'mm.^ M I! gtgji^>?gWw)>H.yiwwy-itjtjaiyja^Slg" E. LEWIS STURTEVANT. CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 1924 054 695 048 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924054695048 TEN YEARS GENTLEMAN FARMING BLENNERHASSE T, WITH CO-OPERATIVE OBJECTS. BY WILLIAM L AWSO N; CHARLES D. HUNTER, F.C.S.; AND OTHERS. LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 1874. HI) Gl IS7H " Go, little book, God send thee good passage, And specially let this be thy prayere Unto thejn all that thee will read or hear. Where thou art wrong, after their help to call. Thee to correct in any part or all." Chaucer. PREFACE. The purpose of this book can only be fully understood by the perusal of it. Chiefly, it is intended to correct false impressions ; and to furnish a truer idea of our aims, and of the actual progress of our Farming and Social experiments. There are many reasons, besides those purely local, why we should make public this History of our Ten Years of Gentleman Farming. Many of the field experiments are new, and likely to prove of value to the agriculturist. The Field and Crop Balance-sheets will, we hope, go some way to supply a want which we, in common with most beginners in farming, fdt repeatedly. Many valuable tables and agri- cultural facts and statistics, calculated and condensed from various sources, are also given; which cannot be readily obtained elsewhere, except by those who have the command of a large and varied library. To enable myself to tell a true tale, I have overhauled the archives, re-read Mr. Lawson's diary, examined the " Council" and " Parliamentary" minutes, and analysed and rearranged many of the field experiments. These agricultural experiments were at first intended by Mr. Lawson to occupy the first place in this book ; but it seemed to me, that our Co-operative and Farming History was likely to prove more generally interesting; and should consequently receive, if possible, more attention at our hands, and occupy the foremost place. This arrangement has been adopted, — ^perhaps at the expense of making the contents somewhat incongruous; though, indeed, to include VI PREFACE. even the briefest sketch of our varied doings at Blenner- hasset, they could not well be otherwise. The Blennerhasset establishment referred to, existed during ten years — ^namely, from 1862 to 1872. It included a farm, extensive farm buildings, a market garden, artificial manure works, steam-ploughing machinery, a laboratory, a free library, a free school, and several grocery shops. Its head- quarters were at Blennerhasset, a village of about 200 inhabitants, on the south side of the little trout stream, the Ellen, about 18 miles west of Carlisle, and about 10 miles east of Maryport. In as far as I am responsible for the matter and arrange- ment of the book, I claim indulgent criticism ; on the ground principally of my inexperience in authorship; and also, because, being wishful to complete some departments of the history, which I had not anticipated having to do, I have written much that I had neither convenient time, nor indeed the necessary knowledge, to write well.* I also desire to record here our indebtedness to Mr. Holyoake, for many useful hints and still more useful exci- sions; without which the book would have been less present- able than it now is. CHARLES D. HUNTER. Glasgow, Seftember, 1874. With regard to portions of this book written by me, I am not only indebted to others for various emendations, but unable to superintend their passage through the press. WILLIAM LAWSON. Warwick, Mass., U.S.A. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY. Difficulties of the Public Service. By G. J. Holyoake, . i CHAPTER I. Commencement of Farming. By William Lawson, . . 14 CHAPTER II. A Village Parliament. By William Lawson, ... 25 CHAPTER III. Farm Proceedings — Outside Opinion. By William Lawson, 35 CHAPTER IV. The First Steam Plough in Cumberland — its Adventures and Vicissitudes. By Miller Tiffin 42 CHAPTER V. Free Co-operation. By William Lawson 73 CHAPTER VI. Varieties of Co-operation. By William Lawson, . . 86 CHAPTER VII. Personal Incidents. By William Lawson, .... 95 CHAPTER VIII. Public-Good Departments. By Charles D. Hunter, . . loi CHAPTER IX. History of the Blennerhasset Festivals. By Charles D. Hunter, 123 CHAPTER X. Farming Losses. By Charles D. Hunter and Miller Tiffin, . 147 . CHAPTER XL Manufacturing Profits and Losses. By Charles D. Hunter, 180 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. Shopkeeping and other Ventures. By Charles D. Hunter, 194 CHAPTER XIII. What our Neighbours think of us. By Thomas Bell and George Glassbrook, 203 CHAPT.ER XIV. The French Excursion. By a Neighbour, .... 212 CHAPTER XV. Varieties of Farm Cropping. By Charles D. Hunter, . . 221 CHAPTER XVI. Field and Crop Balance-Sheets. By Charles D. Hunter, . 258 CHAPTER XVII. Manures and their Value. By Charles D. Hunter, . . 290 CHAPTER XVIII. Farm Labour AND ITS Cost. By Charles D. Hunter, . .319 CHAPTER XIX. Experiments on Grass Manuring. By Charles D. Hunter, . 330 CHAPTER XX. Field Experiments on Potatoes. By Charles D. Hunter, . 365 Appendix, 396 Index 399 ERRATA. Page 148, line 13, column 1873, read ^36 instead of ;f37. „ .1 13, 1. Total, „ ^43 „ £44. „ r„ 19, „ 1873, „ ;fii53 „ ^,154. I53i n 5t transpose " got" to before " fixed." 187, „ 23, read 185 instead of 867. ' 221, „ 19, „ ^8 „ £3. 326, last line, add "The above list show nothing for potatoes they being taken direct from the pits. Twopence a-weeic may be added for them.'' TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. INTRODUCTORY. DIFFICULTIES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. During Mr. Lawson's last visit to Egypt, I was asked to look over some MSS. left by him, and judge whether it would be useful to publish them. After visiting the place to which the MSS. related, and perusing the narrative by the light of information gathered upon the spot, I had no hesi- tation in thinking that the story of " Ten Years at Blenner. hasset " was worth printing, seeing how scant is the literature of social experiments. I volunteered, moreover, to give my impressions of the story by way of introduction to it ; since what I had observed, in writing a " History of Co-operation in England," had convinced me that the general public know very little of the " Difficulties of the Public Service " in the direction of social improvement; and that if they" knew more, they would judge with less severity than they do, the inevitable errors made in that form of disinterested effort. Those who originate personal experiments in social life, or introduce the social element into industry, have more difficulty to encounter than in attempting some new thing A TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Prejudices to be encountered. in manufacture. In discovery, or mechanical invention, sufficient opposition is encountered from persons who dislike any change, and those who are interested in what is already established, and whose property would be damaged if the new system prevailed; while in social experiments further opposition of a more vicious order is met. Prejudices of a political, social, or even of a religious character, have to be encountered ; so that a pioneer in this direction not only gets no help, but meets with active hindrance. He is not only thought to be no wiser than he ought to be, but he is said to be no better than he should be; and it is a very mild form of dissent to suggest that he is eccentric, with a tendency to something very well understood as the further and final stage of that malady. Hence it follows that per- sons who attempt any form of social improvement have commonly very little experience to guide them; for very few experiments have previously been made. Where ten thousand experiments are attempted in art and science, not ten are tried in this department of human progress. The reader will not proceed far before he discerns that Mr. Lawson never hesitates to tell a story against himself— indeed, he writes with self-depreciating candour; and if he does not actually take a pleasure in giving the reader an Impression to his own disadvantage, he does not take any trouble to give him a favourable one. Perceiving how ingeniously and persistently people who have not been successful hide from themselves, and endeavour to hide from others, the causes of their failure, Mr. Lawson, justly dishking this, seems to me to go rather to the opposite ex- treme. This is a better and more honourable course than DIFFICULTIES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. Difference between Social and Mechanical experiments. the other ; still the reader who wishes to form a just opinion will notice that it is an extreme. He who ventures to peruse the following pages will find recorded a number of curious social incidents and proceed- ings. In all the literature of British social experiments I have not often met with so many calculated to startle the prosaic and conventional Enghshman. Industrial Partnerships are now accepted facts in com- mercial undertakings. When Mr. Lawson adopted the principle at Blennerhasset, he was probably the only gentle- man in England who had committed his fortune to what was then regarded as certain peril. Better methods exist now of giving the labourer a share of the profits ; but they were mostly unknown then, save as theoretical speculations, such as those Mr. Babbage devised. No scheme was in force for estimating the profits which might accrue from the personal interest and voluntary industry of the labourers, so that they ccmld judge what degree of advantage was likely to accrue to themselves. If a reserve fund was set apart for the introduction of improvements and new machinery, it would, in due course, provide sufficient for the proprietor to pursue the development of his estate. This is now in general provided for before the division of profits with the labourers commences. But, as no arrangement of this kind was in force at Blennerhasset, the labourers were, of course, uncertain whether Mr. Lawson's costly experiments, so much beyond their knowledge and their confidence, might not extinguish all chance o^ profit to them. During the earlier years of this experiment, many documents existed relative to its proceedings which were not preserved, no one 4 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Explanations to Co-operators. foreseeing that they might one day be matters of interest or curiosity to others. Of these disregarded papers, a portion of one read to the members and workers brought together, has been preserved by accident. It was an address by Mr. Lawson on the question, "Is it desirable that the workers on the Blennerhasset Farm be direct partakers of its returns?" The paper seems to me to have been remarkable for its clear, considerate, and explicit statements. I had search made for the missing portions, which, however, could not be found ; else it would have been relevant to have quoted the whole here, as illustrative of the kind and quality of infor- mation given to the labourers. Mr. Lawson said " he had been asked to explain, as well, as he could, the meaning of the question they had met to discuss." This occurred at one of the early nights (in 1863) of their meeting together to debate their affairs. "The first thing that stood before them," Mr. Lawson said, "was the desirability of determining the value of a particular course of conduct, before considering its possibility; because those who are persuaded that a thing is desirable, will give more vigour and attention to the facts which tend to show that it is possible. Besides, by considering first whether a course is desirable, if it is found it is not so, a person is saved all trouble in considering whether it is possible. Many people never master the distinction between desirability and possibility. I want you," said Mr. Lawson, "to feel no longer that you are merely working for me, but that you are really working with me, as cultivators of the soil; with a view to participation in the profits, if we can make them. There is a great difference between working for and with DIFFICULTIES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. 5 The Spirit of Co-operative Work. a person ; and if this is not very clear in the mind, there will be confusion in practice." Then, before detailing what he proposed to do upon the Farm, he reasoned out the points he had stated. " First, then (he asked). Is what we propose desirable ? — -by this I mean would it be a good thing if it could be accomplished ? and, as we proceed, each will distinguish between the question. Is it desirable ? and the question, Is it possible, or practicable? If the question were asked. Is it desirable that everybody be healthy and wise ? the answer would undoubtedly be Yes ; but if we said. Is it possible for everyone to be wise and healthy ? that would be quite a different question, and the answer might be No. When a particular course of conduct is presented to a man's mind, it seems wise for him to consider, ' Is such a course desirable ? ' before considering, ' Is such a course possible ? ' For if, after giving due attention to the question, ' Do I desire the thing ? ' he answers with a ' No,' he will, as I have said, be able to set his mind at rest on the subject, and be freed from the necessity of a fruitless investigation as to the thing's being practicable. I should suppose that when a man entered with good will, and with intelligent knowledge of what he was about, it would be a greater advantage to the undertaking, and all concerned, than if he neither knew nor cared what he was doing. For myself, I must contri- bute in some way to the confidence necessary, by recipro- cating, as far as I can, any you may show. A farmer who had so much improved the management of his estate that his neighbour's attention was attracted to it, was once asked how it was that he had done so well upon a farm 6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Intelligent and Pecuniary Conditions of Success. where the previous occupier had lost money. He said the reason of his success was, that when he was carrying on work on the farm, he said, ' Ccme, lads, lefs do such a thipg,' whereas the farmer before him 'used to say, ' Go and do such a thing.' Now, I want to be able to say to you in spirit and in effect, if not in so many words, ' Come with me and let us do such a thing.' I certainly cannot expect, or wish, that you should more intimately join with me in a concern, unless you understand the design and the system which is proposed to be carried out. Therefore let me tell you first of all that I am of opinion that the most profitable system of farming is that which is commonly called High Farming. And here let us compare a farm with a ware- house. Suppose the occupier of the warehouse pays ^loo a-year for the use of the premises ; if he passes very few goods through his warehouse in the course of the year, he will have to pay very few labourers, and his daily expenses will be very small. This state of things resembles 'low farming.' But if he pass a very large quantity of goods through his warehouse in the course of the year, he will have to employ a great many hands, and his daily expenses will be proportionately heavy; yet, if he make a certain very small .profit upon his' goods, you will easily see that he will be able to pay his rent at the end of the year with much greater ease and advatitage than he could if he had adopted the former course. Just so, if the farmer expend much money, judiciously, in obtaining those conditions on his farm which will seicure abundant and valuable crops, the gross returns of his farm will increase in proportion to that expense ; and, as the rent, rates, and taxes of his farm will DIFFICULTIES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. 7 A "Gentleman" in Business. remain the same, he will be a clear gainer by his adopting high instead of low farming. I believe, then, in deep culti- vation, large applications of manure, and in growing the most valuable sorts of crops, although such crops may re- quire a great amount of labour. " Whatever be the advantages or disadvantages of buying and eating animal food, I believe in the profitableness of producing and selling it. I propose to keep several scores of milk cows in my new buildings all the year round ; and to send new milk twice a-week to Newcastle or Carlisle.'' Then Mr. Lawson gave further details of what he con- templated doing ; and explained, as he went, the elementary misconceptions they were likely to make about his plans. All this was very thoughtful and practical, quite free from undue dreaminess and world-making ; and was what a practical, sensible English gentleman ought to say to work- people whom he had invited to join him in a business en-, terprise. Mr. Lawson showed here more comriion-sense and practical sagacity than he has been credited with throughout his undertakings. He went into these the right way, if he came out of them the wrong way — through a generous latitudinarianism in industrial discipline which he permitted. Most new experiments fail through the timid parsimony of those who seek success without pecuniary risks to themselves. Mr. Lawson never did this. He pro- vided ample money to give the thing a fair trial. Over a co-operative store at Blennerhasset, until very recently, the visitor might see Mr. Lawson advertised as being in business. It seems absurd and eccentric that Mr. Lawson, a member of an old and wealthy family, should be O TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Labourers and the Missionaries. registered among his neighbours as a grocer ; and that the name of " WiUiam Lawson, Hcensed to deal in tobacco," should be written in white letters on a black board over a provision shop. But this eccentricity was the doing of the Registrar (under the Companies' Act) in London, who re- fused to register him as a " gentleman " ; under which very proper designation his name was sent up. The Registrar could not be made to understand that a gentleman was the promoter of a company of rustic provision dealers. Mr. Lawson, however, having the courage of his family, shrank from nothing necessary to give effect to his generous pur- pose ; however much it might involve him in misapprehen- sion on the part of others, who would never know or care to enquire into the facts. There is another episode in the following history which also deserves remark. Mr. George Moore, a well-known ■ merchant of London, and who lends support to the London City Mission, habitually invites several of the city mission- aries to Cumberland, his native county, at certain seasons of the year, for recreation and improvement of their health. Some years these missionaries were invited to the Blenner- hasset estate; and they were supported there, they and their families, and comfortably boarded at the farm house. The cost of this, which was paid out of the money appro- priated to the " public good " fund, amounted some seasons to a considerable sum (;^4o or ;^5o) for these labourers to provide ; and of course made so much less to come to themselves ; yet to their honour, the labourers never grudged the amount, but treated " Mr. Moore's missionaries," as they were called, with a nice sense of respect. Only on one DIFFICULTIES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. 9 The Blennerhasset Parliament. occasion was a remark made which had a personal applica- tion. Some of the missionaries, not remembering whose guests they were, and exceeding their spiritual vocation, publicly objected in the village parliament to the labourers' voting higher wages to themselves ; which, they said, was voting money out of Mr. Lawson's pocket. The labourers did not relish this interference in their affairs, quite out of the missionaries' province; and one rose up and said, " Perhaps the gentlemen forget that we pay for thee." Though many of the votes in the village parliament had the effect, if they were acted on, of voting money, which Mr. Lawson had to pay, for purposes sometimes outside their own immediate concerns, there was no intention, on the part of the labourers, of taking it out of his pocket. They knew it would diminish the amount of money coming to themselves out of the " pubUc good " fund, unless the higher wages proved more productive through the exertions and judgment exercised in the labour which would thence be undertaken. The Blennerhasset Parliament, as it was called, was, in a commercial point of view, a romantic institution ; while in the citizen point of view, — of enlarging the ideas, the interest, and independence of the frequenters, — it was very excellent. When I delivered a lecture in Blenner- hasset recently, to an audience many of whom had been members of the old parliament, and among all of whom the traditions of it remained ; although they had seen little and knew little of co-operation as understood elsewhere, they were unquestionably persons of considerable intelligence, and who understood everything said to tl>em. Nothing, however, could be more impracticable and disastrous, in TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Universal Discussion. a commercial sense, than setting apart a portion of the working time, for men and women to meet and discuss about what they should do : and the droll thing is, that they were paid for the time spent in debating whether they would do anything at all. It is to the credit of the men that one of the shepherds proposed that " we divide the three hours of mental toil, giving one to going over the farm ; " — to see the condition of it, and so have facts to discuss about. . The honest man did not disguise from himself that the time was not usefully spent for industrial purposes ; and he called the three hours spent daily in council by the name of " mental toil " ; so as to satisfy his conscience, by a phrase, that he was doing something. That the industrial council was thrown open to anybody in the village, to come in with their conflicting and confusing advice, is one of the strangest things ever read of in an industrial enterprise. If the Cum- berland peasant's head was not square and sound, the whole scheme would have been talked out of existence in three months, instead of lasting ten years. It was frequently proved that the women were the best men of business, and deserved to have a medal voted to them by the society for promoting the civil independence of that interesting sex. When the men were desirous of increasing their wages, they yet voted with the indecision of persons who considered whether the concern could honestly afford it; and when a limit was proposed to bC' put to their wages, they voted for it : but when a proposal was made by one of the women that their wages should be increased, the whole thirteen attended ! One only entertained doubts of tlie fairness of the proposi- tion, and twelve unanimously and at once voted in favour DimCULTlES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. II Effects Unfavourable to Discipline and Progress. of it ! In this Parliament, persons and offices, as well as affairs, were debated. One result, scarcely foreseen, of putting to the vote the duration of an office, or the fitness of the holder to retain it, was that no officer felt certain of his situation. For, though the principal did not hold himself bound by the decisions of the open council, those decisions would necessarily have the force of public opinion, by which he might himself be influenced ; or, if his own judgment re- mained unchanged, he might find it desirable to adopt the expressed opinion of all others engaged with him. In one instance, a labourer placarded a motion in the village for discussion, as to whether " the manager was fit for his place." This free and easy insubordination could not fail in pro- ducing its effects. It could not be a very pleasant thing for a manager to have his disqualifications, real or imagi- nary, pointed out and dwelt upon, perhaps by uninformed or malicious expositors ; and, perhaps, a general resolution of the whole village come to, that he ought to be removed. Though, on the whole, there was a good nature and good temper displayed by managers, and by the men and women employed, the reader will see in the course of this narrative that the effect of these proceedings was unfavourable to dis- cipline and progress. Yet I think we may conclude that, had there been practical experience sufficient to regulate, without destroying, the interest of the Co-operators, no im- portant commercial harm would have resulted ; and there is no doubt that these debates produced an amount of intelli- gence, and even sentiments of mutual respect among the Co-operators, which nothing else could have produced. I myself saw evidence, years after, of the undoubted personal TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Mr. Lawson's Width of View. regard in which Mr. Lawson was held among the common people, — a degree of respect which nothing so much as the experience of the generosity of the Co-operative principle, as represented by him, could have led them to entertain. The reader, however, will do Mr. Lawson very great injustice if he does not take into account .the object he had in view in all he did. That object was the promotion of what he called the " public good "; and that public good he conceived in a very unusual sense. It would, perhaps, have been better for industrial Co-operation had he confined him- self simply to making his farms successful and profitable, by simply giving the labourers a pecuniary interest in their success, and thereby establishing the fact that such an ar- rangement paid commercially; which would have encouraged many other gentlemen, without half his humanity and good feeling, to carry out the same thing. But Mr. Lawson's object was not so much to make money as to make the people into prosperous and intelligent self-directing men and women ; and he gave them the opportunity of this ; and did make them intelligent; and conferred upon those near him such advantages as, I believe, no villagers in England ever possessed. Indeed Mr. Lawson always insisted on the width and universality of his efforts for the public good; and always held that a New Zealander was to be as free to advise him, and enjoy the public good expen- diture, as those immediately employed by him. The Co- operative Societies, the Medical Dispensaries, the Schools, and Free Reading-rooms which he spread around the chief villages of the district, and some of which he still maintains, are all instances of objects, larger than co-operation is usually DIFFICULTIES OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. I3 Results really attained. supposed to compass,. which he generously promoted. These objects were, in fact, beyond what the neighbourhood under- stood. The poor are too seldom content to see the general advantage of others increased, even though they and their children are sharers of it. Their need compels them to desire to have a pecuniary advantage coming exclusively into their own hands ; and they would be more grateful for less benefits which came directly to them. The reader will see that in this case the larger benefits were really accorded to them : and, even in days when applause is freely given to those who succeed by selfishness, many will mitigate their censure of, if they cannot esteem, one who faUed because he was too generous. Such is the quality of the facts which may reward the curiosity of the reader who ventures through these pages. George Jacob Holyoake. 14 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Explanatory Personal Facts. CHAPTER I. COMMENCEMENT OF FARMING. It is not of consequence to give, in this narrative, any biographical facts, except, perhaps, one or two which will help to explain how I came to take an interest in agricul- tural and Co-operative farming ; and what kind of qualifica- tions, or rather disqualifications, I had for the undertaking. My hiope is that, if it shall appear that my objects were right in the main, and the ends I sought to accomplish justifiable in themselves, others may not be discouraged ' from prosecuting them with better knowledge and judg- ment. ' Bom at Brayton, Cumberland, in 1836, I had the advan- tage of being the son of parents who were more anxious that their children should be happy and good, than that they should be learned or great. My father (Sir Wilfrid Lawson, Bart., of Brayton), had my education conducted — in a religious manner — at home, where I acquired a 'little Latin and Greek, and a few other things ; and where, as is -the case with many other youths, anything in the shape of lessons was not attractive to me ; and I learned as little as possible. I had, before I was eighteen, travelled several times on the Continent of Europe, and visited Egypt and Palestine; but circumstances never brought me much in contact with rich or great people, and I had not much of what is called "knowledge of the World:" nor, as I always had the prospect of wealth enough to enable me to live without working, did I form what are called "business habits." Traine;d as a shooter of animals, a hunter of Cumberland beasts with hounds, and a trapper of vermin; I found myself in the spring of 1861, in my 2Sth year, with- out an occupation, without many acquaintances, — except among the poor, whom I had not learned to despise because COMMENCEMENT OF FARMING. 1 5 Gathering Information. they spoke bad grammar and took their coats off to work : — and without the reputation of having been successful in any- undertaking except that of the mastership and huntsmanship of my brother's fox-hounds. But if I had ever been a sports- man at heart,' I had then ceased to be one ; and had begun to look upon hunting and shooting as barbarous cruelties that ought not to be immoderately indulged in, nor, if at all, allowed to absorb an excessive amount of time and wealth. In 1861 we continued fox-hunting as late as May; and on the 6th of May, having packed my saddle-bags, I mounted a pleasant little horse at the door of my father's house, with the intention of riding from there to London, to enjoy myself, and to see whatever was to be seen. I spent 33 days on the road; going by Caldbeck, Penrith, Appleby, Leeds, Sheffield, Chatsworth, Clipstone Park, Nottingham, , Leamington, Woodstock, Oxford, and Uxbridge ; visiting some old acquaintances, and making many new ones ; being shown over steel-works at Sheffield and lace-works at Not- tingham ; seeing things of beauty, and finding objects of interest everywhere. Belvoir Castle was visited from Not- tingham ; Stratford-on-Avon and Warwick Castle from Leamington. Many beautiful private grounds were ex- plored on the way. And, as I was ready to talk with any- body who was willing to talk to me, I acquired a good deal of information about the various customs in the counties I passed through, and particularly about the usual rate of wages received by labourers. The highest rate of wages I met with, for ordinary country labourers, was between Leeds and Wakefield, namely, 2s. 8d. per day. The lowest rate was, I think, in Buckinghamshire. Till then I had looked upon farming as a dull business, adapted to dull people, and as consisting mainly in buying animals lean, and keep- ing them till they get fat : but I could not help being struck by the variety of the modes of farming practised in the different districts I passed through ; arid it seemed to me that the diversities of agricultural practice could not all be satisfactorily accounted for by incidental differences, such as those of soil, climate, situation, and wages ; and that. l6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Gospel of Irrigation. therefore, all was not right with agriculture. After arriving in London, I heard of Mr. Alderman Mechi's farming at Tiptree Heath, Kelvedon, Essex, and went to see it. There I thought I saw very much better crops of wheat than I had seen anywhere else on my journey from Cumberland; and I became very much interested in Mr. Mechi's system of liquid manure irrigation with iron pipes under ground, hydrants and gutta-percha hose ; in his growing many crops of Italian ryegrass in the same year on the same ground ; in his keeping cattle and pigs on boards ; in his deep tillage, thin sowing, and high farming generally. , When I returned home to Brayton, I tried, with all the enthusiasm of five- and-twenty, to impress on my father and his practical men the many and great advantages of Alderman Mechi's system of farming over the old jog-trot one ; and to induce them to adopt it : but, though tihey listened to my gospel of irriga- tion by pipes and hose, they did not appear inclined to practise its doctrines ; and I seemed likely to be allowed my own way wiiA the theory, without bringing about any practical results. However, about October 1861, 1 was told that, as the Blennerhasset Farm — -about a mile from Bray- ton — was about to become vacant, I might, if I liked, take it, and experiment upon it as I chose. This seemed a very fair offer ; and though to become a real farmer, and yoke myself to a bit of ground, scarcely agreed with my previous notion of free enjoyment, I took the offer seriously into consideratior^. The nearness of the farm to my father's house, where I delighted to live, seemed to me very much in its favour ; as did the farm itself, being in sufficiently bad condition to be capable of great improvement. I thought I should be able to work on the farm as much or as little as I liked, and so have plenty of time for reading ; that I should have a good opportunity of establishing the soundness of my agricultural theories ; and that I should be able to give up farming when I had had enough of it, or when circumstances might change my place of abode. Had I been differently circumstanced, my ignorance of farming might have seemed a great objection ; but it seemed to me then to be of the never-go-iflto-water-till-you-know-how-to- COMMENCEMENT OT FARMING. 1 7 Determination to become a Farmer. swim kind : besides, anybody could carry on what he under- stood, while it would require some cleverness to carry on what one did not understand. I remember, about this time, spending some hours, during several days, in diligently going over the farm with a plan in my hand, to ascertain the depth and quality of the soil, the quality of the subsoil, and the general condition of the farm. Old " Jobby Hoddy " (Joseph Hodgson) accompanied me with a spade, and my father's head gardener with a note- book ; and we dug about three holes in each of the enclosures, - — then about 40,^ — of the 260 acres, carefully noting the results of our observations.* The depth of the soil, we found, varied from about six inches to about two feet ; and averaged about a foot. The subsoil, generally, was gravelly. The land was what farmers call good turnip and barley land, and was well adapted for sheep-farming. Much of it was, however, very stony; and a good deal of it wanted draining. Its inclosures were much too numerous, and its hedges too crooked and irregular. However, I was not many weeks in deciding. The prospect of usefully distinguishing myself as an agricultural reformer out-weighed the anticipated dulness of the farmer's occupation; and I agreed to become the Blennerhasset 'Farmer, my father undertaking to furnish me with the necessary capital. The Blennerhasset estate (including mines and minerals) formerly belonged to Mr. Dawson, of Whitehaven ; of whom my father bought it for ;^ 17, 100, — the manor being valued at ^3,100, and the rest of the property at _;^i4,ooo. The estate consisted, at the time of purchase, of 260 acres or thereabouts of land, with a water-wheel and farm buildings, some cottages, and the manor of Blennerhasset. To this was added about 73 acres of land, with farm and other buildings in the village, purchased of Mr. Robson, of Liverpool, The whole 333 acres, exclusive of all mines and minerals, were conveyed to me in one deed. I afterwards added to it the estate of * See Appendix A. B 1 8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Choosing a Head-man. Mr. Benson, which consisted of about 87 acres. A plan of the Blennerhasset estate is given in the frontispiece. It first became necessary for me to select, or look out for a head man. And, in my ignorance, I thought it more im- portant that the person to fill this place should be a good man than that h^ should be a good agriculturist; so I engaged a very respectable man, who was then my father's . coachihan, and had been so for about twenty years ; and who Had, for a few years, been keeping a small grocer's shop, and tenanting a few small fields besides. I looked upon him as a good, honest man of common sense, likely to do my bidding faithfully to the best of his ability : and I do not know that I formed a wrong estimate of his character; but I think I entertained wrong ideas as to the qualificaiions that were necessary for the situation I placed him in. I had not, at that time, read Stephens' " Book of the Farm," in which I now remember that, in specifying the qualifications necessary for a shepherd, be shrewdly indicates that while the shepherd's honesty is important, his knowledge of the shepherd's busi7iess is still more so. Before entering upon the farm, I spent several weeks in travelling, for agricultural information, in England, Scotland, and Wales ; visiting many good farms and well farmed dis- tricts; calling on many eminent agriculturists, and especially giving my attention to model farm buildings : for I con- sidered it necessary to build a new steading on my farm, and wished, of course, to have it as well arranged as pos- sible, with all the latest improvements. Steam cultivation came under my notice. With scarcely an atom of relevant practical knowledge, I soon arrived at the conclusion, not only that every farmer would soon be ploughing and harrowing by steam, but that so many agricul- tural operations would be done by this power, that farmers would, to a great extent, be able to give up keeping horses ! Steam ploughing was not nearly so widely known, or so well understood then, as it is now ; though I had found several sets of steam plough tackle in use in the South of England and in Scotland. The two best-known systems of steam cultivation, at that COMMENCEMENT OF FARMING. 