 
 mouth; used for walSitag 'and mastioawSa'; d, tfiangiite "shield cover- 
 ing the body to which the five pair of false feet or switnming'legs are 
 attached ; e, long pointed tail. 
 
 B, Branchipus stagnaljs, in road-side ditches and cart-wheel ruts. 
 
 Fig. 2a. Sowi Bfo, or 'WooB-LOCSE ; b,' Liranoria terebrans ; c, Fluvicola;i 
 1, under side; 2, upper side, d, Trilobite, found only in a fossil 
 state. ^ 
 
 Kg. 3. Craw-Pish, or Fresh-water Lobster; (Astacus fiuviaiilis ;) a, 
 five pair of true feet ; b, inner antennaBj supposed to be the organs 
 of hearing; c, outer and longe* aritenilse, .organs , for/sinelliq'g); d, 
 five broad caudal plates, by which the animal is assisted to dart about \ 
 so rapidly. 
 
 Kg. 4. A, Duck BARNAeji-BSj Pedunculated or Htalked Cirripedes; a, pe- 
 duncle or sialic by which they are attached to submerged substances 
 after the third moult; b, shell of five or more valves; c, six pair 
 of feathery cirri for ob^injng its food ; B, Acorn Barnacles, {Ses- 
 sile Cirripedes, ) composed of six valves, with an operculum or cover 
 of four pieces, between which the curly tentaculee protrude. 
 
 ANNELIDANS, Or WOBUS. 
 
 Kg. 6. Verinilia, fa,) lives in an irregular twisted tube, attached by its 
 
 whole length to shells, stones, &c. , ,: 
 
 Kg. 6. Sea Centipede, or Nereis; organs and gills distributed throughout 
 
 the: body ; each of its numerous feet has two tubercles, two bundles of 
 
 bristles, and a cirrus above and beneath. 
 
 BEP-HLOODED WORMS. 
 
 Kg^ 1. A. Medicinal Leech ; a, the mouth, with three sharp teeth disposed 
 in a triangle ; no distinct head ; moves by the adhesion and detach^ 
 ment of the sucking disks at each extremity. 
 
 B. Earth or Angle Worm; eight retractile bristles on the under side 
 of each ring, assisting in their eontractions and dilations, enabling it to 
 creep at a pretty good pace ; no distinct head, but the fore part, (a,) 
 acts as a sort of awl in penetrating the earth. 
 
 ENTOZOA, INTESTINAL, Or WHITE-BLOODED WORMS. 
 
 Kg. 8. Kuke, Distoma; a, upper side; b, under side; an inch long; 
 two eyes; two suckers; infests the liver of animals. In sheep it pro- 
 duces or aggravates the disease called the rot. 
 
 Kg. 9. Tape worm; flat or ribbon-like: sometimes 60 or 100 feet long, 
 with 500 divisions, each of which adheres to the intestine by a strong 
 sucker, and may become a separate and perfect animal. The seg- 
 ments diminish in size so as to form a thin neck with a small globose 
 .head, (a,) mouth very indistinct. 
 
SIXTH BEANOH OP ZOOLOGY. 
 
 CRUST ACEOLOGY. (Lat, crustacen ; Gj. Aoyos, logoi, & 
 discourse.) 
 
 Class Cbustacba. (Lat. from cnMfa,a shell or crust.) 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 This Class includes animals, some of which dwell on land, 
 others in fresh or salt water, and which are covered with a soft 
 shell or crust. They are oviparous, and divided into segments 
 or rings, articulated into each other, to the inside of which their 
 muscles are attached. The outer covering generally possesses 
 a considerable degree of hardness, containing no small proper, 
 tion of carbonate of lime. Its solidity varies ; sometimes it is 
 membranous. 
 
 The way in which the animals free themselves from the old 
 shell is quite singular ; they generally manage to get out df it 
 without occasioning the least change in its form. When the 
 shell is first stripped off, the surface of their bodies is extremely 
 soft;, and it is. some time before the substance which has been 
 exuded from the pores on the surface of their skin, acquires a 
 hard consistence. 
 
 They generally have a distinct heart and a circulatory system 
 or blood vessel's, but no internal skeletoti, properly so called. 
 They breathe by means of gills or branchial plates, or else by 
 the skin. The breathing apparatus is adapted to aquatia rather 
 than atrial respiration. In those genera in which the head is 
 not separated from the thorax, the shield protects the whole of 
 the thorax. Other genera have the head distinct from the body, 
 which is divided into seven segments, to the lovrer sides of which 
 
the feet are attached 5 these* for the most part, have, a tail, coiif 
 Sisting of many ; ssgniet^ts. Tfie limbs vary from six to four- 
 teen, each having six articulations. The two front limbs, and 
 sonrfetime^ even three on each side, • are provided with pincers 
 at other times they are terminated by simple hooks, and not un- 
 frequently, they haye appendages which fit' them for swimming. 
 There are two msnjdibles, a lip l^elp,w,,and. frpfli three to five 
 pairs of jaws.; these small, leg-shaped appendages are not 
 adapted to locomotion,' but being pla;ced near the nipuths, assist 
 in the operation of feeding. 
 
 The eyes vary i[)>'iiM4jn.ber, iisuE^lly being compound, seated on 
 pedunclgs, which are sometimes movable, and at others fixed. 
 Sbtne of the parasitic species are destitute of eyes in'- their per. 
 fedt state, 'thougly possessing them when young and able, to swim 
 about. The Cruistacea have the; senses of taste and hearing, . 
 prtjbably also have that of smelling, though the preeise location 
 df* its organ has not been ascertained. Some of them have the 
 powej- of emitting light in the dark. Others are able not only 
 to detach one of their limbs: when seized upon by an adversary, 
 biit can reproduce the severed limb. This, however, is always 
 .of a less size thiin the others, untiMt has once or twice changed 
 itStirUst. ■' •. : 
 
 : The Crustaceans include five orderai' 
 
 First ORptiS. Malacostraga, (Grj paiaitigl jnalakosi soft; 
 'mrvgaxov, oHfahon, shell ;) or Deeapoda, (Lat. tenrfboted.) 
 
 This Order is divided into two sections. (1) Brachyoura, 
 (Gr. short-tailed,) including the Crabs, the species of which are 
 various in size, qelor.and modes; of living, having bodies covered 
 by an extenniail skeleton or calcareous. crust, with ten articulated 
 limhsj.adaptejl for swimming, a,nd. for: walking also, (with oblique 
 steps,) and breathing by gills. They have two pincer-like claws, 
 and jointed antennee, c^d thiTowoC their qrust annually, at th^ 
 end of spring. When they have Ipst a. pinoer or foot, it is repro. 
 dticed. with the new shell, and cdsof at other times. ^ When their 
 legaopolaws become injured or are touipjied. with a hot iron, 
 they themselves, east them ojE-j "jhe matenial out of which, the 
 n:ewirfheHi.;ia hardened, is furnished; by two calcareous con- 
 cretions, called Crabs.' . eyes, foupd^ in. summer on both sides 
 of the stomaehk,: . Th^^ei animals live °'^ jiead bodies, pu- 
 trid; fiesh, and .alil des{}i|iptions of worms an4 insects found in 
 water. . Our- references tpj-sp^cie^ must: he confined chiefly to 
 those QQticedtOQi.tbe Qhart^, /^he. Edible, Ca43i. of England' and 
 
644 MALACOSTEACA. 
 
 Westei"n Eurojae, Cancer pagurus, (Gr. pagouros, a crab,) some, 
 times attains a large size, weighing ten or twelve pounds. It 
 casts its shell between Christmas and Easter. 
 
 The Common Edible Crab of the United States, Lupa has. 
 i(a<a, (Lat. from hasta, & spear,) is of smaller size.' In forty, 
 eight hours after the old shell is cast, it is renewed and firmly 
 consolidated. In the interval, these Crabs are termed "Soft^ 
 shelled," and eiigerly sought after. They are abundant in the 
 muddy shores of bays and inlets. < ' ' 
 
 Long-T^ilSd Ckustaceans. 
 
 (2) The J)facroKra,(Gr, long-tailed,) are so named from the, 
 large and well developed tail, ending in a fan.shaped fin, whic.l) 
 assists them in swimnyng. Th^ walk well, b.ut are best adap- 
 ted for swimming, shooting: backwards through -the action of the 
 abdomen and the tail fin.'. The antennse afe usually long,;the 
 first pair not being received, into^a cavity as in thei Crabs.. . 
 
 The Palinurus,- is a large crab, shaped much.like, a lobster, 
 bijt is more cylindrical with none of the.: feet, cheliibrm or claw, 
 like. It is armed with a very hard crust» and i? in general use 
 when in season, as an article of food. Prof. Da«a, (Silliman's 
 Journal.) speaks of two gigantic specie$ of this genus, P. vulgaris, 
 of the Mediterranean, (see Chart,) and P. lalandii, of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, each a foot and a half long, independent of the. an.. 
 tennsB. The Common Pkawn, Palamon vulgaris, found near 
 our coasts or at the mouths of rivers, is nearly allied to the 
 Prawn of England, P. «erra<KS, (Lat. saw.shaped ;) these are 
 esteemed a great delicacy ; also allied to the species' P. squiUai(a, 
 prawn,) of the European continent. The' Common Prawiii is 
 not more than an inch and a half in length; but the Rivee 
 Prawn of the Carblinas and Florida, P. jhmaiilis, is seven or 
 eight inches long. ' 
 
 The River Cray or Craw Fish, AstacUs, (Gr. astakos, a 
 kind of lobster,)j!MOTa*z7zs, (Plate XVI. fig. 3, with 'explanation,) 
 may be regarded as the Fresh Water Lobster. It is found in 
 the fresh waters of Europe and the north of Asia, placing itself 
 in holes of the banks, or under stones, 'where it lies in wait 
 for small mollusks, little fishes, the larvae of insects ^and decom. 
 posed animal substances upon which it subsists. ' It is said that 
 }t will live for upivards of tv^enty years, and becomes large in 
 proportion to its age. The eggs, when laid, are cellected iinder 
 the lower part' of the .body 'or tail ; the youngs which^ at birth are 
 very soft, take refuge under the tail of the parent foi: some days. 
 
i;STBADECAPODA> 645^ 
 
 Sev^al spepieSjOf tire River Lobster, are fouijfl in the United. 
 States. It is supposed, to live about twenty years. 
 
 The LpESTER, AstaQus marinus, is very abundant and of great 
 commercial value. Good sized ones are four and a half inches, 
 long, from the tip of the head to the end of,the,back.shell,: The 
 pjncers of one of the tail claws a.re furnished with Imobs, and 
 those of the other claw are serrated. With the foriner it keeps 
 firm hold of; the. stalks of sub^marine pla.nts, and with the latter, 
 it cuts and, 'Ranees its food very dexterously. The fecundity of 
 the. Lobster is very gr.eat. , Dr. Baster says that "he. counted 
 12,444 eggs utklpr, the tail pf one female lobster, besides those 
 that remained in the. body unprotruded,". In a bpiled lobster 
 they are bright red and called the coral.. Lobsters are very 
 voracious,, and are caught at night in pots ,or traps made of twigs 
 baited v^ith ga,rbage, (refuse flesh, entrails, &c.,) or in nets let 
 down into the sea, the place being marked by a buoy. Sotine> 
 tjttles they are taken by torch light, with a pair of tongs or for- 
 cep^ of wood. Their eyes, are placed so that they can see in 
 every direction. , When ai?,rmed, they spring to a surprising 
 distance. Usually they weigh one or two pounds, but sometimes 
 four or even six. . ..; 
 
 The Common Lobster of tjijs country, Homarus, (Astacuf,) 
 .^men'cfflnif*, (see Chart,) is, ,ho,wever,, much larger, averaging in 
 weight four poun^?, and sometimes reaching the weight of fifteen, 
 twenty, and even thirty pounds. The Common Shrimp of Europe, 
 Crangon, (Gr, krangon, a shrimp.) vulgaris, is closely allied to 
 the. shrimp of {>ur own country ; it is of a pale greenish , color, 
 aboi^t an. inch and a half or an inch and three>fourths in length. 
 The C. septemspinosus, (Lat. seven-spined,) is known by the 
 name of Bait shrimp, and extensively used. It is found from 
 Florida to the Arctic regions. 
 
 (3) Anomonra, (Gr. anomalous tail.) This is a section inter, 
 mediate to the two preceding, including crabs, having the front 
 part of the body crustaceous; the lower part soft and rolled 
 upon itself. They are in the habit of resortiqg to the dead shell 
 of a univalve mollusk, which is exchanged for a larger one as , 
 they increase in. size, and seem to preferTthe shells of the Tro- 
 choidcB,. (see Chart.) Hence they are called Hekmit Crabs. 
 
 Second Oedek. Tetkadecapoda, (Gr. fourteen-footed.) 
 
 This includes several families of small Crustaceans, some of 
 them marine or fresh-water species ; some of them terrestrial or 
 parasitic, which, from the number of their feet, may be referred 
 
646 TETBABECAFODA. 
 
 to the present order. Wfe folbw Prof. Tfena in pkil^ng here 
 (1) the Wood-lice, OniSciAtB, (Gr. Oniskos. a. *ood-)ou8e,) — 
 sometimes referred to the order Isfdppda, (Gr. equal-footed.) 
 These have fourteen slender feet, adapted to walking, and the\ 
 first pair of antennae rudimentary ; the second pair being alone 
 complete and conspicuous. The species Oriisdits asellui, (Lat. 
 a chee-slip or sow-insect,) (Plate XVI. fig. 2a,) is the Common 
 Sx)W-BUG, fotind upder stones and decaying wood. The fourteen 
 feet gradually increase in size from the front ; the antennae have 
 eight articulations. The Sow-bug feeds upon dfecomposed veg. 
 etables. It carries its eggs in a sac beneath the body. The 
 color is dusky brown above ; beneath greyish White. The Parcel- 
 lie, (Lat. a sow-bug or wood-l6liSe,)spirKComM, (Lat. spiny horns,) 
 is very similar to the Ohiscus, but its antennae have only seven 
 artlpulations. The third joint of the antennae is armed with an 
 acute spine. This Mso has' the popular name of Sow-bug, and 
 is found in similar situations with ihe preceding. The species 
 P. grarmlatus, (Lat. granulated,) or Hog-louse, is black and un- 
 spotted. It is roughened with small elevated grains, — whence 
 the specific name. 
 
 To the Sow-bugs are similar, in most respects, those of the 
 genus Armadillo, which, from their habit of rolling themselves 
 into a ball, are known by the name of Pill-bugs. These are of 
 dull lead color, with three lines of large yellowish spots on the 
 upper part. 
 
 The Whale-lottse, Ci/amus ceti, (see Chart,) referred by La- 
 treille to the order Lamodipoda, (Gr. throat or jaw-footed,) — the 
 Oniscus cell, of Linn., has at least twelve feet, of which eight 
 at-e perfect, and the others in the form of slender, jointed append- 
 ages. It attaches itself to whales, and occasionally to tunnies 
 and other large fish, 
 
 (2) The SaAd, or Beach Fleas, Gammaridce, — sometimes re. 
 ferred to the order AMPHtPODA, (so named from having Two kinds 
 of feet, cheliform or claw-like, and simple.) The family in- 
 eludes several genera and species. Orchestria, (from Gr. 
 orchecomai, to leap,) longicomis, (Lat. long horned,) is a species 
 having the loWer antennae longer than the body, and the four 
 front feet terminated in a compressed claw. They subsist upon 
 dead animal substances. They are found on the shores of Long 
 Island, Where, to conceal themselves, they dig holes in the sand. 
 Other Sand or Beach Fleas are included in the genus Talilrus. 
 Of this is the species T. quadrifdus, (Lat. four-cleft,) which 
 have a body composed of thirteen segments, :exclMsive of the 
 head ; and the antennae shorter than the body. The tail has 
 
ENTOMOSTEACA. 647 
 
 three appendages terminating in four spines, — whence the spe- 
 cific name. These are of a dark horn color, and frequently 
 found hidden under stones and sea-weed. 
 
 The genus' Gammarus includes Fbesh-watee Shrimps, which 
 are very active, and common in running streams. They may 
 often be found under stones and pi^es of wood. These have 
 the last joint of the antennae composed of numerous minute ones ; 
 the upper antenns are as long as the lower, and sometimes 
 longer, with four articulations, the last ending in a bristle, — the 
 lower antennse have five articulations ; the tail has small, bundle- 
 like spines. 
 
 We can barely name the ^arasilio Cymothoids, (genus Cymo- 
 thoa,) which are fourteen footed,— formerly arranged with the 
 Isopoda, most of which attach themselves to the mouths and 
 gills of fishes, — and of which the Seriolis has been thought to 
 present, at first sight, a resemblance to the extinct form of the 
 Trilobites. 
 
 Ligia is another genus of the present order, having an oval, 
 oblong body, with transverse segments, and two short append- 
 ages at the end of the tail. The two outer antennse are quite 
 conspicuous. ' (See figure of L. oceanica, Plate XVIi fig. 2b.) 
 
 Limnoria is another marine genus, which has the head nearly 
 as large as the first segment; the tail has six distinct rings 
 with two appendages on each side. The species L. terebrans, 
 (Lat. boring,) can roll themselves up into a ball. These, and 
 the Ligia oceanica, both in great numbers sometimes attack the 
 timbers of ships, docks, etc., and soon render them useless. 
 
 Thied Order. Entomostraca, (Gr. svto/ja, entrnia, an insect; 
 Sargaxov, ostrakon, a shell, i. e., shell insects.) 
 
 This term is applied to Crustaceans for the most part inhabit- 
 ing fresh-water. In these, the nervous knots which supply the 
 place of the brain, consist of one or two globules merely. The 
 heart assumes the form of a long vessel. The gills are com- 
 posed of hair-like processes, forming a portion of the feet, or of a 
 certain number among them, and sometimes the mandibles and 
 upper jaws. The number of feet varies, and in some genera is 
 said to be over a hundred. Nearly all have a shell, consisting 
 of one or two pieces, generally almost membranous and 
 transparent, — the coverings are like those of the insects, rather 
 horny than calcareous. The antennae, varying much in form 
 and number, serve in many species for swimming. 
 
 Dr. Baird says, most of them are "essentially carnivorous." 
 
648 ENTOMOSTSACA. 
 
 In this he discerns a decided fitness, as tending to . prevent the 
 hurtful effects of putrid air that might attend the decomposition 
 of the amazing number of these animals abounding in ponds and 
 ditches. These Crustaceans, however, in their turn, hecome the 
 prey of other animals. They form a considerable part of the 
 food of fishes ; and it is thought that the quality of some of the 
 fresh-water fishes, of which a species of trout may be particularly 
 mentioned, may, in some degree, depend upon the abundance of 
 this portion of their food. Among the genera belonging to this 
 order, we refer first to the Cyclops, (see Chart,) (Gr. circular or 
 rounded eye,)— a fi'esh- water genus, in which the body is pear- 
 shaped, and the upper, or larger jpair of antennae, are employed 
 as aids to locomotion. Species of these may be seen jerking 
 themselves along in springs and stagnant waters. When they 
 lose part of an antenna, it reappears as, in the case of some others 
 of the class, at the time of the next moult. They are carnivo- 
 rous, and when without other food, even eat up their 6wn young. 
 Some of the kindred marine species,,appear to be phosphorescent. 
 These minute Crustaceans are very prolific. They are tena- 
 cious of life, reviving after having been frozen, though they soon 
 die when retnoved from water ana dried. Many of them furnish 
 food to the water larvse of insects. 
 
 (2) Daphnia, (Gr. a laurel-berry,) — the Arbokescent Water. 
 Flea. In t'his genus the body is enclosed in a bivalve shell, 
 though the head is exposed, having a conipound and somewhat 
 movable eye. These Crustaceans are found in stagnant waters 
 in company with the Cyclops, which they resemble in their move- 
 ments. They are sometimes so nuraeroiis in water as to give it 
 "a muddy hue, like the red dust of iron, or as if blood had been 
 mixed with it." On the back of the shell is seen, at certain sea- 
 sons, a black. saddle-shaped, appendage, containing two eggs, from 
 whicl), in the spring, the species are reproduced. 
 
 (3) Cypris, (see Chart.) This is likewise enclosed in a 
 bivalve shell, with a dorsal hinge. The antennae are four, — the 
 second pair large, and fitted to aid in swimming. Many species 
 may be se0n in summer-time swimming about in stagnant pools, 
 and they often show beautiful variations of color. 
 
 (4)' Limulus or Polyphemus, — this is sometimes referred to the 
 order Xiphosura, (Gr. sword-tail,) — a name referring to the long, 
 hard, and sharp tail-spih'e of this creature, which, in some places, 
 is used for pointing spears. The body is covered with a large 
 carapace shield, (Plate XVI. fig. 1 ;) is rounded in front, having 
 the hind part smallest, with spines on the sides, and deep notches 
 behind ; the gill-feet are appended to the abdomen. Six feet, 
 
C;SRIF£PKjSr 64^ 
 
 strongly articulated and ad«ptesd tawaUti^g, are attaohed to tbe; 
 thorax. The cpmmo« name of these Crustaceans, is the Kiflg- 
 Crab ox Horse-fpot. The first name refers to its size, the last to 
 its shape. They feed on ^nitnal sul^staoqei^, apd are gathered as 
 food for hogs apd poultry, and alsp. used as manure. Lamarck 
 calls them giaqt branchiopods, in allusion to the gigantic stature 
 of some of t|ie species. The color is of a uniform dark brown. 
 To thisordey we assign the Trilobit^s, (sqmetinnes arranged in 
 a separate order,)— fossil anin;als, the knowledge of which is 
 limited to the shell or crust. (Plate XVI. fig gd.) Feet ,have 
 not been found in connexion with their remains, so th^t.it cannot 
 be certainly known whether or ijot they possessed these mem- 
 bers. Agassiz remarks, "there is an incompleteness and w^nt 
 of development in the form of thejr body that strongly reminds 
 us of the embryo among the Crabs." Their food is supposed to 
 have been sinaU water animals ; their b^Htat the vicinity of 
 coasts in shfillow waters, where they Jiyed, grega>ripualy in Viast- 
 numbers. We here also place Fluvicola Herricjci, a pingular 
 Ccustaceous animal which has been found adhering tp iX!ck$; in 
 and near t^he water pf West Canada Creek. *'Jt is.det^QhjBiii 
 w-ith considerable difficulty, and when so detsicbed, partially rolls ' 
 itself up." (DeKay.) The Ippality in which they are found, is 
 noted for fossils and petrefactions ; andi bs De Kay intimates, it 
 is a singular coincidepce that it should furnish animals so strongly 
 resembling the e^tipct trilobites, see Plate XVI. (fig. 1 ,£^d.2c,) — 
 which presents figures of some of tt^ese animals that were fpund 
 in Clinton, Oneid^. county, N. Y., in a ravine a little North of 
 Hamilton College. They seem to b^ allied to the present order. 
 
 FouET^ Order. Cibeipedes, or Cerkhopppjj, (Ljt, jaTV?, ring, 
 lets or tufts ; pedes, feet.) ^ 
 
 The^e ani|inali?. were ranked by the earlier naturalists among 
 the IVjIollusks, and they pertainly possess many characters in 
 common with rome of those anim^als, yet ,^xhibit greater sym- 
 metry of form. The body is prolonged, and frem each side pro. 
 cepd long anfl slender feet, curving together jptp a kind of curl, — 
 whence the nam]e Cirripe'de^, cur} or tufl footed- They are in- 
 closed in a^hell, whiph is more or less conical. 'These animals 
 are subject to a metamorphpsis, the young having two valves 
 like the bivalye MoUusks, and capable of swimming about untit 
 they become permanently afiixed« In this, state, they ar^ al>lei 
 to pptrude the lip}^ from the &ile p»rit of the sbelli ^e froat 
 pair being of cpi^iderfililp ^e, aq^farftytel^ xrith ft saekei jatid 
 
 27 
 
^50 SOTATOHIAi 
 
 hooks for attachment to submarine substances. The six hind 
 pair of limbs are used for swimming. The shell is not made up 
 of simple layers, as in the Mollusks, but is traversed by a com. 
 plex series of canals, through which nourishment is conveyed. 
 
 The Cirripedes are divided into two principal groups, — the 
 'pedunculated and the seBsile, both of which are widely distributed 
 by ships, floating wood, sea-weed, mollusks, turtles, whales, etc. 
 
 I. Campylosomata, (Gr. xa/iniXog, kampulos, curved; aa/ju, 
 noma, body.) The division contains the pedunculated forms, 
 that is, those which are furnished with stems, (Plate XVI. fig. 
 4a,) by which they attach themselves to wood or other ob- 
 jeets, — among them are the Anatifa, (Lepas,) Common Bahna- 
 CLE, consisting of five pieces, of which two are large valvtes, 
 somewhat like those of a muscle ; two smaller are articulated to 
 those near the point; and one unites the valve along the back 
 edge ; and thus they envelop the whole of the mantle. Barna> 
 cles often adhere to-the bottoms of ships in such numbers as to 
 impede their sailing. 
 
 II. Acamptosoma, (Gr. &xafmTo;, akamptos, uncurved ; aafut, 
 body.) This section includes the sessile or unpedunculated forms. 
 It is represented by the Balanus, (Lat. acorn,) or Acorn-sheli., 
 (Plate XVI. fig. 4b,) so named from its resemblance to the acorn, 
 it'being short and conical in form." The mouth is protected' by 
 an operculum, consisting of two or more valves; These atiimals 
 are found in great numbers on rocks and piers along the coast. 
 The species B, pHttacus, (a parrot,) is quite large; it is eaten 
 by the natives of Chili. The Coronula attaches itself to the backs 
 of whales, imbedding itself in the skin. 
 
