Hiii wiiili iM«Mi» TOOK LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE ITHACA, N. Y. Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library SF 115.C88 1904 Judging live stock, 3 1924 001 176 290 Digitized by Microsoft® TBE PRESENTATION otthis photo-eiignivinjr as a frontispiece is meant to be a tribute to the talent of Mr. Clias. Eeid, of Wishaw, Scotland, whose work in this direction has shown the degree to which animal photography may be made both artistic and instructive. The sustained merit of the work which he has done has pointed the way to gratifyinfc results, and the outcome has just recently made it possible to illustrate a book of this kind with all the types and qualities shown as they are, through the agency of photo- graphs made by him and such artists .as Schreiber of Philadelphia, Hills of Ohio, and Brown of Scotland. In addition to the clearness of detail in this reproduction of some H ighland sheep, note the beauty of the mountain stream with the old water wheel at the side of it, the naturalness of the sheep, the watchful pose of the dog, guardlike in position, with the shepherds resting at the foot of the trees and all in the foreground of the rolling hills suggested beyond. Digitized by Microsoft® Judging Live Stock By JOHN A. CRAIG, Dean and Director Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College, FORMERLY Editor Canadian Live Stock Journal, Professor Animal Husbandry University of Wisconsin, Professor of Animal Husbandry Iowa Agri- cultural College, Ames, Iowa. SIXTH EDITION. PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 1904 Digitized by Microsoft® COPYRIGHTED 1901 BY JOHN A. CRAIG. SET UP AND ELECTROTYPED JANUARY, 1901. REPRINTED, SECOND EDITION, MARCH, 1901. REPRINTED, THIRD EDITION, APRIL. 1901. REPRINTED, FOURTH EDITION, JANUARY, 1902. REPRINTED, FIFTH EDITION, OCTOBER, 1902. REPRINTED, SIXTH EDITION, AUGUST, 1904. THE KENYON PRINTING & MFG. CO.. DBS MOINES, IOWA. Digitized by Microsoft® ^ntruductttrn. IN JUDGING LIVE STOCK there are two faculties which seem to require special development — observation and judgment. The eye must see quickly and accurately, so that there may be no mistake in the observations which are to form the basis for a conclusion. While this is to a considerable extent dependent on being informed on what to look for, yet no amount of informa- tion will supply keen powers of observa- tion, which in addition, must be kept in practice by continuous use. The student should never be dilatory in this, for once Beauty is bought by judgment of the eye. — Shakespeare. allow it to be said that he sees a thing which he does not, the foundation for candid criticism is being built on sand. It is better to be " simpler than the infancy of truth " and completely candid with one's observations than to be in the least deceptive or dilatory in recording them. Not only should one be quick to see things as they really are but there should be as much dispatch in detecting deviations from the correct standard. There is much difficulty in this for a standard only forms itself clearly in one's mind after the re- sults of experience, observation and study have merged together into a clearly de- fined ideal. To formulate an ideal is absolutely essential and in doing this it is imperative to familiarize one's self with the good qualities of animal life, correct conform- ation and the highest types, so that the least variation from these at once attracts the attention. When a distinct ideal, based on the best types and their highest qualities has been formed in the mind, and this is sup- ported by a discriminating eye, it is but another step to render a correct judgment. What, then, makes a dog beautiful ? The possession of the excellence of a dog. And what makes a horse beautiful ? The possession of the excellence of a horse. What, then, makes a man beautiful ? Is it not the po- session of the excellence of a man ? — Epictetus. No pessimist ever made much in the study of life his- tories of animals. The stu- dent of such had better be an optimist out and out. — Samuel Lockwood. Digitized by Microsoft® In judging the market classes of stock the demands of the market should have a strong influence in the establishment of standards and in the judging of breeding classes the official scales of points, when such exist, should be relied upon chiefly as a guide, and when these are not officially But do thou, 1 say. simply and fully, ctioose the better and hold to it. But that which is useful is the better. — An- toninus. published an effort should be made to become informed regarding the understanding that exists among the breeders. While these standards are so wide in scope as to include many minor points, yet it will be noticeable that the essential features are given the greatest prominence and they are usually based on the utility of the animal for its purpose. This does not mean that the minor features should be slighted, for the degree of excellence in domestic animals is now so high and the competition so keen that No detail is too small to be studied for truth. — Stevenson. it is most frequently on some of these minor details that their rank in the show ring is determined. In show ring judging, after the inspection is completed, a draft or " short leet " is made of the likely winners of place from the rest of the competitors. Up to this time the judging has been the detection of faults and deviations from the standard required, but now the work is more of the nature of comparative judging, in which the points of the animals considered worthy of prizes are compared to determine their rank. It greatly aids dispatch and tends to more exactness to make such a draft when Reverence the faculty which produces opinion. — Antoninus. there are five or more animals in the class. It also materially assists the examiner in keeping in mind the qualities which he must compare. Carefulness at this point will do much towards the formation of a decision, which may be afterwards maintained with justice. Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS. CHAPTER I— JUDGING HORSES. Page I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 5 The Bones as Levers; Actions of the Muscles; Function of the Nervous System; Temperaments. II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 8 General Exaynination. — Form; Propelling Power Re- sides in Hindquarters; Three Classes of Light Horses; The Coach or Carriage Horse; Analysis of Style; The Trotter or Roadster; The Pacer as a Roadster; The Saddle Horse; Quality; Durability Associated with Quality; Action; The Walk; Observing Straightness of the walk; Manner of Noting Levelness; The High Stepper in Action; The Carriage Horse; Straight and Regular Action; The Driver's Sensation of Action; The Trotter; The Pacing Gait. Structural Examination. — Head; Nostrils; Eyes; Ears; Jaw Bones; Neck; Shoulders; Fore Legs; Arms; Elbows; Fore Arms; Knees; Cannons; Pasterns; Feet; Ribs; Back; Loin; Croup; Thighs; Quarters; Hind Legs; Hocks; Hind Cannons: Hind Pasterns; Hind Feet; Scale of Points for Light Horses. III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES 32 Consideration of Condition. General Examination. — Form; Advantage of Weight; Market Value of Weight; Quality with Substance Neces- sary for Durability; Action; Trotting Action. Structural Examination. — Head; Neck; Shoulder; Chest; Arm; Fore Leg; Knees; Fetlocks; Pasterns; Feet; Body; Loin; Croup; Hock; Scale of Points for Heavy Horses. IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CLASSES . 44 Sex Characteristics; Differences in Disposition; DifTer- encts in form; Variation in Features; Relation of Sex Characteristics to Sterility; Relation of Sex Character- istics to Prepotency; The Stallion Classes; Importance of Correct 'Conformation; Hereditary Diseases; The Mare Classes; Colts and Fillies. V. ESTIMATING THE AGE OF HORSES BY THEIR TEETH 50 Appearance of Incisors; Order of Appearance of Incisors; Disappearance of the Tables. Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS — CONTINUED Page VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 52 A Blemish Different from Unsoundness; Decayed and Worn Teeth; Discharges trom the Nostrils; Defective Hearing; Sweenied Shoulders; Capped Elbows; Splints; Ringbones; Sidebones; Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks; Corns; Thrush and Scratches; Locating Lame- ness; Thoroughpin; Curb; Bone Spavin; Bog Spavin; Unsound in Wind; Detection of Stable Vices. VII. OFFICIAI. STANDARDS FOR HORSES 5^ Standard for Trotting and Pacing Horses; Shetland Pony Scale of Points. CHAPTER II— JUDGING CATTLE. Method of Examination 63 I. JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 63 Method of Handling; Store Steer; Form of the Feeder; Quality; Inferences from Good Handling; Features of the Head; Neck; Chest; Ribs; Hips; Judging Fat Steers; Handling; Condition; Relation of Parts; Value of Cuts; Scale of Points for Beef Steer. II. JUDGING BEEF STOCK FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 73 Judging Beef Bulls; Judging Beef Cows; Judging Young Beef Stock. III. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 76 Dairy Cow's Function; Making of Milk: Function of the Blood; Function of the Udder; Nervous System; The Dairy Form; Skin; Hair; Bone; Head; Neck; Hind Quarters; Hips; Thigh; Escutcheon; Udder; Teats; Milk Veins; Scale of Points lor Dairy Cow. IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS 88 Purity of Breeding; Uniformity of Breeding; Pedigree Based on Performance; Qualities Associated with Individuality; Judging Calves. V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 90 Aberdeen Angus; Devon; Red Polled; Holstein- Friesian; Jersey; Guernsey; Dutch Belted; Ayrshire. CHAPTER III— JUDGING SHEEP. Method of Examining Sheep; Deception Due to Trim- ming; Estimating Age by the Teeth . . . 107 I. JUDGING SHE'ep FOR MUTTON AND WOOL . . . I09 Feeding Type that Gives the Best Gains; Feeding Type Bringing Most at Maturity; Type Desired by the Butch- er; Quality; The Importance of Condition; Judging Condition; Importance of Dressed Weight; Considera- tion of the Consumer; Qualities of the Fleece; Examin- ing the Fleece; Quantity of Fleece; Density; Length Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS — CONTINUED Pag-e of Staple ; Classification of Wool ; Quality of Fleece ; Softness ; Commercial Grades ; Crimp ; Soundness ; Condition ; Purity ; Domestic Wool ; Territory Wool ; Blanket Wool ; Lustre ; Brightness ; Yolk ; Scale of Points for Fine Wooled Sheep ; Scale of Points for Fat Sheep. II. JUDGING SHEEP FOR BREEDING PURPOSES ... 1 27 Formation of Types ; Value of Breed Type ; The Ram ; The Ewe ; Judging Lambs and Flocks. III. OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 131 Southdown; Shropshire; Hampshire ; Suffolk ; Oxford; Cotswold ; Wensleydale ; Dorset Horn ; Cheviot ; De- laine ; Spanish Merino ; Black Top Spanish Merino ; Tunis. CHAPTER IV— JUDGING SWINE. I. JUDGING FAT HOGS 145 Form ; Quality ; Head ; Eyes ; Ears ; Jowl ; Neck ; Shoulder ; Front Legs ; Chest ; Sides ; Back ; Loin ; Hips ; Rump ; Hams ; Hind Legs ; Scale of Points for Fat Hogs. II. JUDGING BACON HOGS I52 Condition ; Form ; Weight ; Shoulder ; Side ; Scale of Points for Bacon Hogs. III. JUDGING SWINE FOR BREEDING PURPOSES ... 1 56 The Boar ; The Sow. IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OP EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 1 58 Berkshire ; Poland China ; Essex ; Chester White ; Duroc Jersey ; Victoria ; Cheshire ; Large White York- shire ; Middle White Yorkshire ; Small White Yorkshire; Suffolks ; Tamworth ; Thin-Rind. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER I. JUDGING HORSES. To furnisTa reasons for many of the points that will be submitted iu discussing the types of horses, it becomes neces- sary to consider the horse as a mechanism in which the bones are levers, the muscles the source of power and the nervous system the stimulator of the muscles. I. THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY. I. The Bones as Levers. The three classes of levers are all represented in the anatomy of the horse. The first class may be fittingly illustrated by a pair of scissors; the power is applied at the holes for the fingers, the fulcrum is in the center where the blades are united and the applica- tion of the power is at the points. This is the strongest form of leverage and it is employed in the skeleton of the horse by the parts involved in the extension of the limbs. The lever of the second class may be said to be clearly represented by a wheelbarrow. The power is applied at the handle, the weight is in the center and the application of the power is at the wheel. This leverage in the horse enables it to sleep standing or to stand without feeling much strain. It is in action in such parts as that in the region of the humerus. The leverage of the third class is represented by a pair of sheep shears. The power is applied at the center, the ful- crum is at one end and the application of the power is at the other. This leverage is not common but it is shown in the action of the lower jaw of the horse. The masseter muscles Digitized by Microsoft® b JUDGING HORSES of the jaw apply their power to the center of the jaw bone, the fulcrum is at the point where the under jaw joins the head, while the application of the power is at the teeth. 2. Action of the Muscles. In considering the leverage, the attachment of the muscles and their nature are impor- tant. As the muscles consist of bundles of fibers, it is easy to understand that when these fibers are long, they possess more elasticity than when they are short. The long muscle with long leverage, added to by length of the bones is more favorable for quick action or speed, while the heavier muscle is more favorable for draft or power. The attachment of the muscles to the skeleton is also an important feature. When the muscles by means of the tendons are attached to promi- nences thus enabling them to work some distance from the bones that furnish the leverage, it is easy to see that the action of the muscles would be more effective. Hence, in most joints there are prominences to give the muscles the most favorable attachment. In this connection it will be interesting to study the pro- portions of the bones of the skeleton to find reasons for the advantages which are supposed to originate with different proportions. In general we look for short bones in those parts where the function is simply the transmission of power; while we desire greater length in those'parts where the mus- cles, the source of power or speed, are to be found. In the front leg for instance, it is desirable to have the distance long from the elbow to the knee, with the proportions showing a much greater distance from the knee to the fetlock joint for the reason that the distance over which the power travels should be as short as possible that it may be economized and but little of it lost in transmission. 3. Function of tlie Nervous System. In studying the horse as a mechanism, more than bone and muscle should be included. The stimulation for action comes from the nerve power or force. The nerve power is represented centrally Digitized by Microsoft® Ancient and modern schools in stock judginfj. In early times wliat was known in regard to the judging of stock had to bo garnered under the environment and with the material shown in the upper illustration. Moder n facilities and methods are shown in tho lower illustration, which is a photo- graph of tho stock judging pavilion at the Iowa Agricultural College, with the first class to come together for special instruction in stock judging, Three hundred were in attendance at this school January, liini. Digitized by Microsoft® J o' r; *=' = H '-J H m < .00'- 2 o o o o O c o o o - "-■ O o C C <] Sf.d«d?.:^.^ = ■■-'ii. -fe (U-^^'^ air' Digitized by Microsoft© THE ANATOMY A BASIS OF STUDY 7 by the brain and from there it is carried to all parts of the body by the spinal cord through the main channel of the vertebrae, and from this it branches out to stimulate many muscles. The stimulation for action must come from the nerve centers and these consequently have much to do with the quickness and the strength with which a horse may act. It has been determined * in the races of dogs and other ani- mals showing superior speed, that the nerves regulating the heart and lungs have greater power than in the instance of those that are slower. Another authority f who has given this feature special study states that the degree of contraction of the muscle is proportioned to the degree of stimulation. This general statement serves to sustain the position that the horse of strong nervous organization has quicker and more complete control over its muscles than the one deficient in this feature. 4. Temperaments. To the nervous organization, its tone and force, we can largely trace the temperaments that are characteristic of horses. The horse of nervous temperament expresses the fact by being a willing and enduring worker in its sphere; while the horse of lymphatic temperament seem- ingly lacks zest in its labors for the want of tone in its nerv- ous system. The bilious temperament reflects itself in a bad temper and springs chiefly from the condition of the body; while the sanguine temperament, resulting from apparently opposite conditions, finds expression in a disposition that is kind and willing. In this connection it should be stated that the term nervous temperament is not used in the sense in which it is commonly accepted, namely, a lack of nervous control; for such a condition usually results in an irritable and erratic temperament which is devoid of results as expressed in work. * Mills, Comparative Physiology, page 213. t Smith, Physiology of Animals, page 721. Digitized by Microsoft® 8 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES II. JUDGING LIGHT HORSES. /. General Examination. In the general examination of horses, the form, quality and action are the chief features requiring consideration. This examination takes in the horse as.a whole, while the struc- tural examination requires detailed criticism of each part independent of others. 5. Form — The Contribution of SIceleton and Muscle. To be able to accurately estimate the form of a horse, it is neces- sary to understand the extent to which the ^orm is due to the skeleton and how much of it depends on the muscular development. A comparison of a skeleton of a horse with a living and well developed animal will show clearly that some parts owe their form to the framework of bone, while other regions are shaped wholly by the muscle. Beginning at the head, it will be noticed that the form of it is determined almost alto- gether by the bones that comprise it. The outlines of the neck, however, are just as distinctly due to the muscular development of that region. The shoulder and chest are outlined in form chiefly by the skeleton though smoothened with muscle. The shape of the leg from the knee upwards to the body is determined by muscles of that region, while from the knee to the fetlock the outline is due largely to the tendons that make the leg at this point appear flat from the side. The common supposition is that the leg appears flat from the side view because the bone is flat, but the fact is the flat appearance is due to the degree to which the tendons stand back from the bone. 6. Propelling Power Resides in Hind Quarters. A study of the degree to which the skeleton and the muscular develop- ment contribute to the form of a horse, brings into promi- nence the idea that most of the power resides in the hind parts. The fact that the greatest muscular development is in that region would indicate this. Digitized by Microsoft® Photo by Sehreiber Lkader, THE Scotchman, winner of numerous pri/.cs at the lUislon and Pluhidrlphln, horso shows in the liciivy harness chisses. Illustrative of the fullnrss and symmetry of form tliut should be a feature of the carria^'' or coach ti'pe. The Demon aud ^^fgitiZ&d^b^^i riage horses. photo from Rider and Diivi irable in a pair of car- Photo by Schreiber, Hood's MoGREtiOB, record 2:269;,', by Eobert McGregor 'i-.TiM. Winner of three first prizes Philadelphia Horse Show, 1H!I7, in roadster classes, and also first for best appointed road rig. Saddle gelding, GoiyOMime. sliowing Spanish trot, high school class at K.Qp,^lg^^j>s^l^^,^g,^@Own Photo by Lillio, Winner of first prize ocl IxvC. T. Walker. GENERAL EXAMINATION It will be noticed that the form of the loin, the shape of the croup, the fullness of the thigh and quarters are due in the greatest degree to the extra development of muscle in these parts. The front quarter of the horse is bare of muscle in comparison with the hind quarter. Another reason for accepting this theory is the difference in the manner of the attachment of the fore legs to the body, compared to that of the hind legs. The shoulder blade is loosely attached to the trunk while the hind leg connects with the body through the agency of an unusually strong ball and socket joint. The shoulder blade plays loosely, seemingly for the purpose of lessening the concussion the leg receives from contact with the ground, while the hind legs in their connection with the pelvis make a joint that is the most powerful of the body. 7. Three Classes of Light Horses. The light horse in respect to form and other characteristics may be divided into three main classes: the carriage horse, the road horse and the saddle horse. These may be spoken of as the most com- mon types recognized in the market, while the pure bred representatives of them are to be seen in the breeds of coach horses, the standard trotter and the standard saddle horse. 8. The Coach op Carriage Horse. The distinguishing features of the coach or carriage horse are its symmetry and action. The height should be about i6 hands to make a good appearance. In contrast with the roadster the carriage horse is very smooth and symmetrical. The smoothness should be due to plumpness of the muscle over all parts. In the carriage type the head should be comparatively small and lean, the ear neat, the neck long and carried gracefully, the body round and plump and the limbs clean cut, with well formed and durable feet. Graceful carriage and stylish action are leading qualifications. 9. Analysis of Style. When in any posture, style is a very desirable attribute in any carriage horse. A critical Digitized by Microsoft® 10 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES examination of this type would indicate how far the posses- sion of style depends on the adjustment of the parts of the framework. When a carriage or coach horse possesses characteristic style, there seems to be an appropriate blend- ing of all proportions of form. In analyzing this it will be found that most of the lines have a similar direction, in addition to the fullness of contour already discussed. The line running from the poll to the nose seems to be parallel to that of the shoulder, the line dividing the pastern also has a similar direction, and the line of the thigh in the hind quarter corresponds with the slope of the hind pastern. Considering the lines that run different from these it will be noticed that the one made by the arm from the point of the shoulder to the elbow is very similar in direction to that made by the ischium of the pelvis and this again is similar to that of the lower thigh. Bach part of a typical carriage horse seems to bear a fixed relation to every other part both in size, length and slope, giving the horse that symmetry which contributes so much to its style and beauty while standing or in action. 10. The Trotter or Roadster. The chief characteristics of the roadster are speed and stamina. The ability to trot fast is a desirable quality and the ability to maintain a rapid gait is equally essential in a horse of this kind. In addition to being able to stand steady road work, such a horse must be well mannered so as to be safe and pleasurable to drive. The typical roadster may be said to be about 1^)4 hands high and about a thousand pounds in weight. In conforma- tion the horse of this class is somewhat narrow in front, deep chested, wide at the loin and very muscular in the quarters. Every feature about the horse appears clean cut, giving a hard finish which indicates durability. The linea- ments of the face and the outlines of the neck and especially the distinctness with which the tendons stand away from the leg are very desirable features. Digitized by Microsoft® Combination saddk' ;ui(l Iiumil'ss ti(_'ldin,u: tl k; iilanc, owned liy I'rofussor C. F. Uurtias, Iowa j\;j;ricultuj';Ll ('i)llu;^c, Ames, Iowa. A wdnnrr at state fairs in this class. Prize winnlnti: IvL'ntucky bred saddle horse Compeer, property of Edv?l!i n. Wethcrbue, New Y(.)rk City. The Breeder's Gazette, referrinf^ to tliis JiDrse, says : ''Of magnificent presence, with a liclKht of 15. ^ and a wei>i)it of 1,1(10 pounds, this yoniiii: horse wants merely to settle to his height by tlie development of another /ear; in sound feet, elastic pasterns, quantity and quality of bone, height at witiicrs. range of nock and strength of back Com- poer maizes good his name. Disposition and manners arc the essentials of a perfect saddle horse, and these Compeer possesses in unusiiril degree. He is brilliant in iiis action; his w;:lk is fine, liis trot di-^Tinguislied by a superb lle\ of liocks, while Ins liaunclies could noi^ l)e better tueked under at the ranter." W^^fW^B^^ ~, \ \ ^^M " ■^■•'■m.a^ T 1^^ ^r ■ «„-"■ ~— ^ ■« 's^y?!^^ I 'nxcrus was sired liy Robert llcGrusor 3;K'4- invnrd by Ceo. li. Krt chain. Toledo, (). Ci'esfous'trorted a mile in liriii',, l>ut it \v:ls disallnwi'd. owiul; to -x trclinioality. liKN Hoi.T. chatiipiori litilil wvi^'lit liuntrr, I'liii luli-l plii;i Hmse t'liow Association, I'.llKl, (Iwin-rl anrl riflik'ii by Miss M:uiii]i llalioway l'".Ay S,'lirnib( . rnrvliasril ;il GENERAL EXAMINATION 11 The type lacks the fullness and symmetry that are char- acteristic in the carriage or coach horse. To do effective and hard work on the road is the sphere of the roadster and the type that has been evolved is an illustration of the evo- lution of a form for a specific purpose. The type of the best campaigners that have marks of 2:10 or better will show a similarity that indicates the type towards which the trotter is tending. Though it should be noted here that the roadster in show form will show quite different outlines from one that has been subjected to the hard training that the campaigner receives. To describe the roadster form in detail it may be said that, the head is proportioned to the rest of the body, wide between the eyes and somewhat sharp at the poll. The neck is slim, long and very often carried somewhat straight, owing to the continual use of the top check. The shoulder slopes very markedly and extends well along towards the back. The arm is short and this with the slope of the shoulder makes the under line much longer than the length of the back. The fore arm is long, the cannon short and the pasterns with sufficient length and slope. The horse appears too far from the ground in proportion to its height. The back is short and strong rising some at the hips and the croup is strongly muscled. Perhaps the most noticeable feature of the type is the exceptional length from the hip joint to the point of hock and then from the point of the hock to the fetlock joint the distance is short, making the hock appear as if set low. II. The Pacep as a Roadster. As a roadster, the pacer has many claims for consideration chiefly on account of the speed that characterizes this gait and the fact that it is easily maintained on smooth city roads. It is, however, mainly the quickness with which full speed is attained that makes the pacer so popular among the road riders of our cities. The difficulty that a pacer encounters on rough, broken roads or Digitized by Microsoft® 12 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES in snow, makes it necessary to have a smooth hard road to enjoy the pleasures of the gait. Among pacers there is often noticeable a type that is not desirable in any class. It can hardly be called typical of this class of horses for many of those that are fastest at this gait, do not have the very low fore hand, the cramped hind quarters or bent-in hocks that are often connected with this form. The horse that paces smooth and true exhibits an easy and pleasing manner of going as well as one effective in producing speed, but there are many varieties of this gait that are the reverse of this because of defects in conformation which preclude rapid movement in any other manner. 12. The Saddle Horse. The type of the saddle horse is somewhat similar to that of the carriage horse but the typical saddle horse shows more quality and better manners than any other class of light horses. Aside from these features the most necessary qualifications of the saddle horse are the ability to show the different gaits that are required of horses of this class. The standard performances adopted by the executive committee of the American Saddle Horse Associa- tion are the following gaits: (i) Walk. (2) Trot. (3) Single foot or rack (4) Canter. (5) Slow pace, running walk or fox trot. The gait known as single foot or rack is very similar to the pace, except that in the latter the two feet of the same side move together while in the single foot the hind foot reaches the ground shortly before the front foot on the same side. The gait known as single foot is con- sidered synonymous with that of the rack and it has been described as exactly intermediate between the true walk and the true trot, each foot apparenthr moves independent of the other with what has been termed a "one at a time move- ment." 13. Quality. This term applied to horses has reference to their bones, skin and hair. Evidences of quality are clearly cut features, glove-like skin, silky hair and firm, clean Digitized by Microsoft® Lon Dillon, champion trotter of the world. Record. 1 mile, 1-5814. Bred by Pierce Bros., Santa Rosa, California. Owned by C. K. G. Billings. New York. Dan Patch, chamninnnacerrif the world. Record, 1 mile, l:5(iM. Owned \}y International Stoc Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL EXAMINATION 13 bone. In the instance of the horse possessing quality, the lines of the face are clearly defined and in every region there is a complete absence of coarseness. It is possible in such a horse to easily distinguish the muscles, tendons and bones and when slightly exerted, so that the coat lies smooth, the veins in the skin show clearly in an intricate net work as delicate and fine grained as the skin. This freedom from coarseness in the joints and tendons show a soundness in these features that guarantees durability. Coarse hair is associated with coarse skin and that is a true indication of soft, spongy bones which quickly become diseased when sub- jected to the strain of hard usage or neglect. 14. Endurance Indicated by Quality. The connection between a horse's staying power or endurance and its quality is frequently seen when subjected to severe road work, but the reason for the connection is not so plainly evident. The fine skin that is one of the features of high quality is consid- ered to be of value for what it tells of the internal organiza- tion of the animal, for it may be said in a general way that the one skin covers the horse internally as well as externally. The inner coat of the skin which covers the ribs and all exter- nal parts is a continuation of that which lines the stomach and intestines. If the skin covering the internal region is soft, fine and pliable it indicates that the secretions are healthy and it would seem natural to reason from this that the lining of the stomach would be in the same state, and if such is the case it is in a better condition to digest the food that goes into it, thereby increasing the horse's recuperative powers and endurance. 15. Durability Associated with Quality. Quality in a horse's limbs and feet is especially desirable for the reason that such prove more durable under stress or strain. In looking for this feature in the leg, it is a common practice to run the hand over the cannon bone. In doing this the skin and hair are felt against the bone and if there is the proper Digitized by Microsoft® 14 JUDGING LIGHT IfORSES quality there, the skin seems to melt from under the hand letting the latter come in close contact with the bone which feels firm and smooth. The fingers seem to touch each other as they pass between the tendon and the bone of the leg, when the latter has the right degree of quality. It is a fact that in finely bred horses that undergo unusual trials of endurance, such as the thoroughbred and the trotter, the texture of the bone is decidedly firmer and closer than that of horses bred for slower work. Another evidence of quality is to be seen in the lines showing the division of the muscles as these should appear distinct in the horse of quality and the joints of the limbs should not show any fullness but be dearly defined and hard. 16. Action — Why Highly Valued. In the market for light horses there is no single feature held in higher estima- tion than that of desirable action. It has different degrees of valuation when associated with the various types of horses, but to sell well they all must have as much as may be dis- played and used to advantage. The fact that proper action associated with the coach type brings exceptional prices in the market, would of itself make the subject an important study but when its influence on the prices of all classes of horses is considered, it at once assumes the position of being the most valuable characteristic connected with the classes of I'o^lit horses. Good action is mainly desirable for its utility and also for the many other qualities which it indicates. It will readily be expected that the horse with good action is more durable and more enjoyable, as the work is done easier, and also more profitable, for more of it is accomplished. But looking further into the subject it is surprising what other attributes are dependent on it. The action of a horse reflects its tem- perament, proves the balance of its conformation and indi- cates soundness. With right action there must be a dash and zest which is the outflow of a sanguine temperament Digitized by Microsoft® High stepper in action. Pliotograpliecl from "Diiving for Pleasure," showing the extreme degree to which the linee and hocli action may be developed by heavy shoeing and training. mw^ wiMm YW :f Leader, the Scotchman, in actio^n^.showini the flexing of the hoclE^Pfeffi"' *"■ ' " Plioto by Sclireiber. ; the folding of the knee and ij.- m. ■ , " ■ \^^ rrM\^l\ ''m " '^" ■ ■'-"^^^r'^m^ Photo by Philips, Independence, Iowa. iVLLEUTON, record 2;U9;4, in action, sliowlng the reach and movement to secure greatest speed. ■%S Online, record 3:04, a world's champion 4 year old pacer, owned by the International Stock Food Co., of Minneapolis, Minn. The photograph shows clearly the movemon^t °J[JJ^2,'®^ft7^'*S?Ji,'i&'^° paces level and true. iveniont of the legs when a Uoi^e Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL EXAMINATION 15 making light of the hardest effort. Then the conformation which is but a living mechanism of levers, pullies and trans- mitters must have the delicate adjustment and balance, that gives grace and smoothness to every movement. Further there cannot be any unsoundness to render less free or firm the step as both these characteristics must be prominent in actions of all kinds. The more action is studied the deeper becomes the conviction that every attribute of the horse con- tributes to it. Kvery quality comes more or less into play and for that reason the difficulties in the way of securing the typical action of the high degree of merit are almost insuper- able. 17. The Walk — Active, Straight, Level. Excellence at this gait is a very desirable quality in all varieties of horses, and unlike the trot its meritorious features are the same in all, as it has no connection with type. In the enjoyment of a road horse there is much to admire in the manner in which he conducts himself when walking. It is questionable as to which is the most pleasurable to observe — the walking of the horse whose step is evenly timed and nervy, or the trotting of one that has all the grace, style and snap that character- izes the coacher. 18. Observing Straigh.tness of the Walk. In moving away from you the feet of the active walker leave the ground with a quick snap, showing in its passage the reflection of the whole shoe. After leaving the ground with this peculiar snap the foot swings upward and forward, then the knee unfolds, the pastern carries the foot gracefully for- ward and it again comes to the ground lightly but firmly with the characteristic spring and snap that identified the first movement. The feet move straight away, swerving neither to the left or to the right, nor should the folding of the knees or the flexing of the hocks result in an outward pitch- ing or spreading. A horse that will lift and plant his foot in the way described almost invariably has the upheaded and Digitized by Microsoft® 16 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES commanding appearance in movement which is so admirable in the harness horse. 19. Manner of Noting Levelness. The crucial test of the balance of a horse's walk is the side view. Any variation from proper structural proportions results in wobbling, hob- bling or an otherwise uneven walk, and all these are readily seen from the side. The levelness with which a horse walks is one of the best evidences that the legs work in harmony. The most common deflection from this is attributable to a long, slim coupling which gives the onlooker the impression that the horse might break away into two parts near the region of the loin. In defective conformations of this kind the stride of the hind limbs is short and he usually has an uneven, choppy gait that is unsightly as well as ineffectual in covering distances. On the other hand an opposite rela- tion of the parts, close coupling and short back, with long legs, is likely to give use to a slovenly swinging gait, pro- ducing clicking, stumbling or other deficiencies. If there is a flaw in the mechanism of the front legs, it is usually made evident bj' the movement of the front feet, especially as they are about to touch the ground. If the limb proportions are ungainly the feet do not seem to reach the ground at the proper stage, either turning too much on the heel or not turn- ing enough and precipitating the toe. From behind it is easy to observe if the walk of the hind limbs is level thus being free from any hitching, wobbling or unevenness in the stride. 20. The High Stepper in Action. The highest priced action in the general horse market is that of the high stepper. The peculiarity of this action consists in lifting the knees inordinately high and flexing the hocks so that they come close to the body and keep the legs well under it. From the standpoint of action alone, the higher the knees and the jOcks are lifted the more valuable is the horse, provided the type and other features more common are equally Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL EXAMINATION 17 satisfactory. The feet must be thrown forward without any dishing on either side and the hocks must pass each other close and in line with the forward movement. It is easy to understand that while this method of movement is the most showy and stylish, it is not serviceable action for a road horse. The front legs soon succumb to the heavy concussion they would be called upon to stand under hard driving. But this action is sought only in the horse that is used for short drives about the city where style is paramount to speed and stamina.. While it is recognized that the high stepper should have as many as possible of the other qualities of excellence in addition to high action, yet all others are considered of minor value among horses of this class. "All-around action only to be considered ' ' is the current phrase in the prize lists that provide classes for competition among the high steppers, which means a combination of shoulder, knee and hock action. 2 I. The Carriage Horse — Manners When in Motion. A connoisseur of horses will see much more than the legs of a carriage horse when moving. As such a horse moves before an appropriate vehicle with the latitude of a light hand assisting him there are flashes of gracefulness from every motion. With this there is a quality of mind that gives buoyancy to the step and accounts in no small degree for the uplifted carriage of the head. It is expressive of a happy temperament that gives gracefulness to every poise and smooth flow to every movement. Even such a minor organ as an ear plays its part, the eye, too, shows the fire from within and challenges the critic for its meed of praise in measuring the step and alertness in giving it security. Scan the lines of the neck, and notice their tenseness and yet the unusual elasticity it shows when occasion offers for the move- ment of greater gracefulness. The shoulder plays with free- dom and the smooth turned loin and quarter seems the only Digitized by Microsoft® 18 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES region that are not taking part in this unusual display, though in this immobility they show their real strength. 22. Straight and Regular Action. As to the action of the fore legs, it is straight away with continuous folding and unfolding. In the action of the carriage horse there must be some style and dash and high lifting of the feet, but never enough of it to make the action unserviceable. At no time is the fore leg held in poise as it does not dwell either in flexion or extension. The foot snaps from the ground and is then carried forward wkile the limb unfolds, as if follow- ing the rim of a wheel. It seems to reach the ground at the right stage of the unfolding so that it is not held in suspense at any point along the line of descent. The feet pass close and in a straight line so that there is no swaying or dropping down of the fore hand with each step. The hind foot leaves the ground with the same quick movement and at no time is it allowed to hang back so as to give the horse the appear- ance of not gathering himself well together. 