1 9 First Mistakes. time, were Fowler's " direct " system ; — in which a locomo- tive engine and a travelling anchor moved along the head- lands opposite each other; — and Howard's "Roundabout" system, as it was called. And, after investigating the com- parative advantages claimed for these two systems, I came to the conclusion that Fowler's' would suit me best, and bought a set of his 12 H.P. tackle, price ^825. Near home a manure merchant easily induced me to buy ten tons of low-priced guano, worth very much less than I gave for it. In due course I made some very pleasant acquaintances ; and, among them, that of a clever agricultural engineer, who understood the whole subject of irrigation by pipes and hose. I brought this gentleman down to Brayton, and consulted him about my intended farming. He gave me a great deal of information and much good advice that I might have done well to follow; and said I had already made three great mistakes, namely, buying the steam plough, buying the low-priced guano, and engaging the coachman as my head man ; — the last-named mistake being, by far, the greatest. On the 2nd of February, 1862, I came actually into occu- pation of the farm, which prematurely took the name of "The Model Farm," as soon as the steam plough was introduced upon it. As soon afterwards as possible, with the able help of my father's people and others, I plalnned new farm buildings, with a turbine water-wheel of 20 horse- power. And how profusely I laid out money, pulling down miles of old fences; making thousands of yards of good new roads ; draining the land five feet deep, and ten yards apart; and taking thousands of tons of stones out of the ground; — how, during several years, I bought and fed animals and sold them at a loss; — how I deceived myself, and was deceived by others in various ways; — can be suffi- ciently well imagined without being described. The figures given in this book will give some idea of these things to those who prefer details, which I shall not shrink from supplying. In goihg about to get information, I had found one great 20 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. An early instance of Industrial Partnership. difficulty common to good farmers (as well as to the other sort), namely, the difficulty of dealing with the labourer. It seemed to me that this difficulty was to be got over by making the labourer a direct partaker of the profits of the farm; and so I determined that my farm should be a Co-operative one. But, in those days, what were called Communistic or Socialistic ideas were not much respected, generally ; and my Co-operative talk was constantly met by the well-worn saying, "If you made all the people equal to-day, they would be unequal again to-morrow." Rochdale Co-operation was not yet twenty years old ; and I think the phrase "partnership of industry" had not long been in- vented; at least it was unknown to me. At any rate, there were not nearly so many Co-operative societies in Cum- berland as there are now. Somehow I heard of Mr. Gurdon's Co-operative farms at Assington, Suffialk, and on visiting them, I found them prosperous joint-stock concerns. At Assington I found a Co-operative store, and saw a copy of the "Co-operator" newspaper. Through reading this newspaper I afterwards made the acquaintance of its editor, Henry Pitman ; and learned the history of that famous Rochdale scheme of Co-operation, in which, in 1844, 28 weavers subscribing small sums each, had established the principle of apportioning part of the profits of a joint-stock shop to its stock-holders, in pro- portion to the amount of their respective purchases at the shop, instead of in proportion to their respective amounts of stock. Co-operation then began gradually to take the lead- ing place in my mind, and soon became the chief object of my life; so that I did not so much intend Co-operation to serve the purpose of farming, as farming to serve the purpose of Co-operation. An, account of the Assington Co-operative farms having appeared in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, I called about ten of my labourers together, and read it to them; and we subsequently held very many meetings on this question. I said that it seemed to me, from what information I could get in England, Scotland, and Wales, that Labour was the difficult point to deal with ; that this COMMENCEMENT OF FARMING. First Co-operative Proposals. was evidently the great question for arrangement; and that if we could get the labourer to do right, we could then realize the greatest amount of profit from the land. I explained to them that I had in mind to give them one- tenth of the profits of my farm. I thought that when I went to the people and said I would Co-operate with them, and would divide part of my profits with them, they would jump at the offer, and we should carry all before us. But my astonishment was great when I found that they seemed to care nothing at all about it. I tried for some time; — I talked to them, but it seemed to produce no effect. I told them we would discuss the question — "Is it desirable that the workers on this farm should be direct partakers of its proceeds.?" I explained to them what was the meaning of the question, and I told them something about what had been done in Suffolk, on the farms owned by Mr. Gurdon; who, as long ago as 1831, gave leave to about 30 labourers to occupy a farm as tenants ; lending them money to culti- vate the farm, without making them pay interest for it at first. These people had got on very well; and the farm is a joint-stock one to this day. I told my people about this, and said that in two days they should have the opportunity of voting by ballot upon the question. Agricultural labourers are not exactly like the inhabitants of Manchester; they are not, perhaps, so independent; and they may be thought generally to speak very much as their employers would wish them to speak. However, these labourers Showed independence very soon; for, when the poll was taken, they did not vote at all as they were expected. Our voting urns were two bottles. One was ticketed with the word "Co-operation," and the other bore the inscription, "Every man for himself." In stating the issue, I did not wish to make the best of my case ; I wanted their unbiassed opinion. What, then, was the result with those eleven people? Actually ten of them voted for "Every man for himself;" and only one put into the "Co- operation " bottle ! A year or two later another scheme was submitted to them. This plan proposed to share the pro- ceeds, on certain specified terms. We called a public TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Candid Voting. meeting, and asked the whole of the people, whether la- bourers or other inhabitants of the village, if the plan should be adopted or not ; and we voted by ballot. If I remember rightly, there were 53 voters; 47 voted for the plan, and 6 against it. The next thing was to bring forward a plain statement of figures, to show exactly what capital was in- vested in the concern; and to state clearly what I demanded as the capitalist, and what would go to them as labourers. As soon, however, as the figures were brought before them, they became dull as ditch-water ; they would have nothing to do with it ; they would not even come to our meetings : and, therefore, although they had already voted in favour of this plan, I said — "Well, you don't seem to care anything about it ; but we will put it to the vote again." How many voted this time ? Only eight ! — and five of them voted in favour of the plan, and three against it. But almost all those people lived in the manager's house ; so I thought very little of the result, and gave up the scheme for that year. The next year I proposed a different plan. I did not go to the people and put it to the ballot at all ; because it seemed to me that I could Co-operate with any number of people, however small ; and that if the majority were against me I could co-operate with the minority. So I offered to the minority or the majority, just as they liked ; — I offered Co-operation to all comers. I said — I will give one-tenth of the profits of my establishment to the workers.* Perhaps' the labourers I thus consulted, seeing that I was ignorant or careless about many matters of farm practice, thought I was more likely to be wrong than right in any view I might take about the organisation of labour. It is not yet generally understood to be everybody's duty to devote his private property to the public good ; still less, in thos.e days, was it understdod that anybody could be actually devoting time and attention to the business of buying and selling without having, for his main object, the increase of his own wealth. The labourers had been accustomed all their lives to have their labour dealt with by those who simply tried to * The Co-operator, for June, 1866, contains a report of these pro- ceedings, related in a speech of mine. COMMENCEMENT OF FARMING. 23 Want of Confidence. buy it as cheap and sell it as dear as possible; and were, of course, unable to fall in with an entirely different order of things at a moment's notice. Seeing me engaged in buying and selling in the ordinary way, they supposed me to be prompted by the common desire to get as much as possible out of them, and give them back as little as possible; and they could not comprehend how, prompted by reasonable self-love, one might be "seeking one's own in all men's good." But if they doubted my will to benefit them by Co-operation, perhaps they were still more doubtful of my ability to do so. They saw me buying and selling, but not getting gain : and, under these circumstances, it was not to be wondered at if simple-minded labourers supposed that no contrivance could make my Co-operation profitable to them. Moreover, they probably considered my practice of trying experiments upon the farm a great objection to Co-operating with me. For, not only were the experiments I thought proper to have triec}, expensive, — without the prospect of direct profit to myself; — but the great importance to the public of intelligently-tried agricultural experiments did not th«!n seem to be reaUzed by farmers generally, much less by farm labourers not at all accustomed to scientific investigation, or even to calculation of any sort. However, I felt that direct participation by, the labourer in the profits of the farm would be an improvement upon the existing system of paying him by regular wages only ; and I kept urging its desirabiUty, in various ways, to various people, for several years. I saw, ultimately, that the ex- pediency of measures was not always to be judged of by the number of people voting for or against them ; arid that if I approved of the principle .of partnership of industry, it was for me to introduce it, and let it find its own value as time went on; and this I attempted. In May, 1866, I wrote a short letter to Mr. Pitman, which he published in The Co-operator, under the title of "Tithe for the Toilers." I said : — "Brayton, Carlisle, May 13. "Dear Sir, — I enclose a card which I have circulated among my workers. I have offered them one-tenth of my profits ; and thus hope 24 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Tithe for the Toilers. to make their labour interested. I began last month to issue tickets with wages ; these tickets are to be given in on January I, 1867, when one-tenth of the profits will be divided on them. "I find that if, in paying, the paymaster forgets the tickets, he is soon reminded by the workers. I cannot yet see any improvement, but hope that the end of the year will show some. — I remain yours truly, "William Lawson." The form and kind of ticket issued were as follows : — WILLIAM LAWSON, CO-OPERATIVE LABOUR. Manures. To my Workers, Steam Cultivation. I give Tickets with Wages,, that Flax Rettory and Scutching Mills, you may obtain Two Shillings out of Nursery, Fruit, & Vegetable every Pound of Profit, and thus have Gardens. a direct Money Interest in the suc- Seeds of all Descriptions. cess of the Establishment. Wm. Lawson. Baggrow Station, April, 1866. Cumberland. As I stated in the letter above, though these tickets were not much believed in, that did not prevent their being taken ; and, if one was omitted to be given to the labourer, on applying for his wages, he invariably asked for it. When the knowledge of these proceedings became public, besides many letters which I received, Mr. Gurdon of As- sington, whom I have previously mentioned, wrote as fol- lows to the editor of the Co-operator: — "Mr. Lawson's plan is not only an admirable way to avoid strikes, but a Christian and pleasant mode of dealing with our fellow- men." A VILLAGE PARLIAMENT. 25 A Premium Offered for Ideas. CHAPTER II. A VILLAGE PARLIAMENT. From the first, the Blennerhasset estate presented a good deal of activity, if it did not make much profit. About 12 acres were laid out as a market garden. Operations were also carried on at Prior Hall, another farm in my possession, consisting of 144 acres, lying eastward, about four miles up the valley of the Ellen. Besides the farming business proper, we hired out the steam plough, and carried on a manure business. In due course we manufactured flax; and established two shops, in Newcastle and Carlisle, for the disposal of the farm and garden produce. In the early years of our establishment, while it was growing and exttoding itself in various ways, it was the practice to call together for consultation some of the " chief officials," as they were called — such as the head man at Blennerhasset, the gardener there, and the head man at Prior Hall. This plan seemed to work well ; but afterwards, for reasons to be stated, the experiment was tried of sum- moning for consultation all the regular male and female labourers of the Blennerhasset farm. But I do not remem- ber that either the last-named plan, or what was a standing offer at one time, of half-a-crown to any ordinary labourer that might give me a valuable idea, brought forward many ideas of moment from the labourers generally. During much of the time that this enlarged council was on trial I was away from home ; but I have taken the following account chiefly from the minute books of the proceedings, assisted by notes of Mr. Hunter, who was present at all these enlarged council meetings, and who generally acted as chairman of the Village Parliament during my absence. The report of one speech, and copies of many of the 26 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. "Motions in "Open Council." earlier motions, are useful, as showing the feelings and ideas of the farm labourers. When the co-operative offer of 1866, previously described, was made, it was thought a necessary part of the plan that the workers should, at least, be consulted as to the manage- ment of the business. Accordingly, in this year a new, and, to my mind, important feature was introduced-^namely, the "Open Council," so called because it was the previous council thrown open to everybody ; and the right to discuss and vote was not limited to the workers ; but anyone was welcome to attend and give the benefit of his or her advice. The council was arranged to be held daily, for half an hour after dinner: but at the first meeting, on May 14th, the discussions proved so interesting that the half hour was greatly exceeded, and a Saturday meeting from 3 to 6 p.m. was soon substituted. The meetings were at first highly characteristic — the workers expressing their feeUngs and ideas more freely than they afterwards did, when they had learned by experience that everything could not be put to rights by passing motions. Some idea of the great interest taken- in the proceedings may be gathered from the follow- ing notices of motion for the third meeting on i8th May : — I. (By the nominal manager) "That we take into con- sideration the propriety of doing with fewer horses than we have now." II. (By the same) "That the subject of the excavation of the Rettories be taken into consideration." III. (By a labourer) " That we take into consideration whether the farm sub-bailiff is a proper person to fill his present position." IV. (By the shepherd) " That we divide the three hours of mental toil — giving one to going over the farm, and two hours in the council." V. (By a labourer) "That we clear our meadow of sticks and stones and tiles before the mowing season." VI. (By the working farm-bailiff) "That, in managing the business of this establishment, we do the things in their turn that seem necessary." (When the time came on for this motion, the chairman said it was unnecessary to put it!) A VILLAGE PARLIAMENT. 2^ A Reform Bill introduced. VII. (By a labourer) " That the twitch be taken out of the land." Three hours proved, of course, too short a time for the discussions that followed such resolutions ; but six o'clock was tea time, and the then home attractions always proved stronger than the love of " fratching " {i.e. disputing). The following proposition by one of the labourers is an indication of the outside, after effect of some of these discus- sions : — " That we consider whether it is proper for any member of council to molest at any time another member of council, in consequence of anything said in council regarding the carrying on of the business of the establish- ment." This " Open Council " was really a sort of village parlia- ment ; and indeed came afterwards to be called by that name. The term naturally brought with it associations of ideas greatly in excess of our humble and limited proceed- ings ; and when on one occasion many changes had to be proposed, the bailiff introduced them under the title of a Reform Bill ! which bill produced in its way as much local excitement as the more famous measure once did in the nation. The mover made a speech upon it in which he said, — " Every one of you who has been here for a month or two, knows as well as I do that there needs reform in several parts of this establishment ; or else, as Co-operators, you are taking no interest in knowing what is going on. And, as Co-operators, both you and I ought to have our eyes open to all that is passing ; how it is going on, whether profitably, or the contrary. Our meetings here prove that we believe in Co-pperation ; and that we expect on the first of January there will be something to divide amongst us, I mean this one-tenth of the profits. Then, I say, as Co-operators, every one of us ought to have our eyes open to every part of the establishment- and see whether, for instance '(now I do not speak merely for the sake of finding fault with any- body), whether, I say, it is necessary still to employ 20 horses on the farm ; whether these horses are profitably employed ; whether each horseman is actually doing his duty with the pair of horses that he is working. For instance, 28 TEN YEARS 'of GENTLEMAN FARMING. Clauses of the Reform Bill. in carting stones, is the man bringing as many as he should bring ? is he putting on as good a cartload as he can, or not ? We should have ' our eyes open to these things then ; and when a man goes to plough, or clod-crush, or anything ; the question is, is that man doing what he can ? Is it really necessary then, I ask, to keep ig horses and a mule, to do the work that is to be done ? That is a question. And then the vital question of corn to feed all these horses is to be considered. And if 13 horses can do the same work, or rather put ,in our crop and get stuiF laid down for these retteries and buildings in Blennerhasset, so as to keep the men at work ; is it necessary to employ these other 6 horses and 3, 4, or 5 men to work them ? I don't know whether you have ever considered the subject ; but I, having to do with the money, know what it is to pay for corn and hay and labour. We are now paying at the rate of ,^^2,9 12 per annum for wages alone. Then one is demanding an increase of wages, and then another ; and, supposing we give all the workers an, increase of wages who ask for it, where is our profit at the end of the year ? I should like to know that. Now, what I have to say is this ; — and this is clause I. of my 'Reform Bill'— " Let fart of the horses at any rate be sold at once ; and the rest put on half corn. " II. That we let alone the 8 cottages (that are, as yet, only on paper) until we see the other seven filled. " III. That the gardener look after his own department, and that alone ; and, as it is a great loss to the interests of the establishment, that he at once desist from standing over the wallers, joiners, labourers, and any one and every one who will stand and talk with him ; that he go with his work- people into the garden or nursery at 7 o'clock in the morn- ing, and remain with them until 12 o'clock; and the same thing during the working hours in the afternoon, from half- past I until 6. That he sell all the garden stufifhimself, and do not leave it to another to do. That he sell all by ticket ; i.e., giving a ticket to the buyer, be the purchase ever so small, and that the buyers pay the clerk. That the clerk weigh all seeds in the gardener's possession next Monday, A VILLAGE PARLIAMENT. 29 Results of the Divisions. and that afterwards the gardener give a ticket of weight and price to the buyer, and the buyer pay the clerk. The same to be done with the garden stufif, and with all seed got by the bailiffs. That the manager refuse to pay all accounts for animals, tools, garden stuffs, or implements bought by the gardener, unless he be previously acquainted with the transaction. And that after next Friday night, the gardener's pay be 20s. per week. " IV. That the working farm bailiff never omit going into the field with his workers at 7 o'clock in the morning; and that he remain with them till the hours of labour are done ; except some very urgent business connected with Mr. Lawson's interest compel him to leave. That instead of a stick he take some work tool, and, like a man, say ' Come,' instead of ' Go : ' and that his wages be, after next Friday, 1 8s. per week. "V. That the engineman furnish all necessary plans required at Mr. Lawson's return in two weeks, or three weeks at most ; and then go and drive the engine ; and let the present engineman go to some other work ; and that, after the present engineman is done with the steam-engine, his wages be i6s. per week. " VI. That every labouring man on this establishment be paid after Friday next with 15s. per week and no more. "VII. That all women who labour either in the garden or field be paid with is. per day after next Friday night." * This "Reform Bill" increased the already existing dif- ferences between the heads of the various departments. Each, too, felt uneasy ; not knowing when the " fickle mul- titude" might vote him out. Indeed, one of them, the clerk, who was much valued by me, at once looked out for a quieter situation ; and could not be induced to stay by an * The voting on these clauses Vfas as follows :- Clause I. . . 42 for. against. II. . ,. 22 ,, I „ III. , • IS .. ° » IV. , . . No vote ; the man resigned, V. . . Agreed to. VI. . , . 6 for. against. VII. . • 7 „ 12 ., 30 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Proceedings in Open Council. offer of much higher pay. I was on the Continent at this time; and on my return I saw the danger of this feeling, and pointed out that the Council had only advising powers. Then some one would ask, " What's the good of voting ? Mr. Lawson '11 not tie himself to do as we vote." To this a good answer was — " Of course not ; for you might vote all my money to those present." At this Open Council wages, as has been seen, were con- sidered and adjusted. The chemist was questioned as to his usefulness ; and one woman could not understand how, when so many people were sick, the chemist and his drugs remained at home ! ,The last meeting of the Open Council was in July, when I proposed to make the gardener farm bailiff; and this, though negatived by the Council, was afterwards carried into effect. The workers, too, were by this time tired of counselling ; and were not sorry when I said that, as only the advice of those who felt an interest in the subject was of value, the meetings would be held weekly in the school, on Tuesday evenings, and not in working hours. This evening meeting remained an institution till the end. In my absence, how- ever, the attendance, except upon very popular questions, was small, not more than a dozen being present on an aver- age. But even two people sometimes constituted a meeting ; and, on the other hand, 70 or even 100 would be present on such occasions as the proposed sale of the steam-plough, the stoppage of free schooling, or the election of a controlling agent. At first " Once a Week " was the popular and official name of this house of commons ; but a motion " that it be called the Blennerhasset Parliament " was passed, and ulti- mately adopted. It met, at first, in the village school-house ; but afterwards the Blennerhasset Free School-room was enlarged, and used as the place of meeting till the end. This Parliament was virtually a public assembly of the people, bfeing free and open to everybody, as has been ex- plained ; and any one was welcome to take part in its pro- ceedings ; and, by giving sufficient notice to its secretary, to bring forward almost any subject for discussion. The attendance, while free to all, was not compulsory upon the A VILLAGE PARLIAMENT. 3 1 Practical Results of the Parliament. labourers. The secretary and a few of the chief " officials " were, however, expected to attend. A very great variety of subjects was habitually brought forward and discussed by the assembly. Not only did it discuss farming affairs, or things over which the establish- ment had control, but questions of outside interest. As it was, the bargains made by the establishment, the cropping of the farm, and other matters of ordinary business, some- times were enough to occupy the whole time of its hour and a half of deliberation on Tuesday evenings. The want of a post-office or receiving-box in the village was felt ; and a resolution to that effect being passed, led to a Govern- ment Inspector making his appearance ; and a receiving- box was soon afterwards established. Several Free Reading Rooms, a Free Library, the Blennerhasset Free School, and the Free Night School, were also established through the •' Parliament." Through it, too, a number of Cumberland people were enabled to visit the Great Exhibition at Paris in 1867 ; and by means of it many of us came to know each other better, and to understand one another's circumstances much better. Of course, the funds necessary to set up and sustain the little institutions named, and the expenses of the trip to Paris, were paid out of the funds appropriated to the public good. Sometimes petty disputes of the neighbours were intro- duced for discussion ; and there certainly were some advan- tages in this system of having an appointed place for public fault-finding. For, if Jane Jones supposed herself to have a grievance against her next-door neighbour, Mary Smith, she determined to bring it before the Parliament, and gave notice of it to the secretary; for him to placard it in the village the day before the meeting ! She had thus a good deal of time for reflection before getting up to state her case ; and she was also likely to be tolerably temperate in her language, and to be kept pretty near the truth, in consequence of feel- ing that the village eye was upon her, and that the village ear was listening to her. Often, too, when workers thought themselves aggrieved and wished to make long-winded complaints privately, it was 32 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Reports from America. found very convenient to refer them to the Parliament ; and happily, the greatest talkers in private life seemed, sometimes, to have least to say when called upon to speak in public. During my absence in America I sent home letters to the controlling agent ; and as these often contained suggestions for the " Parliament," as well as information interesting to many of the labourers, they .were generally read at the meet- ings. Among these were some passages which tell of a visit I paid to a community in New York state, which showed the results of a closer co-operation than I had attempted at Blennerhasset. As this Settlement seemed to me a remark- able one, and interested me much, I repeat here the leading features. The community numbered about 250, about as many males as/emales, of various ages. They had a farm of about 520 acres, on which they conducted the businesses of grazing,, corn growing, fruit growing; preserving fruits and vegetables; shopkeeping, silk spinning, ironfounding, steel- trap- making: and the writing, editing, printing, and publi- cation of a weekly newspaper — the Circular. For 34 years' they had persevered, through many great difficulties, in publishing and gratuitously circulating a periodical. About 60 acres of their land were devoted to the growth of fruits — such as apples, pears, peaches, grapes, quinces, plums, cherries, strawberries, and raspberries (red, white, and black) ; and it is amusing to hear that, though at the time I saw them they grew and sold several acres of strawberries with a great demand, they had, when they began the busi- ness, sent twelve quarts to market, and had to bring six home again ! Their silk spinning business was also a growing one. The raw silk, as it came from China, cost them about 11^ dols. per lb. ; and after they had spun and dyed it, they sold it at about half as much more per lb. Two creeks (we should call them rivers in England, each of them being consider- ably larger than the Ellen at Blennerhasset) ran through their property ; and they had not only steam engines, but waterwheels — one being a powerful turbine, and one a 70 horse-power, 21ft. diameter wheel. A VILLAGE PARLIAMENT. 33 Social Reports from Abroad. Their steel-trap machinery business was managed by one of their members — an expert practical trapper. They sold about 200,000 traps per annum, of six or seven sizes, from the " Great Bear Tamer" downwards. They had adapted cast steel or cast iron to the manufacture of several parts of the trap, and every other link of chain attached to the trap was cast iron. In their foundry they used pig iron from Scotland, mixed with pig iron from a place in their own State, about 15 miles off. A considerable knowledge of chemistry and of mechanics was involved in their various businesses, and they had pro- duced several important inventions, which, however, they did not patent; and they were liberal enough to let anybody see their works. They had 58 milch cows, some of them pure-bred Ayrshires. They employed many hired people ("helps," as Americans call them). A first-class Engli.sh labourer had 37 dols. a month of 26 working days, and constant work; his English wife was paid 1 dol. (about 4s.) per day when she hoed the strawberries. She had adopted the same short dress and trowser costume that all the women of the Community wore, as she could thus do more work with greater comfort than with the old-fashioned long dress. They had about 150 acres of grazing land, of which about 2 acres will support a cow. They did not grow wheat usually ; or hops — though hops were grown a good deal in the neighbourhood, and said to yield 150 dols. per acre on an average. They grew from 25 to 30 bushels of barley to the acre ; 50 bushels of Indian corn ; 2 tons of hay ; 150 bushels of potatoes (60 lbs. to the bushel), or about 4 tons. Everybody laboured with his hands, and everybody (of whatever age) was a student. The clerking, printing, and editing, were done by the female members of the Commu- nity. Some of the "helps" worked ten hours a-daj', and some eight ; but the members usually worked not more than eight hours in summer, and four in winter. One man — -who had been crippled by a tree falling upon him while working at the clearing of the farm in its early days — had become a good shorthand writer and reporter. These people usually had three meals a-day — at 6 a.m., mid-day. 34 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Social Criticism at Blennerhasset. and 6 p.m. — and they ate scarcely any fish or flesh, but lived very much upon a great variety of fruits, and of farinaceous and vegetable food. Among these hundreds of Communists there was a great diversity of talent, disposition, and education. They had no private property, but all things in common. They had meetings every evening in their great hall, for hearing news read, and also for conversation. Sometimes they had con- certs and theatrical performances ; or lectures on " Chemis- try," illustrated by experiments. On one of the principals asking for criticism of himself, about a dozen male and female members of the community talked about him, one after the other, for half an hour; commending his good, and condemning his bad qualities. This criticism was very highly valued as a means of keeping the members on their good behaviour and in good humour. The whole party seemed to lead a blameless, industrious, contented, and useful life. Intensely theological and scriptural, and enthu- siastically Christian, they founded their practice on their theology ; of which one of the vital points was the doctrine that what they call " Christ's second coming" took place at the destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. They looked for God's will to be " done in earth as it is in heaven," where they "neither marry nor are given in marriage." However, they did not object to marriage "for people in. the world." In their school were 19 remarkably bright and happy-looking little children. Incited, perhaps, by the criticising feature above men- tioned, it'came about during the latter days of our Parlia- ment, that it instituted a system of mutual criticism, by which whoever chose might be publicly criticised by the Parliament ; and have deliberately pointed out the supposed good or bad traits in his character, as the case might be, with suggestions or advice for his future guidance. There was freedom of speech not only in name but in reality ; and occasionally the cool and pointed way in which workpeople of the establishment criticised those who were " in authority over them" was diverting, but might have been otherwise but for the quiet way in which those criticised " stood fire." FARM PROCEEDINGS — OUTSIDE OPINION. 35 The Prior Hall Estate. CHAPTER III. FARM PROCEEDINGS— OUTSIDE OPINION. As in the early years of farming I thought I was doing famously, I was glad of any opportunity of extending my operations ; and as my father had conveyed the Prior Hall Estate to me, I wished to farm it myself; for I did not wish to be the owner of any land without occupying it. The Prior Hall Estate, as I have said, was situated about four miles from Blennerhasset, pn the same side of the river Ellen, but higher up the valley. It consisted of about 146 acres of stronger and better land than that of Blennerhasset, but was in a colder climate. It was almost all arable ; and had a good, new, centrally-situated farm steading, with a water-power threshing machine. It was occupied by a good tenant, who had held it, under various landlords, for many years. I paid him ^545 13s. id. for unexhausted improve- ments, &c., and took the farm into my own hands on the 2nd of February, 1865. The rent of the farm had previously been ^221. I engaged, as farm bailiff for Prior Hall, a good Scotch husbandman, who remained with me as long as I farmed at all, namely, till 2nd February, 1872; and I had great plea- sure in this farm while I occupied it; for, whether I made money by it or not, I easily had my own way in the manage- ment of it. Among my recollections of Prior Hall are the pleasant walk of over ten miles that each visit to it usually gave me ; also the deep steam cultivation and heavy bone-manuring done there; success in growing a fine crop of drum-head cabbages; and failure in growing onions. Success in this latter crop was much sought after, but always in vain till 1870, when a few acres at Blennerhasset did result in a splendid crop; but then the labour of weeding, of sorting and re-sorting, and the rapid decay of many of the onions 36 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Harvest Homes in tlie Vale of Ellen. that year, made our success in growing, a failure in paying. The estimated profit from this crop had been /^$g 17s. 6d. per acre. In 1867 we had seven acres at Prior Hall pre- pared for onions. For that year there is still in existence a paper dated Feb. 6th, 1867, and headed " Estimated Profits on the Prior Hall Farm for 1867." The chief features of it are: — Cabbages, 26 Acres.. Profit per Acre, ;^i8 o 6...Total, ;£'468 13 o Onions, 7 59 17 6... „ 419 2 6 Leeks. 6 „ .. „ „ 76 7 6... „ 458 5 o Carrots, 4 „ .. „ ,, 28 18 4... „ 115 13 4 The profit on 95 Acres of the remainder was to be 692 16 6 Total profit on 136 Acres 2,154 1° 4 The actual result that year, however, was a loss of ;^2 52, without taking into account any charge for rent or interest. Prior Hall was not so much of a " sight " for strangers as Blennerhasset Farm; the steading being more after the usual pattern. A brief account of some of it will be found in the yournal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1867 ; where, in connection with the steam cultivation re- ports. Professor Coleman remarks upon the soil and tillage of Prior Hall. Its harvest homes were locally celebrated. An account of that of 1867 appeared in the Wigton Advertiser of October 1 9th. It was written, probably, by the then schoolmaster of Ireby j and is interesting as being an outside view of the affair. The writer stated that these annual gather-, ings were originally intended to celebrate " the ingathering of the harvest, and to afford to the numerous workpeople on the Prior Hall Estate an opportunity of enjoying, in com- pany with their friends, an evening of rational social enter- tainment. But, so open and so pleasurable have been the meetings, that the night of the Prior Hall harvest home is now considered a general 'gala night' by the whole vale of Ellen. The numerous guests, upwards of 280, arrived in time to pa,rtake of an excellent tea provided in the large new granary. The room had been uniquely decorated; tastefully arranged devices, formed from products of the farm, such as cabbages, carrots, parsley, flax, wheat, and FARM PROCEEDINGS— OUTSIDE OPINION. 