 Fifth Ordee. Rotatoria, or Rotifeea. .Wheel-bearing ' 
 Animalcules. 
 
 This order includes animalcules not to be distinctly perceived, 
 except with the microscope. They receive their name from 
 peculiarities of Structure, and are wonderfully minute,— some of 
 them being less than the five-hundredth part of an inch in length. 
 Nearly all of them are aquatic in their habits; their bodies are 
 transparent; hence, their general structure can, with the help of 
 the microscope, be easily recognised: They have usually an 
 elongated form, similar on the two sides ; and at the front ex- 
 tremity are one or two rows of vibratile cilia, usually arranged 
 in a circular manner, which, when in motion, appear like re- 
 volving wheels. The posterior extremity is prolonged into a 
 tail, possessing three joints, eaoh of which has a pair of prongs 
 
SOTATOHIA. 651 
 
 or points. The circular arrangement of the cilia forms what are 
 called the wheels. By the successive vibration of these, the ap- 
 pearance of a continual rotation is produced ; and their action 
 creates rapid currents in the surrounding fluid, by which the 
 supply of food is obtained, — consisting of other animalcules of 
 still smaller size, and less complex structure. Between the 
 wheejs/tlie head is bcoasibnany iprot'ru'd6^, bearing two.' reid -spots, 
 supposed to be eyes; on its under surface there is a projecting 
 tubular spike, which is believed to act as a syphon conveying 
 water,, iqtp, the. general xayity to aid perspiratioq. ^ TJpe vital 
 power of some specie* Is extrapwlinarily great, they having Ueen 
 known to revive after being kept in dry sand for four years. 
 The wheel-animalcules do not propagate by spontaneous division, 
 but by eggs inconGeivj.bly jninutej so thfit theyjcan be raised in 
 the air with vapor, and transported in every direction. Much 
 diversity of opinion has existed in relation to the proper classifi- 
 cation of these animalcules,jaf the wondexful^tructure and variety 
 which the microscope has made such interesting revelations ; but 
 the lengthened form of their bodies, the location clothe mouth and 
 eyeS at one ' extremity ; the occasional' appearance of cross or 
 transverse "lines shadowing forth a division into segments ;^ and 
 especiially the character of the nervous system, so far, as it can 
 be ascertained, are among the proofs that they should have a.place 
 with the Articulates. Witb'these,'DK Grant was one of the first 
 to place ihemi Leydig proposed to call them Ciliated Crusta- 
 ceans; ' We follow the suggestion of Prof. Dana in placing them 
 next the Cirripedes. t • > <' •, , . 
 •The common- speciea,Koiif a mlgarisi, 13 remarkable .for the 
 two circles of vibratile- cilia or vlbrillaB, referred to above, and ^ 
 for the posterior forceps or pincers. One species (Melicerta 
 ringeuM) has the power to withdraw itself iiito an outward case; 
 and has the vibratile cilia distributed into four divisions. 
 
SEVENTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. 
 
 HELMINTHOLOGY. (Gr. ^sk/uvs, helmins, a worm ; loyoj, 
 a discourse.) 
 
 Class Anhelisans or WotasSt 
 
 This lowest division of the Articulates is arranged by Cu- 
 vier and other naturalists, into two sections; the one embracing 
 the class AraneMdans, or Red-blooded Worrns, and ranked with 
 the Articulates ; the other, iocluding the Intestinal or White- 
 blooded Worms, is ranked by them with the Radiates. Agassiz 
 considers the nervous system of the latter Worms, which has 
 been made a ground of their separation, though somewhat diCer- 
 ent, as yet essentially the same with that of the Articulates. 
 We follow' him as well as other distinguished natwaiistSi in 
 placing all the Worms in this latter class. 
 
 First Division. Annelida, (hai. annuhit, a ring.) Red. 
 
 BLOODED WOSMS. 
 
 These always have their bodies formed of a great number of 
 small rings nearly equal in size, varying in number from twenty 
 or thirty to more than five hundred, according to the length of 
 the animals. Their skin is soft and pliable ; and their bodies, 
 not having any external skeleton, Are also soft, and in general 
 more or less cylindrical. The head is usually distinct, furnished 
 with two or four eyes ; the sides have attached to them feet, or 
 rather bristle-like projections, which are used for locomotion, and 
 vary widely in diiferent species. Most of the annelidans are 
 marine ; but some live in fresh water. 
 
TUWUBBAnCIBATA. 953 
 
 ■Frft^T dltDEE. • TuiuitByAiJoitiA'TA, {T<iihittko7id&, d*eMtftg in 
 tubes, Cuvier.) [ SeBentaSy Annelidans. 
 
 'Ph^se are charabtefized by Iiiaving their brahchiae in the 
 form oF plumeB, bi- oF Sriiall ir^e-like fii^Ureis, aitachtid to the 
 head or fo^e part ^f the bbdir. Nearly all inhabit tube!s, which 
 ar6 calciireoiis, Satjdy, ot riieMibr'andiis. The 61'deir ftifty be 4r. 
 ranged into' two fttriilies. ' i 
 
 ° ■ y , . i 
 
 First Family ^irj^Udik, (Ldt. HhrpmU, a Smkfl shake.) ' 
 
 ( WoirmSj the tiibea of which are 'calcareous and stiigiilaHy 
 twisted. They have the branchial tufts separated into two dis- 
 tinct parts by a pendunculated operculum, or else protected by 
 a Bolra oVie When they are drawn itito the shell. 
 
 1 . Se'rplila. This ^eh'bis incltadfes *rorms Which adhere to stones, 
 shells, and Other iut-rtittWhe substfeiilces. The bi-ahchiEB are of 
 d; Beautiful red, or varifegated with yeflow and 'vidldt, and used 
 in taking the hiinute HVing obj^ts upon Whilcih thfe worm sub. 
 isis/tis. They ate fo^Hd In the I^editerranean ahd Eilrapean seas. 
 This gehllits lias been estimated to embrade sJxty or more re> 
 cent aiid fosfeil sp#cie!s: ' X^'g- «* "Chart. ) 
 
 2. Vermilia,—^ orms so named fr<drii tliiA' l-ied line on ekchside 
 of the ridge which, appears upon the back. (Plate XVI. fig. 5.) 
 
 3. Uiintpffl.—Wot'hisfl^e,' living in a tutelar shell, open at 
 both endsj'ffvith,, twenty -two branchis, in two sets, and feathered 
 with a row ofcUiai,. These are nearly allied to the Serpula, 
 
 Second Family, AmplliitritideB,. 
 
 Worms which hdVe arOiitid tlie mOuth ituWierouS thread-like 
 t^At'aoles; and tubes foi^Hied by^ rtitteous d^cfetibn to which are 
 attacheiJ frftgniBfltS 6f fehfeHS, fetCi 
 
 1. Amphitrite. These have the thread or straw-like processes 
 in the feVm of a, cohib or tfiat of a brown. -- ' ■ 
 
 2. Sabelia, — Worms about the si^ of a finger, living in tubes 
 composed of sand,r clay or fine mud. The plumes are highly 
 I)!^illia'^t and (ieiiqate, sometimes of a rich orange color.; 
 
 . ,3. .rereieZ/ajTjjWoi^nnsJiyine^n, tames of similar composition 
 with the prececiing, having on Meneckar^r^cem, hot fan-shaped 
 gills. 
 
ABBAHCHIATA. 
 
 SEeaNDiOsDBS. DonsiBSA^tcHiATA, (Lat. (fofsunt, back; imtt- 
 cA?<iB, gillg.) . . 
 
 I TJhese; Annelidans have their organs, and especially their 
 .br,aqc;hiaB, distributed nearly equally alpng the whole or a part 
 
 of the body. , All tlie species are aquatic and, worm.like, swim- 
 .m,ing with facility and active in crawling. The head is distinct 
 
 from the trunk ; they are furnished vifith two pair of rudimen. 
 
 tary eyes. The order includes the Sea-Mice and the Sea-Ceuti^ 
 
 pedes, arranged into several families or groups. , 
 
 FiEST Family. AphrOditidie, (Gr. fi-om Aphrodite^ Venus.) 
 'Sba-'Mice^ ■ ■• '■ r 
 
 These include species; oval in form, some bf which are sii. 
 pqrbly colored. Usi^ally they,^ave two pairs of jaws. iThe 
 giUs are OQiicealed under t,wp rows of scales covering the.. back, 
 and hid^^.i by,, a kind of flocky down or tow» from which ispue 
 
 ^^rilliant.j^plpes or bristles'.. The speciess 4p'"'<"^''^ aculeaf^ 
 (Lat. prickly,) is six or eight .inches long, apd two or three 
 
 .inches wide. .Cuvier says that these Sea-mice do not yield in 
 beauty either to the plumage of the ,Hu"3'i>i"g-'>ii'43) or to the 
 
 , most .brjUiant precious stones. . , > 
 
 Second iFAMii,y. ^uf^pidtBi] 
 
 ' These Are represented by the genus Eunice.:^ This is fur- 
 nisli'^d *ith tuft-like gills, and has the trunfe ariwed with three 
 pairs of horny jaws. Each of the fept has two cirri and a bun- 
 die of bristles ; there are two tentacles' on the head, above the 
 rmjuth, and two on tbe;Be,ck. The jt^ifi^NTip.iEuNicE, JS.,.gigan- 
 fea,, fqunjd.in,th,e seas around.tbe Antilles, is sometimes upwatrfs 
 of four feet in length, being the largest anl^eU4a^ known. , 
 
 Third Order. Abranchiata, |Lat, o, priv. or without; Jran- 
 f ; , • chiiB, gills.) 
 
 The Worms of this order are withoiit branchiae, respiraticin 
 being adconiplished' by means of the skin. Thie order includes 
 twb piincl{)al eiroups, of which the one is terro^sifial, the ^ther 
 'atju&tic. ' '"' "' "''' ■''■■ '■; '■';'■■ 
 
ABEANCBU,TA< 655 
 
 First Familt. LumhricicUB, (Lat. lumbricus, an earth-worm.) 
 
 The Earth or Angle Worm has a body composed entirely 
 of numerous rings ; is of a reddish or bluish hue, and of a shin- 
 ing aspect. It secretes a viscous or glutinous substance which 
 ■protects the body and greatly facilitates its progress through the 
 , earth. This worm is enabled to creep at a good pace, by con- 
 tracting and dilating its rings, the retractile bristles on the under 
 side of each ring assisting locomotion. The fore part of the 
 head in earth-worms acts as an aWl in penetrating the earth, 
 which they loosen, enrich, and prepare for the labors of the 
 farmer by admitting the'air and water. By their castings, which 
 so annoy the gardener, thpyy in a few years, cover a barren, 
 waste with vegetable, or rather animal mould. Not improbably 
 every particle of earth in old pastures has passed through the 
 intestines of worms. They are known as coming to the surface 
 in wet weather and at night. The power of reproducing mu- 
 tilated parts is very great in this entire family, of which, more 
 than twenty species have been described. The eggs are in cap> 
 sales, or membranous cocoons. Each egg produces two worms. 
 The species Lumbricus terrestris (Plate XVI. fig. 7b.) attains 
 nearly a foot in length, and has a jiundred and twenty rings. 
 
 Second Family. Hirudimdce, (Lat. kirudo, a leech.) Leeches. 
 
 These include various genera, both marine and fresh water. 
 All are without limbs or bristles, but have a sucker at each end 
 of the body, which enables them to move about and to adhere 
 to living bodies, penetrating the skin, by means of their three 
 jaws and teeth, and drawing the blood, uport which they were 
 formerly supposed to subsist.* Two species of Leech are al- 
 most exclusively medicinal ; the Green Leech, Hirtido offici- 
 nahs, and the Brown Leech, (spotted underneath,) H. media- 
 nalis. Other species are, however, sometimes used. Fresh, 
 water leeches soon die after having been removed from the 
 water. Many leeches have eight eyes. There are several ma- 
 rine species which attach, themselves to Torpedoes, Turtles and 
 
 ^It is very remarkable that bloo3 is not the natural food of the Leech; 
 and that the fluid which it iso greedily swallows, does hot pass into the 
 intestines, but remains in the stomach for many months, and what is still 
 more curious, it does not coagulate during the whole of that time, as it 
 would do in an hour if exposed to the air, but continues to retain Us fluid- 
 ity. (Qottae.) 
 
656 ENTOZOAi 
 
 Fishes, particularly the Skate. Leeches are^ so much used for 
 medicinal purposeis that methods have been adopted for cultivat- 
 ing them. Some enterprising Frenchmen have recently leased 
 marshes in Ireland, and sowed them broad cast with leeched,. in 
 the hope of thus deriving large profits. The value of those 
 annually used in France, is estimated at from one to one and a 
 half million of dollars. The species H. geobdella, (Gr. earth, 
 leech,) fi-equ'ently leaves the water to pursue earth-worms. 
 
 FouETH Order. Entozoa, (Gr. evrog, entos, li^ithin; SSoy, 
 zoon, an animal. J 
 
 This order includes the various minute animals which are 
 ■produced and developed toithin othel- living beings. They are 
 exceedingly various in form and organization, having but one 
 character in which they mostly agree, viz. : that' they are para- 
 sitic, living within and at the expense Of the- bodies of other ani- 
 mals. 
 
 Some species, both in their appearance aind internal structure, 
 so closelyresemble individuals placed in other classes, that, they 
 can be iaid to differ from them only in respect to the localities in 
 which they are foutid. ,They have been discovered in all the 
 Manimalia, from man down to the Cetacea ; and they are even 
 more numerous in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes than in the Mam- 
 mals. The invertebrated animals have also parasites peculiar 
 to themselves. They have been found in Insects, Mollusks, and 
 even the Acalephs. They fix themselves, according to the spe- 
 cies, in various parts of the bodies which they infest, such as the 
 intestines, brain, liver,' kidneys, muscles, blood, and bones. In 
 some cases, the same species are found in water, as well as 
 within animals. 
 
 First Sub-Order. Nematoidea, (Gr. v^fia, nema, a thread; 
 eiSos, eidos, form.) Round Worms. 
 
 These are the highest in organization of the Entozoa, having a 
 round, long, and elastic body, and a coniplicated structure, there 
 being a true intestinal canal. The mouth, by its varieties, bf- 
 "Ibrds generic characters; the females are longer than the males, 
 and for the most part oviparous. They haVe been divided' into 
 eleven genera. We have room to notice only (l) those of the 
 genus Ascdris, which include the Common Round Worm, A. 
 lumbrieoides, so named from its general likeness to the Lumbri- 
 cus, or Earth- Worm. This occurs in the hog and ox as well as 
 
^His^ta^A. HIT 
 
 in man, and cT^iefly inhabits the small intestines. The male is 
 ' 'kmatfer'and rtisM sMriMto't WSh' «Kb feriialei f" -Thfe . *brm is 
 ' ^chit^, fromYik tot^elvte or fifl-eeft itidTies long. It infrequently 
 . fat^l to phildren, in whidi it penetrates to the stoniacb, and even 
 to'thg,in9Uth.. Five, ^Ijund red have someliines heeii passied 'from 
 a child in^t^xourse of'seveh or eight days; al'50 f'in-Wdrrtis or 
 Thread Wprms, A. vermiouiaris, (Lat. from vermiculUs, a little 
 worm.), .These are very minute, the male seldom exceeding 
 two lines, and the femaje five lines in Jength, aiid being pro'pdr- 
 ^onally slender,*^, They dvfell in the liarge int'estihe^ sometimes 
 ,;, in. immense numbers and producitig great irritation. 
 , .2. Pi'/aria, (including the Ouine,4 Wokms,) of Which thfee 
 species inliabit the human body. Some are iduiid in Vdrioiis 
 animals including insects and fheir larvae. These are lohg "Wo'rWs, 
 ...smooth ajqd tl^reajdrlike, and'qf a i^omewhat rigid ^exture. The 
 (juinea Wonk, J^.Medinetms, occurs in Arifaia, U^pf)6r!6gyj)t, 
 Guinea, the West Indies, and other hot climates. It is generally 
 '^' ■Whitej' but sometiiSieS'Of a brown «Dl'or. The length varies ^rom 
 six inches to twelvefeet, and.it is about as thick as the. string, of 
 a violin. It infests the miisCles and subcutaneous tissues, prin- 
 '!€ifBlly!of the-loWer liiiibs; sometimes it.locatesit^elf about the 
 eye and Under (he tongue. Occasionally it makes'. its way to 
 the surface of la skin, creating a pustule or sore, when it may be 
 taken hold of and dawtiously sand gradually extracted. If broken 
 offj bowever;: the part remaining enclosed produces inflammation, 
 and may render amputation indispenUahle. Within the tropics, 
 people sometimes seem to be a^ecjted by it almost epidemically, 
 nearly half the men in a regiment of soldiers, having at the same 
 time been attacked by it. It seems that it may exi^t under the 
 skin many months or even a year without being detected. The 
 Guinea worm is said to be sometimes seen swimming in the wa- 
 ters of the countries .Vvhioh it inhabits, j;.- >. .1 ■ . . ,. 
 
 Species of the Filaria have recently been found \n the blood 
 of dogs. The HaiB- Worms, Gordiifs aqtrntidOiSti (see Charts) 
 are nematoids fbund in free water^ eras internal, parasites of 
 insects. The latter swallow the eggs of the Hair Worm, after 
 they hstyi^ been deposited iti water; and "in this position the egg 
 is hatched, producing the CfoHtiits, which becomes impregnated, 
 and esbapes from the insect into waters whefe it deipiosits its eggs." 
 It has erroneously been sUp^sed to te deVteltiped from a horse 
 hair. 
 
 • Xbe litte'kere#£eiv$d.ftq is tbe twelfth I)ait of a?«endi inch. 
 
659 BNTOJSe^ 
 
 Second Sub-Osder. Acanthocephala, "(Grir. from axovfla, 
 aJcantha, a; thgrn ; xecpali], kf^hale, a head*) Hooked Wokms. 
 
 This order contains, but one genns, Echinorhynchus, (Gr. ecAi. 
 nos, a hedge-Hog ; rhunchos, beaic,) with numerous species. ' Tha 
 generic name refers to the chitef character, which is a straight, 
 round trunk, armed with,' rows of recurved tooth -lilte hooijs. 
 These Worms are generally found in the intestinal canal ; some- 
 times in the neck under the skin. They'ocpur in all vertebrates 
 except man, sometimes boring through the intestines and passing 
 ititfl other parts of. the body. The species E. gigas, which is 
 from thr'pe to fifteen inches long, infests hogs, partibulairly Wch 
 as have been shut up to be fattened. ' ' ' 
 
 '■'' " ■;' 
 
 Tbi^d Sub-Order.., Trematoda, (Gr, from t9^;i««, irema, a for- 
 / amen or hole.) Fluke Worms, ' 
 
 ■ These worms have a soft and roUhded or flattened body. iThe 
 head is indistiiict, with a sectorial foramen ; one or more sucto- 
 rial pores appear on the surface of the body, furnishing, the ba- 
 sis of their subdivision into genera. They have no > iutestiwil 
 canal. The Fasciola, (LaX. a small ■ bandage,) hepatidum, (Gti. 
 hepaticosi of the" liver,) is a representative of thisogroupiT-^a 
 worm that -infests the liver, gall'-^bladdert' and sometimes the con- 
 
 ■ tiguous veins or duots ; is frequently found in numerous iriitni. 
 nant and other animals. It is particularly common in sheep, in 
 
 • the disease called the rot. This worm has sometimes beeti found 
 in the gall-bladder of man. Its shape is considerably like that 
 of a melon fiee'd, (Plate XVI. fig. '8.)' These worms have two 
 pores, one in front, the other ventral ; hence they are sometimes 
 denoted by the generic term, Distoma, '(Gr.-two-mouthed.). 
 Some Trematods occur in birds and ifiahes.' 
 
 Fourth' Sub-Order. Cestoidea, (Gr. from xeinos, kestos, a 
 band; etdas,eidos, iotm.) Tape Worms. 
 
 .Of 'these worms eight g«nera have bsen desoribed-; The 
 .head variie? greatly, in the differpn^.genera; genere^Uy it has two 
 or four pits or suctorial. orifice%, and. some|;imes four retractile 
 ,. ter)^a(jjes,. .Tlier? iSj?jo trace of an inte.stii^al canal, unless it be 
 connected with vessels proceeding fVom the suckers. Two gen- 
 era contain species that infest the human body : 
 
 1. Bothriocephalus, {Gr,- bothros, a. groove ; k^hale, -heai.) 
 This is a longt flat, jointed Worm, with' two longitudiQal grooves, 
 
ENTOZOiU , 658 
 
 one on eacli side of the head ; infesting birds, Ashes, and rep- 
 tiles. The species ,£. latus is common in the intestines of man, 
 in Switzerland, Russia, parts of France, &e. It is distinguished 
 from tile Tmnia by the form of its segments, which are broader 
 than they are long, &nd by the openings of the ovaries, Which are 
 heneath instead of at the sides. \ 
 
 8. Tcmia^ (LaUaband.) Thisgenusalsohas the body flat, long, 
 and articulated, but the articulations are so small and indistinct 
 for some distance from the head, (Plate XVI. fig. 9a,) that its 
 existence was for a long time unknown, and it was supposed the 
 worm obtained its nourishment through the lateral pores. The 
 head is round, with four suckers forming a square about the 
 mouth. ' . . 
 
 The Common Tape Worm, T. solium, inhabits the human 
 intestines, but not with equal frequency in. all countries. It is, 
 however, more widely distributed than the B. latus. The lengtli 
 to which this worm attains is considerable, but it may be difficult 
 to assign its limit. Sometimes it is twenty feet and even more, 
 in length. One species, T. cateniformis, (U&t. chain-like,) about 
 S an inch long, infests the cat. 
 
 Fifth Sub-Oedee. Cystica, (Gr. xians, kustis, a bladder.) 
 
 These worms are either flat Or round, terminating behind in a 
 transparent Cyst or bladder filled with a perfectly clear fluid ; 
 the head is retractile and provided with two or four pits, or foiir 
 suckers and a circle of small hooks, or with four unarmed ten- 
 tacles. This is the lowest group of the class, nothing is known 
 of its nutritive and some other organs. They are represented by 
 ' the Hydatida, or Hydatid, wbicb consists of a globular bag, 
 Oomposed of condensed albuminous matter, of a laminated or 
 plate.like texture, and containing a clear and colorless fluid. 
 
 The young are developed between the layers of the parent 
 cyst, and thrown off internally or externally, according to the 
 species. Some have doubted whether it be an animal. Its struc- 
 ture resembles that of the lowest forms of Algi2, or Sea- weed, 
 as the Red Snow, {Protocacus nivalis,) of the arctic regions. 
 Acpphalocysts have been found in almost every structure and 
 cavity of the human body. Some species live in the brain and 
 spinal cord of sheep, and in the brain of oxen, giving rise lo the 
 disease called "staggers." 
 
660 Kntozda. 
 
 What is fhe position of Ifife Mymapoda? In what resjectB dd tHey igrte 
 with the AnneliBanS, and how do they differ? In what respects do they 
 resemble aijd how diflfer from Insects? Into how mahy Orders are tliey 
 divided ? Describe their characteristics. Into how many families is the 1st 
 Order ar;'anged ? Name and describe the Centipedes referred to. Also 
 those of the 2ild Order. What is the 3d class? Wily separated from 
 Insects ? State liow they differ. Describe the charadteristios and habits 
 of Spiders. Which is the Ist Order ? Repeat what is said of the Common 
 S. What is said of the. Mason or Trap-door S. ? Of the Tarantula? How 
 do the Pedipalpi differ from tke Spiders proper ? What family forms the 
 largest part ot this division? What is Said of them ? Which is the 2nd 
 Order ? What forms does it include ? Repeat what is said of the Mites. 
 di the Tieks; Of the Shepherd Spider. What other ap. are referred to ? 
 
 What is the 6th Branch of Zooloqy ? Describe their characteristics 
 and habits? How many orders do they include ? What is the 1st Order? 
 'GiVe the characters, &c., of the Crabs,' or Short-tailed Crustaceans. What 
 sp. are mentioned and what is said of them ? What is said of the Long- 
 tailed or Second Section? What is said of the Shrimps? Of the River 
 ; Prawn? Of the Cray or Craw-fish? Of the Lobster, Astacusniarmua? 
 How.dpes the Common American Lobster compare with it in size ? What 
 sp. of Shrimps are mentioned? What Crabs are included in the 3rd Sec- 
 tion, and what is said of them ? What is tte 2nd Order? What families 
 does it include ? Which is first mentioned ? What is said of it ? Name 
 and describe the ap. referred to ? What is the 2d family mentioned ? What 
 gen. and ap. are named? What is Said of them ? What is the 8rd Order ? 
 What are its characteristics, &c. ? W-hat is said of the Cyclops ? Of the 
 Daphnia? OftheCypris? What is said of the King Crab, or Horse-foot ? 
 Wliat of the Trilobite ? What singular Crustacean is next apoken of? 
 Whatisthq 4th Order? How ranked by the earlier Naturalists? Give 
 their characters, &c. Into what two groups are they divided? What is 
 said of the Barnacles? Of the Atorn-^hells? What i^ the eth OBnER? 
 What is said of them? Name the sp. referred to. 
 