23. The Driver's Sensation of Action. After all is writ- ten that it is possible to write about the action of the car- riage horse, there is something else that must go with it which can not be described with suflBcient vividness to make the novice appreciate it. It has something to do with power and its connection between the animal and its master seems to be the driving lines. As you sit behind the horse of true carriage action and conduct you feel your proximity to a powerful mechanism that is undergoing a test of its minutest parts. If anything fails everything will be demoralized but it is the feeling of strength and power in the animal that allays unnecessary fears. Without leaving this feature connected with the carriage horse let us study its relation to the trotter. Substance and strength in the carriage horse gives momentum to the occu- pants of the somewhat cumbersome carriage; while the trot- ter loses these for speed and stamina. Between the trotter Digitized by Microsoft® An easy and satisfactory method of opening a horse's laoutli. The two thumbs are inserted just back of the incisors and the lower is pressed down so that the horse drops the lower jaw. It is usually easy in this way to make observations regarding the treih. Proper method of lifting and holding the foot of a horse. In seeking to lift the front foot of a horse the hand should be run over the cannon in the manner indicated in one of the photographs. Usually a horse will lift his foot as soon as this diM.ej.:iTp_hp],d.lt,fenilx vrl^gfit much effort, the proper plan Is to hold the tw the above photograph list the elbow as shown In The illustration on the right hand shows a well bred and intelligent head, the subject being Lola RoNAN.»standard bred road mare owned by the author, while that to the left is a photograph of a head showing lack of breeding and deBcient in fullness of forehead. Two photographs to Illustrate the differences in the appearance of horses' heads when thoy are trimmed and untrlmmed. The head shown trimmed is that of Boralma, 3:08, the unbeaten four-year-old trotter. * * * The trim appearance of the head is to some extent due to the fact that the foretop has been clipped, the ears trimmed, the mane clipped back of the foretop. The companion head, on the right, though of a French Coach mare .showing abundance of quality, is yet very coarse in jippearauce, largely due to tlio fact that the head has not been trimmed. The mane has not been cut away. The long hjLlr.is In .the ears, the fo^iit^P has not. been removed, while the long growth hjLlr.is In ,tl lias not lici'ti trimmed. GENERAL EXAMINATION 19 and its driver the feeling is that of flight instead of power in motion. The difference in the feehng resulting from follow- ing the movement of these two classes of horses might be better expressed by reference to the difference in the feeling that one has when standing beside a swift turning windmill, as compared with the effects of observing the turn of a pon- derous water wheel. The former takes advantage of every breath of wind and speeds a merry clip without apparent exertion or strength; the other impresses one at once with its power and in a lesser degree with its combination of strength and speed. 24. The Trotter — Speed and Stamina. The leading fea- ture of the action of the trotter is speed at the trotting gait, but there are many others that must be companions of this to result in the greatest development and the chief of these is stamina or the ability to maintain the necessary gait. It is generally thought that if a horse has speed he has the one essential necessary to make a trotter or a good road horse. Not only is speed desirable but there must be a true balance of parts, that insures their protection together with trueness of stride. Being true and level gaited guarantees the greatest durability and that with an ambitions turn of mind give us that very desirable quality in the trotter, termed " gameness " or stamina. Of all features of the trot- ter's action it must be the most evident that it is not in the least wasteful of energy. While that of the carriage horse or high stepper must display effort, the trotter should move so as to leave the least impression of this. lycss roll to the knee, more propulsion from the stifle and less motion in the hocks carries the trotter forward closer to the ground and with less expenditure of force and without the higher lifting of the knee and hock which is characteristic of the high stepper. There is much more extension of the limbs in the trotter, as shown in the reach of the fore leg, while the hind legs pass back farther and reach farther forward than Digitized by Microsoft® 20 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES in the action of the high stepper or carriage horse as the latter must keep his legs under him to gather himself together in the proper degree. A wider spread in the movement of the hind legs in the instance of the trotter is not as bad a fault as it would be if associated with the carriage horse. It is frequently noticeable as a distinction between the action of a trotter and coacher, that the latter is balanced in stride when going an easy gait but becomes unbalanced or weak when urged beyond it, while the trotter may very often show an uneven gait when moving slowly but when urged to the limit of its speed, displays truly balanced action without any tendency towards losing its stride. 25. The Pacing Gait — Level and True. A study of this gait will disclose the fact that there is more variations in it than in any other form of action. Horses pace in many ways, some lurching, others shufiB.ing and many more wob- bling in an unsightly manner; but, however they may go, they are nearly all characterized by possessing speed. A level and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In pacing level and true the body remains steadier than in any other movement. The legs move in harmony with the directness of a machine. The nervy, machine- like pace peculiar to many of the fast pacing animals is a study in the degree to which the mini- mum of effort results in the maximum of speed. Some horses pace because of bent hocks, others because of ungainly pro- portion but when the gait results from breeding and is the outcome of straight and direct movement, it is difficult to imagine a gait with less friction or display of effort. In the instance of the horse that possesses true excellence at this gait, if you were to shut off your view of the limbs in motion, you would have the impression that the animal was standing on a rapidly moving train hidden from your view, so little does the body and other parts above the line make any dis- play of effort. As a rule the pace from the standpoint of the spectator is an unsightly gait, but one that is usually Digitized by Microsoft® Those photographs have heen selected to show the differeaces In the dis- positions of horses. The upper one shows desirable temperament with har- mony between horse and rider. The lower one sliows horse and rider out of touch with each other and the horse discloses by expression and countenance a strong will and vicious disposition. Photo from Horse Show Monthly. A row of good heads. The heads of the horses shown here indicate a high order of intelligence, borne out by the fact that they all possess suffi- cient intellect to act. Beginning on the left hand their names are Charley Adams, Nixon, Alice, Blair, Charlie Ross, Ella, Maud. They are used in the stage plays Sporting Life and the Great Kuby. They are owned by the LeRoy Payne Co., of 171 Michigan Avenue, Chicago. Without exception they show intelligent heads in that they display full foreheads, open counte- nances, large eyes, with abundant width between thfem. Digitized by Microsoft© I^ules Governing Position of the Limbs of the Horse When Standing. FRONT VIEW OP FORE LIMBS. A veritcal lliiQ downward from Itae polntr of the abouldor uhould fall upon ibe center of the SIDE VIEW OP FORE LIMBS. A vertical line drawn downward from the center of the elbow Joint should fall upon tbe centerof the knee and pastern Joints and bach of the foot; and a vertical line dra-wu down- ward from tbe rnlddle of the arm should fall upon the center of tbe foot. Cut A of Plate II re- e resents the right conformation. B, shows the foot placed too tar back; C. too far forward. ^ "linoD sprung" and E, "knock kneed." SIDE VIEW OP HIND LIMBS. A vertical line drawn downward from the hlpiolnt should fall upon tbe center of tbe foot and divide tbegaHkin in the middle; and a vertical linedrawo from ibe point of the buttock Hbould coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern Joints. Cut A of Plate III represents right coDformatloD B, Cand D represent common defects. REAR VIEW OP HIND LIMBS. A vertical line drawn downward from tbe point of ihe buttock should fall upon the ceoter of the hock, cannon, pastero and foot. Cut A of Plate IV represents conformation B. C. D and E represent common defects. Digitized by Microsoft® STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 21 thoroughly enjoyable from the point of view of the driver. Owing to the ease with which the pacer moves and the light- ness with which they speed over pavements, combined with the rapidity with which they can reach their speed, the pacer has become very popular among city road riders. //. Structural Examination. Thus far the features that enter largely into the general appearance of the horse, the form, quality and action, have been considered, but in addition to these qualities there are numerous details of structure and soundness which have a predominating influence on the value of any of the classes that have been discussed. Not only must horses of the classes described prove sound to be of service, but to sell well they must also show the strength of structure that wards off the possibility of any unsoundness developing in the future. A badly constructed hock without a curb may depreciate the value of the horse fully as much as a curb present on a strong and well formed hock. The first does not have a curb solely because it has never been subjected to a strain, while the curb in the latter instance must have been due to stress of more than common severity. To discuss this division of the subject in detail it will be neces- sary to arrange the material that follows so as to consider the various parts of a horse completely. 26. Head — Straight, Lean. The shape of the head and the countenance of a horse adds greatly to its appearance, end as this is the part which is most frequently observed it becomes of some importance. The line from the ears to the point of the nose as seen from the side should be almost straight. In scanning the photographs of a great number of trotters it will be noticed that nearly all stallions have slight Roman noses while most of the mares have slightly dished faces, a distinction which seems to be characteristic of the sexes. As a rule it will be found that horses of very prominent Roman Digitized by Microsoft® 22 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES noses are self willed. Small nostrils are generally associ- ated with this form of nose and as a consequence we find in such instances, that the respiratory or breathing organs lack development. The features of the face should be distinct, without the least appearance of coarseness or meatiness. A lean face is suggestive of good quality in a horse. The muzzle should be fine in quality to make the head appear at its best. Between the eyes there should be breadth enough to give a pleasing frankness to the countenance. It is a point of practical value as an index to the brain development which is of much importance in a light horse, for in this class intelligence is a merit of high value. While it is granted that the intelligence of a horse depends mostly on the train- ing received, yet there is a marked difference in the benefit which horses derive from training, and that difference may only be accounted for by variations in the brain development. 27. Nostrils — Large, Open. The nostrils of a horse should be large, thin, dilatable and of a pink color. While there should be no discharges from them, they should always have the appearance of being moist. 28. Eyes — Full, Clear. A bright eye indicates vigor of con- stitution, that iS; stamina, staying power, or bottom as it is sometimes called. It is also associated with a happy disposi- tion and it seems to be this that accounts for the fact that some horses do an enormous amount of work with little worry and strain upon themselves. A large, full, clear eye is indicative of a kind, generous disposition and good health. 29. Ears— Erect, Active. The ears should be close together and carried in an erect position. They should be active and somewhat pointed. I,op ears indicate lassitude, or in plainer words, laziness. When it is noticed that a horse does not shift or move either of its ears to any extent to catch sound, it is safe to presume that At is afflicted with deafness. On the other hand if it is continually moving them, it is advis- able to inspect the eyesight carefully as it is likely that the Digitized by Microsoft® STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 23 extra labor imposed on the ears has its origin in the defect of one or both of the eyes. 30. Jaw Bones — Wide, Sharp. Between the jaw bones there should be sufiScient width for a large wind-pipe and also enough to allow the head to play freely on the neck. When the space between the jaw bones is very narrow it will often be noticed that the horse carries his head stiffly, but when there is sufficient width in this region, the head is usually carried gracefully and moved freely on the neck. The throttle or throat latch should be light without any unnatural fullness between the jaw bones or heaviness at the juncture of the head and neck. 31. Neck — Arched, Muscled. A nicely moulded and dis- tinctly chiseled neck of sufiScient length, carrying the head gracefully is one of the most beautiful features of the light horse. Extending towards the shoulder the neck should swell gradually so as to join the body smoothly. The windpipe should be large and appear distinct from the rest of the neck and the upper outlines of the latter should be sharp. While many excellent road horses have what is called a ewe neck, it is none the less a defect as it detracts very much from a symmetrical appearance. 32. Chest — Deep, Projecting. In the light horse that is called upon for light work, the chest should obtain its capa- city more by depth than breadth. The reason for this is that the deeper chest permits the freer play of the shoulder. It is easy to see that swift, smooth action of the fore legs is hardly possible in the broad chested horse, mainly because it throws them too far apart and out of line with those behind. It will often be noticed in this direction that too much width causes the horse to pitch or roll in its action. A deep chest is evidence of staying power. The conforma- tion of noted campaigners on the turf, such as Mary Marshall (2:12), The Abbot (2:03^^), Cresceus (2:o2i)may be cited to illustrate full development in this feature. Digitized by Microsoft® 24 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 33. Shoulders — Long, Oblique. The conformation of the shoulder is one of the parts of all light horses that requires critical scanning. To give elasticity to the movement of saddle horses and to permit of quick and clean action in the roadster, the shoulder should be long and oblique. An upright shoulder is very likely to result in short, stilted action, frequently accompanied by stumbling, and it is quite a fertile cause of such bone diseases as sidebones and ring- bones. The high action which is desired in the coach horse and the long reaching, clean action so sought after in the roadster depends as much on the obliquity and freedom of movement in the shoulder, as in any other feature. In addition, a sloping and long shoulder strengthens the back and extends the length of the under-line. The muscular development of the shoulder should also be carefully noted, for if there is an unusual bareness or lack of muscular cover- ing it would denote the fact that sweeny has affected it. 34. Fore Legs — Broad, Cordy, Straight. The appearance of the fore leg from the side should show it to be flat and cordy. The flatness shows the tendons to be properly attached and some distance from the bone and the clean cut appearance denotes the absence of any coarseness about the legs. View- ing the legs from in front and using a plumb line it will be found in the instance of a leg that is straight, that a perpen- dicular line downward from the point of the shoulder, should equally divide the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. Viewing the fore leg from the side, a similar line dropped from the center of the leg at a point where it joins the body should nearly divide the leg until the fetlock joint is reached and from there to the ground it should fall exactly behind the foot. Any variation from these two lines shows crook- edness from either point of view. The leg should be long from the elbow to the knee, for the reason that free and clean action follows such a conformation. In these parts it will be noticed that most of the muscles extending and Digitized by Microsoft® The photo on the left, Hummer 0112, shows a slopins shoulder and a lore leg of quality sat properly and strongly supported below the knee with cor- rect pastern and excenent foot. Subject of the other photo is too straight in shoulder and pastern with weak knees. Photo of asrQOOtltfyi$C^®» at the inner base of the right hock. The illustration to the right shows a cocked ankle, while the other one is a photograph of a large sidebone which may be seen on the outside of the right leg at the junction of the pasi ern and foot. Prlxe winning IVlammoth jack, Jomboak, owned by W. R. Goodwin, Jr., Oakhurst Stock Farm, Naporsville, Illinois. In size of bone and general form this jack shows the characteristics which are most sought in this breed. First prize at Illinois State Fair, 1600; height, 15.3; woiglit. 1.100 lbs. at three years old. So[^j^iyS°by MlCrOSOft® STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 27 40. Pasterns — Sloping, Strong. The pastern should stand at an angle of 45 degrees with the ground, and with the cannon it should form an angle of about 135 degrees. When more upright than this, they will cause bone diseases, such as side- bones and ringbones, as the concussion is very severe in such instances. Moreover it detracts greatly from the utility of the light horse, especially those intended for the saddle, as the step is short and stilted, and this is very disagreeable to the rider. On the other hand, sometimes the pasterns of light horses, and of thoroughbred horses especially, are too long and slanting, which weakens them and ultimately ends in the snapping of the suspensory ligament resulting in the horse "breaking down." 41. Feet — Dense, Waxy, Large. The foot should receive careful attention as it has an important part to play in the work of the horse, and it is subject to many defects and various kinds of unsoundness. It should be of firm texture, good size, moderately upright and thoroughly sound. It should have a healthy appearance which is indicated by an oily coat of natural wax. The frog should bear the mark of natural usage as a buffer, being spongy and touching the ground at each step. The roof or sole of the hoof should be distinctly concave. Flatness, brittleness and contraction, are the three most common defects in horses' feet. It will be noticed in many instances that the bar of the foot has been cut away, so that the hoof splits from the heel towards the coronet. This is due to the blacksmith's practice of cutting away the bars that bind the foot together. When this is done the foot begins to spread and the crack ultimately extends as far as possible. 42. Ribs — Well Sprung, Deep, Close. The ribs should be well sprung from the spine and they should be close to each other. It will generally be found that horses having well sprung ribs always make a better appearance than those that are flat ribbed ; and, in addition, they will be found to be Digitized by Microsoft® 28 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES easier keepers. It should be noted that the round ribbed horse always has the appearance of being inordinately long in the legs. This deception is due to the roundness of the body. It can easily be seen that from a side view the flat ribbed horse presents a body of deeper appearance and seem- ingly has shorter legs than the horse that is rounder ribbed. 43. Back — Strong, Short, Muscled. In its proportion the body should be short above and long underneath. This not only adds to its strength, but it gives the legs free play and insures a balanced stride. The horse of this conformation under the saddle will unite himself more quickly and better, while the same horse on the line, or in harness will have a freer and more balanced stride. It is the opinion of many that the roach back is an evidence of strength. It is the most undesirable feature in a horse for the saddle, and it is to say the least, an eyesore in road or in carriage horses. 44. Loin — Short, Broad, Muscled. It is a defect of many horses to be light and narrow at the juncture of the body and the hind quarter. If the loin is long or slack, that is, if the distance is great between the last rib and the hip bone, the horse is likely to be weak in the coupling and deficient in action, and when this is viewed from the side, it will be noticed that the hind foot fails to reach the point where the front foot left the ground. This probably is due more to lack of muscle over the loin than to any other defect. 45. Croup— Long, Muscular. The part included in the hind quarters should be critically examined, for, as it has been previously explained, it is in this region that the pro- pelling power resides. The haunch or croup should be long and on account of the improved appearance it should be comparatively straight. When the croup is long, it allows a greater play of the main muscles that are located in this region. It will be noticed in nearly all fast trotters that the croup generally has this characteristic. Length of muscle here as elsewhere contributes to speed. Digitized by Microsoft® Arabian stallion, Shahwan, bred by Ali Paslia, Sherif, Egypt, sold to W. S. Blount, in 1892, and taken by him to England and afterwards sold to pres- ent owner, J. A. P. Ramsdell, Newburg, N, Y. The photograph shows this horse to be a model of symmetry, style and quality. DESCHIPTION OP THE ARAB HORSE I'HOUGH there is some unreliable sentiment associated with the Arab horse, yet there is not a vestige of doubt but that they are of superior symmetry and quality. This is perfectly summed up by Sheik Abd.-El.-Kader : "The horse of pure descent is distinguished by thinness of its lips, and the cartilage of the nose, by the dilation of its nostrils, by the leanness of the flesh encircling the veins c( the head, by the graceful manner the neck Is attached, by the softness of its coat, its mane and the hairs of its tall, by its breadth of chest, the largeness of its joints and leanness of its extremities. According to the traditions of our ancestors, the thoroughbred is still better known by its moral characteristics than its physical peculiarities." Major E. D. Upton in " Newmarket and Arabia" gives the charac- teristics of the Arabian horse in the following statement which is true of tliose familiar to the author : " The Arabian is a horse of tlie highest courage, in stature about 14 hands 2 inches, a horse of length, power and substance, combined with the elastic and sinuous-like movement of the serpent. He is a very perfect animal ; he is not exaggerated — in some parts large, meagre and diminished in otliers. There is a balance and harmony throughout his frame not seen in any other horse; the quintessence of all good qualities in a compact form." The head of the typical Arabian horse is exceedingly straight and the eye raarltedly full and bright. Perhaps the most striking feature of the type is the round and extra well ribbed barrel. In action the movement of the legs Is very peculiar, being very strong and elastic. Though small, the form is e.xceedingly smooth and symmetrical, while the evidences of quality are strikingly shown. Digitized by Microsoft® Photo by G. A. Tadraan. Hackney stallion. Royal Danegelt 5785, owned by Sir Walter Gllbey, Elsenham Hall. Essex. Winner of championship at London Hackney Show. 1898, and at the IWanchester show of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land in 1897. DESCRIPTION OF THE HACKNEY HORSE I'HE hackney was established in Great Britain as a b'^'^ed to meet tlie require- ments for a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines, having the iiction necessary to show these to the best advantage. The beau is light, neck muscular and curved but free from heaviness; shoulders smooth and laid woii back ; body cireuLir, compact, short; hips smooth; quarters plump with muscle, legs short with tendons clearly de6ned. Their action is noted for its straightness and height, and the regularity of l^nee and hock movement. There is a variation in the types of the breed, somo showing moi-e upstanding with abun- dance of quality and stralghter lines, while others are shorter limbed, fuller made and especially strong in action from a carriage standpoint. The secretary of the Hackney Horse Association of Great Britain has summed up the general descrip- tion of the hackney which, as he says, fitted old style and new ideal, in the follow- ing ; "A powerfully built, short legged, big, broad horse, with an intelligent head, neat jieck, strong, level back, powerful lines and as perfect slioulders as can be produced; good feet, flat boned legs, and height of from 15,2 h.ands to 15 3VS. In addition to showing a type required for a carriage horse, tlie hackney must pos- sess as a necessary essential true carriage or coach action. Digitized by Microsoft® STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 29 46. Thighs -Muscular, Deep. The thigh should be full and plump with muscle which should also extend as far down towards the hocks as possible. Some horses have this feature so strongly developed that the muscle continues to the hock and gives the latter a thicker appearance. The thigh should be long, making the hocks low, as this con- tributes to a long stride. 47. Quarters — Heavily Muscled. The quarters viewed from behind should show a heavy mass of muscle between the legs. Perhaps there is not another part of the muscular system that shows a greater variation in development in dif- ferent horses than the quarters, for while some will be cat- hammed there are others surprisingly full in this part, with deep, hard muscle. 48. Hind Legs. The set of the hind legs has a direct bearing on their liability to diseases. A leg that is bent too far "forward is likely to develop a curb, while one that is too straight is more subject to fullness in the hock region, pre- disposing it to either thoroughpin or bog spavin. In look- , ing from the side at a leg that has correct conformation, a plumb line from the center of the hip joint should equally divide the gaskin and the foot. Dropping a plumb line from the point of the buttock it should run parallel with the line of the cannon. From behind, the same line should equally divide the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. 49. Hocks— Wide, Straight, Claan. The hocks should be clean and broad and the point should be prominent as the leverage of the most powerful muscles attached here depend to a great extent upon this. There should be no gumminess about the hocks; the web should be especially clean and free from all fleshiness or puifs of any kind. In running the hand over the hock, all the depressions that are characteristic of the sound hock should be easily felt and the bone should feel firm without the least indication of unsoundness of any Digitized by Microsoft® 30 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES part. Too much attention can hardly be given to this joint as it is one of the most important in the whole frame. 50. Hind Cannons — Wide, Short, Clean. The hind can- nons should be comparatively short as such a conformation gives the hind leg a longer stride while at the same time allowing the feet to keep under the body more. They should also be wide for that gives better attachment to the tendons and especially if the width continue just below the hock it materially strengthens that part. When the support for the bones of the hock is slight and narrow at the top of the can- non there is greater susceptibility to curbs on account of the weakness of that region. The fetlock joint should be of normal size with good width and particularly free from any puffiness indicating windgalls. 51. Hind Pasterns — Sloping, Strong. The slope of the hind pasterns is not of such importance as that of the front pastern for the reason that it is seldom that this part will be found too straight in light horses. There is less concussion for the hind foot to stand, consequently there is less need for the pastern \o be very sloping. The pasterns should be of medium size and length so that they may be strong. Free- dom from thick, coarse skin and hair is desirable for in the instance of such there is less susceptibility to scratches. 62. Hind Feet— Dense, Rounded. The hind feet should have the characteristics that have been described in the reference to the desirable points of the fore feet. It may be noted in addition that the hind feet are more inclined to become narrow in front and not have the nicely rounded sur- face that is desirable in a good foot. The sides of the foot viewed from in front very often appear to have shrunken some, making a. ridge down the center of the foot from the hoof head to the toe and leaving the sides flat. Narrowness at the hoof head usually accompanies this. The foot should be dense in structure, mediut in size, with strong, wide heel and full front. Digitized by Microsoft® Thoroughbred stallion, Imp. Ormonde, owned by W. O'B. Maodonough, Menlo Park, Oal. A Derby winner sired by Bend Or. DESCRIPTION OF THE THOROUGHBHED HORSE It is of much assistance In understanding the type of the thoroughbred to remember that they are the oldest of the breeds of horses and that they have been bred for many years for a leading purpose and this has generally been running speed. To secure this there had to be associated with the mechanism that pro- duces it, unusual quality of structure, stamina and ambition. The running record for a mile is held by Salvator, the time being 1;35!4 on a straight track. The common colors among the representatives of tills breed are brown, bay and chestnut. The distinguishing features are a refined appearance, especially clearly defined lineaments, with leogth of neck, deep chest, short upper line, long under line, somewhat straight croup, muscular thighs, neat pasterns, dense boni', firm muscle and active temperament. An inclination to ranginoss in type is required, with a racy appearance, usually resulting In a horse standing 16 hands. Extreme breeding for the leading characteristics mentioned makes it necessary to discoun- tenance In the show ring light bodies and a general appearance which has given rise to the term "weedy." which is also associated with lengthy pasterns and long legs. Being highly sensitive in organization they frequently reflect an erratic temperament. Their purpose being principally for racing, high quality with endurance and spirit are cardinal qualities, and it is these same features which have made them useful in the production of strong drivers and stylish carriage and saddle horses. Digitized by Microsoft® ^i^r ^B^Ki^zJB^:^ ^laH^^^^ %-w Hw A V ' '■qiiwitr" iViiifli^-. •».-«s^r-?-» ' Photo cy Schreiber. Photograph of the American standard bred trotter, Geo. Wilkes, 2:22; founder of the great Wilkes family of standard bred trotters. DESCRIPTION OF THE STANDABD BRED HORSE THE CHIEF characteristics of the American standard bred horse is speed at thu trotting and the pacing gaits; the world's trotting record for one mile being lield by The ADbott, the time being 2:03^, while the world's pacing record for the same distance is held by Star Pointer, the time being 1:59!^. The type which should be encouraged in the show ring is that which conduces towards this end, while at the same lime showing the characteristics required for endurance, ambition and the essential features of a road horse. This means the possession of general feat- ures represented by an intelligent head and extremely light neck, low, deep chest, oblique shoulder, long, muscular forearm, strong knees, short cannons, slim, slop- ing pastern, and feet of good wearing quality, with round body rising slightly over the loin; neat, long croup; thighs full with low hocks that are strongly constructed and clearly defined. Such deflciences as are due to undersize, lack of style and sub- stance should be points for underscoring in the show ring. In this connection, it is of importance to understand the difference that may exist in representatives of this breed when they are undergoing the strenuous work of campaigning or when they are retained only for show and stud purposes. As many carriage horses have their origin In this breed, as well as most of the roadsters and trotters, emphasis should be given to the qualities which mean endurance, ambition and high finish^ It sometimes occurs that both pacing and trotting action compete in the show ring In a class for roadsters or standard breds. Both these gaits must be recognized and the preference given to the one that shows the most purity and is the best in every particular of Its kind. The distinction must be made between the high knee and hock action of the carriage horse and the more reaching and easier folding action of the roadster or trotter. Sec standard, page 58. Digitized by Microsoft© STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 31 SCALE OF POINTS FOR LIGHT HORSES — GELDING. it GENERAL APPEARANCE: Form, symmetrical, smooth, stylish 4 Quality, bone clean, firm, and indicating sufficient sub- stance; tendons defined; hair and skin fine 4 Temperament, active, kind disposition 4 HEAD AND NECK: Head, lean, straight i Muzzle, fine, nostrils large; lips thin, even; teeth sound. . 1 Eyes, full, bright, clear, large i Forehead, broad, full 1 Ears, medium size, pointed; well carried, and not far apart i Neck, muscled; crest, high; throatlatch, fine; windpipe, large i FORE QUARTERS: Shoulders, long, smooth with muscle, oblique, extending into back j Arms, short, thrown forward i Fore arms, muscled, long, wide a Knees, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly supported 2 Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back a Fetlocks, wide, straight. i Pasterns, strong, angle with ground 45 degrees 3 Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide 6 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicu- lar line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof 4 BODY: Withers, muscled and well finished at top i Chest, deep, low, large girth 2 Ribs, long, sprung, close 2 Back, straight, short, broad, muscled 2 Loin, wide, short, thick 2 Underline, long; flank let down i HIND QUARTERS: Hips, smooth, wide, level 2 Croup, long, wide, muscular 2 Tail, attached high, well carried i Thighs, long, muscular, spread, open angled 2 Quarters, heavily muscled, deep 2 Qaskin or Lower Thighs, long, wide, muscular 2 Hocks, clearly defined, wide, straight 5 Cannons, short, wide; sinews, large, set back a Fetlocks, wide, straight I Pasterns, strong, sloping a Digitized by Microsoft® 32 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES Feet, medium, even size; straight; horn dense, frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave; heel wide, high 4 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a per- pendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon 4 ACTION: Walk, elastic, quick, balanced 5 Trot, rapid, straight, regular, high 15 Total 100 III. JUDGING HEAVY HORSES. 53. Consideration of Condition. In examining draft horses it is well to remember that defects that are often apparent to the eye in the instance of light horses, require more careful observation to detect them in heavy horses. The defects are usually harder to see owing to the degree to which the horses may be pampered. Draft horses may be fed to such a high condition and in this way so ' ' veneered ' ' that it becomes a very hard matter to detect the structural defects. A horse in lean serviceable condition will often show many defects especially in the body that a thick cover- ing of fat would hide. In judging draft horses it is neces- sary to observe the greatest precaution so as not to mistake such padding with fat for development of muscle. /. General Examination. As in the light horse the most important matters to notice in the general examination are the form, quality and action of the horse under inspection. 54. Form— Massive, Broad, Deep. In form the draft horse should be broad, square, close to the ground and well proportioned. It is necessary to remember that power rather than speed should be the outcome of the effort of a draft horse. It is evident that the size of the muscles has more to do with power, while the length of the muscle is indicative principally of speed. There is a combination of power and Digitized by Microsoft® French Coach Stallion, Paladin 1968, by Perfection. Owned by Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. DESCKIPTION or THE FHENCH COACH HORSE I ARGELY through the encouragement and direction of the French government the French coach horse has been moulded into a type that has as its leading characteristic extreme smoothness, symmetry, a grace in movement with strong action approaching closely to that required lor the carriage horse. The head should be Intelligent looking, the neck clearly outlined and gracefully carried, the body snugly ribbed and quarters deep and muscular. To be striking in appearance, upstanding and high headed are features which have a paramount value in this type, and in addition there should be every evidence of quality Ih all structures. The common colors are bay, brown and black, and usually these are solid and not broken. Uniformity is desirable in any breed, so that it is necessary for the judge to adopt a certain type as that which he prefers, and then be consistent in the awards which follow. The highest pattern of a coach horse without coarseness or lack of action should be the standard carried in mind. When at rest it may be said that for true symmetry, fullness and graceful curves the highest type of the French coach horse is almost an idealistic pattern of what is required of a repre- sentative of this class. Digitized by Microsoft® German coach stallion Imported Socrates, owned by Mr. John Parrott, San Francisco, California. At the San Francisco Horse Show this stallion was first prize winner in the stallion class for coachers. A Cleveland Bay coach stallion, first prize winner at Ihe Royal Agricul- tural Society Show in 1899. DESCRIPTION OF THE GEKMAN COACH HORSE 'T'HE GERMAN coach horse is representative of the larger breeds coming within „ the coach class. The type of the best carries with it the smoothness and the full development of muscular regions which give powerful movement and at the same time fullness of form Substance, meaning thereby the possession of a strong frame, shown especially in the bone below the kucc, is one of the features which has a pre-eminent place in tlio qualities desired by the adherents of the.brecd. Soundness of joints and cleanness of limb are qualities which must be secured in horses suitable for tlie purpose of these, and the show ring inspection, should be directed clearly towards discountenancing undue roughness of structure, loose- ness of joints, The colors are bay, brown and black, and these arc rarely broken by splashes or other striking markings. DESCRIPTION OF THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE I'HIS breed, taking its name from its native district in England, has for its characteristic color different shades of bay with black points. Being bred for the heaviest carriage work, a representative of this brood should stand sixte'en hands high, somewhat largo in size, and with more evidence of power than most other breeds of light horses. While possessing substance and symmetry, there sliould not be any deficiencies in evidence such as rough joints, coarse bono and lack of action for carriage purposes. Their size, power and evennesi of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms or for heavy carriage work in the cities As the sphere of this breed has not demanded, the action called for in the lighter coach breeds, true coach action has not been commonly associated with its mem- bers, but, more or less, the critical judge should look for it In the show ring as in all coach classes. Digitized by Microsoft© GENERAL EXAMINATION 33 Speed which is desirable to secure in the draft horse but as in all things opposed to each other it is impossible to secure the highest development of both in the same individual. It has been stated by a writer on this subject* that in the instance of animals of short bones, slight angularity and short muscles, the conditions are most favorable for drawing heavy loads, and animals with long bones, long muscles and slightly angular joints are especially adapted for speed. 55. Advantage of Weight. In considering the form, weight should be given a high valuation, for a horse that does not weigh at least 1,500 pounds should not be consid- ered a draft horse. In addition, this weight must be the outcome of strong bone, heavy muscles and large proportions and not have its origin in excessive fatness. As to the importance of weight it may be illustrated best by citing what is said to be the first experience that inventors had with the locomotive. When this was being perfected before its intro- duction as a means of transportation, it is stated that a small model of a locomotive with the necessary track arrangement was used by those desiring to bring it into practical use. It was found in the model that the wheels would not adhere to the track but would spin around and waste the power. Con- siderable study was given to the best means of overcoming this difficulty. It was thought that the wheels should have cogs and the track furnished in the same way but a better plan was happened upon by accident. The inventor having a small load in form of bags to take over the track, instead of putting it in the car of the model train threw them across the locomotive and when steam was generated the train started without any of the difficulties that had been before observed. He found through this that the locomotive to exert its power to the best advantage should have a proportionate weight and it ultimately assisted in the perfection of the locomotive. The same principle attached itself to the draft horse as a ♦Smith, Physiology of Domestic Animals, page 758 Digitized by Microsoft® 34 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES motor. It has been further illustrated in this way — a driver with a rather light horse was trying to take a carload of grain up a hill, the horse tried several times to accomplish it but would only get partly up the hill when the load would draw him back. After studying the matter the driver took some bags out of the cart and put them on the horse and accomplished his object. The same principle is applied as in the instance of the locomotive. He added just so much to the weight of the horse and this enabled him to overcome in a degree the weight of the load. The factor of weight is not only of value in matter of work but this is also observ- able as an influence in the general market. 56. Market Value it Weight. Arranging the sales re- ported by a leading firm of Chicago, during 1893, according to the weight of the horses sold, it will be seen that the variation in price is in accordance with the weight of the horse, as follows : AVERAGE AVERAGE WEIGHT. PRICE. 