37 Sale of Four Estates. oats, adorning the walls. After tea several arrivals in car- riages, and many more on foot, so increased the number of guests, that those in attendance during the greater part of the evening could not fall much short of 400. Some ladifes, and many wives and daughters of labourers and others were among them." I was abroad then; and, of course, was glad to learn how pleasantly the time passed. In June, 1867, there came into my possession the two farms adjoining Prior Hall, namely. Park House, of about 275 acres, and a rental of ;^3i8 ; and Newbefgin, of about ' 150 acres, and a rental of £116 ; also, the distant estate called Littlethwaite, in the vale of Lorton, consisting of 140 acres of woodland and farming land, the latter portion being let for £(>S a-year. This last estate I sold by auction, at Cockermouth, on 14th October, 1867, for;^3,oio. About this time also I bought the Prior Hall Mill Estate, and at Candlemas, 1868, laid it to the Prior Hall and other two adjacent estates. It consisted of a water-power corn- mill, some houses, and about 13 acres of land; the price paid for it was ;£^i,35o. With the view of occupying all these four estates — about ■ 584 acres — I proceeded to buy the leases of the tenants of Park House and Newbegin, and to pull down some of the fences. Nevertheless, I afterwards thought it prudent to offer all the four estates for sale ; and accordingly, I sold them by auction, at Carlisle, on 25th Januaty, 1868, for _;^28,6oo; — giving possession on 2nd February, 1868. The only farming land then left was that at Blennerhasset, for which my capital was more than sufficient. In the early part of 1868, as I had the prospect of tra- velling extensively, and of being, for a good while to come, even less about my farm than I • had .hitherto been ; it was evidently desirable to appoint a trusty and capable person to act as controlling agent during toy absence; and I decided to consult my neighbours as to who should be so appointed. Accordingly, a day and hour were fixed for the nomination, in the Blennerhasset Free School-Room, of candidates for the new office. Everybody was welcome to attend the nomination, and to nominate any one. Three candidates. 38 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Election of a Controlling Agent. all of them Scotchmen, were nominated. One was ouf Blennerhasset farm chemist ; another the gardener, who had been recently acting as the Blennerhasset farm manager; and the remaining one was the head man of the Prior Hall Farm. The polling was fixed to take place in the same room at a particular hour, a few evenings after the nomination. All comers, except very young children, were allowed to vote ; and the voting was by ballot. The chemist withdrew before the polling commenced ; so the contest lay between the two Scotchmen of Blennerhasset and Prior Hall. The result was that the Prior Hall candidate received 88 votes, and the Blennerhasset one 24. Majority for the Prior Hall Scotch- man, 64 votes. The successful candidate was soon after- wards formally appointed controlling agent, and publicly charged to do his duty. The Blennerhasset farm had, naturally, many visitors ; some from mere curiosity, others to see our farming, and a few to learn about our Co-operation. An account of the place was written by a visitor from Newcastle ; and its ap- pearance in the " Co-operator" of August ist, 1867, took us a little by surprise. It was made the subject of some sharp and adverse criticism by the weekly Parliament, the title of "A Co-operative Farm" being specially objected to. And, perhaps, there was at that time some ground for this objection; for, after our non-success in 1866, the offer of a bonus on labour was not renewed till 1870 ; and the system in force for 1867, was a promise "that all the declared profits over 2}4 per cent, (the only interest), would be devoted to public uses" — named by us the " Pubhc Good." The writer referred to gave, among other things not necessary to recall now, some particulars which may be relevant in this place. He said : — " Blennerhasset Farm, originally known as the ' Mechi ' Farm, is situate somewhat within a quarter of a mile of the Baggrow station, on the Bolton branch of the Maryport and Carlisle Railway, and a few hundred yards westward of Blennerhasset village. The estate formerly belonged to the Dawsons of Whitehaven, and was for a considerable period FARM PROCEEDINGS — OUTSIDE OPINION. 39 A Visitor's Report. farmed by the Pirt family — excellent old-fashioned farmers, who retired some years ago with a competency. Crossing the massive stone bridge over the river Ellen, which sepa- rates the village of Baggrow from that of Blennerhasset, a short walk brought us to a little rivulet at the west end. Passing along a small foot-bridge, we found ourselves in the winding lane leading to Blennerhasset Farm, and in a short time reached the homestead. Mr. Lawson being absent, Mr. Hunter obligingly offered to conduct us through the farm buildings. " Shown into the Laboratory — a large room, well stored round with bottles of chemicals — Mr. Hunter showed us some interesting experiments, and produced the wonderful and beautiful magnesium light. We were also shown a small printing-press, used for the printing of circulars and price lists ; and the Free Library of 400 volumes of standard litera- ture, for the use of the villagers and the employes on the farm. Not only is it stored with excellent works in general literature, but it contains some strongly evangelical writings ; and other works, as Francis Newman's ' Phases of Faith,' Harriet Martineau's ' Household Education,' and ' Felix Holt, the Radical,' in 3 vols. Mr. Lawson is about to establish a 'Working Men's Club' in the village; and has also under consideration a somewhat extensive scheme of free education for the children of his employes and poor children in the neighbourhood. " The byres were judiciously planned, roomy, and well ven- tilated. The stables were even roomier and better ventilated than the byres. The farm horses, which displayed that bone and muscle so necessary for agricultural work, parti- cularly charmed us by their fine condition and sleek coats. Each animal was neatly 'bedded up'; and general good order seemed to pervade'the ' horse repository.' " We next inspected several crushing; grinding, and grass and straw cutting machines ; the straw-house ; the scutching mill for the dressing of flax, which, we may here observe, is largely cultivated on the farm. Before undergoing the scutch- ing process, the flax lies for a considerable time in water tanks, in order to make the rind come off the more easily. 40 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Manufactures (Conducted. These tanks are very large, and are situate a short distance eastward of the farm buildings. The flax, after undergoing the scutching process, is sent off in quantities to a large manufactory at Egremont, near Whitehaven. The flax-seed also finds a ready sale for the purpose of being manufactured into ' cattle food.' In the flax mill we met with a genuine son of the Emerald -Isle, who was introduced to us as the manager of the scutching mill, and a ' brother vegetarian.' It was the original intention of the projector of the Cumber- land Co-operative Farm that all the employes should be . vegetarians; but at the present time, owing, it is said, to the peasants' aversion to a food of fruits, there are but three of the ' pure faith' on the estate — viz., Mr. Lawson himself, Mr. Hunter, and the Hibernian. " On the north of the scutching mill are two immense tanks for the holding of the liquid manure, which is conveyed by means of pipes from the stables, byres, and feeding stalls. From the tanks it is forced through pipes to different points on the farm. We went also to the gas manufactory, where gas is manufactured not only for the use of the farm, but also for a great part of the village ; and Mr. Lawson con- templates supplying the whole of Blennerhasset and the adjacent village of Baggrow. The old homestead, formerly occupied by the Pirt family, is altered. The old bam has been modernised, and converted into a chemical manure manufactory. Mr. Lawson is especially careful to win the confidence of the Cumberland farmers in his manures. Any sceptical agriculturist may visit the works, and learn what are the component parts of these manures, which are manu- factured under the special superintendence of an analytical chemist. Around the new farmstead fine young plantations and orchards, shrubberies and flower gardens are fast spring- ing up. Mr. Lawson has a steam plough on the farm. We were told that 'sub-soiling' had been largely practised; and we know that some of the old farmers shake their heads, and say that it has made the land 'cold.' " Before leaving the village we visited the new Co-operative Stores, which are just in course of " formation. The sign above the shop door had the simple words— 'William Lawson, FARM PROCEEDINGS — OUTSIDE OPINION. 41 Rustic Debates. Licensed Dealer in Tea and Tobacco.' It was unpretentious in style, having white letters on a black ground. A larger and more important-looking sign — gold letters on a brown ground — was being painted for the gable-end of the shop, and will be readable from a great distance. The wording of this sign was somewhat novel — ' The Snuff Shop and General Mart.' In the shop window we observed a motley group of saleables — seeds of various kinds, specimens of manures, crushed bones, mint lozenges, note paper, and envelopes. "Weekly meetings for the 'open' discussion of agricultural topics, social and educational questions, and matters of finance are held, by permission of the teacher (Mr. Sharp), in the village school-house, and under Mr. Lawson's presidency. These discussions are exceedingly animated, and must be productive of a sharpening of the intellects of those who take part in them. Until of recent years, anything like discussion was totally unknown in the Cumberland villages; and it augurs well for the future of the agricultural population of the North of England when men of spirit like Mr. Lawson, content to become the subjects of remark and criticism by those who deprecate all innovation, thus leave the beaten tracks of their forefathers, and establish Model Farms, Co-operative Stores, Working Men's Clubs, Free Libraries, and Village Discussion Societies." The preceding extracts imply that certain agricultural manufactures were proceeding, and contain an allusion to " Cain and Abel," which will be more intelligible if I intro- duce here a chapter written by Mr. Miller Tiffin upon our Steam Plough, the first ever introduced into Cumberland. Mr. Tiffin, having been in charge of it, can relate more facts about it than myself. 42 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. > Village Predictions. CHAPTER IV. THE FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND- ITS ADVENTURES AND VICISSITUDES. It certainly was a misunderstanding of the celebrated engineer who, when consulted by Mr. Lawson, said that the steam plough was one of the three great mistakes made by him in cornmencing his model farm ; for it is very question- able if the Free Co-operative Farm would ever have existed had the steam plough not led the way ; and it is still more questionable if steam cultivation would have attained to its present advancement in Cumberland but for some one to pioneer it, and to persevere through losses and crosses, dangers and difficulties, till it shquld prove at last successful, and become an accepted fact. Early in February, 1862, No. 95 of Fowler's Patent Steam Ploughing Tackle arrived at Aspatria Station ; and on the day after its arrival, the locomotive and traffic superintendents, with several workmen, came with a travelling crane, and many screw-jacks, to unload the engine; which, though it seemed a great and a difficult work, was soon safely accom- plished. A man having been sent from the Steam Plough Works to start the tackle and instruct the new hands, steam was soon raised, and amidst the intense excitement of a large crowd, the engine — self-propelled — started on its journey to Brayton. The multitude were astonished when they saw that the engine could travel without the aid of horses ; but the prophets opened their mouths and said, "She'll nivver get up Thomson's Brow." But the sanguine ones said, "Ah ! but perhaps she will." Thomson's Brow, a stiff incline of a few hundred yards FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 43 Progress of the Plough. in length, was, in fact, soon climbed, and the engine fairly- landed in the village of Aspatria. "Well," said the pro- phets, "she's gitten up; but she'll nivver pleugh!" She proceeded through Aspatria amidst the gaze of the rustic population, and safely reached the farm at Brayton, where it had been arranged we should make our first attempt at culti- vation. She had travelled well on the hard road; but it was different now when she got on a lea headland, too slippery from the wintry rains for the wheels to grip. She plunged and mired, and mired and plunged ; till, unable by ordinary means to extricate herself, she was left in an ignominious condition for the night. Early next morning, a nice inclined plane was dug before the wheels, and a snatch block fixed a few yards a-head, round which a rope was carried ; and by • arranging this in a certain manner, such an increase of leverage was obtained that the engine was soon out of her difficult position. With this, the first misfortune, the first repairs became necessary. In trying to move her, when she mired, the steam had been given out suddenly and forcibly, on the principle of serious diseases requiring desperate remedies. A connecting shaft was thereby bent, and the key fixing the driving wheel to its axle tore open its bed': the shaft had, in consequence, to be sent to a foundry to get straightened ; and a new key to be made. Thus commenced a series of mishaps, misfortunes, breakages, and repairs, that grew and expanded to a magnitude such as ultimately to justify the prophets, who, in a moment of exultation, declared, on this first day of action, " She got up Thomson's Brow, an' she's pleughing; but she'll nivver pay." At twenty minutes past eleven o'clock in the morning, on Wednesday, the 12th February, 1862, the first furrow in Cumberland by steam power was turned in the Flower Gar- den Field at Brayton. When the plough had made its first journey across the field, the ploughman looked to see his furrows, but none were there ; — such a host of professionals and sundries had followed, that the furrows had disappeared beneath their 44 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Engine and Anchor System. tread. By-and-bye, however, as curiosity got satisfied, the work appeared, and was pronounced excellent by those who knew their business. In about 5 days we had ploughed as much as we could of this our first field; for we could not get into the nooks and corners. In thcise 5 days we had ploughed about 18 acres. One skyfe, value gs. 6d., and 18 shares, value £\ 2s. 6d., had already been broken, though the field was consideired comparatively clear of stones. The skyfes and shares were made of cast-iron, and usually gave way first; — as, owing to the great weight of the plough, something must needs give way when it came in contact with an earthfast stone. So, while it was apparent that every part should be strong enough to resist the power of the engine to break it, in ordinary working, it soon became plain that socs and skyfes were not so. The system with which we hoped to show the great superiority of steam over animal power for cultivation of the soil, was the single engine and anchor system, in which the engine, being self-propelling,' travelled along one headland, and the anchor along the other. The engine was put alter- nately into traveUing gear and ploughing gear according as she was herself advancing along the headland or moving the implement. An endless rope passed round the clip-drum, and round the sheave-wheel of the anchor; and was also wound on two separate slack-gear drums on the plough. It was necessary to keep this rope tight on the clip-drum of the engine; and the slack-gear was so arranged that one-fifth of the power applied to one drum in pulling the plough along, was, by means of a chain-belt, transmitted to the other; and by this means the slack-rope was wound up, and kept moderately tight behind the plough. This system did not admit of the plough's being turned at the headlands ; so it had two sets of moulds opposite to each other; one set ploughed in going from the engine, and the other in returning. The framing of the plough was supported on two wheels at its middle; and was so bent at that part that when one end was in the ground ploughing, the other was in the FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 45 Other Systems Appear. air doing nothing. Hence it was called a Balance Plough. The grubber was also similarly a balance implement. The engine first pulled the implement to thp opposite end of the field, — the anchor resisting the immense strain upon it by having four disc wheels about six inches in the ground. When at the anchor end of the field, the end of the plough in the air was pulled down, and, of course, the other went up ; and the plough then moved towards the engine. While doing so, a break was tightened on the anchor, and it wound itself forward by means of a wire rope fixed to a crab some dis- tance ahead. When moved far enough for two breadths of the implemerit, the break was slackened till required to move forward again. Soon after we had commenced steam cultivation, however, another system, called "the double engine system," was patented by Savory, of Gloucester, which at once appeared a step in advance of ours. Each engine travelled along opposite headlands, and the cultivating implement was pulled towards each end alternately, by means of a steel wire rope, and a winding drum. This drum in Savory's plan encircled the boiler, but in Fowler's system was placed horizontally underneath it. Savory's system had the merit of having the least possible quantity of rope in use at one time across the field; and of having the least possible number of implements to move from field to field. Usually only one horse was re- quired, and that to supply the engines with water, when travelling or cultivating. We had got our first field ploughed with our engine and anchor system ; and for the first time the whole tackle was to be lifted, packed up, and removed to another field ; to be there unpacked, and set down again. This turned out to be always a serious business : the wire ropes — many hundreds of yards in all — were to be cleared off certain drums, and coiled up, or wound on another drum attached to the engine for the purpose; the anchor was to shift, so as to mount it on a pair of travelling wheels, and two horses to yoke to it ; a mould board to be taken off the plough, and a. pair of ill- contrived shafts to attach to.it, in order to yoke a horse to 46 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Burying the " Old Man." it; the "rope-porters" to collect together and attach to the water cart; and another horse to go with a cart and collect all the odds and ends together. In this manner a time, varying from one to four hours, — as circumstances were favourable or otherwise, — was usually consumed in making ready for a start. The engine was generally easy to start in removals ; but, almost always, the horses in the anchor either wouldn't or couldn't at first pull together; and not until after a good deal of coaxing, shouting, and cracking of whips, was it got in motion. Sometimes the horses had to be changed, and others put in their places. On first arriving at a field, an examination took place as to the best headlands for the engine and anchor respectively. This decided, the engine was placed in position; and was generally ready first. The plough was then set down near the engine ; and while the ploughman was preparing it, an- other man was placing the porters in position for supporting the rope; another digging a hole for the old man; (said "old man" being a lap of straw with a strong piece of wood through its middle, and a chain encircling it to receive the headland rope to prevent the pulling forward of the anchor). This anchor of the anchor used to be buried from two to three feet deep, so as to offer resistance enough. Another man took the travelling wheels off the anchor, and prepared for lowering it on its disc wheels. By this time the drum rope had been drawn across the field from the engine by the water-cart horse, and was waiting till the anchor was down, to get the rope round the sheave wheel. When as much rope had been paid out as was required to make the endless rope complete, the ends were wound on their respective slack-gear drums, and the rope "put round the clip-drum, and we were ready for a start. We soon learnt that the anchor was to be the great source of trouble, danger, difficulty, and loss of time and temper. When it was on a fallow headland (and we had too many such) its grip of the ground was not so great as that of the plough or grubber; and when the power was applied, instead of the plough moving to the anchor, the anchor often moved towards the plough. We soon got a large box made, put it FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 47 Lessons in Perseverance. on the anchor, and filled it with two cartloads of stones to increase its stability; but after all we could do, it would often drag, and had again to be cleared, lifted, and set down afresh; affording rich opportunities of teaching ourselves to be patient. Sometimes, after being five or six weary and tormenting hours in getting ready, and when the anchor held its grip, the " old man " would slowly and solemnly come out of his grave, head first; not having been sunk deep enough to hold against the pull of the anchor. Another half hour was then lost in making another and deeper hole for him. It seemed strange that it should be so difficult to successfully apply steam power to the apparently very simple and primitive operation of drawing an implement to one side of a field, and then bringmg it back again. However, we got our first removal accomplished; and found ourselves first trying to plough, then to scarify, and then to dig ; having different parts for attachment to the plough fr^me, for performing these different operations. But here we found that cultivating a fallow field in the month of February did not answer; and after working a part of two days, and breaking ^\ 12s. 6d. worth of skyfesand shares, we packed up our tackle and went to the Blennnerhasset Farm. Here our first field was only a short distance from the roadside ; but having a steep incline to travel, the engine stuck ; a dark prospect for us when we remembered there was scarcely one really level field on the farm. We next cleared a road for the wheels, made it up with stones, and got her placed in I^anglands, a field of 10 acres, and one that seemed 2s:'ms&y paved with stones, many of them being large earth-fast boulders. We managed to plough these 10 acres in 6j4 days, one of which, however, was spent in wash- ing out the engine, and repairing a mud hole in the fire-box. We broke three skyfes and 21 shares, costing -^2 13s. gd. ; and, when we had finished, we discovered that we had ploughed the first field on the Blennerhasset Farm at a cost of very nearly a pound per acre; including, of course, wear and tear of tackle. This certainly was not a hopeful be- ginning ; but we had made a beginning ; and that was some- thing. We subsequently ploughed two other fields at much 48 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. We begin at Home. the same rate and cost. Had the land been clear of stones, as they manage to have it at Royal Show trials, we could easily have ploughed six acres a day ; and by so doing we could at once have paid our way. As it was, I think much of the loss appearing in our early steam plough balance sheets ought to have been charged against land improvements — as for taking out stones: — for the grubber itself pulled cartloads to the surface without the aid of pick or spade. Judging from this, many of the self-wise men declared that the land , should have been cleared before the advent of the steam plough; forgetting that it was only its actual presence that showed us the necessity of getting the stones out. Commencing, as Mr. Lawson did, with great confidence in the principles of co-operation and interested labour, those principles were early applied to the steam plough work ; for so early as March 6, 1862, I learn from my diary that it was determined on that day to give the anchor man 6d. per week extra, over and above his wages, for .his meritorious conduct in digging out stones — the porter boy id. per acre for managing the porters himself; and the stone marker J^d. per cartload. We had a boy going with a bundle of sticks ; and wher- ever the plough struck a stone, a stick was placed ; which made the fields often look like plantations, and guided the stone-diggers to their work. We had not worked two months till we became aware of that great defect of the system — the unfortunate faihng that afterwards kept us in daily terror — the dragging of the anchor. We had just got it put right after its first deviation when — as misfortunes never come singly, — the slack gear clutches began to slip ; and when these had been made to hold, the anchor in its turn began again to drag. We were almost in despair ; but we had already adopted a line of action that was to overcome many a seeming impossibility;— " Never despair ; try again." Going a second time to Brayton, a new source of detention presented itself, — we ran short of water. Indeed, one fresh obstacle followed so hard upon another, that it seemed as if we were labouring under a spell. Under this last-named difficulty it sometimes happened that, FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 49 Accumulated Misadventures. as all the ditches and brooks were dried up, a long journey had to be taken by the water-cart man for a supply. By this time the slack gear clutches had become intoler- able. We took them off, and had them repaired, and put on again. We had just started afresh when the rope slipped ofif the drum, and jammed itself amongst the clutches. This was righted ; and so we continued — breaking skyfes and shares — till, one day- in April, the keys in the shaft commu- nicating the power to the clip drum were forced from their places, from having been let in too shallow at first ; and we were at a stand-still once more. While engaged in repairing the keys we got marching orders to go to Mr. William Nor- man's farm at Oughterside, a place four miles distant. In the meantime a seven-tined grubber had been ordered from the Steam Plough Works at Leeds; and having come to Aspatria Station, it was taken right on to Oughterside. We had adver- tised to work for hire, and this was our first engagement. Commencing to grub crosswise a somewhat dirty field, the tines of the grubber soon choked up; every now and then it had to be drawn back to clean itself; and we found the tines were not shapen properly for drawing themselves into the ground again. Our work proved far from first rate. That portion of the power applied which was transmitted to wind up the slack rope behind the grubber, — owing to the length of the field, the roughness of its surface, and shallow- ness of our work, — was not sufficient to keep taut the slack rope ; and it fell down in coils beside the engine as it was paid out from the clip drum. One of the drums was bared by this means ; and the rope had to be dragged in stages, by hind, round the field, and to be wound on by hand; and then after going about twice across the field with the grub- ber the hand-winding was all to do over again. This was dreadful work, alike to us and our employer. We thought it time to try improvements; and altered first the shape of the tines. They now went deeper into the ground, and did better work ; causing also the slack rope to be kept taut without hand labour. We removed to another field, where the headlands had been ploughed; and here again the anchor dragged. A man was then engaged to drive 5t> TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Further Troubles : Job's Comforters. posts before one of the disc wheels to hold it ; this answered for one day; but next day the strain tore the axle off the anchor altogether, leaving us helpless again. This was re- paired; and, being determined to grub the field, we cleared away the loose earth to a depth of nine inches from before the anchor, to give it sohd ground for traveUing; it was no better, however; we only got ten square yards grubbed that forenoon ! In these our early days we never lacked plenty of visitors. Some came to pity and sympathise with us, and others to enjoy our struggles with misfortunes. Advice was, of course, plentiful, — and generally useless; and "Job's comforters" were many : but none of them could show us how to tether our anchor. Our newly engaged anchor man, who had been a sailor and had observed a good deal, said, " Let us bury an old man, and that will hold it." It was here, then, we buripd our first old man, in the manner previously described. A farmer — who always .gave us much useless advice — said, " If that hods't, a'll eat my hat ! " It did hold it, however. Having at last finished the field, we had got packed up ready to leave, when Mr. Lawson appeared, and gave orders for the anchor to be loaded with odds and ends, for the engine to draw home. It was a weary journey; the anchor was mounted only on two wheels ; and, being fastened to the engine with a chain. It reeled and rocked like a drunken man the whole way home. We "tore away" home, how- ever, for it was always a point with us never to give up. As an instance of Mr. Lawson's own zeal in scientific cul- tivation, I find from my diary that our ploughman did not turn up on May 13th, 1862, that Mr. Lawson consequently drove the engine, and the engineman took the ploughman's place. By this time many of the old, broad, crooked hedges of the Blennerhasset Farm had been thrown down; and, as steam was the proper source where great power was required, grubbing up hedgerows, amongst tree roots and stones, was thought the very job for us: so we made our second start at home, on perhaps as rough a farm as ever witnessed steam cultivation. We seldom grubbed a field at this time without crossing one or more hedgerows and gutters; and FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 51 Cultivating Deeply mthout Socs. thereby bending tines, breaking socs, and straining the grub- ber far beyond what it was constructed to bear. We broke so many socs (at eightpence a-piece) that, — Leeds being too far to go for them, and the Foundry at Car- lisle not supplying them fast enough, — we tried to grub without them. The anchor having a good, firm headland, we got on wonderfully; but did little good to the land, spoiled the tine points for again receiving socs till they should be repaired, and had experience enough in one day's work to make us for ever after abandon the idea of trying to cultivate without socs. Shortly after this we tried stitching by steam. Taking the tines out of the grubber, we attached a pair of stitching, moulds to each end, converting it into a stitching plough. This was light work, affording no scope for the power of the engine ; and was given up as an opera- tion in which there was more pride than profit. After cultivating one more field, the tackle Was brought home till the crops should be gathered, and we could com- mence that desirable farming operation, autumn cultivation. During the recess, I visited the steam cultivating trials at Farningham, Kent, in connection with the Royal Agricul- tural Society; and viewed with much interest the different systems at work under the most favourable circumstances. From what I saw there I was convinced that, notwithstand- ing the working defections (for in theory there were none) of the clip-drum, slack gear, and anchor system, it was un- doubtedly the best, and by far the strongest, in its construc- tion. Any other of the tackle I saw would have been made into scrap-iron in about a fortnight on the Blennerhasset Farm. But all the circumstances at these trials were widely different from ours; instead of the month of February, with hedgerows and stones, and soft slippery headlands, they had fine dry weather in July, with the headlands level and stiff, and in fine condition for travelling. The land to be culti- vated was level, dry, clear of stones, and in a friable state : and, the tackle being all new, — of the best material, and in the best working order, — there was never a stop or break; for there was nothing to cause either. It would have been strange if, under these circumstances, steam cultivation had 52 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Cullivating the Heads, and Improving the Anchor. not appeared to great advantage, and if Fowler had not grubbed at the rate of i6 acres a-day with his seven-tined grubber, though we in our stony Arabia could only average \\ s^, daily. On my coming home, we received orders to cultivate the Heads — the ugliest and awkwardest field for cultivation on the farm, if not in the county. It was in fact a miniature Skiddaw. ' Upon successfully finishing this field, we were confident we could cultivate anything. Having, however, some time on our hands before the crops would be off the ground, we thought of making improvements. As the anchor could only move forward when the grubber was on its return journey, it happened that in short fields it did not get moved far enough. So we got some new cog gearing to make it travel at double its old speed. We also had two of the four discs, replaced by others of 3 feet diameter, to give it more holding power. This was a decided improvement. Fowler had also by this time improved his clip-drum; and, as ours was very faulty, we made an exchange; and so found our- selves in a tolerably decent position when we commenced on September 8th with autumn cultivation, to which great importance was attached, and which proved to be a very useful operation. For, after autumn work, it only required one grubbing in the spring to make the land ready for turnips. A journey was next made to work for hire at Silloth, a distance of twelve miles. The engine was used to convey thither as much as possible, including the anchor and grubber; but as no apparatus for attaching them to one an- other had been suppHed, we had to fasten them as best we could, and often had to stop on the way and adjust, and fix afresh. We found at Silloth a fine, big, level field of hard clayey soil to grub; where it took all the power of the engine, straining the tackle to the utmost, to get six or seven inches deep. As we could not afford to use less than seven tines, to get a passable quantity done, our work was not so satisfactory as if we had used fewer tines and gone deeper. The boiler pump proved also a source of stoppage, owing to some sand being in the water; and eventually, when we had FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 53 To Silloth and Back — the Anchor Run Over. just begun to "cross" the field, at 5 p.m., — by mutual agree- ment between Mr. Lawson and the hirer, — we packed up to come home! It was well; for rain set in, and we just got out of the field in time. On reaching the top of Hayton brow on our homeward journey, the engine was stopped till water should be pumped into the boiler : but the vibration, together with the weight of the anchor behind, caused the engine to run backwards; the anchor, too, swerved right across, and in another instant was lying flat on the road, — ij^ tons in weight, — with 23 of its 24 wheel-spokes broken to splinters. A crowd gathered. We put it to one side, and proceeded onwards ; and in the dead hour of the night, when the good people of Blennerhasset thought us at Silloth, the shrill scream of the whistle roused them from their slumbers. We had not worked long, after this, till an axle broke be- longing to one of the larger discs of the anchor. It became plain that the tackle was too weak generally; for as we strengthened one place, another gave way ; and well might I write, as I did, in my diary at this time, " I have no hesita- tion in sa3dng that ours is the most unfortunate set of tackle Fowler has sent out from his works at Leeds;" and also, the day after, " Broke anchor-rope twice to-day; ' old man' lifted out of his hole; very bad luck." But our difficulties with the anchor were not past yet : the screw used in its forward- motion gear refiised to tighten the break, and had to be sent to Carlisle for repairs. On October 24, also, we required to get a new engine travelling slant-shaft from Leeds, the old one being only a lo-horse shaft, whereas our engine was ra-horse power. During November and December we tried to stitch, to grub, and to dig. The weather was, however, against us; and in digging we broke a great many socs, cost- ing fifteen-pence a-piece, — no less than 18 having got broken in one day, while doing i J^ acres. Fifteen shillings an acre for broken socs was a little two costly ! Digging \fras, how- ever, a splendid operation, especially on clayey land. But very soon the ropes were coiled up and the engine left till better weather should favour us. 54 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Poets Appear. Mr. Lawson, being a member of the Wigton Farmers' Club, agreed about this time to read a paper there on steam culti- vation. On ^February 13th, 1863, a rhymed lecture arrived by post, ready written to his hand. Parts of it set forth in graphic terms the experience so far related. Having "bought and brought" the plough down, the verses set forth : — Full soon we set the plough to work ; It went at lightning speed. The porter lads with vigour ran, The whistle shriek'd aloud, Sir Wilfrid was in ecstasies. And so were all the crowd. And still we shriek'd, and still we ran. Throughout the live-long day ; Through loam and sand, through mire and mud, Through stones and heavy clay. We turned the earth up from its bed. Full many a foot below. And pulverised each verdant sod As soft as driven snow. The verses went on to assert that the plough had not paid. A reply in the same measure was made to this production, on the part of some who took a different view. We commenced our campaign of 1863 by taking the tackle to the Fitz farm, not far from Blennerhasset, to plough lea. The bailiff there, who had been a prize ploughman in his