 What is the,7th Branch of Zoolooy ? How was the class Annelidsns 
 arrangedbyOuvier and others? How again by other naturalists ? Give 
 the characters of Red-blooded Worms. Which is the 1st Order?' How 
 distinguished? What Family is first named? How distinguished? What 
 gen. are mentioned? What is said of them? What Family is next men- 
 tione4? Ifepwt what is said of it. Also of the 2nd Family. What is he 
 3d Order? What leading character is noticed? How is the Order di- 
 vided? What is said of the Earth Worms? What of the Leeches? What 
 is the 6th Order? Give the general account. What is the 1st Sub-order? 
 Repeat what is siid of Round Worms. What is said of Booked Worms? 
 What of the Fluke ? Of the Tape-worm? What of the Cystica, or Hyda- 
 tids? Name the White land Red-blpoded worms found upon the Qhart? 
 Bj wh»t foroa are they oiatinguished! Where do the; live ? 
 
PI.XWI. 
 
 ^ — .'a^atl^tMJ 
 
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIL 
 
 1, 2, 3. Bound or Hard Clam, Venius Mercenaria, showing the different 
 parts of a bivalve shell. The wampum*beads were madg of this shell. 
 
 XT. TJmbones or bosses. The swelling part of bivalve shells near the beaks. 
 The highest points of the beaks are the summits. 
 
 L. Lunule, a crescent-like mark or spot near the anterior or posterior slopes 
 in bivalve shells, sometimes called areola. 
 
 D. D. DarSal or superior, border, near the. bgs^^ or beaks. , . 
 
 V, v. Ventral or infenbrborderi or'tJordSr 1^, at the bise of the khell, oppo- 
 site the beaks. 
 
 A, Anterior or oral extremity, the part in which the ligament is not placed. 
 In a univalve it is the greatestdistaiiee from the apex. 
 
 P. Posterior or anal extremity^ that side of the bosses containing the ligament. 
 
 Le. Length in bivalves is taken horizontally, or from the posterior to the an 
 terior margin ; in univalves it is taken perpendicularly or from the 
 apex to the base. -: — 
 
 Disk, the middle part of the valves. 
 
 H. Heighth. T. Thjc^ne^, through the shell from disk to disk., 
 
 Lig. Ligament, ah external substance, uniting the two valvgs, aiid which in 
 fact is the true hinge ; the internal or cartililginous part is often contin- 
 ued between the teeth. . . 
 The hinge is composed of the ligament, the cartilage and the teeth. 
 
 C. Cardinal teeth, i. e. the serratures or dentations beneath the bosses. 
 
 Lat. Lateral teeth, itt th^ sides of the cardihiil t^eth. 
 
 A. imp. Anterior muscular impression. P. imp. Posterior muscular im- 
 pression; these indented marks upon the shell show where the adductor 
 muscles are attached. 
 
 Pal, imp. The Pallial or marginal impression. formed Jjy the mantle of the 
 
 animal. ■•■'.. ' ■''■ 
 
 4. A MiUtiValVe Shell, One compbsed of mSihy pieces, as the Chiton. , 
 
 5. Fasus. A Spindle-shaped Univalve Shell, showing the different parts; 
 Ap. Apex, or posterior part of a univalve shell, the point or nucleus of a 
 
 shell, the top of Limpets and all univftlves^ and the bosses or beaks of 
 
 bivalves. 
 Sp. The Spire includes all the volutions except the body whorl. 
 S. W. Spiral whorls; each Complete turn is termed a, whorl or volution. 
 
 B. W. Body or basal whorl, is th^e last and usd^tly much the lArgeit. 
 
 S. Suture,, the line where the whorls of spiral shells meet or lit into each 
 
 other, r When grooved or furrowed it is said to be canaliculated. 
 Col. Columella or Pillar, the internal support round which the whorls wind. 
 
 C. Lip. Columella, inner or pillar lip, folds o+er the lower part of the'columella. 
 0. Lip. Th6 outer liji is the external edge or termination of the last whorl. 
 
 A. or M. Aperture, mouth or fVont, ttata which the body can protrude. 
 Ca. Canal, groove, or furrow in the beak as m Pufus, Mwex,ke.\ in the 
 
 Buccinum, Harpa, &c., it is only a notch, as in ^g. 8. 
 
 B. Beak, or rostrum, the continuation of the body whorl. 
 B. or A. The base -or anterior part. 
 
 6. A Turbinated Shell, {Pnlvdmdvivipdra,) with the young shells. 
 1, The OpEBcaLtm, (door or cover,) closing the mouth, found in nearly all 
 jpredaceous univalves, and always attached to the foot of the live animlil. 
 8. 2foro, showing a tu;?reted shell, with plaits or folds on the pillar; S, striae ; 
 N. notch at the base, E. ribs, and T. tubercles. 
 9. P%n^ sho#ing the .reverse or sinistral apertuce. . ^. .. 
 
 10. ^xa&i{Hiluaiuat<Ad6ptiiium,) sbowiDgtheieflesedlip<eQdthete«th. 
 
EIGHTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. 
 
 MALACOLOGY. (Gr. futXuKbs, malakos, soft ; Ujfog, logos, 
 discourse.) 
 
 This is the science of the structure and habits of soil animals, 
 or MoUusks. Many of these, from the number, variety, and beauty 
 of their shells, invited attention at an early period, under the 
 name of Conchology, (Gr. konche, a shell ; logos, a discourse;) 
 but in order to a natural classification, and a knovk'ledge of the 
 habits of the class, it was found that the entire animal must be 
 known ; hence, Conchology has been merged in MALACOLoev. 
 
 Thikd Sub-KingBom. MollUsca, (Lat. mollis, soft.) Mollusks. 
 
 The Mollusks are, as a whole, inferior to the Articulates in 
 their organization and faculties, but yet are superior to the Ra- 
 diates, thus ranking as the third series in the Animal Kingdom. 
 
 In their external form, they are exceedingly various. Their' 
 internal parts are always soft, fleshy, moist, and cold; although 
 a small number of them have some solid internal pieces intended 
 for the protection of certain organs. The nervous system, in- 
 stead of being developed in the form of a spinal cord, is com- 
 posed of ganglia and nerves, which are dispersed, more or less 
 irregularly, in different parts of the body, A few species have 
 organs analogous to the ear ; many are furnished with eyes ; but 
 it is not certain that they possess any sense of smell. Many of 
 them appear to have no other organs than those subservient to 
 touch and taste. The sense of feeling is probably most acute in 
 the tentacula. The organs of sense and locomotion are generally 
 arranged with symmetry. The muscles are attached to the 
 skin ; and by the alternate elongation and contraction of certain 
 arts, the animals crawl on the ground, swim on the water, and 
 ay hold of objects ; but, as their limbs are not supported by 
 bones or other solid parts, their motions are usually very slow. 
 They are never furiiisbed with feet arranged in series on each 
 
 h 
 
UAUGOLOfiT. 665 
 
 side of tlid'bddy, as ^n t]ie vertebrates and' insects ; but many 
 ppssfss a fleshy tongue-like appendage, called a*foot, which is 
 used, in some cases, either for progression, as in the snail, or 
 adhesion;, as in the limpet and chiton, (see Chart, and Plate 
 XVII.) The location of this or^an, on the lower part of the body 
 qf univalve MoUusks, (gee figures of Harpa, Buccinum, and a 
 Haliotes, on. the Chart,) suggested the distinctive term for the 
 order,' Gasteropoda. The organs of respiration at'e always dis- 
 tinct, and present the form of gills, i. e., blood-vessels dividing 
 
 : into parallel branches, which ,are brought into contact with the 
 
 i air containedi either in the atmosphere or in the water. 
 : The blood of the MoUusks is white, bluish, or limpid. There 
 is al\yays a heart in them,, but it is singularly placed; indeed, 
 some of them seem to have several hearts. In. no other animals 
 is tlje-circulation more unequal ; but always, however, there are 
 
 , bloodrCEivities into whiQh-the blood-vessels open, and from>:which 
 
 . other vessels arise and diffuse again the blood into the organs. 
 The stom^ph is sometimes simple ; sometimes divided into sev- 
 
 . eral parts; there is always a large liver. 
 
 In some,. the sexes are separated ; and in others united ; all 
 
 ; pf,them_ produce eggs.-j-which, in some cases, are deposited ex- 
 ternally ; in othersr hatched within, so that MoUusks are either 
 
 _ oviparous or ovoviviparous. The young of all have, from the 
 first, nearly the .form which they present when mature. 
 
 The soft, and usually sensitive skin, frequently forms plaits or 
 folds enveloping the body either wholly or iij part,. The portion 
 of covering thus formed, is termed the mantle. If is, often almost 
 entirely free, presenting two large. lamih® or lobes, which cover 
 the rest of the animal, as in the Cypreea;. or the two laminee 
 unite .so as :to form a kind of tube, as in the Solen or Razor- 
 Shell. Sometimes the mantle forms a sort of disk, of which the 
 margins only are free; or it surrounds the body in the form of 
 a bi^g. 
 
 In a large number of MoUusks, the soft skin is protected by a 
 sort of calcareous crustjWhich is secreted from thi^mantle, in 
 deposits of- successive layers, composed of a kind of glutinous 
 substance, rnixed with carbonate of lime, — differing, as Prof. 
 Dana has shown in his admirable work, (see Narrative of Ex- 
 ploring Expedition,) ifrom the Polyps, (Radiates,) — in 'which the 
 limestone portions form a part of the animal, and are not mere 
 excretory matter, resembling shell. Sometimes the whole shell 
 appears to be borny, but most commonly the calcareous pqrtion 
 predoininates, aod the inner surface is more compact'than the 
 other. .; 
 
dd6 itkiAc6L6&i. 
 
 In sotno cases, the Shell iS interhsl, of lodged to the sfaa, kit, 
 generally, it) is External, and affords complete ptBtection to the 
 animal. 
 
 Mollusks which, like the Cuttle-fish, (stefe Chart,) have fio 
 outer shell, are Said to he pdked ; thos6 havitig a shell, are 
 called Testaee<Ais or Conthiferous. The shell varies in form, 
 the shape heing determined by the aniinal itself. Sometimes 
 it resembles a Shield that covers the back of th6 MolluSk, 
 but more frequently it is like a tednical tUbfe spirally twisted; 
 or it may be composed of twq distinct pieces unitfed by a joint ; 
 hence, the arrangement of these animals into Univalves and 
 Bivilves. The first, or the Mollusca Cepha'lata, have a dis. 
 tinot head, Bearing lips, or jaws, and are furnidheSd with eyeg 
 and tentacula; thte Bivalv^si or the Mollusca acephala, have 
 a more simplis organization. These have no distinct head, 
 and are ddstitute of jaVvs, and oth^r hard parts of a mouth. 
 The shells are often ornamented with colot-s variously dis. 
 posed, the animals themselves being furnished with the materials 
 for beautifying as well as constructing theif outward cover- 
 ings. ,The skih is full of pores, containing colored fluids, which, 
 penetrating the calcareous substance before it hardens, form its 
 variegated tints. The regularity of the markings is admirable. 
 It is accounted for by the fact, that the por^s containing the col- 
 ored matter are arranged in the skin of Mollusks with undeViktihg 
 order, as the spots upon the leopard, or the stripes upon the tiger. 
 When the liquid exudes, it stains the shell ; and the uniformity 
 of pattern in the shell results from the oi'der in which the pores 
 are placed in the mantle. The numerous spines or digitations 
 found in many of the shells, (see Murex and Ptertjtieras, on the 
 Chart,) are formed by the prolongations of the mantle bearing 
 upon its edges the material for this calcareous deposit. 
 
 The parts of a univalve shell, are (I) the body or lower part; 
 (2) the spire or tapering/ portion; (3) the turns or lohorls; 
 {when the lower whorls of the spire are pressed into the body 
 whorl or turn, they are said to be retmej) (4) the suture or line 
 of junction- of the turns; (5) the columellar or pillar, the axis of 
 the shell ; (6) the mouth or aperture with its pertstone or margin, 
 which may be complete or not, ,find may be described as forming 
 an outer lif, and an inner Zip; (7) the lid or oj)erc«Sj?*», (from 
 operior, to cover,) — the plate or door With which some species 
 close the aperture. The spiral turns may be smooth, or vari- 
 ously marked with striae, laminse, ribs, nodosites, or spines, the 
 markings being longitudinal or transverse. In its natural posi- 
 tion, the mouth is beneath and forward, the spire pointing back- 
 
KALACOLO&t. 66t 
 
 wards and to the Hght sidei Some shells hate the mouth on the 
 left side and are called sinistral ; those of the ordinary form have 
 the mouth on the right side, and are called dextrat. 
 
 Bivalve shells are composed of two pieces, kept togiether by 
 a sort of hinge. When the two Valves are equal, the shell is said 
 to be equivalve ; when unequal^ unequivalve. They may be 
 round, elliptical, ovate, linear, or of various forms. The more or 
 less prominent part of the valve at the joint, is the umba. When 
 the umbo is nearly in the middle, the shell is said to be isomer'al 
 or equilateral; •when not, anisomeral or inequilateral. The 
 hirige may be plain, but it generally presents various promi- 
 nences, called teeth, with depressions, the teeth of one valVe filling 
 the depressions of another. The valves are fkrther kept together 
 by an elaistic fibrous ligament' which tends to throw them open. 
 They are brought near to each other by a pair of Strong muscles 
 •extended internally from one valve to the other, and leaving 
 strong impressions on the inner surface. The teeth are distin- 
 guished into cardinal or central, and lateral. The swrfaee may 
 be convex in Various degrees; concentrically striate-, laminate, or 
 rugose, or radiated from the umbones (or b6ss@s) with striee, 
 ridges, grooves, ribs or spines In the natural po^itioh, the hinge 
 is uppermost on the back; that end of the Shell to which the lig- 
 ament is nearest, is above, dnd is called the posterior end ; the 
 other or lower, toward which is the head of the animal, is the 
 anterior end ; the thin edges of the valves are their ventral mar- 
 gins. Gn the inner surface of the valves are seen the impres- 
 sions made by the muscles, and that left by the mantle. (See 
 figures of Plate XVII. together With the explanations of thfe 
 same.) , 
 
 Some shells, as the Pearl Oyster, -Avicula margarit^era, the 
 Pinna and the Mbdiola, (see Chart,) fix themselves by Silky fila- 
 ments called a byssus; some by a sort of cement, as the Oyster, 
 {Ostrea;) others by forming a vacuum, as the Patella or 
 I^inipet, and still others , attach themselves to rocks by the 
 same substance as that of which the shells are made, as the 
 Vermetus. The shells, which by any of these means are ren- 
 dered stationary, are called fined shells, subsisting upon the 
 little animals which are brought near by the motion of the 
 water; tfie other shells are palled free. Mollusks are also (1) 
 terrestrial.. These, feed on yegetablesi have always four ten- 
 tacula, 'and their eyes placed at the tip of these organs ; (3) 
 fluviatile or fresh-water shells, that have only two tentacula, 
 whiish are flat, and have eyes at the base ; (B) Marine, which are 
 most numerous, most beautiful, and most Jiighly prized. We 
 
668 MAL^' ;OLOGY. 
 
 find the shell and the habits of the MoUusks wisely adapted to the 
 situations which they occupy. 
 
 Some that belong to rapid streams, have an exceedingly hard 
 and substantial shell, adapted to contend with the most boisterous 
 elements. Others, by their very levity, are enabled to float on 
 the surface of the water, and offering no resistance, are carried 
 along on the surface of the waves. The Pinna anchors itself by 
 its hyssus to rocks, and thus is secure against all dangers. Oth- 
 ers, as the Nautilus and Argonaut, by adding to the weight of 
 their bark, can descend and seek a shelter in the ocean's bed. 
 There are numerous and beautiful contrivances for their pre. 
 servation. Breaches will, however, sometimes be made in the 
 outer coverings ; but these they have the power to repair, by ex- 
 uding a calcareous matter similar to that with which the shell 
 was first constructed. They are peculiarly abundant in warm 
 climates; being larger and more brilliantly colored, the greater 
 the light and heat to which they are subjected. Including the 
 soft, naked species, as well as those protected by a hard calcare- 
 ous shell, it is believed the number of species will not fall short 
 often or twelve thousand, and this, exclusive of the fossil species, 
 which are thought to be still more numerous. It is said there 
 are scarcely eight hundred living shells found in the Mediterra- 
 nean, or on the French shores of the Atlantic Ocean, but more 
 than twelve hundred fossil shells have been found in that stratum 
 of limestone in which the city of Paris is built, and of which 
 .such extensive deposits exist in the neighborhood. " In that 
 single stratum is found,! at this day, one third more fossil shells 
 that^live on the whole extent of the French shores." (Agassiz.) 
 
 We had designed to follow this general description of the 
 Mollusks, with explanations of the various sub-divisions, after the 
 manner adopted in the preceding sub-kingdoms; but already 
 this voliime has swelled far beyond the limits originally assigned 
 to it. Hence, we are constrained to close our account of shells 
 here, referring to the Plates found In this work, and to the Chart, 
 with its numerous figures and explanations, for further illustra- 
 tions; also to Manuals of Conchology, already published, until, 
 if circumstances should' hereafter warrant, we may be able to 
 prepare a volume in which the Articulates, Mollusks, and Radi- 
 ates, shall be presented in a manner corresponding in fullness to 
 the view herein presented of the Vertebrates. 
 
 What is the Eighth Branch of Zoology ? Of frhat does it treat ? TTnder 
 mhat name was the science of shells formerly known f Why was it 
 
MALACOLOay. 669 
 
 changed? Which is the Third Sot-Kingdom?! What is said of their ex- 
 ternal form? Of the internal parts? What of the nervous system? Of 
 thwifi organs of. sense? To what are the muscles attached f Hitw are the 
 animals euabled to prawi, swim, &c.? Why are their motions very slow? 
 W hat is said of the organs of respiration ? Of the . blood, stomich &c. ? 
 What is meant by the mantle? How does it vary ? How is the skin in 
 many MoUusks protected S Is the shell always external ? • Wl at are thosfe 
 called which have no shell? , What those which have a shell? How is the 
 ^hape of the shell determined? Whence the divisions into Univalves and 
 Bivalves? What other names have these divisions received? What is 
 .said of them? What is said of the coloring of shells? Name the parts of 
 a Univalve Shell, &c. Give the explanation 6f Bivalve shells as furnished 
 by the text and Plate XVII? What are Jited shells? What are free 
 shells ? What other division of the Mollusks are given ? What is said of 
 the adaptation of the shell and habits of Mollusks to their respective situa- 
 tions ? In what climate are they most abuhdant and most brilliantly col- 
 ored? Wh^t is said of the number of species? 
 
 3. Whit is meant by thebyssus? Ans., fibres or silky threads, by which 
 a few mollusks attach themselves to various fixed substances. That of the 
 Fiuna is by the Scicilians called lanapenna, and by them combed, spun, and 
 converted into gloves, stockings, and various but expensive ' articles, which 
 are said to vie with the finest sCSju. , 
 
 In the year 1Y64, a pair of stockings were presented to Pope Benedict 
 yV:, which, from'their extreme fineness, were enclosed in a small box, about 
 the size of i one for holding snuff. The Pinna has been properly termed, 
 ■" The Silk Worm of the Ocean.", y ', 
 
EXPLANATION OF 1*LATE XVUL 
 
 CiAS3 EohinodermS. ■ ' 
 
 rig. 1. Sea-Slug or Sea-Cucamber, Oucumaria frondosa, a Holothnrian 
 eaten by the Chinese ; a, the branching tentacula which surronud and 
 fringe the. jnouth; b, the five rows of perforations for the Bucker-lilte 
 feet i c, t^? vent. 
 
 I*ig. 2. Sea-egg or Sea-urchin; the vent at the a(>ex. The mouth is beneath 
 and central. The large tubercles in wide rows support the large spines • 
 the small perforations are for the passage of the sucker-like feet which 
 assist in locomotion. 
 
 Fig. 3. Five-finger, radiated Star-fish, or CrosS-fish, Asterias ( Uraster) tan- 
 guinolenta; n, the eigre spots at the extremity of each t-ay. 
 
 Fig. i. r^terias (U'r<ister)rttbens ; a, bothmouthand vent on the under tide. 
 
 Fig.^. Pentagonal Star-fish, Aateriaa teniel'ittaL 
 
 Fig. 6. Medusa's-head, Gorgohoeephalws,, Or Eii'ry'ale, having five armsi 
 ^hich in some individuals branch off into 5^000 filaments. 
 
 Fig. 1. Pentacrinw) Briarewf, — '8, shows the head and arms ; b, the tippe* 
 part, half the natural size, with the arms enttf ined around tht plated 
 integument of the abdominal cavity, which terminates above by a sort 
 of proboscis. 
 
 xiig. 8. Stone Lily, Lily Encrinite, Snerinua liliiformit. 
 
 Glass Acai.:efh. 
 
 Fig. 9. Hhhostoma Chmieri; a common jellyrfish of European seas; a, 
 
 pedunculated mass dependlqg from four roots in the> center. 
 Fig. 10. Lymnorea triedra; a, side view;'b, view frOm above jc. Bight 
 
 finely divided appendages surroundmg the long center proboscis. 
 Fig. 11. Rhodophi/sa helianthua; a, the short bladder-like body ; b, rib-like 
 
 gelatinous bodies, from which filamentous processes, c, depend. 
 Fig. 12. Callianira triploptera; a, wing-shaped appendages fringed with 
 
 a double row of vibratifig cilia ; b, a pair of long, branched, tentaca- 
 
 lar-like appendages ; o, tubular body. 
 
 Class Phtiozoa, or Polyps. 
 
 Fig. 13. Sea Anemone, Actinia. 
 
 Fig. 14. Hj/drafusca, a common fresh water polyp, highly magnified. 
 
 Fig. 15. Garyophylka, with two series of numerous tentacula putting forth 
 from multiradiate cells. 
 
 Fig. 16. Warty Gorgonia, orWarted Sea-Fan, Oorffonia verriicosa ; a, rep- 
 resents the sucker-like feet ; b, the same magnified. 
 
 Fig. 17. Sea-pen, Pennatula grisea. The branches put out on each side of 
 the central axis, like the barbs of a feather ; on these branches the 
 Polyps are situated, and by their tentacula its course seems to be di- 
 rected. 
 
 Fig. 18. Madrepora abratanoides ; a, twelve tentacles protruding from deep 
 cells. 
 
 Fig. 19. Thick tentacled Fungia, swarming with numerous tentacula, all 
 belcsiging to one animal. 
 
 Fig. 20. Mingia patellarisy Mushroom coral. 
 
 Class Protozoa. 
 
 Fig. 21. Rhiiopods, Low forms allied to moUusks by their shells, as Fora- 
 
 minifera, he. 
 Fig. 22. Polygastrica, (Animalcules, or microscopic animals.) 
 Fig. 28. Sponges Sponjiia; a and b, sponges of commerce; o, tube sponge. 
 
]pii.:xvnr. 
 
 E C H I N D E R M S 
 
FOURTH SUB-KINGDOM. 
 
 IIADIATES. (Lat. radius, a ray.) 
 
 This includes animals so named from the arrangement of tke 
 parts rouod an axis ^^pmewhat.as in plants ; hence they were 
 called by Cuyier,^ooPHYTES, P(ant-like aiiimals. These intro- 
 duce us to the 
 
 NINTH BRANCH OF ZOOLOGY. 
 
 AcTiNQ^SXj (Gr, axTly, aktin, a ray ; ioyis^ logos, a discourse. 
 
 Ray-like Animals. 
 
 The terms which are here employed are not, by any means, 
 equally applicable to all the beings included in this last sub-divis- 
 ion of the Animal Kingdom. While in some of Ijhein;^ the radia^ted 
 arrangement of the parts is very easily seen, in others it pan 
 be'^raced only by a close microscopic examination. Agassizsays 
 it can be perceived in all vt'ith ^^ sufficient observation." Such 
 are the differences of form and in the degree of organization 
 among the Radiates, that instead of un(lertaking to present addi- 
 tional charactersj describing them as a whple, we sjiall at once 
 proceed to consider the four classes into which they are divided. 
 
 I. EcHiNODERSis, (Gr. sx^vas, echinos, a sea-urchin ; ^iQ/^a, 
 derma, skin.) 
 
 These arf! all marine, aijd characterized by having a well or. 
 ganized skin, under which or attached to which are often found 
 plates of solid matter, forming a kind of skeleton, and some- 
 times joiued together like the stones of a pavement. They 
 have a digpftive ap4.v«Lscular systeipii? A circular nervous sys. 
 
674 BOLOTHUBIDEA. 
 
 tem lias been detected in many of the species. Some of them 
 have the bodies raised upon a footstalk, the base of which is 
 fixed; others have no pedicle, and can move freely, though 
 slowly along the bottom. Of the latter kind the Star-iSsh, Aste- 
 Has, is an^example, which drags its slow pace along with the 
 aid of more than eight hundred suckef-like feet. At the 
 
 the extremity of the rays are dots, which, ' according to Ehren- 
 burg, are eyes. The Echinoderms usually have the mouth 
 armed with hard bony teeth. Both the mouth and the gullet are, 
 in the Star-fish, extremely dilatable, and admirably fitted for se- 
 curing the Crustaceans and Shell-fish upon which they feed. 
 When the prey is over large, the gullet, together With part of the 
 stomach, can be protruded and turned over so as to draw the de. 
 sired food into the cavity. In this way, shell-fish are swallowed 
 wt^le by these animals; living specimens have sometimes been 
 taken out of the cavity. 
 