1400 |i55-87 1450 15915 1500 169.15 1550 176 56 1600 176 62 1650 208.64 1700 212.89 1750 236.14 1800 258 33 It will be noticed that there is a constant increase in the prices from the lighter to the heavier weight and this factor of weight seems to be so marked as to dominate all other merits. The weight increasing from i ,400 to i ,800 pounds advanced the price about |5ioo> which means that the added weight within this range was worth about 25 cents per pound on the general market. 57. Quality with Substance Necessary for Durability. Of all desirable features to be sought in a draft horse that of strong, clean and firm bone is one of the most important. Digitized by Microsoft® Imported Trukehner couch stallion Virgil. Black horse with brown muzzle, 16 hands high. Foaled ]s8T. Weight 1,275 pounds. Bred by W. Gor- lach, Walterkehmen, Prussia Imported hy Jacob Heyl. of Milwaukee, Wis- consin, in 1)^90. Russian Orloff stallion Wzmakh, record 2:26y. Gray horse. 1(! hands high. Foaled 18,s7. Bi'cd by S. BeBeauvais, Kogojkinow, Gouvernement Pensa, District of IMolcshansk, Russia Imported by Jacob Heyl, of Mil- waukee, Wisconsin, 1802. DE.SCKXPTION OF THE TRAKEHNEK COACH HORSE I'HIS breed of coach horses, developed under the patronage of the Prussian government. Includes among Its representatives horses that for general use exhibit a high standard of excellence. They possess the substance required In a weight pulling coach horse and with it much of the quality which reflects a high order of breeding. The outline of the best type illustrates a high order of perfec- tion for a coach horse ; while the advantage of large size with good bone adds greiLtly to their weight pulling qualities. In color these horses are witli rare exception bright b.ays with few if any markings. Though typical roach action has not been iiiiide a feature of their breeding, as In the instance of some of the other breeds of coach horses, yet it is a characteristic which should be in evidence in any show ring containing a display of this class. DESCHIPTION OF THE ORLOFF THOTTEK T'FIE orloff trotter, being the national horse of Russia, has been designed largely by government direction to meet the many demands which are made upon a horse of general utility. They should be expected to show the quality which would be required in any light horse frequently subjected to severe tests of endurance and strength of structure. The type is one smoothly moulded with muscle, .stron;; in all its parts and yetnot unduly coarse, while at the same time not being so finely constructed as to detract any from its general strength. Being vigorous, tliey possess an abundance of ambition, and associated wit li this there is !i compactness and general unity of structure which niakes them good wearers under work. It is not expected that a horse of this typo would have the ability to trot as fast as one showing a higher and more special construction, but it is i)roper to look for that type which would be adapted for covering long distances with the least fatigue. Digitized by Microsoft® Champion Shetland pony Prince of Wales, Ti, l'"iilno de Monti-: 1:i21 C?2r-i?.} foaled April S, 1900; wiiiiie of many 1sli Pi'i?.«n/of«iiecf 'hw-i JMWrAWClfif® i<'n.al. Oliicago, lOn.f, Winne ,il ,spci-ial piizfsMW. lii^Hi'<->lvf'[1'(Y'lV(''^Yl'f'^telKian Horieties of Hels^iur aTid Anieiira, owned liy liiirdiaiii, l-'letelier \ ( ■i.leriiati, W.'iyne. Ill, STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 39 that forms the pastern and below this there are two others continuing the slope of the pastern; while the fourth is located at the juncture of the two just mentioned. It is evi- dent that it is desirable for the pastern bone to slope at least forty-five degrees, for if it is straighter than this, the concus- sion given to the foot is not dissipated over all the structures as it should be. A horse putting the foot down (except when severely taxed in draft and then the toe reaches the ground first) receives the concussion on the frog which trans- mits it to the tendinous tissue padding the heel of the foot. From there it passes to the bones of the foot apparently about the region of the first joint made by the three bones, the navicular, cofiSn and the coronary, which are admirably arranged in the leg having a sloping pastern to each receive a share of the buffeting. If the pastern is sloping it would seem that only a small part of the concussion is likely to reach the pastern bone and this seemingly would be com- pletely spent before the fetlock joint would be reached. This joint when the pastern slopes properly, swings in a sling ot ligaments and tendons and consequently when the parts below slope considerably, it is much more effective in pro- tecting the bones of the leg from the irritation that arises from concussion. It is easy to see why navicular disease, ridebones and ringbones, are most frequently associated with straight pasterns. The concussion from the foot in the straight pastern falls most severely on the first joint formed by the navicular, coffin and coronary bones and consequently it is about this region that these various bone diseases are located. Concussion produces irritation, which continued results in inflammation followed by bony deposits. To give the pastern the proper springiness, a proportionate length should be associated with the slope. The slope however, is of still more importance than length or size. The features of the joints at both ends should be clearly defined, showing Digitized by Microsoft® 40 JUDGING HEAVY HORSES that they are completely free from pufifiness, sidebones or other diseases or blemishes. It may be stated here that pasterns that are upright in a mature horse generally become more so with age and the action depreciates in proportion. Such a conformation gives but slight command of the feet and the horse that has it literally forces the feet into the ground or batters them on the hard pavement of the city streets. 69. Feet — Large, Dense, Concave Sole, Large Frog, Diseases and defects of the foot are exceedingly prevalent among heavy horses. As sound feet are rather the excep- tion, and this is an important structure, considerable attention should be directed to it. The foot is made up of three bones. These are covered by a highly sensitive secret- ing layer. The external surface is made up of the wall, sole and frog. In shape the proper foot is somewhat irregular as the outer quarter running back to the sole curves consid- erably outward, while the inner quarter is straighter. This shape it will be easily seen not only gives a strong hold upon the ground, but it also decreases the possibility of the inner edge of the foot striking the opposite leg or interfer- ing. In color the foot should be dark and it should have a waxy appearance. The angle formed by the hoof from the ground to the top should be about fifty degrees. One of the parts to be examined most critically is the frog. This should be plump, large and elastic. Just above the frog is what is known as the sensitive frog, which is a mass of blood vessels and nerves and above this again is a fatty frog which acts as a buffer. On top of the latter is the small navicular bone. This bone is enveloped in a very sensitive secreting mem- brane and if this becomes irritated in the least through con- cussion resulting from the frog not fulfilling its functions as a buffer then inflammation at once sets in; the fluid for lubri- cating the joint is not secreted ; then follows absorption of the cartilage and finally disease of the bone which interferes Digitized by Microsoft® STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 41 with the function of the joint. These all result in excruci- ating pain and greatly lessen the horse's utility. Wide, open hoof heads (this has reference to the top of the foot) are very desirable. 70. Body— Short, Broad Back, Deep Ribs. The typical draft horse should stand comparatively high in front. This should not be due to straight shoulders or height of the withers, for when these are high it will generally be found that they are not well covered with muscle. Undue length of the back, very often sunken, is a common defect of draft horses. Another feature to look for in viewing the barrel is the breadth and depth of the ribs. If the body is not round and the ribs well sprung and deep, the chest is likely to be narrow. The volume of the chest behind the withers is an index to the capacity of the lungs, and it is a fact that horses that are light there and short in the hind rib easily become languid and depressed during exertion. The horse with a poorly sprung rib making a shallow barrel and light loin is usually a poor feeder and ill doer. 71. Loin — Thick, Broad. The loin should be thick and broad. If there is a slight elevation over the loin due to an extra development of the muscle it may be considered as indicating strength, though it detracts from the symmetry. 72. Croup — Broad, Muscled. The croup should be broad and thick with muscle. There is considerable difference in draft horses in regard to the slope of the croup. In some it appears as if they had been hit with a board in the hind quarter giving the croup an extreme slope, while in others it runs almost straight. The main factor which adds to the strength of the croup is not the slope of it but the degree to which it is muscled. The slope that runs from the center of the hips to the root of the tail is made by the vertebrae to which some important muscles are attached. The other slope which runs from the sides of the hip joints as seen from the side has perhaps more to do with the favorable applica- Digitized by Microsoft® 42 JUDG5NG HEAVY HORSES tion of power in this part, than the slope that has been first mentioned. It is easy to see that when a muscle is perpen- dicular to the weight to be lifted the power is applied in the most advantageous way, just the same as when you wish to lift a weight you stand straight over it instead of trying to lift it at arm's length. There seems to be no real reason why the croup should slope so markedly as it does in some strains of horses, as it certainly detracts from their appearance. 73. Thighs — Muscled; Quarters Full. Passing down to the hind leg the thigh should be closely examined for the development of muscle in that region. The quarters should also be observed with the same object in view. There is a vast difference in horses in this respect, and it will sometimes be found that horses very heavily muscled at the croup are very lightly muscled in the quarters. It is a bad defect for a draft horse to be deficient in muscle in the quarters, for it is from these parts that they obtain most of their power to pull. 74. Hock — Wide, Defined, Properly Set. The hock should be closely examined, for in this joint there is likely more work done than in any other single joint of the body. Narrow, tied-in hocks are more subject to curbs than those that are broad. Fleshiness or coarseness about the hocks is very prevalent among draft horses and it is well to examine such closely for bog spavins. The tendons running from the hocks should be large, lean and firm. It is a com- mon defect for a draft horse to be too straight or too crooked in the hock. One that is set properly gives more power. The worst trouble and the most common one to be noted in hocks of draft horses is that of fleshiness or " gumminess," and such are not only more liable to hock troubles, but it indicates coarseness of organization which is not usually associated with durability. In looking at the hock it should appear wide both from in front of the horse and the side, especially so from the latter point of view. The point of the Digitized by Microsoft® ^m ■ ' -"^ . r m p 1^ > if 1 It. ■ rhoto by Reid. Suffolk stallion, Rendesham Oupbeakeii. First at the Koyal Agricul- tural Society Show, 1800. DESCHIPTION OF THE SUFFOLK PUNCH HOR.SE T^HIS BRITISH breed of draft horses is exceptionally uniform in type, owing to the fact that they have been long established and have been carefully bred for this feature. They are chestnut in color and the best representatives in form show a type that is low set, short legged and deep bodied. Considering the average weight of the breed thev show an unusual amount of this to be due to the extreme development of muscle. The bone is most frequently of a high quality and the limbs clean cut in every feature, while feet of durable texture are among their common attributes. They have a well established reputation for being docile in temperament, easy keepers, steady when working, and activity is a leading quality of the breed. Desirable weight is sometimes absent in its representatives and frequently when this is ample it is secured by abnormal fatness rather than by general massiveness. While the fact that their qualities, chiefly activity and durability, especially adapt them for general farm work of lighter draft purposes yet the importance of the other essential and draft qualities, especially weiglit should not be overlooked by the judge in the show ring. Digitized by Microsoft® Hiawatha (10U67), Vol. XVIII. Champion Clydesdale stallion; bay; ris- ing nine yeari, old ; height 17-1 hands high ; weight at present 2128 lbs. Bred by William Hunter, Garthland Mains, Stranraer. Property of John Pollock, Paper Mill, Langsidc. Winner of first prizes in the Aged Open Class and the Cawdor ScoUisli nup at the Scottish Stallion Show, Glasgow, inl898 and 1H99; firstprizcandR.il. the Prince of Wales' Gold Medal at H. A. S, Show, Edinburgh, 1899; first prize and Duke of Montrose Plate, Glasgow Summer Show; also Duk<' of Portland's cup at Ayr, 1900; Brstprize and Caw- dor Challenge cup at Scottish Stallion show, Glasgow, 1901. DESCRIPTION OF THE CLYBESBALE HORSE T'HE representatives of this breed of Scotch draft horses are usually bay, brown, black or chestnut in color, witli white markings. In conformation, the lead- ing characteristics sought are the possession of weight with quality and action. While the adherents of the breed recognize the value of weight yet they always associate with It quality of structure with superior mechanical action, and in judg- ing a class of horses of this breed these features should have equal prominence. The head in the typical Clydesdale, though sometimes out of proportior to the other parts, Is usually possessed of intelligent features. To secure the action desired the shoulders must be sloping so as to permit a free and long stride in the walk and trot ; the arm must necessarily be full muscled, legs fluted and flat with a fine feather springing from the edge. The pasterns, which have received much attention In the formation of this breed, should be decidedly sloping, the hoof head or top of the foot should be large, and no amount of fine feather or excellence of pastern should be allowed to overbalance the necessity of a good sized foot, cor- rectly shaped and of splendid wearing texture. The back should be short and, though seemingly low from the extrastyle secured by high carriage of head, should never be weak, which is prevented by shortness in this part, and with an easy ris- ing and full coupled loin running smoothly Into a strong croup. The quarters should be well muscled, and the hind legs in addition to having every evidence of quality should be properly sot, moaning thereby that they stand close and the parts have correct proportion in relation to each other. In no case should style be allowed to supplant essential draft qualities, as it would be a fault of Judgment to permit high carriage and flashy action to attain prominence over a deep middle, strong coupling in association with properly set limbs, as the source of Clydesdale popularity is the degree to which they combine the many essentials of a draft horse with activity. Digitized by Microsoft© STRUCTURAL EXAMINATION 43 hock should be as sharp as possible and the same may be said of all its features. Some horses are especially sharp in the prominences of the hock leading some to question their freedom from spavins. This formation is desirable for the reason that it is usually associated with the best quality of bone and tendon and further it gives this region more power because of the more favorable attachment of the tendons that pass these points. SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GELDING. So GENERAL APPEARANCE : Weight, over 1,500 lbs; score according to age 4 Form, broad, massive, proportioned 4 Quality, bone smooth, hard; tendons lean; skin and hair fine 4 Temperarnent, energetic, good disposition 4 HEAD AND NECK: Head, lean, medium size i Muzzle, fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even i Eyes, full, bright, clear i Forehead, broad, full i Ears, medium size, well carried i Neck, muscled, crest high; throatlatch fine; windpipe large i FORE QUARTERS: Shoulder, sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back 2 Arm, short, thrown back i Fore Arm, heavily muscled, long, wide 2 Knees, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly supported 1 Cannons, short, lean, wide; sinews large, set back 2 Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong i Pasterns, sloping, lengthy, strong 3 Feet, large, even size; horn dense; sole concave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one-half length of toe and vertical to ground ■ • 8 Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of tne shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. From the side, a perpendicu- lar line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern joints and back of hoof. 4 BODY: Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2 Ribs, long, close, sprung 2 Back, straight, short, broad 2 Loins, wide, short, thick, straight 2 Underline, flank low ' Digitized by Microsoft® 44 JUDGING HORSES SCALE OF POINTS FOR DRAFT HORSES — GELDING. j; O Continued. "C tn HIND QUARTERS: Hips, smooth, wide 2 Croup, wide, muscular 2 Tail, attached high, well carried 1 Thighs, muscular 2 Quarters, deep, heavily muscled 2 Qaslcin or lower thighs, wide muscled 2 Hocks, clean cut, wide, straight 8 Cannons, short, wide; sinews large, set back 2 Fetloclcs, wide, straight, strong i Pasterns, sloping, strong, lengthy 2 Feet, large, even size; horn dense; dark color; sole con- cave; bars strong; frog large, elastic; heel wide, one half length of toe and vertical to ground 6 Legs, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. From side, a perpendicu- lar line from the hip joint should tall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a per- pendicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel to the line of the cannon 4 ACTION : Walk, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6 Trot, rapid, straight, regular 4 Total 100 IV. JUDGING HORSES IN THE BREEDING CI,ASSES. The preceding discussion has most to do with the judging of the various types of the horse in use for pleasure or for work; so that it is necessary to present some details that should be observed in making awards in the breeding classes. In this work the judge must closely discriminate between the peculiar characteristics of the sexes and also employ much judgment in determining the development according to the age. 75. Sex Characteristics. Preceding birth and for some time in foetal life, there are no evidences of sex. Such are apparent at birth, but it is not until the approach of puberty that the sex characteristics referred to here begin to develop. After this period is reached the sexes begin to diverge from Digitized by Microsoft® IN THE BRKEDING CLASSES 45 each other, the male acquiring characteristics that are dis- tinctly masculine, while the female acquires others peculiarly feminine in that they are strikingly different from those of the male. The reproductive cells of each seem through their characteristics to influence the peculiarities of the sexes in a remarkable manner. 76. Differences in Disposition. In all classes of farm live stock there are very noticeable differences in disposition, that may be credited to the influence of the sex. The active dis- position of the male animal oftentimes is forced to spend itself in the development of viciousness and it cannot be dis- puted that such has been true of many of the best breeding sires, especially among those of the lighter breeds of horses and the dairy breeds of cattle. The difference in the nature of the sexes is even characteristic of the reproductive cells — the sperm or male cell being active and smaller, while the ovum or female cell is larger and more stable. From this condi- tion through the various stages of life the differences in the disposition of the sexes is easily traceable. The lamb of the male sex becomes combative and more active in disposition as he develops while the ewe lamb loses the early activity that was common to all and develops into the gentler ewe; the calf of the male has a fierceness of mien that seeks active expression in imaginary combats, becoming easily excited to anger, when it is noticeable that the suppliant bawl has become a fierce roar; while the cow has lost the playful energy that she had as a calf and now has none to spare for anything but her quiet vocation of making milk; the colts tend to develop the same restless activities while the fillies assume the quieter quality of mind common to maternity, and in a like manner the pigs separate in their dispositions as.the sex characteristics become pronounced. Thus in all live stock the changes of disposition are traceable to sexual develop- ment and it is because of the close connection between the two features that many breeders consider the characteristic Digitized by Microsoft® 46 JUDGING HORSES disposition valuable indications of future usefulness for breeding purposes. 77. Differences in Torm. In the development of the sexes marked differences in form result. The true male form is heavier at the shoulders than the female while the latter is wider in the region of the pelvis. This should be borne in mind in critically examining animals of the different sexes, for it may oftentimes prevent an adverse criticism which should be favorable comment. It is not infrequent to hear the remark passed that a ram for instance, in a breeding class, would be an exceptionally good sheep if he were as wide behind as he is in front. This is thought by some to be the striking defect of our mutton breeds (and perhaps it is) but in many instances it is but the universal pattern that nature has adopted for the male form. A male of any class of stock should be expected to be wider in the chest than behind though it should not be weak in the latter part. Width of hip, however, is not the chief qualification of the female form; depth in this region or length of the barrel and from rib to hip, is of more importance as this makes provis- ion for the proper growth of the foetus. 78. Variation in Features. There are many marked vari- ations in the features that are characteristic of the difference in the sexes. In the stallion the face has a harder look and the head is larger. The neck is fuller and the crest or swell of the neck is very pronounced and surmounted with a heavy mane. The mare has a slimmer face with a softer expres- sion, the neck is thin and often ewe shaped and the mane light and fine. In cattle the face of the bull is more or less burly and covered with wavy hair, the horn is strong and inclined to roundness while the neck is thick and stout with a full crest. In the cow the face is long, free from wavy hair, the horn light and flat and the neck thin and in-curved on the top line. In sheep the face of the ram is shorter and heavier and the neck has a heavy ' ' scrag ' ' or crest. The Digitized by Microsoft® Photo by Reid. Shire mare, Dendrie Crown Princess, fii'St in IsyN and tirstand reserve champion Koyal Agricultural Society Show, 1899. Sold for 55,.500 at Lord Wantage's auction sale. DESOHIPTION OF THE SHIKE HORSE fl MONG the representatives of this long established breed of English draft linrso the most desirable form is low, broad and massive. Weight is considered a leading feature and so with this we must associate the attributes of being heavily built, muscular, with large bone and rather slow movement. Strength of shouldrr has been preferable to slope, which is probably given power in the collar but detracted from the freedom and length of the stride. The body of the best repre- sentatives is of exceptional merit, being large in girth, deep, strongly coupled with broad, short back and heavily muscled quarters. Their points of excellence are undoubtedly exceptional weight, made up of heavy bone, full muscular development, with width and depth of form ; associated with these qualities there are kindred deficiencies which are sometimes in evidence, meaning thereby a lack in general quality, coupled with a sluggish temperament. The superior consideration which has been given to weight has frequently over- balanced the claims of action, consequently while showing to excellent advantage standing there are some which fail to sustain their merit when their action is shown. A lack of quality in a draft horse must necessarily be discountenanced, for durability depends on this and also on the set of the limbs. Digitized by Microsoft® ■w. ^™^^'" *r- ,^^r^- ^H ^^^H^^H 1 "■'"•"'^mmm ' ' Percberon Stallion Pink 24765 (47513), foaled April 37, 1900. 1st at Iowa State Fair, 1903. 1st, sweepstaltes andogrand sweepstakes, Minnesota State Fair. 1903. 1st and Champion International, Chicago, 1903 Owned hy Dunham, Fletcher & Coleman, Wayne, 111. DESCRIPTION or THE PEKCHERON HORSE I N THE establishment of this French breed of draft horses the guiding ideal has been to develop an active and durable type of draft horses suited for drawing loads at a rapid pace. The degree to which weight is desirable in the modern draft horse has resulted In the production of a heavier type with these characteristics yet in evidence. The modern type of this breed is short legged, compactly and stoutly built. The representatives which best exemplify the type show an active temperament, intelligent head.s, short, full crested necks, with deep body and wide croup. To meet the requirements of their patrons they must possess with this abundance of quality, attractive style and active movement. The modern typo fIiows ii dilTcrenco from the original in being black in color and somewnat closer to the ground than those first imported. The original gray Percheron had for its l)cculiar characteristics an unusual combination of strength and active action with style and endurance. Tbey had an abundance of style, with round bodies and an exceptional quality of bone. The highest type of this breed in the present show rings should be typical of an active draft horse with thequality :i,nd the substance to justify durability. To serve this purpose to the fullest extent the necessity of regular and straight action with properly set limbs should not be »-' ^^^a^ ^^mm-' ■ ,1 • ■ -::^: ■- .i«& ts£E:;v&i&£.^^^:S^:^ .:^ I't^rclieron Man- Mouvettk :«I0I2 (43Nr)i)). fiialed ls%. Grand Sweepstakes Minnesota State Fair. 1903. Uhampioii International. l'.)0:j. Owned by Dunham, Fletclier & Ouleman, Wayne. III. Sketches of horses' teeth showing — 1, a temporary incisor of character- istic shape; 2. a permanent Incisor, broader and longer than No. 1; ."t, a per- manent incisor with lines indicating the appearance ot the two as it is sub- jected to wear. At "A" the unworn surface of the new tooth is shown. At '■B" the mark is indicated with tlie general shape of the table. At "O" It is noticeable that the mark becomes much smaller while at ''B" the triangular shape of the tooth that is well worn makes its appearance: -t, shows the natural mark and table qC a horse^j tooth. It wllllie noticed that there is a ring of enamel aroun£)j^)f/^0igr^Dy''AWOAlO9O#® ■^. this sketch showsthe table of the horse'.s tooti? that lias been "Bishopod" or fixed so as to bear some resemblance to a young tooth with the natural mark. This black mark has been made in the tooth by the use of a hard instrument. Sketch of tlie permanent incisors, indicating the orcfer in which they appear in pairs. The central pair of permanent incisors in both ttie upper and lower jaws appear when the horse is about two and one-half or tliree years of age, the next pair replace the tpmporary incisors when the horse is about four years of age, and the outside pair, making a full mouth, usually appear at five years of age. -^T , Five Years Lower Incisors Six Years Lower Incisors Seven Years Eight Years Lower Incisors '-°'^'' Incisors At five years It will be noticed that tiiu marks are very dlstluci and the tables worn but slightly In all of the Incisors. At six years the center pair In the lower Jaw show some wear, the mark becoming smaller. At seven years the second pair lLaye.n.oarly lost their marteg-whlle at eight the third nr outside pair show cAdiw)^^ WiM/GCQSfl'J^ace of the mark. ESTIMATING THE AGE BY THEIR TEETH 51 differences that exist. It is to be remembered however, that the foods fed them have a marked influence on the wear of the teeth, thus making differences which are not solely due to age. Liberal feeding which favors early maturity is also likely to affect the appearance and arrival of the incisors. 86. Appearance of Incisors. The difference in the appear- ance of the milk teeth or temporary incisors and the perma- nent incisors is readily understood after they have been once inspected. The temporary incisors are slender, narrow and constricted at the neck and very white, while the permanent incisors are broader, thicker and usually of a light yellow- ish tinge. 87. Order of Appearance of Incisors. The permanent incisors of both the upper and the lower jaws appear at the same time so that it is only necessary to refer to the upper. There are six permanent incisors in each jaw in the full mouth and these make their appearance in pairs about as follows : The pair in the center are the first to appear and they have displaced the temporary pair and are full grown when the colt is from 2 j4 to 3 years old. The second pair or the two next to these are fully grown at 3^ to 4 years and the third pair have displaced the two corner temporary incisors at 4^ to 5 years of age. At this time the horse usually has a full mouth. 88. Disappearance of the Tables. The best indications of the age from five to ten years is the order of the disap- pearance of the tables or marks in the incisors. At five years the tables in the central pair of incisors of the lower jaw show some wear but it is not until the horse is about six years old that they have almost disappeared. At seven years of age the ' ' swallow-tail " as it is called, or the nick in the corner incisor appears. At this age also, the two incisors next to the central pair lose almost all traces of their tables through wear, and at eight years the corner incisors or outside pair are so worn as to be almost free from any ap- pearance of having tables. At nine years of age the tables Digitized by Microsoft® 52 JUDGING HORSES have disappeared from the central pair of incisors in the upper jaw; at ten the marks in the next pair in the upper jaw are about worn out and when eleven is reached the tables have almost disappeared from the corner pair of the upper row of incisors. Sometimes the teeth are "bishoped," that is, marks are made in the teeth to represent tables thus making the horse appear to be younger by the tables of its teeth. This treatment may always be told from the unnatural appearance of the table as the normal tooth always has a rim of enamel around the tables. After a horse passes beyond the age mentioned it is a dif- ficult matter to make any further estimate with any degree of certainty. As the age increases, however, the upper sur- face of the incisors appear more triangular and the teeth spring from the jaw with a greater slope. VI. EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS. 89. A Blemish Different from Unsoundness. A blemish is something that depreciates the value of a horse without interfering with its usefulness. Such injuries as wire cuts mar the appearance of a horse and are properly called blem- ishes, while unsoundnesses include spavins, curbs, ringbones and all other diseases that lessen the usefulness of a horse in its sphere. 90. Decayed and Worn Teeth. In examining a horse for unsoundness it is well to follow a regular order beginning with the teeth. The best indication of decayed teeth or any similar unsoundness of the mouth is the odor that comes from it or attaches itself to the hand on the introduction of the latter. If the outer edges of the incisors are broken and worn away, it is an indication that the horse is addicted to "cribbing " in the stable. 91. Discharges from the Nostrils. The nostrils should be of a fresh pink color somewhat moist but there should be no discharge from them. If there is, glanders or distemper Digitized by Microsoft® Ten fEARb Upper Incisors Fifteen Years Eleven Years Lower Incisors Upper Incisors Passiu;,' to tlie penuanent inci.S(ji-s in tlif upper jaw at, iiiriu years 1lic central pair have almost completely losttlieir mark. At ten those adjoining tlicse have reached the same condition, while at eleven the marks have about vanished from all of the permanent incisors. It will be noticed that as t lie. age advances the appearance of tlie worn tables assumes a more tri- am^ula.r form. Five Years ' Twenty One Years Oomparison of a five-year-old mouth with one that is twenty years old, showing the marked contrast that develops, as age advances, In the slope of the teeth as viewed from the side. To Goubaux and Barrier's "Exterior of tliu Horse" the author is greatly indebted for the prints of horses' teeth wliirli liave been shown. Tliese have been inodified soniewliat to bring out [H.irT rle;i.r]y tlit- ''''digiiized ^y Microsoft© Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 53 may be suspected, which should lead to a trial of the mallein test if there is any suspicion of the former. 92. Impaired Vision. In regard to the eye there are many defects of vision which can hardly be termed unsound- nesses, yet they should be carefully looked for. A horse by its action will usually indicate if the eyesight is good. Step- ping inordinately high or an inclination to shy readily indi- cate defective vision. By moving the hand gently in front of the eye, blindness may generally be discovered if the eye is so affected. The hand should be moved slowly for if the motion is made quickly the influence of the air on the eye will induce the horse to shut it though it may not have seen the motion of the hand. 93. Defective Hearing. Defects of hearing are more com- mon than is ordinarily supposed and they can usually be foretold by the action of the ears. Rigid ears indicate that the hearing has been lost. On the other hand when the ears are used excessively there is reason to suspect that the eye- sight is not as perfect as it should be and on that account the horse is trying to make its ears assist its eyes by follow- ing closely every sound. 94. Sweenied Shoulders. Passing to the shoulder it should be closely observed for the presence of sweeny. This is a shrinkage or atrophy of the muscles of this region leaving the shoulder appear flat and the blade bare of muscle. 95. Capped Elbows. On the point of the elbow, shoe boils or capped elbows may be frequently seen. The point of the elbow is unduly enlarged by the accumulation of mat- ter. It is a blemish as it is unsightly though not interfering with the horse at work. 96. Splints. Continuing down the fore leg, splints should be looked for on the cannon. They may be found on almost any part of this region but some care is necessary not to mistake the ends of the two small bones, that are associated with the cannon, for splints. In some horses the end of Digitized by Microsoft® 54 JUDGING HORSES these bones are surmounted with noticeable knobs. If these lumps are found on both of the legs in exactly the same place, it may be taken for granted that they are natural. When the splint is located at the back part of the leg near the ten- don or close to the knee joint, so as to interfere with the action, it is in the worst place that it is possible to have it. A small splint in a position of the leg where it is not likely to cause lameness is not considered by most judges to be more than a blemish. The fact that splints on young horses very frequently disappear in a year or two is sufficient rea- son for overlooking this defect when it is present in young animals. 97. Ringbones. These are generally located on the pas- tern. There are two forms of it called high and low ring- bone, depending on the location. Ordinarily it is situated at the hoof head where the foot joins the pastern and it may be on any one of the four feet. Usually it can be seen because of the prominence produced but the hand should be passed over the part that a small form of it may not escape detection. 98. Sidebones. By pressing the thumb and the fore finger around the hind quarter of the front foot this disease may be easily detected. It is common to the front feet only. Small, hard prominences may be found on the side of the pastern just above the foot in horses that have them. They were originally cartilage but became ossified and solid caus- ing pain and considerable lameness especially when the horse having them is driven on hard roads. 99. Quarter Cracks and Sand Cracks. The feet are sub- ject to many forms of unsoundnesses and among the most prevalent are sand cracks and quarter cracks. In very sandy districts during the hot days of summer when horses are driven considerable the hoof becomes so heated that it cracks and in time results in a very troublesome disorder. Usually this defect orieinates from weak feet. Quarter cracks are Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 55 very similar to sand cracks excepting that they are seen on the quarters of the hoof. They extend from the coronary band or the hoof head to about the middle of the hoof in cases of ordinary severity. Looking at the bottom of the foot there should be no cracks running from the bars to the top of the hoof. Large cracks here are very common owing to the general practice of cutting out the heels in shoeing. 100. Corns. These are generally located in the corner of the heels and their presence may be more or less indicated by the way a horse wiL shrink when the sole of the foot is hit in that region with the handle of a knife. 101. Thrush and Scratches. Thrush is a diseased condi- tion of the foot in the region of the frog and invariably makes its presence known by the disagreeable odor that comes from it. Scratches occur in the back part of the pastern, and, while not properly an unsoundness, they cause the animal affected a great deal of pain and annoyance. It is a condi- tion due to the filthiness of this part and will generally dis- appear before cleanliness and antiseptic lotions. 102. Locating Lameness. In locating lameness in the leg, it should be borne in mind that it is the sound limb that the horse puts down with the most confidence and when the ailing leg comes to the ground an effort to ease it is made by throwing the head up. When a horse shows lameness in the front legs, if the trouble is in the shoulder the leg will usually be flexed at the knee when standing at ease; but when the sprain or lameness is below the knee the affected limb will be extended. When sore on both front feet they will be extended as far as convenient. 103. Thoroughpin. In detecting diseases in the region of the hock or in fact in any other part, it is absolutely neces- sary to first know the outlines of the perfect structure. This has special application to the diseases of this region; for there are many that may show but a very slight variation from the normal condition and thoroughpin is one of these. Digitized by Microsoft® 56 JUDGING HORSES Thoroughpin is located between the tendon of the hind leg and the bone and appears just above the hock. It consists of a soft swelling that may be pushed from side to side. 104. Curb. Curb, which occurs just below the hock and to the rear is a thickening of the ligaments in that region. By looking at the leg from the side it may be easily noticed as it is a variation from the straight line which should run from the point of the hock down towards the end of the cannon. 105. Bone Spavin. The most common trouble of the hocks, and the worst of all, is bone spavin. To detect this, it is best to stand in front of the horse and take a position so that in looking back the inner outline of the hind leg may be seen very clearly. This is a bone deposit which nature has thrown out to strengthen an otherwise weak joint and when it has developed it ties the joint so that it interferes with the proper action of the horse. The hind leg instead of coming down on the hetl as it should in a sound limb, is thrown forward so that the toe reaches the ground first and the stride is unnaturally shortened, and lameness frequently results. Occult spavin, that is where the deposit is not apparent to the eye but hidden in the joints, is very hard to determine; the usual method of detection is to lift the suspected leg and then starting the horse quickly observe the result when the foot reaches the ground. Undue shrinkage indicates the presence of spavin in this form. 106. Bog Spavin. Bog spavin is usually associated with thoroughpin and it is very similar to the latter; differing from it only in location. In the natural depression that occurs on the inner and front part of the hock, the oil from the joint accumulates and forms a soft swelling commonly known as bog spavin. The term blood spavin is sometimes applied to the enlargement of the vein that passes across the hock from in front. This, however, is not an unsoundness. Digitized by Microsoft® EXAMINATION FOR UNSOUNDNESS 57 107. Unsound in Wind. After giving all the parts careful inspection for soundness, the horse should be driven rapidly for a quarter of a mile so as to discover wind troubles. The horse should be stopped quickly and then by advancing closely to the neck the breathing may be noted whether free and easy or accompanied with a sound similar to whistling. If the breathing is characterized by a wheezing or whistling sound, then whistling, roaring or some other disorder of the air passages is present. If the origin of the sound is doubtful — it might be possible to result from too tight a collar — have the horse taken out of the harness and ridden rapidly. When the breathing is not regular it is likely that the horse is troubled with the heaves. In the instance of horses so afflicted, the breathing is more or less spasmodic, the air from the lungs seeming to be half expelled when the respiration stops for a brief period and then the expulsion of the air is continued. In this way the depres- sion of the flanks is not gradual and continuous as it is in the instance of the horse with sound lungs but it is stayed for a short period at a time when the breath is about half expelled from the lungs. 