day, gave Us, on commencing, some useful hints in arranging our coulters and shares. We got into a level field, clear of stones, and made good progress; and, for the first time, exceeded our master's expectations, by ploughing over five acres in one day. Our good luck, however, lasted exactly one (Jay. Working next at home, I learn from the diary that we " had bad luck : got only three acres ploughed in three days. Can't stand it : costs 30s. per acre." Working next in the field where we had turned our first furrow, we found it had been drained; and, as we worked in FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 55 Fortune smiles. the same direction as -the drains, one wheel of the grubber would sink in a drain, and the other remain in firm ground ; thus preventing the yvork being done well and us from making a profit; and causing endless vexation and annoyance till we got across the field. While in this field we had also the mis- fortune to break the travelling cog-wheel of the engine, in bringing her out of a gutter into which she had sUded in moving forward. This wheel cost ^^ los. and took two days to get ready again. We began at this time to make new implements at home. A large harrow was made to work by the engine; but as nothing would work with the clip-drum, unless it had slack gear attached, it proved a failure. We were somewhat flattered by being employed a second time to work for Mr. Norman at Oughterside; for so unfor- tunate had we generally been, that we felt sure that after one visit we would be wanted no more at the same place. But evidently our first employer was enterprising in applying science to farming. We were usually more successful abroad than at home, too, when we had to make a removal; and while working this time for Mr. Norman we made what we thought a splendid removal. For, within four hours of finish- ing one field, we were ready to start in the next; after travelling two miles by road. On passing through Aspatria market-place, on the Whitsun hiring day, on our way home after this engagement, we were, as may easily be imagined, the observed of all observers. It is not to be wondered that we now longed for the time when Mr. Lawson could be induced to exchange for the Double Engine System; for, in that case, we would get rid of the anchor, slack gear, clip-drum, and one row of porters, at one stroke. Often when we had a stoppage or breakage we used to say, " That wouldn't happen if we had Savory's Double Engines.'' We learned that two shifts daily were being worked with this Double Engine System; and we at once adopted the same plan, — the first shift working from daylight till noon, and the second from noon till dark. This continued with fair success till June 22nd. Soon after that, we finished the 56 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Making a Profit out of a Loss. season's work; not however without more or less of breakages. We had not worked long in the autumn before we broke the clip-drum; and so we continued; — mending, working, and breaking, so long as the weather would allow us to work. The engineman, ploughman, and anchorman, were now getting interested in the balance-sheet soon to be prepared ; for, early in the year, Mr. Lawson had promised them 5 per cent, each " of all the money that this year's steam-plough balance-sheet shows the loss to have been less than ;^ 200. The year's loss was shown to be ;^i32 los. yj^d. The result was therefore jQ^ 7s. loj^d. given to each. It should have been more ; because, since the sale of the tackle, we find far too much was charged against us for its depreciation ; besides our being charged jQio 13s. gd. interest on the pre- vious year's loss. However, we workers were thankful for having made, as far as we were concerned, a profit out of a loss. Still, working as we did with such adverse fortune; losing money as we knew we were doing; feeling, too, that we were disliked by all the other farm hands, and that every man's hand was against us ; it was a weary and dis- heartening thing to attempt to make steam cultivation a success. That end seemed a long way off. We kept steam plough accounts and knew we were losing ; though accounts proper of the farm were not kept ; but had we known, whilst we were being ridiculed for our losses and crosses, that the farm balance-sheet was destined ultimately to show a loss of a pound for every shilling lost by the steam plough, we would better have maintained our own against pride, prejudice, and ignorance. It would be but vain repetition to tell consecutively all our doings during '64, '65, and part of '66. We kept struggling on — as we got one thing mended, breaking another ; nor did we lack variety ; for at irregular intervals some other part gave way that we little expected, and that had never broken before. In March, 1864, we tried to plough by lamplight ; but failed. On the 24th of that month we worked all night from 6 till 6 ; stopping one hour for a midnight meal. We grubbed 5 acres ; — about as much as was averaged during the day time. Working all night might FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 57 Ploughing by Lamplight. have answered, if we could have kept regularly at it. But it took some time for the night-shift to form the habit of getting sleep during the day ; and no sooner was it formed than perhaps a breakage occurred, to spoil the arrangement; the engineman had difficulty, too, to get the night men to work cheerfully ; for none of them could see why he should work the night-shift and others by daylight. Only on one occasion did the engine fire keep continually lighted for a full week. During this spring (1864) we broke the crank shaft and the upright shaft ; and on these two occasions had the mor- tification of seeing the tackle stand idle three weeks in all, during the best of weather, and at a time when most needed. Later on, we broke the anchor in its strongest part, and were detained ten days more till we got another. One day, however, we found ourselves in a little bit of plain sailing, and got on wonderfully ; doing three acres in two hours, and demonstrating that it was possible to cultivate sixteen acres a-day. On June 1 8, we went to Sunderland-common, a field of forty acres, to grub it twice over. Two weeks should have finished this work ; but to such an extent did our tackle suffer, that with breakages, stoppages, and wet days, it took us two months to perform our task. By this time our grubber, which had now been working over two years, was so broken, strained, and patched, that it was decided either to send it to Leeds, to be thoroughly repaired, or to have another in its place. We were informed that it was so far disabled as to require a new middle, and two new ends ; so, seeing no difference between this and a new one, we ordered a five-tined grubber, extra strong, at the same price {£^0) as the seven-tined one. We had found that five tines were as many as the engine could draw, to cultivate as deeply as Mr. Lawson desired. Nay, so fond was he of deep cultivation, that I have known us work with only three tines ; and going from eighteen inches to two feet deep. No wonder, then, the grubber so soon needed a new middle and two new ends ! The new grubber commenced work on Sept. 13, '64; and I find at that date the following entry in my diary : " Scarified 58 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Moving Scene ! a whole day and broke nothing ! I think this is the first time we have ever done so." A wonderful thing for us, and far too good to last ; for,, 1 1 days after, we broke a very important part of the engine — a crank-shaft support. We sent for another; but the railway company sent it from Leeds by way of Liverpool, taking a fortnight to perform a two days' journey ; and causing us a delay of three weeks, in the best of autumn weather ! We prepared again, always hoping for better luck ; but alas ! we were soon to meet a more serious disaster. On Oct. 14 we were at work by two a.m., getting up steam to go to Shatton Lodge, a place twelve miles distant. In going down Baggrow Brow at the commencement of our journey, the travelling gear, which had never been in good work- ing order, went wrong : two cog-wheels also slipped their gearing ; and the engine, having no brake to hold her, rushed - headlong down the steep incline, increasing her speed every moment. The steersman and I jumped for our lives. On looking up, I was terrified to see her making direct for a cottage, in which, if she reached it, she would bury herself in ruins, killing or laming the inmates. Luckily, however, one of the steerage wheels struck some rubbish on the road- side, and the engine, suddenly swerving to the left, went thud against the stone buttress of a bridge belonging to the Maryport aud Carlisle Railway, recently erected and not yet finished, where she knocked in an ashlar some inches from its place (as it may be seen to this day) ; and snapping the forewheels asunder, the engine lay instantly a huge helpless mass of ten tons of iron, fully ten yards from where she struck the bridge. A crowd soon gathered round us ; and, receiving valuable aid from the railway men, we got the fore end lifted on to a bogie, and by means of horses conveyed her to Blennerhasset. Immediately after the catastrophe, a, messenger on mule- back was sent to turn back the .advance party who were in charge of the rest of the tackle ; they being disapjpointed, went on the spree ; and turned in one by one, during the evening, in a deplorable condition. In one respect it was well the accident happened ; because FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 59 Shadow and Sunshine. we now got the travelling gear repaired, and put into first rate working order. By Nov. ist we commenced again : but, after working a fortnight, in which time we broke the anchor gearing and rendered it perfectly useless, we gave up for the winter. Before starting again in 1865, we had sent the old anchor to Leeds, and got a third, a new one — the latest improved ; having six discs instead of four, like the old one. This answered well ; that is, for an anchor. Prior Hall Farm having come into Mr. Lawson's posses- sion at Candlemas, 1865, we went there soon after to plough. Here, though we met with our usual bad fortune — breaking socs, and ploughing only about three acres a-day — our engagement proved both encouraging and useful. We found the new bailiff there possessing advanced ideas; and, desirous of applying science to agriculture, he furthered our work as well as he could, and by timely assistance with horses and men enabled us to move from one field to another in two hours instead of four or six. After this, the journey to Shatton Lodge, so rudely inter- rupted when the engine ran away, was resumed on April 8. We passed through Cockermouth at two p.m. the same day, and were escorted thence to Shatton, by two policemen and a wondering rabble. The tackle was placed, and a start made the next day. But ill luck, like an evil genius, still attended us. The engine mired very badly on a rotten headland. After two days' struggling, however, we got to work cultivating ; and after breaking a clip-drum pinion, and both slack-gear drums on the grubberj — having to wait a week till new ones came, — with various other interruptions and stoppages ; we finished our work in good style, our visit having extended over twenty days. Finishing on a Friday evening, we worked all night in preparing for the journey home so as to get there on Saturday. The journey, during one part of which the engine travelled six miles with one supply of water, was accomplished in 6}^ hours. The night shift was worked pretty successfully all this 6o TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Arrival of Cain and Abel. spring. After doing some more work at home, and at Prior Hall, and also for our first employer, Mr. Norman, at his farm at High Close, we finished for the season. During the recess we did some threshing at Prior Hall ; this being a kind of work we intended to follow and earn something by, when not required to cultivate. At this time also we had an injector put on the engine, and had her thoroughly repaired and painted ; the other tackle repaired likewise; and then we were ready for the autumn once more. Our character we found was improving. We had two other customers for steam cultivation this autumn, and they seemed pleased with our work. Strange it was, but true, that the tackle seemed to do tolerably well for everybody save its owner. Having a cargo of bones to grind, the engine was next set to work grinding — a very much pleasanter and easier job to all concerned than cultivating. I had hoped some day to have an easy job myself with the engine, after all our toils, troubles, and trials : but no ! Just before the grinding commenced I was removed to another occupation. iGeneraily the way^ — one man roughs it, and another steps in and reaps the fruits of his experience. We had talked about, and advocated, the double-engine system so long, and had seen the drawbacks of the anchor and slack-gear so much, that in 1866 negotiations were opened with John Fo.wler & Co. for an exchange; for Fowler had adopted the double-engine system, and in a more practicable manner than Savory. A bargain was the result; and in September the two new engines — which were soon after called " Cain and Abel," and had their names painted on them— arrived at Aspatria Station. Steam ploughs were no longer new things. No railway superintendents came to unload the new 14 horse-power engines ; for indeed none were needed ; the trucks were run alongside the platform, steam was raised, and Cain and Abel unloaded themselves. The old engine was in turn run on to a truck, the funnel and fly-wheel taken off; all was fixed for the journey, and, along with the anchor, sent to the place from whence it came. FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 6 1 A Travelling Lodging House Proposed. Right glad we were to take leave of that unlucky engine, and of the system that was destined to make way for that which we now possessed. Soon after Cain and Abel's advent, while working at Flimby, twelve miles from home, Cain's travelKng clutch broke, and he was unable to travel : Abel had to drag him home. Things began to give way in the new engines, the failing of which we had never experienced with the old one ; and we found we were not so near perfection as we had hoped to be. In fact, though our breakages were not so frequent, they were generally different, and on a more extensive scale than with the former tackle. Soon after starting in 1867, for instance, Cain mired in a gutter ; nor was he got out till after four days' struggHng, and our breaking a road bevel wheel, which cost ;^5 IDS. ; and while working at Prior Hall this spring another was broken. A hydraulic ram was necessary before we could get the wheel off and the bevel wheel put on. This year we made a second journey to Shatton, breaking, amongst other things, another road bfevel wheel ; and while working at Langrigg in the autumn, still another was broken. The old engine had only broken one in all. S,till we were working towards success, and we were employed by no less than eight different people this year. With the old tackle the engineman used to be foreman, combining the two offices ; but now we were not so humble-minded as formerly, and it was arranged that the foreman's business should be entirely' superintendence, not needing him to- engage in manual labour. During the year too, we bought a Fowler's harrow, (price ;^So)j and as many people used it, we were enabled to earn more at each place than formerly. At this time we originated a novel arrangement to suit our migratory style of life. Being much employed from home, the steam plough company often had much difficulty in getting lodgings. Sometimes arriving at a place in the evening, with no houseroom near, they found only a barn to sleep in, with, perhaps, a swarm of rats for company. This had been a sad defect; and to obviate it the chief engineer proposed building a travelUng lodging-house ! He 62 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Popular Vote for the Steam Plough. handed his subject to the clerk of the Blennerhasset Parlia- ment, to be put on the programme for next meeting. Mr. Lawson afterwards handed in the following resolution for the same meeting : " That we offer the steam plough tackle for sale." This latter resolution eclipsed in interest the lodging- house scheme. At the meeting on the subject Mr. Lawson said he had had the tackle for six years ; and as it had made no profit, and as his establishment existed for the public good, we should part with unprofitable things. The con- trolling agent, too, said that it was our bounden duty to keep nothing that did not pay. Most of us, however, felt that if we parted with the steam plough we should renounce our chief distinction as model farmers, and too prematurely proclaim our failure. At the next weekly meeting, when it should have been voted on, a further adjournment for a week was obtained ; and in this interval the neighbours were vigorously canvassed. At the next meeting the Parlia- ment House was crowded, for almost everybody now felt an interest in the steam plough. After a few eloquent speeches and much spirited pleading, the momentous question was put, " That we offer the steam plough tackle for sale." Every hand was as motionless as that of a statue. The contrary was then put, and immediately every hand was raised ; and, amidst the cheering of an enthusiastic multitude, it was declared by Mr. Lawson " It would not be offered for sale." What effect this motion to sell had upon the steam plough workers we cannot say : but it is true that, while in 1867 the balance-sheet had shown a loss of ^^343 6s. g}id., that for 1868 showed a profit of ;^26o 12s. jj^d. ! Having done so well in 1868, it is not to be wondered that early in 1869 a travelling lodging-house was built, according to the plans prepared by the engineman. It proved to be a most excellent and useful thing ; for no matter where the men were benighted, they had their steam- plough-home with them, and could rest in peace and comfort. Having made an arrangement to go to Hutton Hall, a place 2 7 miles distant from Blennerhasset, it was considered to be a favourable opportunity of testing the cost and quantity of fuel required for removals, as well as the quantity FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBKRLAND. 63 Cain again inferior to Abel. requisite to convert a given quantity of water into steam. I made the journey, took notes, and found that the engines converted a cubic foot of water into steam with only 1 2 J^ lbs. of coal. We were very satisfied ; for this is a small quantity indeed. It took 39 cwts. of coal to move the whole tackle these 27 miles — over rough road — in one day. Visiting the steam cultivation trials at Manchester in i86g, I observed that Fowler had substituted a turnabout plough for the old balance implement. The latter was an essential part of the old system ; for without it the slack gear could not have been attached. And as the double engines could work any kind of implement, we had just taken off the slack gear, and worked on with the balance. But a very objec- tionable feature of this implement was its having one end high in the air, while the other was in the ground ; because on level land it prevented the working end sticking to its work ; and in crossing hilly ground it dragged the imple- ment downwards, making it sometimes impossible for the ploughman to keep it to its work. All this was obviated in the turnabout implement. It was a pity we did not adopt it ; for I am convinced it is the implement for making steam cultivation pay. It is something remarkable that, although Cain and Abel were built alike, from the same plans ; and apparently the same in material and quality of workmanship ; Cain turned out a much worse engine than Abel. It seemed as if the mark of his namesake had fallen upon him. When a break- age happened, it was usually something belonging to Cain ; nor was he long with us till his firebox and boiler leaked so fearfully that we were often stopped for want of water. It was not possible for the waterman to supply him. So in 1870, after only four years work, we had a new firebox put in, at a cost of over_;£'7o. Our character was by this time established ; we always had more work than we could perform; and, having added stonebreaking to our list of trades, we were always either thrashing, stonebreaking, or repairing, when not cultivating. We still kept extending our working area too ; and in 1 869 had worked as far west as Workington, and as far east as Hutton ; 64 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Record of Dangers. — places 50 miles distant from each other. By the adoption of the double engine system, too, we had certainly freed ourselves from innumerable stoppages, breakages, and losses ; but the reader must not suppose that it was all plain sailing yet. Many a time did the engines stick fast, and require the accumulated skill of half-a-dozen years to extricate them. To continue the history in detail till the time the tackle was sold, would be but a repetition of difficulties overcome and dangers avoided. Still, with all our misfortunes, we had only met with two serious accidents to those engaged at the tackle. One of the enginemen got his thumb crushed while cleaning the engine in motion, immediately after it had been painted in 1865. On another occasion, in 1870, one of the porter men not getting out of the way when the engine was tightening the rope, it suddenly and sharply hit his leg, and broke it. These were, I think, the only two serious acci- dents ; and they both mended well. There was one very narrow escape, however, near Workington in 1869. Abel was on a headland close to a steep ravine ; and the weather proving wet, the land became slippery; and in trying to move forward he slided so near the edge, that there appeared but a hair's- breadth between him and certain destruction. The engineman pulled up, as well he might : it was a fearful moment, and the position most critical. Before starting again he had a road cleared for the wheels, everything put in good position, and the steam raised to the highest pitch ; then applying the full force of steam at once, the next moment Abel and his driver were at a safe distance from peril. Were it desirable, I might further tell of our journeys to Lanercost Abbey, where the rustic crowd gazed in mute astonishment at our wonderful system of tillage ; to Plump- ton, to Hayclose, to Baggrow, to Westnewton, to Hayton Castle, to Crookdake, to Aigle Gill, to the Glebe Farm at Irth- ington : to Cannobie, in Scotland, — where we were detained days and weeks through goods being sent wrong on the railway, for which we tried the case in a court of law, and got only what the railway authorities had offered out of FIRST ST9AM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 65 Further Difficulties with Abel. court — to Dearham Hall, to Blaithwaite, to West Ward Parks, to Crummock Bank, or to Oughterside Farm, whose occupant we held in great esteem, for he was the first to appreciate the old tackle, and tlie last to patronise Cain and Abel. " In crossing the metal bridge spanning the Maryport and Carlisle Railway,^ at Dearham, in 1871, Abel broke through, and but for a strong girder would have gone crash on the rails beneath. As it was, one wheel pro- jected so far below as to prevent the engines from passing on one line pf rails below. Great excitement prevailed — traffic was stopped. A red cap pilotman was quickly brought to conduct all the traffic over one line of rails. The locomotive superin- tendent arrived with implements and workmen, and on the same evening Abel was safely got out of his perilous posi- tion. The law being hard on road locomotives, we got all the expenses to pay. In 1871 the Blennerhasset estate was sold; the establish- ment was to be broken up, and the tackle to be disposed of by auction. We had no lodging-house now; it unfortunately perished in the great fire. Our fame had spread far and wide, we expected a great multitude at the sale and were not disappointed ; we had handbills printed containing particulars of the tackle, and distributed amongst apparently intending purchasers. OUR STEAM PLOUGH TACKLE (Fowler's Double Engine Set). To be offered for Sale on Friday, Sth January, 1871 :— Cost Price at Blenner- , hasset, exclusive of several Improvements. Two 14-H.P. Self-propelling Engines— Cain and Abel — (new, Sept., 1866) with Boxes of Tools and extras, . £i,z6a 5 o Two Giffard's Patent Injectors, attached to the above, . 49 12 6 A Four-furrow Balance Plough (improved since), . 89 o o A Seven-tined Grubber (improved since), . . • 72 17 o 66 TEN YEARS OF r.ENTLEMAN FARMING. Detail Prices of Bill of Sale. Another Seven-tined Grubber, extra strong (improved since), ;f74 6 6 A Harrow (very much improved since), . . . 53 o o A Water Cart, complete, . . . . . . 27 19 8 500 Yards of Steel Rope, 52 o o Six Porters, 900 One Road Driving Wheel, £5 los. ; One Set of Wind- ing Gear, £2 7s. 6d., 7 17 6 One Double Pinion, 5s. ; Four large Guide Pulleys, 14s., o 19 o Six small Guide Pulleys, iss. ; One Clutched Wheel, £2 los. ; Two Clutches, £2 is. ... . S 1° o One Piston End and Three Rings, £1 los. ; One Strap and Brasses for big ends, ;^i 19s. 6d 3 9 6 Five Covers for Pump Clacks, 6s. ; Six Mud-hole Covers, 6s., ........ o 12 9 One Plunger for Pump, 55.; One Pinion for Slant Shaft, £1 2s. 6d., 176 Four Pins for Driving Wheel, £1 2s. ; One Spring Brake, Ss. 170 Seventeen Ferrules, 17s. ; Four Head Lamps, £6; Six other Lamps, £i los., . . . . . . 12 7 o One large Screw for Winding Drum, los. ; One Syphon Lid, 2s., . , o 12 o One Set of Moulds, ;£'3 los.; Two large Oil Tins, ;f I, . 4 10 o Twenty-one Cast Iron Skyfes, ;^8 18s. 6d.; Three Steel Skyfes, £6 6s., 1546 Three Mould Boards, £1 17s. 6d.; Six Wrought Iron Socs, £t los., ... .... 376 Five Cast Iron Socs, 6s. 3d. ; Three Dozen Land Sides, £^ IOS-. • I 16 3 Four Tines, ;t 2 ; Three Extra Strong Tines, ;£'i 175.64.; Eleven Brackets, i8s., 4 15 6 179 Socs, ;^I7 i8s.; 60 Socs, ;^2 17s. 6d 20 15 6 Two Shackle Pulleys, Cheeks, &c., complete, . . i 13 o Six Double Moulds, complete, ;^I2 12s.; Seven Socs, 4S. 8d 12 16 8 OnePairBushes, new, 10s. ; One Pair Blocks,;f3 I2s.6d., 426 Seven Porter Wheels, 14s.; Thtfj; Pulleys, 7s. 6d.; Three Head Stocks, 9s i 10 6 Two Screw Jacks, 800 One Snatch Block, ;^2 5s.; One Snatch Block Wheel, £^ 5s.. ■ • 3 lo o One Road Pinion, ^i 2s. 6d.; One Single Bracket Pinion,;^! 2s. 6d., 250 Two Steerage Pinions, 10s. ; Screws for Steerage, 10s., 100 Split Pins and Studs, 0100 £l,Sn 19 I FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 67 Result of the Auction. ^ This Tackle is fitted up for working the Plough, digging breasts, scarifying breasts. Grubber, or Harrow, and can be got ready to leave a field in 15, or turned to cross its work in 10 minutes. Each Engine is able to convert a cubic foot of water into steam with I2^1bs. of coal — a remarkably small quantity. As Abel has been found to give out 22^^ H.P. at SSlbs. pressure, we believe fully 28^ H.P. to be directly applied to an implement when we work at Solbs. pressure. I ton 19 cwt. of coal has moved the whole tackle 27 rough miles in a day. For the Character of our Steam Cultivation we beg to refer purchasers to Mr. Horn, of Baggrow, Aspatria ; Mr. Richardson, of Hutton HaU, Penrith ; Mr. Hesket, of Plumpton Hall ; Mr. Alexander, of Shatton, Cockermouth ; or Mr. Blackstock, of Hayton Castle, Maryport. Both Engines are adapted for a variety of belt and other work, and one of them is constantly employed in breaking stones for highways, while the other is in frequent demand for thrashing, and all are move- able without the aid of Horses: We had the Engines fitted up with Blow Pipes, Waste Steam Pipes, and Suction Pipe Improvements. The Cylinders are in good order; and the tackle, as a whole, has been kept in such good repair that we know it to be in many respects as good as it was when we got it, and in some respects better. William Lawson. Quarry Hill, Wigton, Cumberland, ist January, 1872. On January 5th, 1872, the first day of the sale, the tackle was put up and knocked down for ;^900. It was bought for a limited liability company, the chief of which was the writer of the satirical poetical history. How Times are Changed ! From the following Tables may be gathered a Balance Sheet for every year, the amount of work done in each and every year, and the totals of all expenditure and receipts. . It will be seen that we earned much money, and spent much, especially the latter. 68 00 O\0mwu^in I'tnO ^ , Tj- NOO O Q OOO SJoO O i^ '-' O *-• "^ 0\ ■* N iJT-« CO O M O fO -^O O «(l ^m w en m VO fOM -^O CO VO •-• « 00 o . T(-oo : n CO 00 in COVO t-^vo VO ri CO ■* c* t-* cnoo ^00 VO COOV CO « CjJOO ON CO C "^ Ov t^ in r^ ^vo « 11 w O imn « VO 00 ro ■4-1 I O i^ 00 CO 00 m OvvO 00 VO rOro 00 00 I . , to d U tfl e.3 o o OS •Ms s « ■s-s - a a o Hlfi H t =« N VO cy» ■ M -S' 00 VO mvO *0 « VO « 00 t^ fO -^vo ■'J- in i-i Osvo UT^ m ro t-i w 1/1 a : : : S ■ ■ ■ ■ t-" ro*-" 0\ 00 t^inM mro 1 1 t|il?lll PmOWwMHOCJ 6s < CO II : : : : ' CO =rt 6' 1 2 S 5? in VO VO <2- • ■ • : t STATEMENT SHOWING CAPITAL INVESTED, AMOUNT REALISED, AND HENCE THE ACTUAL DEPRECIATION. rear. 1862 1864 1865 1866 1867 1869 Kind of Transaction, Bought full set of Tackle „ Water Cart , , Grubber with S titching Moulds Exchanged Grubber Put Injector on 0]d Engine Exchanged Tackle for Double Engine System Bought another 7-Tined Grubber „ Harrow Put Injector on Cain (Abel had the Injector from Old Engine) Hose for Washing out Bought Water-Cart Horse ,, Lodging House i. •• £ I. d. 82s 2S 69 so 26 8 s 676 4 6 70 5° 2,-? 4 I 8 10 SO 82 17 6 Realisation when all was sold • £1936 4 1064 18 Net Depreciation for Ten Years. £871 5 II During the first five years our capital was j£gig ; during the last five years, ^£^1,936 4s. 6d. — making a rough average of ;^ 1,41 7 during the whole ten years. Depreciation, as shown above, amounted to an average each year of 6^ per cent, and very clearly shows that 15 per cent, depreciation is a rate fabulously too high to charge. There are some leading facts in these Tables : I. That there were two years in which a profit was made. II. That there is a net loss of ;^8so 7s. gd. upon the whole transaction. III. That the total income was jQ2o i8s. 2d. more than the total expenditure ; and as the tackle depreciated ;^87i 5s. I id., a iiet loss of ^850 7s. gd. resulted. IV. That the wages, ;£ 1,984 i8s. 4d., and repairs, ;^i,Sio 15s. 6j^d. were the great items of expendi- ture. V. That during ten years we only ploughed 281 acres, grubbed 5,173 acres, and harrowed 3757 acres, a FIRST STEAM PLOUGH IN CUMBERLAND. 71 The Useful Results Obtained. very small quantity ; for if we had only grubbed 8 acres a-day, during 150 working days a-year, it would have given 12,000 acres instead of 5,000. VI. The irregularity of the amounts charged for deprecia- tion. It appears that in some years the tackle appre- ciated instead of depreciating. This last observation calls for some explanation. The first year of appreciation was 1866. In this year we ex- changed the tackle, and getting a good bargain, the tackle at the end of the year was better than at the beginning of it. But what can be said of '68 and '69, in which for two years running, the tackle appears to have kept improving in value to the extent of ;£i83 19s. sd., while it actually grubbed 1,464 acres, and harrowed 1,860? The new system lost money as well as the old one ; the enginemen maintained that we had charged depreciation to an enormous extent; so, when put on their trial in '68, they had free access to the books of account, and were allowed to take stock themselves ; and a big stock they took. The depreciation in 1870 and 1871 shows that steam-plough enginemen are not the best j udges of depreciation ; and we should have been nearer the' truth to have continued as we had been doing. Had Mr. Lawson's establishment existed solely for the sake of making profits and getting gain, the result would have been very lamentable ; but existing as it did for the public good, there was this satisfaction, that our losses were but stepping-stones to that measure of success now attained in steam cultivation. The cause of our losses is not far to seek. ;£i,Sio paid for breakages and repairs, in finding out what would z.'o&fiex, by first finding out what would not answer, explains a good deal. It was necessary that some people should buy and use the early defective systems, or how could inventors and manufacturers have continued till a degree of perfection was attained? That we did contribute to this end is manifest from the great number of sets of tackle now in use, and the increasing 72 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Pleasant Prospects. number indicates a future in agriculture, once hopefully described by our Prior Hall Bailiff, who in a commemorative speech declared that things would go on and progress till Cain and Abel would climb the steep hills of Skiddaw, till the merry sound of their whistle would be heard in the green dales and grassy vales where the red deer wander and the child loves to play, and till, by this mighty power, the brown hills of Cumberland would wave with the golden grain. M. T. FREE CO-OPERATION. 73 New Conception of Co-operation. CHAPTER V. FREE CO-OPERATION. In the year 1867, the idea of what was called free co- operation had been brought forward. It seemed to some of us that the co-operative societies of the time were too exclusive in their character, inasmuch as they were societies, generally, of separate classes or sets of people, not aspiring so much to co-operate for the public good, as for the good of their respective classes or sets. For instance, there were in England, or on the Continent, co-operative shop- keepers, co-operative locksmiths, co-operative masons ; but it was not a common thing to find people ready to work together for the public good, irrespective of all consideration of party or of accidental and artificial distinctions. Accordingly, it was suggested that a new movement should be set on foot — having for its real and professed object, not merely the good one of earning as much profit as possible for shareholders, or the better one of earning as much profit as possible for workers, or the still better one of earning as much dividend as possible for purchasers, but neither more nor less than that of being as useful as possible to the public at large. Believing, as I did, that co-operation with that one great object for its bond of union, would ultimately be found sounder, in principle, and more productive of the general good than the co-operation of the then existing co-operative societies would be, I published a statement declaring that all the profits over 2j^ per cent, per annum on a stated amount of my capital, during a certain time, would be devoted to ^^ public good; and I invited everybody who was able and willing to co operate with me for that end, to do so . in any way that occasion might offer, and particu- larly in the matter of making, for the public use, as much 74 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Distribution of Profits. profit as possible, on the capital devoted to the public good, on the terms above mentioned. The balance-sheet of 1867 showed no profits over 25^ per cent, per annum on the capital; and, chiefly on account of a very great change in the valuation of the land and build- ings, the balance-sheet for the three months and twelve days ending ist April 1868, showed a loss of .;^6i47 9s. 3}4d.; but the balance-sheet for the eight months and nineteen days ending 19th December 1868, showed a profit, over 2}4 per cent, per annum, of ;^i8i 2s. loj^d. Of this amount ;£i42 8s. ii^d. had been spent during the year for the public good, leaving ^^38 13B. lo^d. still to be spent for the same object. As 'to how this £S2 13s. lo^d. was to be spent, I consulted my neigh- bours in public meetings at Blennerhasset, Ireby, and Aspatria. The Ireby people suggested that any funds I had to dispose of should be given towards building an assembly-room at Ireby. Among the various objects on which it was proposed to spend the money were a sick fund, a burial society, and a Primitive Methodist chapel; but the strongest desire was shown that this profit be given, to those who made it, meaning that it should be given proportionately to the workers employed in the establish- ment. Ultimately, ;^3o of this money was given in this way to the workers — to each person according to the time for which he had been paid wages, yielding three- pence and x\d. a-week to each worker, whether man, woman, or child. The remaining J^2> 13s. lod. was con- tributed to the Aspatria Cottage Hospital Fund; but the Aspatria worthies who got the money, sent it away to be spent in doctoring the wounded soldiers of the Franco- German war. In 1869 we closed our Newcastle business; and as its his- tory is of more than merely financial interest, it is given here. In the spring of 1866 the terrible cattle disease, rinder- pest, had killed a great many of the cows that supplied milk to the town of Newcastle-on-Tyne, so that milk had become very dear there; and, for a good while we sent FRKE CO-OPERATION. 75 Adventures at the Newcastle-on-Tyne Depot. new milk there daily, from the Blennerhasset farm — taking it about two miles by cart and about eighty miles by rail — a dealer giving me elevenpence per gallon for it delivered at the Newcastle railway station. Thinking we were not getting a high enough price for the milk, we asked for more ; but as the dealer refused to give it, we determined to try retaiUng it in Newcastle, and went there to start the business. Our cows were at that time very highly fed, and gave such exceedingly rich milk as the Newcastle people have perhaps never seen retailed in their streets before or since. But, for the retail trade, it was necessary to make the business known. Many small printed handbills, describing the excellence of the milk, were distributed in such parts of the town as we intended to deal io. The following is a copy of one of them : — " The pure milk and cream from Brayton, Cumberland, comes in at i o'clock, and is sold all over the town under the striped flag. New milk, 5d. per quart; old milk, 2^d. per quart; cream, 2s. per quart. William Lawson. Bell's Temperance Hotel, Newcastle- upon-Tyne, January i6th, 1866." Some large printed bills were carried through the streets ; a horse and cart for hawking the milk about the town were hired, also a milk- man, a very respectable looking Tyne-sider, at a guinea a-week. A loud sounding red tin horn announced the next arrival of milk from home. A large tricoloured calico flag was nailed to a long staff and erected on the cart; but thinking it likely to alarm passing horses, it was struck, after a short display. We retailed the milk at sd. per quart, at which price it was eagerly bought, the people flocking to the cart with their jugs. Having satisfactorily started the Newcastle retail milk trade, it was left in the hands of the highly-recommended, respectable-looking Tyne-sider, who had full charge of the business. For a few days the milk was regularly sent from Blennerhasset to Newcastle, and all seemed to be going on well, when a telegram came from some compassionate friend at Newcastle to the following effect : — " Three days' milk at station — man drunk." 