 The sudden and violent dismemberment by which many of the 
 Echinoderms save their central disk at the expense of their rays ' 
 or arms, is a striking peculiarity; the length of time during ' 
 which these severed parts still continue to be endowed with mo- 
 tion, is also remarkable. These animals have 'great power of 
 reproducing lost parts, but they do not seem to be able to increase 
 individuals by gemmatioh, as m the Acaleph^ and ProtoziAi. 
 
 First Order. HoLOTHURfDEA, (Gr. dloOoiQiov, holoihourion.) 
 Sea-Slugs, or Sea-Ctjctjmbers. 
 
 These animals have a more or less lengthened and sometimes 
 worm-like body; it' is soft; leathery and contractile, with earthy 
 matter deposited about the mouth, but without any outer shell. 
 When irritated, the contractile poWer of the body seems; to be , 
 increased. The general form is quite- variable. Over the. body 
 are spread numerous pores for the secretion of mucus, and per- 
 forations for the exit of the sucker-like feet. When not generayy 
 distributed, these latter organs are arranged in five rows or fur- 
 rows, representing what are fancifully termfed ambulacra or ave- 
 nues. The mouth is bordered with tentacles which can be 
 withdrawn. Mariners have named these animals Sea-Cucum- 
 bers, from the resemblance of their form ahd prickly surface to 
 the garden cucumber. Of the genus Cucumaria, there are sev- 
 eral species, differing in quality, known among th^ Malays un- 
 der the name of Trepang, or Biche-de-mer.- Commodore Wilkes,' 
 (Exploring Expedition,) says " the most esteemed kinds are found ■ 
 on the reefs in water, one or two fathoms deep, and are caught 
 
ECHINIDEA. 675 ■ 
 
 by divii^. The natives also fish the Uche-de-mer on rockj^ co- 
 ral bottom by the light of the moon or of torches, for the animals 
 keep themselves drawn up in holes by day, and come forth by 
 night to feed, when they may be taken in great numbers. The 
 motions of the animal resemble those of a caterpillar, and it 
 feeds by sucttori, drawing in with its food much fine coral and 
 some small shells. 
 
 The prepared article fiiids a ready sale in the China market, 
 where it is used as an ingredient in soups. When brought on 
 shore, the animals are placed in bins where they remain the next 
 day; the entrails are then riemoved ; the larg-er kinds are cut along 
 the under part for three or four inches ta make them dVy more 
 rapidly ; then thrown intoi pots of the form of sugar boilers, con- 
 taining from one hundred to one hundred and fifty gallons, and 
 boiled fifteen or twenty minutes, after which they are thoroughly 
 dried in a large building. This process makes the slug lose 
 two-thirds of its weight and bulk. When cured it resembles 
 smoked sausage. The biche-de-mer is sometimes taken to Can- 
 ton, but more usually to Manilla, whence it is shippedto China." 
 
 Sometimes it is as much as two feet in length, and from seven 
 to eight inches 'in circumference; but a span long, and two or 
 three inches in circumference is the ordinary size. 
 
 Second Order. Echinidea, (Gr.exTvog, echinos^ a sea-urchin ; 
 elSog, eidos, form.) Sea- Urchins or Sea- Eggs. 
 
 These furnish complete examples of the type of ra^ated ani- 
 mals. Their hard covering and' habits of living in the sand have 
 preserved them in many rooky strata, so that, in their fossil as 
 well as living forms, they are objects of interest to the naturalist. 
 Their usually oval or circular form has suggested for them the 
 name of Sea-eggs, Their more or less rounded form, without 
 . any arms, distinguishes themi from other Echinoderms. Within 
 their integumejit calcareous matter is deposited, forming a series 
 of regular plates, studded with tubercles which are jointed with 
 spines varying in form and size, according to the genus to which 
 they belong. These spines " have a beautiful microscopic struc- 
 ture, being composed of cells which are arranged around a com- 
 mon center, almost in tiie same manner as the zones of wood in 
 a tree." The plates run in vertical rows or avenues, twenty, in 
 number, two of which are wide and two narrow, alternately, the 
 tubercles! of the wide pair supporting the larger spines ; the nar- 
 row ones have vertical rows of minute perforations,, which allow 
 the passage of the sucker-like feet, that in. addition, to the spines, 
 
676 AST£BIDEA. 
 
 perform the office of locomotioq. Thfl ovarium-holes are ^itH- 
 ated on the apex, and from these (he eggs are extruded. The 
 forms c>f this order vary from that of the Cake-Ubphins, Scutella, 
 (Lat. a salver,) slightly convex above, to the sub-globular 
 EcMntts, (Plate XVIII- fig. 2.) This, with pther genera having 
 large spines, is fpund on the bottom of thg sea ; while the Cake- 
 Urchins, having short, bristly spines, burrow in sand. 
 
 The Peart- Ukchin, Spatangus, (Gr. spatangos, a kind of sea- 
 urchin,) has a thin, delicate shell, of a lengthened, gibbous form,. 
 with the vent posterior and placed ppon the upper surface, (see 
 Chart,) The structure of the mouth in the Sea-urchin deserves 
 special notice. It is formed of ten series of hard plates, fur- 
 nished with teeth wh(ich are moYed by very distinct muscles, and 
 put iri. motion by £i complicated nervous system; armed also 
 with five jaws so arranged as to correspond with the ten series of 
 plates. So powerful are these ja^s that they are able to crush 
 shell-fishes and the hardest bodies. According to Agassiz, a 
 more complicated organization is scarcely to be found in the 
 Animal Kingdom. T|ie mechanism of these five jaws, with 
 their singular array of arphed teeth, Aristotle compared to a 
 lantern ; hence the Echinus has been called '^Aristotle's Lapf ' 
 tern." __ . ' 
 
 Professor Forbes' informs us that "in a moderate sized urchin, 
 there are sixty -two rows of pores in each of the ten avenues ; 
 and as there are three pairs of pores in each row, the total num- 
 ber of pores is 3720 ; but as each sucker occupies a pair of pores 
 in each row, the total number of suckers is 186(Ji*' He says 
 also that "there are above three hundred plates of one kind, and 
 nearly as many of another, all dovetailing together with the 
 greatest nicety and regularity, bearing on their surface above 
 four thousand spines, each spine perfect in itself, and of a com- 
 plicated structure, and having a free movement in its socket." 
 "Truly," he adds, "the skill of the Great Architect of Nature 
 is not less displayed in the construction of a sea-urchin, than in 
 the building of a world." 
 
 Third Oedek. Astebidea, (Gr. aari^, aster, a star; eiJoj^ 
 
 i eidos, a form.) Stae-Fjshes. 
 
 j 
 
 ' This order of Radiates is distinguished by having' the body 
 more or less lobed, and- the lobes chaneled beneath for cirrhi, 
 which act as suckers, and are organs of motion. In some 
 genera the arms, instead of having lateral cirrhi or filaments, 
 separate into branches. The Euryale or Gwgonocephabts, (Gr. 
 
CKINOIDEi. 677 
 
 gorgon-headed,) (see Chart,<i) is remarkable for its five arms divid- 
 ing into pairs of branches, which terminate in curled filaments, 
 and form a sort of net work. So numerous are these branches, 
 it is said, they may number eight thousand in' one individual. 
 
 The Star-fish, Asterias,hsLS almost innumerable perforations 
 through which the cuppina-glass feet protrude, enabling the ani- 
 rnal to crawl up a surface as smooth as glass^ and also assisting 
 it to hold its prey. The rays are so much enlarged as to become, 
 on that account, less flexible, and not so well fitted for locomo- 
 tion, but for this the animal is compensated by numerous per- 
 forations and feet. A. aurantica has 840. 
 
 The ScuTELLATED Stak-fish, a. scuteJlata, has an angular 
 body, the lobes or rays of which are short, not exceeding the 
 diameter of the disk ; other species have a body furnished with 
 elongated rays, whose diameter exceeds the diameter of the disk. 
 The genijs Ophiura, (Gr. ophis, a serpent; oura, a tail,) in its 
 long, slender arms, shows a resemblance to the tail of a serpent, 
 (see Chart.) These arms are flexible ; and by giving them a 
 waving motion, the animal is able to swim. A number of spe- 
 cies of St^r-fish are found on our coast, — some of which have 
 proved very destructive to the oyster beds. The Providence 
 (R. I.) Journal, in reference to some in that vicinity, says, "It is 
 impossible to estimate the injury that has been done by the Star- 
 fish ; probably not less than twenty thousand bushels of oysters 
 have been destroyed, — and unless it disappears, oystermen will 
 hardly be willing to plant their beds." 
 
 Fourth Order. Crinoidea, (Gr. «qii>ov, krinon, a lily ; elSog, 
 eidos, form.) Encbinites. 
 
 This order includes species by far the larger portion of which 
 are extinct, but which are found abundantly in limestone or the 
 lower rocks. In the fossil state, they are known by the name 
 of Encrinites, — a name suggested by the stony stem, and a 
 crovyn of rays bending in eigmqid curves, like the Greek letter 
 sigma, ((T,) resembling " the stalk and elegant bell-shaped blossom 
 of a liliaceous flower." The living species are very rare. The 
 form of the body is oval or cup-like, protecting the internal soft 
 parts, and composed of numerous plates. The arms are five or 
 more in number, simple or branched, with lateral jointed append- 
 ages, and situated around the upper margin of the body, the 
 mouth being placed between them. It is when the arms are 
 closed that some of the species assume a lily-like appearance. 
 (See Encrinus UUiformis, on the Chart.) The joints comppsing 
 
 28 
 
678 ACAIiEFBS. 
 
 the rounded stem have perforations in their cavities by which 
 they can be strung as beads, "which," says Dr. Buckland, 
 (Bridge water Treatise,) "caused them in ancient times to be 
 used as rosaries." In the northern parts of England, they are 
 still called "St. Cuthbert's beads." They are also known' by 
 the name of Wheel Stones. 
 
 The Pentacrinus Europceus, found in the Irish coast, is now 
 considered to be the young of the Rosy-feathered Star-fish, Conu 
 attita. (See Chart.) 
 
 The P. Briareus,'{see Chart,) is a fossil species, having great 
 lenetl| of stem and numerous side-arms, — whence the speciHc 
 nairter; It is frequently found in contact with masses of drifted 
 wood. (See PI. XVIU.) 
 
 The Pear-shaped EnCrinite, Apiocrinites, (Gr. apion, a pear,) 
 rotundus, is so named from the form of its body. The figures 
 on the Chart represent it with its expanded and closed arms. It 
 is fixed by a jointed peduncle. The surfaces of the joints of the 
 vertebral column are striated with rays. 
 
 The Pentacrinites have pentagonal stems, aiid are found in the 
 more recen't strata. Besides the species found in the Bay of 
 Cork, above referred to, a larger one, Holopus, (Gr. holos, whole ; 
 pons, foot,) rangei, is found in the West Indian seas. 
 
 Second Class. Acalefhs, (Gr. axaXrj^i;, dkaliphe, a nettle.) 
 
 This class derives its name from the stinging power possessed 
 by a large portion of the animals composing it, and sometimes in 
 so high a degree as to be a terror to bathers. They are known 
 by the names Sea-Nettles, Medusa, Sea-Jellies, &c. Having 
 the power of free motion, they float in all seas, especially those 
 of the, warmer latitudes. They are not like the Echinoderms, 
 enclosed in a thick integument; but, on the other hand, one of 
 their most striking peculiarities is their extreme softness. Some 
 of them attain considerable size, but almost all are without any 
 intek'nal support or skeleton. Their soft tissues give them the 
 appearance of a mass of jelly, — a mere net work of animal fila- 
 ments, the intermediate spaces of which are filled up with sea. 
 water. Hence, although some of the largest reach the size of 
 two feet, and a weight of fifty or sixty pounds, yet, when they are 
 dried, the pounds become grains. Many of the Medusse are ex. 
 tremely beautiful, reflecting the prismatic rays., DeBlainville 
 represente their form as "nearly always circular, sometimes dis- 
 coidal or spheroidal, but most frequently hemispherical." 
 They quite commonly have a form like that of our umbrellas; 
 
^ TOLMONIGE^ES. 679 
 
 the oeatral part being thickest, and the under surface concave. 
 In some cases, cirri or tentacles, varypg in length, form, and 
 nvftnber, are attached to- the circumference. Some of the tenta- 
 cles have a colored spot (thought to be an eye) at their base. It 
 is quite certain that they are sensible to light. Some of the 
 smaller Medusae have been "known to shun a bright light, and 
 to sink into deep water to avoid it." The chief seat of touch 
 seems to be ia the tentacula or cirri, which are also capable of 
 wonderful expansion and retraction. Many of these Medusse 
 make no sign when wounded in the umbrella or disk. The food, 
 consisl^ing of small fishes and marine animals, is conveyed to the. 
 mouth, not by the tentacles and cirri alone, but also probably 
 by contractions in the disk. These animals appear, in most cases, 
 to be bisexual, i, e., the two sexes are often united in the same 
 individual. Like some other lower organization?, they have 
 the power of producing their offspring by gemmation, " Fancy/* 
 says Prof. Forbes, ^'an Elephant with a number of little 
 Elephants sprouting from his shoulders and thighs,— bunchea 
 of tusked monsters hanging epaulette-fashion from his flanks in 
 every state of advancement. The comparison seems grotesque 
 and absurd, but it really expresses what occurs among our 
 Naked-eyed Medusae." 
 
 The phosphoresQent or luminous appearance of the sea, and 
 which is shown in Southern latitudes with such brilliancy and 
 beauty, is to be chiefly ascribed to multitudes of these animals. 
 
 First Order. Pulmonigrades. (Lat. ■pulmo, a lung ; gradior, 
 to advance.) Medusa or Jelly-fish. 
 
 The name of this order above given, refers to the contractile 
 and expansive power of the umbrella-shaped disk .belonging to 
 the animal which it includes, and which inthe exercise of this 
 power, resembles the breathing lungs. The order is also, with 
 reference to the umbrella or disk, named Discophora, (disk- 
 bearing.) As illustrating this order, we simply refer to the 
 genera and species noticed on the Chart, with thei figures and 
 explanations there given. 
 
PH7S0GBADA.. 
 
 Second Ordek. Phtsograda. (Gr. (fva&m, pkusad, to inflate ; 
 Lat. gradior, to advance ;) or Siphonophora, (Gr. OKpav, 
 siphon, a pipe or sucker, giogiia, phoreo, to bear.) 
 
 This order is composed of animals which are supported and 
 capable of moving in the water, by the possession of one or more 
 bladders, which they inflate with air at will. With reference to 
 this means of support, Guyier called them Hydrostatic Acalepha. 
 When several air-bladders existj instead of a single large, one, 
 they are usually aflixed to the same stalk, like currants upon 
 the stem, and rise out of the tentacular apparatus. 
 
 The PoRTUGiTEsE Man-of-War, Physalis, (Gr. water-bubble,) 
 pelagica, {Physalitt pelngica. Linn.) This noted Acaleph (for 
 which see Chart,) has a very large air-vessel, beneath which the 
 digestive apparatus is arranged. The sac is surrounded by a 
 sort of crest or sail, which is usually elevated entirely above the 
 water, when the animal is floating at the surface. It has a 
 small oriiice at each end, from which the air can be expellei 
 when the animal wishes ia sink, and it is distended whea it 
 wishes to rise. From the under side of the air-sac hangs a mass' 
 of flaak-shaped tentacular appendages terminated by suckers, and 
 sometimes hanging down like fish-lines, to an extent of fifteen or 
 sixteen feet. This creature possesses an active stinging power, 
 and is also very contractile, so that it is able to draw up its prey. 
 It would seem the short suckers are attached to the bodies, of the 
 entrapped animals, and that the Physalis derives its nourishment 
 by imbibing their juices through tiie poresof its numerous cirk 
 
 The Physophora, (Gr. bladder-bearer,) Mmonema, has two 
 series of vesicles, and very numerous tentacles and filaments. 
 (See Chart.) 
 
 The Rhizqphysa, (Gr. root-bladder,) has a very contractile 
 body with an aid-bladder at one extremity, a/id is provided 
 throughout . its length with tentacular appendages covered oi: 
 mingled with filaments. (See Chart for hgme of R. filiformis.) 
 
 The Apolemia Urania has an elongated worm-like body pos- 
 sessing in the fore part two rows of numerous swimming organs, 
 and behind solid scaly organs, between which come forth tenta- 
 cle-like cirri furnished with vermifprm suckers. 
 
 The Rhodophysa, (Gr. rhodon, a rose ; phusa, a bladder,) heU- 
 anthus, (Gr. sun-flower,) has a short cylindrical and fleshy body, 
 swollen above into an air-bladder, and hfiVing below a number 
 of gelatinous rib-like formations with appended filaments. (See 
 Chart and PI. 3f VIII. fig. 11.) 
 
CILIO&Bi£DA-- «ISaiGBADA. 681 
 
 t 
 
 THinD ORDEft. CiiAocfEADA. '(Lat. cfZifl, eye-lashes, or vibratile 
 hairs ; gradior, to advance,) or Ctenophoea, (Gr. icTeig, kteis, 
 a comb ; tfoqiot, to bear.) 
 
 This order is named from its flat phosphorescent vibrillsB or 
 rows of cilia, arranged lengthwise upon the surface of the body, 
 "and by means of which it is propelled thtough the water. It is 
 supposed by some that the cilia are organs of breathing as well 
 as of locomotion. The genus Beroe varies in form from globular 
 to cylindrical ; the cilia also vary in length and position. The 
 species B. dvdta, (Lat. egg-shape!d,) exhibits the greatest celerity 
 in the mbvelmerit of its delicate organs, and the most beautiful 
 variety of colors, (see 'Chart,) as these organs play to and fro in 
 the rays of the sun. The Oval-shaped body is Open at the large 
 etid, transparent, and of a firm gelatinotiS consistence ; easily 
 fcohtractirig and widening, but always open and expanded when 
 in motion. The species Beroe, (Cydippe,) pileus, (Lat. a cap or 
 hat,) has a regular body divided into eight sections by rows of 
 cilia. From an internal OSVity issue a pair of long retractile 
 appendages, (see Chart,) furnished with vibratory cilia. These 
 beautiful forms are said not often to exceed three inches and a 
 half in length, and two inches and a half in the transverse 
 diameter. Callianyra triploptera, (Gr. triple-Winged,) seems in 
 its ^trticture and general char&dter, not far removed from Betbe. 
 It ^has two palir 5f winged-shaped appendages, fringed With a 
 double row of filaments tpon the edges. (Plate XVllI. fig. 12.) 
 
 The Girdle of Ventts, Cesfum Veneris, has a ribbon-shaped 
 body, (see Chart,) sometimes six or eight feet long, its breadth 
 ndt being as many inches. The margins are fringed with beau- 
 tifully colored phosphorescent Oilia, Which at night gives it the 
 appearance of a band of flame ih motion along the water. Some 
 naturalists add a 
 
 FouETH Gbdee. Ciuhiobada. (Lat. oirr^ looks or tufts ; gra- 
 dior, to advance.) 
 
 In this order the form is discoidal, and thei-e is an iritetiial dis- 
 coidal skeleton distinguishing these aninislls from the Pulmoni- 
 grades. They are iiaftied frbtti the cirri Which are attached to 
 the disk upon which the OrgaWs are arranged. Some of the cirri 
 are tubular and famished with Sudkers. The Velella, (Lamarck,) 
 in addition to the oval, sub-cartilaginous skeleton, is surmounted 
 by a vertical and oblique crest. This form is widely diffused. 
 The animals are met with far Out at sea, often in considerable 
 masses. Sailors are said to fry and eat them. 
 
682 FHYTOZOA. 
 
 Third Class. Phytozoa, or Zoophyta. (Gr. q>vTov,phuton, a 
 plant; ISov, aoo/i.) Plant-like Animals. 
 
 The larger part of the animals composing this class are ma. 
 rine, — some species are fixed to the soil. None of them are 
 properly free, swimming animals, although some of them can 
 move at will from their location. ' Portions of them are uncon. 
 nected with others, — independent and single ; others are joined in 
 large societies, having the . base of the stems in union. Some 
 have no hard-support ; others secrete a stony skeleton, termed 
 corallum, (coral,) thus constructing the well-known coral reefs 
 and islands, — modifying "the shades of the ocean's depth, and 
 forming whole mountain ranges." , The corals cannot properly 
 be regarded as the shells with which the animals cover them, 
 selves, the hard parts being, in reality, a part of the internal 
 structure. Prof. Dana, in his magnificent and standard work 
 on the Zoophytes, — says "the corallum is entirely concealed 
 within the polyp, as completely as the skull of an animal beneath 
 its fleshy covering. All corals are more or less cellular, and 
 through the cellules, the ^imal tissues extend." In some in- 
 stances, however, the coral is exposed, i. e., when the increase 
 occurs from a terminal secretion upon a separate stem. As the 
 stem increases in length above, the part below dies. This in. 
 crease and disappearance of vitality above and below are com- 
 mon ; and thus are formed the huge masses of coral. The most 
 common species engaged in the production of coral banks, are 
 the Meandrina labyrinthica, (Brain Coral,) the Caryophyllk, 
 Madrepom, Porites, and Astrea, especially the latter. (See 
 . Chart. ) A solid dome of the Astrea, twelve feet in diameter, has, 
 according to Prof. Dana, a living exterior not more than a half or 
 three-fourthsof an inch in thickness. "It is a well-known fact," 
 he says, (Silliman's Journal, Jan., 1837,) that qorals cannot grow 
 above the surface of the water ; and that reef-building corals 
 cannot grow at a greater depth than from ten to twelve fathoms, 
 or above the surface of the water at low tide ; therefore a coral 
 reef cannot be more thaji sixty or seventy feet thick." As a 
 condition of coral growth, "the sea-water must be pure and 
 transparent. Corals will not grow, therefore, on muddy shores, 
 or in water upon the bottom of which sediment is deposited." 
 
 Some of the Polyps increase both by eggs and buds; but not 
 all of the latter pan in their turns produce eggs. They seize 
 their food with their tentacles; their whole surface is covered 
 with vibratory cilia so exceedingly minute as to be discernible 
 only through the aid of the microscope. These jnjnute hairs are 
 
ACTINOIDA. 683 
 
 perpetually in motion, producing a continuous current of water. 
 They are not under the animal's control from the period of its 
 escape from the egg. Even in the egg, and when the animal is 
 at rest, these cilia are in motion,-7-their action wafting small por- 
 tions of organic matter to the mouth of the animal, itself incapa- 
 ble of going after other food, and thus supplying its wants. B^y 
 means of their tentacles, however, Polyps are able to seize upon 
 larger prey. 
 
 First Okder. AcTiNoiDA, (Actinoids,) (Gr. &«rlp, aktin, a ray, 
 Ray-like,) Sea-Anemones and Corals. 
 
 The name given to these animals refers to the radiated dispo- 
 sition of the tOTtacles, which, when expanded, sometimes resem- 
 ble the petals of a flower; when contracted, the mass assumes 
 a lemon-like shape. The order includes, however, not these 
 actinias or flower-shaped genera alone, which dd not secrete a 
 coral, but others also, which are coralligenous. 
 
 The exterior surface of the Actinoids is either fleshy or leath- 
 ery, — slimy, and exceedingly sensitive. The mouth is simple 
 and bordered with tentacles, — it is situated above, while in the 
 Star-fish, it is beneath. Each of the tentacles is a tube, the walls 
 of which are formed of longitudinal muscular fibres. By the 
 contraction of these fibres, the animal can shorten the tentacles 
 in all directions. Around the entire tube are circular fit^res. 
 These pull the tentacles in succession, so as to elongate it to three 
 or four times its usual length, thus enabling the animal to seize 
 its larger prey. The interior cavity or stomach, is a simple sac, 
 which the animal contracts or shiits at pleasure. The digestiye 
 power is great and rapid, commencing to act as soon as the food 
 is within the cavity. Fish, Crabs, and Shell-fish, are speedily 
 assimilated, the harder parts being ejected in the course often or 
 twelve hours; and the juices produced by the influence of the 
 walls of the stomach, are diffused in the lower cavity, into which 
 the water which came in with the food is also poured. The 
 Actinoids have " no blood, no vessels, no respiration proper, 
 though the contact of water produces a sort of respiration.", 
 
 (Ag.) 
 
 Tlie reproduction is both by division and by eggs. At first, 
 the young have but five or ten tentacles, but these steadily in- 
 crease until they become almost innumerable, though uniformly 
 "multiples of five." Lost parts, especially the tentacles, are 
 soon replaced. If the body be cut into several parts, each may 
 survive and become a complete animal. Actiniae can endure 
 
684 ACTINOIDA. 
 
 water hot enough to blister the hand ; they can be thawed out 
 alive after havinj; been frozen ; though to dip them in fresh, 
 water is said to kill them immediately. "A strong light incom- 
 modes, noise startles them, and they are affected by odors." 
 Recorded facts show that the duration of life in these infericir 
 f&rms, is often quite considerable. Gosse, in a note found in 
 " Life in its Lower forms," speaks of one that was living in 
 1856, which attained the age of thirty-five years. 
 
 The Actiniae are found in every sea — some suspended from 
 the walls of sub-marine cliffs ; others covering the more exposed 
 sid^s of rocks with a flower-like tapestry, and some confining 
 themselves to the smooth sands, on the surface of which they 
 spread out their tentacula, and even slowly withdraw under the 
 sand when danger threatens. Some of them have a stinging 
 quality. Many are used fof food in tropical countries, on the 
 coasts of which they are more numerous than in cold climates. 
 