108. Detection of Stable Vices. Horses may have many stable vices that detract greatly from their utility, but these cannot be discovered as a rule in the show ring. To make a satisfactory examination of a horse, it is necessary to see it in the stable, then have it harnessed, hitched, driven and subjected to a critical examination, and after these things have been given careful consideration it will be only after continuous companionship on the road that a man may be said to truly know his horse. Digitized by Microsoft® 58 JUDGING HORSES VII. OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES. THE TROTTING STANDARD — ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN TROTTING REGISTER ASSOCIATION. When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered it shall be accepted as a standard bred trotter: 1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse and a reg- istered standard trotting mare. 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse pro- vided his dam and grandam were sired by registeied standard trot- ting horses, and he himself has a record of 2:30 and is the sire of three trotters with records of 2:30 from different mares. 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting horse, and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting record of 2:30 or is the dam of one trotter with a record of 2:30. 4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2:30. 5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered stand- ard trotting horse. THE PACING STANDARD. When an animal meets these requirements and is duly registered, it shall be accepted as a standard bred pacer: 1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and a reg- istered standard pacing mare. 2. A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse provided his dam and grand dam were sired by registered standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 2:25, and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2:25, from different mares. 3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse and whose dam and grand dam were sired by registered standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2:25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2:25. 4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2:25. 5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, provided her first, second and third dams are each sired by a registered stand- ard pacing horse. 6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of a registered standard pacing mare, or a registered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS FOR HORSES S9 SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY— ADOPTED BY AMERICAN SHETLAND PONY CLUB. Constitution — Constitution indicated by general healthy appearance, perfect respiration, brightness of eyes lo Size — Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height, two points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up to 46 inches, fractional portions to count as full inches 25 Head — Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between eyes, ears short and erect 10 Body — Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chested, good breast, compact, "pony build " 10 Legs — Legs muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow-hocked or too crooked 25 Mane and Tail — Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10 Feet — Good ic 100 Note. In judging horses the height is sometimes a subject of dis- cussion so that the manner of determining this should be well under- stood. It is generally conceded that the horse should stand on a perfectly level floor and the measurement made to the highest point of the withers. The position of the horse should be such that the head at the poll should be in line with the withers and this parallel to the floor. The fore legs and hind legs should be as perpendicular to the floor and as parallel to each other as the conformation of the horse permits. It should be noted that the spirit level in the cross bar of the standard should indicate that it is being held properly. The horse should be measured in shoes of the same thickness as he wears when in competition in the show ring. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING CATTLE. Digitized by Microsoft® a ; 5! 3 J 3 S ;; i U Ill-Ill I I III ll I3III .sV ||j.|sdsL CJ P o an a . do Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER II. JUDGING CATTI^E. 109. Method of Examination. In judging cattle in the show ring the most satisfactory plan is to make a very care- ful scrutiny of the animal as it stands before you; then ap- proaching it from the. front, notice the head and neck before placing the hands upon the shoulder to review the various parts of the body. I. JUDGING BBEF CATTI.B. 110. Method of Handling. In judging beef cattle it is of much importance to see that they stand properly and are not held so as to hide any natural defects which otherwise would be easily seen. They should stand on a surface as level as possible with the legs naturally placed under them, with the head held straight forward. By variations from this it is quite possible to hide from the examiner as he makes his first inspection many of the natural defects. It becomes very easy to vastly improve the handling qualities of an animal by turning the head towards the judge or to make the top or lower lines more level by choosing an advantage- ous position. In moving towards the animal from in front, note the characteristics of the head and neck quickly and then placing the hand upon the shoulder and using the tips of the fingers feel the compactness of the shoulder, its cover- ing and the smoothness with which it fits to the body. From this point it is usual to pass to the back, handling this region Digitized by Microsoft® 64 JUDGING CATTLE very carefully as the back rib and loin is the most valuable part in the butcher's point of view. After handling the back carefully, the covering of the ribs should also be observed very closely. It is considered a good method for determin- ing the quality of the flesh to gently push the ends of the fingers between the ribs. If there is no natural flesh or muscle there, the ends of the fingers are easily inserted in this region but if the flesh is of the best quality and it is mostly muscle the ends of the fingers cannot be inserted very far between the ribs. To estimate the character of the skin and the mellowness of the flesh, the skin is generally lifted be- tween the first finger and the thumb and its quality carefully noted. Then with the fingers flat gentle pressure against the rib reveals the mellowness or firmness of the flesh. The thickness of the loin is an exceedingly important point and one of the ways of determining this is to push the back of the hand in at the lower level of the loin and then note the distance from the top of the loin to the back of the hand. Leaving this point the fullness and characteristics of the hind quarter are observed, then the fullness of the flank and the cod, which make the criticism of the one side of the animal complete. Standing squarely behind it, the develop- ment of the hind quarter is noted after which it is only nec- essary to pass down the other side very similar to that which has been followed on the right side. The steer may be considered from two points of view. The first has to do with the qualities of the store steer or feeder to be fattened, while the other refers to the merits of the prime steer that is ready for the butcher. III. Store Steers. It is a common practice in some com- munities for the stockmen to buy young steers with the object of feeding them for market. The steers are generally procured in the early fall, fed through most of the winter months and put on the market in the spring or early sum- mer. The most forcible factors in determining the profits Digitized by Microsoft® Aberdeen Aiif^us .steer Advance, chanipion luternatioiial Exposition. Chicago, 1900. Bred and fed by Stanley K. Pierce, Creston. 111. Illustrating the type most desirable for the block as the flesh is of the ripht quality and most abundant in the proper places. Photograph of a steei' .selected I'^-^bow thejorm that is not desirable either from the stanclWP?m*5i« JWPffPSflifmcher. Photo by Hills Shorthorn steer Britisher, illustrating desirable type for a feeding steer as shown In a short face, large muzzle, wide forehead, short neck, deep chest, straight, wide back, deep ribs and smooth, long hind quarters. Photo obtained through Icindness of Mr. Georgesen. The type and other qualities usually indicative of an undesirable feeding steer, showing slim face, thin, long neck, sharp withers, shallow chest, nar- row back, thin loin, light quarters, long legs and the characteristic e.xpressiou of the sti'i'r that cats most and makes least progress in the feed lot. Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 65 from this work is the skill of the purchaser in selecting ani- mals that will make good feeders and then buying them at a proper price. The skill lies generally in being able to esti- mate the possibilities of improvement in the animals selected; and to do this with any degree of certainty, calls for a prac- tical knowledge of the conduct of animals in the feed lot where the reasons for the points are unfolded and tested. 112. Form of the Feeder. The best feeding steers are comparatively wide, round and deep ribbed. The steer that Stands high from the ground, light in the flanks and shallow in the heart girth rarely makes a good feeder. In type the form of the store steer should fill out a parallelogram, the lines being true in every direction. It should be broad and deep in front and this should be characteristic of the hind most parts as well. As much width as possible is desirable if it is not accompanied with roughness over the shoulder or the hips or hooks. It is not expected, however, that a store steer should be as level and smooth in form as the finished animal ready for the block. Stoutness of form with depth of body are usually the char- acteristics of vigorous feeders, which may be accounted for by the supposition that in the stout individual the blood cur- rents have less distance to travel and consequently the circulation is more active. 113. Quality. The possession of quality does not seem to have much influence on the feeding ability of the steer though it has a marked effect on the value of the steer after being fattened. Animals of quality usually fatten more quickly than those that are rough and coarse, though if the latter are exceptionally vigorous, which is generally the case, they will sometimes make greater gains than those having quality because of delicacy. Quality in the steer means fine bone, soft, mellow bide and silky hair; while such attributes as a very rough, heavy firame, coarse joints, prominent, ragged Digitized by Microsoft® 66 JUDGING CATTLE hips and rough., open shoulders are the most pronounced evidences of deficiency in this feature. 114. Inferences from Good Handling. The handling of a feeder or the condition of the hide is one of the most valuable indications that may be observed. If the skin is mellow and elastic, it possesses what is called good handling. Such a skin is invariably associated with rapid fattening quaJities, while a heavy, stiff hide is considered to indicate slower fat- tening. The previous management which the steers have had has a marked influence on the handling. When liberally fed and they are thrifty, the skin has the softness and elas- ticity that usually accompanies a condition which has been termed by stockmen as "sappy." On the other hand if scrimped in their feed or if it has been dry without anything of a succulent nature as a part of the ration, the skin becomes tightly attached to the frame and it feels dry and paper like. In animals that possess good handling, when the hand is placed on the body just back of the shoulder and pressed against it, there is a soft elastic feel to the touch which is only found in animals having a thick coat of hair of fine quality, mellow skin and firm flesh. This feature of good handling cannot be magnified too much in judging all classes of beef stock, for it not only reflects the thriftiness of the animal at the time but also foretells its future progress. 115. Features of the Head. The features and proportions of the head are usually a condensed reflection of the rest of the form. A broad, short head is invariably accompanied with a thick, wide, low set body and the long, slim face is generally associated with the greater length of body and more narrowness. There is a co-relation of parts here as elsewhere that is seldom at fault and no other part oflfers such a field of study in this regard as that of the head. The mouth and the lips should be large, making the juncture oi the muzzle and the face appear to be somewhat concave. From the muzzle to the eyes the aspect of the face should Digitized by Microsoft® THE ENGLISH METHOD OF ODTTINQ BEEF. 1.2. 3. 4 and 10 1st quality. 5, 6, 7. 9 and 13 2nd quality. 8, 11 and 12 .3rd quality. 14,15 and 16 4th quality. CniCAOO RETAIL -DrALERS' METnOD OF CUTTIXO BEEP. A Rood 1200-lb. steer dresses about 800 pounds, and of this 708 pounds Is in.'irketable meat. All of the hl "^ SCALE OF POINTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE — COW. Jj O Continued. "C ^ £ Teats, large, evenly placed 5 Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branched with double extension ; large and numerous milk wells 5 Legs, straight ; shank fine 2 Total 100 IV. JUDGING DAIRY BULLS !46. Judging Dairy Bulls. In judging dairy bulls many points may be noted that they have in common with dairy cows, especially features of type, but it is a much more dif- ficult task to judge between those of this sex than it is to discriminate between developed cows. 147. Purity of Breeding. It seems necessary to say that the first requirement in the dairy bull, as in the instance of all other stock sires, is purity of breeding. The sire should meet all the requirements demanded of a pure-bred animal for registration. In addition the dairy sire should have the characteristics which are called for by the scale of points for the breed represented. 148. Uniformity of Breeding. To secure the greatest prepotency in a sire, the breeding for some generations back must show a uniformity in the type and characteristics of the ancestry. When the animals mentioned in a pedi- gree lack uniformity, or have been dissimilar in type and characteristics, it is not probable that the progeny will show that uniformity which every breeder desires to see in the herd. 149. Pedigree Based on Performance. The most valu- able characteristic relating to the pedigree of a dairy bull is the number and the merit of the records that have been made by the cows that are named in it. This feature is not usually considered in the show ring, though it should be, as it has a marked influence on the worth of a dairy sire. The most important feature of the pedigree of a dairy sire is the degree to which his dam was a good dairy cow, and in a. Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 89 lessening degree the records of those that preceded her. Next in importance to this is the number and the merit of the performances of the cows that are mentioned in the sires' line. Not only should the dams in the pedigrees have good records as performers, but the males should also be getters of performers. A bull that has breeding of high order based on performance, is as certain as things can be to sire superior stock, provided he is satisfactory as an in- dividual. 150. Qualities Associated with Individuality. Impressive power or prepotency and constitution are indicated to a cer- tain extent by the individual. The first mentioned may be estimated with some certainty by the masculine appearance of the bull in the head, horn, and crest; while the consti- tution is reflected by the depth of chest, the size of the na- vel and the general appearance of the hair, hide, and eye, as these are closely associated with thrift and vigor. The type in other respects should be that outlined for the dairy cow. A very common defect in the form of the dairy bull is roundness of the hips and undue fullness of the thighs, traceable to heaviness of flesh in these regions. The hip bones and the hocks should be prominent and between these points there should be a marked falling away due to the absence of any tendency towards fatness in this region. The undeveloped teats should be large and well placed and the navel should be prominent. The skin, especially where it gathers in loose folds between the thighs and at other points, should be soft, pliable and rich in color. All points should show much more openness and relaxation than is customary in beef animals, for this characteristic appears to be prevalent among deep milking types. !5I. Judging Calves. In the selection of the best calves the merit of the dam as a dairy cow is a valuable guide but it is not a point that is usually employed in show yard judging. In reference to the form of heifer calves the type Digitized by Microsoft® 90 JUDGING CATTLE of the typical dairy cow in miniature is the most desirable. The long face, the thin neck, light shoulder, sharp withers, deep chest, large capacious body, wide, long and thin rump, thin thighs, mellow hide of red color and soft hair should all be in evidence. The folds of skin in the udder regions should be loose and pliable. The teats should not be bunched together but wide apart and evenly placed. It is desirable to have the navel of such size that it may be easily noticed, and the form in every part should have the open and relaxed condition referred to in discussing developed cows. The bull calf differs in no marked degree from the heifer calf until it approaches the age of one year when the sex char- acteristics have developed to a noticeable extent. V. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE. ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. ^ "■ a SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN g ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — BULL. U Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline behind the navel, and there only to a moderate extent ; a white cod is most undesirable. 3 Head — Forehead broad ; face slightly prominent, and tapering toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; dis- tance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length ; eyes mild, full and expressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears of good medium size ; well set and well covered with hair ; poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs ; jaws clean lo Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under- neath 3 Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with moderate crest (which increases with age), spreading out to meet the shoulders, with full neck vein 3 Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades and top ; with vertebra or backbone slightly above the scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad 6 Chest — Wide and deep ; also round and full just back of elbows lo Brisket — -Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4 Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins 8 Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent and well covered ; rumps long, full, level and rounded neatly into hind quarters lo Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 9J ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. ^ Bull — Continued, 3 o Hind Quarters — Deep and full ; thighs thick and muscular, and in proportion to hind quarters ; twist filled out well in its "seam " so as to form an even wide plane between thighs . . 8 Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back and hanging at right angles to it 3 Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible ; flank, deep and full 4 Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed, hind legs slightly inclined forward below the hocks ; forearm muscular ; bones fine and clean 4 Flesh — Even and without patchiness 4 Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly covered with thick soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feeding properties, and value of the animal, depend upon this qual- ity which is of great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judgment, A good "touch" will compensate for some deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily as though resting on a soft cellular substance, which however becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin papery skin is objectionable, especially in a cold climate) 10 Qeneral Appearance — Elegant, well-bred and masculine. The walk square, the step quick, and the head up 10 Total 100 When bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class, add 25 counts for progeny. B SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN g ABERDEEN ANGUS ASSOCIATION — COW. O Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on the underline behind the navel and there only to a moderate extent 2 Head — Forehead moderately broad and slightly indented; taper- ing toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; nostrils wide and open ; distance from eyes to nostrils of moderate length ; eyes full, bright and expressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished with hair ; poll well defined, and without any appearance of horns or scurs ; jaws clean 10 Throat — Clean, without any development of loose flesh under- neath 3 Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet the shoulders, with full neck vein ■ • • 3 Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on the blades and top i with vertebra or backbone slightly above the scapula or shoulder blades, which should be moderately broad 6 Chest Wide and deep ; round and full just back of elbows. . . 10 Brisket — Deep and moderately projecting from between the legs, and proportionately covered with flesh and fat 4 Digitized by Microsoft® 92 JUDGING CATTLE ABERDEEN ANGUS CATTLE. g - - - 3 O Cow — Continued. g Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, arched and deep, neatiy joined to the crops and loins 8 Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks ; loins strong ; hook bones moderate in width, not prominent, and well cov- ered ; rumps long, full, level and rounded neatly into hind quarters lo Hind Quarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and muscular, and in proportion to hind quarters ; twist filled out well in its ' ' seam " so as to form an even wide plain between thighs ... 8 Tall — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a line with the back, and hanging at right angles to it 3 Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the body and well up behind ; teats squarely placed, well apart and of good size 8 Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible, flank deep and full. 4 Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed ; hind legs slightly inclined forward belowthe hocks; fore arm muscular; bones fine and clean 3 Flesh — Even and without patchiness 3 Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, abundantly covered with thick, soft hair. (Much of the thriftiness, feed- ing properties and value of the animal depend upon this quality, which is of great weight in the grazier's and butch- er's judgment. A good "touch " will compensate for some deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily, as though resting on a soft, cellular substance, which, however, becomes firmer as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is objec- tionable, especially in a cold climate.) 10 General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and feminine. The walk square, the step quick, and the head up 5 Total 100 In judging heifers omit No. 12, and add 3 counts to "Flesh." and 5 counts to No. 17, in the order named above. DEVON CATTLE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON BULL — ADOPTED BY DEVON CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896. Registered pedigree. Head masculine, forehead broad, tapering towards the nose, which should be flesh-colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle broad; eyes full and placid; ears medium size and thickness, fringed with hair; horns growing at right angles from the head or slightly elevated stout and waxy at the base, tipped with a darker shade. Cheek full and broad at the root of the tongue. Throat clean. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 93 Neck of medium length and muscular, growing from the head to the shoulders and spreading out to meet them. Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered. Chest deep, broad and somewhat circular in character. Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and fully developed. Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on of tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a level with the back. Rumps moderately long, thick and square. Hind quarters deep, thick and square. Tail, thick at the root, and tapering with a brush of strong hair, reaching to the hocks and hanging at right angles with the back. The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top. Arms and thighs muscular. Legs straight and squarely placed when viewed from behind, not to cross or sweep when walking. Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of rich mossy hair of a red color; a little white in front of the purse is admissible; but it should not extend beyond the navel forward, on the outside of the flanks, or any other part of the limbs or body. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR DEVON COW — ADOPTED BY DEVON CATTLE BREEDERS SOCIETY, ENGLAND, 1896. Registered pedigree. Head, moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, tapering considerably towards the nostrils; the nose of a creamy white, the nostrils high and open, the jaws clean, the eye bright, lively and prominent; throat clean, ears thin, the expression being gentle and intelligent; horns matching, long, spreading and gracefully turned up of a waxy color tipped with a darker shade. Neck of medium length, growing from the head to the shoulders, and spreading out to meet them. Withers fine, shoulders flat, sloping and well covered. Ribs well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep and fully developed. Back straight and level from the withers to the setting on of the tail, loins broad and full, hips of medium width and on a level with the back. Rumps moderately long and level. Hind quarters, deep, thick and square. Udder not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly and ■ well up behind; teats moderately large and squarely placed. Tail thick at the root and tapering, with a brush of strong hair reaching the hocks and hanging at right angles with the back. The underline as nearly as possible parallel with the top. Legs straight, squarely placed, when viewed from behind, not to cross or sweep when walking. Skin moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of rich mossy hair of a red color; white about the udder is admissible, but it should not extend beyond the navel forward, on the outside of flanks or any other part of the limbs or body. Digitized by Microsoft® 94 JUDGING CATTI^ NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK RED POLLED CATTLE. STANDARD DESCRIPTION — ADOPTED 1873, AT NORWICH, ENGLAND BV A REPRESENTATIVE COMMITTEE OF BREEDERS FROM EACH COUNTY, PUBLISHED IN AMERICAN RED POLLED HERD BOOK, VOLUME I, 189I. ESSENTIALS. Color — Red ; the tip of the tail and udder may be white. The exten- sion of the white of the udder a few inches along the side of the flank, or a small white spot or mark on the under part of the belly by the milk veins, shall not be held to disqualify an animal whose sire and dam form part of an established herd, or answer all other essentials of this standard description. Form — There should be no horns, slugs or abortive horns. POINTS OF A SUPERIOR ANIMAL. Color — A deep red, with udder of the same color, but the tip of the tail may be white. Nose, not dark or cloudy. Form— A neat head and throat. A full eye. A tuft or crest of hair should hang over the forehead. The frontal bones should begin to contract a little above the eyes and should terminate in a comparatively narrow prominence at the summit of the head. In all other particulars the commonly accepted points of a superior animal to be taken as applying to the Norfolk and Suffolk red polled cattle. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 95 HOLSTEIN^FRESIAN CATTLE. £5 SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED 3 REGISTRY, VOL. 1 1 , I889 — BULL. iQ Head — Showing full vigor, elegant in contour 2 Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing i Face — Contour graceful, especially under the eyes, medium in lengfth, broad muzzle ^ Ear — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair t Eyes — Moderately large, full and bright 2 Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, short, oval, inclining forward 2 Neck — Neatly joined to head and shoulders, nearly free from dewlap, good length, proud in bearing 5 Shoulders — Of medium height, well rounded and even over top 4 Chest — Low, deep and full a Crops — Full and level with shoulders 4 Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open 3 Barrel — Well rounded and large abdomen 6 Loins and Hip — Broad, full, long and level 5 Rump — High, long, broad and level 5 Thurl — High, with great width. 4 Quarters — Long, straight behind and full at sides 5 Flanks — Deep and full 2 Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, with position firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 6 Tail — Reaching to hock or below, large at setting, tapering to a full switch 2 Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or yellow color. 10 Mammary Veins — Long, large, branched, with extensions enter- ing large orifices 10 Rudimentary Teats — Not less than four, large, well spread ... 2 Escutcheon — Large and fine development 8 Total 100 A bull that has from three to five of his progeny in Advanced Register shall be credited with five points, in excess of what he may scale in structure. ... A bull that has five or more of his progeny in Advanced Register shall be credited with ten points, in excess of what he may scale in structure. No bull shall be received to Advanced Registry who does not scale 80 points. . No bull shall be received to Advanced Registry that m the judg- ment of the inspectors will not reach a minimum weight of 1,800 in good flesh at full age. Digitized by Microsoft® 96 JUDGING CATTLE SCALE OF POINTS PUBLISHED IN ADVANCED ■£ REGISTRY, VOL 1 1 , 1889 COW. g U Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance, comparatively long from eyes to base of horns, fine in contour 2 Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing. 2 Face — Contour fine, especially under the eyes, showing facial veins, length medium, broad muzzle 2 Ears — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft hair i Eyes — Moderately full, large and mild 2 Horns — Set moderately narrow at base, fine, oval, well bent, inclining forward 2 Neck — Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly joined to head and shoulders, topline slightly curving, of good length, moder- ately thin, elegant in bearing 4 Shoulders — Fine and even over top, lower than hips and moder- ately thick, deep and broad 3 Chest — Low, deep and broad 6 Crops — Full and level with shoulders 2 Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open 3 Barrel — Well rounded with large abdomen 5 Loin and Hip — Broad, full, long and level 5 Rump — High, broad and level, with roomy pelvis 4 Thurl — High, with great width 4 Quarters — Long, straight behind, roomy in the twist, wide and full at sides 4 Flanks — Fairly deep and full 2 Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, in position firm, wide apart; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep 5 Tall — Reaching to hocks or below, large at setting, tapering finely to a full switch 2 Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and of rich brown or yellow color. 10 Mammary Veins — Large, long, crooked, branched with exten- sion entering large orifices 10 Udder — Capacious, flexible, well oeveloped, both in front and rear ; teats well formed, wide apart and of convenient size. . 12 Escutcheon 8 Total 100 A cow that has made milk or butter record in excess of the mini- mum requirement applicable to her case (see Rule 6) shall be cred- ited one point for each and every eight per cent that such record exceeds such requirement. No cow shall be received to Advanced Registry that does not scale 75 points (credits from milk records being allowed as provided above). No cow shall be received to Advanced Registry that in the judg- ment of the inspector will not reach a minimum weight of 1,000 lbs., at full age, in ordinary flesh milking form. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 97 JERSEY CATTLE. ^ , ■4-< C SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BV THE AMERICAN JERSEY g CATTLE CLUB, MAY 6, 1885. VOL. 45, 1896 — COW. (J Head — Small and lean ; face dished, broad between the eyes and narrow between the horns 2 Eyes — Full and placid ; horns small, crumpled and amber-col- ored I Neck — T hin, rather long, with clean throat and not heavy at the shoulders 8 Back — Level t o the setting; on of tail i Loin — Broad ac ross the loin 6 Barrel -~ Long, hooped, broad and deep at the flank 10 Hips — Wide apart ; rump long 10 Legs — Short 2 Tall — Fine, reaching the hocks.with good switch i Color and mellowness of hide ; inside of ears yellow 5 Fore Udder — Full in form and not fleshy 13 Hind Udder — Full in form and well up behind 11 Teats — Rather large, wide apart and squarely placed 10 Milk Veins — Prominent 5 Disposition — Quiet -. 5 General Appearance and apparent constitution 10 Total 100 In judging heifers, omit Nos. 11, 13 and 14. FOR BULLS. The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, omitting Nos. II, 12 and 14, in the order named above, and making due allow- ance for masculinity ; but when bulls are exhibited with their progeny in a separate class, add 30 counts for progeny. Digitized by Microsoft® 98 JUDGING CATTLE GUERNSEY CATTLE. a 3 o Dairy Tempera- ment. Consti- tution 38 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. I3, 1899 — COW. Clean cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle with wide open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle expres- sion ; forehead long and broad 5 Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head; clean throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ; large, rugged spinal processes, indicating good develop- ment of the spinal cord .. .- 5 Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, strong structure of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with good switch ; Thin, in-curving thighs 5 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open, relaxed conformation; thin, arching flank 5 Abdomen large and deep, with strong mus- cular and navel development, indicative of capacity and vitality 15 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and \ texture but not thick 3 Milking Marks denoting quan- tity of flow 10 Udder Forma- tion 26 Indicating Color of Milk 15 Milking Marks denoting qual- ity of flow 6 Symmetry and Size Escutcheori wide on thighs, high and broad with thigh ovals 2 Milk veins crooked, branching and promi- nent, with large or deep wells 8 Udder full in front 8 Udder full and well up behind 8 Udder of large size and capacity 4 Teats wide apart, squarely placed and of good and even size 6 ' Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of horns, on udder, teats and body generally. Hoof amber colored. .. . 15 Udder showing plenty of substance but not too meaty 6 Color of hair a shade of fawn with white markings. Cream colored nose. Horns amber colored, small, curved and not coarse. Hoofs amber colored 3 Size for the breed : Mature cows four years old or over, about 1,050 lbs 2 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF KXCKLLENCK FOR CATTLE 99 SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN GUERNSEY CATTLE CLUB, DEC. I3, I899 — BULL. a 3 o o Temperament. Constitution . .38 ^ Dairy Prepo- tency 15 Rudimen tar- ies and Milk Veins 10 Indicating Color of Milk in Off- Clean cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle with wide open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle expres- sion ; forehead lone and broad 5 Long masculine neck with strong juncture to head ; clean throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ; large, rug- ged spinal processes, indicating good development of the spinal cord 5 Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, strong structure of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with good switch. Thin, in-curving thighs 5 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open, relaxed conformation ; thin, arching flank 5 Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscle and navel development, indicative of capacity and vitality 15 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture but not thick 3 As shown by having a great deal of vigor, style, alertness and resolute appearance. . 15 spring . •15 Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and broadly placed in front of and free from scrotum. Milk veins prominent 10 Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of horns and body generally, hoofs amber colored 15 Color of hair a shade of fawn with white markings. Cream colored nose. Horns amber colored, curving and not coarse. . . 8 Size for the breed : Mature bulls four years old or over, about 1,500 lbs 4 General appearance as indicative of the power to beget animals of strong dairy qualities 10 Total. 100 Symmetry ana Size 22 EXPLANATORY NOTES BY COMMITTEE. We recognize the Guernsey should be — First. A dairy animal with a distinctive dairy temperament and conformation, having a strong, nervy structure with a corresponding flow of nervous energy, and every indication of capacity and vitality. Second. In color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white on limbs and under part of body are considered the prevailing markings, and some degree of uniformity is desirable. Digitized by Microsoft® 100 JUDGING CATTLE Third. One of the important distinguishing features of the breed is the presence of a yellow color in the pigment of the skin, which is indicative of rich golden color in the milk. This is very pronounced in the Guernsey and held by her to the greatest extent under all con- ditions of stabling and feed. The intensity of this trait is more marked in some animals and families than in others, but it should be kept at the highest standard. It is fest being recognized that this color is accompanied by a superior flavor in the milk and thus in the butter. DAIRY TEMPERAMENT. By " dairy temperament " is meant a strong overruling predispo- sition or tendency to turn the consumption of tood towards the pro- duction of milk with a high content of solids, especially butter fat, as against the constitutional tendency so often seen to turn food into flesh. Even in the strongest dairy breeds there are more or less fre- quent out-crops in male and female of the flesh-making temperament. To breed from such animals, while we are striving to establish a pre- potent dairy temperament or tendency is not wise. All cattle bred specifically for dairy purposes should possess a clear and decided dairy temperament, for it is that quality of character we desire most to establish, enlarge and perpetuate in the Guernsey cow. This is especially indicated by the shape of the head, showing brain capacity, wide muzzle, open nostril, full bright eyes, feminine neck and a construction of the backbone indicating a strong flow of nerve power and support from the brain to all of the maternal organs. CONSTITUTION. In breeding our domestic animals, especially for long service like the dairy cow, it is very important that they should have abundant vital power which we call " constitution." But constitution must be judged and measured by the peculiar function the animal is bred to fulfill. With the race horse the function is speed ; with the steer, the laying on of flesh ; with the dairy cow, the production of milk solids. In all these various functions the animal that is to represent any one of them must show not only large capacity in the line of that func- tion but also the ability to endure long and well the strain of such function and keep in good health. Constitution is best indicated by a full development at the navel and strong abdominal walls, showing that the animal when in a prenatal state was abundantly nourished by the mother through a well developed umbilical cord. PREPOTENCY. In the scale for bulls, for the first time, we believe, in the history of dairy breeds, this point is introduced. The reason we have included it is that "prepotency" is the chief consideration in the selection of all male breeding animals. The pedigree and conforma- tion is often all that can be desired, but because the bull is lacking in prepotent breeding power he is an expensive failure. This quality is, in a sense, difficult to perceive or describe, but we know certain ani- mals have it in high degree and others fail of it completely. It is fairly well indicated by vigor of appearance, strong, resolute bearing and abundant nervous energy. We would distinguish this from an ugly disposition. A bull is ugly by the way he is handled rather than by his breeding. What we want is strong, impressive blood. A dull, sluggish spirit and action, we consider it indicative of a lack of true Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF KXCELLKNCK FOR CATTLE 101 dairy prepotency, but we would prefer to breed to a rather sluggish appearing bull with first-class rudimentaries than to a stylish one with badly placed rudimentaries. RUDIMENTARY TEATS. We consider that a well balanced and well shaped udder in the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats are placed on the sire. If they are crowded close together the result is likely to be narrow, pointed udders. If they are placed well apart, of good size, and well forward of the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to influence largely the production of well shaped udders in the result- ing heifers and counteract the tendency to ill shaped udders inher- itable from dams deficient in this respect. We believe the future excellence of the Guernsey cow will be greatly aided by close atten- tion on the part of her breeders to this point. Digitized by Microsoft® 102 JUDGING CATTLE DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. . S a SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE DUTCH BELTED g CATTLE ASSOCIATION — COW. y Body — Color black, with a clearly defined continuous white belt. The belt to be of medium width, beginning behind the shoulder and extending nearly to the hips 8 Head — Comparatively long and somewhat dishing ; broad be- tween the eyes. Poll prominent ; muzzle fine ; dark tongue 6 Eyes — Black, full and mild. Horns long compared with their diameter 4 Neck — Fine and moderately thin and should harmonize in sym- metry with the head and shoulders 6 Shoulders — Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they extend backward and downward, with a low chest 4 Barrel — Large and deep with well developed abdomen ; ribs well rounded and free from fat 10 Hips — Broad, and chine level, with full loin 10 Rump — High, long and broad 6 Hind Quarters — Long and deep, rear line in-curving. Tail long, slim, tapering to a full switch 8 Legs — Short, clean, standing well apart 3 Udder — Large, well developed front and rear. Teats of con- venient size and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and crooked, entering large orifices 20 Escutcheon 2 Hair — Fine and soft ; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich dark or yellow color 3 Quiet Disposition and free from excessive fat 4 General Condition and apparent constitution 6 Total 100 FOR BULLS. The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for females, except that "Udder" shall be omitted and the bull credited 10 points for size and wide spread placing of rudimentary teats, 5 points additional for development of shoulder, and 5 additional points for perfection of belt. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CATTLE 103 AYRSHIRE CATTLE. ^2 c SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE § BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889— BULL. U The points desirable in the female are generally so in the male, but must, of course, be attended with that masculine character which is inseparable from a strong and vigorous constitution. Even a degree of coarseness is admissible ; but then it must be so exclusively of masculine description as never to be dis- covered in a female of his get. The Head of the bull should be shorter than that of the cow, but the frontal bone should be broad, the muzzle good size, throat nearly free from hanging folds, eyes full. The horns should have an upward turn, with sufficient size at the base to indicate strength of constitution lo Neck — Of medium length, somewhat arched, and large in those muscles which indicate power and strength lo Fore Quarters— Shoulders close to the body, without any hollow space behind; chest broad, brisket deep and well developed, but not too large 7 Back — Short and straight ; spine sufficiently well defined, but not in the same degree as in the cow ; ribs well sprung and body deep in the flanks 10 Hind Quarters — Long, broad and straight ; hip bones wide apart ; pelvis long, broad and straight ; tail set on a level with the back ; thighs deep and broad 10 Scrotum — Large, with well developed teats in front 7 Legs — Short in proportion to size, joints firm. Hind legs well apart, and not to cross in walking 5 5kln — Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium thickness 10 Color — Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of these — each color being distinctly defined 3 Average Live Weight at maturity, about 1,500 10 Qeneral Appearance, including style and movement 15 Escutcheon, large and fine development 3 Total , 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 104 JUDGING CA.TTLK SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN AYRSHIRE -g BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, FEB. 21, 1889 — COW. g u The following scale of points for the Ayrshire cow were adopted — being similar to the scale adopted in Scotland in 1884 — and changed in a few points to render them applicable to this country : Head — Short ; forehead wide ; nose, fine between the muzzle and the eyes ; muzzle, large ; eyes, full and lively ; horns, wide set on, inclining upwards lo Neck — Moderately long and straight from the head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose skin on the under side, fine at its junction with the head, and enlarging symmetrically towards the shoulder 5 Fore Quarters — Shoulders sloping; withers fine; chest suffi- ciently broad and deep to insure constitution ; brisket and whole fore quarters light, the cow gradually increasing in depth and width backwards 5 Back — Short and straight ; spine well defined, especially at the shoulders ; short ribs, arched ; the body deep at the flanks. . 10 Hind Quarters — Long, broad and straight, hook bones wide apart and not overlaid with fat; thighs, deep and broad; tail, long, slender, and set on level with the back 8 Udder — Capacious and not fleshy, hind part broad and firmly attached to the body, the sol© nearly level and extending well forward ; milk veins about udder and abdomen well developed ; the teats from 1% to 3 inches in length, equal in thickness — the thickness being in proportion to the length — hanging perpendicularly, their distance apart at the sides should be equal to one-third of the length of the vessel, and across to about one-half of the breadth 30 Legs — Short in proportion to size, the bones fine, the joints firm. 3 Skin — Yellow, soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close, woolly hair 5 Color — Red of any shade, brown or white, or a mixture of these — each color being distinctly defined 3 Average Live Weight in full milk, about 1,000 pounds 8 General Appearance, including style and movement 10 Escutcheon — Large and fine development 3 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® Ayrsliire cow. Nellie Osborne, winner of ywet;pstakt;,s Gold Medal for breed at World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 189a. Owned by T>. Drun-. mond, Petite Cote. Quebec. DE.SCKIPTION OP ATRSHIRE CATTLE I'HIS BKBED of Scotch d airy cattle originated u nder the rugged conditions of Ayr- shire and in their type and general characteristics they exemplify the torm and quality which would be called for in a dairy animal required to make the most eco- nomical use of their food and do the best under conditions too severe for finer and more delicate cattle. The head is slim, rather long in the face and surmounted with a horn not wholly devoid of strength, the neck somewhat short is clean cut though not delicate, the shoulder is sharp and the chest full and deep, the body is straight in its top lines, slightly more compact than usually found in the dairy type but has the volume which invariably results in large capacity for consumptidn and production. The hind quarter is moderately wide and covered with flesh while the thigh Is thin and the udder long and excellent in its proportion. The size and the placing of the teats is a feature which calls for careful attention in ranking representatives of this breed. See ofBoial scale of points, pages 103 and J04. Digitized by Microsoft® Holstein-Friesian cow Oolantha 4th, in her four year old and six year old form. The lower illustration is a plioto of her as a four year old. Com- pare this with the upper, which is a plioto of lier as a si.K year old, and the changes that take place in a dairy cow as she approaches maturity may be seen. This cow is owned by iMessrs. (iillett & i^nri, of Rosendale, Wis., and her records are as follows : AGE. Milk, I day. BuUer, 1 w'k. Milk, ly'r. Butter Pat, 1 y'r. 2 years 53.;; lbs. 14.1 fts. U,4():!.4 tt>s. 3 years 04.S lbs. 1S.7 tbs. U,'.i."il..''i lbs. ."iTr.Tlbs. 4 years 70.a Bjs. ai.llbs. i:i,'.)'.y.2 lbs. ."liB.Q lbs. Syears U,4SI.sTi.s. Bj-ears 77.;! It-s. ;;4.sll)s. 14.7S2.7 fts. 562.!i lbs. This cow was also first in the official tests of 1 he Holstein-Fi'iesian Asso- ciation in 1900, and also winner of first prize in tests for economy of produc- tion making 19.6 lljs. fat in one weelf at a food cost of (i '^-r> cents per pound. BESCRIPTION OF HOLSTEIN-FRIE SIAN CATTLE I'HE original type of this breed had more size of frame than tliat which char- acterizes the modern representative. Tlie conditions existing have favored the production of a large dairy animal with extreme development for yielding milk. The type which is now common shows more refinement but still has the characteristics in the main whicli identified the first importations. The color should be black and white, with no mi.xture of this or tinge of brown. The head should be lengthy, generally because of a long face, the eye should be large and bright and that portion of the head between the horn and the eye should be full. The neck should be slim and lengthy, the shoulder sharp and fitting well while the chest should be deep aud tlie body have for its most noted feature a large develop- ment of tlie digestive organs. The loins should be strong though bare of flesh and the hind quarters straiglit and angular and the thighs thin. Tlie frame should show as much refinement as possible witliont a,iiy indication of delicacy. The .gen- eral conformation should bo such as to f:i.vorlaTge i-:i.paci1 y for the consumption of t od and tlie production of the largest quantity of milk. See oiBoial scale of points- pa,ge 95. Digitized by Microsoft® Pakadisk II 9711:^, bred by H. C. Taylor, UrfordviHe, Wis. Kecord, IS lbs. 4. ounces. Owned by A.O. Auten, Jersey ville, Illinois. Dropped Oct. 17, 1893. Good type of a dairy cow. Udder very capacious and very hand- somely developed, teats large and well placed, veins very prominent. Not only does the cow show unusual merit as to form, but the calf is especially illustrative of the type desirable for dairy purposes. Guernsey bull Bk^ noted prize winner in vfiouired in a dairv bul kmoi^^ & Sou, Robeudale, Wis., a }he main features of form Holstein herd owned by Mi?ssis. W. B. Smith & Sons, of Columbus, O. In this remarliable photograph of a large herd there cannot be found a single animal which does not Illustrate desirable dairy type. Pliotu by Sclireiber. Photograph of the head of the Jersey cow, Buttercup. This photo- f^rapb shows in an unusual degree the conformation of head and neck which is desirable in a highlPlP&'Z)@et j^y MlCrOSOft© A pair of Holstein calves bred by the Iowa Agricultural College, illus- trating the type most desirable for calves intended for dairy purposes. A photograph of some Jersey calves, taken at the stock farm of H. C. Taylor, Orfordville, Wisconsin. The heads illustrate the characteristic features sought in dairy calves. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING SHEEP. Digitized by Microsoft® tS J (P . ji ^' o c S o M a o tn a a ri - fe ^ -d > o o -p- :^ E ttfcPSH QJ -c l-^ CO cs o (» 1-1 r- 1-1 CI i . c be " "O ■e-S-ri-a ■^ »< PC pii o Eh m hj f^ N r^ r^ ci :6 -^ id Q o H S 31 o it s o X ^3 o Z en 1 pi: ■ .2 h » M 0) '? ■l^v^J . 9^ & £ S o .H ■a o o ,jq cS o ';c t- ac OS o TO O Digitized by Microsoft© CHAPTER III. JUDGING SHEEP. 152. Method of Examining Sheep. In examining sheep it is advisable to adopt a definite course of pro- cedure so that nothing may be overlooked and each mo- tion made to disclose something in regard to the merit or demerit of the sheep. In the shov^r ring that contains as many as ten sheep in a class it is easy to see that the judge must work quickly as well as accurately. And there is nothing that will contribute to both of these like examin- ing each part of the sheep in regular order. The best course to follow is perhaps to begin at the head, pressing down the lower lip with the finger and thumb so that the teeth may be seen and the age estimated. Then with the hands under the jaw look carefully over the head, seeing that the eyes are all right, the head a good shape and no appearance of horns in those breeds that are hornless, while in those that possess these, note that they spring clear from the head. Then pass to the neck, feeling with the hands the fullness of it, and in addition observing the length and the way it swells to meet the shoulder at the shoulder vein. Pass down to the brisket, putting one hand on the floor of the chest and the other at the top of the shoulder and in this way form an idea as to the depth of the sheep through these parts. Next note the shoulder, C'bserving how it is covered with flesh along the side and top and also taking the girth of the spring of the ribs with the sheep. From the top of the shoulder, using one hand, follow the line of the back to the end of the body. By carefully handling these parts the fleshiriess ofi the ''Ml I Digitized by Microsoft® 108 JUDGING SHEEP sheep or the way the ribs are covered and the straightness of the back are determined and at the same time the spring of the ribs is made apparent. The width of the loin should then be taken and also its covering and thick- ness. The width of the hips should next be observed, and turning to one side and using two hands the length from the hip to the end of the hind quarter should be made apparent between the two points. Then the width of the hind quarter and the manner in which it is carried back and the fullness should also be examined. Follow- ing the joint towards the leg the development of the thigh on the outside requires examination, and then with the hand the quarters should be firmly felt. 153. Deception Due to Trimming. In this way the sheep has been thoroughly examined as to form, but it is to be remembered that the hands should be thor- oughly relied on to discover all defects of form, and un- less the sheep is carefully handled the examiner is very likely to be deceived. The wool of all show sheep and fat stock of the medium wool classes, is lalways trimmed, and the trimmer possessing skill can give any desired form to sheep, providing the wool is long enough and the sheep approaches somewhat towards the form which is being imitated. 154. Estimating Age by the Teetii. The order of appearance of the nippers or incisors in sheep is a fairly reliable method of telling their age. The sheep has eight permanent incisors, and these appear in regular order in supplanting the milk teeth. The milk teeth can always be told from the permanent incisors by the fact that they are narrower. The permanent incisors are broad and wide and widened considerably towards the top. The first or central pair of incisors appear when the sheep is, felightly over one year old. The next pair, Digitized by Microsoft® Illustrations of Proper Methods'of Handling Sheep'in Judging Them. Looking at the face and heafl and feeling the fullness of the nfcU'. With one liand on top and the other bulow estimate the depth of the cliest. Notice the heart girth by the dis- tance between the hands. With the hand perfectly flat note the levelness of the back, its firmness and covering. Digitized by Microsoft® Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them— Continued. ^^ ^s%. i % ^ " fBf M 1 •i «■ ^ «H> •■ •«■ ii- m ,-*■ 5 ■31 ' bill Taking the width of the loin; note the thickness. also With one hand at the hip joint and the other at the end of the body, the length of the hind quarters may be estimated. ■1^ 1 H^l S?^- .. .^imZ^^^^^Bii TFf NotlQR the degree tu which the width of body Is carried to the end. Feeling the development in the leg of mutton. Digitized by Microsoft® Illustrations of Proper Methods of Handling Sheep in Judging Them— Continued. Mauner and pUice of opening lietr to see the finest quality of wool. Manner and place of opening fleece to ^ee the poorest quality of wool. Illustration showing tlic proper method of holding the hand in e.xamin ingsheep. It will be noticed that in this illustration those examinin the ingsheep. Jt will oe noticeu rnat in bins iuuoi/i.j.iviv./u v^.^-..> ^...-^^ .. — o — sheep hold the fingers together in a sloping manner, In this way it is possible to feel the form oithi[yf(0fZQi^^^wt.f^j^f(JS^f@i>vea.king the fleece. The , ^^vnmnn mpthnf] ofsticking the fingers into the fleece malces holes in it Digitized by Microsoft® FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 109 that is, one on each side of the central pair, appear the fol- lowing year, and that is when the sheep is two years old ; the third pair appear when the sheep is slightly over two years old, and the fourth pair when it is between four and five years old. This completes the number of incisors and a complete set always indicates that the sheep is be- tween four and five years old. High feeding or forcing hastens the age indications, so that the variations are often unnoticeable, especially in show sheep or those im- ported from Great Britain. I. JUDGING SHEBP FOR MUTTON AND WOOI,. In judging fat sheep it is necessary to consider the needs of the feeder of this class of stock, the demands of the butcher for lambs and mutton, the desires of the con- sumer and the requirements of the manufacturer of wool. These requisites must be merged together to ar- rive at a correct view of the whole. 155. The Feeding Type That Gives the Best Gains. In considering the type of sheep which gives the best results in the feed lot, we have only to have in view the type that gives us the greatest vigor, insuring an active digestion and the mast constitution, so that nothing may upset the sheep in the rapid progress de- sired. In this connection it will be well to report the re- sults of an experiment made at the Wisconsin Experi- ment Station by the writer. Two lots of lambs were se- lected ; the one bred by the station showing in fleece and form a high degree of merit for grade sheep. These lambs were bred from high grade ewes and the rams had been selected at high prices for some years to make the best blend with the ewes. The lambs were very uni- form as to type and they showed what might be called an Digitized by Microsoft® 110 JUDGING SHEEP unusual degree of merit for ordinary feeding lambs. To compare with these, some lambs native to northern Wis- consin showing the type common to that territory were put upon similar rations. The representatives of both these kinds of lambs, in addition to having the same kind of food, were kept under identically the same conditions, putting both lots of lambs in the fed lot at three cents a pound and taking them out at four cents at the end of the feeding period. The well bred lambs of good feed- ing type after paying for the feed that they ate, at current prices yielded a profit of $1.13 per head; while those representative of the poor type being indiscriminately bred only yielded a profit of $.60 per head. The lambs of the best type ate more food, but they made more than a corresponding gain, and the chief point should not be lost sight of, that the profit from each one of them was just twice as much as that from those being of inferior type. 156. The Feeding Type Bringing Most at Maturity In the selection of feeding lambs the feeder has to keep in view the fact that there is most demand for the lamb that when fat weighs about 100 pounds. Such a lamb has the quickest sale at the highest price per pound. This type is one that is not too heavy boned and large framed, but such as require only a medium amount of flesh to make the carcass smooth and plump at the weight indicated. It is the low set, thick type that possesses these qualities to the highest degree. To se- cure the greatest profit in feeding it is desirable to have the gain made as rapidly as possible. The younger the animal the cheaper the cost of gain, and it is that feature that makes early maturity such an important considera- tion Xtt the different classes of stock. The market favors Digitized by Microsoft® •mm The three photos on the right hand show a, sheep of a bad feeding type. Note narrowness of face, shallowness of chest, with length of leg in both front and side view, while the hind view shows thinness of leg of mutton. The three photos on the left show a good feeding type in breadth of face, depth and width of chest, spring of rib, squareness of form throughout and fu.lnessof leg of mutton. The sheep used for these illustrations were selected from the lots experimented with at the Wis- consin station and referred to in paragraph 153 Digitized by Microsoft® l*)iotograpns ol the backs of two rairnsses are shown in flie upper row; till.' one ou the left, a fine wool wether, shows lack of development in leg of mutton, narrowness and thinness of flesh on back. The one on the ri{?ht, a Shropshire grade, shows much more development and covering in valuable parts. Front views of the same carcasses are shown in the lower row. The Olio on the Icfl, a fine wool grade, showing lack of development in parts desired by the butcher, in comparison with the Shropshire grade on the right. Location of cuts in a mutton carcass ami bheir valuation in the CMoago market. Summarizing an experiment with seven special mutton breeds. Prof. Our- tlss gives the relative value of these relative parts as follows : Leg, 22.2 pounds, at 10 crjits, S3. 2:* ; loin. 1T.."i pounds, at i) cents, $1.57; rib, 14. .5 pounds, at 9 cents, Sl.HO; chuck, 10.8 pounds, at Ih cents, 'M cents ; total, S.5.43. Digitized by Microsoft© FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 111 a lamb of the weight mentioned, because as a rule such usually dress better and the cuts are smaller. 157. The Type Desired by the Butcher, If we were to consider only the things that have the most im- portance in the view of the butcher we would have a very queerly formed sheep presented to us. The butcher is very desirous of obtaining the greatest percentage of valuable cuts, consequently the different parts of a lamb from a butcher's point of view show a wide variation from the feeder's and breeder's ideal. In the lamb that is ideal from a butcher's standpoint, it would not be necessary to have any neck, chest, digestive apparatus or leg. As may be seen from the illustration herewith submitted, the neck has a value of only one cent per pound, the shoulder is two cents and the shanks the same. The rib running from the point of the shoulder to the loin has a value of nine cents per pound, and the same is true of the loin ; while the leg of mutton has the high- est value per pound, as that is quoted at ten cents. The breast and chest have the very low value of two cents per pound. It is very evident from these facts that the back, loin and the leg are the three divisions that are most prized in the lambs that would be ideal from the butcher's standpoint. 158. Quality. After the form of the sheep has been carefully examined the quality should be noticed. This means the cleanness of the bone, fineness of the skin and the nature of the hair which covers the face and legs. These are important features in either breeding or fat sheep. It is perhaps the most valuable from the butcher's standpoint, because the waste is less from a sheep of good quality than it is from one that is inferior. The range in the percentage of dressed weight in lambs will vary from 50 per cent to 60 per cent of their live Digitized by Microsoft® 112 JUDGING SHEEP weight, so that it will be understood that quality is an important factor from the butcher's standpoint, where the profit from the carcass is largely determined by the dressed weight returns. 159. The Importance of Condition. Not only should a lamb be well developed in the parts indicated to satisfy the butcher, but the flesh should be uniformly deep over the parts ; this is a factor in giving a high per- centage of dressed weight which adds greatly to the profit of the carcass. While it is very desirable that the lamb should weigh about loo pounds, it is even more so that the condition should be equally satisfactory to produce the highest price. As indicating the progress of the lambs in the feed lot in this particular it would perhaps be ad- visable to follow them through their development. When put in the feed lot under proper conditions, lambs will usually begin to show the influence of good feeding at the end of the third or fourth week. During this time they seem to be simply getting into good con- dition to put on flesh, though it appears that some fat is being deposited internally. Towards the end of that time many of the lambs may be noticed standing leisurely in the sun in a partially stretched posture. This pose in the lambs is a delight to the shepherd. The fattening process seems to extend from the internal regions, and is first in evidence at the tail. It then passes along the back over the shoulder and reaches the neck ; from this line it seems to extend down the sides and over the breast in front. There are six main points at which its extension seems most in evidence — at the tail, middle of the back, the neck, the flank, the purse and the breast. 160. Judging Condition. Judges of condition handle these different points and seem to arrive at the same conclusions from continued practice in observing Digitized by Microsoft® Two pliotO!?rapLs of the same slieep— the upper before trimmias and the lower after trimming— by Thomas Bradbourne, sbcplierd for Altamoiit lloclt, who holds the sheep. This illustrates the necessity of careful handling of sheep to determine the form. Digitized by Microsoft® (jrand ehampiou wether. luter'UiLtioual Exposition, Cliicago, 1903. Ex- hibited and owned by University of Wisconwin. Fed ;ind fitted by Pranlr Kleinheinz. Shropshire ^rade. weit^ht :ilfl lbs. Photographs of slieep ti-i'th, showing changes that occur in tiie order of ■ appearance of the incisors. The plioto on the upper left hand shows a iamb's mouth with all temporary incisors. The upper right hand photo- graph shows mouth of a sheep about one year old, with tlie first pair of per- manent incisors and the temporary Incisors back of them. The photo in the lower right hand corner shows the mouth of a sheep about two years old. with two pairs of permanent incisors appearing. The photograph in tho center below shows tbranMWiibiejf /H'i>lw>ffr>y^»ftfi'ft'^fe^heep, with three pairs of permanent incisors. '^MiW^yT^mtMiM&mSiSt^tloa is a photograph of a sheep's mouth when four and ;» iT.lf in fi ^ro ponr g nl^j Tho inr-ienrQ y t-o nil permanent, worn down some ii FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 113 the development of any one of them, although a critical examination will reveal that sheep sometimes fatten un- evenly and may be good in one or more of these points; and comparatively deficient in others. By feeling the tail, head some will form their opinion as to the degree, to, which the lamb is fat. Others are satisfied with feeling the; back. Many after feeling the tail, grasp the neck and base their opinion on the fullness of that part. The flank and breast are often used for further assistance, and some butchers estimate condition by the, dullness of the purse. At any of these points, more especially .the back, the covering should be such in the prime lamb as to prevent feeling the sharp projection, of backbone. In a lamb that is completely fattened there is a distinct trough or groove running from the tail to the shoulders and the covering of flesh should extend well down over the sides, without softness due to excessive fat or oily tissue. All lambs do not fatten as smoothly or as uni- formly as herein indicated. In most lambs, however, the worst defect is bareness of the loin and lightness in the hind quarters. With these parts well covered and fully, developed, a rather sharp shoulder and peaked bris- ket will be overlooked. Not only should the flesh be thick over the valuable cuts, but it should be firm. Very,, often it will be found that soft rough patches will : be present about the head of the tail, owing to the depositT ing^gf too much soft flesh on the^ back, which may slip , from there on the over ripe lamb and gather at the flank ■or along the sides in long soft rolls. 161. The Importance of Dressed Weight. In considering this subject still further from the butcher's point of view, there is the question of quality which ma- teirially affects the percentage of the dressed meat ob- tained. This in addition ^to being largely influenced by Digitized by Microsoft® 114 JUDGING SHHKP the condition of tlie sheep, is perhaps most influenced by the fineness of the bone, thickness of the pelt and other features, which all have a marked influence on the profit from the butcher's standpoint. In this connection to show how important it is to have the dressed weight yield a large percentage of valuable cuts, it will be interesting to quote some results obtained from an experiment at the Iowa Station under direction of Professor Curtiss. He found in a lot of ten pure bred Oxford lambs marketed by the Iowa Experiment Station, that the leg cuts con- stituted 31.87 per cent of the whole carcass by weight and sold for 42.63 per cent of the total value. The leg, rib and loin cuts together aggregated 73.74 per cent of the total weight and sold for 92 percent of the total. 162. Consideration of the Consumer. The butcher and the consumer are very similar in their demands, but there are a few points that are of peculiar importance to the latter, and among these may be mentioned the charac- ter of the flesh. A clear distinction should be drawn be- tween flesh and fat, or, as it may be otherwise stated, be- tween muscle and lean meat and tallow. The ideal sheep from the consumer's standpoint is one that carries a large proportion of flesh or lean meat with but a limited quan- tity of fat. In live sheep this is indicated by a firm, even covering over the parts of the body. The flesh has a firm but springy touch and is smooth over all regions, especially thick where it has the highest value. The con- sumer asserts his preference for another feature and that is a marked desire for lamb in contrast to matured sheep, owing to the desirability of small cuts and the supposi- tion that lamb is more tender than older sheep. 163. The QjiliMes of the Fleece In estimating the worth of a sheep or judging it, not only is it fair to consider the demands of the feeder, the butcher and the Digitized by Microsoft® FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 115 consumer, but with these we must include the qualities desired by the wool manufacturer. Though the returns from the fleece are not very large, yet the sheep breeder must consider them so that the ultimate profit may be as great as possible. To arrive at a correct understand- ing in regard to this, the examiner must follow the best method of examination and also know in detail the mar- ket requirements for wool. 164. Examining the Fleece. In examining and valuing the fleece the chief points to consider are the quantity, quality and the condition. In grouping the qualities under these three divisions we can include the interests of those directly concerned on the various prod- ucts coming from sheep, on the market. The best method of arriving at the nature of a fleece is to open it first just over the shoulder. It is in this region that the finest and the soundest wool of the fleece is found. By using the hands in a flat position instead of sticking the end of the fingers into the wool the fleece may be parted in a more satisfactory manner. After looking at the wool and skin in this region, the thigh should be the next place of ex- amination, for here grows the poorest and coarsest wool of the whole fleece. Then the covering of the wool on the belly also demands notice, for very often sheep are quite poor in this region, making the wool light and in- dicating a lack of constitution. By examining the fleece in these three parts a fair estimate may be made of its qualities. 165. Quantity of Fleece. The chief factors which determine the quantity are the length, density and even- ness of both of these over all parts. 166. Density. The density of the fleece means the closeness of the fibers. Technically it means the number of fibers that grow on a square inch. Density is not only Digitized by Microsoft® 116 JUDGING SHEEP of value to secure a heavy fleece, but from a breeder's point of view its chief importance lies in the fact that it is more protection to the sheep than a fleece that is open. Not only is a sheep with a loose open fleece more liable to contract a cold from exposure to rain or wind, but it is also more apt to yield a dirty fleece, as the loose fleece catches the dirt and dust and pieces of hay and straw. From the shepherd's point of view the denseness of the fleece is its leading feature, for it will be found that those animals with dense close fleeces are less subject to such diseases as catarrh, running at the nose or scouring. When a sheep experiences a chill, it at once affects the circulation and sends the blood to the internal organs, and inflammation or scouring results. This is why sheep that have open fleeces are more subject to such diseases than those that have dense fleeces. Wool is one of the best non-conductors of heat that we have and when it is on a sheep in the form of a dense fleece, it gives them the greatest possible protection from exposure. Furthermore, if the fleece is not dense, it is almost impossible for the fiber to be sound, — that is, free from weak spots. When a sheep has been badly chilled or has become sick in any way so as to cause the pores of the skin to contract, a break or shrinkage occurs in the fiber at that point. Tlie wool on a sheep grows from a small sac in the skin and it passes away from the skin through a small opening vvhich may be easily contracted or expanded, according LO different influences. The influences are various, and for that reason it is important that the sheep be covered with a fleece that is so dense as not to be affented m.ucli by external conditions. 167. Length of Staple. The length of the staple is an important feature, both from a commercial point of view and from the shepherd's standpoint. Wools are gen- Digitized by Microsoft® ^ :! » OB 1 5 , fr- D 2 2- !J o ^ . s 3- B a> > 5 ? - P CD a: ^ o B ■ c w 2. » c c ^ D o « g cc » o » p c a !^ 3 D S £ tn ^ Hi • C S^ S ' B « ■ i » to 5 ] ■ ?: ^ w , ■ B fo g > w & p ^ c+ CD* ■ ? tt ° ago ■ ■" 5 C-, 3 ai fp ? - o O ! ^ '=' R UJ - D < rl, o' ftp ' r 2 =■ £• '' ' = ° M S- - ; f^ fP -r- Q ?5 - CD — 3 « 3 i-3'E B r, 0= ° en' i 3 o Ci' o iq ^ -i ■a a m Cf O o c e-^ U) c o 3 o o cr" ~ -T r* n ?r " Digitized by Microsoft® Liiicdlii cwc, Denfleld, Ont.-ii-iii L winiici , Ciiiiada i)f inaiiy prizes in ly'JT. owncti Ijy Joliii T. (iibsori, DESCKIPTION OF THIS LINCOLN SHEEP ^HIS BREED wlilcli originated in Liuconsliire England, vies witli blie Ootswold lor tlie position of being considered the largest of the long wooled breeds. The form is very squarely built and when mature the representatives of this breed are very heavy. The face is pure white, somewl;at long and surmounted by a tuft of wool. The body is exceedingly full In its development and marked specially by a very wide, level and deep fleshed back, while the hind quarters are usually well developed, being very square in form. The wool is long in fiber, very strong, frequently inclined to be coarse because of this, but it is particularly lustrous and partseasily in (lakes. In yield of mutton and wool this breed occupies a foremost position. Digitized by Microsoft® FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 117 erally known as short-stapled or the carding wools, which are used for woolen clothes, or long-stapled or combing wools, which are used for worsted clothes. The long sta- pled wools include the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, Romney Marsh and Black Face or Highland. The short- stapled include all the Downs (Southdown, Hampshire, Suffolk, Shropshire, Oxford), — and the Cheviot and Welsh. The manufacturer of woolens desires a short- stapled wool, for such a wool has better felting qualities and usually more serrations or spirals than the long wools. In manufacturing woolens into yarns the fibers are transversely disposed to the axis or length of the thread. In yarns of this nature this feature is termed "pile." The points projecting from the center should be numerous, so that in felt- ing the fabric unites and also when the cloth comes to be finished it will appear on top like short fur (Royal Agricultural Society Transactions, Vol. II, Second Series). On the other hand, in worsted goods, the object is to stretch the fibers and lay them parallel with each other, and this produces a yarn, even, strong, and composed of as fine fibers as possible. In this process of manufacture, it is easy to see that the length and strength of a fiber includes its most valuable character- istics. 168. Classification of Wool. There is another mar- ket classification which is more definite than this, but is very similar in nature. The wools according to their length and strength in the Chicago market are divided into clothing, which is short, being about two inches, or it is weak ; then there is the delaine class, which is a fine wool from two to three inches long in fiber. The other class is a combing, which is a strong wool over three inches long. This classification, it will be seen, depends altogether on the length and strength of the wool. Con- sidering first, clothing wool, which is used f'^r makinc Digitized by Microsoft® 118 JUDGING SHEEP flannels and certain kinds of rough cloth, shortness in the fiber is its leading: characteristic. If the fiber of a fleece, however, is four inches long, it would, on its length, be classified as combing wool, but if that fiber has- a weak spot in it where it readily breaks it passes from the combing class into the clothing class and drops two or more cents on the pound in price. The delaine wools are fine wools that are not longer than three inches. They are used for making the finest kinds of cloth. The comb- ing wool must in the first place be strong to stand the process of combing, and with that the greatest length is desired. In further reference to the quality of the wool, in examining a fleece, it should be noticed that the length and the density are even over all parts. Considering first the length, the fleece should be examined at the brisket, on top of the back, along the side on the thigh and on the belly. As a rule sheep fitted for show are trimmed in such a way that the wool in front of the brisket is much longer than that on top of the back, and the same may be said of that on the sides. In an untrimmed sheep, on which the wool has grown naturally, it will be found that there is a natural variation in the length of the fiber on different parts of the body. The wool on the brisket will invariably be found to be longer than that on the top or in most other parts. The density of the fleece may be determined bythe feel of it under the hand. If the fleece feels firm and it seems to be compact, it is likely dense. 169. Quality of Fleece. As in most other instances it is rare to find quality and quantity associated. As a general rule it will be found that the short wooled sheep have the finest quality of wool. In judging of the qual- ity, it should be noted again that the finest wool occurs just over the heart and on the belly, while the coarsest grows on the thigh. Digitized by Microsoft® T Pair of prize winning Ootswold ewos owned by Messrs, CrorRO rTiirflinK & Son, Waukesha, Wisconsin, sljowing the desirable qualities of this breed in long forelocks, upstanding and full fronts, long, level backs and heavy fleeces of wool. DESCHIPTION OF THE COTSWOLD SHEEP HIS BREED which Is nativeto the Cotswold hills lin Gloucestershire, England, Is one of very ancient origin and is one of those breeds which show a high order ot style and finish and uniformity, due to the long continued breeding for a type. The form is remarkably square, upstanding and stylish, the latter being contrib uted to in no small degree by a beautiful tuft of wool growing from the forehead and fallin" luxuriantly over the face. The head is somewhat long in the face and may be white or slightly mixed-wlth gray. The forelock is full and long, the ear small, the neck of sufficient length to uphold the head with style. The eharaeter- ■stic form of the body is long, level and wide with a strong back. The hind tinar- tor comes up square and should have sufficient fullness below. The fleece owing to Its length is usually somewhat open but it possesses a long, strong fiber that yields heavy The fleece most desired, while wavy, parts into locks showing a clear pink skin free from dark spots. The popularity ot the breed lies chiefly in their large yield of wool and mutton, and these features should be leading character- istics yet they should also be associated with quality in all the essentials. See official scale^of points, page 136, Digitized by Microsoft® Photo by Reid. Hordcr Leicester rum, Favokitk, wiuner first prize :i.t Hif^hland and Agricultural Society, Dumfries, Scotland, 1S95. Bred by and property of Andrew Smith. Lonpiiddry. Fladinston, Scotland. DESCRIPTION OF THE I.EICESTER SHEEP 'Phis breed which was one of the first to he establislied originated in Leicester- shire, England. The first improver, RoVjert Bakewell, 1726-17'.t.>. sought rhiofly to inrrt'jise the early maturity of this breed and lessen the size of the bone and in- crease the weight of flcsli. The characteristics secured at that early time are niain- t ;i,ined in the raodern representative. The face is bare and pure white, body, square, fore (juartcrs especially full with the hind quarters peculiarly rounded on top. There arc usually many evidences of quality as seen in the fine bone and the fur- tlier fact that the flberof the fleece is usually remarkably fine considering Its length. The marked aptitudeof the representatives of this breed to fatten results in remark- able b;i,clvs but frequently 1 hr same aptitude produces a soft and uneven coverin;.^. The Border Leicester. ori^nn:i,ting from an infusion of rhcviol blood, is j^enerally stronger in bone and more vigorous than the English type. The woc)! of the fleece s lustrous, five or six inches long and very soft though frequently too open and somct inies absent on the belly. Digitized by Microsoft© FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 119 170. Softness. By pressing the fleece with the hand the softness of it can readily be approximated. This feature is opposed to harshness. The softness of the fleece not only depends greatly on the management, but also on the nature of the food and the soil. In reference to the foods, those that are rich in sulphur have been observed to have the .most influence on the softness of the wool. It is interesting to know that in one hundred pounds of wool there is at least five pounds of sulphur, and it seems that the abundance of this in the food, has an effect on this feature of softness in the fleece. It is well known that soil has a strong influence on the properties of wool, especially in regard to its softness. Clay soils are con- sidered to produce the softest wool, of the best lustre and next to these ranks sandy soils, and lastly, those of the nature of limestone. Chalky soils have been noted for the deterioration they produce in the softness of the wool. Harshness of the fleece is generally due to the absence of yolk which has resulted from ill health on the part of the sheep or from exposure. Considering the nature of the fiber of wool, it is easy to understand how anything, such as ill health or exposure which effects the secretion of yolk is certain to make the wool harsh. A fiber of wool is covered with a series of scales which overlap in a sim- ilar manner to the shingles on a roof. When the secre- tion of yolk is abundant, these scales fit it closely to the fiber, but when the secretion of yolk is stopped from any injurious cause, the scales stand out from the fiber very similar to warped shingles on a roof. The result of this is that the fibers lock and when you feel the fleece that has fibers of this nature they seem to grate each other very similarly to file shavings. The wool is harsh and dry and when pressed it gives that grating feeling which Digitized by Microsoft® 120 JUDGING SHEEP is also characteristic of an unhealthy fleece. It is this that produces what is generally known as a cotted fleece. 