76 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The People's Shop at Blennerhasset. A trusty young man was at once despatched from Blen- nerhasset to put things right. Of course he did not find the milk improved by its stay in the Newcastle station ; and caVefuUy collecting the several days' supply, he sent it all back to Blennerhasset ! Subsequently we established a shop in Pine Street, Scots- wood Road, Newcastle, for the sale of milk and vegetables, and other farm produce; and in connection with it had a stall in the butcher market, sending beef there from the farm. When, however, we gave up the Newcastle business, after some three years' mismanagement, the total loss was ;£'545. Much of this was, however, loss on the sale of the house property in Pine Street, which we had purchased in 1866 for the better carrying on of the business. But on the trading business the loss would not be far short of ^£400. Besides the Newcastle shop we also commenced one in Carlisle, another in Blennerhasset, and a fourth in Ireby, the financial results of which will be found in another chapter. In the village of Blennerhasset we started, the shop in 1867, and this, after several ups and downs — chiefly downs — was doing a trade of nearly;^ 20 a-week. On our parting with the estate in e 8 72, it was handed over to the People's Shop Company, Limited. This company pays a fixed interest to its shareholders, of 7J^ per cent per annum on their capital, and, through the check system, yields also its profits to purchasers, in proportion to the amount of their purchases — a near approach to what was called the Timothy Tarbucket system of shopkeeping. There were occasional changes of the storekeeper in the Blennerhasset " people's shop," and latterly the storekeepers were elected by the village parliament; and the report of that assembly states, that on the 4th January, 1870, the storekeeper of that time was voted to be kept in his place by a unanimous vote of fifty. Another branch of business was begun in 1869, the propriety of investing in government bonds of the United States of America, being discussed on August 17, and ;^S,ooQ being finally voted to be so invested. FREK CO-OPERATION. 77 Blennerhasset from a London Point of View. Our parliamentary records of 1869, show also that there seems to have been great trouble with trespassers this year; for on 31st August it was unanimously carried, " That tres- passing on the grounds belonging to Mr. Lawson be actually stopped during his absence." We were in the habit, during some years, of accommo- dating relays of London city missionaries with board and lodging at the farm in the summer time. Sometimes they came accompanied by their wives and families; and they usually stayed with us for a holiday of several weeks each. A kind friend used to pay their fare from London to Blenner- hasset and back, and we had the pleasure of their company at the farm, suppl)ring all their wants, generally, except wine and beer. I trust we succeeded in making them happy and comfortable while they were with us, and that when they left us to go back to their London duties, they generally did so with improved health. One who seems to have enjoyed his visit, sent us after his return to London a copy of the Temperance Star of August 20th, 1869, with an account of what he styled our " Tee- total Farm," as he saw it. Some passages set forth that " two or three weeks at a farm is always a. treat to a Londoner, and 300 miles is a nice distance from Bow Bells. If it be a model farm, the eggs and butter are all the sweeter, and if it be a Teetotal Farm, the hay and straw are all the cleaner. Our farm is all this, and more. It is situated near the famous Skiddaw mountain, and if the name is any guide, it is Blennerhasset. This name is well-known in Cumberland. The proprietor farms human beings, as well as sheep and turnips. He is a scion of the late Sir Wilfrid Lawson, who, thirty years ago, ordered all his whiskey and its kin out of his cellar and poured it into a pond. The Blennerhasset Farm contains a gasometer; a smithey, like a small foundry; a huge hydraulic engine for irrigation ; a laboratory for manures; 700 volumes to enlighten the lads on the farm ; two steam engines ; a waterwheel under ground for driving, thrashing, chaff-cutting ; washing-machines, a flour mill, and lathes, tramways, turn-tables, and trucks for feeding the cattle. Over the stables and cowsheds were long rooms, 78 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Missionaries' Bill of Fare. labelled — 'Lecture Hall,' 'Music Hall,' and 'Banqueting Hall.' Inside were painted posters — ' This way forward,' ' This way out.' , In a corner of a long double room was a regular refreshment bar, with a list of provisions that would be respectable at Islington or Norwood ; and on the rafters were mottoes of social progress and order. Every ear and every potatoe and turnip seemed to grow mathematically. One field was an acre of ripe strawberries and fruit for preserves. Asking an old woman when they were going to brew, she said, ' Na, ye'U get none o' that here.' The grass is cut and dried by machines, that do it quickly; and the men and women load waggons and ricks. Everybody works with a good will, because what is done on the farm is regularly discussed in full council. A balance-sheet is published, and a bonus comes to the labourer at the end of the year, as well as a dividend for an hospital and free school." The cost of entertaining the missionaries was charged to the public good account. The following figures show the cost of those staying at Blennerhasset farm in the summer of 1869 :— Wages — Attendance, Groceries (at shop), Berf, Ha,ins, Flour, Butter, . Milk, Strawberries, Other Garden Stuff, Expenses visiting the neighbouring sights and scenery. Average was— I man, 166 days. ,, I woman, 152 ,, .. I boy. 35 ., • £1 2 6 8 S loi u s II • 13 5 .74 3 10 4 2 2 4 1 19 10 17 6 2 4 I 2 2 7* 4 8 8 In 5 3i 353 Average cost per head per diem was 3s. 2d -93, or almost 3s. 3d. There seems to have been some discussion in the parlia- ment about the entertainment of the missionaries ; for the FREE CO-OPERATION. 79 Honourable Feeling of the Workers towards the Missibnaries. iparliamentary record has the following entries for 29th March, 1870: — " I. That no missionaries come except we plan to treat them gentlemanly." Carried. " 2. That three sets come this year." Carried. The first had reference to some proposal for lessening the above cost by curtailing the extent of choice in the bill of fare, and the expenses incurred in taking the missionaries to the sights of the county. But the proposal received no countenance from the parliament. By a " set " of mission- aries was meant three missionaries and their wives, so that " three sets " meant eighteen people ; and it must be men- tioned to the credit of work-people at the farm, that they voted to entertain missionaries at the expense of diminishing their next bonus. The year 1870 was known at Blennerhasset, and is still recollected as the great bonus year. The following notice was printed on cards that were distributed among the labourers : — "To MY Workers. " I shall give, as bonus, to ordinary time-workers, in pro- portion to time worked (exclusive of extra and overtime), one-quarter of this year's declared income arising from my present capital, clear of all current expenses for public good; but should such income exceed ;^iooo, I shall give as bonus half its excess over _;^ 5 00. "William Lawson. "Blennerhasset, Cumberland, Feb. 1st, 1870." The above-named offer, substantially, had been sanctioned by the parliament on the 18th Jan., 1870 — 31 persons having voted for, and 1 7 against it. The balance-sheet for that year of the whole establishment showed a balance on the right side of ;!f 1,715 4s. od.; and it must be borne in mind that no rent for the farm or garden, or interest on the capital of the establishment, was charged. Some departments of the establishment yielded a profit^ and others a loss, that year ; but the net result, in figures, was a gain of the above-mentioned ;^ 1,7 15 4s. Of this gain, ;^S46 4s. 7j^d. was awarded, according to 8o TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Origin of the American Investments. the above-mentioned announcement of ist Feb., 1870, to the workers, as bonus on time, affording four shillings and twopence three-farthings per week to each person — man, woman, or child ; or ten pounds nineteen shillings and elevenpence to every full-time worker during the year. We had a very large grain crop that year, numbering 144 stacks on the farm and garden on the ist Nov., after part of the crop had been thra^ed out. Our whole crop that year was valued by a professional valuer at;^5,oi5 os. rod.; but our own valuation, on the basis of which our balance-sheet was made, was about £,2,()<, less than that, and the crop ultimately realised about ;^i4S less than we ourselves had valued it at. Nevertheless, it is questionable whether the workers got such a large bonus as they might have considered themselves entitled to under the agreement; for the whole cost on account of what went by the name of " American Invest- ments " (which, inclusive of effecting a mortgage on the estate, came to much more than ;^ 145) was charged against that year. These American Investments I first broached in 1870. Having observed that in the United States of America money commanded higher rates of interest, with equal security, than it did in England, it seemed to me that I should increase my income, and* thus promote the public good, if I increased the investments in Aiperican securities; and with this view it was determined, after several public discussions on the subject, to effect a mortgage on the estate. Having determined, so to speak, to both eat my cake, and have it, I proceeded to consider the most profitable way of effecting my object. So I advertised that I would oflfer for mortgage by auction a portion of the estate that was valued at;^27,932 7s. 6d., that being almost the whole of it I arranged the conditions of the "mortgage by auction." These conditions were eighteen in number, with a note saying that I reserved " the right of altering any or all " of them, provided I gave notice of such intention at or before the time and day advertised for the auction. I here insert the first four conditions. FREE CO-OPERATION. 8 1 Proposed Mortgage by Auction. I. The estate described in the annexed particulars shall be mortgaged for a term of ten years. II. The mortgage will be put up at the following reserved sums, at their respective rates of interest : — At 3^ per cent, per annum, .... ;^i4,25o „ SH >, ,. .... 15,200 j> 4 >) )> ■ ■ • 16,250 .. 4X .. .> .... 17,500 ., 4>^ „ .. .... 19,000 ., 4H „ „ . . . 20,700 ,,5 >4 »' .... 22,800 .. SX 1. .. .... 25,300 III. Each of the above sums, at its respective rate of interest, shall be considered equal to, and as high as, each other. A bid of ;^25,3oo, at $}( per cent, per annum, is as high as, and no higher than, a bid of ;^i4,2So at sj4 per cent, per annum. The highest bid will be determined on a similar basis. IV. The highest bidder shall be declared the mortgagee. The time appointed for the mortgage by auction was one o'clock P.M. on 27th July, 1870 — the day of the last Blen- nerhasset Festival — and the place, the Blennerhasset Farm itself. The services of an excellent attorney had been secured for the occasion : and I acted as auctioneer, having taken an auctioneer's license on purpose. But a mortgage by auction was a new thing, for which there was no precedent; and stolid respectability probably had no confidence in such an unheard-of innovation on the customs of our ancestors. Moreover, unluckily for my pur- pose, there had just been a rise in the value of money shown by the rise in the Bank of England rate of discount, pro- bably due to the Frg,nco-German War which had just broken out. At any rate, scarcely anybody came to the auction ; pro- bable or possible mortgagees might have been counted on one's fingers ; and there were no bidders. I afterwards privately effected a mortgage of the estate on what I considered more advantageous terms than those I had 82 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Sunday Question at Blennerhasset. publicly declared myself willing to accept. It was what was called a stock mortgage, by which I borrowed ;^i 8,000 at an interest of ^£4 4s. 4d. per cent, per annum. But this mortgage was not effected till I had corresponded with several money-lenders in various parts of the kingdom, who offered various sums, at various rates of interest, and sometimes with an air of mystery that was amazing. In 1870 'the Sunday question came before the village parliament, under the following circumstances: — The librarian of the Free Library, in arranging the notice which was to be pasted into every book, appointed Monday evening as the special time, when he, or a substitute, would always be present to change the books; but besides this he added, and open "as far as convenient daily, from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m." In this "daily" he included also Sunday, but afterwards, to prevent disappointment from readers calling on Sundays when it was not convenient, or he was from home, he inti- mated that he would attend, for certain, from two till four on the first Sunday of every month. The lending of books on Sunday gave offence to some of the people of the village; and on February 8th, 1870, and the meeting sub- sequent, the parUament discussed the following resolution : — " That William Lawson's Free Library be closed on Sun- days." At the last and decisive meeting there was a fair muster of Sunday borrowers, chiefly from Aspatria, a large village about three miles to the west pf Blennerhasset; and after decidedly one of the best argued debates of the weekly parliament, the motion was negatived by 19 votes to 16. The Sunday question again came up, two years afterwards; and in reference to an intended lecture, our local record has the following entry for 4th Jan., 1872: — "Mr. Lawson said he would give a lecture on America either on Saturday evening or Sunday. Alexander Arnot made a speech in favour of Sunday. It was put to the vote, and — For Saturday Evening, . . . .32 ,, Sunday Afternoon, . . . -33 Of 1 87 1 the chief event was the great fire which occurred on Tuesday the 22nd of August, at the Blennerhasset Farm. At about seven o'clock in the evening, an escape of gas was FREE CO-OPERATION. 83 The great Fire at the Farm. observed about the farm buildings; and the gas-manager was informed of it. In going to look for the escape, he took a lighted candle with him, and went into the pulping-house, where, it appears, the escape was. When he went in, of course the flames of the candle set fire to the escaping gas, and an explosion occurred, but without injury to the man himself. The explosion ignited a large quantity of loose straw. The fire spread to the immense Dutch barn which was close at hand ; and in a very short space of time indeed the whole place was in a blaze, the barn containing a large quantity of flax. There was much hay, straw, flax, and machinery destroyed in a very few minutes, the pine wood with which the barn was fitted up favouring the spread of the flames. Ready and willing assistance was at once rendered by those on the spot, and the ample water-power appliances for the extinguishing of fire at the farm were soon got into action, but without avail. All efforts were therefore directed more to the prevention of the spread of the fire, than to its extinction ; and the com- munication between the building on fire and the immense byre and stables near was at once cut off, the beams being sawn through, and the roof let down. A messenger was despatched to Wigton for the fire-engine and brigade. At about half-past seven o'clock the flames could be distinctly seen within a mile or so of Wigton ; and at Brookfield the smell of the burning hay could be felt. From Aspatria a great number of people turned out In the village of Blennerhasset there was alarm felt; as it was feared by the villagers that their houses, which are lighted by gas, would be blown up in some mysterious way from the spread of the flames. The new farm buildings had been called " Mechi," after the great Essex farmer of that name, and that name had been handed in to the Ordnance surveyors; but in 1865 I was induced by one of my advisers, to change the name to Blennerhasset Farm, and to send in the latter name to the surveyors for insertion in their map, on which, consequently, that name appears. But my neighbours continued to call the place Mechi. The new farm buildings were more than 84 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. " Mechi," the first Name of the Co-operative Farm. a quarter of a mile from the village of Blennerhasset, and perhaps required a new name ; and as mine was not the only farm at Blennerhasset, the name Blennerhasset Farm was not distinctive enough. ■ To the best of my recollec- tion, I had changed the name from Mechi to Blennerhasset Farm before I had heard of Mr. Mechi's financial difficulty; but it was reported that the name had been changed because of that difficulty; at any rate, the report was incorrect. After the distribution of the large bonus of 1870 we naturally expected that our business would continue im- proving, and anticipated that 1871 would show a good profit too. Much interest was therefore taken in the "manifesto" to be issued for 18 71, and more public discus- sion and advice was bestowed upon it than on any previous one. At last the following was resolved upon, printed, and issued : — THE BLENNERHASSET CO-OPERATIVE ESTABLISHMENT. Capital, £■yi,^%o 4s. 8j^d. Approximate Investment of Funds, on or about November 1st, 1870 : — Assets. 415a. 3r. 2op. of Farming and Garden Land, Farm Buildings, Machinery, and Cottage Property, . ;,f30,ooo o o Shop and House Property stt Newcastle, . . . 600 o o Farm and Garden Stock, Crop, Implements, &c., . 5,554 i li Two Portable Engines and Steam Plough Tackle, . 1,300 o o Manures on hand, 676 15 o Sundry other Property on the Blennerhasset Estate, . 751 2 2i American Investments, per Mr. Henry Villard, . 8,447 2 6 Invested at 4 per Cent, per annum, and payable at call, 2,639 o o Invested in various Co-operative Societies, . . 42 4 6 Book Debts, 154 o 4 In the Bank, . . * 478 2 10 Cash on hand, ........ 29 10 o ;£'Si,S7i 18 6 FREE CO-OPERATION. Sj The last Blennerhasset Co-operative Offer. LlABtHTIES. Mortgage on 393a. or. 29p. of the Blennerhasset Estate, ;^i8,ooo o o Book Debts 245 9 2^ Bonus to Workers for the year ending November 1st, 1870, ... 546 4 74 ;£i8,79i 13 9i Balance net Capital, . . . . 32,780 4 8^ ;^Si,57i 18 6 We are of opinion that the above statement is correct. Miller Tiffin, Book-keeper. George Glassbrook, Manager. Chas. D. Hunter. Joseph Rickerby. Notice. — Of the declared income arising from the above-mentioned capital, for the year ending 1st November, 1871, I shall devote one- third to expenditure for the public good, one-third to the payment of bonus to n^f time-workers, and one-third to my ovm use — the income to be declared, and the bonus paid, before the end of 1871. Mil. — -The bonus is not payable to delinquents, nor is it transferable. William Law^son, Blennerhasset Farm, Cumberland, England. January 2nd, 1871. I think the taste of bonus in 1870 had some effect in lessening the expenditure of 1871; but the potato disease and the disastrous fire of this year made our profits ni/. 86 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. • Co-operative Shopkeeping. CHAPTER VI. VARIETIES OF CO-OPERATION. By 1864, one of my companions on the farm had become well informed as to some of the leading features of the great co-operative movement in England ; and it was with great pleasure that "1 secured his aid in what I believed to be the important work of spreading co-operative information in the neighbourhood. Of course, Blennerhasset was the first village in which we called the attention of a public meeting to our great subject — Co-operative Shop-keeping; and I well remember our early efforts there, and how severely we were handled in public debate by the late village schoolmaster, and how our mouths might have been completely and for ever shut on the subject, if we had not enthusiastically believed in the truth and importance of our cause. At the village of Aspatria we had better success. Proba- bly our practice and experience in pubhc speaking and debate at Blennerhasset had done us good. Besides, we were supported on the co-operative platform by some well known lay preachers, and there was a strong feeUng in the village in favour of co-operation. At that time among the EngUsh people, to whom the word co-operation conveyed a distinct idea, it was generally understood to mean concerted shop-keeping, of which the profits— over five per cent, per annum to the shareholders on their capital — were entirely, or almost entirely, appro- priated by the shareholders individually, in proportion to the amount of their purchases at the shop. I say entirely, or almost entirely, because while there were many co-oper- ative societies whose profits were entirely appropriated by the shareholders in this way, there were many others that regularly devoted a small proportion of their profits to the VARIETIES OF qO-OPERATION. 87 The Timothy Tarbucket Scheme. education of their shareholders or of the public, and there were some that yielded a small proportion of their profits to non-shareholders. For instance, there were some socie- ties which, when they paid a dividend to 'their shareholders o^ two shillings for every pound's worth of shareholders' pur- chases at the shop, paid also a dividend to non-shareholders of one shilling for every pound's worth of non-shareholders' purchases at the shop ; this was called giving half dividend or half bonus to non-shareholders. Similarly some societies gave only a quarter, some a third, and some two-thirds dividend, and so on, to non-shareholders. , Our first co-operative meeting at Aspatria was held in the new school-room. A stonecutter of Aspatria was chairman; and there was a pretty good attendance. On that occasion our proposition that shareholders and non-shareholders should share equally as to dividend, met with a good deal of opposition. A few evenings afterwards we had, in the same room, with the same chairman, Another meeting, at which there was a large attendance, and at which we advo- cated what was known in Aspatria at the time as the Timothy Tarbucket"'' system of shopkeeping. This system was to appoint some person shopkeeper for the public good, paying him a certain fixed rate of interest on such capital as he would have to devote to the business, while he was to supply goods to the public at large at the cheapest possible rate. He was to render public accounts, periodically, of all the transactions of the shopkeeping business he would thus be conducting, as the public servant, for the public good. This Timothy Tarbucket proposition was a good deal opposed, though the chairman supported it. At another well attended meeting soon afterwards in the same place, with the same chairman, the Rochdale kind of confederated shopkeeping — commonly known as the Co- operative Store System — was voted for by a large majority in preference to the Timothy Tarbucket system, the chair- • Timothy Tarbucket was used simply as a name for the suppositi- tious shopkeeper. 88 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Barrow and Balance-Sheet Propagandism. man telling the victorious majority that their scheme was " too narrow" for him. The Co-operative Store System was adopted in Aspatria, taken hold of by people of the right sort, and well worked. It prospered; and proved very advantageous to the village and neighbourhood; but some of us never forget our chair- man's words, " your scheme is too narrow for me," or ceased to believe that he was right. From Aspatria we went back to Blennerhasset to advocate there the " Timothy Tarbucket" scheme, with the result of having it denounced by the schoolmaster as "a rope of sand." In 1864, and again in 1866, we held at least one co^ operative meeting in each of the following places in Cum- berland — namely, Torpenhow, Bolton Gate, Ireby, Bothel, Plumbland, Blindcrake, Gilcrux, Oughterside, Hayton, Allonby, West Newton, Silloth, Abbey Town, Langrigg, Caldbeck, Hesket-Newmarket, Dearham, Alston, Wigton, and Keswick. On such occasions one of our chief points was the story of the Rochdale Pioneers, who had begun business in such a small way that they were laughed at by neighbouring shopkeepers, who said all their stock-in-trade might be carried, in a wheel-barrow. Another chief point with us was that the Cleator Moor Co-operative Society had, for one quarter, declared a dividend equal to 90 per cent, per annum on its capital. My friend and I used to hold forth on these two points in turn, so that if he told the story of the Pioneers— or " wheeled the barrow," as we used to say — I exhibited the Cleator Moor balance-sheet ; and if I held forth on the Pioneers, he spoke on the balance-sheet; and if, together, we managed to speak for twenty minutes in our opening addresses, we thought we had done well. Our object was to show that the business of shopkeeping was profitable, and that if the people would take it in hand, they would reap the profits^of it. In the second co-operative campaign of 1866 we were assisted at many of the places by our chemist, a farm bailiff, S, ploughman, our flax-worker from Ireland, and a stone- cutter — each doing his best as a public speaker. Discussion VARIETIES OF CO-OPERATION. 89 Results of the Co-operative Campaigns. was always invited, and it was interesting to observe the different ways in which the people conducted themselves in the various villages we visited. At two of the villages, we had the harmless and invigorating satisfaction of having our meetings prohibited, as far as possible, by the village grandees. At three of the villages our meetings were sanc- tioned by the presence of the parish clergymen. At Abbey Town there was a Mutual Improvement Society, and several practised and fluent debaters took part in the proceedings. But at most of the other villages the people did not seem much accustomed to public meetings, local preachers being among the most fluent speakers we met with. Women did not usually attend our meetings at all, or, if they did, in very small numbers. We afterwards had the satisfaction of seeing regular co- operative stores established at Dearham, Wigton, Alston, and Aspatria. The interest taken in these meetings may be judged of from the following notices in the Co-operator of December, 1866, and January, 1867, written by a contributor, at the time when the impressions were fresh, and the interest unabated : — "Between October and December, 1866, our 'Co-operative Corps' (now numbering eight) has held 15 meetings in various parts of Cumberland. Mr. Foxwell's visit to Blen- nerhasset was on Nov. 22. We had a large audience, for the size of the village, 80 to 100 being present. They seemed very much interested. We had a good discussion afterwards. The question of giving part bonus to non- members was ventilated — to the benefit, I hope, of some of our Aspatria friends who were present. We had Mr. Foxwell at Maryport, where a store, as yet small in size, has been established for several years. There was a good audience of perhaps 300 people. Several of our 'Co-operative Corps' made a few remarks. At the close, Mr. Miller Tiffin moved — ' That it is desirable that we hire capital to carry on public business;' which was seconded by Mr. George Glassbrook, who, for his vigorous eloquence, was rewarded with loud cheers. Mr. Lawson then made some remarks on Co-opera- tive farming, at the same time going into the questions of 90 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Use of a School-Room Denied. rights to private property, and of capital being made subser- vient to custom. The speakers were afterwards entertained at supper at the store, as six of them had ten or twelve miles to go. These meetings were began in the autumn of 1864, when Mr. Lawson, accompanied by Mr. Miller Tiffin, visited many villages in Cumberland, for the purpose of agitating for Co-operative stores. They met with much opposi tion; and being young in public speaking, and having to batde against a people 'famed for their local preachers,' they, in the opinion of the country folk generally, came off ' second best.' As experience shows, ' the yeast has been working;' and people having had time for reflection on the subject, are prepared to learn more, and oppose less. Oughter- side. West Newton, Plurabland, and Langrig'g were visited. At Langrigg they would not let us have the school for the ' advocacy of ' any such revolutionary and Utopian ideas,' so we met in a private dwelling-house. We had only one meeting at Keswick. Keswick was new ground for us. We sent the bellman round for two hours, and left small handbills at nearly every shop in the town. We had a good meeting of about 100; and all seemed very desirous to learn, while more than half the time was taken up in dis- cussion. We sold about 30 Co-operators, and distributed many tracts. We held meetings at Bothel, Blencogo, Gilcrux, Blindcrake, and Dearham. The people seemed very desirous to know how to start, and asked many ques- tions. At Dearham (where they have a store') we had a good meeting in the Methodist Chapel, the people seeming much interested. Meetings were held at Torpenhow, AUonby, and Ireby, where we had great discussion upon the Scripture view of Co-operation, after which the meeting passed a resolution in favour of starting a store in Ireby. Meetings were also held at Allhallows and Silloth. At the latter place we unfortunately held our meeting on the same evening as a temperance one, which circumstance rather spoiled both, not more than 90 being present at ours ; but we intend holding another there, at which we expect a better attendance and some practical result. At present only one other meeting for 1866 is contemplated (the handbill for which VARIETIES OF CO-OPERATION. 9 1 An Abbey Town Handbill. I enclose), to be held at Abbey Town, where, as at Langrigg, ' they have refused the school-room ; but we know that the people are well disposed towards Co-operation, and though the school is denied, the schoolmaster is energetic in getting up a good meeting for us. On the whole, I may say that the people seem much interested, and are beginning to think that there is something in Co-operation. " Blennerhasset, Dec, 1866." To complete this interesting report, we reproduce the notice of the meeting : — " Co-operation. — Union is Strength — True Reform — Free Education — Peace and Plenty — Justice in Trade — Better Pay for Less Toil — Happy Homes. ' ' Let each man find his own in all men's good. Then all will work ill noble Brotherhood. "A public meeting at Abbey Town will be held in Mr. Thos. Reay's Mill, on Friday, Dec. 21, at 7 p.m. Admission free." The businesses of market and nursery gardening formed an important department of our establishment, and, with the dpplication of more knowledge and care, might, I think, have paid well. In 1869 I sold the strawberries from less than an acre of land for ^49. Such businesses seem to be even better adapted than ordinary agriculture, to the application of the "partnership of industry" system." Before selling the estate in 1871 I suggested letting it as a co-operative farm to labourers for ten years, on certain conditions, one of which was that at the beginning of the term it was to be taken at a certain valuation, and that at the end of ten years, it was to be offered for sale, so that the difference between its value at the beginning, and its value at the end of the term might be taken into account at the final division of profits between the landlord and the tenants. However, this letting the estate to a number of labourers who had no capital, never came off. The Blennerhasset Christmas-day Festivals, the history of which Mr. Hunter relates in Chapter IX., generally con- 92 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Intention of the Christmas Festivals. sisted of entertainments on the Blennerhasset Farm, of music, dancing, lecturing, an'd discussion, interspersed by wholesome refreshments. It was felt that while great and i highly educated people had their annual gatherings for the discussion of "Social Science," some unlearned and less great people might, with equal propriety and proportionate advantage, have an annual meeting at Blennerhasset for a similar purpose. Several lecturers were usually advertised to lecture at certain hours of the day on such subjects as Temperance, Health, Phonography, Robert Burns, Woman's Rights, Capital Punishment, the American People, Agricul- ture, Natural Philosophy or Co-operation, discussion being always invited on each, subject lectured upon. We had three large granaries, the smallest of which would hold several hundred people seated, and in the largest of which, I think I have seen present, at one time, about a thousand people, and this at a Christmas festival. We were able to use the three granaries simultaneously from about lo A-M. till 9 P.M., one for music and dancing, another for lectures and discussion, and the third for refreshments and conversation. There was a great advantage in having the counter- attractions of music and dancing going on at the same time as the lectures, in a separate and distant room ; for by this means remarkably attentive audiences were obtained at the lectures, no one going to them, generally, except those who were anxious for instruction. Dancing was usually kept up almost all dayj and the fes- tivals seemed to be much enjoyed generally, by a great variety of working people, with whom Christmas-day was always a holiday, and almost the only one, excepting Sunday, in the year. The first of these gatherings took place in 1866, and it was, I think, the most interesting, not only because it was the first, but because it was the most peculiar ; for it was the vegetarian festival ! At that time I had been a vegetarian for five years, having become one in the following way : — On the 4th of October, 1861, an emissary of one of the numerous societies in which VARIETIES OF CO-OPERATION. 93 Vegetarian Experience. my father was interested, or which were interested in him, came to luncheon at Brayton, and, on my offering 'him a mutton-chop, said he was a vegetarian, and recommended his system of diet to me. As I thought the change of diet might benefit my defective hearing, I determined to give his system a trial, so, after eating one more mutton-chop, I became a vegetarian. After about a year's abstinence from flesh meat, I thought vegetarianism agreed very well with me ; and I began to read, with much interest, some of the publications of the Vegetarian Society, and such books as Graham's " Science of Human Life," and Smith's " Fruits and Farinacea." Then I thought I saw that the vegetarian theory was true ; and, as my experience seemed to confirm its truth, I continued the vegetarian diet. The Cumberland people, as most English people have, had a prejudice in favour of roast-beef; and when in 1863 I tried the experiment of feeding the farm labourers on vegetarian food, statements were made about the " nourish- ment " of flesh compared with that of vegetarian food, which I think I knew to be absurd, but which seemed to be really believed. I wished to show my neighbours what a variety of excel- lent food could be provided, at small cost, without having recourse to the flesh of animals, to such animal products as eggs, milk, butter, and cheese, or even to such things as pepper and salt; so for Christmas, 1866, 1 got up a vegetarian dinner, to which several hundred people came. But we were not then experienced in the management of large dinners; and, with the exception of the chemist, who was a vegetarian like myself, perhaps our people did not enter heartily into what they probably considered the strange and unbecoming experiment of a Christmas feast without meat. Though the first comers to the dinner fared well enough, things soon fell into a state of confusion and untidi- ness that was distasteful to our guests; dishes did not continue to be carefully served, and vegetable soup, that would have been liked if taken hot, was presented cold or tepid. I confess, indeed, to bad management ; and that I had not 94 TEN YEARS- OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Cheapness a means of Morality. before realised the importance attached by my neighbours to the temperature of their food. Whatever may have been thought of the 1866 Christmas festival, as a whole, the refreshment part of it did not give general satisfaction. It was unfavourably noticed in all the local papers, and eventually ridiculed in Punch. Still it seems to me that the cheapness of a vegetarian compared with a flesh diet, ought to recommend it to the poor for their own sake, and to the rich because it leaves at their disposal more wealth for other useful purposes. But costly food seems to be commonly regarded as specially advantageous; and probably the tendency to so regard it will continue as long as hunting for private wealth is, by common consent, the great game of the world. For as none of us can think of any real good in wealth except on account of the advantages it can buy, we easily fall into the error of supposing that things are really good in proportion to their costliness ; and of taking for granted that costly food is one of the advantages on which wealth ought to be spent, because we see it to be one of the things on which wealth is com- monly spent. The average cost to me of each of the five Blennerhasset festivals of Christmas, 1866, 1867, 1868, and 1869, and of July, 1870, was about ;^So. And I look back upon that expenditure with satisfaction, as having been incurred with a view of affording a good deal of pleasure to a good many people, and in a way that might be instructive. VARIETIES OF CO-OPERATION. 