 The order Actinoida is divided by Prof. Dana into the Sub- 
 orders, 1. AcTiNAKiA ; 2. Alcyonakia. We refer first to gen. 
 era and species figured on the Chart belonging to the first (non. 
 coralligenous)' family, ActinidcB. 
 
 The Iluanihus (Gr. "Hiud-flower,) Scoticus, has a round mouth 
 surrounded by numerous filiform tentacula. The body tapers 
 to a point which is probably buried in the soft mud in which it 
 lives. 
 
 The Sun-Flower Anemone, Actinia helianihus, has the mouth 
 encircled by tubulous tentacula, giving it somewhat the appear, 
 ance of a sun-flower. 
 
 The Purple Sea Anemone, or Animal-Flower, A. equina, 
 has a soft skin, finely striated, usually of a beautiful purple, 
 often clouded with green. The tentacula, which number one 
 hundred, vary much in color. 
 
 The White Sea-Anemone, A. plumosa, (A. dianfhm,) Plate 
 XVin. fig. 13, is fou.r or more inches broad ; it has the margins 
 of the mouth expanded into lobes, all furnished with innumerable 
 tentacula. There is an inner row of these, still larger. 
 
 The Large Leathery Sea-Anemone, A. senilis, (A.crassi- 
 comis, thick horned,) is three inches brqad, with a leatheryj^un- 
 equal envelope, of an orange color. The tentacula are Sn two 
 ranges, usually marked with a rose colored ring. Its abode is 
 commonly in the sand. This species occasionally masters and 
 swallows a victim even much larger than itself. Dr. Johnston, 
 in his " History of British Zoophytes," thus remarks : "I had 
 once brought to me a specimen of Actinia crassicornis, that might 
 have been originally two inches in diameter, and that had some- 
 
ACTIN'OIDA. (SS5 
 
 how contrived to swallow a Valve of the gfefflt fidallap, Pecten 
 mcaeirnus, of the size of an Ordinary saucer. The shell fixed 
 Within the stomadh, was so placed as to divide it completely 
 into two halves, so that the body stretched tensely over, had be- 
 come thin and flattefied, like a pancake. All communication 
 between the inferior portion of the stomach and the moiith was 
 of course prevented, yet, inistead of emaciating and dying of an 
 atrophy, the animal had availed itself of what undoubtedly had 
 beien a very untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments and 
 its chance of double fare. A new mouth, furnished With two 
 rows of numerous tentaoula, was opened upon what had been 
 the base, and led to the under stomach ; the individual had, in- 
 deed, become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater Intimacy 
 and 'extent in its unions." ' 
 
 The Sea Anemone, Edmardsia vesiita, (Lat, clothed,) is one 
 of the last discovered species, named after a distinguished natu- 
 ralist. It forms for itself a shell or clotMng, into which it can 
 retire at pleasure, or when in shallow water the tide recedes, 
 Iteaving it exposed to the air. (Plate II. fig. 8.) 
 
 The genus Lncernaria, (Lat. the plant verbascvm.) ioclnies 
 animal flowers which are bell-shaped, free or fixed to sea-weeds 
 by a narrow disk or stalk, frOm which they expand to a bi-oad, 
 eight-sided disk, in the center of which is a quadrangular mouth, 
 and at each angle a bundle of tentacula ; surrounding the mouth 
 are festoons of ovaries. The largest are about an inch in height. 
 They are of various colors, but usually pirik^ The species fig- 
 ured on the Chart is L. auricula, (Lat. the ear-lap.) 
 
 The other genera of th'e sub-order noticed on the Chart are 
 nearly all coralligenous. The fbrttis which the corals assume 
 are extremely various, such as those of trees, shrubs, leaves, 
 obelisks, domes, etc. Their substance consists principally of 
 cai'bonate of lime. The surface is usually " covered with radi- 
 ated cells, each of which marks the position of dne of the polyps ; 
 and when alive, animals appear ')lke plants on every part of the 
 Zoophyte." The frame work or skeleton is called Polyparium, 
 or Polypary, (Polyp-structure.) It should be remembered It is 
 made, not as the bee constructs its cell, but by secretions of the 
 animal tissues, increasing without the conseidUsness of the polyp, 
 in the same manner as the bones and other structures in the 
 higher orders of artimals. 
 
 Family Astrjeidje. These Actinoids have the corolla calca- 
 reous with marginal tentacula, excavated cells,'and eircumsdribed 
 stars. Of these are the Astrma ananas, Pine-Appije Coral, (see 
 Chart.) Prof. D«toa says : " dalculating the number of polyps 
 that are united in a smgle astrsea dome of twelvie feet in diain. 
 
686 ACTINOIDA. 
 
 eter, each covering a square inch, we find it exceeding 100,000 ; 
 and in a Porites of the same dimensions, in which the animals 
 are under a line in breadth, the number exceeds five and a half 
 millions. There are here, consequently, five and a half millions 
 of mouths and stomachs to a single zoophyte, contributing to. 
 ^.gether to the growth of the mass, by eating, and growing and 
 budding, and connected with one another by their lateral tissues 
 and an imperfect cellular or lacunal communication." 
 
 The Braith Cob.aij, Meandrina labynnthica, (see Chart,) is of 
 this family. Recent species belong to the South Atlantic and In. 
 dian Oceans. Fine specimens have been received from Bermuda. 
 
 Family Fungidce, (Lat. fungus, a mushroom.) These have 
 the tentacles short and scattered; when aggregate, the disks 
 are confluent. The surface of the coral is without proper 
 cells and stellate. There are nine recent species, ifiostly 
 from the Indian seas, and as many fossil ones. One spe. 
 cies is the Mushroom Coral, (see Chart,) Fungia patellaris, 
 {F. fangites, Linn.,) a circular coral with radiating plates 
 like the under surface of soms mashrooms. The Thick-tentacled 
 Fungia, F. crassitentaeula, shows the animal on the external sur. 
 face, (Plate XVIII. figs. 19 and 20,) with the protruding tentacles. 
 
 Family CaryophylhdcB, {genns Caryophylha.) These have the 
 radiating cells or plates striated externally and collected into a 
 solid conical polyparium fixed at the base, (Plate XVII I. fig. 15.) 
 See Chart for figure of C. cyathus, (Gr. kuathos, a cup or ladle.) 
 The Ocuhna, a white coral, is of this family. 
 
 Family Zoanthida, (Animal flowers.) These have the exte- 
 rior of a somewhat leathery consistence, and short marginal ten- 
 tacles, in two or three species, in the midst of which the mouth is 
 situated. For the Animal-flower, Zoanthus Solanderi, see Chart. 
 This family is not coralligenous. 
 
 Family MadreporidcB, (Fr. madre, spotted, and pore, from Gr. 
 poros.) These have deep cells extending to the center of the coral- 
 lum, which is very porous and fixed. The tentacles are twelve. 
 The species Madrepora abrotanoides, {Gr. southern wood-like,) 
 Lamarck, or M. rrmricata, Linn., is an example — see Chart and 
 Plate XVIII. fig. 15. (The figure on the Plate gives this species 
 in magnified, that on the Chart in diminished size.) 
 
 The Chart names several other Madreporic corals, living and 
 fossil, which we have not room to notice particularly. The fos- 
 sil genus Gatempora, (chain coral,) is found in transition rocks. 
 The animal is unknown, contained in tubular cells united later. 
 ■ ally in a calcareous polypary, of a conical i^brm. (For figure 
 of C escharoides lattice4ike, see Chart.) 
 
ACTINOIOA. 687 
 
 Sttb-Order Alcyonahia. 
 
 Family PennatuUda. Sea-Pens. This interesting family^of 
 Corals is represented on the Chart by Pennaiula phosphorea' 
 which has a stony axis and is free or has the base sunk in die 
 mud. From the axis a series of lateral branches passes off on 
 each side, resembling the barbs of a feather, whence the generic 
 name. On these branches the polyps are situated. This spe- 
 cies, when disturbed^ emits a phosphorescent light. By the 
 movement of the eight tentacles, the animal seems to have power 
 to direct its course. 
 
 Family Gorgonidee. Seafans. These have the polyp mass 
 rooted and tree-like, consistiu'g of a central axis backed with a 
 polypiferous cruk. The axis is horny or fasciculate, but not cal- 
 careous. These include many beautiful fixed corals. Some Gorgo- 
 nias found on the Atlantic coast, when stripped, have the appearance 
 of Whale-bone. The Warty Sea-fan, G. verrucosa, is somewhat 
 fan. shaped, and when dry, backed with a white warted' crust. 
 The species G. flabellum, (Lat. a small fan,) is reticulated with 
 the branches inwardly compressed. It is found in the warm seas 
 of India and America, and three feet in length. 
 
 The Red Coral, Coralium rubrum, (see Chart,) has the entire 
 stem converted into a stony axis ; the flesh is external, and in 
 this alone are the polyp cell$. This species is branched, one 
 foot high, varying from a deep red to a beautiful rose color. It 
 takes a high polish, and is employed for purposes of ornament. 
 
 Our limits render it necessary to omit details of other families 
 of Cforals, some of which are found in American seas ; also many 
 particulars respecting the wonders wrought by the Coral-insects. 
 The statements of Prof. Dana contained in our general remarks, 
 preclude the idea that tl^ coral islands, of which so much has 
 been said, are exclusively the work of these insects. In many 
 instances the coral extends to a much greater depth than these 
 animals are known to live ; in other instances it presents a sur- 
 face considerably elevated ; but corals " cannot grow above the 
 surface." Com. Wilkes, (of U. S. Exploring Expedition,) and 
 others, regard them as in part at least, of volcanic origin. Some 
 subterranean movement must have liiled these islands from the 
 bed of the ocean ; the coral being in some instances not less than 
 eight or nine thousand feet high. Agassiz, it is said, has for the 
 §rsttime succeededln preserving alive in this country, some oo- 
 ral insects. They were kept in water, carefully and frequently 
 changed. L&^ Wortley, (see her " Travels in the United States," 
 
688 ■ HYDROlbS. 
 
 1851,) says she "hardly dared to hreathe while lookiVig at them, 
 for fear she should blow away their precious lives ; it was most 
 interesting to watch them as they flung about what seemed their 
 fire-like white arms, like microscopic opera dancers or wind- 
 mills ; and most curious to mark their complexions and oontor. 
 tioris, all the twistingS and twirlings, and flingings and wringings 
 of these curious little creatures." 
 
 Third Order. Hydroids, (Gr. 'vSga, hydra.) 
 
 This order contains animals, some of which have, and others 
 have not the coralline matter. In these the internal cavity is tu. 
 bular ; some of them have the power of moving from place 
 to place. The coral or hard material varies in different genera, 
 sometimes merely showing itself in calcareous granules diffused 
 through the body. 
 
 The eggs of the Hydroids hang in bunches externally from the 
 lower end of the upper cavity, in graceful forms and sometimes 
 beautifully colored. Prof. Dana divides this order into four fam- 
 ilies. 1. Hydridm, not coralligenous ; 2. Serlularida, with cor- 
 heous coralla; 3. CajnpanularidtB, with corneous bell-shaped 
 corolla ; 4. Tubulart'dm,^v/it.h coralla tubular and corneous. 
 
 I. Hydridm. It will be notibed that hitherto our attention has 
 been giv^ti to marine radiates. This family comprises minute 
 fresh water polyps which are soft and naked. Numbers of them 
 are seen often in stagnant pools and ditches, clustering upon 
 aquatic plants, etc. Their structure consists of a fleshy tube, 
 the aperture of which serves as a mouth to receive and exclude 
 food ; it is bordered with from six to eighteen extremely flexible, 
 thread-like arms. These are so fine as to appear like gossamer, 
 and may be stretched six or eight inches. The Chart names the 
 Green Polyp, i/. tiinrfji, (Plate XVIIl! fig. 14,) and the Yellow 
 Polyp, H.fusca. Wiien in search of prey, the Hydra permits 
 its arms to float loosely through the water, and thus succeeds in 
 obtaining a supply of food. If any of the minute crustaceans 
 or aquatic insects but touch one of these tentacles, the thread is 
 suddenly "thrown into cork-screw coils," other threads are also 
 coiled around the victim, and it is soon borne quite motionless, to 
 the mouth. At the hpttom of the fleshy sac is a saucer-shaped 
 body, "in the center of which is a small, oval, solid body, bear- 
 ihg on its sumtnit a calcareous dart, pointec^al the extremity, and 
 bifid, or sagittate at its base." The darts are thrust out with 
 force, ejecting, as is thought, a subtle, poison at the same time ; 
 
PROTOZOA. 689 
 
 and hence " woYms and the larvse of insects die isuddignly from 
 the touqh of these gelatinous threads." 
 
 The Hydridse increase by minute gemmules or buds deVelope_d 
 from the common substance of the body; but unlike some of the 
 Zoophytes, the point of unioK becomes more and more tender, 
 and they are finally detached; These polyps may be artificially 
 increased. If the body be divided, gach segment will become a 
 new animal, and even "a small portion of the skin soon grows 
 into a polyp. If cut off pieces be placed in contact, and pushed 
 together with a gentle force, they will unite and form a single 
 one." One species, it is said, "can be actually turned inside out 
 like a glove, and yet perform all the functions of life as before, 
 though that which was the cOat of the stomach is now the slcin 
 of the body, and vice versa." (Gosse.) This power of repro- 
 duction gave to this polyp the name of Hydra, in allusion to the 
 fabled monster whose heads sprotited as often as they were cut 
 off" by Hercules. , 
 
 Fourth Class. Protozoa, (Gr. ngwrdg, prdios, first, or lowest ; 
 Zaov, zoon, animal.) Infusoria. Foraminifera. Rhizo- 
 
 PODS. 
 
 The above several names are applied to minute animals which' 
 have been observed and studied since the discovery and improve, 
 ment of the microscope. Leeuwenhoek, in 1675, first observed 
 them in standing water, though he was not then certain as to their 
 animal nature. They are termed Protozoa, because regarded 
 as the first manifestations of animal life. Being found in infu- 
 sions of vegetable and animal substances, they are called Infu- 
 soRiES, though infusion is not essential to their production. Some 
 of them are minute shells, consisting of one or more chambers, 
 united by a small perforation or foramen, and are hence named 
 FoRAMiNiFKRA. The term Rhizopods, (Gr. rtoa, a root ; pous, 
 a foot,) is also applied to these latter animals. 
 
 The Infusories have been divided into the "illoricated " and 
 the " lorioated," the former composed of a single, homogeneous, 
 soft substance, analogous to fine membrane and unshielded or 
 naked ; ti>e later covered by a siliceous or calcareous lorica, or 
 external shield, in which the animal is enclosed. The pellucid 
 membrane of the animal contains, according to Ehrenberg, a 
 long curved intestine, with numerous globular bodies suspended 
 to it somewhat like grapes. These he regarded as so many 
 stomachs, and therefore called the animals Poltgastrica, (many, 
 stomach^y) dividing them into two legions : 1. £mt£boo£LA, 
 
690 rsoTozoA. 
 
 (with the intestines apparent,) and 2. Anenteka, (without intes- 
 tines,) each legion including both naked and coated species. 
 
 These Polygastrica seem to be universally diffused, one set of 
 forms inhabiting salt water, another fresh. Every mineral fount 
 has its peculiar inhabitant. Thejj are found with the red snow 
 of the Alps and the poles, and in the waters' of hot springs. la 
 a word, wherever organic matter exists in a decomposing state, 
 there they abound, " acting as scavengers in devouring in the state 
 of comminution and decay, those particles of decomposing veg- 
 etable matter, which, if left to be diffused throughout the atmos- 
 phere, might be productive of the mest pernicious malaria." 
 
 Of the Enterodela an example is had in Bursaria truncatella. 
 This is found in ditch water, and is so large as to be seen by the 
 naked eye, resembling an egg In shape, with one end deeply hoi- 
 lowed ; and from one-fourth to one-third of a line long. (N. B. 
 The line employed in Natural History'is the twelfth part of a 
 French inch.) Of the Anentera we name of the genus Monas, 
 the species M. crepusculum, the Twili&ht Monad, one of 
 the most minute and most simple of all the living beings made 
 known by the most powerful microscopes, resembling a mere 
 ciliated cell, and in size only the- twelve thousandth part of an 
 inch. If a few stalks of hay be tied together and suspended in 
 ajar of water, the contents remaining untouched, the second day 
 after, there will appear a sort of scum on the surface of the 
 water, that has become turbid and slightly tinged with green. 
 When a minute drop of this liquid is examined with a micro, 
 scope having a magnifying power of about two hundred diame- 
 ters, the water is found to swarm with immense multitudes .of 
 minute round or oval atoms, which move rapidly with a gliding 
 action. These are Monads. 
 
 ,A11 infusions of vegetable and animal substances are found to 
 be speedily filled with animals resembling these or others of the 
 genus Vibrio, the latter bearing some likeness to an eel, (now 
 placed among the Intestinal Worms-) Upon these minute crea- 
 tures strong poisons seem to have no immediate effect, though a 
 few drops of alcohol suffice to strike dead the five millions of 
 living beings found in a barrel of vinegar. 
 
 All the Infusoria seem to be provided with a mouth, generally 
 terminal, but sometimes placed near the middleof the body. The 
 breathing organs, so far as known, are simple openings. The 
 sense of feeling perhaps has its appropriate organs in the mouth 
 and the vibratile cilia by which' it is surrounded. The eyes are 
 supposed to be the dark red or black stigmas which the micro- 
 scope reveals as situated in front, on the upper side. Most of 
 
PaOTOZOA. 691 
 
 the Polygastrica have a single stigma; some, as the Bistigma, 
 have two. They never sleep, and are most tenacious of life. 
 The reproduction occurs by spontaneous division and by gem- 
 mation or budding; The division goes on with wonderful rapid- 
 ity, either transversely or lengthwise, each half forming an 
 independent animal. Ehrenberg asserts that the Hydatina seta, 
 increased in twelve days to sixteen millions, and another species 
 in four days to one hundred and seventy billionsi 
 
 The Infusoria are generally colorless and translucent; but 
 some are green, some yellow, and a ievi red. The colored spe- 
 cies give their peculiar tinge to the water. The shape is globu- 
 lar, oval, spindle-like, cylindrical, or vermiform. Some are 
 continually changing their form, as those of the genus Amaba 
 or Proteus, belonging to the Anentera. This " consists of a 
 mass of cleai- jelly-like matter, with a few granules, two or three 
 supposed stomachs, and a contractile bladder," and from its 
 pow,er of changing its form, has "long been celebrated among 
 naturalists." 
 
 The term Foraminifera, or Rhizopods, is restricted to ani- 
 mals of low organization, "consisting of a slimy, transparent 
 jelly, invested with a hard, usually calcareous shell." They 
 are found in sea-sand, and amongst marine refuse dredged up 
 from deep water. Owing to the spiral form of many of their 
 shells, thes0 creatures were long erroneously regarded as mol- 
 lusks, and as allied to the Nautilus. Ehrenberg thought them to 
 be allied to the Bryozoa or Moss-corals, (minute animals aggre- 
 gated in great numbers like the coralligenous Zoophytes, having 
 a distinct stomach, and an intestine curved upon itself, with an 
 outlet near the mouth, " the tentacles of which are covered with 
 vibrillae, and covered with a membranous, horny, or calcareous 
 tube ; now referred to the Tunicates or lowest class of Molhasks.") 
 But the true position of the Foraminifera is probably between the 
 Amseba on the one band, and the sponges on the other. The 
 Foraminifera in the calcareous shell, present various appear- 
 ances. Sometimes they are comparatively large and conspicu- 
 ous ; at others so small that their existence can be shown only 
 by means of high magnifying powers. Through the foramina, 
 long delicate processes of the soft animal, termed pseudopodia, 
 (or false feet-like,) are protruded- These are probably used to 
 some extent, " for tactile, prehensile, and locomotive purposes, or' 
 for the imbibition of nutritive fluid." 
 
 The Foraminifera have peculiar interest for the geologist. 
 Recent strata owe their origin to the long continued accumula- 
 tion of these minute atoms. White chalk rocks are mainly com- 
 
682 PftdtyzbA. 
 
 pos^d of them. Below these their numbers decrease. They 
 exist, however, it every fbrm^ation from the Silurian to the Ter- 
 tiary, In most countries Silicious infusorial shells abound in 
 salt-marshes and the superfioial marls which are associated with 
 peat. The fertilizing power of "the guatio is in pairt attributable 
 to the silioioiis shells of infusorial Diatoms with which it is filled. 
 Their remains constitute the Berg.mehl,or Mountain meal, which 
 in Swedish Lapland is, in seasons of scarcity, used, mixed with 
 flour, for sustaining life. With the silicious shields of the Dia- 
 toms are also found the calcareous shields of Foraminifera. 
 
 Prof Bailey has described a bed of infusorial earth at West 
 Point, N. Y. Thirteen or more simitar deposits have been discov-' 
 ered in other states, sometimes fifteen feet in thickness. These 
 American fossils are mostly found under banks of peat. The 
 forms of this country are similar in character to 'those of Europe. 
 
 The true position of Sponges, SpOngia, is not easil/'fixed. 
 Like many of the Polypifera, they have a firm horny or itony 
 skeleton, immersed in a soft gelatinous living mass. If they be- 
 long to the Animal Kingdom, they are at the very lowest point, 
 showing no sensation when pierced, torn, burnt, or acted on by 
 acids ; so that in respect to sensitiveness, they are surpassed by 
 some kinds of plants. The species of Spongia are very numer- 
 ous, one hundred and fifty having been described by Lamarck. 
 Their forms are also exceedingly varidus, (see Chart and' Plate 
 XVIII. fig. 23a, b, c.) They are mostly marine, though some 
 are found in fresh water. The best known species and the one 
 seen in shops, S. officinalis, is found attached to rocks in the 
 Mediterranean, and gathered by divers. The. cup-Shaped sponge, 
 S. usitissimH, is found in American seas. 
 
 A'gassiz, in his recent work, expresses the decided opinion that 
 the division of the Animal Kingdom called Protozoa, difteririg 
 from all other animals in producing no eggs, does not exist in 
 nature; and that the beings which have been referred to it, 
 might be divided and scattered, partly among plants and partly 
 among animals. It would however be premature to suppress the 
 entire class until further results have been attained, r 
 
 What is the 4th and last Sub-Kingdom ? What does it include ? What 
 is the 9th branch of Zoology ? How is this term derived ? Is the radiated 
 form equally manifest in all ? Into bow many classes are the Radiates ^- 
 vided? Naihe the first. Give the general characteristics of the Class. 
 What is the 1st Order? What are its leading characters? Why have the 
 animals been called Sea-cucumbers ? What does Com. Wilkes say of them? 
 How large are they? What is the 2nd Order ? Give its characters. How 
 do the forms vary? What ia aaid of the Cake and Heart Urohioa ? What 
 
CONCLUSION. 693 
 
 of the mouth? Repeat the remark of Prof. Forbe*. What is the 3rd Or- 
 der? How distinguished ? What is said of the Gorgon-headed Star-fish ? 
 Of Asterias ? Of Ophiura ? To what moUusks are Star-fish peculiarly des- 
 tructive ? What is the 4th Order ? Are there many Uving sp. of this or- 
 der? What are the fossils called? What is said of the body, arms, &e: ? 
 What is said of the joints of the rounded stem? For what were they an- 
 ciently used ? What are they still called ? What sp. are mentioned and 
 what is said of. them ? What is the 2nd Class of Radiates ? Why is it so 
 called ? What are their common names ? Give their characters and habits. 
 Which is the 1st Order? To what does the name refer? Has it any other 
 name? What gen. and sp. are noticed on the Chart? What doeS it say 
 of them? What is the 2nd Order? What animals does it include? What 
 did Cuv, call them? What is said of the Portuguese Man of War? What 
 Other Kadiates of this order are mentioned ? What is said of them ? What 
 is the 3rd Order? Why so named? What are the uses of the cilia? What 
 ?p. are mentioned ? What is said of them : What 4th Order is added by 
 some naturalists? What is said of it? What is the-Srd Class? Give the 
 substance of what is said respecting it. Which is the 1st Order? Des- 
 cribeHheir characteristics, &c. Into what Sub-orders does Prof D. divide 
 it ? What' sp. jof the fairiily Actinidaj are mentioned ? Give particulars 
 respecting them. What is said of the forms assumed by Corals, &c. ? What 
 2nd family is mentioned? What does Prof. D. say of the Astriea dome', 
 &c. ? What 3rd family is named ? What is said of it? Name the other 
 families of this Sub-order. What families of the 2nd Sub-order are men- 
 tioned? What is said of them? Are the Coral islands entirely the work 
 of the Cdral insects ? What has been said of these islands by Com. Wilkes 
 and others ? Have the Coral insects been kept, alive ? Repeat the extract 
 from Lady Wortley's Travels. What is the 2nd Order? What is said of 
 it? Intcwhat families does Prof D. divide it? Give the substance of what 
 is said of the HydridBe. What is the 4th Class? What several names have 
 been applied to these animals? Why termed Protozoa? How have the 
 Infusories been divided ? Of what are the former composed ? How are 
 thfe latte« protected ? Why did Ehrenberg name them Polygastrica ? Into 
 what two legions did he divide them ? What example is' given of the first ? 
 What gen. of the second is mentioned ? What is said of the TwiUght.Mo- 
 nad? Of the Vibrio? What are the breathing organs of the Infusoria? 
 ^ What is said of their senses, reproduction, &c. ? Towhat is the term FOr- 
 aminifera restricted ? What is said of them ? - What oif the Sponges ? 
 Give a general view of these animals as presented on the Chart. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 We thus terminate our sketch of " Nature in Living Forms." 
 The reader or student of this volume, while surveying these 
 ' Forms," in their structure, their organs, and their variations 
 from a common type, beginning with Man, who stands in high 
 pre-eminence at the head, and passing downward until reaching 
 the group we have last contemplated, in which are discoverable 
 but the faintest traces of animal existence, and marking, too, in 
 his progress the adaptation of all to the stations and offices for 
 
694 COWCLUSION. 
 
 which they were severally designed, has been presented with 
 developments of a plan of being, beautiful and harmonious in its 
 various parts and gradations, essentially unaffected by lapse of 
 time or changes of locality and climate, and having its origin in 
 'the fur-reaching intelligence and unbounded goodness of the In- 
 finite Creator. 
 