171. Commercial Grades. According to the fine- ness of fiber, or, in other words, the size of it, wool is ar- ranged in three grades, — fine, medium and coarse. These terms are applied to all the classes of wool, — the cloth- ing, delaine and combing that go into the market. For instance, there is fine, medium and coarse clothing ; there is fine delaine and medium delaine, and there are all three grades of combing wools. These terms relating to the grades are used to designate certain size of fiber. No exact measurement limits the arrangement of it, but yet they are so defined that one can readily tell them after becoming acquainted with them in practice. 172. Crimp. All wool is more or less crimped, pos- sessing what are sometimes called spirals. The most im- portant point in regard to the crimp is that it should be regular and the folds should not be thrown on each other. Regularity in the crimp indicates that the fiber is sound from end to end, but if in some places the crimp is short and close, and in others long and wavy, it usually indi- cates that where this difiference occurs, there is an un- sound spot in the fiber. It shows that the growth has been irregular and there is a close relation between the fineness of the fiber and the nature of the crimp. When the crimp is fine and close almost invariably the fiber will be found to be of fine quality. In all coarse wool it should be noted that the crimp is open and wavy. In opening a fleece and looking at it, the crimp should alwayd be noted, for from it an estimate may be made, both as to the soundness and the fineness of it. 173. Soundness. The soundness of the fiber is of much importance in the process of manufacturing wool- ens. The fleece of unsound fibers will bring four or five Digitized by Microsoft® Southdown ram Banner Bearer, formerly stock sire of Turlington Stock Farm, Turlington, Nebraska, now owned by W. E. Spicer. DESCHIPTION OF THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP 'Phis BKBED, which is one of the oldest and purest, originated on the Downs of Sussex in England and they represent a uniformity of type for mutton pur poses which may be accepted as a model of mutton form. The type shown by this breed Is very symmetrical, compact and close to the ground and there Is a marked refinement In every feature; the general structure being of fine quality whileevery part strongly reflects the same characteristic. The head Is moderate In size, short andclearly defined in its lineaments. The forehead should be covered with wool and the cheeks also but this usually does not join forward of the eye. There is a com- plete absence of horns, with small pointed ears, the face is some shade of brown or gray tint and the same markings should prevail on the legs. The neck is very short and straight, the breast broad and full, the back is straight, well covered and tightly knit, while the loin is wide, straight and smooth. The general form of the body shows much depth and -width with a trimness characteristic of every region. The hips while markedly wide are not prominent, the hind quarter fills out square and the twist and thigh are low and full. The fleece Is characterized more by its fineness and density rather than the weight of the wool which It yields as it is gen- erally medium in length and comparatively free from yolk. A marked uniformity in the quality of the wool should be in evidence; that over the shoulder and that which covers the thigh and other parts being very even in quality. The best types of this breed may be accepted as a model form for the block See ofiicial scale of points, page 131. Digitized by Microsoft® Photo by Hills Shropshire ram. Ringleader, a, frequent prize winner and stock ram at the head of the Altamont flock, owned by Dr. G. Howard Davidson, Mill- brook, N. Y. DESCRIPTION OF THE SHHOPSHIHE SHEEP l^'HIS BEEBD having its home in the Downs of England is very symmetrical and stylish In form. The head should show refinement iu'svery feature with mod- erate length. A characteristic attribute is for it to be closely covered with wool, the cap between the ears being dense running to the bridge of the nose and joining that which covers tho cheek and lower part of the head. The ears should be far apart, pointed and moderate in thickness and preferably covered to the tip with fine curly wool. There should not be the least evidence of horns as the places where these sometimes appear should be covered with wool. The neck should be nicely attached and full and of sufficient length to carry the head with peculiar style. The body to possess this characteristic smoothness and symmetry must be somewhat circular and round ribbed. The back should be straight, strong and knit so that the handling of this part shows it to be smooth and evenly covered. The loin must be wide and hips not prominent and the quarters lengthy and deep, the width from the loin and hips should be carried out to the tail head and the fullness characteristic of this part should be maintained on the outside of the thigh and on the inside as well, making the twist not only deep but plump with flesh. The fleece should be strong and fine in fiber with all the density possible. From the bridge of the nose to the fetlock as well as along the belly, a dense covering of wool is desir- able. In opening the fleece the fibers, which are generally about three inches long, should part readily, show clear white in strong contrast to the pink skin. About the ears or top of the head there should be no patches of black fiber nor should these appear distributed anywhere in the fleece. The characteristic markings for the face and legs are a rich darlc brown in color. The best type of this breed shows an unusual combination of quality and quantity of both wool and mutton. See official scale of points, page 133. Digitized by Microsoft® FOR MUTTON AND WOOL 121 cents less than one that is strong throughout. To test the soundness of a fiber in addition to knowing it by the character of the crimp, a small lock of wool is taken be- tween the fingers and stretched evenly and gently until the unsoundness or the strength becomes apparent. The wool may break at the bottom, having what is called "weak bottoms," or it may have "weak middles" or "weak tops," according to the location of the unsoundness. Evenness of all the desirable characteristics should exist over all pai-ts of the fieece. The softness should be ap- parent over all regions and fineness also, and the crimp should in addition appear uniform throughout the fiber. 174. Condition. The condition of the fleece refers more to its purity, lustre, brightness and the quantity and character of the yolk. The condition of a fleece results mostly from correct breeding and proper management. 175. Purity. Purity refers to the freedom of the fleece from dead fibers and foreign matter. In fleeces that are grown on sheep that are exposed to conditions un- favorable to thrift, there is a natural tendency for the fleece to revert to its original state ; that is, fibers of hair begin to appear in it and these take the place of the wool. Very often in fleeces grown by sheep that have been ex- posed there will be found a great many dead fibers which are technically spoken of as "kemp." These dead fibers are very injurious to the fleece from the commercial standpoint, because they do not absorb dyes, and in any cloth that is made from such wool these dead fibers will retain the white and hard appearance that they had in the fleece. 176. Domestic Wool. Based on the condition oi the fleece the market makes a division of four kinds. These are what is known as domestic wool, territory wool, blanket wool and carpet wool. Domestic wools are Digitized by Microsoft® 122 JUDGING SHEEP clean and bright. Wool of this kind comes from fleeces that are grown under what might be termed domesticated conditions, that is, — sheep are given shelter, fed well and otherwise have good management. This results in a clean, bright wool which the market classifies as domes- tic wool. 177. Territory Wool. In contrast to this is the ter- ritory wool. This wool is called territory wool simply because it is dirty or it is discolored. It. is wool that comes from sheep managed and cared for in a way very similar to that which is common in the territories. The sheep have run out the year round; the fleece has be- come full of sand, straw, chaff and similar substances, and this has filled the fleece with foreign material. 178. Blanket Wool. The poorest kinds of wool that go to the market are known as carpet wool and blanket wool. The worst feature connected with this kind of wool is the presence of kemp or the dead fibers previously mentioned. On account of these not freely absorbing the dyes, this wool has to be manufactured into carpets and blankets. When the nature of the fleece of the original sheep is understood so that the improve- ment that has been made through breeding for miany years becomes apparent, it can easily be seen that when sheep are neglected the tendency is for their fleece to re- vert to the original condition. In this condition the fleece was made up of an external covering of hairs and beneath it an undergrowth of very finely fibered wool. Domestication by man has completely removed the hair and gives us a fine fleece of wool which exists on well bred sheep today. Neglect on the part of the breeder will surely result in the sheep reverting to the kind of fleece that it at one time possessed. Digitized by Microsoft® 1 ■ #" k^ "^'^l^SH t^Hjy , j|yHi fw ifl^B^itifr^^^ ^Hv^^t wm ^ 31 "f 1 .Ji ^fiQ?d prepotent or able to transmit its characteristics vwith ^ ^gr^ater degree of certainty. Another feature associated with the fixing fof the breed type by the assistance of the breeder and the judge is the fact that it then becomes possible to select breeding stock vfrom among the pure breeds with special reference to tbejr adaptability for a definite environment. Knowing i;thefenjiV,ironment that has assisted in producing a type of ,i3:py„lHif;Sed of sheep and knowing that a certain type has ifeecomft; tbpi,fixed property of that breed, it is possible to make an irjtelligent choice rof a ,breed for any environ- ment. It is this adaptability for, different environments that I,; has given us over twenty-five different breeds of sheep, , and i,as it is the possession of these peculiarities which unite in what. is called breed type that gives each a ■place. Consequently it is important that the breeder should try to retain the type and in this secure the co- operation of the judge. 184, The Ram. Aside from the i breed type which is outlined in theiscalesiof points that are given elsewhere, (the. ram in type should show masculinity in many fea- tures. In those breeds that have , horns, the latter should Digitized by Microsoft® AustriiUan Merino ram. Golden Horn II, bred by Hon. Jus. Gibson, Tas- mania, and owned by H. 14. Roberts, Triverton Barwang, New Soutli Wales. Pboto taken 18C4, when rum was eltjlit years old- sired 53 Iambs same year and Sheared 19H pounds. Sold for KJ5 guineas (over $3,000), July 6, 1S93. Prom phobograpb in the "Australian Pastoralists' Review." Merino ram President, bred by^go^.^aijqs Gyjspnj so^d^t Sydney, Australia, for J8,000, July, 1896. ?JIoo,. James Grlbgon; sold at Digitizeaby Microsoft® Southdown ewe, winner of severalflrsts at state lairs. Owned by George A-llen, AllertOD, Illinois Shropshire ewe, owned by A. O. Fox, Oregon, Wisconsin. Winner of sweepstakes at the World's Fair, 1893. Digitized by Microsoft® FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 129 Spring strong from the head and turn free from the face. In all rams the face should be broad between the eyes, somewhat short with a Roman nose. The crest or scrag should be thick and rising and the neck full. A point de- serving emphasis is the depth of the chest. The body- should sink deep between the fore legs and the ribs back of the shoulder should be deep and round, making the girth large and the brisket prominent and wide,^ — two features that are indicative of a strong constitution. A live fleece, that is, one that is springy and not dead to the touch, and especially a dense thick covering of belly wool is also indicative of vigor or constitution. For the same reason in those breeds that are wooled about the head, the more complete and dense this covering is, the better it is liked. The legs of the ram should be straight and strong and short. The movement of the ram should be bold and active. This is often influenced by the con- dition. A ram should never be so heavy in flesh as to be useless for service, as is too often the case in the show ring. The flesh should be even and firm, and not gath- ered in masses or rolls at any part of the body. It is very apt to gather at the fore flank, leaving the back bare or raw. Excessive condition is likely to make the ram un- wieldy in action or result in broken down pasterns which usually render a ram useless for breeding purposes. 185. The Ewe: The ewe should be rather long in the face with fine features. The neck should be slender and without any of the thickness noticeable in the ram. The body should be deep, round ribbed and specially long so as to provide room for the growing lamb. The type of the good milking ewe verges strongly towards that which is typical of the good dairy cow. The ewe that milks well, and, consequently, rears early maturing lambs tends towards the wedge shape, deep in the chest, large Digitized by Microsoft® 130 JUDGING SHEEP bodied and wiae across the loins and the hips. The con- dition of the ewe should not be such as to impair her breeding qualities. Excessive fatness as a rule is in this way injurious. The flesh should be evenly distributed and not gathered in bunches about the tail head, and it should be firm and not flabby. 186. Judging Lambs and Flocks. In judging lambs the main consideration is to make due allowance for the differece in age among the contestants. As to the possibilities of future development, the judge can only have his own experience and observation to guide him. It may be said, however, that it will be found as a rule that the short, smooth and thick lamb, which shows best at five or six months old or under, will rarely develop into a sheep of desirable size when mature; while the lamb that is more growthy, yet possessing a well knit frame, showing some length and also quality, will develop both size and smoothness. Stress should be laid on the strength, straightness and firmness of the back and the depth of the body. In judging flocks the rams that head them should receive chief consideration, though this does not mean that the uniformity and the type of the ewes should be overlooked. An exceptionally good ram either in the showing or in use as a sire will as a rule obliterate a multitude of small faults in the remainder of the flock. In reference to the ages of the individual in the flock, the nearer they are to being yearlings the higher they should be appraised. Younger than this calls for suppositions re- lating to their development, and when they pass beyond two years, their worth in the flock has last the value that results from the production of one year, though it can- not be said that the merit of the sheep has decreased in any other respect. Digitized by Microsoft® Photo by Schreiber. Imported Shropshire ewe lambs owned by W. L. Elkins, Philadelphia, Pa. Southdown ram lambs. The property ol the Pagham Harbour Company. Selsey, Chichester, England. Winners of first prize at R. A. S. E. Show, 1898. Digitized by Microsoft® Hstmpshlre Down Sheep owned by John J. Gordon, Mercer, Pennsylvania. Imported Oxford Down prize winning ewe, Irchester Model 18445, and ram, Hobb's RECTOKO/g'fif/ae£s(tJ^>lMttj£0SSffl®ie Trans-Mlsslssippl Expo- sition held at Omaha 1898. The ram was the champion sheep of the Exposi- tion. Owned hy Richard Stone, Stonington, 111. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 131 III. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCB FOR SHEEP. SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. B STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE —AMERICAN SOUTHDOWN 3 RECORD, VOL. I, 1884. (J Head — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, forehead or face well covered with wool, especially be- tween the ears and on the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished 5 Lips and under jaw fine and thin 1 Ears — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine hair and carried with a lively back and forth move- ment 2 Eyes — Full and bright 3 Face — A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color 3 Neck — Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad and straight on top at the shoulders 4 Shoulders — Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with the back 5 Breast — ^Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the fore- legs standing well apart 5 Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump... 7 Ribs — Well arched, extending far backward, the last project- ing more than the others 6 Rump — Broad, square and full, with tail well set up 6 Hips — Wide, with little space between them and the last ribs. 6 Thighs — Pull and well let down in twist, the legs fstanding well apart 6 Limbs — Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with face 3 Fore Legs — Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, but free from meat below 2 Hind Legs — Well filled with mutton and wooled to the hocks, neat and clean below 2 Belly — Straight and well covered with wool, the flank extend- ing so as to form a line parallel with the back or top line 5 Fleece — Compact, the whole body well covered with moder- ately long and close wool, white in color, carrying some yolk 12 Form — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarse- ness in any part 9 General Appearance — Spirited and attractive, with a de- termined look, a proud and firm step, indicating consti- tutional vigor and thorough breeding. , 8 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 132 JUDGING SHEEP SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. POINTS OF EXCELLENCE FOR PURE BRED SHROPSHIRE ^ SHEEP RECORDED OR ELIGIBLE TO REGISTRY ^ IN THE AMERICAN SHROPSHIRE REG- g ISTRY ASSOCIATION RECORD. U General Appearance — ^Attractive, indicating breeding and quality, with stylish carriage and a symmetrical form, covered with dense fleece 25 Constitution — Robust as indicated by width and depth of chest, strength and formation of neck, and by bold act- ive movement 10 Size- — In breeding condition when fully matured. Rams should weigh not less than 180 to 225 pounds, and Ewes should weigh not less than 125 to 170 pounds 10 Fleece and Skin — Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to touch medium fine, free from black fiber, slightly crimped, witl: evenness of texture throughout; scrotum of rams well covered with wool. Skin light cherry color, clear and free from dark spots 15 Body — Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting smoothly upon chest, which should be deep and wide, broad and straight back, thick loins, well covered with firm flesh; hind quarters well finished; twist deep and full 20 Head and NecVc — Head, short, broad between the ears and eyes bold and masculine in rams, without horns, well covered with wool, ears short and erect, eyes bright, color of face and ears dark brown. Neck of medium length, strong and masculine (especially in rams), sym- metrically joined to head and shoulders 15 Legs — Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark brown and well wooled; pastern strong and upright 5 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 133 HAMPSHIRE DOWN. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY AMERICAN HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION, VOL. 1, 189O. Head — Moderately large, but not coarse; well covered with wool on forehead and cheeks. Nostrils — Wide. Color — Head and Legs — Dark brown or black. Eyes — Prominent and lustrous. Ears — Moderately long and thin and dark brown or black color. Legs — Well under outside of body, straight with good size of bone, black. Neck — A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body. Shoulder^ — Sloping full, and not higher than the line of back and neck. Chelst — Deep and full in the heart place, with breast prom- inent and full. Back — Straight with full spring of rib. Loin — Wide and straight, without depression in front of hips. Quarters — Long from hips to rump, without sloping, and deep in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full hams. Inside of thighs full. C SCALE OF POINTS. g o Head — Size and shape, 5; ears and eyes, 3; color, 5; legs and feet, 2 15 Neck, Shoulders and Breast — Neck, 5; shoulders, 10; chest and breast, 15 30 Body — Back and loin, 15; rib, 5 20 Quarters — Length, 10 ; width, 10 ; twist, 5 25 Wool — Forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well covered, 3; qual- ity, 5 10 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 134 JUDGING SHE£P SUFFOLK SHEEP. « a SCALE OF POINTS. SUFFOLK SHEEP SOCIHTY FLOCK O BOOK, VOL. VII, 1893. ENGLAND. ^ Head — Hornless; face black and long, and muzzle moderately fine, especially in ewes. (A small quantity of clean white wool on the forehead not objected to.) Bars a medium length, black, and fine texture. Eyes bright and full 25 Neck — Moderate length and well set. (In rams stronger, with a good crest) 5 Shoulder — Broad and oblique 5 Chest — Deep and wide 5 Back and Loin — Long, level, and well covered with meat and muscle; tail broad and well set up. The ribs long and well sprung, with a full flank 20 Legs and Feet — Straight and black, with fine and flat bone. Wooled to knees and hocks, clean below. Pore legs well fliled with mutton 20 Belly; Also Scrotum of Rams — Well covered with wool.... 5 Fleece — Moderately short; close, fine fiber, without tendency to mat or felt together, and well defined, i. e., not shad- ing off into dark wool or hair 10 Skin — Fine, soft, and pink color 5 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 135 OXFORD DOWN SHEEP. SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN OXFORD DOWN ■§ SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. IN FOUR g DIVISIONS. (J Breed type 30 Constitution 25 Mutton form and quality 30 Wool 15 SUBDIVISION — BREED TYPE OF ANIMALS. Form of a good general appearance, made by a well balanced conformation, free from coarseness in any part, and showing good style both at rest and in motion 15 Head of moderate length and width between the ears and between the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll and down to the eyes. Color of face an even dark gray or brown, either with or without gray spot on tip of nose 6 When fully matured and in good condition rams should weigh 250 to 350 pounds; ewes, 180 to 275 pounds 5 Ears medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or dark gray color 2 Legs short, strong in bone, flat and of even dark gray or brown color, placed squarely under the body and well apart 2 CONSTITUTION. Large around the heart and wide and full in the chest 10 The movement must be bold and vigorous 5 Byes bold, prominent and bright 4 Skin bright pink in color 3 Neck strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both sexes 3 MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY. Wide and straight on top of shoulders, back, loin and rump, from base of neck to tail 15 Pull shoulders and thighs, well meated both inside and out- side 5 Flanks well. filled and strong so as to make the lower lines of the body as straight as possible, and side lines straight or rather full * The whole carcass evenly covered with good, well marbled meat ® WOOL. Fleece of moderate length, close and of even quality, cover- ing the whole carcass well, and free from black patches upon the body, neck or head 15 Digitized by Microsoft® 136 JUDGING SHEEP COTSWOLD SHEEP. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED 'g BY AMERICAN COTSWOLD ASSOCIATION, g VOL. V, 1892 — EWES. U Head — Moderately fine, broad between the eyes and nostrils, but witliout a sbort, tbick appearance, and well covered on crown witb long lustrous wool 8 Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white dappled with brown 4 Nostrils — Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1 Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking 2 Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin and covered with short hair 4 Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join — neck should be fine and graceful, and free from coarse and loose skin 5 Shoulders— Broad and full, and, at the same time, joined so gradually to the collar forward and chine backwards, as not to leave the least hollow in either place 8 Fore Legs — The mutton on the arm, or fore thigh, should come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, — being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock and may be mixed with gray i 4 Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart. Girth and chest full and deep 10 Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulder 4 Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs must spring, with a fine circular arch 12 Belly — S^i^aight on underline 5 Quarters^— Long and full, with mutton quite down to the hook 8 Hock — Should stand neither in nor out 2 Twist — Or junction inside of thighs deep, wide and full, which with a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright 5 Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long lustrous wool 18 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® Colswold ewes from the flock of 0. E. Ladd, Portland, Oregon, showing the vigor and thrift of sheep when under environment which favors them such as the Williamette Valley, in that state. Selected heads to show the charaoteristlc form of this part in the breeds represented. The one to the left is photographed from the head of a Oots- wold ram owned by Messrs. Geo. Harding & Son, of Waukesha, Wisconsin. This photograph shows the beautiful forelock desired in representatives of this breed. The head shown in the upper right hand corner is that of an imported Shropshire ram lamb owned by Craig & Stevenson, Rice Lake, Wis. The head shown shows not only a very complete covering, but also much width between the eyes and across the forehead, while the ears are well placed being far apart. The photograph of the black faced ram's head which appears in the center is taken from Scott's " Blade Faced Sheep," and it rep- resents the head of "Seventy-Two," first prize winner at the Highland and Agricultural Society Shows, 1883 to 1885. The horn illustrates the type which is sought in representatives of any of the horned breeds. Digitized by Microsoft® A group of Leicester ewes, prize winners at the Highlaud^Agricultural Society Show of Scotland. Suffoili ram, a first prize winner at the Royal Agricultural Society Show, England. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 137 c FOR RAMS. g u Head — Not too fine, moderately small, and broad between the eyes and nostrils, but without a short, thick appearance, and in young animals well covered on crown with long lustrous wool 8 Face- — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white dappled with brown 4 Nostrils — Wide and expanded. Nose dark 1 Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking 2 Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short hair 4 Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join. The neck should be short, thick and strong, indicating constitu- tional vigor, and free from coarse and loose skin C Shoulders — Broad ana full, and at the same time joined grad- ually to the collar forward, and chine backward a,s not to leave the least hollow in either place. 8 Fore Legs — The mutton on the arm or fore thigh should come quite to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone — being clear from superfluous skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed with gray 4 Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart. Girth or chest, full and deep 10 Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulder 5 Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs must spring with a fine circular arch 12 Belly — Straight on underline 3 Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the hock 8 Hock — Should stand neither in nor out 2 Twist — Or junction inside thighs, deep, wide and full, which with a broad breast will keep the legs open and upright. 5 Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long lustrous wool 18 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 138 JUDGING SHEEP WENSLEYDALE SHEEP. ^ ■*-» c SCALE OF POINTS. WENSLEYDALE FLOCK BOOK, g VOL. II, 189I. ENGLAND. (J Head — Face dark. Ears dark, and well set on. Head broad and flat between ears. Muzzle strong in rams. A tuft of wool on forehead. Eyes bright and full. Head gaily carried 20 Neck — Moderate length, strong, and well set on to the shoulders 10 Shoulders — Broad and oblique 5 Chest — Deep and wide 10 Wool — Bright lustre, curled all over body, all alike in staple. 10 Back and Loins — Ribs well sprung and deep. Loin broad and covered wiin meat. Tail broad. Flank full 20 Legs and Feet — Straight and a little fine wool below the hock. Fore legs set well apart. Hind legs well filled with mutton : 20 Skin — Blue fine and soft 5 Total 100 DORSET HORN SHEEP. ^ ^-' C SCALE OF POINTS. AMERICAN FLOCK RECORD OF g DORSET HORN SHEEP. VOL. II, 1894. tj General Appearance — Head well up, eyes bright and alert, and standing square on legs 20 Chest — Broad, full, brisket well forward 10 Back — Broad, straight, with well sprung ribs 15 Quarters — Heavy, square, set on short straight legs, well apart 10 Legs — White, with small light colored hoof 5 Head — Small, face white, nostrils well expanded, nose and lips pink in color 5 Neck — Short and round, set well on shoulders 5 Horn — Neat, curving forward, and light in color 10 Fore Top — Good and well covered on belly and legs 10 Wool — Medium quality and good weight, presenting an even, smooth, white surface 10 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® Wensleydale ewes, first prize winners at the Wensleydale Agricultural Show, 1892. Bred and owned by 0. M. Brown, Leyburn, England. Flock of Dorset ewes, reproduced from Live Stock Journal, showing uni- formity and type desired in a foundation flock. Address of owner not given. Digitized by Microsoft® Flock of Cheviot sheep. While the orlKln of the photograph is unknown it is used here because it is so excellent in conception and in addition shows the best types o£ this breed. Yearling Kamboulllet ram. First prize at Minnesota Slate Fair, by Cole Brothers, of Spring Grove, Illinois. Owned Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 139 CHEVIOT SHEEP. ^ c SCALE OF POINTS. CHEVIOT SHEEP BREEDERS FLOCK g BOOK. U. S. AND CANADA. VOL. I, 1893. {J Slood — Pure bred from one or more importations from Scot- land 15 Constitution and Quality — Indicated by the form of body; deep and large in breast and through the heart; back wide and straight and well covered with lean meat; wide and full in the thigh; deep in flank; skin soft and pink in color; prominent eyes; healthful countenance. Deficiency of brisket or fish back objectionable 20 Size — in fair condition, when full matured rams should weigh not less than 200 pounds, ewes, 150 pounds, (when bred in America. Imported stock, rams, 125 to 150 pounds, ewes, 100 to 125) 10 General Appearance — Good carriage; head well up; elastic movement; showing symmetry of form and uniformity of character throughout 10 Body — Well proportioned; small bone; great scale and length; well finished hind quarters; thick back and loins; standing with legs well placed outside; breast wide and prominent in front; tail wide and well covered with wool 10 Head — I^ong and broad, and wide between the eyes; ears of medium length and erect; face white, but small black spots on head and ears not objectionable; straight or Roman nose, a white nose objectionable, end of nose dark (but never smut nose on top with black or brown) ; no tuft of wool on head 10 Neck — Medium in length; thick, and well placed on the shoulders 5 Legs and Feet — Short legs, set well apart; color white; no woo] on legs; fore legs round, hind legs flat and straight; hoofs black and well shaped 5 Covering — Body and belly well covered with fleece of medium length and good quality 10 Quality of Wool — Medium; such as is known in market as half combing wool 5 Total .100 Digitized by Microsoft® 140 JUDGING SHEEP DELAINE SPANISH MERINO SHEEP. c SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD DELAINE g SPANISH MERINO REGISTER. {J Pure Merino Blood — Which must be established, by certifi- cate I Constitution — Indicated by a deep chest, long rib well arch- ed, giving heart and lung room, with great digestive ca- pacity 20 Fleece — XX and delaine wool. This includes the quantity and quality as shown by weight of fleece, the length and strength of staple, crimp, fineness and trueness of fiber. . 10 Density of Fleece 3 Evenness of Surface 3 Evenness of Crimp 3 Length of Fiber 2 Free Flowing Oil — Of the best quality and the right quan- tity to protect the sheep and preserve the fleece 9 Head — Medium size. Ewes showing a feminine appearance; rams, a masculine, with properly turned horns 4 Eyes — Bright, prominent and well set apart, with a thick, soft eye lid 3 Noae — Short, broad, with well expanded nostrils, skin thick and covered with thick, furry coating, joining the wool one inch below the eye 4 Ears — Medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2 Neck — Short on top, deep and strongly attached to should- ers, tapering to head; rams with a fold across the breast, and deep neck 4 Fleece — Covering over the entire body, head and legs, skin thick and spongy 4 Legs — Short, strong and well apart 2 Feet — Neatly shaped, thin hoof, well set under the leg 4 Quarters — Deep and well rounded; back, broad, straight and strongly coupled to quarters 10 Weight — Ewes at maturity, 100 pounds and above; rams, 150 and above 8 General Appearance — Good carriage, bold and vigorous style, symmetrical form 5 Total 100 Any sheep scaling below 60 per cent, in any point can not be recorded. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SHEEP 141 BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO. • c SCALE OF POINTS. BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO SHEEP g REGISTER, VOL. Ill', 189I. U Blood — Purely bred from the Humphrey importation of Merino sheep from Spain, in the year 1802, as bred by W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio Constitution — Indicated by physical development; deep and large in the breast and through the heart; broad back; very heavy square quarters; skin of fine texture, and pinkish in color; expansive nostril; brilliant eye; health- ful countenance and good feeders 15 Size — In good condition, with fleece of five months growth, full grown rams should weigh not less than 175 pounds, and ewes not less than 120 pounds 12 General Appearance — Head carried well up; standing square- ly on feet and legs; well rounded body, showing in all points symmetry of form 3 Body — Throughout heavy boned; well proportioned in length; smooth joints; ribs starting horizontally from the back bone, and well around to breast bone; breast bone wide, strong and prominent in front; strong, straight and heavy back bone; heavy muscular quarters, deep through and squarely formed before and behind; shoulders broad and flat, and not projecting sharply above the back bone, muscles firm and heavy, and body entirely free from folds. There may be. a slight throatiness, and a small dewlap — smaller on the ewes than on the rams 15 Head — Wide, medium in length, eyes clear and bright, prom- inent ears, medium in size and covered with soft fur. Ewes should give no appearance of horns, while upon the rama the horns should be well developed, clear in color, and symmetrically curved, without tendency to extreme expansion 5 Neck — Medium in length and very heavy, especially with the rams, deepening towards the shoulder 4 Legs and Feet — Legs medium in length, set well apart, medi- um bone and smooth joints. The feet must be well shaped, medium sized, firm and solid 10 Covering — Evenness of fleece and crimp; body and legs cov- ered to the knees; head covered forward between the eyes; the surface should he free from hair or gare 8 Quality — Medium or flne, such as is known in the market as fine delaine 7 Density — Shown by compactness of fleece, which should , open freely, and have no tendency to he stringy or knotty 7 Length — At twelv« months, growth must he not less than three inches, and as near as may be of uniform length.. 8 Oil — Evenly distributed, white, soft and flowing freely from skin to surface, forming on the exterior a uniform dark coating 6 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 142 JUDGING SHEEP TUNIS OR BROAD TAILED SHEEP. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN g TUNIS SHEEP BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. g SCALE OF POINTS. U Blood 20 Constitution 15 Fleece 10 Covering 10 Form and Tail 12 Head and Ears 10 Neck ^ Legs G Size General Appearance 6 Total 100 Blood — Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of an- cestors .extending back to the flock owned and bred by Judge Richard Peters of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received his first pair from Tunis in 1779, and bred them pure for more than 20 years. Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look, head erect, deep che,st, ribs well arched, round body with good length. Strong straight back; muscles fine and firm. Fleece — Medium length, medium quality, medium quantity, col- or tinctured with gray, never pure white. Evenness throughout. Covering — Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs bare or slightly covered; face free from wool and covered with fine hair. Form and Tail — Body straight and broad and well proportioned. Small bone; breast wide and prominent in front. Tail, the little end should be docked, leaving the fieshy part fan, shaped, or tapering; five or ten inches broad, six or eight inches long and well covered with wool. Head and Ears — Bead small and hornless, tapering to end of nose; face and nose clean; in color, brown and white. Ears broad, thin, pendulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown to light fawn. Neck — Medium in length, well placed on shoulders; small and tapering. Legs — Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled not objectionable. Size- — In fair condition, when fully matured, rams should weigh 150 pounds and upwards; ewes 120 pounds and upwards. General Appearance — Good carriage; head well up; quick, elastic movements; showing symmetry of form and uniformity of character throughout. Digitized by Microsoft® Photograph showing serious objections in a ram. straight and the pasterns brolten down. The hind leg is too Photograph of a ram chosen to illustrate the qualities not desired In a Shropshire ram. Note the bareness of the face, thinness and lightness of the neck, narrowness and shallowness of the chest, flat rib, short hind quarter with lack of development in leg of mutton. The appearance of the fleece in- dicates that It lacks density, possesses harshness, coarst-uess and is likely cotted. Digitized by Microsoft® Prize Dorset ewe and lamb, winners at International Exposition, Chica- go, 1900. Owned by J. B. Wing, Mechanicsburg, Ohio. Imported Shropshire jearling ewes troni the flock of Oraig & Stevenson, Rice Lake, Wisconsin. Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING SWINE. Digitized by Microsoft® o o w . Xi 2 a> a > o ■5 g = P & '^ o O CQ be 0) S o _ . — u cc 0, fe °^ p . >1 TO 2 Digitized by Microsoft® CHAPTER IV. JUDGING SWINE. In judging swine the butcher's preference must be the leading guide as it is in judging all other classes of fat stock. These preferences are in turn largely controlled by the demands of the market, so we find in some mar- kets a bacon hog, so called because of its deep, long sides, is preferred by the butchers; while in others the prefer- ence is for fat hogs because there is demand for hams, shoulders and broad, fat backs, and these features would attract the butcher's attention. In forming an opinion as to the best type of swine it is necessary to keep the re- quirements of these two markets distinctly in view, for they have established for us two very distinct market classes of hogs, the fat hog and the bacon hog. While every consideration should be given to the butcher's pref- erence, for the profit of hog feeding largely lies in suc- cessfully catering to them, yet there are some points re- lating to the feeding qualities of a hog which demand consideration in the joint interests of the feeder and breeder. The evidences of constitution and vigor are things on which the butcher cannot realize profit, but the feeder and the breeder know that they are prime essen- tials in the animals required for their purpose. I. JUDGING FAT HOGS. 187. Form — Low, Long, Deep. In respect to the form of the fat hog, one of the leading considerations is the weieht, though the market requirements in this re- Digitized by Microsoft® 146 JUDGING SWINE spect are by no means stable. At some times the market preferences are decidedly in favor of the hog weighing 200 pounds, and again in a short while the 400-pound hog makes the top price, but as a rule it will be found that the most profitable weight for selling is from 200 to 300 pounds. This fact meets the breeders' preferences exactly, for he realizes that up to the attainment of this weight his hogs have been making the most profitable gain for him. The influences of the present market are all directed towards the development of a rapidly matur- mg hog that will be in smooth prime condition for the butcher when it reaches about 250 pounds in live weight. The hogs that fatten quickest and meet the butcher's re- quirements for fat hogs are low, deep and wide in form. They are compactly built, deep chested, long, and round- ribbed, with straight top and bottom lines sustained by standing squarely on strong and straight legs. Over these parts there is a smoothness that is indicative of the proper development of form and flesh. 188. Quality — Fine Hair; Clean Bone.. The indi- cations of quality are fine hair and comparatively light, hard and clean looking bone. Fineness of parts in gen- eral is an evidence of quality. Hogs with coarse bone, coarse hair and hide are not the best breeders, and the butcher does not like them because of the large percentage of offal which they dress. In addition to being fine, the hair should lie close to the body and the skin free from undue roughness caused by scurf. 189. Head — Short, Broad. The head of a hog that will fatten readily is very similar in its relative portions and parts to that of a steer, it should be comparatively short and broad. The snout should be of medium length with the face fine in features. Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING FAT HOGS 147 190. Eyes — Clear, Prominent. The eyes should be wide apart and large without any appearance of being watery. Folds of fat in creases about the eyes are com- mon, but are none the less objectionable. 