95 Patient Hearers and good-natured Friends. CHAPTER VII. PERSONAL INCIDENTS. During the very earliest days of my farming, one afternoon I called together a lot of the labourers, and read the whole of Shakespere's " Macbeth" to them at a sitting. They all went to sleep except one. I also read to them occasionally from " Talpa, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm," and some- times from the Co-operator. My hearers listened as long as they could. I remember being told, long ago, by a well-known agri- cultural neighbour, that I should never make money by farming, because I had too much to begin with ; and, reader, if you are a young man, in easy circumstances, without an agricultural training, and confidently propose to make your living as a British farmer, I venture to say — probably you won't do it,- but try. A writer on agriculture somewhere remarks, that if you buy five per cent, too dearly, and sell five per cent, too cheaply, your farming profit is gone ; and yet what a trifling difference there seems to be between a guinea and a pound. To be a money-making farmer, one must be a trader, prepared for " the higgling of the market," and know the value of a shilling. The story is told of an old Scotchman who, when reproached for having taken in a young neighbour, said " it was good for the lad;" and there are always plenty of people ready to do good to the lad in the same way. I quite understood that — " He that by the plough would thrive, Himself must either hold or drive;" and in the early days of my farming, when a good deal of such work as shifting soil with horses and carts had to be done, I found by experiment on one occasion, that though I was 96 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Going to Law with a Drainer. only a feeble " navvy," my staying among a lot of men that were working with horses and carts increased the amount of work done at the rate of ten shillings a-day. I do not profess to understand draining ; but I suspect many professed drainers have a great deal to learn about it yet. If you have to employ drainers, employ honest people if possible. When I began farming I was in a great hurry to get all the wet land drained as soon as possible, and, with this end in view, I employed a professional drainer, at so much a-week, to get men and drain a great part of the farm in a short time. He soon had about a hundred drainers at work on the farm, and a great deal of draining was done in a short time. But he and his men had not long left the place before we discovered that many of the supposed drains of their last few days' work were, in reality, no drains at all, but only rows of moved earth, which had been dug out to the depth of a few inches and put back again without any tiles ! An old stager might have said it was "of no use throwing good money after bad," but I thought the head drainer ought to be shown up ; so I summoned him to the County Court for the amount of the estimated damage. The judge likened the case to that of a groom's accidentally throwing down his employer's horse and breaking its knees ; and I, in reply, pleading my own cause, likened it to that of the groom's taking the horse to the smithy, getting one shoe put on, and charging his employer for four. I was non-suited. Land is sometimes extravagantly drained. A good deal of the draining on my farm was carried out by a trusty, old- experienced drainer, who had acted as foreman drainer on the Brayton estate as long as I could remember. When he was about to drain one of my fields five feet deep and ten yards apart — our usual style of draining on the Blenner- hasset farm at that time — I suggested to him that, as the subsoil was of a porous nature, the drains should be tried twenty yards apart, instead of ten. This suggestion Was adopted ; so it happened that an inexperienced man had his field sufficiently drained at about half the cost that a trusty and experienced drainer was about to involve him in j'for, PERSONAL INCIDENTS. 97 Association not always an advantage. to this day, I have never heard of any complaint that the field was insufficiently drained. Do not expect to gain anything by joining an association of neighbouring land-owners and farmers, to enable you to drain your land. One of the first things I did in 1862 was to join such an association, which proposed to secure, the means of properly draining some scores of acres of meadow land, in the hands of, and belonging to, above a dozen different people, by deepening and widening an open main drain called the Kirkland Cut. Each person that joined the association was to contribute to the necessary funds in proportion to the quantity and quality of his land that would be benefited by the undertaking. I think I had scarcely ten acres to be so benefited ; but, to the best of my recol- lection, I was assessed by the engineer of the association for about 14 acres, at the highest rate per acre. Those of the benefiting land-owners who refused to join the association contributed nothing towards the undertaking, and were probably glad of the opportunity of having their property improved at other people's expense. Then came endless bother, lasting over a period of several years. I was one of the committee of management ; and I have a distinct recollection of many weary committee meetings held at various hours of the day or night, sometimes in a public, and sometimes in a private house, for hours together, often accomplishing very little. Then our contractor failed to give satisfaction ; the engineer seemed to play into the con- tractor's hands; the cut was not deepened enough; and we had one or two County Court trials about it. The very name of the Kirkland Cut became odious to me ; and I saw afterwards that I might have drained my meadow land more cheaply and satisfactorily by cutting through my own ground without joining the association at all. Some people run great risks in gratifying their feelings, as the following stories may illustrate. In the early years of my farming, I brought from a distance a well-recommended shepherd, who understood his business and was a trustworthy man, as far as I know, but had the misfortune to be an Irishman, displacing a Cumbrian. One day one of the 98 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Cumbrian Hostility to Strangers. sheep was missing, and soon afterwards its skin was found in the neighbouring fields with the entrails neatly wrapped up in it. Somebody had neatly butchered the sheep and taken the mutton ; but we never knew who. The Irishman did not stay long with us. after that. Years afterwards, we had occasion to employ a Highlander as shepherd, the Cumbrian being again displaced, and one morning, while this Highlander had the care of my sheep on turnips, it was found that somebody had during the night cut the sheep nets and hunted the sheep with a dog, leaving one of them dead in a pool of water ; but we never knew who had done it. Those who act through others are said to act themselves ; and I have known an employer have to take the conse- quences of his agent's indiscretion ; but I have also known an agent called upon to take a share of the responsibility for actions in which he was simply carrying out his em- ployer's wish. On one occasion my controlling agent had discharged a labourer during my absence, and the labourer afterwards brought the case as a grievance before the Blen- nerhasset Parliament when I was present; and though I believed the agent had simply done his duty in the case,' some of my friends thought I did not say so emphatically enough ; and the fact is I was afraid the labourer might destroy some of the farm property to gratify his feelings, if he felt that he owed me a whole aind undivided grudge. It is not always easy to draw the line between pru- dence and cowardice; but I believe I have been too cowardly. We had a system of letting cottages by auction, and requiring prepayment of rent. This system saved trouble, and secured the rents; though perhaps it did not always secure what are called desirable tenants. After the new farm buildings were ready for use, the old ones were turned into cottages for the labourers, and some twenty dwellings were added to the village. These were let thus ; — The day being advertised, the auctioneer took his stand on a slight elevation, and read the conditions of letting. These con- tained clauses against the keeping of hens, pigs, and PERSONAL INCIDENTS. 99 Cottage-Letting by Dutch Auction. anything of the kind that might lead to quarrels or pil- fering; and stipulations for prepayment of the weekly rent, fourteen days in advance, and that one week's notice should be sufficient on either side. These being read, the question was asked, " Who will give for this house four shillings a- week — 3s. I id. — 3s. lod.," and so on, till some one called out, "here," when the house was knocked down to him or her. It was urged against this system of periodical lettings, that it gave rise to much dissatisfaction, and frequent changes. A spiteful neighbour, whose hatred exceeded a penny a-week, might take his or her enemy's house at a penny a-week above the old rent; and if the supply was small, the ousted party would have to repeat this on some other neighbour; and, if himself of a cleanly turn, he might be compelled annually to leave his tidy house for one made dirty by some lazier cotter. This system was defended, because, by it, each man settled his own rent, and could soon get a better house if the one he had, proved unsuitable. Public feeling, however, was against it; and finally an end was put to it. In June, 1867, Brayton had ceased to be my residence; and I afterwards travelled a great deal, and was, con- sequently, even less than formerly upon or near my farm. In 1867 I was in France; in 1868 in Italy and America; in 1869 in America; in 1870 in America, France, Belgium, Germany, and Italy; and in 187 1 in Italy, Swit- zerland, and France. But I continued to hold the farm, with a view to settling down on it before long, and, as my own head man, looking closely after it myself In the meantime I was willing to test the soundness of our esta- blishment's constitution by trying how the farm got on without my constant presence. Having taught ourselves much in previous years about growing potatoes with artificial manure, in 1871 we had above a hundred acres — about a quarter of the farm — in potatoes. In the autumn of 1871 the well-known potato disease, that first appeared in the British Isles in 1848, was worse in Cumberland than it had been for many years. It is difficult to estimate the precise loss occasioned on the farm by this disease, but it certainly destroyed a very large TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Relinquishment of Farming. number of our potatoes ; and our potato crop of 187 1 was probably not worth, per acre, half that of 1870. About the end of 187 1 it seemed clear that my farming was very far from being remunerative, and from giving prospect of becoming so. All, or nearly all, prospect of my ever living on the "farm had vanished ; and I had already had ten years' experience of the pleasure of holding a farm without living on it. Through the farm I had enjoyed much, learned something, and, I hope, been useful to some of my neighbours. I had had a pretty good spell of farming, such as it was, so I offered the Blennerhasset estate for sale, and on the 2nd February, 1872, it passed from my hands to those of my brother (Sir Wilfrid) at the price of ;^3o,ooo, the fixed machinery being taken at the valuation of ^^847. The continuation of the narrative, except where otherwise indicated, is by Mr. Charles D. Hunter, who conducted the agricultural experiments, and managed several departments of the establishment. PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. Public Good Expenditure. CHAPTER VIII. ■ PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. " Public Good " was a term used under which to class all expenditure incurred for the public advantage, whether the recipients were workers on the farm or not. The Free School, Free Library, and other kindred devices, were samples. Between 1866 and the spring of 1872, ;^i,3oi 12s. loj^d. were expended in one way or another, on what we called " Public Good Account." The totals are as follow : — 1. Co-operative Meetings, ..... £,7. 4 10 2. Agricultural Experiments, ..... 207 16 loi 3. Free Library and Reading Rooms, . . . 339 11 9 4. Free Schooling, 298 17 llj 5. Free Bath Room, 7 o 7i 6. Noble Temple, ....... 225 o o 7. Public Assistance, 317 14 o 8. Festivals and Trips,* 338 9 iij Deduct — £hTh(i 15 iij Library and Reading Rooms still in use, j^289 2 6 Sundry Sales 146 o 7J ■ 435 3 li Net Expenditure, ;£^i,30i 12 loj I. The expenditure on co-operative meetings, though least of the eight items, represents — as has been seen in a pre- vious chapter — do small amount of labour. Many, however, of the early expenses do not appear in the above state- ment, as they were incurred before the days of account- keeping. These co-operative lectures, or rather "talks," were the * This Section is explained in a separate chapter. TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The "One Rule" of the Free Library. outcome of enthusiasm which saw in the principle of co-operation a cure for nearly all the social ills. At first the farm servants had to bear the weight of this enthusiasm, and with what effect we have already seen. Afterwards it led to our holding numerous public meetings in 1865 and 1866 in the surrounding villages and towns. II. Agricultural experiments, though a very considerable item, was an expenditure that bore immediate fruit in the working of the manure department, and also (though less than might have been expected) in the management of the crops. The results of some of these experiments were sent to Professor Volcker, of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and by him published in the Journals of the Society. Many on potatoes formed the subject of a recent prize essay.* Some of the experiments were also published from time to time in the agricultural papers ; and others were reported to the Wigton Farmers' Club. Many of the experiments are given in other chapters, but only the more important — many others of equal interest on oats, barley, potatoes, carrots, and Swede turnips not being sufficiently prepared for publication. III. The Free Library and Reading Rooms were perhaps the most useful and successful of all our attempts at pubHc good. The Free Library was begun in the end of 1866, when Mr. Lawson placed about 300 volumes in the labora- tory of the farm, and had them numbered for convenience in lending. He disliked many rules, which generally make many difficulties; so that only this one rule was resolved upon — " That after one month's use a fine of one penny per week will be charged." A copy of this rule was pasted into every book, and the following regulations printed in the catalogue : — " The books are lent out free of charge for one month to any one approved of by the Librarian. A fine of one penny * It appears in " The Transactions of the Highland and Agricul- tural Society," Vol. V., Fourth Series. 1873. It was awarded a prize of ;^20. PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. The Written and the Unwritten Law. 103 is charged for every week, or portion of a week, during,- which it is retained beyond the month. " The Library is open on Monday evenings, from 7 to 9, and, as far as convenient, daily from 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. " Persons sending for books are recommended to write a list of the numbers and titles of several; as the one book wanted may be out. " It is earnestly requested that the books be kept clean, that the corners of the leaves be not turned down, and that they be kept from the hands of young children." These made up the entire written law, but the unwritten law, which was simply the Librarian's will, practically relaxed the written law so far that schoolmasters, preachers, and those using books of great size or requiring much study, were generally remitted their fines. Readers, too, from beyond four miles, were mercifully dealt with, but the near, and the purely novel readers, were fined so surely, that in one year nearly £,t, was thus collected. The first loan bears date December 13th, 1866; and by the end of 1867 fifty-nine individuals had made use of the library, and some 200 loans had been made. Of its further progress the following figures will give a better idea, remem- bering, however, that the earlier figures, though very close, are not mathematically accurate : — PROGRESS OF THE FREE LIBRARY. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870.' 1871. 1873. 1873- Total Number of Loans during the year . 200 377 966 1 19592340 1210 473 7525 Number of new Readers . Greatest number of- Loans \ 59 58 loS 156 155 97 27 660 at any one time during \ the year . . . ) Volumes for Lending . Volumes for Reference Total Volumes in Library 33 500 5° 55° 52 610 53 663 105 780 145 986 82 1068 171 1275 90 1365 100 1661 93 1754 •• 41.8 per cent 36.1 jj 6.1 » i6.o )> 104 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Removal of the Free Library. In 1872, after the removal of the library from the farm, the number of loans fell off very much — 1871 showing 2340, and 1873 only 473 (till October 6th, 1873): This was fore- seen ; and both by petition and a resolution of the weekly Parliament, Mr. Lawson was requested to leave the library at Blennerhasset, in charge of a committee or otherwise; but to this he did not see his way. It was urged that Blen- nerhasset was on the whole very central for a library, an analysis of the localities of the readers made in Novem- ber, 1 87 1, giving the following result. Number of readers from — Blennerhasset and Baggrow, . Aspatria and to the west, Torpenhow and to the south, Mealsgate and to the east, . The removal, being made to the east, was away from the best reading district, which lay to the west; the loss, how- ever, has not been great, as Miss Lawson gave a free library to Aspatria some months before the removal of Mr. Lawson's. The additions to the library were chiefly made by the writer hereof, who had charge of it; and many of the books were purchased at Glasgow in his half-yearly visits north. At first the additions were chiefly of the popular science stamp, such as " Faraday's History of a Candle," and " Lard- ner's Common Things " ; but latterly the number of novels was greatly increased. But of these only the better class were added, such as the works of Dickens, Scott, Stowe, and MuUoch. But even after this addition, it is wonderful what an amount of solid reading was gone through. The following analysis of 2156 loans in the winter of 1870-1 will compare favourably with that of any town library. An analy- sis is also given of the library books themselves, as they stood in 1870 : — PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. Burning of Paine's Works. loS PROPORTION PER CENT. OF THE DIFFERENt CLASSES OF BOOKS IN THE LIBRARY AND OF THOSE BORROWED. Science and General Information, Religious Works, . Essays and Miscellaneous, Biography, History, Travels, Poetry, Fiction, Juveniles, Per cent.un the Library. 31.2 10.6 8.7 8.0 6.5 4-3 3-7 14.4 9.4 Per cent, in the Loans. 13-34 S-93 7.04 7.60 2.46 4.60 2.32 36.91 19.80 This shows only 37 loans of fiction in the 100; aiid even if we add the juvenile circulation, of nearly 20 per cent., we get only 57 as compared with 78.4 in Boston (America), 73 in Liverpool, and 55 in Manchester. Religious works show also comparatively a high per centage. These were of all creeds, Mr. Lawson wishing to give all sides; choosing many himself, and purchasing the choice of others, so that Evangelicalism, Rationalism, Romanism, and Scepticism were all represented. Paine's works were also in the library; but a friend induced Mr. Lawson to withdraw them for seven years. Paine's works were at the same time condemned to be burnt; but circumstances delayed the execution for two years, and not till Christmas, 1871, was the sentence carried out For some days before, it was well advertised ; and both his defenders and detractors were invited to discuss his merits and shortcomings at the fire. On the appointed day Mr. Lawson gave a sketch of his life and times, and from an American publication, read a long list of testimonials of Paine's political services and character. Then the Dissent- ing minister of the place spoke against him, after which a friend from Carlisle spoke in favour of his works, which were then burnt by Mr. Lawson on the village green. In 1870 a catalogue of the library was published; but out of 400 copies only about 70 have been sold, although the price — 4d. per copy — was a little under the cost-price of the Io6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Free Library Management. printing alone. The cost of the library varied between ;^2o and ^^o per annum, including additions; but of the tear and wear on the books, little can yet be said ; as the loans still bear too small a proportion to the number of the volumes. Some of the books stood 30 loans before rebinding, and others only 10 or 12. The actual losses were slight, being less than one in 600, and occurring chiefly in the juvenile division ; and, , upon the whole, our experience of a free library was a highly favourable one. But the Librarian found that the least carelessness on his part reacted at once on the borrowers, and that certainty of detection was far more powerful to keep things right than the magnitude of the penalty- Some of the more careless readers were fre- quently suspended, but only temporarily, and in such a way that they should feel that after a month or two the Librarian would be glad to see them reading again. The overdue list was examined at least every second month, and by means of the halfpenny post a circular was sent to the defaulters, specifying the amount of the fine and its cumulative character. The system of entry made this an easy matter, the loan-book being ruled in four columns ; the first for the date of issue, the second for the number of the reader, the third for the catalogue number of the book, and the fourth for the date of return. The vacant spaces of this fourth column showed at a glance the overdue list. Besides this, each book had, pasted into it, a small two-columned fly leaf, on which was entered the date of the loan and the num- ber of the reader. By reference to this, every one borrowing a book could see at once when it was due, and no reader could oifer excuses or plead forgetfulness for non-observance of the one rule. This system I can recommend as the best of several that were tried. Besides the Blennerhasset Free Library, Mr. Lawson made some attempts to establish others, and offered both to Wigton and Maryport a sum of ;^5o for this purpose; but neither town accepted the offer. Free Reading Rooms were also established, the first being at Blennerhasset, which was supplied second-hand from the farm ; but as no one had any special charge of it, the com- PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. I07 Free Reading Rooms Established. plaints in the Parliament were constant; and at length it was handed over to a manager elected by the Parliament. The managership was, however, no sinecure; and several persons, after accepting the office, speedily resigned it, as the mis- carriage of a paper subjected them to much unpleasant criticism in the Parliament ; and this office was, in .conse- quence, more than once a-begging. The Reading Room did, however, pretty well under the management of the village schoolmaster. In October, 187 1, Mr. Lawson proposed that;^45 a-year be allowed by the estabhshment for the support of six reading rooms in six villages. This, of course, met with some opposition in Blennerhasset ; as its adoption would reduce the Reading Room supplies from about £^12 per annum to perhaps ]Q 7 ; but it was finally carried by fifteen votes against nine. Some six conditions were also annexed to the offer, the most important of which required that the reading rooms should be open at least five hours daily, seven days in the week, to all comers, and that any paper not objected to by Mr. Lawson should be admitted to the reading room. Meetings were now called in the six villages proposed for the grant, Joseph Rickerby and Edward Tiffin undertaking the advocacy of the scheme. But two of these villages (Plumbland and Bothel) rejected the offer, probably because of the conditions mentioned above, some of the chief men fearing the Sunday opening of the reading room and the introduction of sceptical papers by Mr. Lawson. • The other four villages accepted his offer, and received 2S. 6d. per week during 1871-72-73, the rest of the grant going to pay a messenger and some other small expenses incurred by Mr. Lawson for the better supervision and management of the various rooms. Each village was also expected to accept this 2s. 6d. a-week as an aid only, Mr. Lawson's intention being to pay for the freedom of the rooms to all comers— {qx at least one of the villages already pos- sessed a reading room ; but such reading rooms are generally only open to subscribers — ^and it was hoped that this 2s. 6d., supplemented by some of the pennies a-week from the sub- Io8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Free School proposed. scribers to the old subscription Reading rooms, would suffice to support a good one, which should be closed against no one on account of his or her poverty. The four accepting villages were Aspatria, Blennerhasset, Bolton Gate, and Ireby ; and a pretty large choice of papers was managed by the four taking some jointly, their circulation being managed by means of the weekly messenger, such papers thus lying one week in each village. Mr. Lawson supplied also some American papers, among which may be mentioned "The Nation," "The Boston Investigator," "The Communist," and "The Circular." IV. The charge for Free Schooling, ^298 17s. iij^d., represents the cost of books and teaching for nearly five years. Cumberland, as a county, is pretty well off as regards education ; free schools are not uncommon, and even where such do not exist, much free schooling is obtained, the gentry paying the school fees in some instances. In 1866 Blennerhasset was possessed of a schoolhouse of fair size and a teacher of much ability, but the building of many cottages, and the influx of many people to work at Mechi Farm, would have rather strained the school accommoda- tion, had compulsory education been in force. Mr. Lawson had for a long time the responsibihty of much of this ; and finally, after some consideration, addressed the following letter to the weekly Parliament — ^he not being able to attend in person : — "April 9th, 1867. " Let this assembly fairly state how much money it wishes to be spent in teaching all comers for nothing. And as I will provide any reasonable sum of money that is thus publicly voted, I think those who hear this letter will be responsible for withholding free instruction from the people, if they remain silent on the subject. "William Lawson." At this time the chief speakers were the schoolmaster, a neighbouring farmer, and a railway overseer. These three PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. I09 An Ideal School for Ideal Children. were the independent opposition speakers, whilst the "official" speakers were Mr. Lawson, the chemist, and the clerk, and latterly the farm bailiff and the timekeeper. As might have been expected, " a reasonable sum" was the first subject of inquiry; ^20 was proposed, and then ^80, when the chairman hinted that the latter was nearer what would be deemed reasonable; and next week when the sub- ject was again being talked over, the proposer of the j^ 80 brought forward his scheme, of which the following is a condensed statement: — A Reading Room, £2.0 Library expenditure, 7 Lectures and Diagrams, 10 Parliament expenditure. S Day Schooling on half-time system, 6 Night Schooling, 22 Total, . . . ;^8o o o This, however, Mr. Lawson considered not radical enough, and as meantime he had advertised for a schoolmistress, there was some lively debate, the schoolmaster thinking the whole thing uncalled for, and Mr. Lawson painting an ideal school with short hours, no rod, and children as hungry for learning as for bodily food. The ;^8o resolution was then carried, and in a few days Mr. Lawson wrote to the school- master as follows : — "Brayton, Tuesday, May 7, 1867. " Dear Sir, " Please let me know at your earhest convenience — to- morrow if possible — the lowest sum of money per week that would induce you to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, or needle-work, or any or all of these branches of learning, for thirty hours per week, or for as short a time as the pupils may desire, to all persons who choose to avail themselves of free instruction. " If, by a diminution of the number of hours, or of the number of branches required to be taught, or by a diminu- TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Children Voting their own Lessons. tion of the number of both, you could teach for a consider- ably less sum of money, I trust you will not fail to suggest such diminution or diminutions." To this the teacher at once replied, offering three alterna- tives. " I agree to the following terms, viz. : — " ist. To teach ' all comers,' exclusive of those whose edu- cation is paid for by others than their parents, and including all the rest of the school, for 21s. per weekj or " 2nd. To teach ' all comers' not now attending, including those already in attendance, whose parents, in my opinion, are either unable, or can with difficulty only, pay for their education, for los. 6d. per week; or " 3rd. To teach ' all comers' not now attending, including those already in attendance, whose parents are quite unable to pay for their education, for 7s. per week." This correspondence being read at the next Parliament, the discussion turned chiefly upon the question of who should be judge of "a parent's ability to pay." The schoolmaster claimed that he could best judge of this; but the farmer thought Mr. Lawson, who paid the fees, should choose the recipients. The teacher then offered to work on the scheme before brought forward by the chemist; but Mr. Lawson would have nothing short of free instruction to all comers ; and finally it was carried "that none of the teacher's proposals be accepted." This was on May 14; and after much talking at several meetings, the question dropped. One good result that followed was the establishment of a night school, taught by volunteer teachers. Four offered themselves — Mr. Lawson, the farmer, the railway overseer, and the chemist, but the two latter alone proved of real service, Mr. Lawson soon going abroad. A female teacher was also engaged for the night school, and for the first year this succeeded very well, the great majority of the day scholars attending also the night school, and seemingly enjoying the novel excitement of voting their own lessons, a plan adopted by the chemist from American models. PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. Ill A Sclioolmistress Elected by Ballot. Meantime the subject of a free day school had become more of a public question-, the village class leader of the Methodists taking it up, and advocating (June, 1867,) a free day school, where knitting and sewing should be taught by a mistress. He also blamed Mr. Lawson for letting the matter go to rest again ; but Mr. Lawson replied that it was the people's fault, who had not taken up his offer. The class leader's motion was then adopted by five votes for, and none against, and the rpeeting following this, had to be held in a dwelling-house, as admittance to the school-house (the usual place of meeting) could not be obtained. Mr. Lawson now advertised again for a female teacher; and the meeting passed four resolutions, copies of which were to be sent to all applicants. These were as follows: — i. That the teacher have a holiday on Sunday. 2. That the teacher be required to work forty-eight hours a-week. 3. That the teacher be not required to work after mid-day on Saturday. 4. That the teacher .be a first-rate dressmaker and worker of a sewing machine, who can teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing to grown-up people. It is probable that the pro- poser of this resolution had not at that time a very distinct idea of the qualifications of "a first-rate dressmaker." No. 2 was to be thus divided — two hours of teaching in the fore- noon, two in the afternoon, and two in the evening, the remainine; two at the sewing machine or dressmaking. Prac- tically, the latter never came to much; though a machine was purchased and occasionally worked. At last, after much advertising, writing, and discussing, the decision was narrowed down to two candidates, one at Inverness and one in the neighbourhood, and on a ballot being taken, the Inverness candidate polled fourteen and the home candidate four votes. The former was then engaged, and by the middle of November, 1867, a free day school was opened. But previous to this, it had been found necessary to transfer the night school from the school-house to a build- ing belonging to Mr. Lawson, three rooms of which were found necessary to accommodate the separate classes; so that when the new day school was begun, rooms, desks, and TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Village Evening Lectures. books, were all in readiness. It had also been found neces- sary to forbid therday scholars from attendance at the night school, the older pupils complaining of an insufficient teach- • ing staff. The attendance in 1868, the second winter, averaged about twenty males and twenty-five females; but in 1869 it fell off considerably, and in 1870 the chemist, now the only teacher of the original four (the railway over- seer having removed) re-admitted the day scholars to his class. This he held now only once a-week, and as there was already abundance of opportunity for learning the three R's, he made biography, geography, and science the subjects for teaching. The geography of Europe was gone through, each country being linked with the name of one of its famous men. France suggesting Palissy, and Spain Columbus. England was treated in the same manner, but by counties ; and afterwards its history was gone into. After the lessons were over, a powerful binocular microscope was brought out, and crystal- isation and the structure of insects and plants illustrated, the polariscope being also made use of for this purpose. One evening the printing press was the only lesson, and by means of the small apparatus from the farm, each of the twenty or thirty children present "composed" his or her own initials ; and afterwards each printed a copy for himself Occasional lectures were given in the Free School- room — the schoolmistress giving one on woman's rights; the chemist several on chemistry and alUed subjects, illus- trating them by experiments ; the clerk giving one on the steam engine ; and a labourer one on what he saw in the Mauritius. During the greater part of 1868 and 1869 Mr. Lawson was in America; and from his letters the schoolmistress drilled her pupils in the geography of America, Mr. Lawson having suggested an examination on this subject. But on his return, other things engaged his attention ; and his stay was so brief that the examination was neglected. The free day school had generally about seventy names on its roll, but the average attendance was about fifty, though £4° 4 O I 6 O 3 lO 6 '3 6 o lO 8 o o 8 5 s 2 6 PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. II3 The School Teacher and the Village Parliament. much less in summer. The yearly cost varied a little, but the following for 1869 is a fair average : — Cost of Free School in 1869. Wages to Teacher of School, Fees to another School, Coals, Books, .... Rent, .... One-fifth cost of painting, &c.. Wear and Tear on Sewing Machine, Forms, Maps, &c., at 20 per cent., Total Cost, . . . .