 We have in this volume but attempted to lift from the face of 
 "Nature" a portion of its mysterious veil. May those who 
 are induced to examine the fyesent work, not only derive 
 from it motives for still further research in the interesting depart, 
 ment of Natural History, but also for increased diligence and 
 fidelity in performing their own incumbent offices as parts of the 
 wondrous whole, cultivating towards each other feelings of true 
 affection and brotherhood, and above all, binding themselves by 
 cords of supreme love and obedience to the one. comnnon Father, 
 extolling >,«» 
 
 •"Him first, Him midst, and without end." *^KI* 
 
 f 
 
 LIST OP PLATES. 
 
 Plate I. Frontispiece. A General View of the Animal Kingdom. 
 
 " II. The four Sub-Kingdoms : Vertelrratee, Artieiilatca, Mol- 
 
 lusks and Radiates, - - 16 
 
 " III. Skeleton of Man and Chimpanzee compared, - 24 
 
 " IV. Teeth and Jaws of Mammals, - - - 62 
 
 " V. Jumping-Hare and Mouse, Pouched-Eat, Woodohuck,, 
 
 Hare, Chinchilla and Opossum, - - 130 
 
 " VI. . Feet, Hoofs and Claws. Fig. 13, Stomach of aKumipant, 179 
 
 " VII. Heads and Horns of Ruminants, - - - 198 
 
 " VIII. Whale, Dolphin, Seal and Manatee, - 26S 
 
 " IX. Beaks, Tails and Claws of Birds, - - . 271 
 
 " X. Birds. Figs. 1 and 2 indicate the parts referred to in , 
 
 describing Birds, - - . 300 
 
 " XI. Nests of Birds, . - . . . 335 
 
 " XII. Skeletons of Bird, Tortoise, Chameleon, Snake,'' Frog 
 
 and Fish, ... 449 
 
 " XIII. Different stages of Development in the' Frog and Sala- 
 mander, ..... B42 
 " XIV. Fish, (Perch, Stickleback, Flying-fish, Cat-fish, Tor- 
 pedo, &c.^) - - . . - 580 
 " XV. Insects, --.... 696 
 " XVI. Crustaceans and Worms, ... 640 
 " XVII. Shells with the different parts designated, - 662 
 " XVIII. Eadlates, (Star-fish, Jelly-fish, Corals, Sea-slugs, &c.,) 671 
 
NOTES. 
 
 f 
 
 Page 80, (»). The Plantigrades are sometimes placed in three families, 
 viz., Ursidce, Proeyonida, and OereoUptida. 
 
 Page 116, C"). The teeth of the Aaed-Vark or Earth-Hog, are altogether 
 peculiar in form and structure, and have no resemblance to the teeth o{ 
 any other known animal ; being solid cylinders, traversed Uke reeds length- 
 wise by numerous little tubes. 
 
 Page 155, (').• The Rhinoceroses are now commonly included in the sepa- 
 rate family Rhi-noc-er-Qt'-i-dae, and the Hip-po-pot'-a-mus under that ol 
 Hip-po-pot'-a-mat'-i-da3. 
 
 Page 261, (*). These Aquatic Pachyderms constitute so natural a group, 
 that by some naturalists they are now removed from Cetacea and placed by 
 th^iselvcB. 
 
 ■•BkCgroup Si-ren'-i-d* being divided into four families: Ist, Din-o-theb'- 
 i-D.alpll fossil,) ; 2d, Ma-nat'-i-d.i; ; 3d, HAL-i-coR'-i-DiE; 4th, Kt-tin'-i-i>.b. 
 -i' l%e only species of the genus Rytina (R. Borealis), is found at Bher- 
 rings Straits. It is the largest of the group, and twenty-four or twenty-five 
 feet in length ; is without grinders or tusks, has no external nails, and be- 
 neath the epidermis is a layer composed of fibres or tubes, placed verti- 
 cally on the skin, forming a crust so hard that steel can scarcely penetrate 
 it ; when cut it resembles ebony." 
 
 Page 282, ('). The Great Black African 'ExGL^(Aquila-ver'-reaux-i-i,)is 
 larger than the Golden E., and perfectly black except a pure white space on 
 its back. 
 
 Page 283, ('). The Habpt Eagle possess the most formidable cla\i;s of 
 any known bird. ^ * 
 
 Page 284, (k). The Harriers are sometimes arranged in a sub-family 
 Cir'-cm-8B. 
 
 Page 290, C"). The skeleton of the Common Turkey Buzzard is so light 
 as to weigh but little more than four ounces. 
 
 Page 290, ('). The male Condor is said to be larger than the female, 
 which if a fact, is an exception to the whole order. 
 
 Page 292, (J). Some late ornithologists rank the Secretary Vulture with 
 the Harriers. 
 
 Page 293, C"). The brains of Owls are more voluminous than those of 
 any other rapacious birds. The Screech Owl S. fiammea is the one usually 
 referred to by English writers as " The Owl." 
 
 Page 311, ('). The Sixth Family, Halcyonid^, (King Fishers,) were inad- 
 vertently omitted ; they are distinguished by their beautiful silky, blue and 
 green plumage. Sixty species are described, chiefly Asiatic and African, 
 of small size. They are sometimes divided into four sub-families: 1st, Buc- 
 con'-i-n.e, (Puff Birds); 2d, Hal-cy-o-ni'-n^, (Broad-billed King-fishers); and 
 4th, GaltBU-li'-n^, (Jack-mars). The Belted King-fisher (Alcedo alci/on,) is 
 .the only one found in the United States. It frequents mill-dams and rapid 
 streams with high banks. The female is sprinkled all over with white specks, 
 usually lays five white eggs in a hole dug in the bank, and occupies the same 
 itest for years. 
 
696 NOTES. 
 
 Page 405, (™). The Curlew was called Numenha from its crescent Bhape 
 beak, resembling the new moon. Gr. neos, new ; mene, moon. 
 
 tage 630, ("). Dr. Townson found that a frog, when placed on blotting 
 paper well soaked with water, absorbed nearly its own weight of the fluid 
 in the short time of an hour and a half. It is believed that they never dis- 
 charge it, except when pursued, and then only to lighten their bodies and 
 faciUtate their escape. He is not al6ne in the opinion that the Frog and 
 Salamander tribes receive and transpire all their liquids through the skin. 
 
 Page 683, (»). The scales of the Alligator-Gar are so flint-like as to emit 
 sparks when struck with a hard substance. Those of the Polypterus [see 
 fig. on chart,] are so strong and so firmly attached to the skin, that it is 
 hardly possible to open it with a knife ; and the natives only draw off the 
 skin whole after it has been boiled. 
 
 Page 697, (P). The Walking-stick (fig. 8, PI. XV,) is said to lay the largest 
 egg of any known insect. Their eggs are solitary and not enclosed in a 
 case, are about the size of a Humming-bird's egg, and resemble small beans 
 or other seeds. Those of the Walking-leaf (fig. 6,) are deeply ribbed or 
 grooved. 
 
 Page 669, (i). Of the CEPHALOPors, (see chart,) the order Tetribkasch- 
 lATA is nearly extinct. The Nautihis Pompiluis is the only living species. 
 Yet more than 1,400 species have been found in a fossil state. 
 
 Page 692, ('). Liebig says, the infusorial animals reverse the functions of 
 animal life ; that instead of evolving carbonic acid gas as other animals do, 
 they evolve pure oxygen, and thus helo to puiify the water. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A»r4-Varlf, 115 
 
 Aavd-Wolf; 70 
 
 Ab-dom'-in-ale^, 66*! 
 A'-braneh-i-a'-ta, 654 
 Afi'-a-leplis( j elly-fi3h)67 8 
 A'-eamp'-tos-o'-ma, 650 
 Arean-thorceph'-a-la, 658 
 A-ear'-i-idffi, (Mjtes,) 638 
 Ae-cip'-i-tres, 280 
 
 Ae-cip-i-ti-i'-nsB, 287 
 
 A-ean-thop-te-ryg'-i-i 560 
 A€-i-pe5i'-ser, 684 
 
 Actiii'-i-te, 684 
 
 Ae'-tin-oids, 
 
 Ae-tin-ol'-o-gy, IS, 673 
 Afi-ii-le-a'-ta, 617 
 
 Ad'-jn-tant, 399 
 
 A-ga'-ma, 491 
 
 A-ga'-ini, 411 
 
 A-i, (Sloth,) 112 
 
 A-goii'-ti, 138 
 
 Ar-ba-tross, 432 
 
 Al'-ci-dae, (Auks,) 424 
 Al-ce-din'-i-d», 802, 311 
 Al-cy-o-na'-ri-a, 687 
 
 Ale'-wives, 673 
 
 Al'-li-ga-tor, 47S 
 
 A-lau'-di-uae, 843 
 
 Al-pae'-a L-la'-ma, 189 
 Am-bly-op'-sis, 561^ 568 
 Am-bly-rhyn'-€U3, 491 
 Am-ei'-va, 496 
 
 Am-pel'-i-dte, 822 
 
 Am-phib '-i-a, (llg,m'ls,) 9 1 
 " (Ba-tra'-ehi-ans,) 825 
 Am-phi-ox'-i-dsB, 591 
 Am-phip'-o-da^ 646 
 
 Am-phis-bse'-na, 501 
 Am-plii-u'-Bia, 637 
 
 A-my'-dse, 459 
 
 An-a-bas'-si-dsB, 563 
 
 An-a-eon'-da, 617 
 
 An-at'-i-diB, 417 
 
 A-nat'-i-fa, 650 
 
 An-eho'-vy, 572 
 
 A-nein'-o-ne, 684 
 
 An-uel'-i-dans, 698, 652 
 An'-gel-fish, 587 
 
 An'-gle-Worm, 655 
 
 An-guil'-li-dsB, (Eels,) 576 
 An'-guis, 603 
 
 A-nmn'-ga(A-pJn'-ga)442 
 Al)i-i-mal-eules, 650 
 
 An. King, how divided, 11 
 An-o'-bi-um, 610 
 
 An'-o-lis, 490 
 
 Ai>-o-mou'-ra, 645 
 
 An-o-plo-the'-ri-um, 165 
 An-ou'-ra, 528 
 
 Au'-ser-es, 416 
 
 An'-te-lopes, 231-244 
 " Cbin'-mon, 235 
 " True, 233 
 
 " Cer'-Tine, 237 
 
 " Goat'-like, 238 
 " of the Des'-ert, 240 
 " of the Fields, 232 
 An-thi"o-poi'-des,' 896 
 Ant'^Lion, 615 
 
 Aijts, 619 
 
 Apes, 82 
 
 Aph'-i-diB,(Plant-lice) 626 
 Aph'-ro-dite, 654 
 
 Aph-an-ip'-ter-a, 631 
 Ap'-o-des, 576 
 
 Ap'-ple-tree Blight, 626 
 Ap'-ter-a,(Lice fam.,) 632 
 Ap'-ter-yx, ' 388 
 
 A-quat'-i€ Birds,391-447 
 Pach'-y-derms, 261 
 Aq-ui-Ii'-nse, (Eagles,)281 
 A-raeh'-ni-dsB,gpid'rs,636 
 A-ra-ne'-i-die, 637 
 
 Ar'-cher-fish, 563 
 
 Ar«-tom'-y-da3, 127 
 
 Ar-de'-i-dae, (HeronB,)895 
 Ar'-ga-U, 226 
 
 Ar'-go-naut, 6&8 
 
 Ar-ma-dil'-lQS, 116 
 Ar-tie'-u-lates, 14, 598 
 
 " In'-seets, 600 
 " €rus-ta'-cean8, 642 
 
 " Worms, 652 
 
 Ar-vi'-eo-la, 137 
 
 Ass, 169 
 
 Asp, As'-pie, 620 
 
 As'-ta-eus, 644 
 
 As-t?'-ri-as, 677 
 As-ter'-i-de-a(at»i-flsh)676 
 
 As-triB-i-das, 685 
 
 Au-che'-ni-a, 187 
 
 Auks, 424 
 
 A-vie'-u-la, 667 
 
 Av'-o-set, 406 
 
 Ax'-is, 205 
 
 Ax'-o-lotl, 539 
 
 Aye'-Aje, 48 
 
 Bab-oons', 86 
 
 Bab-y-rous'-sa, 152 
 
 Badg'-er, 86 
 
 Bal-aen'-i-dae, 255 
 
 Bal-Ipon'-fish, 578 
 Bal'-ti-more 0'-ri-ole,332 
 
 Bau-«a Tar-sier, 48 
 
 Band'-i-eoots, 105 
 
 Banx'-rings, 102 
 
 Bar'-naeles, 650 
 
 Bas'-i-lisk, 490 
 
 Ba-tra'-ehi-ans, 628 
 
 '.' Frogs, 628 
 
 " Toads, 632 
 
 " Newts, 534 
 
 " Si' rens, 539 
 " Pro'-teus, 638 
 
 fiats, 60 
 
 Bears, 80 
 
 Bea'-ver, 133 
 
 Bed-bug, 628 
 
 Bee' -Eaters, 808' 
 
 Bees, 621 
 
 Bee'-tles, 607 
 
 Bell'-Bird, 823 
 
698 
 
 ms£x. 
 
 Ber-o'-e, 681 
 
 Bi-;na'-na, (Man,) 21 
 BiMs of Prey, 280-29t) 
 Birds, (Gen. deao.,) 268 
 Bi'-sou or Buf-fa-lo, 21ti 
 Bit'-tern, Bo-tau'-rus, 397 
 Bi'-valve Shells, 661^ 
 
 Blaek'-Bird, 316, 332 
 Blen'-uies, 565 
 
 Blind'-Fish, 551,, 568 
 " Worm, 604 
 
 Blis'-ter-Bee'-tles, 611 
 Blue-Bird, 314 
 
 Bo'-a, Bo'-i-dsB, 516 
 
 Boat-Bill, 398 
 
 Boat'-taiU, 332 
 
 Bob'-o-link, 333 
 
 Boo'-bies, 443 
 
 Bo'-rers, 617 
 
 Bos-el'-a-plius, 242 
 
 Bos tau'-ru3, 2i 
 
 Bos mos-eha'-tus, 222 
 Bot-flies, 631 
 
 Both-ri-o-cepli'-a-lus, 658 
 Bot-tle-h'd Dol'-phin, 664 
 Bov'-i-dtB, (Oxeu,) 216 
 Br*J'-y-pU3, 112 
 
 Brah'-min Bull, 218 
 
 Braneh-los'-to-ma, ' 557 
 Brush'-Tur-key, 375 
 
 Bry-o-zo'-a, ' 691 
 
 Bu'-ba-lus, BuP-fa-lo, 221 
 Bu-ee-rot'-i-dse, 347 
 
 Bu-deng', 37 
 
 Bu-fo'-i-dse, (Toads,) 632 
 Bugs, 628 
 
 " Bed, 628 
 
 " Land, 628 
 
 " Squash, 628 
 
 " Water, 628 
 
 BuU'-Frogs, 630 
 
 BuU'-Hcads, 667 
 
 Biint'-ings, 338 
 
 Bu'-pha-ga, 859 
 
 Bur-sa'-ri-a, 690 
 
 Bus'-tards, 410 
 
 Butcli'-er Birds, 324 
 
 Bu-te-o-nl'-niB, 285 
 
 But'-t(ii--flios, 623 
 
 Buzz'-arda, 286 
 
 €!acli'-a-lot, 254 
 
 €a-du'-ci-braneh-i- 
 
 a'-ta, (Frogs, &o.,) 626 
 €ad'-di3-flic8, 814 
 
 Cie-cil-i'-i-das, 
 
 gai'-man, 
 
 eake-Ur' chins, 
 
 £;al-U-a-ny'-ra, 
 
 gal-o-so'-ma, 
 
 eani'-el. 
 
 627 
 478 
 676 
 681 
 608 
 177 
 
 ea-mel'-i-dffi, 177-186 
 
 Oa-ruel'-o-pards, 192 
 
 €am-pylrO-so'-ma-ta, 650 
 
 €a-na'-fy-Bird, 276 
 
 €an-ero'-nm, 398 
 
 €an'-i-die, (Dog Fam.,) 63 
 
 Gan-thar'-i-das, 611 
 
 6a-per-eail'-lie, 380 
 
 eap'-ri-dffi, (Goats,) 227 
 
 Cap-ri-mul'-gus, 802 
 
 €ap-u-ohin'-Mou-keys, 41 
 
 Ga-pyb'-a-ra, 137 
 
 €ar'-di-nal-Gros'-b'k, 342 
 
 Gar'-i-bou or boo, 211 
 
 Gar-uiv'-o-ra, 49-102 
 
 Divisions of, 60 
 
 Bats, 65 
 
 €at family, 66 
 
 Dog " 63 
 
 Weasel" 71 
 
 Bear " 80 
 
 Seal " 91 
 
 Shrew" 98 
 
 Gai-p, 668 
 
 Gar-poph'-a-ga, 106 
 
 £!ar'-ri-er Pig'-eon, 871 
 
 €ar-ti-lag'-in-ous 
 
 Fishes, 548, 65^-583 
 
 Ga-ry-o-phyl'-li-u, 686 
 
 Gash'-mere Goat, 228 
 
 Gas-tor'-i-diB, 133 
 
 Gas'-so-wa-ry, 387 
 
 Gat'-er-pil-lar, 624 
 
 Hunters, 608 
 
 €a-thar'-tes, 289 
 
 Gat-o-don'-ti-dsB, 263 
 
 Gat Family, 66 
 
 ■Gats, (Domestie,) 61 
 
 Li'-ons, 57 
 
 Ti^-gers, 59 
 
 Leop'-ards, 60 
 
 Lynx'-es, 60 
 
 Ga-vi'-a-diB, 13? 
 
 Ceb'-i-da3, (Monkeys,) 41 
 
 Ce-ci-do'-my-i-a, 630 
 
 Ce'-dar Bird, 323 
 
 Cen'-ti-pedes, 634 
 
 Ccph-a-la'-ta, 666 
 
 Ccph-a-lop'-ter-a, 689 
 Ce-pol'-i-diE, (Ribbon- 
 fish,) 564 
 Ce-ras'-tes, (Horned 
 
 Snake,) 621 
 Cer-eo-lep'-tes, 85 
 
 Ccr-«o-pi-the'-cus, 39 
 Cer-thi'-a-dffi, 357 
 
 Cer'-vi-dae, (Deer,) 
 
 202—216 
 Ces-toi'-de-a, 658 
 
 Ccs'-tum, Ven'-e-ris, 681 
 Cc-ta'-cc-a, (Whales,) 244 
 €haB'-to-dons, 662 
 
 €hffi-tu'-ra, 306 
 
 €hai'-ci-dse, 499 
 
 €ha-me'-Ieon, 484 
 
 Cham'-bis, 238 
 
 Char-a-dri'-B-dsB, ' 392 
 Chat'-teB-ers, 322 
 
 Chee'-tah, 60 
 
 €hei-rop'-ter-a, (Bats,)50 
 Ghe-lo'-ni-ans, (Tur'- 
 
 tle,) 456 
 €heI-y-dro'-i-dfB, 469 
 €hel-y-o'-i-dse, ^ 467 
 Chev'-ro-tain, 201 
 
 Ghil-o-gnath'-a, 636 
 
 Ghi-lop'-o-da, 634 
 
 Ghi-masr'-i-dse, 683 
 
 Chim'-ney-Swal'-Iow, 306 
 Chim'-pan-zce', 32 
 
 Chin-chil'-la, 132 
 
 Ghi-on'-i-dEE, 381 
 
 Chip'-munk, 126 
 
 Ghla-myph'-o-rus, 119 
 Ghon-drop-te-ryg'-i-i,588 * 
 Chub, ' 662 
 
 Chuek-will's-wid'-ow, 304 
 Ciea'-da, Ci-ead'-i-dffi,627 
 Ci-eo'-ni-a, 898 
 
 Cil-i-o'-gra'-da, 681 
 
 Ci'-mex, Ci-mic'-i-diE, 628 
 Ciu-nyr'-i-diB, 853 
 
 Ci-no-ster-no-i'-dse, 465 
 Cir-ri-gra'-da, 681 
 
 Cir'-ri-pedes, 649 
 
 Civ'-ets, 62 
 
 €las-Ri-fi-ea'-tio.i, v — xiii 
 " Ar-tie-u-Iates, x, 600 
 " Birds, vi, 279 
 
 " Fishes, ix, 566 
 
 " In'-sects, X, 607 
 
 " Mam'-nials, v, 20 
 
INDEX. 
 
 699 
 
 €Ias-6i-fi-ea'-tion, v — xiii 
 " Ka'-di-ates, xiii, 673 
 " Kep'-tiles, viii, 455 
 " Mol'-luslcs, xi 
 
 Cliff-SwalMow, 308 
 
 .€linib'-ers, ,361) 
 
 €limb'-iiig Perch'-es, 563 
 €lu-pe'-i-d¥, 672 
 
 €nein-i-dopli'-o-rua, 496 
 ■Goa'-ti-mon'-di, 85 
 
 €o'-bra di ^a-pel'-lo, 520 
 Coe-ci-nel'-la, 608 
 
 -eoe'-cus €ae'-ti, 626 
 €oek'-a-too', 364 
 
 ■Coek'-ehaf-er, 610 
 
 £!ock of the Plains, 380 
 •Goe-eo-thraus'-tes, 837 
 Coek'-roach-es, ^ 612 
 €od'-fish, 573 
 
 ■Gold blooded An'-i- 
 
 raals, 451-594 
 
 " Rep'-tiles, 451-540 
 
 " Fish, 544-&94 
 
 •Go-le-op'-ter-a, 607 
 
 •Go-li'-a-dse, €o'-Ues, 344 
 
 •eo-lum'-bi-dEB, 370 
 
 Go-lyru'-bi-dsB, 423 
 
 Gom-a-tii'-la, 678 
 
 ■eon-chol'-o-gy, 664 
 
 €on'-dor, 290 
 
 €on-dy-lu'-ra, 101 
 
 €oue'-billed Birds, 326 
 
 €ou-i-ros'-tres, 326 
 
 " Grows, 327 
 
 " Star'-Iingg, 331 
 
 " Finch'-ea, 833 
 
 " Larks, 343 
 
 " Go'-Iies, 344 
 
 " Gross'-BiUs, 345 
 
 " Horn'-Bills, 347 
 
 " Plant'-ain Ea'- 
 
 ters, 348 
 
 •Go'-ney, 168 
 Gop'-pcr-head Snake, 523 
 
 Gor-a-ei'-na3, 329 
 
 €or'-al, 687 
 
 Go-ro'-i-d», 628 
 
 Gor' -mo-rants, 440 
 
 <!oru'-TUief, 332 
 
 €orn'-Wee'-vil, 610 
 
 Go-ro'-nu-la, 650 
 
 ■Cor'-vi-d89, (Grows,) 327 
 
 Gor-y-phffl'-na, 664 
 
 €ou'-gar, 58 
 
 Gow-keep'-ers, 620 
 
 Grac'-i-das, 374 
 
 Granes, 895 
 
 Gray or Graw'-fish, 644 
 
 Greep'-ers, 857 
 
 Gri€k'-ets, 6l;-i 
 
 Gri-noid'-e-a, 677 
 
 €r0€'-6-dile, 479 
 
 Gross'-bills, 345 
 
 Gro-t»l'-l-dae, 622 
 
 Gro-ta'-lus, 622 
 
 Grow— Black'-bird, 332 
 
 Grows, 327 
 
 Grus-ta'-ceans, 642 
 Grus-ta-oe-ol'-o-gy 13,642 
 
 Gryp-to'-pus, 469 
 Cte'-noids, (te'-noid',)5fi(; 
 