191. Ears — Small, Fine in Texture. The ear should be small in size and pointed. The way the ear is carried depends largely on the parentage of the hog, be- ing erect in the Berkshire, half drooping in the Poland China and wholly pendant in the instance of most of the large white hogs. Large and coarse ears are generally associated with heavy and coarse bone and hide and con- sequently they are not desirable. 192. Jowl — Firm, Broad, Neat. The jowl should be smooth, firm, broad and neat. A jowl that is flabby owing to the abnormal accumulation of fat in this region is very objectional, and the same may be said of the op- posite condition which produces a very small jowl that is sharp at the edges. This region should not be so full as to be pendant arid loose. 193. Neck — Short; Narrow Nape. The neck in its upper part nearest the head should spring sharply up- ward and the ears should be comparatively fine or nar- row at the nape, and swell quickly to the breadth of the shoulders. It should be short and thick and deep as well, merging in this region into the brisket without any shrink-, age. From the cheeks the neck should swell smoothly into the shoulder vein and pass from the shoulder with- out any noticeable depression. 194. Shoulder— Full Vein, Level Top. Just forward of the shoulder where the neck .swells most is the region known as the shoulder vein. Fullness in this part is de- sirable for it generally results in a smoothly covered and wide shoulder. On top, the shoulder should be level, be- ing well packed with flesh, and in addition it should be Digitized by Microsoft® 148 JUDGING SWINE broad and deep. To fill out the form desired there should be some development of the brisket, though as a rule there is very little of this in the fat hog. 195. Front Legs — Short, ^ Straight; Pasterns Strong. The front legs should be short, straight, strong and tap- ering. The pastern should be strong and the feet com- paratively short and of medium size. What are known as "bucked knees" or pasterns are sometimes observable in hogs that bend over in these parts. Long, slim pasterns are very undesirable, for hogs having them readily break down when carrying much flesh. The fat hog should stand firm and high on the toes without any evidence of weakness of the pasterns. Viewed from in front the leg should be straight. A rather common defect here is crooked knees which come too close together, but the re- verse defect is very rare among hogs. 196. Chest — Low, Wide. The floor of the chest should be as low as possible, for it is the depth and width of this part that adds to the girth. With width between the fore legs there is usually width above on the shoulder, though this is not always true. The girth should be large, for it is undesirable to have any shrinkage just be- hind the fore leg at the fore flank. 197. Sides — Deep, Fleshed Evenly. The sides may be deep and yet supported with a round rib. Usually depth of side is associated with flatness of rib, but there are many decided exceptions to this to be found among fat hogs. When the rib springs from the back, well arched, and continues to follow the circumference of a circle it gives the hog the appearance of not only being leggy, but also lacking in depth of body. The rib, how- ever, not only should be well sprung, but it should also be long, giving roundness and smoothness of body with more depth than appearance would indicate. The sides Digitized by Microsoft® ■■1 l^^^mL." ^^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^B^^^^^^^H HL«^l mm.: rimiBMiiii ■miiiiiiijiiiii. Photograph showing the expression, head and other features of form characteristic of hogs that do not fatten rapidly. These pigs on grain and grass gained only 31^ pounds while being fed 91 days in an experiment by the Utah Experiment Station. Photograph showing the head and form of a typical fat hog, also com- fortably disposed for rapid increase in weight. Digitized by Microsoft® 449 4^ _.?K_::^^ saSSfiSiav Carcass of a fat hog showing the division commonly made and the relative prices of the various parts in Chicago market. 447 pome PART f;pll,,f THI CK BACK BACK RIBS. PRIME CUT A fe09j^ I6.l4f 120.16^1 2 2.17^ OORNCR GAMMON -ioP or THICK PRIME THIN STREAKY STREAKY THICK STREAKY FLANK FORE HOCK iMILKblHLAKI rL«„n GAMMON HOCK -DUgTMn gbowlog vuioui cuU of b side of bacooa utd the nverago prioiw realized tor eacb durluc 1B97. {Jom-uai oi Koyai AgncuiLural Society IbDd.) Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING FAT HOGS 149 should he thickly and evenly fleshed. It is not uncom- mon to notice creases just behind the shoulders and at different points between the shoulders and the hips. This is an indication of uneven fattening with a poor quality of flesh and is consequently objectionable. From the shoulder to the ham in the fat hog there should be that evenness of line which would permit the laying of a straight edge along the sides from one of these points to the other and no deviation from the edge should be no- ticed at any point. Usually the development of the shoulders or the hams is as much greater as to leave a marked depression behind the shoulder and forward of the ham. 198. Back — Straight, Broad, Evenly Covered With Flesh. Looking at the back from the side the top hne should be straight, though if it rises gradually from the neck to the center of the back and there slopes very gradually to the tail, it usually carries more flesh and is considered a stronger and better back. There certainly should be no depression from shoulder to tail in the back of the hog that is in fat condition. Viewing the back from above it should appear broad and the two lines that bound it on each side should be carried straight from the upper sides of the shoulder to the hips. In addition, the back should be evenly and thickly fleshed. Any tendency towards what is called a fish back, in which the center rises very sharply, is undesirable. 199. Loin — Wide, Thick. The width of the loin should be such as to sustain the width of the back. In addition to being wide it must be straight and thickly, fleshed to fill out the lines properly. Another part of the body that should receive some consideration is the belly. The underline should run parallel with the top line ; that is, the belly should be equally as straight as the back. Digitized by Microsoft® 150 JUDGING SWINE The most common defect is a marked drooping in this region. The fore flank and the hind flank should be nearly on the same level, though this is seldom so, unless the hog is far advanced in fattening. A full and pendant hind flank is an indication of fatness. 200. Hips — Smoothly Covered With Flesh. The hips should be v^^ide apart, completely covered with flesh and low. Where they are placed high, it is seldom that they are smoothly covered with flesh. In an evenly fles'ied hog, the location of the hips is not apparent to the eye, so smoothly are they covered. 201. Rump — Long, Smooth. The width of the hips should be carried back over this part. From the hip to the end of the body there should be as much length as may be secured. It is not possible to find a hog that is exactly level over this part, as they invariably droop somewhat towards the tail, but some nevertheless closely approach exact levelness in this region. 202. Hams — Wide, Deep, Plump. Looking at the ham from the side, it should be wide from the stifle to the end of the body and it should also be plump and full right down to the hock. Viewed from behind, width from between the legs to the outside of the ham, is very desirable. Perhaps the most difference in this part will be found in the degree to which the ham continues plump ,and full towards the hock. This part of the thigh should not be bare, but heavy with flesh. 203. Hind Legs — PpopeHy Set, Strong. The most common defect of the hind leg is a cramped condi- tion of the hock. Though this is most usually found in hogs with light bone, yet it is common among hogs that otherwise appear strong in the limbs. It is noticeable that many hogs are higher behind than in front, showing the line running from the hind quarter to the head, to be very Digitized by Microsoft® JUDGING FAT MOOS l5l slanting. This is generally caused by the undue length of the hind legs. The legs should be short, strong and placed wide apart and when the hog moves the hind and the front legs should pass forward in a straight line. An in and out movement of the legs is not uncommon and it accounts for much of the awkwardness observable in the gait of fat hogs. *- S SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS— BARROW. Si O QENERAL APPEARANCE: '^ Weight, score according to age 6 Form, deep, broad, low, lung, symmetrical, compact, standing s ■-. rfri'i -S'jt-I, 'unwi- .•*-■ ■ - in. anot,h^?;,,pxirt of t-nas,dWO'Ek' attention will be h^« given to a' 'f^*!^' peculiar' l^oints'" that shpyld, be, sbug^^ in all breeds. Sc-. 209. BoaPi In addition to havings the eharacteristics of the type of the breed, . the boar should be strong in those traits that are peculiar to tH6 t&'''Tli|j|hea'cr;may be slightly inclined to coarseneS'S,'"the:!Wecli?'f*ilt^ancl''ti'ched somewhat, with the shoulder heavy. The fore quarter^ aire usually slightly, heavier, than the hind quarters and this distinction grows great^r';jvith age,, as the shields de" velop. /Strength of frame without coarseness 'is^ desira- ble and the body should be deep, long and low. Just be"-" hfnd the elbow 1^.gf-e^,§h;(j)ulf3 }3e, ;a^,_ij;iuch depth as possible, as this with-"'a">u^-Sfed"a6pfeararicfe4s indicative of a vigor- ous cojistltjUtiori. v; Short and.' strong limbs with, .straight pasterns of 'a ,flj|.e ,,qu.ali|y §,l,ipj4ld carry the body .^sily and without awkwardness at all times. •'■ ""'* 210. Sow. Omitting consideration o'f'the breed type ' the sow shoulcj J repregent^lihe sex type is of first import- ance. Tltere sH6uld not be the least appearance of coarse- ness — thte head should be light, neck slim and neat and also inclined to sharpness between and back of the ears. In the sow it is expected that the hips and hind quarters should be slightly wider than the fore, though the width before and behind should be almost uniform. Length of body is specially desirable to give room for the growth of Digitized by Microsoft® ->JU.f-^ Igjf, '^ Improved Yorkshire sow, a first priau winner at Toronto Industrial Exhi- bition, owned by J. E. Brethour, Burford, Ontario, DESCRIPTION OF THE TOHKSHIRE SWINE ^riERE are three varieties of Yorkshires, namely; the large, middle and the small, and as may be surmised these divisions are based wholly on size. The large YorksWTt is descended from the old English which were white in color wit h a few black spots and it was bred principally in Yorlcshire. Both the white Chinese pigs, introduced at an early time in England, and the Neapolitan swine were used slightly upon the native stock. The middle Yorkshire originated by crossing tlie small and largo varieties. The small Yorkshire is an oilslioot of the large varieties containing a large percentage of Chinese blood. The Improved large Yorkshire retains the hardiness and proliflcness of the old English hog and has improved in symmetry, flesh and early maturity through the Chinese cross. They are strong in bone, deep and long In body and of medium quality throughout. They have thick bellies, well mixed meat and long sides, points that curers of bacon value highly. The middle or improved Yorkshire are as heavy as the large variety but are lighter in bone and head with a smaller quantity of offai. In type they are very similar to the large Yorkshire, being long, level and deep in carcass. The small Yorkshire are finer in quality, possess more sj-mmetry and they are more compact in form, ■ These features contribute to their early maturity but do not enable them to attain the heavy weights of the others. All the varieties are white in color a few blue spots are permissible but these should not be covered with colored hair. See C)fl3cial scale of points, page 18!;. Digitized by Microsoft® Chester White sow, Alma, sired by Coco 322a. The property of Joseph Oalrns, Camlachie, Ontario, Canada. The litter of Alma when three months old tipped the scales at 100 pounds. DESCHIPTION OF THE CHESTBH WHITE SWINE I'HIS breed which originated in Chester county, Pennsylvania, about the beginning of the last century was the result of crossing the big Chinas with white pigs from Bedfordshire, England, which were of Yorkshire descent, thus giving these breeds much in common. The Chester White is a large breed, strong though line in bone, vigorous with very deep and lengthy bodies. They should be pure white in color and where black spots occur, these should not be covered with colored hair. The head has a fine snout with broad face slightly dished and the ears pen- dent. The jowl is light and the neck short and deep. Depth of chest is a very desir- able characteristic and this should also be a feature of the body. The shoulder should fit snugly to the body and its width should be almost uniform with that of the body and hind quarter. Uniformity in those lines is desirable as the girth over the heart should bo about equal to that around the flank. The hair should be fine and lie close to the body without any tendency to harshness or extreme coarseness. See official scale of points, page 174. Digitized by Microsoft® FOR BREEDING PURPOSES 157 the litter. There should be twelve teats beginning well forward and none of them blind. Blind teats in young sows do not protrude as the normal teats do, and when the sow has farrowed they usually fail to yield any milk. In judging swine the best plan is to have them arranged in small yards so that they may be readily compared and driven enough to determine whether or not they are strong and active on their legs. Digitized by Microsoft® 158 JUDGING SWINE IV. OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCEI,I,ENCB FOR SWINE. BERKSHIRE SWINE. tn C STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN g BERKSHIRE ASSOCIATION. (J Color — ^Black, with white on feet, fac6, tip of tail and an oc- casional splash on the arm . . . . , , 4 Face and Snout — Short; the former fine and well dished, and broad between the eyes 7 Eye — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray 2 E-a] — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward with advancing age; medium size; thin and soft 4 Jowl — Full and heavy, running well back on neck 4 Neck — Short and broad on top 4 Hair — Fine and soft;medium thickness 3 Skin — Smooth and pliable 4 Shoulder — Thick and even, broad on top, and deep through chest 7 Back — Broad, short and straight; ribs well sprung, coupling close to hips 8 Side — Deep and well let down; straight on bottom lines 6 Flank — Well back and low down on leg, making nearly straight line with the lower part of side 5 Loin — Full and wide i) Ham — Deep and thick, extending well up on back, and hold- ing thickness well down to hock 10 Tail — Well set up on back; tapering and not coarse 2 Legs — Short, straight, and strong, set wide apart, with hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight 5 Symmetry — Well proportioned throughout, depending large- ly on condition C Condition — In a good healthy, growing state; not over-fed. . 5 Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thorough breeding and constitutional vigor 5 Total 100 BERKSHIRE SWINE. The Berkshire Society of Great Britain has issued to the lead- ing Agricultural Show Societies the following instructions as guides to judges in making their awards: "We recommend that a perfectly black face, or a black foot, or black tail should disqualify a pig in the show yard. White or sandy spots on the top or sides of the animal, or a decidedly white ear should be disqualifications. Any description of coloring staining or clipping should also be a disqualification. White on the ear or under the throat or on the underline of the body, should be considered objectionable. Either too much or too little white in the place of the recognizee^ markings should be an ob- jection, also to be noted in the competition." Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 159 DESCRIPTION OF BERKSHIRE — ARRANGED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES OF SWINE, 1897. DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form.— Very large and heavy or drooping ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of shoulders and over tne back so as to cause a depression in back easily noticed, deformed or crooked legs, feet broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints. Size. — -Overgrown, gangling, narrow, contracted or not two- thirds large enough for age. Condition. — Barrenness, deformed, seriously diseased, total blindness from any cause. Score. — Les than sixty points. Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. 1. — Head and Face. — Head short, broad, coming well forward at poll, face short and fine and well dished, broad b^etween the eyes tapering from eyes to po'inl of nose, surface even and regu- lar. Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse, forehead low and narrow, jaws narrow or contracted, lower jaws extending be- yond upper; face long, straight between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or crooked, or ridgy. 2. — Eyes. — Very clear, rather large, dark, hazel or gray. Objections. — Small, dull, bloodshot, deep set or obscure, vision impaired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. 3. — Ears. — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined for- ward with) advancing age, medium size, thin and soft. Objections. — Large, coarse, thick, round or dirooping, long or large knuck, difference in form, size or position one with the other, animal unable to control meir position. 4. — Neck. — Full, deep, short and slightly arched, broad on top, well connected with shoulder. Objections. — Long, flat, lacking in fullness and depth. 5. — Jowl. — Full, firm and neat, carrying fullness back to shoul- der and brisket. ObjectionSk — Light, flabby, thin, tucked up or wrinkled. 6. — Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, not extended above line of back and being as wide on top as back, carrying size down to line of belly and having lateral width. Objections. — Lacking in depth or width, thick beyond the line of sides and hams or extending above line of back, heavy shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 7. — Chest. — Large, wide de^p and roomy, full girth, breast bone curving well forward, extending back on level, not tucked up, broad between fore legs. Objections.— Flat, narrow at top or bottom, small girth, lack- ing depth or fullness, breast bone crooked or tucked up. g.^Back. — Broad and straight, carrying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even and smooth without creases or projections and not too long. Objections. — Narrow, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight line. Digitized by Microsoft® 160 JUDGING SWINB 9. — Sides and Ribs. — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder. Ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, not as full at bottom as top. Ribs weak, not well sprung at top or bottom. 10. — Belly and Flank. — -Wide, full and straight on bottom line. Objections. — Belly narrow and sagging. Flank thin and tuck- ed up. 11, — Ham and Rump. — ^Hams broad, full and long; the lower front part of ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh, coming well down on hock. Rump should have a round- ing slope from loin to root of tail, same width as back and filling out on each side( and above the tail. Objections. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projecting beyond and coming down on hock, cut up too high in crotch. Rump flat, narrow and too steep. 12. — Legs and Feet. — Legs short, straight and strong, set wide apart with hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight. Objections. — Legs, long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light, pastern long, slim or flat, feet long or sprawling. 13. — Tail. — Well set up, fine, tapering and neatly curled. Objections. — Coarse and straight, too low. 14. — Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cover- ing body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over body. Objections. — Hair, coarse, harsh, wavy or curly, not evenly distriFuted over body, swirls or clipped. 15. — Color. — Black, with white on, feet, face, tip of tail and an occasional splash on arm. Objections. — Solid black or black points, or white spots on body. 16. — Size. — Large for age. Boar two years and over not less than 450 pounds, sow same age 400 pounds. Boar eighteen months 350 pounds, sow same age 325 pounds. Boar twelve months 300 pounds, sow same age 275 pounds. Boar and sow six months, 150 pounds. Objections. — Underweight, coarse, not in good form to fatten. 17. — Action and Style. — Action, vigorous. Style, graceful and attractive. Objections. — Dull, sluggish and clumsy. 18. — Condition. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, sicales or sores, soft and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from lumps, hair soft and lying close to body, good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, acabby or harsh, dry and or lumpy flesh, too much fat for' breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or total. 19. — Disposition. — Quiet and gentle and easy to handle. Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious and wild. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 161 POLAND.CHINA. NATIONAL SCORE CARD ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL ^ ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES ON 3 SWINE, JUNE, 1897. jj Head 4 Eyes 2 Ears 2 Neck ] [ 2 Jowl ' 2 Shoulders __ g Chest 12 Back and Loin 14 Sides and Ribs 10 Belly and Flank 4 Ha,nn and Rump 10 Feet and Legs 10 Tail .'.'." 1 Coat 3 Color 3 Size 5 Action and Style 3 Condition 2 Disposition jj Symmetry of Paints ,) 3 Total 1 no GENERAL RULES FOR SCORING. Rule 1. Experts shall not use fractions otlier tlian the decimal and not above tenths. Rule 2. Experts shall not indicate the score of an animal by amount of cut opposite the number of points. Rule 3. Experts shall at all times call the score of each di- vision aloud and the attendant shall take the score as called. Rule 4. — Should ties in scores be indicated by footings, then such ties shall be determined as follows: The officers attending the expert shall foot the score on tie cards of the following di- visions, 7, 8, 11 and 12, and the animal scoring the higTi«st on the above divisions shall be awarded the first premium, and the second highest score, the second premium. Should there be a tie on the above division then another addition of the following divisions should be made, to-wit: divisions 6 and 9. Should a tie exist, then division 1 should be added to above. Rule 5. When an expert who has scored the entire class is called upon to award the sweepstakes premium he shall take the highest scoring animal or animals in class score for such sweepstakes premium. Rule 6. Experts shall not be required to score entries in class for sow and litter of pigs. Rule 7. Experts shall not be required to sioore pigs under four months of age. Rule 8. When animal is presented for score and the expert determines it to be disqualified he shall call out the disqualifica- tions and the attendant shall indicate the same on card. Digitized by Microsoft® 162 JUDGING SWINK Rule 9. Experts are required to keep themselves familiar with the score card and details of this Association. Rule 10. — Experts holding certificates issued by this Associa- tion are not required by the rule^ of this Association to use any standard other than the, one issued by this Association. DESCRIPTION OF SCORE CARD FOR POLAND-CHINAS ISSUED BV NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF EXPERT JUDGES ON SWINE, 1897. Head. — 4. — Head should be broad, even and smooth oetween and above the eyes. Slightly dished, tapering even and gradu- ally to near the end of the nose. Broad lowier Jaw, head in- clined to shortness, but not enough to give the appearance of stubby nose. And in male a masculine expression and appear- ance. Objections. — Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose un- even and coarse; too large at the muzzle or the head too short; not full or high above the eyes, or too much wrinkled around or above the eyes. Eyes. — 2. — Full, clear, prominent and expressive. Objections. — Dull expression, deep set or obscure. Sight im- paired by wrinkles, fat or other cause. Earsi — 2. — Ears attached to the head by a short, firm knuckle, giving free and easy action. Standing up slightly at the base to within two-thirds of the tip where a gentle break or drop should occur ; in size neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape. Slightly inclined outward. Objections. — Large, floppy, straight, upright or coarse; knuckle long, letting the ear drop too close to the head and face, hindering the animal of free use of the ears. Neck. — 2. — Short, wide, even, smooth, well arched. Rounding and full from poll to shoulder, with due regard to the character- istics of the sex. Objections. — Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoul- der to the poll with unevenness caused by wrinkles or creases. Jowl. — 2. — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying full- ness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when head is carried up level. Objections. — Light, flabby, thin and wedge shaped, deeply wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry- ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket Shoulder. — 6.— Broad and oval at the top, showing evenness with the back and neck, with good width from the top to the bottom, and even smoothness extending well forward. Objections. — Narrow at the top or bottom; not as deep as the body; uneven width. Shields on pigs und,er eight months of age, or showing' too much shield at any age. Chest, — 12. — Large, wide, deep and full; evien underline to the shoulder and sides with no creases; giving plenty of room for heart and other organs, making a large girth indicating much vitality. Brisket smooth, even and broad, wide between legs and extending well forward showing in front. Objections — Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in back of the fore legs; showing too narrow between the Digitized by Microsoft® Tamworth sow, Katt Bell, a very prolific sow that reared thirty-three living pigs In one year, while in the herd at the towa Agricultural College. DESCRIPTION OF THE TAMWORTH SWINE "Phis English breed has been bred with care during the past sixty years with- out any infusions of foreign blood, consequently the representatives of this breed are very uniform as to color and type. The color should be a cherry red or a dark chestnut and very uniform in shade throughout without any black spots in skin or patches of hair other than the color indicated. The form should show the type that Is desired for bacon production, this means a hog that is exceedingly light in offal withalongtrimbody and especially very .smoothly covered withflrm flesh indi- cating a desirable mixture of fat and flesh. The head should be slim, the snout fine and not unduly long, the ear of appropriate size for the head with the neck sharp between the ears and light, swelling easily to cover a deep shoulder smoothly. Depth of shoulder is desirable but without any roughness. The shoulder should not bulge out beyond the body or the hips for this detracts from the general appearance of trlmness and smoothness which is so very desirable. The back should be long and strong with a gradually rising arch over the shoulder to the loin and then a corres- ponding descending line from there to the end of the tail. Width of the back is not de- manded but extreme smoothness and an even covering of firm flesh is absolutely es- sential. The ribs should drop as deep as possible mak ing the body appear from the side as If it had abundance of depth. The loin is even in width with the shoulder and back ■well covered. The hind quarter lacks the width characteristic of the lard hog as this should not be any wider than the parts which precede it. Length of ham or gam- mon Is a peculiar feature which should be looked for. A long ham, fleshed firmly towards the hock without folds of fat Is eminently desired. The leading features of the type throughout are length and depth with trlmness and smoothness in all regions. See ofSclal scale of points, page 186. Digitized by Microsoft® Essex sow, a prize winner at Toronto Industrial Exhibition, owned by Jos. Featherstone, Ontario, Canada. A sow very typical of the breed, being exceptionally smooth and possessed of unusual quality. DESOHIPTION OF THE ESSEX SWINE ^HIS BEEBD of swine originated in the county of Essex, England, and from this it takes Its name. London, writing in 1835, described the old Essex as being " up-eared with long, sharp head, roach back ; flat, long carcass and long in the legs." They were improved by Lord Weston who, in 1830, purchased in Italy a Neapolitan boar and two sows and these were crossed on the native Essex. Extreme refinement resulted with loss of size, constitution and fecundity, but through the after work of Fisher Hobbs these defects have been largely overcome. Some authorities (Long) claim that the black Sulfolk pig bred in England at the present time Is but an Im- proved Essex; others (Ooleman) assert that the Suffolk is adistlnct breed. However, the two now are recognized as separat&breeds. According to the standard agreed upon by the Amerlcanassociation.thecharacterlstlcsof the Essex are asfollows; "Oolor, black without any white whatever; face short and dishing; ears small, soft and standing erect while young but drooping slightly with increasing age; carcass long, broad, straight and deep; hams heavy and well let down; bone fine; hair ordinarily rather thin, fattening qualities very superior. The type of the Essex represents a very compact hog of fine quality and very stoutly built; a type which is considered to mature early and fatten easily. See ofBcIal scale of points, page 170. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINB 163 legs; not depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, narrow, not prominent. Back and Loin. — 14. Broad, straight or slightly arched, car- rying game width from shoulder to ham, surface even, smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections, not too long but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out at junction with side so that a straightedge placed along at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham, should be shorter than lower belly line. Objections. — Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; too long or sun-fish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or hum^p- ed up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven, width at side not as much as shoulder and ham. Sides and Riba. — 10. — Sides full, firm and deep, free from wrinkles; carrying size down to belly; even from ham to shoul- der; ribs of good length, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections.^ — Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as top; drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease or pinch- ed and tucked up and in as it approaches the ham; uneven sur- face; ribs flat or too short. Belly and, Flank. — 4. — Belly broad, straight and full, indicat- ing capacity and room, being about the same or on a level at the flank with the under chest line. Underline straight, or nearly so, and free from flabby appearance. Objections. — Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent looseness in the make-up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too bight. Ham and Rump. — 10. — Hams broad, full, deep and long from rump to hock. P'ully developed above and below, being wide at the point of the hip, carrying width well down to the Idwer part of the hams. Fleshy, plump, rounding fullness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding and gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail. Broad and well developed all along from loin and gradually rounding to the biittock; lower front part ol ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh. Even width of ham and rump with the back, loin and body. Even a greater width as to females not objectionable. Objections. — Ham short, narrow, too round or slim. Not filled out above or below, or unshapely for deep meat; not as wide as the body, back or loin too tapering or small. Rump narrow or pointed, not plump or well filled or too steep from loin to the tail. Legs and Feet. — 10. — Legs medium length, straight, set well apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone firm and of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet firm, short, tough and free from de- f6CtS Objections. — Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small above hock and knee; bone large, coarse; as large at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. Digitized by Microsoft® 164 JUDGING SWINE Tail. — 1. — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and taper- ing well and carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse and long without a curl; or short, crook- ed or stubby; or too small, fine, even, not tapering. Coat. — 3. — Pine, straight, smooth, laying close to and cover- ing the body well; not clipped, evenly distributed over the body. Objections. — Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly; swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not evenly dis- tributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped coats should bo cut 1.5 points. Color. — 3. — Black with six (6) white points: Tip of tail, four white feet and white in face, on the nose or on the point of low- er jaw. All to be perceptible without close .examination. Splashes of white on the jaw, legs or" flank or a few spots of white on the body not objectionable. Objections. — Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots. Spec- kled with white hairs over the body; mottled face of white and black; hair mixed, making a grizzly appearance. Size. — 5. — Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to be considered. There should be a difference between breeding animals and those kept or fitted for the show of at least 25 per cent, in size. In show condition, or when fat, a two-year-old boar should not weigh less than six hundred (600) pounds, and a sow not less than five hundred (500) pounds. Boar one year and over, four hundred (400) pounds; sow three hundred and fifty (350) pounds. Boar eighteen months, five hundred (500) pounds; sow, four hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Boar and sows six months old, not less than one hundred and sixty (160) pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one-fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young hog has cuts quite a figure in his size and should be considered, other points being equal. Fine quality and size combined, are the de- sirable. Objections. — Overi-g[rown ; teoarse, flabbiy, loose appearance. Gangling, hard to fatten; too fine, undersize; short, stubby, inclined to chubby fatness. Not a hardy robust animal. Action and Style. — 3. — Action vigorous, easy and graceful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles should be prominent and of about the same size, and yet not too large and pouchy. Objections. — Clumsy, slow, av/kward movement; low carriage; waddling or twisting walk. A seeming tired o|r lazy appear- ance; not stand erect and firm. Condition. — 2. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine; evenly laid on and free from lumps and wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to body; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; deafness, partial or total. Disposition. — 2. — Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind, responsive to good treatment. Objections. — Cross, sluggish, restless, wild or of a vicious turn. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINK 165 Symmetry or Adaptation of Points.— 3.— The adaptation of all the points, size and style combined to make the desired type or model. POLAND'CHINA SWINE. NATIONAL BREEDERS SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL POLAND-CHINA BREEDERS ASSO- CIATION AT THE ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN CHICAGO IN NOVEMBER, 1886. Published in the Poland-China Record, Dayton, Ohio, ■£ Vol. XVIIl, 1896, and American Poland-China Record, a Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Vol. XI, 1890. O Color — Dark spotted or black 3 Head — Small, broad, face slightly dished 5 Ears-^Fine and drooping 2 Jowl — Neat and full 2 Neck — Short, full, slightly arched 3 Brisl 15 Sides and Ribs 8 Belly and Flank 6 Haim and Rump 10 Feet and Legs 10 Tail 1 Coat 2 Color : 2 Size 5 Action and Style i 4 Condition 4 Disposition i 3 Total 100 DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form — Upright ears; small, cramped chest, crease back of shoulders and over the back so as to cause a depression in hack easily noticed; deformed or badly crooked legs',; feet broken down, so that the animal walks on pastern joints. Size — China build, or not two-thirds large enough for age. Condition — Excessive fatness ; barrenness; deformed; seriously diseased; total blindness, caused hy defective eyes, or by rea- son of fat or loose and wrinkled skin over the eyes. Score — Less than sixty points. Pedigree — Not eligible to record. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks full; jaws broad; forehead high and wide; face short; smooth; wide be- tween the eyes; tapering from eyes to point of nose and slight- ly dished; surface even and regular. Objections. — Head long; narrow; coarse; forehead low and narrow or contracted; lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long, straight and narrow between the eyes; nose coarse, thick or crooked, ridgy or dished as much as a Berkshire. Eyes. — Large, prominent; bright; lively, clear and free from wrinkled or fat surroundings. Objections. — Small, dull, blood-shot, deep set or obscure, vis- ion impaired hy wrinkles, fat or other cause. Ears. — Small; thin; soft; silky; attached to the head by a short and small knuckle; tips pointing forward and slightly out- Digitized by Microsoft® 168 JUDGING SWINE ■ward, and the forward half drooping gracefully; fully under control of animal; both of same siz-e, position and shape. Objections. — Large; Straight; stiff; coarse; thick; round; long or large knuckle, drooping close to face, swinging and flabby; difference in form, size or position. Neck. — Wide; deep; short, and nicely arched at top, from poll of head to shoulder. Objections. — Long; narrow; thin; flat on top; not extending down to breast bone; tucked up. JowI.^FuU; broad; deep; smooth and firm; carrying fullness back near to point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw, so that lower line will be as low as breast bone when head is carried up level. Objections. — Light; flabby; thin; wedge shaped; deeply wrin- kled; not drooping below line of lower jaw, and not carry- ing fullness back to shoulder and brisket. Shoulders. — Broad; deep and full; not extending above line of back, and being as wide on top as back; carrying size down to line of belly and having good lateral width. Objections. — Narrow; not same depth as body; narrow on top or bottom or extending above line of back; less than body in breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width; shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. Chest. — Large; wide; deep; roomy, indicating plenty of room for vital organs, and making a large girth just back of shoul- ders; the breast bone extending forward so as to show slightly in front of legs and extending in a straight line back to end of breast bone; showing width of not less than six inches be- tween fore legs in a large, full grown hog. Objections. — Flat; pinched; narrow at top or at either end of breast bone; breast bone crooked or not extending slightly in front of fore legs. Back and Loin. — Broad; straight; or slightly arched; car- rying same width from shoulder to ham; surface |even; smooth, free from lumps, creases or projections; not too long, but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder and should fill out at junction, with side so that a straight edge placed along top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham; should be shorter than the lower belly line. Objections. — Narrow; creased back of shoulders; swayed or hollow; dropping below a straight line; humped or wrinkled; too long, or sunfish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or humped up; surface lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at side not as much as shoulder and ham. Sides and Ribs. — Sides full; smooth; firm and deep; carrying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder; ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections. — Flat; thin; flabby; pinched; not as full at bottom as top; drawn in at shoulders soi as to produce a crease or pinched and tucked up, and in as it approaches the ham; lumpy or uneven surface; ribs flat or too short. Belly and Flank. — Wide, straight and full and drooping as low at flank as bottom of chest; back of fore leg making a straight line from fore legs to hind legs; flank full and out even Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 169 with surrounding portions of body; the belly at that point drooping down on a line with lower line of chest; the loose skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even with bot- tom of side. Objections. — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby. Flank tucked up or drawn in. Hams and Rump. — Hams broad; full, long and wide. They should be as wide at point of the hip as the swell of the ham. Buttocks large and full; should project beyond and come down upon and full between the hocks. The lower front part of the ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh and a gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump should have a round- ing slope from loin to root of tail; same width as back and fill- ing out full on each side of, and above the tail. Objections. — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting beyond and coming down to hock; cut up too high in crotch or twist; lacking in fullness at top or bottom; lacking In width from stifle straight back; lower fore part thin and flat; straight from root of tail to hock; buttocks light, thin or flabby. Rump flat, narrow and peaked at root of tail; too steep. Legs and Feet. — Legs medium length; straight; set well apart and squarely under body; tapering; well muscled and wide above knee and hock; below hock and knee round and taper- ing, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone flrm and of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet firm; short; tough and free from defects. Objections. — Legs long; slim; coar'se; crooked; muscles small above hock and knee; bone large, coarse, as large at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs too close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. Tail. — Well set on; small, smooth, tapering and carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse; long; crooked or hanging straight down like a rope. Coat. — Fine; straight; smooth; laying close to and covering the body well; not clipped; evenly distributed over body. Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; harsh; thin; wavy or cur- ly; swirls; standing up; ends of hair split and brown; not evenly distributed over all of the body except belly. Clipped coats should be cut 1.5 points. Color. — Black with white in face or on lower jaw; white on feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on body not objectionable. Objections. — Solid black, more than one-forth white; sandy hairs or spots; a grizzled or speckled appearance. Size. — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and over if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sows same age and condition not less than 450 pounds. Boars eighteen months old, in good condition, not less than 400 pounds; sows 350 pounds. Boars twelve months, not less than 300 pounds; sows, 300 pounds. Boar and sow six months, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in proportion. Digitized by Microsoft® 170 JUDGING SWINE Objections. — Overgrown; coarse; gangling, or hard to fatten at any age. Action and Style. — Action vigorous; easy; quick and grace- ful. Style attractive; high carriage; and in males testicles should be of same size, carriage; readily seen and yet not too large. Objections. — Slow; dull; clumsy; awkward; difficulty in get- ting up when down; low carriage; wabbling walk. In males testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large or only one showing Condition. — Healthy; skin clear of scurf, scales, or sores; soft and mellow to the touch; flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to body; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy; skin scaly, wrinkly, scabby or harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeder; deafness, partial or total. Disposition. — Quiet, gentle and easily handled. Objections. — Cros,s, restless, vicious or wild. ESSEX SWINE. „■ ■♦-' c SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY AMERICAN ESSEX ASSOCIA- g TION, VOL. II, IMPROVED ESSEX .SWINE RECORD, 1893. {J Color — Black 2 Head — Small, broad and face dished 3 Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2 Jowl — Pull and neat 1 Neck — 'Short, full, well arched 3 Shoulders — Broad and deep 7 Girth Around Heart 6 Back — Straight, broad and level 12 Sides — Deep and full 6 Ribs — Well sprung 7 Loin — Broad and strong 12 Flank — Well let down '. 2 Ham — Broad, full and deep 12 Tail — Medium, fine, and curled 2 Legs — Pine, straight and tapering 3 Feet — Small 3 Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 Action — Easy and graceful 4 Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other... 10 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® Pen of two Berkshire pigs. Exliibited by Mr. J. A. Firckert, of Burton, Mere, Wiltshire. Winners of the challenge cup for the best pen of two pigs, at the SmithBeld Show, Fngland, 1S08 Pure bred Tamworth sow, AaiHConRT Queen. The property of Mr. John Bell, Amber, Ontario, Canada. Agincourt Queen was farrowed February 9, 1896. Photo was taken May 26, 1897. Digitized by Microsoft® Thin Eind Sow, Beauty 27. owned by John S. Phelps, Lexington, Kentucky. Berkshire sow, Highclbrb Co0ntess IX, of Hood Farm, and her litter of nine pigs at three weeks old, by Wantage King of Hood Farm. First prize winner at numerous fairs in 1K98. Two of the pigs are under the others, the white brush of one showing between the second and third from the left end, and the other in the same position from the other end. Owned by Hood Farm, Lowell, Massac^y^^^g^^ ^y MlCrOSOft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 171 CHESTER WHITE SWINE. SCALE OF POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE STANDARD CHESTER WHITE RECORD ASSOCIATION. CHESTER WHITE TU A • .- J'ECORD, VOL. Ill, 1892. -2 h rtu M^?"^*',"'? ^^'?^ ^°"°"'S is similar to that adopted = by the National Association of Expert Judges. y Htad and Face ^ Eyes ; : : : ■ : * Ears „ Neck , Jowl V.V.'.V. ".'.'.". '.'.".' "'.'..'. 2 Shoulders (• Chest V.V.V.V.'.V.V.V ".'.'.'.'. 9 Back and Loin 15 Sides and Rib g Belly and Flank 6 Ham and Rump 10 Feet and Legs 3 Tail .. 1 Coat 2 Color g Size ■■■■■.^'....y.l.. ..[.[[...'. 5 Action and Style . , 4 Condition a Disposition _ ' ' o Total ^ DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form. — Upright ears; small cramped chest; crease around back of shoulders and over the back, causing a depression easily noticed; feet broken down causing the animal to walk on pastern joints; deformed or badly crooked legs. Size. — Chuffy, or not two-thirds large enough for age. Condition. — Squabby fat; deformed, seriously deformed; bar- renness; total blindness. Score. — Less than sixty points. Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. Color. — Black or sandy spots in hair. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head and Face. — Head short and wide; cheeks neat but not too full; jaws broad and strong; forehead medium, high and wide. Face short and smooth; wide between the eyes; nose neat and tapering and slightly dished. Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse; lorehead low and narrow; jaws contracted and weak. Face long, narrow and straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like a Berkshire. Eyes. — Large, bright, clear and free from wrinkles or fat sur- roundings. Objections. — Small, deep or obscure; vision impaired in any way. Ears. — Medium size; not too thick; soft; attached to the head so as not to look clumsy: ■tiointin.e' forward and slightly Digitized by Microsoft® 172 JUDGING SWINE outward; fully under the control of the animal and drooping so as to give a graceful appearance. Objections. — Large; upright; coarse; thick; round; too small; drooping too close to the face; animal not being able to con- trol them. Neck. — Wide; deep; short and nicely arched. Objections. — Long, narrow; thin; flat on top; tucked up; not extending down to breast bone. Jowl. — Pull; smooth, neat and firm; carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket when the head is carried up level. Objections. — Light; too large and flabby; rough and deeply wrinkled; not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. Shoulder.- — Broad, deep and full, extending in a straight line with the side, and carrying size down to line of belly. Objections. — Narrow at top or bottom, not full nor same depth as body; extending above line of back; shields on boars too coarse and prominent. Chest. — Large; deep and roomy so as not to cramp vital or- gans; full in girth around the heart; the breast bone extend- ing forward so as to show slightly in front of legs, and let down so as to be even with line of belly, showing a width of not less than 7 inches between fore legs of a full grown hog. Objections. — Narrow; pinched; heart girth less than flank girth; too far let down between fore legs; breast bone crooked or too short. Back and Loin. — Back broad on top; straight or slightly arched; uniform width; smooth; free from lumps or rolls; shorter than lower belly line; same height and width at shoul- der as at ham; loin wide and full. Objections. — Back narrow; creased back of shoulders; sun- fished shape; humped; swayed; too long or lumpy rolls; un- even in width; loin narrow, depressed or humped. Sides and Ribs. — Sides full; smooth; deep; carrying size down to belly; even with line of ham and shoulder; ribs long; well sprung at top or bottom, giving hog a square form. Objections. — Plat; thin; flabby; compressed at bottom; shrunken at shoulder and ham; uneven surface; ribs flat ana too short. Belly and Flank. — Same width as back; full, making a straight line and dropping as low at flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running parallel with sides; flank full and even with body. Objections. — Belly narrow; pinched; sagging or flabby; flank thin, tucked up or drawn in. Ham and Rump. — Ham broad; full; long, wide and deep; admitting of no swells; buttock full; neat and clean, thus avoid- ing fiabbiness; stifie well covered with flesh, nicely tapering towards the hock; rump should have a slightly rounding shape from loin to root of tail; same width as back, making an even line with sides. Objections. — Hams narrow; short; not filled out to stifle; too much cut up in crotch or twist; not coming down to hock but- tocks flabby; rump flat, narrow, too long, too steep, sharp or peaked at root of tail. Legs and Feet. — Legs short; straight; set well apart and squarely under body; bone of good size; firm; well muscled; Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWIKL 173 wide above knee and hock; below knee and hock round and tapering, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease; pastern short and nearly upright; feet short, firm, tough and free from defects. Objections. — Legs too short, long, slim, crooked, too coarse; too close together; weak muscles above hock and knee; bone large and coarse without taper; pasterns long; crooked, slim like a deer's; hoofs long, slim, weak; toes spreading, crooked or turned up. Tail. — Small; smooth; tapering, well set on, root slightly covered with flesh; carried in a curl. Objections. — Coarse; long; clumsy; set too high or too low; hanging like a rope. Coat. — Fine; straight or wavy; evenly distributed and cov- ering the body well; nicely clipped coats no objection. Objections. — Bristles; hair coarse; thin; standing up; not evenly distributed over all the body except belly. Color. — White (blue spots or black specks in skin shall not argue impurity of blood.) Objections. — Color any other than white. Size. — Large for age and condition; boars two years old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds. Sow same age and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars 18 months old in good flesh should weigh not less than 400 pounds. Sows 350. Boars 12 months old not less than 300 pounds. Sows 300. Boars and sows 6 months old, not less than 150 pounds each, and other ages in proportion. Objections. — Overgrown; coarse; uncouth; hard to fatten. Action and Style. — Action easy and graceful; style attrac- tive; high carriage; in males testicles should be readily seen; same size and carriage. Objections. — Sluggish; awkward low carriage; wabbling walk; in males testicles not easily seen; not of same size or carriage, or only one showing. Condition. — Healthy skin clear and bright; free from scurf and sores; flesh fine and mellow to the touch; evenly laid on and free from lumps; good feeding qualities. Objections. — Unhealthy; skin scaly, scabby or harsh; flesh lumlpy or fiabby; hair harsh, dry and standing up from body; poor feeders; total deafness. Disposition. — Quiet; gentle and easily handled; with ambi- tion enough to look out for themselves if neglected. Objections. — Cross; restless; vicious or wild; no ambition. Digitized by Microsoft® 174 JUDGING SWINE CHESTER WHITE SWINE. SCALE OP POINTS AS ADOPTED BY THE CHESTER WHITE RECORD ASSOCIATION AT THEIR ANNUAL MEETING, ^ JAN., 1885, AND REVISED JAN., 1888. PUBLISHED -g TODD's IMPROVED CHESTER WHITE SWINK g RECORD, VOL. IV, I89I. U Head — Small, broad, slightly dished 5 Eye — Large and bright 2 Ear — Thin, fine and drooping ■ 2 Jowl— Neat and full 3 Neck — Short, full and slightly arched 3 Brisket — Full and deep 3 Shoulder — Broad and deep ■, 6 Girth Around Heart 10 Back — Straight and broad 7 Sides — Deep and full 6 Ribs — Well sprung 7 Belly — Wide and straight 4 Girth Around Flank , 10 Ham — Broad, full and deep 10 Limbs — Strong, straight and neat 7 Tail — Tapering, and not coarse 2 Coat — Fine and thick 3 Color— White 1 Action — Prompt, easy and graceful 5 Symmetry 4 Total 100 DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head — Short; broad between the eyes, and nicely tapering from eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished; cheeks full. Objections. — Head coarse, long and narrow; face straight or too much dished; snout coarse or thick. Eye. — Large, bright, and free from overgrowing fat. Objections. — Small, dim, or hidden under protruding fat. Ear. — Drooping; thin; pointing outward and forward; well proportioned to size of body. Objections. — Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too near the face; stiff, erect, or too small. Jowl. — Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back to neck and brisket. Objections. — Flabby; light; thin in cheek; tucking up under the neck. Neck. — Full, deep, short, and well arched. Objections. — Long; flat; lacking in fullness or depth. Brisket. — Full; strong; well let down; extending well for- ward, and on line of the belly. Objections. — Narrow, or tucked up. Shoulder — Broad; deep; thickness in proportion to the side and ham; full and even on top. Objections. — Thick beyond the line of side and ham; lacking in depth or width; blade prominent, or extending above the line of the back. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 175 Girth Around the Heart.— Pull back of shoulders; ribs ex- tending well down; wide and full back of fore legs. Objections.— Less than flank or length of body from top of the head to root of the tall. Back. — Broad, straight, or sligihtly arched, carrying width well back to the hams, and of medium length. Objections. — Narrow; sinking back of shoulders; narrow across the loin; swayed; too long; sunfish shaped. Sides. — Full; deep; carrying weight and thickness well down and back. Objections.— Too round or flat; shallow, or thin at the flank. Ribs. — Well sprung, carrying fullness well back and deep. Objections. — Too flat; curve of rib too short; tucking in at bottom; sagging about loin. Loin. — Broad, strong and full. Objections. — Narrow; poorly ribbed up; weak. Belly. — ^Wide and straight; width approximating that of the back. Objections. — Sagging; narrow; skin coarse, harsh and thick. Girth Around Flank. — Flank well let down and full; loin broad, strong and full; measurement of flank girth equal to heart girth. Objections. — Flank thin, tucked in, or cut up too high; loin narrow or weak. Ham. — Broad, full, deep; of medium length; coming down well over the hock. Objections. — Narrow; short; running too far up the back; steep at the rump. Limbs. — Medium length; short rather than long; set well apart, and well under; muscles full above knee and hock; bone firm and not coarse; pasterns short and strong; foot short. Objections. — Long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles light; pas- terns long, slim or flat; hoofs long or sprawling. Tail. — Small, tapering, smooth, well set on. Objections. — Coarse; large; too prominent at the root. Coat. — Fine and thick. Objections. — Coarse; hair too long; wiry; harsh. Color. — White. (Blue spots in skin and black specks shall not argue impurity of blood.) Action. — Easy; prompt; fine and graceful. Objections. — Dull, sluggish, clumsy. Symmetry. — Uniform build, and all points in animal in pro- portion. Objections. — Wanting in some points, and too much develop- ed in others. SERIOUS OBJECTIONS. Form. — Smlall growth; upright ears; small, cramped chest; crease back of the shoulders, so as to be readily seen; deformed and badly crooked legs; feet broken down so that animal walks on pastern joints and dew-claws. DISQUALIFICATIONS. Conditions.— Excessive fat; barren; deformed, unsound or diseased; ridgling or one-seeded. Score. — A score of less than sixty of the standard. Pedigree. — Lack of eligibility to record. Digitized by Microsoft® 176 JUDGING SWINE DUROC^JERSEY SWINE. STANDARD OF CHARACTERISTICS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN DUROC- JERSEY SWINE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN DUROC-JERSEY RECORD, VOL IV, 1S93. Color. — The color is a very important factor in establishing the fancy markings of any of the improved breeds of swine, and it seems as though the Doroc-Jersey is no exception. Our breeders, (at least many of them) seem to not have the right idea as to what our "Standard of Characteristics" means by the term "Cherry Red." There are many shades of red and we shall here endeavor to make some suggestions which will enable breeders to give the exact color of their hogs sent for registration. The best way is to .take a few hairs from the back of the animal and hold them in a bright light, and then you can tell very accurately the exact color. If the hair is a clear, deep red, and not shading brown or black at the end, you have a cherry red color and should be recorded as "Cherry Red." Should the hair be as above and shading brown or black, it should be recorded as "Dark Cherry." Should the hair be lighter and glossy in the sun light, they should be recorded as "Bright Red," or "Bright Cherry." Should the hair be light and have a dull appearance, they should be recorded as "Medi- um." Should the hair be dark or shading black, they should be recorded as "Dark Red." The most fashionable color and the one our breeders should use every possible means to establish in their herd is a "Cherry Red," and as speedily as possible, discard all animals with black spots or flecks, and avoid very light or dark shades in their selection of breeding animals. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 177 DUKOC'JERSEY SWINE. SCALE OF POINTS. — AMERICAN DUROC-JERSEY RECORD. Similar to the description prepared by the National Asso- a elation of Expert Judges. tj Head and Face 4 Eyes 2 Ears 2 Neck 2 Jowl 2 Shoulders 6 Chest ' 12 Back and Loin 15 Sides and Ribs 8 Belly and Flank G Hams and Rumps 10 Legs and Feet 10 Tail 1 Coat 1 2 Color 2 Size I 5 Action and Style 4 Condition / 4 Disposition 3 Total 100 DISQUALIFICATIONS. Form. — Ears standing erect; small cramped chest, and crease back of shoulders and over back so as to cause a depres- sion In the back easily noticed: seriously deformed legs, or badly broken down feet. Size. — Very small, or not two-thirds large enough as given by the standard. Score. — Less than fifty points. Pedigree. — Not eligible to record. DETAILED DESCRIPTION. Head and Face. — Head small in proportion to size of body; wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half way be- tween a Poland-China and a Berkshire) and tapering well down to the ncse; surface smooth and even. 'Objections. — Large and coarse; narrow between the eyes; face straight; crooked nose, or too much dished. Eyes. — Lively, bright and prominent. Objections. — Dull, weak and obscure. Ears. — Medium; moderately thin; pointing forward, down- ward and slightly outward, carrying a slight curve, attached to head very neatly. Objections. — Very large; nearly round; too thick; swingmg or flabby; not of same size; different position and not under control of animal. Neck. — Short, thick and very deep and slightly arching. Objections. — Long, shallow and thin. Digitized by Microsoft® 178 JUDGING SWINE Jowl. — Broad, full and neat; carrying fullness back to point of shoulders and on a line with, breast bone. Objections. — ^Too large, loose and flabby small thin and wedging. Shoulders. — Moderately broad; very deep and full; carrying thickness well down and not extending above line of back. Objections. — Small; thin; shallow; extending above line of back. Boars under one year old heavily shielded. Chest. — Large; very deep; filled full behind shoulders; breast bone extending well forward so as to be readily seen. Objections. — Flat; shallow, or not extending well down be- tween fore legs. Back and Loin. — Back medium in breadth; straight or slight- ly arching; carrying even width from shoulder to ham; surface even and smooth. Objections. — Narrow; crease behind shouldersj'; siwayed or humped backed. Sides and Ribs. — Sides very deep; medium in length; level between shoulders and hams and carrying out full down to line of belly. Ribs long, strong and sprung in proportion to width of shoulders and hams. Objections. — Flabby, creased, shallow and not carrying prop- er width from top to bottom. Belly and Flank. — Straight and full and carrying well out to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides. Objections. — Narrow; tucked up or drawn in; sagging or flabby. Hams and Rump. — Broad, full and well let down to tha hock; buttock full and coming nearly down and filling full between hocks. Rump should have a round slope, from loin to root of tail; same width as back and well filled out around tail. Objections. — Ham narrow; short; thin; not projecting well down to hock; cut up too high in crotch. Rump narrow: flat or peaked at root of tail; too steep. Legs and Feet. — Medium size and length; straight; nicely tapered; wide apart and well set under the body; pasterns short and strong. Feet short, firm and tough. Objections. — Legs extremely long, or very short; slim; coarse; crooked; legs as large below knee and hock as above; set too close together; hocks turned in or out of straight line. Feet, hoofs long; slim and weak; toes spreading or crooked. Tail. — Medium; large at base and nicely tapering and rather bushy at end. Objections. — Extremely heavy; too long and ropy. Coat. — Moderately thick and fine; straight, smooth and cov- ering the body well. Objections. — Too many bristles; hair coarse, harsh, and rough; wavy or curly; swirls, or not evenly laid over the body. Color. — Cherry red without other admixtures. .Objections. — Very dark red or shading brown; very pale or light red; black spots over the body; black flecks on belly and legs not desired but admissible. Size. — Large for age and condition. Boars two years old and over should weigh 600 lbs.; sow same age and condition, 500 lbs. Boar eighteen months, 475 lbs.; sow 400 lbs. Boar twelve months, 350 lbs.; sow, 300 lbs. Boar and sow pigs six months. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 179 150 lbs. The figures are for animals in a fair show condition. Objections. — Rough and coarse and lacking in feeding quali- ties. Action and Style. — Action vigorous and animated. Style free and easy. Objections. — Dull or stupid; awkward and wabbling. In boars testicles not easily seen nor of same size or carriage; too large or only one showing. Condition. — Healthy; skin free from scurf, scales, sores, and mange; flesh evenly laid over the entire body and free from any lumps. Objections. — Unhealthy; scurfy; scaly; sores; mange; too fat for breading purposes; hair harsh and standing up; poor feeders. Disposition. — Very quiet and gentle; easily handled or driven. Objections. — Wild, vicious or stubborn. VICTORIA SWINE. SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY VICTORIA SWINE BREEDERS ASSOCIATION. AMERICAN VICTORIA SWINE RECORD, ^ VOL. I, 1887. -g The description that follows is similar to that adopted by g the National Association of Expert Judges. (j Color — White, with occasional dark spots in the skin 2 Head — Small, broad and face medium dished 3 Ears — Fine, pointing forward 2 Jowl — Medium size and neat 1 Neck — Short, full and well arched 3 Shoulders — Broad and deep 7 Girth Around Heart 6 Back — Straight, broad and level 12 Sides — Deep and full C Ribs — ^Well sprung 7 Loin — Broad and strong 12 Flank — ^Well let down 2 Ham — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat 12 Tai I^Medium fine and curled 2 Legs — Fine and straight 3 Feet— Small 3 Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles 3 Action — Easy and graceful 4 Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other.. 10 Total .100 Detailed Description of Victoria swine as adopted by the Vic- toria Swine Breeders' Association at their annual meeting, No- vember, 1888, as an aid to judges at fairs in place of the score Color — White with occasional dark spot in the skin. Head and Face— Head rather small and neat. Face medium dished and smooth; wide between eyes; tapering from eyes to nose. Digitized by Microsoft® 180 JUDGING SWINE Eyes — Medium size, prominent, bright; clear and lively in young, and quiet expression in aged animals. Neck. — Medium wide, deep, short, well arched and full at top. Jowl. — Medium full, nicely rounded, neat and free from loose, flabby fat. Shoulders. — Broad, deep and full, not higher than the line of back, and as wide on top as back. Chest. — Large, wide, deep and roomy, with large girth back of shoulders. Back and Loin. — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying same width from shoulders to ham; level and full at loin; some- times higher at hip than at shoulder. Ribs and Sides. — Ribs well sprung at top; strong and firm; sides deep, full, smooth and firm; free from creases. Belly and Flank — ^Wide; straight and full; as low or slightly lower at flank than at chest. Flank full and nearly even with sides. Hams and Rump.— Hams long; full and wide; nicely rounded; trim and free from loose fat. Buttocks large and full; reaching well down towards hocks. Rump, slightly sloped from end of loin to root of taii. Legs and Feet. — Legs short; set well apart and firm; wide above knee and hock tapering below. Feet firm and standing well up on toes. Tail. — Small; fine and tapering; nicely curled. Coat.— Fine and silky; evenly covering the body. Size. — Boars two years old and over when in good condition should weigh not less than 500 lbs.; sow same age and condi- tion, 450 lbs. Boars twelve months old not less than 300 lbs.; sows in good flesh 300 lbs. Pigs 5 to 6 months old 140 to 160 lbs. Action. — Easy and graceful, but quiet. Condition. — Healthy; skin clean, and white or pink in color; free from scurf; flesh firm and evenly laid on. Disposition. — Quiet and gentle. DISQUALIFICATIONS. Color. — Other than white or creamy white, with occasional dark spots in skin. Form.- — Crooked jaws or deformed face; crooked or deformed legs; large, coarse, drooping ears. Condition. — Excessive fatness; barrenness; deformity in any part of the body. Pedigree. — Not eligible for record. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 181 CHESHIRE SWINE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. THE CHESHIRE HERD BOOK. VOL I, 1889. Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length of body; face somewhat dished and wide between the eyes; ears small, erect, in old animals often slightly pointing forward; neck, short; shoulders broad and full; hips broad; body long, broad and deep; hams, broad, nearly straight with back and running well down towards hock; legs small and slim, set well apart and supporting the body on the toes; tail, small and slim; hair fine, medium in thickness and quantity; color white, a few blue spots in skin not to disqualify, but objectiona- ble; when grown and well fattened should dress from 400 to 600 lbs. SCALE OF POINTS. Cheshires must be shown in fair breeding condition. ■^ Animals too fleshy to meet this requirement must be docked g ten points. tj Head. — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length of body 8 Face. — Somewhat dished and wide between the eyes 8 Jowl. — Medium in fullness 3 Ears. — Small, fine, erect; in old animals often pointing for- ward 5 Neck. — Short and broad /. . . . 3 Shoulders. — Broad, full and deep 6 Girth. — Size of body around heart 8 Back. — Long, broad and straight nearly to root of tail 10 Side. — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line 7 Flank. — Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly equal to heart girth 3 Hams. — Broad, nearly straight with back and running well down towards hock 10 Legs. — Small and slim, set well apart and supporting body on toes 10 Tall. — Small, slim and tapering 3 Halr.^Fine, medium in thickness and quality 3 Color. — White, any other colored hair to disqualify 2 Skin. — Thin and pliable; small blue spots objectionable, but allowable 3 Symmetry. — Animal well proportioned, handsome, stylish 8 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 182 JUDGING SWINK YORKSHIRE SWINE : LARGE WHITE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE PUBLISHED IN THE NATIONAL PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION HERD BOOK, NOTTING- HAM, ENG., VOL. XII, 1896. Color.^White, free from black hairs, and as far as possible from blue spots on the skin. Head. — Moderately long, face slightly dished, snout broad, not too much turned up, jowl not too heavy, wide between ears. Ears. — Long, thin, slightly inclined forward, and fringe with fine hair. Neck. — Long, and proportionately full to the shoulders. Chest. — Wide and deep. Shoulders. — Level across the top, not too wide, free from coarseness. Legs. — Straight and well set, level with the outside of the body, with flat bone. Pasterns. — ^Short and springy. Feet. — Strong, even and wide. Back. — Long, level and wide from neck to rump. Loin.^ — Broad. Tail. — Set high, stout and long, but not coarse, with tassels of fine hair. Sides. — Deep. Ribs. — Well sprung. Belly. — Full, but not flabby, with straight underline. Flank. — Thick and well let down. Quarters. — Long and wide. Hams. — Broad, full and deep to hocks. Coat. — Long and moderately fine. Action. — Firm and free. Skin. — Not too thick, quite free from wrinkles. Large bred pigs do not fully develop their points until some months old, the pig at five months often proving at a year or fifteen months a much better animal than could be anticipated at the earlier age and vice versa; but size and quality are most important. Objections. — Black hairs, black spots, a curly coat, a coarse mane, short snout, in-bent knees, hollowness at back of shoul- ders. MIDDLE WHITE SWINE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. Color. — White, free from black hairs and blue spots on the skin. Head. — Moderately short, face dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl full, "Wide between the ears. Ears. — Fairly large, carried erect and fringed with fine hair. Neck.^ — Medium length, proportionately full to uhe shoulders. Chest. — Wide and deep. Shoulders. — Level across the top, moderately wide, free from coarseness. Leg. — Straight and well set, level with outside of the body with fine bone. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 183 Pasterns. — Short and springy. Feet. — Strong, even and wide. Back.' — Long, level and wide from rump. Loin.- — Broad. Tail. — Set high, moderate length, but not coarse, with tassel of fine hair. Sides. — Deep. Ribs. — Well sprung. Belly. — Full, but not flabby and straight underline. Flank. — Thick and well let down. Quarters — Long and wide. Hams. — Broad, full and deep to hocks. Coat. — Long, fine and silky. Action. — Firm and free. Skin. — Fine and quite free from wrinkles. Objections. — Black nairs, black or blue spots, a coarse mane, in-bent knees, hollowness of shoulders, wrinkled skin. SMALL WHITE SWINE. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. Color. — Pure white. Head. — ^Very short and dished, snout broad and turned up, jowl very full, broad between the ears. Ears. — Small, short, and erect. Neck.^Short and thick. Chest. — Full and broad. Shoulders. — Full and wide. Legs. — Short, set well outside the body, fine bone. Pasterns. — Short and springy. Feet. — Small. Ba/Ck. — Broad, level and straight. Loin. — Wide. Tail. — High set, small and fine, with tassel of fine hair. Girth. — As deep as possible consistent with length. Sides. — Deep. Ribs. — Well sprung. Belly. — Deep and near ground. Flank. — Thick and well let down. Quarters. — Wide and full. Hams. — Deep, wide, full, and well rounded. Coat. — Fine and silky. Action. — Free and firm. Skin. — Fine, quite free from wrinkles. The general appear- ance of animals, small, thick and compact when compared witb other breeds. Objections. — Black hairs, black or blue spots, coarse hair, in- bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulder, wrinkled skin. Digitized by Microsoft® 184 JUDGING SWINE SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE. Head. SCALE OF POINTS — AMERICAN SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE •£ RECORD, VOLUME II, 189O. g O Smaller the better 2 Nose, shorter the better 5 . Dish, greater the better 3 •^5 \ Width between ears, greater, the better 3 Ears, small, thin, erect, more so the better (may be pricked forward, not lopped) ... 2 Top line, straighter the better, from shoulder to tail 5 Belly line, the more level the better 5 Girth in excess of length, more the better, if not more than ten per cent 5 Depth, greater the better 5 Width, greater and evener the better, from shoulder to ham 5 Loin, broader the better 5 Flank, deeper and fuller the better 5 Length, longer the better 10 Breadth, broader the better 10 Thickness, greater the better 5 Length, longer the better 2 Breadth, broader the better 3 Thickness o Trunk 35 Hams 25 Shoulders 5 Legs. Shorter the better 3 •^ j Straighter the better 2 ! Smooth, flexible, fine; more so the better. . 5 Must not be too thin, nor ridgy and coarse, nor show discolored spots from old sores, not pale and ashy but healthy in color and free from eruption. Hair | Evener, finer and thicker the better 5 *^t"^l^^ appear- ^ | Symmetry and evidence of vigorous health . 5 Total 100 DISCOUNTS AND DISQUALIFICATIONS. Pedigree, lack of registration or ineligibility to be registered dis- cjualifies 100 Sterility, inability to produce offspring disqualifies 100 Deformity, any structural deformity or lack disqualifies 100 Disease, any evidence of, or tendency to disease disqualifies 100 Disease, scars of sores, discolored spots, eruptions, eczema, etc. 5 to 25 Colored hair, disqualifies 100 Colored spots, dark spots in skin 5 to 25 Size, inordinate size, with coarseness of bone or form 10 to 50 Size, diminutive size 5 to 25 Disposition, savage or fierce nature 5 to 10 Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF BXCELLKNCK FOR SWINK 185 SUFFOLK SVINE. SCALE OF POINTS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN SUFFOLK 3 ASSOCIATION. (J Color. — White I. . 2 Head. — Small, broad and face dished 3 Ears. — Pine, erect, slightly drooping with age 2 Jowl. — Full and neat 1 Neck. — Short, full and slightly arched 3 Shoulders. — Broad and deep 7 Girth Around Heart 6 Back. — Straight, broad, level 12 Sides. — Deep and full 6 Ribs. — Well sprung 7 Loin. — Broad and strong 12 Flank. — Well let down 2 Ham. — Broad, full, deep 12 Tail. — Medium, fine and curled 2 Legs. — Fine, straight and tapering 3 Feet.— Small 3 Hair. — Pine and silky, free from bristles 3 Action. — Easy and graceful 4 Symmetry, — Adaptation of the several parts to each other. . . 10 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® 186 JUDGING SWINE TAMWORTH SWINE. STANDARD OP EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL PIG BREEDERS ASSOCIATION OF GREAT BRITAIN. Color. — Ciolden-red hair on a flesh colored skin, free from black. Head. — Fairly long, snout moderately long, and quite straight, face slightly dished, wide between ears. Ears. — Rather large, with fine fringe, carried rigid, but in- clined slightly forward. Neck. — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar. Chest. — Wide and deep. Shoulders. — Fine standing, and well set. Legs. — Strong and shapely with plenty of bone and set well outside of body. Pasterns. — Strong and sloping. Feet. — Strong and fair size. Back.— Long and straight. Loin. — Strong and broad. Tail. — Set on high and well tasseled. Girth. — Deep and full around heart. Sides. — Long and deep. Ribs. — Well sprung, and extending well up to flank. Belly. — Deep, with straight underline. Flank. — Full and well let down. Quarters. — Long, wide, and straight from hip to tail. Hams. — Broad and full, and well let down to hock. Coat. — Abundant, long, straight, and fine. TAMWORTH SWINE. The following is the Tamworth Scale of Points Adopted by the English Breeders: Formation and setting on of fore legs 10 Formation and setting on of hind legs 10 Length and general conformation 10 Head, ears, jowl and snout 10 Breadth of neck 5 Breadth and depth of shoulders 10 Width of loin, depth of sides, springing of ribs 15 Depth and breadth of hams 10 Straightness of back 5 Hair and quality of skin 5 Color Fineness of bone 5 Action. — Firm and free. Objections. — Black hairs, very light or ginger hair, curly coat, coarse mane, black spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned up snout, heavy shoulders, wrinkled skin, inbent knees, hollowness at back of shoulders. Digitized by Microsoft® OFFICIAL STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR SWINE 187 THIN RIND HOGS. STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE ADOPTED BY THE THIN RIND RECORD g ASSOCIATION. (J Head. — Medium, well proportioned to length of body, and grade as follows: Face. — Straight and rather narrow between eyes 3 Eyes. — Full and bright 2 Ears. — Medium length, thin and slightly inclining forward . . 3 Jowl. — Light and tapering from neck to point 5 Neck. — Short and well set to shoulders 3 Shoulders. — Wide, full and deep, smoothly joined lo back. . 6 Back. — Medium in length, broad with nearly uniform width from shoulders to loins, slightly arched from neck to top of tail 10 Sides. — Deep and well rounded, nearly straight on bottom line 8 Ribs. — Nicely sprung in line with shoulders and hams 3 Girth. — Very full, denoting great vigor and strong consti- tution 8 Flank. — Running low nearly in line with belly 2 Hams. — Full and rounding up to rump and of great breadth. . 12 Legs. — Small, set well apart, very erect on feet, denoting great carrying capacity 10 Tail. — Medium length, neat and tapering 2 Hair. — Fine and of medium thickness 3 Color. — Black, with exception of white belt encircling body including fore legs, or solid black, white running high upon hind legs objectionable but allowable 5 Form and General Appearance. — Smooth and symmetrical, devoid of such grossness as excess of bone, jowl and flabby belly; spirited, attractive, easy movement, indi- cating constitutional vigor and good breeding 15 Total 100 Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This book has been developed to its present form under influ- ences that have been very favorable to it and the author feels that these should be fittingly acknowledged. From its inception, some ten years ago, these influences have been so encouraging that it becomes necessary to give tangible evidence of them, and con- sequently the work had to be published without any thought of filling the traditional " long-felt want " which is so frequently the source of authorship. Previous to attending the Ontario Agricul- tural College the writer had a very limited knowledge of any phase of live stock work but a deep love and active interest in animal life, centered chiefly on horses, -made the instruction from such teachers as Prof. Wm. Brown, Dr. F. C. Grenside and Prof. J. W. Rob- ertson, a genuine pleasure. After graduation, three years of edi- torial management of the Canadian Live Stock Journal offered unusual opportunities for analyzing the ideals of the best Canadian breeders, to whom unlimited appreciation is hereby tendered for a foundation which could hardly have been laid without more than usual co-operation from them. With the acceptance of the Chair of Animal Husbandry in the University of Wisconsin, a wider field was entered upon for deeper study and investigation. Stock judging was made a leading feature of the course, and with the develop- ment of ideas a new system of instruction was evolved. The writer is vastly indebted to Mr. R. B. Ogilvie, formerly proprietor of Blair- gowrie Stock Farm, for not only directly assisting the development of this department at the University, but also for the results from frequent visits and conferences at Blairgowrie, through which a much stronger grasp of the essentials of horse judging was obtained. For many valuable observations on the qualities of draft horses the writer finds himself also greatly in the debt of Mr. Alexander Galbraith. The influence of Hon. W. A. Jones, now Commis- sioner of Indian Affairs, was clearly felt on the development Digitized by IVIicrosoft® 192 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of this department of the University, for through him as chair- man of the Farm Committee of the Board of Regents, the equipment for this work was materially uplifted with corresponding encouragement. Mr. George McKerrow liberally assisted the writer in his work and much advancement is due to him and others, including Messrs. George Harding and Son, the late Mr. M. W. Dun- ham, Ex-Governor Hoard, H. C. Taylor, John Gosling and M. J. Hoven, all of whom in more than one way gave material impetus to the movement. It was at this time that the 'writer came under the inspiring influence of the late Mr. William Watson. It was a source of intense pleasure to see this experienced fitter and judge subject anj' of his loving friends, chiefly cattle and sheep, to his considerate inspec- tion. Equally fair minded, another friend, William Lysaght, had this rare faculty of candid criticism even of his own, and to both of these men the writer owes more than he is able to acknowledge. After coming to Iowa, enlarged opportunities were entered upon for the pursuit of these studies. Prof. C. F. Curtiss and Hon. James Wilson, present Secretary of Agriculture, had prepared the way with an equipment in live stock and other facilities of exceptional merit for the teaching of this subject. Continued association with the former has vastly deepened and widened the writer's interest and knowledge of this subject ; for such must be the outcome of contact with j. broad and fair minded judge of wide experience in American live stock show rings. One of the most effective sources of encouragement to the development of this line of teaching has been the support given the movement by the commission firm of Messrs. Clay, Robinson & Company, of the Union Stock yards, Chicago. By liberally donating prizes for the study of this subject in our colleges, this firm brought the attention of the practical man to it, as the latter realized that when a large firm stopped in its work to do this there must be something of genuine merit in the movement. With such interest from outside sources and such direct associations is it any wonder that the subject should grow until it became a necessity to publish a book about it ? Other influences have been drawn on in studying this subject further. In earlier daj's the writer happened on one of the first Digitized by Microsoft® ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 193 numbers of the Breeders Gazette, containing an illustrated edito- rial on the points of horses. This emphasized the importance of the subject and at once started the note taking and the collection of photographs which seem essential features for a work like this. Since then the same source has been frequently drawn upon. The writer has also found it very desirable to keep in touch with the London Live Stock Journal, as well as many other publications along this line included in the American press. Among contempo- rary works, Capt. Hayes' "Points of the Horse," Goubaux and Barrier's " Exterior of the Horse, " Underbill's " Driving for Pleasure" and many others have been consulted. To continue acknowledging all the sources ot assistance to the writer, would require another volume but let it suffice to say — there are hundreds of American, Canadian and British breeders to whom he vividly recognizes his debt but feels utterly unable to adequately acknowl- edge it. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® "'^A/o'^i