^74 5 5 The Inverness lady who had been elected school teacher, by ballot and universal suffrage, gave pretty general satisfac- tion ; and, for the comfort of teachers who fear being placed under a rural School Board, it may be well to give some details of the few occasions, when an irresponsible and open-to-all village parliament, was called upon to criticise her proceedings. First, as to her salary, which was, of course, fixed before she came ; but at that time the amount of it in nowise affected the bonus-money of the workers. About a year afterwards it was raised ^^5, and a holiday gift was also added. This, however, was done by Mr. Lawson, and what was frequently called "the inner house" or "privy council," which consisted of the bailiff, the chemist, the two clerks, and Mr. Lawson when at home. But even when, in 1870 and 1871, the costof thefree school was a direct burden on the workers' bonus on wages, no proposal was ever made -to reduce her salary, or in any way curtail her perqui- sites. On the contrary, the weekly parliament voted at least one of her annual holidays (extending over some weeks) ; and on one occasion, when she had suspended some children, and the parents brought the case before the parliament, that assembly discussed the affair two nights, heard the parents and then the teacher, and ended the matter by passing a vote of confidence in her. After this, things went on quietly in the free day school 114 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Free School to be given up. till December, 1869, when the public were again called upon to decide between the Inverness lady and a home candidate. The latter was in this case the son of the late schoolmaster, who had succeeded his father some months before. The question was asked by a neighbouring lady who had long taken great interest in the Blennerhasset British School, and who now wanted the people to decide whether they would prefer, as teacher of the Free School, the present British School teacher (assisted by his mother or sister) or the present Free School teacher. The question was keenly debated for some weeks ; and at last a ballot was decided upon, the suffrage to be universal (to all above fourteen years of age), as usual. Then occurred, without exception, the largest muster of voters ever seen at the village parliament. The excitement was great ; and so im- portant was the issue deemed, that the Dissenting minister of the place and other local dignitaries acted as poll clerks and counted the votes. These numbered 157, the Free School teacher receiving 92 votes, and the late schoolmas- ter's son 65. In the discussions upon this question, the parliament passed several resolutions, declaring that two schools were necessary for the village, and advising the continuance of both. These induced Mr. Lawson to make an attempt to uphold both schools, by an arrangement with some of the supporters of the old school, and with such success, that at one time the Dissenting minister of the place provisionally accepted an offer from Mr. Lawson of about £^0 annually for the sup- port of both schools. This, however, came to nothing; and things continued much as before, till the autumn of 1870, when the Education Act came under Mr. Lawson's notice. This new Education Act proved the next and the last disturbing force against the free school ; for soon after it became law, Mr. Lawson intimated to the people that now the Government had undertaken to educate the nation, he did not think it necessary that he should bear the sole expense of the present free school; and he announced his intention of discontinuing it after the end of 1870. The weekly parliament now began to discuss the Education Act; PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. II5 Attempt to form a School Board. and at last it was decided to call the necessary meetings for the establishment of a district School Board ; but the law is proverbially slow ; and before the necessary forms were gone through, Mr. Lawson's notice expired; and in his absence it was with some difficulty that an extension of time was obtained. It proved, however, of little use; for though a School Board was first informally and then formally agreed to, "my Lords" evidently thought our district too small; as they answered us (Dec. 1870) in a long circumlocutory printed paper, with many paragraphs, that led us away from the following one, which contained the gist of their answer. "The returns referred to in Section 8, have been called for from every Parish (as defined by Section 3) in England and Wales. Till these returns are received and examined, the Education Department cannot determine what local inquiry may have to be made into the existing school provision of any parish ; nor will ihey be in a position till the results of such inquiry are reported to them, to consider the question of the formation of a School Board, either for the parish by itself, or as part of a larger district. Any expression of opinion on this subject would, at present, be premature." The upshot was, that we could do nothing but make a rate, to pay the expenses of the official whom the law had compelled us to invite to our bootless meetings. I think, however, at this distance of time, that "my Lords" were right, and that our district was too small. We pestered them, ^however, with a few more letters, which they duly answered in a delightfully ambiguous way, that both amused and provoked their village correspondents. Thus ended our free school in the spring of 1871, after nearly four years of useful work. Its stoppage left a gap in the educative faciUties of the village ; but steps were taken by the late Miss Lawson, which practically converted the existing British school into one free to all those children in the village whose parents could not afford to pay for them. V. The Free Bath Room, though but a small charge, represents a great amount of discussion and many proposi- tions in the weekly parliament. The Flax tanks, the river Il6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Free Bath Room instituted. Ellen, the head race and the tail race, were all proposed, discussed, and rejected. Finally, in the winter of 1868-9, it was proceeded with ; and a small corner of the turnip house was walled off, and fitted up with a spray, a douche, a wooden plunge bath, and a packing trestle. When finished, it was more largely used than had been anticipated, especially in the summer months. The great fire in August, 1871, destroyed it, but its re-construction was intended. VI. The expenditure for Noble Temple has reference to a piece of land in Aspatria which Mr. Lawson gave, on certain conditions, to a Public Hall Company, in which he himself was a large shareholder. The most important of these conditions was the right to the use of the hall every Sunday" for thirty years. This he stipulated for, having been unable, before, to obtain the use of a place of meeting in 'Aspatria for the purpose of scientific lectures on Sunday. Noble Temple* is now built ; and several of the intended lectures have already been given. VII. The public assistance items include various small expenditures, some of which were voted by the Blenner- hasset and x\spatria Parliaments. They include donations to charitable and social reform societies, also gifts to people in want, and many other purposes. Co-operation in Italy is somewhat indebted to the Pubhc Good account. Mr. Lawson occasionally visited Naples, and while there, he met with, first, the Signor Pietrantonio, referred to below. Afterwards he made the acquaintance of Professor Burns, and through him he conditionally offered some capital for the furtherance of co-operation in Italy. Professor Burns was a Scotsman, who had lived some years in Italy; he wrote some very interesting letters both to Mr. • It *fill be well to explain to the reader that Noble Hall, or " Noble Tenipl,e" as it is called, derives its name from the land on which it is situated, that place beinig known locally as "Noble Fields." The hall is a pleasant, good looking structure, but not ambitious, and "noble" is merely its local proper name, and not an adjective, intended to suggest magnitude, splendour, or vast proportions. G. J. H. PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. II7 Co-operation in Italy. Lawson and to Mr. Pitman, the Editor of the Co-operator. Writing from Naples May i, 1871, Professor Burns said — " I have received tMe papers from Signor Pietrantonio, con- sisting of some numbers of the Manchester Co-operator and Co-operatiye tracts. What figure can a Co-operative tyro make among the Manchester Nestors? I had prepared something for the people here, but threw it aside on reading these papers. I am persuaded I cannot do better than translate or concoct, by borrowing largely from what is al- ready published in England, introducing it in an ItaHan garb to the natives here. I must observe, however, that the field is vastly more favourable with you in England and Scotland, than it is here. The multitude with us have not the slight- est idea of Co-operation or its benefits. To use Mr. Disraeli's expression — they must be ' educated.' The newspapers (such as they are) do not much trouble them- selves about social questions ; but one way or another we must get in the small end of the wedge. The other day I was at Barra, a town of about 9000 inhabitants, and visited an old friend — a Bolognese — who has for several years been a co-partner in a large manufactory of matches at Barra, employing over 250 hands, large and small, and of both sexes. We had a long talk about Co-operation. At first he seemed to have forgotten all about it; but on recalling his reminiscences, he entered warmly into the sub- ject. On my remarking that it might be a good thing to establish a society among his people, he appeared not averse to the proposal. We shall see. There is an announcement of a meeting for next Sunday, of the already existing Co- operatives here." Miss Lawson translated for the Co-operator the following letter of Signor Pietrantonio. The note attached is by the Editor of that Journal: — " It is certain that the consumer is immensely surcharged who buys goods in the market by retail. This burden is now felt to be increasingly heavy, owing to the unbridled greedi- ness of the monopolists, to such a degree that some kinds of food have been raised to fa,bulous prices, such as were Il8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. An "Economical Co-operative Alimentary Association.'' never before known in this country, even in exceptional circumstances. Great complaints are raised On all sides against such illegal trade ; and it is easy to see what losses it causes to the less wealthy classes; but nobody has been willing to find means to oppose this torrent which swallows up the greatest part of the means of the people least favoured by fortune ; and yet, means there are by which to obviate that which every one deplores. Whoever has any acquain- tance with commercial matters, knows that by purchasing goods at first hand for ready money, it is possible to save on some 30, on others 20, or even 15 per cent. Now, the difference between this and their retail price in the market, constitutes the gain of three or four persons, through whose hands they pass. If every purchaser could gain for himself such an advantage, what a saving it would be to him ! An economical head of a family, however much he may try to economise, can never attain to the realisation of positive frugality, because he must yield to the necessity of purchasing at second, third, and fourth hand, and not in large quantities; but if 200 or 300 families were to put together each a small sum for a first fund of capital, they would be able to obtain a quantity of goods at first hand, selling them again after- wards among themselves; and they would thus attain the object of turning to their own benefit that which forms the gain of three or four retailers. "The undersigned then takes upon himself to initiate the constitution of an 'Economical Co-operative Alimentary Association,' on the system of those organised with so much success in England and Scotland, which (formed on the true principle of Co-operation) conceal no secret object of specu- lation, but tend exclusively to the realisation of frugality and economy. Emilio Pietrantonio." " [We have had to curtail this document. It announces that the Co-operative warehouse is to be opened on the ist July, and gives a list of the goods to be sold, and other busi- ness details.]" Professor Burns wrote in July following a letter to Mr. Pitman, in which he said : — PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. 1 19 The Credit System the great difficulty. "I some time ago received the Co-operative literature which you forwarded me at Mr. Lawson's request. This is a great boon, and will put me aufait as to a movement in which several here take an interest, but of which — from my long absence from home — I had hitherto known little or nothing." "You are aware, perhaps, that Mr. Lawson was here in the Spring, but I think it unlikely that you can have heard of the very handsome proposal he has made to the Neapoli- tans. After stating certain principles upon which he thinks a Co-operative society might be initiated and conducted in Naples, he offers to lend a sum of 10,000 francs, free of interest, for a period of three years, and this without any advantage to himself whatever. In reference to this place, such offers come ' few and far between ;' and without hesita- tion I may add that on making this generous offer, I think Mr. Lawson must have been actuated more by his own feel- ings, than by any particular deserts he can have discovered among the Neapolitans, whom I know pretty well, having resided among them for more than a quarter of a century. I believe it is pretty well known that in their customs, habits, and ways of thinking, the Neapolitans differ widely indeed from us, and even from their compatriots in Upper Italy. They are wedded to ancient usages, slow and tardy in adopting (and not unfrequently repugnant to) all kinds of innovation, however beneficial. I think, at the com- mencement. Co-operation will have — as gas and steam have had — to encounter some opposition, and to surmount obstacles ; but I have little doubt that it will ultimately triumph, even in Naples. As yet, however, from many to whom I recommend it, I receive an answer which might almost be stereotyped thus : — ' Do you see, I get my things from Pasquale, and often at the end of the month it is not quite convenient to pay ready money, and he gives me credit; so I don't like to leave Pasquale.' For all this, how- ever, the thing seems decidedly to be taking root here. I' have in my possession Mr. Lawson's proposal, I have al- ready mentioned it to several persons here. " We have already in this place one Co-operative society — with two branches — which has been in existence for about TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Co-operative Meeting in Naples. a year. True, it has not succeeded nor prospered so well as could have been wished; but the cause was by no means the failure of Co-operative principles, but rather from its having been commenced and conducted on too grand a scale for its size, and with too many expensive snrroundings. Another I know to be in progress. I have heard speak also of a third; but about it I do not know anything positive." " I conclude with repeating the words used by Galileo upon another occasion — ' Eppur si miiove.' On the move- ment here I shall keep a watchful eye, and do the little I can in its furtherance ; and hope that at no distant period you and all well-wishers to Co-operation will learn that the cause in Naples, progresses satisfactorily." " J. R. Burns. "Naples, May 31." The next letter of the Professor was to Mr. Lawson, ia which he said : — " On the 1 7th ult. there was a meeting of Pietrantonio's subscribers. Though very unwell at the time, I made a point of attending. The locale in Toad Lane, Rochdale, where the Pioneers first met, compared with that where the present meeting assembled, would be a contrast indeed. It was a hall equally majestic, and adjoining that where the other society met, the walls and ceiling adorned with frescoes of saints and angels, and so forth, things of which by this time, I suppose, you are'fuU to satiety. There were thirteen, and one female (a Contessa) present. The circular announcing the meeting said the scope was to discuss the statute and nominate the employes. Signer Pietrantonio stated that his subscriptions amounted to only about 2,500 francs in all. This had a damping effect. Every one saw the impossibility of doing anything with it in such a large town as this,.although he himself strongly insisted on open- ing shop, by renting a £:^o premises, which, he said, he had in hand — viz., a house and garden. And the money for stock ? I proposed at once that the meeting be adjourned, PUBLIC GOOD DEPARTMENTS. Insecure Heritable Security. and that meantime members should use their endeavours — each to procure his one, two, or more additional subscribers, and then to call a general public meeting. More than two hours were spent in desultory talk, the Contessa (and why not? — I am for woman's rights) speaking more than all the rest. The conclusion of all was the adoption of the first part of what I proposed. Nothing more has transpired since. " Occasionally I pay a visit to the other society's office. One day I found about half-a-dozen there warmly discussing something. As I knew some of them a little, I was wel- comed, and sat down. ' Good news, I hope ; may I be permitted to take part in your jubilee?' 'Declare war against you ? You ought to be ashamed of yourselves to say so. On the contrary,'you ought to be proud of it. Is not Naples large enough for twenty societies ? and are we not all co-operators? Or is it every man for himself?' I wish you had been present to see the effect this produced. The laugh that followed betrayed a great deal more -than sufficient to persuade me the co-operation they understood differs widely from ours. Since that, I have been once or twice, not as a spy — for espionage in all shapes I detest — but to do them what little good I can by purchasing. Reconnoitering is my object, and a hope to hear they are recovering, which is the case, if what they tell me be true. They say they frequently take 400 francs a-day, but this ■was in answer to a remark of mine (Holyoake's) that a society, to be successful, ought to take £^0 a-week. " I turn now to a little paragraph in your last, which pleases me. You say — ' If I ever set up shop in Naples.' That is exactly what I have been hoping for. You have understood me in the sense I wished. At the society's office I was told they were ready with security (heritable) for the 10,000 francs. Were they to offer you the Royal Palace in bond I would say decidedly No, because I feel quite certain, however well secured, you would not get your money back without litigation. No city equals Naples in love for law- suits and gambling. " Naples, June 4." "J. R. Burns. 122 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Public Good Departments still in use. This, with the exception referred to in the next chapter, concludes the Public Good expenditure. As indicated in the opening statement, there is still some stock on hand. The Free Library is still in use, and open to all. The Reading Rooms are still free, Sunday lectures are carried on, and many other matters of public usefulness are aided in various ways. HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. 1 23 Fruits and Grains Man's proper Food. CHAPTER IX. HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. "And there, too, lies Blennerhasset, the Sebastopol of the vege- tarians, where the engines, Cain and Abel, groan on their miry way, where a professor is ever composing manures, and where Christmas is kept with apples and biscuits, potatoes and oilcake sauce. " Mark Lane Express. Festivals and trips cost ^£^338 9s. iiyriA., and as the trips cost about ;^8o, and the festivals were five in number, the latter cost on an average about jQ'^o each. The first Christmas festival, held in 1866, was the festival of festivals. It was noticed in Punch, the Times, and most of the daily papers; it also got across the Atlantic, some friend kindly sending us a copy of a Nova Scotian paper, in which about a column was devoted to " A Vegetarian Festival." The notices of the press amused us very much ; and both good and bad were read and criticised ; and while much of the adverse criticism was taken home and adopted in future festivals, the credulity of the press, in treating as real, so many improbable statements, afforded us much merriment. To correct some of their erroneous statements, a few details of the expenses, and the real facts of the failure, may be given. To begin with the food, the great feature of the day : the " raw turnips" were exceedingly few in number, and had been placed on the table for a joke, as no one (except the reporters) were expected to eat them. The strict vege- tarian, indeed, eschews what are commonly called vegetables, the fruits and the grains alone being considered as man's proper food. The following detailed statement of the cost of the foods of that day wiU show how large a place these 124 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Christmas Bill of Fare. held in the supply, and how small was the quantity of the vegetables co-called: — Kinds and Cost of the Foods. — Christmas, 1866. Fruit and Grains. Vegetable s. Apples, . . £^ 15 4 s. d. Oatmeal, . I I Celery, . . . 5 Shelled Oats, 17 6 Brussels Sprouts, 3 6 Pearl Barley, 9 Carrots, . . 3 6 Wheat, . . 6 2 Potatoes, . . . 3 Peas, . . 16 10 Parsnips, . . . I (>% Beans, . . 4 6 Turnips, . . . 1 Flax Seed, . I ^y^ Onions, . . . 9 ^6 II %Y^ 13 1% The above speaks for itself, and is quite refutation enough without further comment. The real blunders of the day were, first, want of • experience ; the wheat and the barley, and perhaps the oats, were over-steeped, and had turned sour. Secondly, want of cooking accommodation, such a feast requiring at least four times the cooking accommoda- tion we possessed; and, as a consequence, some dishes were badly singed ; and nearly all of them were served up repul- sively cold. The wheat and apples, a very nice dish when well cooked, was, that day, simply disgusting; and the only presentable dishes were potatoes and pease pudding. The third cause of failure was over-strictness in the bill of fare. Mr. Lawson wanted to give a truly national meal, in which all the foods should be of British growth. Rice, raisins, currants, and other foreign foods of common use, were in consequence excluded; sugar, too, was debarred, a want only surpassed by that of salt — salt-less porridge proving quite irredeem.able by any amount of apple seasoning. That many of the fruit and grain dishes were palatable to the untrained taste was abundantly proved before-hand, a food committee of four or five neighbours having been invited to taste them; the dinner hour of the week ending i8th Dec. having been devoted to the daily discussion of the relative merits of various simple dishes. Boiled barley and apples, HISTORY OF THE ELENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. 1 25 ' Failure of the Cooking Arrangements. wheat ditto, after thirty hours steeping, potatoes boiled and mashed with wheat meal, and vegetable soups thickened with a little flour, were all tried and generally approved of. The item of cost was also taken into account, the intention being to show the possibility of furnishing a good and attrac- tive meal for ^d. or id. per head. Our cooking blunders, however, prevented this intention coming to anything, the greater portion of the food being rendered useless. Indeed, much of it was so singed and soured, that the pigs refused to eat it the second day. All the guests could not of course make anything like half a meal out of the few usable dishes, and, indeed, but for the distribution of a barrel of brown biscuits and some apples, many would have gone without food entirely. Under the circumstances the people behaved very well, taking the accident good humouredly, and making the best of the situation ; but for miles round, the farm and cotters' houses were cleared of bread and everything eatable. The public houses, too, did a good trade ; but next year, many anti- cipating a similar demand, had laid in heavy stocks, and were dissapointed j for not only were our supplies abundant, but many of the people themselves, having been forewarned in 1866, came well supplied with sufficient for their time of stay. The programme of this r866 festival was as follows : — ELENNERHASSET CHRISTMAS-DAY FESTIVAL OF Lecturing, Mnsic, Gymnastics, and General Sociality. All should be present before 10 a.m. At 10 a.m. precisely, Mr. James Bums, of London, Gymnasiarch, will give his amusing Pictorial and Character-reading Entertainment, showing ' ' How to Read a Man like a Book. " A Fruit, Grain, and Vegetable Meal will be given at Mid-day. At 2 p.m. Mr. Burns, assisted by a Lady in appropriate costume, will give a Musical, Descriptive, and Gymnastic Entertainment, interspersed with Songs, Speeches, and General Discussion. At 5 p.m. an Evening Meal will be Given. , At 7 p.m. Mr. Burns will lecture on "The Human Body, and How to Treat It," or the Co-operation of Physiology, with much valuable information about the proper food for man. 1 26 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Programme and Proceedings. • All Musicians are requested to bring their instruments. The 42S persons who have bespoken /?■« tickets are requested to send for them on or before Monday, Dec. 24th, to avoid delay and confusion on Christmas Mom. Those who have enclosed stamped envelopes may expect to receive their tickets on Dec. 22nd, or Dec. 24th. Those who have not given in their names may buy tickets at 4d. each. Those who like, may bring their own spoons. All should be present before 10 a.m. The Carlisle Examiner described the affair as an " extra- ordinary festival," and states that in point of numbers it might be termed a great success, there being about a thousand persons present from all parts of the county of Cumberland : — "The place was trimmed up and decorated with ever- greens and bannerets, with appropriate mottoes bearing upon Co-operation. Each person, male or female, in the employ of Mr. William Lawson, seemed to have a duty assigned to them to render the arrangements as perfect as possible, such persons being distinguished by wearing rosettes. Parties who had not secured free tickets within the time announced were admitted at fourpence each, which some hundreds paid. Lectures were given on phrenology, gymnastics, and food, during the day, to great audiences, who were much interested in the various subjects brought before them (illustrated as they were by experiments). Singing was introduced, and formed an agreeable feature. Dancing was free and uninterrupted to all who chose to pay a nominal fee to the fiddlers, and heartily enjoyed by hundreds, old and young." The Co-operator had the following report of this unusual entertainment : — " As somewhat over 400 free tickets had been bespoken, and it being expected that as many more would purchase tickets, preparations were made to entertain about 1000 people, and about that number would be present. Between nine and ten o'clock visitors began to arrive, and from that time till after twelve at noon, there was no peace at the ticket office. About 370 tickets were sold. The first thing that met the eyes of visitors on nearing the village of Blenner- hasset, was a large cross, surmounted by a huge cabbage HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. I27 Musical Gymnastics. and a sheaf of corn, and having printed in bold characters, " Welcome to the Festival." A conspicuous placard pointed the way to the ticket office. " Placards were posted in various parts of the extensive building, showing the way to the Dining Hall, Lecture Room, Ticket Office, and Music Hall. At half-past ten o'clock in the morning, Mr. Burns gave a highly interesting phrenologi- cal character-reading entertainment, describing minutely, and with great fidelity, the natural characters of a few persons well known to the audience. This part of the day's pro- ceedings was beautifully and instructively illustrated with suitable diagrams. The lecture being over, the dining hall doors were thrown open, and many partook of the fruit, grain, and vegetable food provided in ample abundance for all who chose to eat. I am sorry I cannot justly commend this part of the day's programme, for many of the dishes having been cooked the day before, and the common con- diments of pepper and salt being very conspicuous by their absence from all the dishes, a cold, saltless, and pepperless vegetarian meal tended rather to disappoint than to gratify the multitude. At half-past one the two large 14-horse power steam ploughing engines, christened by Mr. Lawson 'Cain' and 'Abel,' whistled and set off, and, followed by a very large number of people, took a journey to the top of the hill behind the farm buildings, thus giving the people a pleasant walk out in the fresh air. At two p.m., Mr. Burns, assisted by a lady, gave a few very interesting and practical lessons on gymnastics, explaining as he went on, the bene- ficial effects of the various exercises he took for expanding the chest, and strengthening and invigorating the whole body. The gymnastics were all the more interesting as they were done in measured time, to music. As the music hall was open at the same time as the lecture room, many pre- ferred the 'fiddle and the dance' to physiological know- ledge, evidently enjoying their own gymnastics as much as the London exercises shown by Mr. Burns. At five p.m., another fruit, grain, and vegetable meal was provided ; but as apples were the only fruit — wheat, barley, peas, and beans the principal grain, and turnips, carrots, cabbage, and 128 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Lectures on Food and Disease. potatoes the principal vegetables — it was not, in the eyes in many, a sumptuous banquet; and as many as had friends of the neighbourhood very gladly availed themselves of their hospitality, preferring the 'cup that cheers but not in- ebriates,' to the kindly fruits of the earth as provided and served up at the festival. At seven in the evening, Mr. Burns gave a lecture on the ' Proper food for Man,' in a very humorous, pleasing, and clever manner, showing how people generally eat a great deal that does them no good, and pay more for it than they would for simple and ' more palatable and nourishing food. He very strikingly showed the cause of disease, and the best way to prevent it. He was listened to with marked attention throughout, and mani- fested great ability in saying things against the commonly received notions, in a pleasing and convincing manner. " After the lecture, the Bengal Light was shown from the clock tower, as the signal for dismissal. " Good order was maintained all day, the farm servants of the establishment acting as officers, and Mr. W. Lawson him- self performing the duty of special constable — a fact which was announced by placards posted up on the farm buildings, bearing the words, ' William Lawson, sworn constable.' " With the exception ol the food department (which can be much improved at the next festival), the entertainment was very satisfactory, pleasing, and instructive, and was much thought of. M. T." The Carlisle J-ournal said that — " On Christmas day Mr. William Lawson, of Blennerhasset, held a festival upon his farm of a most extraordinary character. The programme of the entertainment (to which apparently everybody was wel- come to go who chose either to write for a ticket, enclosing a stamped envelope, or to pay fcJurpence for one on the eventful day) was in itself unique. All musicians who in- tended to be present were ' requested to bring their instru- ments;' and the announcement 'those who like may bring their own spoons,' was appended to the advertisement of the order of the day's proceedings. Between 400 and 500 people bespoke tickets several days before Christmas ; and upon the eventful morning nearly as many more joined them HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. 1 29 Newspaper accounts of the Food. at Blennerhasset. The tickets of admission were curiosities in their way. They were headed 'Christmas Morn, 1866 ' — and contained the following : — THE SONS 01' THE TICKET. By ten precisely, Be in sight ; Show when required. But keep till night. Mr. William Lawsoa's farm is conducted upon co-operative as well as ' high-farming' principles, the plan having been adopted of dividing a tithe among the workers. According to the programme, at ten o'clock precisely, Mr. Jas. Burns, the London gymnasiarch, gave his amusing ' Pictorial and character-reading entertainment, showing how to read a man like a book.' At noon a"' fruit, grain, and vegetable meal ' was given. This is described as a most singular effort of cuUnary art, and not much to the taste of those who par- took — or rather tried to partake — of it. There were raw turnips, boiled cabbages, boiled wheat, boiled barley, shelled peas (half-a-ton of each of these three last-named, we believe); oatmeal gruel, with chopped carrots, turnips, and cabbage in it; boiled horse beans, boiled potatoes, salads, made of chopped carrots, turnips, cabbages, parsley, &c., over which was poured linseed boiled to a jelly. As there were no condiments of any kind, either upon the extraordinary messes or the table, and all being cold except the potatoes, it may be imagined that the guests did not sit down with much relish to their vegetarian fare. Each one had an apple and a biscuit presented on rising from the table. In the course of the afternoon, Mr. Lawson's two steam engines called by him ' Cain' and 'Abel,' set off with steam up and whistles screaming to lead a procession over the farm. Three large rooms were used during the day, — the lecture hall capable of holding looo, the music hall 400, and the dining hall 400." The Second Christmas Festival was held in 1867, and taking the advice of many of the newspaper critics, beef was provided; but as the food was no part of the business of the 130 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Programme of the Second Festival. day, a charge was made, though much too little to cover the cost. The programme was to the following effect : — THE BLENNERHASSET CHRISTMAS DAY FESTIVAL WILL BE HELD AT THE BLENNERHASSET FARM ON CHRISTMAS DAY, 1867. At half-past ten the Balance Sheets for 1866 and 1867 of Mr. William Lawson's Establishment will be read, and all will have full opportmiity of discussing them. Mr. Henry Pitman, the Editor of the Co-operator, and Brother to the Inventor of Phonography, will be present all day, and will at differ- ent intervals address the people on Co-operation, and on the system bf shorthand called Phonography, or writing by sound. Mr. Pitman will give specimens of verbatim reporting. Dr. Jones, of Aspatria, will also be present, and will entertain the people with instructive and amusing addresses, and with music. Other speakers on various subjects are expected to take part in the proceedings. There will be vocal and instrumental music. The children of the Blennerhasset Free School will enliven the Entertainment with Songs, in which all may join. Three Fiddlers have been engaged to supply free music during the day. Beef, Bread, Soup, Tea, Coffee, and Fruit will be sold in Penny- worths, at about cost price, from 10 a.m. till 5 p.m. At 7 p.m. splendid Dissolving Views will be shewn by a Magic Lan- tern from Cox's of London. It will be lighted with the Oxy-Calcium light. Every person will have full liberty and is respectfully invited to join in the discussions. N.B. — First-rate Cooks and Waiters have been engaged for the occa- sion. This festival created much less stir than the first ; but the fame of the latter brought many to the second, who, but for the publicity of the first, would never have heard of our festivals. All the local journals reported the proceedings. The Carlisle journal said : — " In one large room a platform was erected for the accommodation of the gentlemen who pro- posed to address the assembly on co-operation and other topics ; and running parallel with this apartment, and com- municating with it by means of two side doors, was the refreshment room. Across one end of this room, which was capable of holding some hundreds of people, stood a table covered with a rich profusion of beef, bread, and other kinds HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. I31 Dancing more popular than Listening. of food ; and about this table a dozen or so of waiters took up their position, in readiness to dispense refreshments to those who required them. A long table made of boards extended down the centre of the room for the use of the feeders. This table was embellished in the centre with a goodly Christmas tree ; and above it, pendant from the roof, hung evergreens, turnips, and other decorations, all disposed so as to give the room as festive an appearance as possible. In order to obtain refreshments it was necessary for the hungry visitor before entering the dining-room to pay his penny or twopence to a man who was stationed in a small apartment in a corner near the door of the lecture hall, something like the money-taker's box at a theatre, and who received the money, for which he issued tickets in exchange through a small semi-circular window. The arrangement had a good effect in preventing confusion in the dining- room. At two o'clock Mr. Henry Pitman appeared in the lecture hall, and discoursed upon Co-operation and Phono- graphy. The lecture concluded, the audience repaired to the music hall, where the three fiddlers who had been en- gaged to provide gratuitous music for the dancers, had already taken up their position. With the first sound of the fiddle the real fun began. The entrance to the music hall was through an implement shed and up a flight of steps, which, being dark and narrow, and the number of people struggling up them very large, the getting up stairs was attended with infinite squeezing' and much boisterous merriment The room was soon filled to overflowing ; and so dense did the 'crowd ultimately become, that there was scarcely room for the dancers to turn themselves, so that if their gyrations were wanting in grace, owing to the frequency with which they bumped against each other, they made up for it in hilarity. Mr. Lawson encouraged the dancers with his pres- ence, and did his utmost to keep order, and prevent the crowd of on-lookers from deranging the dancers. Later in the afternoon a large number of persons again repaired to the lecture hall to hear an address from Dr. Jones. The lecture was nipped in the bud by the deepening gloom of evening, and the noise at the other end of the room. The 132 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Free Food of the later Festivals. audience gradually diminished, and ultimately the meeting was adjourned until six o'clock. During all this timfe, the dancing continued with unabated vigour ; and those who had left the dancing room to hear the lecture, returned to it to find its inmates as frolicsome as ever. In short, the dancing and the consumption of pennyworths of beef and bread were the only things thoroughly enjoyed ; the more intellec- tual portion of the proceedings, probably because it was contrary to the popular notion of a Christijias-day festival, seemed unappreciated — "twas caviare to the general' — and consequently failed to entertain. An exhibition of dissolving views terminated the day's enjoyments. . Upon the whole, the festival at Mechi Farm was highly successful; and, although in some respects rather eccentric, it had the good effect of providing some, hundreds of people with an after- noon of innocent and exhilarating enjoyment." The third Christmas festival was held in 1868, and in it the original plan of a kind of Local Social Science Congress was better carried out. Three lecturers were engaged, who gave, betwe^ them, addresses on nine subjects, most of which had reference to social science. Besides these, two local gentlemen also gave addresses on subjects of interest. Free food, generally in the form of rice, boiled with cur- rants or raisins, was provided in the forenoon, a practice which was carried out in all future festivals ; so that, at the second festival only, was payment demanded for all kinds of food. The programme was as follows : — THE BLENNERHASSET CHRISTMAS DAY FESTIVAL WILL BE HELD AT THE BLENNERHASSET FARM ON CHRISTMAS DAY, 1868. At 9 a.m.