 Cte-nOph'-o-ra, 681 
 
 Gu-fiul'-i-dsB, 367 
 
 Gu-lic'-i-daB, ' 629 
 
 Gur-eu'-lio, 610 
 
 Gu-ras'-sows, 874 
 
 Gur'-lew, (kur'-lu,) 404 
 
 Gur-so'-res, 884 
 
 Os'-trich, 384 
 
 Gas'-so-wa-ry, 387 
 
 Rhea, 887 
 
 Ap'-ter-yx, 388 
 Di-nor'-nis, 
 
 Di-dun'-cu-lus, 389 
 
 Do' -do, 889 
 
 Sol'-i-ta'-ry, 390 
 
 Gnath'-o-don, 389 
 
 E'-mu, 888 
 
 Gut'-tle-fish, 666 
 
 Oy'-€lops, 648 
 
 Cy-elos'-to-mi, 656 
 
 Oye'-oloids, 667 
 
 Cy-dip'-pe, 681 
 
 Cy'-pris, 648 
 
 Oy-prin'-i-dsB, 668 
 
 Cyn-o-oeph'-a-lus, 86 
 
 Oyp'-ri-nus, 669 
 
 Cyp'-se-lus, 306 
 
 Oys'-ti-ea, 659 
 
 Dace, , 569 
 
 Da€-tyl-op'-ter-ns, 561 
 
 Dad'-dy-Iong'-legs, 630 
 
 Daph'-ni-a, 648 
 
 Dar'-ters, 442 
 
 Das-y-^iod'-i-dffl, 116 
 
 De-eap'-o-da, 640, 643 
 
 Death'-Watch, 610 
 
 Deer,Ameriean, 208 
 
 " S. American, 215 
 
 " Fal'-low, 208 -.^ 
 
 " Mule, Koebuek, 2C6 
 
 " Musk, 196, 201 
 
 Moose or Elk, 209 
 
 " Red, ' 207 
 
 " Rein, 211 
 
 Del-phin'-i-dse, 247 
 
 Del-phin-ap'-te-rus, 252 
 
 De-moi'-scUe, 396 
 
 Dcn-ti-ros'-tres, 312 
 
 " War'-blers, 313 
 
 " Thrush'-es, 316 
 
 " Fly-Gatch'-ers, 818 
 
 " Chat'-ter-ers, 822 
 
 " Buteh'-er-Birds, 324 
 
 Der-mop'-ter-a, 612 
 
 " Ear'-wigs, 612 
 
 Des'-man, 99 
 
 Di-«ot'-y-les, 154 
 
 Di-dun'-eu-lus, 389 
 
 Dig-i-ti-gra'-da, 56 
 
 Di'-nor-nis, 388 
 
 Di-o-me'-de-a, 432 
 
 Di-pod'-i-dae, 128 
 
 Dip'-per, 317 
 
 Dis'-to-ma, 658 
 
 Di'-vers, 423 
 
 Div'-ing-Bee'-tles, 608 
 
 Diz-ig-gue'-tai, 170 
 
 Do'-do, 889 
 
 Dog Family, 63 
 
 " Fish, 687 
 
 Dol-i'eho'nyx, 833 
 
 Dol'-phins, 247 
 
 Dor'-mouse, 132 
 
 Deer.-Family, 202-216 
 
 Dor-si-braneh'-i-ates, 654 
 
 Dot'-ter-el, 394 
 
 Doub'-le-Walk'-ers, 501 
 
 Dra'-eo, Drag'-on, 492 
 
 Drag'-on-Fly, 614 
 
 Drom'-e-da-ry, 183 
 
 Ducks', 417-421 
 
 Black, 419 
 
 Gan'-vass-ba€k,421 ' 
 
 King & Eider, 420 
 
 Spirit, 421 
 
 Surf, 420 
 
 True, 418 
 
 Sea, 419 
 
 Wild, 418 
 
 Du-gong', 265 
 
 Ea'-gles, 281 
 
700 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ea'-gles, Golden, 281 
 
 " Bald,. 282 
 
 " Wash'-ing-ton 283 
 
 " Har'-py, ■28S' 
 
 " -Gar-a-car'-a, 2S3 
 
 " Bald Buzz'-ard, 283 
 
 Earth'-worm, 655 
 
 Ear'-wig, 612 
 
 E-ehjd'-na, lOa 
 
 Eeh-i-nid'-e-a, 675 
 
 Ech-in'-o-dei^ms, , 673 
 
 E-den-ta'-ta, 112 
 
 Eel, , 576 
 
 E'-land, 242 
 
 Ele€'-tri€ Cen'-ti-pede635 
 
 " Eel, 551 
 
 Elk or Moose,(Moo3,)209 
 
 Er-e-phant,El'-e-phasl42 
 
 E-Ieu-tlie-rop'-o-mi, 683 
 
 Em-ber'-i-za, 338 
 
 E'-mu, 388 
 
 Em-y-do'-i-da3,E'-mya462 
 
 Ea-ter-o-del'-a, 689 
 
 En-to-mol'^O-gy, 13, 600 
 
 Eu-to-mos'-tra-ea, 647 
 
 En-to-zo'-a, 656 
 
 , E-pi'-ra, 637 
 
 Er'-mine, or Stoat, 72 
 
 Eu'-la-bes, 833 
 
 Fal-con'-i-dse, 280 
 
 Fel'-i-dffl, (Oats,) 56 
 
 Fer'-ret, 76 
 
 Fi-la'-ri-a, 657 
 
 File'-Fishes, - 578 
 
 Finch'-es, . 338 
 
 Fire'-Fliea, 610 
 
 Fish-€row, 328 
 
 " Hawk, 283 
 
 Fish'-es, 544-594 
 
 " Egga of, 553 
 
 " Food of, 551 
 
 " Longevity of, 554 
 
 Fis-si-ros'-trag, 302 
 
 " Niglit-jara, 302 
 
 " Sival'-lowa, , 305 
 
 I " Bee-Eat'-ers, 808 
 
 i " To'-diea, 309 
 
 " Tro'-gona, 810 
 
 Fia-tu-lar'-i-diB, 571 
 
 Fla-niin'-goes, 413 
 
 i'lat'-Flsh-ea, 674 
 
 Fleaa, 631 
 
 Fluke'-Worma, 658 
 
 Flu-vie'-o-la, 649 
 
 630 
 
 " Wheat, Wil'-loWjeSO 
 
 " House, 630 
 
 " Bot, Gad or Ox, 631 
 
 " Cheese, Flesh, 630 
 
 " Plague, 630 
 
 " Fire, 610 
 
 " Lan'-lern, 627 
 
 Fly'-eatch'-ers, 318 
 
 Fly'-ing-Fish, , 671 
 
 Fly'-ing-Squir'-rel, 126 
 
 Fo-ram-in-|it''-er-a, 689 
 
 Fos'-sil Cer'-vi-dse, 216 
 
 " Groe-o-diles, 480 
 
 " Sten-e-o-aau'-rua, 480 
 
 " Tel-e-o-sau'-rus, 480 
 
 " l€-thy-o-aai}'-rus, 481 
 
 " Ple-sl-o-sau'-rus, 482 
 
 " Plat'-y-don, 482 
 
 " Ig-ua'-uo-don, 48S 
 
 " Pter-o-da€'-ty-lus483 
 
 " Ge-o-sau'-rus, 494 
 
 " Mos-a-sau'-rus, 495 
 
 " Meg-a-the'-ri-um, 119 
 
 " Myl'-o-don, 121 
 
 " Mas'-to-don, 149 
 
 " Meg-a-lon'-yx, 120 
 
 " Pa-la'-o-the'-ri-'ml64 
 
 " En'-eri-nites, 677 
 
 " Pen-tae'-ri-idte, 678 
 
 " A-pi-o'-eri-nites, 678 
 
 Fowla, 378 
 
 Frig'-ate Bird, 443 
 
 Frin-gil'-li-dee, 333 
 
 Frogs, 543, 528 
 
 " Bull or Croaker, 530 
 
 " Edible or Green, 530 
 
 " Wood, Marsh, 630 
 
 " Painted, 531 
 
 " Thimble, 631 
 
 " Tree, 531 
 
 Frog or Toad-fish, 666 
 
 Pul'-mara, 429 
 
 Fun'-gi-a, Fun'-gi-dffl,686 
 
 Gad'-i-d!B, (Cod-tiah.,)57S 
 
 Ga-la'-gos, 47 
 
 Gal-li-nu'-la, 412 
 
 Gan'-neta, 448 
 
 Gan'-oida, 682 
 
 " Po-lyp'-te-rua, 582 
 
 " Gar, Bony Pilte, 683 
 
 Ga'-vi-ala, • 480 
 
 Ga-zelle', 238 
 
 Ge«lc'-oa. 488 
 
 Ge-nets', 63 
 
 Ger-bil'-li^dffl, 128 
 
 Geese, 421 
 
 Ge'-o-mys, 137 
 
 Gib'-bons, 34 
 
 Gi-raflFe', 192 
 
 Glede, 284 
 
 Glires, 122 
 
 Globe '-Fish, 578 
 
 Glo-bi-ceph'-a-lus, 263 
 
 Glow-worms, 610 
 
 Glut'-ton, 87 
 
 Glu'-tin-ous-Haga, 557 
 
 Glyp-to-der'-ma, 601 
 
 Gnats, 629 
 
 Gnu, or Gnoo, (nu,) 240 
 
 Gnaw'-ers, (naw'-er,) 122 
 
 Goat Family, 227 
 
 " Su€k'-ers, 302 
 
 Go'-bi-dae, Go'-bies, 565 
 
 Gpd'-wits, 408 
 
 Gol'-den €rests, 314 
 
 " Ea'-gle, 281 
 
 Gold'-finch, 341 
 
 " Fish, 568 
 
 Gooa-an'-der, 422 
 
 Gor-go'-ni-a, 687 
 
 Gor-gon-o-ccph'-a-lua 676 
 
 Gos'-hawk, 288 
 
 Graek'-le, (Grak'-l,) 333 
 
 Gral-Ia-to'-res,Wad rs391 
 
 " Plov'-ers, 392 
 
 " Her'-ona, 396 
 
 " Cranea, 396 
 
 " Bit'-terna, 397 
 
 " Storks, 398 
 
 " Spoon'-bllls, 400 
 
 " I'-bis-es, 401 
 
 " Snipes, 403 
 
 " -Gur'-lews, 404 
 
 " Tat'-tlers, 405 
 
 " Av'-o-sets, 406 
 
 " Phal'-a-ropea, 408 
 
 " God'-wlts, 408 
 
 " Bus'-tards, 410 
 
 " Rails, 412 
 
 " Fla-niin'-goes, 413 
 
 Gram-ma-to-pho'-ra, 492 
 
 Gram'-pus, 251 
 
 Grass'-hop-por, 613 
 
 Great'-ibots, 376 
 
 Grebe, 424 
 
 Green '-leta, 320 
 
 Grif'-fou Vul'-ture, 289 
 
IN))EX. 
 
 701 
 
 OroB'-beaks, 342 
 
 Ground'-Hog, 127 
 
 " Pup'-py, ,-631 
 
 Grouse, (grous,) 379 
 
 Gru'-i-dae, (Cranes,) 395 
 
 6ua-eha'-ro-Bird, 304 
 
 Gua-na'-€0, 189 
 
 Guin'-ea Fowls, 378 
 
 " Pigs, 138 
 
 " mnn, 657 
 
 Gulls, 434 
 
 Gifr'-nards, 661 
 
 Gym-no'-pus, 468 
 
 Gym-no'-tus, 651 
 
 .Gym-no-don'-ti-dsB, 57| 
 
 Gy-pffi'-tus, 292 
 
 Gyp-o-ge-ra'-nus, 292 
 
 Gy-ra-to'-res, 370 
 
 Gyr'-fal-eon, 287 
 
 Had'-doek, 574 
 
 Hag, 590 
 Hair'-Worm or Snake 657 
 Hair'-fii'd Ble-pha'-ris864 
 
 Hal'-i-but, 575 
 
 Hal-i-a6'-tos, ' 282 
 
 Hand'-drink-er, 43 
 
 Hare'-Family, 138 
 
 Harp Seal, 94 
 
 Har'-ri-ers, 284 
 
 Har-te'-Beest, 241 
 
 Har'-vest-flies, 627 
 
 Hawks, 287 
 
 " Chant'-ing, 288 
 
 " Fish, 283 
 " Spar'-row, 
 
 " SwalMow, 284 
 
 Heart'-Ur'-chin, 676 
 
 Hedge'-hogs, 98 
 
 Hel-min-thol'-o-gy 13,652 
 
 He-lo-der'-ma, -494 
 
 He-mip'-ter-a, 625 
 
 He-mip'-o-de, 382 
 Her-biv'-rs Ce-ta'-oea,261 
 
 Him-au'-to-pus, 
 
 Hip-po-eam'-pus, 
 
 Hip-po-pot'-a-mus, 
 
 Hi-ru-din'-i-dae, 
 
 Hi-run-din'-i-dse, 
 
 Ho'-a-zins, 
 
 Hog, Do-meg'-ti€, 
 
 406 
 S77 
 159 
 655 
 305 
 374 
 150 
 Wart, TVar'-ty, 153 
 
 In-fu-so'-ries, 689 
 
 In'-Beets, gen'l des«., 600 
 ' Orders of, 607 
 
 In-see-tiv'-o-ra, 98 
 
 In-ses-so'-res, 298-360 
 
 Man'-a-tee, 261 
 
 " Du'rgong, 265 
 
 " Eyt'-i-na, 695 
 
 " Zeug'-lo-don, 265 
 
 Her'-rings, 572 
 
 Her'-rons, 395 
 
 5er-pe-tol'-o-gy, 13, 451 
 
 Hes'-sian-Fly, 630 
 
 Het-e-rop'-ter-a, . 626 
 
 " True "Water Bugs,627 
 
 ". Land, Fruit, Bed, 628 
 
 Wa'-ter, 137 
 
 Ho-lo-thu-rid'-e-a, 674 
 
 Ho-mop'-ter-a, 62B 
 Bark-lice, 
 Plant-lice, 
 
 Lan'-tern Flies, 627 
 
 Hom'-a-rus, 645 
 
 Hom'-o-pus, 461 
 
 Hon-ey'-eat'-er, 356 
 
 Hook'-ed Worms, 658 
 
 Hoop'-oe, 35? 
 
 Horn'-bill, 347 
 
 Tails, 617 
 
 Horn'-ed Horse, 240 
 
 Frog, 492 
 
 Mon'-key, 42 
 
 Owl, 295 
 
 Horn'-et, 619 
 
 Horse, 166 
 
 Horse'-foot, 649 
 
 How'-lers, 39 
 
 Hum'-ming-Bird, 364 
 
 Hump'b-d Whales, 268 
 
 Hy-ae'-nas, 62 
 
 Hy-dras'-pi-dse, 467 
 
 Hyd'-ri-dse, Hy'-dra, 
 
 Hy-dro-€hp-e'-rus, 137 
 
 Hy-dro-met'-ri-dffi, 628 
 
 Hy-dro-phyl'-i-dsB, 608 
 
 Hy-men-op'ite-ra, 617 
 
 Borers, Saw-flies, 617 
 
 leh-ueu'-mon, 618 
 
 Gall-flies, 618 
 
 Stingers, 618 
 
 Wasps, Hornets, 618 
 
 Bees, Ants, 619, 621 
 
 Hy'-rax, 163 
 
 Hys-tric'-i-dsB, 134 
 
 " bex, 230 
 
 r-bis, 401 
 
 leh-neu'-mon, 63 
 
 Ic'-te-rus, 332 
 
 Ic-thy-ol'-'gy,13,544-594 
 
 Ig-ua'-na, 488 
 
 I-ma'-go, 603 
 
 In'-dirgo Bunt'-ings, 339 
 
 29 
 
 Jab'-i-ru, 
 Jaek'-als, 
 
 Jel'-ly-Fisb, 
 
 Jer-bo'-a, 
 
 Jer-fal'-eon, 
 
 Jump'-ing Mouse, 
 
 Kan'-chil, 
 
 Kan'-ga-roo', 
 
 Ka'-ty-did, 
 
 Kes'-trel, 
 
 King'-Bird, 
 
 King'-€rab, 
 
 King'-Fieb-ers, 
 
 Kites, 
 
 Ki'-vi-Ki'-vi, 
 
 Keit-lo'-a, 
 
 Knot, 
 
 Lab'-ri-dae, 
 
 400 
 69 
 329 
 679 
 128 
 287 
 137 
 201 
 107 
 613 
 287 
 - 319 
 649 
 302, 695 
 284 
 388 
 157 
 406 
 667 
 
 La'-day Bug,X. Bird, 608 
 La-fay-ette', 562 
 
 Lag'-o-mys, 140 
 
 Lag'-o-pus, 381 
 
 Lam'-mer-gey-er, 292 
 Lam-pro-tor'-ni-na3, 332 
 Lam'-preys, 590 
 
 Lan'-ce-let, 557 
 
 Land'-Birds, 280-390 
 " Newts, 634 
 
 " Tor'-toi-aes, 460 
 Lan'-i-a-dffi, 324 
 
 Lan'-tern-flies, 627 
 
 Lap'-wing» 392 
 
 Larks, 696, 343 
 
 Lar'-i-d8B, (Gulls,) 
 
 434 
 
 Leech, 
 
 655 
 
 Leaf-roII-ers, 
 
 625 
 
 Le-mu'-ri-dse, 
 
 44 
 
 Leop'-ards, 
 
 60 
 
 Lei-os'-to-mus, 
 
 562 
 
 Le'-pas, • 
 
 650 
 
 Lep-top'-til-us, 
 
 399 
 
 Li-bel'-lu-la, 
 
 614 
 
 Lice, 
 
 632 
 
 " Plant, 
 
 626 
 
 " Whale, 
 
 646 
 
 Lil'-y Eu'-eri-nite, 
 
 677 
 
 Lim-no'-ri-a, 
 
 647 
 
 Lim'-u-Ius, 
 
 648 
 
702 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lln'-net, 
 
 340 
 
 MU-vi'-nsB, (Kites,) 284| 
 
 Li'-on, 
 
 57 
 
 Mink, 
 
 75 
 
 " AmerUan, g 
 
 58 
 
 Min'-o-Bird, 
 
 333 
 
 Liz'-ardSjla-cer'-ti-dse 497 
 
 Mites, 686, 638| 
 
 Lla'-ma, 
 
 188 
 
 Mo'-a, 
 
 388 
 
 Lob'-ster, 
 
 646 
 
 Mock'-lng Bird, 
 
 317 
 
 Lo'-«usts, 
 
 613 
 
 Mohr, 
 
 234 
 
 Long'-armed Ape, 
 
 84 
 
 Mole, 
 
 100 
 
 Loon, 
 
 423 
 
 Mol'-lusks, 
 
 14, 664 
 
 Loph'-i-d8e,LQph'-i-us566 
 
 Mon'-ad, Mo'-nas 
 
 690 
 
 Lo-pho-branch'-i-a, 
 
 577 
 
 Monk'-eya, 
 
 89-48 
 
 Lo-phy'-rus, 
 
 373 
 
 " Ameriean, 
 
 39 
 
 Lo'-ris, 
 
 46 
 
 " European, 
 
 31 
 
 Lox'-i-a-dse, 
 
 845 
 
 " African, 
 
 86, 32 
 
 Lore'-Birds, 
 
 364 
 
 " Asiati«, 
 
 84-37 
 
 Lum-bric'-i-dae, 
 
 655 
 
 " Madagascar, 
 
 44 
 
 Lwmp'^fish'-es, 
 
 575 
 
 Mo-noc'-e-ro3, 
 
 249 
 
 liu'-pa, 
 
 644 
 
 Mon'-o-don, 
 
 249 
 
 Ly-eo'-sa, 
 
 637 
 
 Mon'-oo-hoo, 
 
 157 
 
 Lynx, 
 
 60 
 
 Mon-o-trem'-a-ta, 
 
 109 
 
 Mae-eaw', 
 
 364 
 
 Mos'-€hi-d», 
 
 196 
 
 Ma€k'-er-el Family, 
 
 563 
 
 Mos-a-sau'-rus, 
 
 495 
 
 Ma-erop'-i-'dse, 
 
 107 
 
 Moss-€!or'-als, 
 
 691 
 
 Mad-a-gas'-«ar €ats, 
 
 45 
 
 Moths, 
 
 624 
 
 Mal-a-eol'-o-gy, 1 3 
 
 664 
 
 Moth'-er -Ga'-rey' 
 
 s 
 
 Mal-a-«op-te-ryg'-i-i, 
 
 
 Chick'- 
 
 sns, 432 
 
 547 
 
 567 
 
 Mot'-mot, 
 
 811 
 
 Mal-a-eos'-tra-ca, 
 
 643 
 
 Mouf'-flon, 
 
 226 
 
 Mal'-lard, 
 
 418 
 
 Mud'-Hen, 
 
 413 
 
 Mam-mal'TO-gy, 
 
 13 
 
 " Lam'-preys 
 
 590 
 
 Mam-ma'-li-a, 
 
 19 
 
 " Tor'-toi-ses 
 
 466 
 
 Mam'-moth, 
 
 149 
 
 Mule, 
 
 170 
 
 Man-a-tee', 
 
 261 
 
 Mul'-let, Mu-gil'-i 
 
 dffi, 565 
 
 Man, 
 
 21 
 
 Munt'-jaek, 
 
 214 
 
 Man-of-War'-Bird, 
 
 443 
 
 Mu'-ri-dffl, Mus, 
 
 136 
 
 Man'-drU, 
 
 36 
 
 Mu'-ri-ea-ted-Liz' 
 
 -ard492 
 
 Mar'-lin, 
 
 408 
 
 Mus-ci-cap'-i-dte, 
 
 318 
 
 Mar'-mot, , 
 
 127 
 
 Mus'-ci-dse, Mus'- 
 
 ea, 630 
 
 Mar-su-pi-il'-li-a,' 
 
 103 
 
 Musk' Deer, 
 
 196 
 
 Mar'ten, (Mam'-mala 
 
 ,)74 
 
 " Ox, 
 
 222 
 
 Mar'-tin, (Birds,) 
 
 305 
 
 " Rat,Mus'-quash,134 
 
 Ma'-son-Spi'-der, 
 
 637 
 
 " Tor'-toi-ses, 
 
 465 
 
 May'-flies, 
 
 615 
 
 Mus-o-phag'-i-dae 
 
 848 
 
 Ma'-Tis, 
 
 316 
 
 Mus-qui'-toes, 
 
 629 
 
 Me-du'-SEB, 
 
 679 
 
 Mus-tel'-i-dsB, 
 
 71 
 
 Meg-a-po-di'-i-das, 
 
 375 
 
 My-ox'-us, 
 
 182 
 
 Meg-ap'-ter-a, 
 
 258 
 
 Myr-i-ap'-o-da, 
 
 633 
 
 Mel-i-phag'-i-d^, 
 
 356 
 
 Myr-me-co-phag' 
 
 'dai,lis 
 
 Men-o-pom'-i-dee, 
 
 537 
 
 Myr-me'-le-on, 
 
 615 
 
 M4r-gan'-aers, 
 
 422 
 
 Myx'-i-nes, 
 
 557 
 
 Mer'-lin, - 
 
 287 
 
 Na'-pu, 
 
 201 
 
 Me-rop'-i-dsB, ' 
 
 308 
 
 Nar'-whal, 
 
 249 
 
 Me-ru'-li-dsB, 
 
 816 
 
 Nat-a-to'-res, 
 
 416-447 
 
 Mice Family, 
 
 136 
 
 Nau'-ele-rus, 
 
 284 
 
 , 66S 
 363 
 666 
 290 
 614 
 614 
 615 
 61S 
 615 
 534 
 814 
 302 
 
 329 
 358 
 610 
 242 
 624 
 
 Nau'-ti-lus, 696, 
 
 Nee-ta-rin'-i-dse, 
 Nem-a-toi'-de-a, 
 Ne'-o-phron, 
 Neu-rop'-ter'-a, 
 Dragon-flies, 
 May-flies, 
 Ant-LioDs,' 
 White-AntSi 
 Newts, (nutes,) 
 Night' -in-gale, 
 Night'-jar, 
 Nu-eif'-ra-ga, 
 Nu' -mi-da, 
 Nut;-«rack'-ers, 
 Nut'-Hatch, 
 Nut'-Wee'-TH, 
 Nyl'-ghau, 
 Nym-phal'-i-dse, 
 0-e8'-tri-dae,(Botflle8)6Sl 
 O-nis'-eus, (Sow-bug,)64« 
 O'-pen-beak'-'d Birds,403 
 O-phid'-l-ans, 507-526 
 O-pos'-sums, 105 
 
 0-rang' Ou-tang, 88 
 
 O'-ri-oles, 832 
 
 Or-ni-thol'-o-gy, 18, 268 
 Or-ni-tho-rhyn'-eus, 110 
 Or'-phe-us, 317 
 
 Or-thop'-ter-a; 612 
 
 " €oe)iL'-ro&,eh-Ss, 612 
 " Pray'-inglnse^s,612 
 " Spee'-tres, 612 
 
 " Walking Sticks, 
 
 613, 696 
 
 " Walking Leaves, 6l3 
 
 " €rick'-ets, 613 
 
 " Lo'-€usts, 613 
 
 " Grass'-hop-pers, 618 
 
 " Ka-ty'-dld, 
 
 Or'-tyx, 
 
 O'-ryx, 
 
 Os'-prey, 
 
 Os'-se-ous Fish'-fes 
 Os-tra-ci-on'-i-dse, 
 Os'-trich, 
 Ot'-ter, 
 O'-ti-dsB, (Bus'-tarda,)410 
 O'-tus, (Eared Owls,) 296 
 Ox'-en, Ov'-i-d», 216 
 Ox-peck'-ers, 369 
 Oys'-tera, 696, 667 
 Oys'-t^r-€atch-.er, 898 
 Owls, 29K 
 
 61^ 
 880 
 237 
 282 
 660 
 582 
 384 
 76 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ^03 
 
 Owls, Barn, Screech, 294 
 ' " Tuftless, Burro'g, 294 
 " Homed or Eared, 295 
 Pa«h-y-der'-raa-ta, 142 
 Pa-li-nu'-rus, 644 
 
 Pa-lu-di'-na, Plate 11 
 Pan'-da, 89 
 
 Pan'-go-lin, 115 
 
 Pan'-ther, Pu'-ma, 58 
 Pa-pil-i-on'-i-dae, 623 
 " But'-ter-flies, 623 
 Moths, 624 
 
 Silk-Worms, 625 
 Par-a-di-se'-a-dse, 329 
 Par'-i-dse, (Tit-mice, )y3 15 
 Par-a-^'-ta, (Lice,) 632 
 Par'-rots, 362 
 
 ' €ock'-a-too3, 364 
 Lo'-ries, 365 
 
 Lor'-i-keets, 363 
 Love'-Birds, 364 
 Mae-eaws', 364 
 Par'-a-keets, 364 
 Par'-tridge, 
 Pa3*-sen-ger-Pi'-geoii, 372 
 Pas'-ser-iii'Birds,298-369 
 
 Phan-e-ro-bran'-«hus,538 
 Pha'-ra-oh's-Kat, 63 
 
 Ph«s-«ol'-o-mys, 108 
 Phas-i-an'-i-dae, 376 
 
 Pha3'-ma,Phas'-m'da3, 6 1 2 
 Pheas'-ants, 376 
 
 Phe'-be Bird, 320 
 
 Phoc'-i-dEB, Pho'-ea, 91 
 Phoe-ni-eop'-ter-us, 413 
 Phry-nos'-o-ma, ' 491 
 Phy-se-ter'-i-dae, 253 
 
 Phys-o-gra'-da, ^0 
 
 Phy-soph'-o-ra, 680 
 
 Phy-to-to'-ma, 349 
 
 Phy-to-zo'-a, 682 
 
 Pich-i-a'-go, 119 
 
 -eons, 370 
 
 Bronze-Winged, 
 €rown'd. Ground, 373 
 
 €(nie-bills, 326 
 
 " Slender-bUls, 351 
 " Split-billa, 302 
 
 " Toothed-bills, 312 
 Pea'-eoeka, 376 
 
 Pee'-ea-ries, 154 
 
 Pe-des'-tes, 132 
 
 Pe-die'-u-lus, 632 
 
 Pee'-ohi, l7l 
 
 Pe-di-pal'-pj, 637 
 
 Pel-e-€au'-i-d», 438 
 
 Pen-na-tu'-li-dsB, 687 
 Pen'-guing, , 435 
 
 Pen-ta-eri'-nu3, 678 
 
 Pen-ta-to'-ma, 628 
 
 Perch'-es, Per'-ci-dae, 560 
 Peroh'-ing-Birds,298-369 
 Per-'n-^i-brane'-i-a'-ta,537 
 Per'-e-grine Fal'-€on,286 
 Pet'-rels, 429 
 
 Pet-ro-mytZon'-i-dsB, 590 
 Pe'-wee, 320 
 
 Pe'-wit, 320, 892 
 
 Pha-eo-eho-e'-rus, 153 
 Pha-e'-ton, 444 
 
 Phal-a-ero co'-rax, 440 
 Pha-lan'-ger, 106 
 
 Phal'-a-rope, 408 
 
 Carrier, 
 Gfeen, Rofik, 
 
 Plo-oe'-i-nas, 337 
 
 Plov'-er, (Pluver,) 392 
 Fo-dai^gus,, 303 
 
 Poe-Bird, 357 
 
 Po-du'-ra, 632 
 
 Po-eph'-a-ga,' 107 
 
 Po-eph'-a-|us, 222 
 
 Pod'-i-ceps, 424 
 
 Po'-lar, Bear, 82 
 
 Po4yb-o'-rus, 283 
 
 Po-ly'-o-don, 585 
 
 Pol-y-gas'-tri-€a, 689 
 
 Pol'-yp, 682, 685 
 
 Pol-y-phe'-mus, 648 
 
 Po-lyp'-ter-us, 582 
 
 Por'-eu-pine, 134 
 
 Por'-poise, 250 
 
 Por'-tu-gueae Man-of- 
 
 War, 680 
 
 Turtle-Dove, 
 Pi'rci-dffi, 
 Pifik'-e-rel, Pikes, 
 Pi'-lot-Fiah, 
 Pim-e-lo'-dna, 
 Pin'-ta-dos, 
 Pipe'-Fishes, 
 
 Plae' 
 
 371 
 
 371 
 
 372 
 
 372 
 
 865 
 
 570 
 
 563 
 
 551 
 
 378 
 
 , 577 
 
 oids, 558, 583-591 
 
 Sea-Monsters, 583 
 
 Sturgeon, 683 
 
 Sharks, 585 
 
 Saw-fish, 588 
 
 Kays, 588 
 
 Torpedoes, 589 
 
 Lampreys, 590 
 
 Lascelet, 691 
 
 Fla-gi-os'-to-mi, 556 
 
 Plan'-i-dsB, (Flat-fish, )5/74 
 
 Plant'-ain-Ea'-ters, 348 
 
 Plant-eut'-ters, 349 
 
 Lice, 626 
 
 Plan-ti-gra'-da, 80 
 
 " Bears, , ' 80 
 
 Eae-coon', ' 85 
 
 Kink'-a-jou, 85 
 
 Badg'-er, 86 
 
 Glut'-ton, 88 
 
 Kat'-el, 89 
 
 Plat-a-le'-a, 400 
 
 Plat-y-gaa'-ter, 680 
 
 Plat-y-phyl'-lum, , 613 
 
 Plee-tog'^na-thi, '677 
 
 Pouch'-ed Eat, 
 
 Poul'-try Birds, 
 
 Prai'-rie Dog, 
 Hen, 
 
 Pra-^tin'-eo-la, 
 
 Pri'-o-nites, 
 
 Pro-bos'-ci-dffi, 
 El'-e-phant, 
 Mam'-moth, 
 Mas'-to-don, 
 
 Pro-cel-lar'-i-dse, 
 
 Proe'-ni-as, 
 
 Prom'-e-rops, 
 
 Pr*to-'zo-a, 
 
 Pseu'-do-pus, 
 
 137 
 378 
 127 
 380 
 394 
 311 
 142 
 142 
 149 
 149 
 429 
 823 
 353 
 689 
 600 
 
 Psit'-ta-eus, (Parrot,) 363 
 
 Psoph'-i-a, 411 
 
 Ptar'-mi-gan, 381 
 
 Pter-o-dae'-ty-lus, 488 
 
 Pter'-o-mys, 126 
 
 Puf'-fin, Puf'-fin-us, 431 
 
 Pu'-lex, (Flea,) 631 
 
 Pul-mo-na'-ri-a, 636 
 
 Pul-mon'-i-grades, 679 
 
 Pu'-pa, 602 
 
 Py-ran'-ga, 343 
 
 Py'-thon, 516 
 
 Pyx'-is, 460 
 
 Quad-ru'-ma-na, 31 
 Apes, 32, ,34 
 
 "Bab'-oons, 36 
 
 Monk'-eys, 39 
 
 Le'-muTS, 44 
 
 Quags-ga, 172 
 
 CjuAil, 380 
 
704 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Que'-sal, 
 
 Quis-€a'-lus, 
 
 Kab'-bit, 
 
 Ra«-coon', 
 
 Ka'-di-ates, 
 
 811 
 
 383 
 
 . 140 
 
 83 
 
 14, 6'7S 
 
 674 
 
 Ur'-ciiinB, 676 
 
 " Star-Fishes, 676 
 
 " En'-€ri-nites, 677 
 
 " Sea Net'-tles, 678 
 
 " " Pens, Fans, 687 
 
 Jel'-ly-fish, 678 
 
 '' Sea A-nem'-o-ne, 683 
 
 '' Cor'-als, 
 
 " In-fu-so'-ria, 
 
 " Fo-rara'-in-if-e-ra689 
 
 ". Sponge(possibly),692 
 
 Ral'-li-dEe, Kails, 412 
 
 Ea)n-phas'-ti-dsB, 361 
 
 Ran'-i-dffi, 528 
 
 Rap-to'-res, 280-297 
 
 " viz., Buzz'-arda, 285 
 
 Ea'-gles, 281 
 
 " Fal'-eona, 280,287 
 
 " Hawks, 287 
 
 " , Kites, 284 
 
 "• Owls, 293 
 
 Vul'-tures, 289 
 
 Ra-so'-res, 369-383 
 
 " viz., €u-ra3'-30wa, 374: 
 
 " Meg'-a-podes,876 
 
 Pheaa'-ants, 876 
 
 Pig'-eona, 870 
 
 Poul'-try, 378 
 
 Grouse, 379 
 
 Sheath'-bUls, 381 
 
 " Tin'-a-mous, 382 
 
 Rats, Wharf or Dock, 136 
 
 " Blaolc, 136 
 
 •' Field, 137 
 
 " Nor'-way, 136 
 
 " Poach'-ed, 137 
 
 Rat'-tle Snakes, 
 
 Ra'-yen, 328 
 
 Ra'-i-dsB, Bays, 588 
 
 Re-eur'-vi-ros'-tra, 406 
 
 Red'-Bird, 343 
 
 Red-Blooded ■Worms, 652 
 
 Red'-Poll, 840 
 
 Reed War'-bters, 314 
 
 Re-du-vi'-i-d», ' 628 
 
 Rain'-Deer, (rane,) 211 
 
 Bep'-tiles, Eep-tii'-i-a, 451 
 
 Rhi-noc'-e-ros, 165 
 
 Rhin-o-lo-phi'-na, 55 
 
 Rhiz-oph'-a-ga, 108 
 
 Rhiz'-o-poda, 68& 
 
 Rhiz-o-phy'-aa, 680 
 
 Rhod-o-phy'-sa, 680 
 
 Rib'-bon-fish, 564 
 
 Bi-cin'-i-a, 638 
 
 Riv'-er €ray'-rish, 644 
 
 " Horse, 169 
 
 Rob'-in, 317 
 
 Red-breaat, 315 
 
 Rffe'-buek, 206 
 
 Ro-den'-tia,(gnawers)122 
 
 S(}uir'-rels, 124 
 
 Mar' -mots, 127 
 
 Jer'-bo-as, 128 
 
 Bea'-ver, 183 
 
 Por'-€u-pines, 134 
 
 Mice, 186 
 
 •Ga'-vies, 137 
 
 Hares, 188 
 
 RoU'-era, 809 
 
 Ror'-qaals, 259 
 
 Roa'-tri-dffi, 400 
 
 Ro-ta-to'-ri-a, 650 
 
 Ruff and Reeve, 407 
 
 Ru^-fled Le'-mur, 46 
 
 Bu-mf-nau'-tia, 175-244 
 
 " An'-te-lopes,231, 283 
 
 " -eam'-el, 177 
 
 " €a-niel'-o-pards, 192 
 
 " Deer, 196, 202 
 
 " Goats, 227 
 
 " Iila'-maa, 187 
 
 " Ox'-en, 216 
 
 " Sheep, 224 
 
 Run'-ners, (Oa. Fam.,)384 
 
 Ry-ti'-na, (note,) 696 
 
 Sa-bel'-la, 653 
 
 l-goins, 42 
 
 -jou, 41 
 
 '-a-man-ders, 685 
 
 Sal' -mo, Sal'-mon, 671 
 
 Sand'-Fleas, 646 
 
 Larks, 406 
 
 Pi'-pers, 406 
 
 Bats, 187 
 
 Bap'-a-jou or jo, 89 
 
 Sar-«o-ram'-phu3, 290 
 
 Sau'-ri-ans, 475 
 
 " Cro€'-o-diles, 477 
 
 " Al'-li-ga-tora, 478 
 
 " Ga'-vi-als, 480 
 
 " €na-me'-le-onB, 484 
 
 Sau'-ri-ana, Geck'-os, 486 
 
 " Jfgua'-nas, 
 
 488 
 
 " Ta'-rana, 
 
 493 
 
 " Teg-uix'-ins, 
 
 495 
 
 " Liz'-ards, . 
 
 ■497 
 
 " €hal'-oi-des, 
 
 499 
 
 " Scinks or Skinks 
 
 ,502 
 
 Saw'-flies, 
 
 617 
 
 " fish. 
 
 588 
 
 Seale of Birds' Brains, 268 
 
 Sean-so'-res, 360 
 
 ,869 
 
 " -Guck'-oos, 
 
 367 
 
 " Par' -rots, 
 
 362 
 
 " Tou'-eans, 
 
 361 
 
 Wood'-peok-er, 
 
 365 
 
 Se»n'-i-d£e, » 
 
 662 
 
 Sci-u'-ri-dse, 
 
 124 
 
 S€ol-o-pac'-i-dse, 
 
 408 
 
 Seol-o-pen'-dra, 
 
 634 
 
 S«om-ber'-e-sox, 
 
 570 
 
 Seom'-ber, 
 
 563 
 
 Seor'-pi-ons, 
 
 638 
 
 Seratch'-ers, 
 
 369 
 
 Sea ' -A-nem'-o-ne, 
 
 683 
 
 " Bear, 
 
 95 
 
 " Breams, 
 
 662 
 
 " €ow, 
 
 261 
 
 " €u'-€um-bers, 
 
 674 
 
 " Du€ks, 
 
 419 
 
 " Ea'-gles, 
 
 283 
 
 " Egg, 
 
 675 
 
 " El'-e-phant, 
 
 96 
 
 " Fan, 
 
 687 
 
 " Horse, 
 
 677 
 
 " ^Jel-'lies, 
 
 678 
 
 " Lam'-preys, 
 
 690 
 
 " Li'-on, 
 
 95 
 
 " Mice, 
 
 654 
 
 " Mon'-stera, 
 
 583 
 
 " Net'-tles, 
 
 678 
 
 " Ot'-ter, 
 
 78 
 
 " Pefls, 
 
 687 
 
 " Pie, 
 
 893 
 
 " Por'-eu-pine, 
 
 678 
 
 " Slugs, 
 
 674 
 
 " Spi'-der, 
 
 638 
 
 " Tur'-tlea, 
 
 469 
 
 " XTr'-€hin, 
 
 675 
 
 Seals, (seel,) 
 
 91 
 
 3e«' -re-ta-ry Vulture,292 
 
 3em -no-pi-the '-«ns, 
 
 87 
 
 Ser'-penta, 
 
 607 
 
 Ser'-pu-la, 
 
 668 
 
 Shad, 
 
 673 
 
INDEX. 
 
 705 
 
 Sharks, S86 
 
 " White, Threshe^ 586 
 
 " Mack'-er-el, Blue, 586 
 
 " Bask'-ing, 587 
 
 " Hound-fish, 587 
 
 " Dog-fish, 587 
 
 " Saw-fish, 588 
 
 Shear-Wa'-ter, 430 
 
 Sheath'-biU, 381 
 
 Sheep, 224 
 
 Shi'-ner, 669 
 
 Shrews, So'-rei, 98 
 
 Shrikes, 3?4 
 
 Shrimps, 647 
 
 Silk'-Worms, (wurms)625 
 
 Si-lu'-ri-dse, 567 
 
 Sil'-ver-sides, .565 
 
 SU-Ti'-a-dae, 813 
 
 Sim'-i-a-dsB, 31 
 
 Siph-o-noph'-o-ra, 680 
 
 Skink, (Scin'-eus,) 602 
 
 Skunk, 78 
 
 Sky'-lark, 344 
 
 Sloths, 112 
 
 Snakes, 513 
 
 " Birds, 442 
 
 " Ma'-rlne, 518 
 
 " Ti'-pers, 519 
 
 " Rat'-tle, 522 
 
 Snipes, 403 
 
 Snow-Bird, 339 
 
 Sol'-i-ta-ry, 390 
 
 Solid-horned Ru'-mi- 
 
 nants, ^Deer Fam.,) 202 
 
 Sol-id-un -gu-la, 165 
 
 Sow'-bugs, 646 
 
 Spar' -rows, ' 342 
 
 Spee'-tre lu'-sects, 612 
 
 Sperm-a-ce'-ti, W., 254 
 
 Sper-moph'-i-lus, 127 
 
 Spi'-ders, . 636 
 
 Spi'-ny Dog'-fish, 587 
 SpUt-biir-'dB'ds,302-312 
 
 Spon'-gi-a, Sponge, 692 
 
 Spoon'-bill, 400 
 Spring'-bok or buek, 234 
 
 " tails, 
 
 Squal'-i-dsB, 585 
 
 Squam-i-pen'-nes, 562 
 
 Squash'-bug, 628 
 
 Squir'-rel, 124 
 
 " Monk'-eys, 42 
 
 Stag, 204 
 
 Star'-fish-es, 676 
 
 Star'-ling,Stur'-ni-da3, 
 Stel'-lio, (Stel-yo,) 492 
 Ster'-na hi-run'-do, 436 
 Sti«k'-le-baoks, 561 
 
 Sting'-ers, ' 618 
 
 Stilt*-Birds, 391-416 
 
 Stoat, ■ -72 
 
 Stone'-chat, 314 
 
 Storks, 
 
 Strep-sip'-te-ra, 61 1 
 
 Strig'-i-dse, Strix, 
 Struth-i-on'-i-dse,' 384 
 Stur'-geon, 583 
 
 Sub-braeh'-i-als, 573 
 
 Suek'-ers, 
 Su€k'-ing-Fish'-es, 576 
 Su'-i-dsB, Sus, 160 
 
 Sun'-fish, 578 
 
 Sur'-geon-fish, 565 
 
 Su-ri-nam' Toad, 633 
 Swal'-lows, 305 
 
 Swan, (Swon,) 418 
 
 Swift, , 
 Swim'-ming B'd, 416-447 
 Sword'-fish, 563 
 
 Syl-vi-eol'-i-dffi, 314 
 
 Syn-gna'-thus. _ 550, 577 
 Syr'-i-an Goat, 229 
 
 Syr'-ni-um, Sur'-ni-a, 294 
 Ta-ban'-i-dae, 631 
 
 Tach-y-pe'-tes, 443 
 
 Tai'-lor Bird, 314 
 
 Tal'-pa, Tal'-pi-dae, ,.100 
 Ta-man'-du-a, ' 114 
 
 Tan'-a-ger, 
 
 Tan-tal'-i-dse, 401 
 
 Tan'-ta-Ius, * 401 
 
 Tape'-Worm, T»'-uia,658 
 
 Ta'-pir, Ta-pir'-i-dse, 161 
 
 Ta-ran'-tu-la, 637 
 
 Tar-di-gra'-da, 112 
 
 Tir'-siers, 47 
 
 Tat'-tlers, TelL'-tale, 406 
 
 Teal, (teel,) 419 
 
 Te'-i-dae, Te-guix-ins, 495 
 
 Ten'-rec, 98 
 
 Teu'-thre-do, 617 
 
 Ten-u-i-ros'-tres, 851-360 
 
 " Hoop'-oes, 352 
 
 " Sun'-birds, ' 353 
 
 " Hum'-mingBirds,364 
 
 " Hon'-ey-Eat'-ter3356 
 
 " -ereep'-ers, " 357 
 
 Ter'-mites, 615 
 
 331rTern, 436 
 
 Ter'-ra-pin, 464 
 
 Tes-tu-^-ni'-na, 460 
 
 Tes-tu'-do, 461 
 
 Tet'-ra-on'-i-da3, 
 
 379 
 
 Tet-ra-de-cap'4o-da, 645 
 
 Thal-as-so-eliel'-ys, 472 
 
 Thin-BiU'-edBirds, 851 
 
 Thou-sand-leg-g'd W. 635 
 
 Thrush'-es, Thros'-tle^Sl 6 
 
 Ticks, 638 
 
 Ti'-ger, 59 
 
 €ats, 60 
 
 Tin'-a-mous, 382 
 
 Tit'-larks, Tit'-mioe, 315 
 
 Toad'rfish, 666 
 
 Toads, 632 
 
 To'-dies, Tod'-i-dse, 309 
 
 Tooth-bUl'-ed Birds, 312 
 
 Tor-pe'-does, 689 
 
 Tor-tois'-es, 466 
 
 " Land, 460 
 
 " 'Marsh or Kiver, 462 
 
 " ]^udand Musk, ,465 
 
 " Snapping, 466 
 
 " Kiv. or Soft-shel., 468 
 
 " Sea, • 469 
 
 Tor'-toise, Shell T., 471 
 
 Tou'-eans, 361 
 
 Tou'-ra-eos, • 849 
 
 Traeh'-e-a'-ri-a, 638 
 
 Tre-mat'-o-da, 668 
 
 Tri-€hop'-te-ra, 614 
 
 Tri'-lo-bites, 649 
 
 404 
 
 Tri-o-ny<h'-i-dsB, 468 
 
 Tri'-ton, 535 
 
 Tro-ehU'-i-dse, 354 
 
 Tro'-gons, 310 
 
 Trog'-lo-dytes, 32 
 
 Trop'-ifi Birds, 444 
 
 Tro-pi-dol'-e-I)is, 491 
 
 Trout Family, 648, 571 
 
 Trump'-et Fish, 571 
 
 Trunk Fish'-es, 682 
 
 Tu'-bu-Ii-'an-ehi-a'-ta 663 
 
 Tur'-bot, 575 
 
 Tur'-key, 377 
 
 Buzz'-ard, 289 
 
 Turn'-stmie, 393 
 
 Tur'-tle Dove, 372 
 
 Tur'-tle, 
 
 " Sea, 469 
 
 " Tor'-toise Shell, 471 
 
 343 Triu'-ga, 
 
706 
 
 '^ur'-tle, Green, 
 
 " Leath'-er-y, 472 
 
 " Log'-ger-head, 472 
 
 Twi'-light Mon'-ad, 690 
 
 Un-gui€-u-la'-ta, 21 
 
 XJn-ga-lafeta, 142 
 
 U'-ni-valve Shells, 666 
 
 U-pu'-pi-dse, 352 
 
 Ur'-chln, 675 
 
 U-ro-de'-la, 534 
 
 Ur'-si-dae, (Bears,) 80 
 
 Vam'-pire, 66 
 
 Va'-rans, 493 
 Va-ri'-e-ties of the 
 
 Hu'-man Kace, 
 Ve'-nus Gir'-dle, 
 
 Ver-me'-tus, 
 
 28 
 681 
 667 
 Ver-mil'-ia, 663 
 
 Vert'-e-brates, 14 
 
 VeB-per-til-i-on'-i-da8, 65 
 Vin'-e-gar Eel, Vibrio, 690 
 Vi-eil'-ua, 191 
 
 Vi-per'-i-dse, (Vipers, )5 1 9 
 Vi-ver'-ri-dse, (Civetg,) 62 
 Vul-tur'-i-dse, ■ 289 
 
 Wag'-tails, 815 
 
 Walk'-ilg-leaflnsee.,613 
 
 stick 
 Wal'-rus, 
 Wap'-i-ti, 
 War'-blers, 
 Waspa, 
 Wa'-ter-FIea, 
 " Hen, 
 
 618 
 95 
 208 
 813 
 617 
 607 
 412 
 
 Wa' 
 
 -ter-Hog, 137 
 
 " Lov'-er, 608 
 
 " Meas'-u-rer, 628 
 
 " Ou'-zel, 317 
 
 " Shrew, 99 
 
 Wax'-Wings, 822 
 
 Wea'-sels— Tribe of, 7l 
 
 " Ermine or Stoat, 72 
 
 " Fer'-ret, ijg 
 
 " Mar '-ten, ^4 
 
 " Mink, i^g 
 
 •1 Ot'-ter, ^e 
 
 " Sa'-ble, 7B 
 
 " Skunk, 73 
 
 Weak'-Fish, 551 
 
 Weav'-ers, 887 
 
 Weep'-er, 41 
 
 Web'-foot. B'ds, 416, 447 
 
 
 ' Auks, 424 
 
 
 ' Dar'-ters, 442 
 
 
 ' t)i'-Ters, 423 
 
 
 ' Dueks, 417 
 
 
 ' Gan'-net, 443 
 
 
 • Geese, 421 
 
 
 ' Gulls, 434 
 
 
 ' Pel'-i-eans, 439 
 
 
 ' Pet'-rels, 429 
 
 Wee'-vils, 610 
 
 Whales, 244 
 
 Whale-Bone Whales, 266 
 
 Wheat Midge or Fly, 630 
 
 " Par'-a-site, 630 
 
 Whip'-po-will, 304 
 
 Whi 
 
 te-W.(Be-lu'-ga),250 
 
 White Ants, 
 
 ", Fish, 
 
 "^ Nun, 
 Wid'-ow Birds, 
 
 Monk'-ey, 
 Wire-Worms, 
 Wood-Bo'-rers, 
 Wood'-pe«k-er8, 
 Wom'-bat, 
 Worms, (Wurms,) 
 
 616 
 
 571 
 
 422 
 
 337 
 
 43 
 
 • 610 
 
 610 
 
 366 
 
 108 
 
 652 
 
 Angle or Earth,655 
 
 Guinea, 
 
 Fluke, 
 
 Hair, 
 
 Leech'-es, 
 
 Pin, 
 
 Round, 
 
 Tape, 
 
 Thread, 
 
 Wry'-necks, 
 
 Xiph'-i-as, 
 
 Xyph-o-su'-ra, 
 
 Yak 
 
 Yel'-low Bird, 
 
 Yuux, 
 
 Ze'-bra, 
 
 Ze'-bra-Wolf, 
 
 Ze'-bu, 
 
 Zer'-da, 
 
 Zeug'-lo-don, 
 
 Zo-an'-thus, 
 
 Zo'-8-phytes, 
 
 Zo-ril'-Ia, 
 
 657 
 
 658 
 
 667 
 
 656' 
 
 657 
 
 666 
 
 668 
 
 657 
 
 366 
 
 663 
 
 648 
 
 222 
 
 314 
 
 366 
 
 171 
 
 104 
 
 218 
 
 67 
 
 265 
 
 686 
 
 678, 692 
 
 78