— The Balance Sheet for 1868 will be read by Miller TiiEn, and discussion invited thereon. From 9.30 a.m. till II a.m. — Any person may speak on any subject they like, if approved of by the Manager. At 1 1 am. — Jessie Craigen will speak upon Temperance and Prohibition. At 12 noon. — Henry Pitman (Editor of the Co-operator) vrill give a short practical address on Phonography (Shorthand), or Writing by Sound, vrith examples of Verbatim Reporting At I p.m. — ^John Paton, of Barrhead, Scotland, will lecture on the Poet Bums, vrith Recitations. HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. I33 Unexpectedly large demand for Tickets. At 2 p.m. — Thomas Horn, of Baggrow, will read a paper on French Scenes and Agriculture. At 3 p.m. — Jessie Craigen will introduce the subject of Woman's Rights. At 4 p.m. — Henry Pitman will speak on Co-operation — its Powers and Progress. At 5 p.m. — John Paton will give an address on Social Reform. At 6 p.m. — G. Glassbrook will address the audience on the Events of the Day. At 6.30 p.m. — ^Jessie Craigen will lecture on Capital Punishment. At 7.30 p.m. — Henry Pitman will give Hints on Health, including Diet, Dress, Breathing, Smoking, &c. At 8. 15 p.m. — John Paton will give a Closing Address. Discussion vriU be invited after each address. Volunteer Singers and Instrumentalists will be asked to enliven the proceedings with Music be- tween each lecture. Three fiddlers will' provide free dancing music during the Day, in a Hall set apart for the purpose, where strict order will be maintained. Soup or Rice-Pudding will be provided Free, between ip.o a.m. and Mid-day to those who send in their names as mentioned below. * Bread, Biscuits, Buns, Cheese, Sandwiches, Oranges, &c., Beef and and Ham, Lemonade, Ginger Beer, arid Soda Water will be Sold in the Refreshment Room, at as near cost price as possible. * Free Tickets will be given to all who apply, on or before December 18th, 1868, subject to the approval of George Glassbrook, Blennerhassett, by Carlisle. Application by Post must be accompanied by a stamped addressed envelope. A limited, number of Tickets will be sold on the day, at the prohibi- tory price of 2s. No admission anywhere without a Ticket. The applications for free tickets were so immediate and overwhelming, that on Dec. 3rd we had to advertise as fol- lows : — BLENNERHASSET CHRISTMAS DAY FESTIVAL. No More Tickets. In consequence of the unexpectedly large demand for Tickets (2,664 being bespoke on Dec. 3), and as I think a larger number than that already issued would be unsafe with the limited accommodation at dis- posal, I regret to announce that I cannot approve of any further issue of Tickets. I am, yours truly, Dec. 3rd, 1868. Geo. Glassbrook. 134 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Crowded Gathering in spite of Rain. The "prohibitory 2S. a ticket," was meant to prevent overcrowding. Two persons paid this sum that Christmas. The newspaper reports of this festival were very commen- datory. The Wigf on Advertiser of Jan. 2, 1869, said: — " Mr. Lawson intended that Blennerhasset should annually be the scene of a local social science gathering, at which all should be allowed to speak and discuss any question they chose, so last year saw a second edition of the first banquet, but, like most ' second editions,' much ' improved ' and ' corrected.' Those who ' weijt to laugh, remained to feed.' Beef, ham, and other usual fare, took the place of the eccen- tricities of the first festival, so that this year people seemed to have made up their minds that it would be quite possible to spend the whole Christmas Day at Mechi, or Blen- nerhasset — we are not sure which name Mr. Lawson pre- fers to give the large estate he is farming on such new principles. " The programme of Friday last was comprehensive enough to fin the whole twelve hours allotted to it ; but there was one thing not ' given in bills,' — the rain — which came down' in heavy showers the whole day, and much spoiled the enjoyment of all present, though it had not so much effect on the attendance as might have been expected ; as there would not be less than two thousand people present, out of 2 700 who applied for tickets. " There was, however, something else than the rain. There was a lecture-room of proportions vast enough to hold 800 people ; and this was so crowded at various times during the day, that even standing room could not be had. " In the refreshment room there were to be seen plenty of beef and ham (14 rounds of beef and 8 hams), with about 300 loaves of bread, and tea and cakes. Oranges and apples for dessert; and above a ton weight of lemonade, with soda- water and ginger-beer as a variety. From 10 to 12, all who chose might have excellent soup and rice pudding supplied gratis; and some idea may be formed of the quantity pre- pared, when we mention, that 16 stones of rice was made into puddings. In other two very large rooms music was pro- vided, five fiddlers being present. HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. 135 Good Management of the Third Festival. " During the day, ' Cain' took a stroll — a sort of ' consti- tutional ' before dinner — up to the top of the hill behind the farm, followed by a great number of people. In various parts of the different rooms — which were all lighted with gas — were put up mottoes and banners, such as 'Speed the Plough,' 'A Happy Christmas,' 'Striving to make others happy is the real secret of being happy,' ' Don't be selfish, let others . have their turn,' ' It is only by courtesy and mutual giving place to each other, that all can enjoy them- selves,' ' Self-denial is a real pleasure.' In the refreshment rooms were placards giving the prices of the various articles supplied, so that there could be no mistake. In fact, all the arrangements were well made, and well carried out by those who had the direction of affairs. Mr. Glassbrook was, we understand, manager-in-chief The proceedings concluded at about 9 o'clock, and everything passed off very well, there being no scarcity of anything, except sunshine. The quality of everything was as good as could be ; and the charges were less than moderate ; they could scarcely pay." The fourth and last of the Christmas festivals was held in i86g. The previous year's eleven addresses, we had found to be too many, both for the people and the speakers. This year, only two speakers were engaged, eacli to give two addresses ; and besides, three local speakers gave each one address, making seven in all. The old ticket system was again advertised, more from habit than intention, as we had learnt that it was of no value in forewarning us as to the probable number of stomachs we should have to feed; but at the last monjent, Mr. Lawson, who had just returned from America, abolished all the elaborate safeguards of ticket regulations. The pro- gramme was as below: — THE FOURTH BLENNERHASSET CHRISTMAS DAY FESTIVAL will be held at the blennerhasset farm, on christmas day, 1869. Intended Programme. 9 a.m. — A Christmas Hymn upon the Harmonium and Violin by George Snaith, of Wigton, and Thomas Wilson, of Aspatria, who will also play Select Tunes between the different Addresses. 136 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Last Christmas Festival. 9.15 a.m. — The Balance Sheet for 1869 will be read by Miller Tiffin, and discussion invited thereon. Music — " Hard Times come again no more." 10.30 a.m. — E. T. Craig, of Oxford, will lecture upon Practical Edu- cation and Training. N.B — Discussion is invited after this and all the other addresses. Music — "Marseillaise Hymn.'' 12 noon. — C. D. Hunter, of Blennerhasset, will lecture on the Chemis- try of Food, with numerous chemical experiments in illustration of the subject. Music — " Auld Langsyne." 1.15. p.m. — Professor Kirk, of Edinburgh, will lecture on "Our Coun- try's Trade." Music — " Blue Bells of Scotland." 2.45 p.m. — E. T. Craig will give a lecture on Phrenology, illustrated by character readings of some of the audience. Music — "Oh Willie, we have missed you." 4.15 p.m. —William Lawson, of Blennerhasset, will give a lecture on "The American People." Music — "Yankee Doodle." 5.30p.m. — Professor Kirk will give a lecture upon "The Nation's Highest Good." Music — "Rule Britannia." 7 p.m. — E. T. Craig will give a lecture on "Ventilation," with illus- trations by Model Houses, &c. Music — "Tramp, Tramp." 8.15 p.m. — George Glassbrook, of Blennerhasset, will speak upon "Co-operation." Music — National Anthem. Any alteration in the above programme will be made as pubhc as possible. Free Dancing Music will be provided in the Dancing Hall, where strict order will be maintained. Volunteer Singers and Instrumentalists vriU be asked to vary the pro- ceedings. Between the hours of 10 a.m. and mid-day some Free Food wUl be provided. Bread, Biscuits, Buns, Cakes, Cheese, Sandwiches, Oranges, Apples, Beef, Ham, Lemonade, &c., will be sold in the Refreshment Room at nearly cost price. No Tickets Required. Admission free to all above 14 years of age. HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. I37 ' ' Cain " serves as a Tea-kettfe. This festival was well thought of, as is shown by the remarks of the Carlisle J^ournal oi Dec. 31, 1869. In an article it was stated that " the fourth annual festival at Mr. William Lawson's ' Mechi Farm/ Blennerhasset, in this county, was celebrated on Christmas Day with great success. These Christmas gatherings, which at first attracted by reason of their novelty and the somewhat 'incongruous nature of the feast, seem now to have gained great popularity both in Blennerhasset, its neighbourhood, and for a considerable number of miles around ; and on Saturday large numbers of people flocked to the scene of the festivities from all direc- tions, on foot, in conveyances, and by train. "The whole premises of the spacious farm house had been prepared for the holiday. All the rooms in which any persons would be engaged either in hearing, eating, or other- wise enjoying themselves, were profusely decorated with a:ll sorts of evergreens, mottoes, and injunctions. Some of the inscriptions were not without their amusing phases. For example, the line 'Self-denial is a' real pleasure,' was placed in proximity to the notice, ' No Smoking allowed under pain of Expulsion.' The study of the two mottoes was sugges- tive of different thoughts according to the order in which they were read. If, after contemplating the pleasures of self-denial in the abstract, the visitor turned to the prohibi- tory order, he could not but see that a virtue was rhade of necessity, and the first motto seemed superfluous in view of the stern second. On the other hand, if he took the prohi- bitory mandate first, and was disposed to grumble at the denial of ' the weed,' it was very gratifying to' turn to the other motto and see that his selfdenial had its own reward. One of the engines used for steam cultivation was utilised in a rather novel manner. Standing, gorgeously decorated, at one end of the eating-room, ' Cain' was set steaming, and a pipe having previously been attached to another in the boiler and carried through the wall into the room, the end was placed in a large tin vessel filled with water. Through this pipe the steam from the boiler was impelled at a very high pressure, and was sufficiently hot to boil 60 quarts of water in three minutes. Though this work might seem rather 138 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Mr. Lawson's American Travels. beneath the dignity of majestic ' Cain,' yet it proved very useful, as it obviated the great inconvenience resulting from the necessity of bearing hot water from the farm-house, as was done last year in very bad weather. " Lectures were delivered by Mr. C. D. Hunter, of Blen- nerhasset, on the 'Chemistry of Food;' by Mr. Craig, on 'Phrenology;' and by Professor Kirk, on 'The Nation's Highest Good.' At a quarter to six Mr. William Lawson, the generous and thoughtful provider of the festivities, deli- vered a lecture on 'The American People.' Mr. Lawson has for a year and a quarter been travelling in America ; and he now gave a few of his experiences during his peregrina- tions. From the lecture, it appeared that the speaker had made an extensive and interesting tour, and had evidently been a thoughtful and observant traveller. He described the wholesale slaughtering of animals for the meat market that is carried on at Chicago ; and while touching on Illinois, he described the dress, weapons, and some of the customs of war prevalent both among the aboriginal Indians and their enemies the whites. At Havana (Cuba) he patronised a cock-fight and a bull-fight, and of his experiences there, he gave his audience the benefit. In Louisiana the agricul- tural operations were the most interesting subject; and he compared the results of steam with manual cultivation to the great derogation of the latter. He gave a comprehensive sketch of the mode of government while describing Wash- ington, and the method of elections. In Maryland Mr. Lawson attended a Fenian meeting, at which the usual Fenian sentiments were expressed. In the mountains of Pittsburgh, bituminous coal is found, but the collieries, in- stead of being sunk as are ours, are formed by boring straight into the breast of the mountain. In New England, the speaker said, the only genuine Yankees are to be found, and they were the very best people he had ever met with. The lectures given were very well attended, the room being much crowded when Mr. Lawson delivered his." The Carlisle Patriot published an account of the proceed- ings in the Cumberland dialect, under the title of — HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. I39 A Report in the Cumberland Dialect. "t' blinraiset cursmas merry MACKIN. " Dear Mister Edditer. — What ah's warn't ya'll hev hard tell o' them great doos 'at they hev at Blinraiset ivvery Cursmas Day. Ah wad say they've been read aboot oa't warld ower, becose t" furst 'un they hed was a gay rum 'un if ye mine on. It was what they coat a vergintarian feed — they hed nowt to eat but boilt wheat, an' masht barley, an' turmets, an' pez, an' beans, an' nettles, ah dare say, tee&,, oa mixt up tagidder an' mekd until a hodge-podge ; an' ah can assuir ya. Mister Edditer, it was a parlish queer mess. Sum fwoak can eat owt ameeast ; oor Jack, 'at's been away i' forran parts, tells me 'at they git nowt bit paddick-soup i' sum o' them cuntries ; but ah's suir oor swine waddent ha' eaten t' mess 'at they had at BKnraiset that furst 'ear, let aleean fwoak. " It's a lang rwoad fra Coadbeck to Blinraiset, bit as lal Racfiel Dobson an' me war bent on a spree this Cursmas, an' as it turnt oot a gay fine mwornin', we thowt we cuddent deea better nor gang an' see what mak a carryins on theer was this time. Seea, as suin as ah'd gitten milkt, an' Rachel hed gitten sidet up, we tuik t' rwoad. When we gat ta Ireby we owertuik lots o' fwoak oa gan t' seeam earant as us j bit Rachel an' me keept on aheent by oorsels, as we diddent want nea company. "We gat ta t' far en' suin efter nine o'clock, an' fan heepso' fwoak theer ooruddy ; an' efter we teean luik roon us, we went an' sat doon iv a greet loft 'at they co't 'T' Lectur' Room.' An' it was ebben on Rachel, as she was nobbut rayder tiretish. Seea we sat on an' lissent a fella readin' oa aboot hoo they'd been deeain on t' pleease t' last 'ear back — hoo they'd manisht t' farm, and hoo ther gardin stuff hed pait — an' oa aboot t' wrt««^r-an-beekn machin, an' t' girt steam plews. T' fella meead it oot 'at they were worth abeun fifty thoosan pun, an' 'at they'd nobbut meead oot o' that in a heekl 'ear aboot elebben hundred pun odds. Up in oor naberheed, mister edditer, we're nut seek gowks as ta gang blabbin aboot we mak or what we loss ; 'coase if we meead mickle it wad nobbut set somebody luikin efter oor farm, an' mappen git us oor rent up ; an' if we lost owt we 140 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. " What we cud eat, an' what we cuddent." wad nobbut hev harder wark to git sheep or owt a-trust, an' sheep we cannot dea widoot Hawivver, t" Bleniraiset squire suits hissel aboot it. But he wasn't at oa settisfiet wid t' profit last 'ear, an' he telt f heed man an' them seea ; an' what it finisht up wid u fratch. " By that time Rachel an' me war gitten verra how, an thowt we wad be better o' summat ta eat ; seea we went away till anudder girt loft and hed a dish o' tea apiece. We diddent exactly relish t' waiters they hed aboot t" pleease, an' thowt we cud turn out a varst dooser an' cannier sample ov oald wives at yan ov oor Coadbeck merry neets; but nivver mind that, t" tea was verra gud an' verra cheap, an' oatagidder ah thowt they war mennin i' ther crukery. " We tuik a peep until t' dancin room as we com oot but theer was nobbut tweea fiddlers yit teunin'ther fiddles, an' they heddent begun ta dance. " It was gitten on noo till neun ; an' when we come intil t' foald t' horses, an' gigs, an' carriges, an' bus leeads, war cummin' rattlin in ov oa sides ivvery whupwhUe. " Theer was f\yooak fra Kessick, an' Cockermuth, an' Marypwoart, an' Wigton, an' oot o' t' Hown ; an' ah think theer wad be nea- body left at heeam at Speeatry. Mappen, mister Edditer, ya war theer yersel, if yau hed nobbut kent ya, for they sed 'at theer was a girt lot fra Carel. Ah hard yah fella 'at pre- tendit ta ken, rackenin up 'at theer waddent be less nor three thoosan oatagidder. Amang t' rest theer was tweea or three chaps stavelin aboot 'liverin oot tracts ; an', just as ah was thinkin 'at they wad ha' been as weel at heeam, yan o' them poppt yan inta my han,' summut aboot " Dick the miner." Ah shovt it inta my pocket, an' thowt ah wad giv't ta yan o' t' Roughtengill chaps. " Theer was tweea or three mair chaps lecturt in't girt loft. Yan o' them, they telt ma, reavelt away a lang time aboot what we sud eat an' what we suddent; an' ah thowt 'at we oa kent that gay weel, 'an at he wad ha deun mair gud if he'd just telt fwoak hoo ta git mair o' what they oa ken's good for them. Than theer was anudder girt preaching fella oa t' way fra Eddinburra, ah believe ; but theer was sech scrudgin ta git up, an' far harder waxk ta git doon, 'at Rachel HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. I4I "Lang Life ta t' Squire." an' me thowt we'd better nut venter. Seea we waitit aboot. An' efter a bit theer was a queer lal, oald, prossy body, wid a yalla waiscwoat on, an' specticles stuck on t' en' ov his nwoase, moontit sum stairs ootside, an' gev us a lecter on what he coat Freriolijy, whativver that is; an' finisht by telling tweea or three chaps ther carrieters by greeapin ther heeds. He telt yan o' them a gay queer thing or two, 'at he wad mebby rader neeabody hed kent bit hissel. He turn't oot a gay clivver oald chap, an' as ah hed a bit nwoashun o' tackin Rachel ' for better for war,' ah wantit hur ta gang up and be greapt. But she diddent like ta hev't deun afore oa them fwoalk. " We thowt we mud gang an' hear t' squire tell what he'd seen on his travels i' forran parts; seea wid a heap o' thrustin an' squeezin we manisht ta git inta t' loft yance mair. He"* spak away varra nicely, an' telt some parlish queer teals. He rayder oppent oor eyes when he telt us t' size of America, an' how cheap Ian' was ; he sed a man cud hev a farm of a hundred an' sixty yaccer for just t' expense o' t' title deeds. Ah duncht Rachel than, an' ah sez till hur, sez ah, ' We cud manish ta deea famishly there, eh Rachel?' Rachel nobbat smarkt an' laught. He telt us aboot t' oil wells forbye, an' showt us twee fellows rigt oot i' t' driss o' t' fwoak 'at leevt theer afoor ivver t' country was fun ; an' than he telt us hoc he went till a cockfeyt an' a bullfeyt last New 'ear Day. An at last ov oa he telt us 'at t' Yankees, as he coat them, was t' best fwoak 'at he'd ivver clap't eyes on, an' he'd met a gay few. Sez ah to mesel, ' Dang tha, my lad, but thoo's nivver been at Coadbeck than ! ' " It was noo gitten leat, an' a thowt we wad just peep inta t' ^ancin-room as we war settin' off heam ; an' when we gat ta t' dooar ah propwoset ta Rachel 'at we wad just finish up wid a dogtrail, seea we did ; an' ah can tell ya. Mister Edditer, 'at Coadbeck's bad ta bang at that mack o' thing. "It wad full yer newspaper, sur, ta tell ya oa 'at we saw and did ; seea ah'll just conclude wid wishin' yea a Happy new 'Ear, an' lang life ta t' squire ; may he mak tweea eleben hundreds next 'ear, an' may me an' Rachel be theer next 142 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Carelessness of Smokers. Cursmas, and ya teea, Mister Edditer. — Yer obedient sarvent, " Tim Tarbucket. "Coadbeck, December 27, 1869." On the day of this festival we had much anxiety about fire, the danger of which was great ; smokers and straw coming so frequently together. TJie carelessness of smokers is proverbial; but the more hands we set to watch them, the more numerous were the tales of their thoughtlessness. To reduce this danger as much as possible, a smoking-room, well warmed by a large, cheerful fire, was provided ; but still they would lounge aljout the stacks and recline among the loose straw in the byres. Another source of anxiety was the overcrowding of our granaries. For, though these were large, and always well prepared for the occasion, yet our festivals were becoming yearly more popular, and the rooms so crowded, that even a false alarm of fire would have ine\'itably caused some serious accident. These, and other points, were discussed in our weekly parliament ; and at last it was decided to hold the next festival in summer. It was also decided to hold it in a field, at some distance from the buildings. To insure a good attendance, special cheap trains were engaged, at some risk of loss to ourselves should the day prove wet The day, however, did not prove wet ; and we made a profit on the fares oi £"] 19s. 3d., which helped, so far, to make this festival the least expensive of the five, its cost being only £2,2, 6s. 7j^d. For this Fifth, or July Festival, three speakers were engaged, two of them speaking twice, and one only once, making five addresses in all. The programme gave these as follows : — 10.30 a.m. — D. P. Foxwell, of London, will Lecture on " What do we mean by Education? " 12 Noon. — R. B. Gibbs, Hon. Sec. of the Anti-Compulsory Vaccina- tion League, London, will Lecture on " Legislation with regard to Vaccination and Medical Practices generally." 1.30 p.m. — Richard Home, of the British Temperance League, will Lecture on " The Cause of Drunkenness ; its evils and remedy." HISTORY OF THE BLENNKRHASSET FESTIVALS. I43 The July Festival held in Marquees. 3.30 p.m. — D. P. Foxwell will Lecture on " Our Social System : As it is, and as it should be. " 4.30 p.m. — A Walk over the Farm. 6 p.m. — Richard Home will Lecture on " What I think about the .strong drink traffic." The Carlisle journal said: — "More beautiful weather for such an occasion could not be desired. A fine breeze tempered the heat of a briUiant sun, and made it not only bearable, but pleasant. The scene of the festivities was a newly-mown meadow, on the west of the farm-house, bordering the river Ellen, and it was very well adapted to the purpose, a slack on each side of an airy hill being within its boundaries. Two first-rate and very spacious marquees were erected, one on the east side, nearest the fapm-house, devoted to the use of the lecturers and their audi- ences, and the other on the top of the favourite hill — loved for the breeze blowing over it — set apart for the use of people hungering and thirsting after bodily sustenance and comfort. From ten o'clock in the morning to noon, 'free food' was given to all who chose to ask for it. The great steam engine ' Cain ' was again employed in the ignoble occupation of boiUng water for the tea. Mr. Lawson himself took a walk over the farm premises and the meadow, and distributed tickets for a private dinner at the farm, about a hundred guests being invited. The dinner was provided by Mrs. Glassbrook, and was beautifully spread, the tables being also prettily decorated with flowers." At this festival, the yournal said, speaking generally, "There was a very large attendance of people, all dressed in their 'store clothes,' and the ladies generally turning out very gay in their light summer apparel. Cheap trains ran from Maryport and Carlisle to bring guests ; and lectures, repasts, and amusements were alike satisfactory. " The festival was a decided success. The period of the year was well chosen, and the whole affair taking place in the open air, proved a great advantage." It has been mentioned that these festivals cost, on an average, ;^5o each. The following detailed statement of the third festival, held on Christmas day, 1868, is a fair 144 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Expenses of a Christmas Festival. sample of the others. It shows a cost of nearly £68, which was, however, exceeded by that of 1869, the average being lowered by the lighter expenses of the first festival, held in ' 1866, and of the last, held in July, 1870 : — EXPENSES OF THE CHKI8TMAS FESTIVAL, 1868. Lecturers, . . , . . Music, . . . . . Crockery, loan and breakages of. Food and drink — Groceries, . Bread, Beef and hams, Ijemonade, Minor articles. &c.— £12 3 £6 I 10 17 22 2 36 6 4 9 Propping, arranging, Joiner work, . . . . . 8 19 10 Wood, &G., I 13 2 Mason work, . . . . . . 2 13 8 Railing, . . . . . . .050 Heating, 107 Gas, 082 - 79 17 « Printing and advertising — Tickets, .... Mottoes, &c.. Bills and Posting, Advertising, &c.. Labour — Farm people. General Account, Waiters, &c.. Horse Labour, . IS O S 7 5 5 2i 2 Si 6 Gross Expenditure, Receipts for Refreshments, &c.. 13 19 31 ■ £^32 IS li 64 15 10 Net Cost of Festival, .... jQ6j 19 3i The food reaUsed about 20 per cent, less than it cost us, the intention having been to sell it at cost price ; but the difficulty of providing for an uncertain number of people, and the anxiety that the starvation of the first festival should not be repeated, led us always to over-provide, and the HISTORY OF THE BLENNERHASSET FESTIVALS. 1 45' Discontinuance of the Festivals. consequent depreciated sale of the remainder at a sacrifice was latterly the chief cause of loss. The labour was also a heavy item, though much less so for the July festival. Each of the " officials " had charge of one department ; the manager looking after the cooks, waiters, special constables, and helpers -in -general; the chemist being responsible for the lecture arrangements ; the clerk, had the busiest place of all, the ticket office ; and gen- erally to our engineer, Edward Tiffin, was entrusted the government of the dancing hall. Neither the "officials" nor the labourers found Christmas much of a holiday, almost all hands, and many extra ones besides, being employed in cooking, carrying dishes frolli the kitchen to the granary, waiting in the refreshment rooms, guarding the stacks and byres from careless smokers, and preserving good order everywhere. The propping of the buildings was another great expense, costing ^4 14s. 3d. in 1868, and ;£'3 9s. 7d. in 1869. This was chiefly necessary for the dancing room, which was nearly always overcrowded ; but our joiner was a cautious man, and had it every year so propped, that the floor beams were nearly free from their wall seats. The lecture room also required careful propping ; and the cost of all this was one cause of our discontinuing these festivals^ Tables, seats, platforms, and barriers were also expensive, costing each year about ;£g. All these things, but more especially the danger of fire, induced us, as has been seen, to hold the fifth festival in summer, and in a field at some distance from the farm build- ings ; but by this change the precedent of the Christmas Festival was broken, and the trouble and expense were so great that the weekly parliament pretty unanimously con- sented to discontinue these annual festivals. Some of the drawbacks were business ones, these festivals often compel- ling a sale of grain, so that the granaries might be empty. Trips are coupled with Festivals in the accounts. It was customary for the workers to have an excursion to Keswick every year. Usually from 40 to 50 went, the vehicles being the farm carts, which were previously specially pre- 146 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Annual Keswick Trip of the Workers. pared, by having planks fixed on them for seats, and occa- sionally bags of straw put on the planks for cushions. These excursions generally started at 4 or 5 a.m. some- time in June or Julyj and after 16 miles of driving, first over bare hills, and then through the finely-wooded roads that border Bassenthwaite lake, they would reach Keswick about 10 A.M. Here the people would scatter — some to the lakes, some up the hills, many to the sights of the town, and a few — a very few — to the public-houses. The home-going generally started about 5 or 6 p.m. ; but when a band of music or a fiddler formed part of the company, halts were sometimes made on the road for % dance, and it was fre- quently mid-night before the party got back to Blenner- hasset. The Paris trip, however, forms the main cost under this head, these Keswick trips costing but little, and many of them having been charged directly against the farm. The Paris trip scheme was first broached in the weekly assembly on July 16, 1867, when a letter was read from Mr. Lawson (who was in Paris at the time), to the effect that he would give ;^2 to every male, and;^2 los. to every female worker of his who should visit Paris, and that, as he did not intend exceeding ;£'6o, early application and a recommendation from the village parliament should be obtained. The grant was latterly raised to £3 for each male, and j£4 10s. for each female; and in all, ;^ 70 was spent. The grant was not confined to Mr. Lawson's workers, about half of those going being simply neighbours. In another chapter the reader will see an account of this visit by one, who when there, acted as an adviser and helper to Mr. Lawson in a contemplated French farming enterprise. FARMING LOSSES. 147 Our First Systemof Account-keeping. CHAPTEE X. FARMING LOSSES. Tennyson has said — '"Tis better'to have loved and lost Than never to have loved at all," but no one has said '"Tis better to have farmed and lost than never to have farmed at all," which is true as regards some men who can afford that excellent experience; it being one of the advantages of the rich, that they are able to test that, which, because of its uncertainty and expensiveness, few can try. On commencing farming in 1862 Mr. Lawson was ad- vised by a farming friend to keep as few books as possible, and he did so; a cash book, kept by the farm bailiff, being the only recognised account book of the business till 1866. Meantime, steam plough balance sheets were wanted, and statements of capital for his co-operative offers. These were made by the aid of sundry irregular books, and a sort of guess-work system of valuation very unreliable; and it was no uncommon experience, to have three or four balance sheets for the same period, but each showing profits differing very widely. In 1867 a Carlisle accountant was engaged to overhaul and arrange the accounts, previous to our beginning a correct system of book-keeping. Consequently, 1867 was the first year in which we were able to produce a correct balance sheet; and nearly all those now given for previous years, have been made mainly since 1871. To effect this, a close examination of the old books and accounts has been made, the old cash book and many of the old receipts have been overhauled and dissected, and the details entered under their respective departments. 148 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Profit and Loss Statement of all the Departments. Z S -iO'PO«rO OnvO ■ 00 0\ ' fOOO «t ON • • 00 00 . Tf . rhvO N ^sO\0 = It M = MOO 0\ 00 = = 1 ^o|: :f|^2:52:?;t|=: .\0 f ^^^i^ .\0-iTl-roM -r^iocOOro t--vo t^ . • ON • 00 CO = = VO . t w 00 c* Th o\t-- mco-OMi-ifOO • • ■■+• 00 (TJ CO Z • f 00 o\\o -i-t .>..►-,. cj-^d-tco-ON «-■ - -in* X>. ON CO »-( W l-( w • CO • « o\ 1 «t>CO-O\>00* t^* N- COfOfO .\0>t^ It. t^. 1. Land and Buildings 2. Blennerhasset Farm 3. Prior Hall Farm 4. Cattle 5. Garden 6. Manure Works . 7. Steam Plough . 8. Flax Mill . 9. Starch Mill 10. Minor Departments 11. Newcastle Business 12. Carlisle Shop 13. Blennerhasset Shop 14. Ireby Shop 15. Cottage Property 16. American Investments 17. Interest on Money - 18. Fire in 1871 Annual Losses . . Annual Pr6fits . FARMING LOSSES. 1 49 When the Great Losses occurred. OUr aim being a knowledge of the profitableness, not only of each department of the business, but even of each field and kind of crop, of course, much labour was required to keep separate the expenditure and returns of each sub- division. The crop and field balance sheets form the subjects of other chapters; this, and the two immediately- subsequent, being devoted to the business departments. The history of each is briefly related, only matters of interest and importance are inlroduted, the chronology of each being very briefly indicated by an occasional tabular state- ment. First is given, on the preceding page, a complete profit and loss statement, showing in one, the annual profits or losses of each department and the grand total. The profits are indicated by the mark ("). The odd shillings and pence, omitted to simplify the table, are all given in the separate balance-sheets. A glance at the last column, which gives the final balance of each department, shows four profitable and thirteen unpro- fitable departments, the grand total being a loss of ;^ 18, 6 2 2. This equals nearly ;£'2,ooo a-year, or almost five per cent, on the average capital. The totals of the table may be relied upon, but the profits and losses of the different years are of course greatly affected by the valuations of each year. Thus, the heavy afinual losses shown for 1868 and 1871 belong, properly, to the years before 1867. For, in 1866, when an improved book-keeping made it evident that very heavy losses had resulted, we became alarmed, and remembering all that had been expended on the land in draining, making roads, rooting out old hedges, and dressing heavily with ground bones, the land was valued up some ^6,000. Part of this was taken off in 1868, and still more in 1871, when it was desired to publish a moderate valuation in connection with the co-operative offer of that year. The year 1871 was indeed a losing year, for only ;£8,74S of the loss shown was due to a reduction of the valuations, the remaining ;^2,ooo being actual loss by fire, potato disease, and ^Syo of in- terest on the newly made mortgage, which had not yet had time for investment in America. Taking into account the reduction in the valuations in 150 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARl^ING. Our Land-improving a Losing Business. 1868 and 1871, the years 1868, 1869, and 1870 were com- paratively profitable ones. The profit of 1865 is hypo- thetical, a glance at that column showing the farm an acknowledged loss, the apparent profit coming from land and buildings, and Prior Hall farm, due in both instances to high valuations. But we will now proceed to consider more in detail the history of each department, many of which present features of much interest, and frequently of amusement The first subdivision is written by Mr. Miller Tiffin, the writer of the steam plough chapter, and who was also architect and clerk of the works during much of the time when the buildings were in progress. I. Land and Buildings. — Old farm buildings at an out- side comer of the farm would doubtless suffice, with a nine- teen years' lease, for an old-fashioned fanner to earn a competence for the remainder of his days ; but such build- ings fell far short of what was required for our extensive and , comprehensive schemes. New buildings and machinery required much outlay, and so did extensive drainage, and pulling down of hedges ; but these things were modem improvements, that ought to be well worth the money spent on them, for if not, what is the use of improving? We found, however, that when the estate was sold, much loss occurred in our improvement expenditure. Briefly told, the story is this — Paid for the estates, . . .;^24,i2o 18 9 Cost of land improvements, . 15,067 7 11 J Total cost, . . . .;£'39,i88 6 8J Realisation, .... 33,236 7 si Loss^ .... ^5,951 19 4i Which goes far to show that land improving may be a losing business for landlords ; for admitting that Siere were super- fluous buildings, and mis-expenditures, these things do not account for a loss of nearly _;^ 6000. So early as February irth, 1862, an agricultural engineer FARMING LOSSES. I5I The Stone-breakers Fined. came on a professional visit generally, and specially to advise about irrigation in connection with our proposed farm stead- ing. The buildings were erected, and the water-power was adapted, to attain a good system of irrigation. The cattle were to be kept in the house all the year round, the excreta washed into two large tanks, holding 114,000 gallons, from which it was to be pumped at the rate of 140 gallons a minute, on to a few acres near the buildings, so that not two but twenty blades of grass should grow where one grew before. This day saw the building site fixed on. We started briskly. March 8th saw 120 men at work at various jobs on the farm. Draining and uprooting hedges went on apace. By the end of the first five months ^i^S, had been paid for .levelling three-and-a-half miles of hedges, and during the first six months ;^524, in wages alone, for putting in upwards of thirty miles of drains. As regarded the buildings, the kind of water-wheel was one of the first considerations, as the wheel-pit must have the lowest foundation. After scores of enquiries all over the country respecting the merits and demerits of wheels and turbines, a Fourneyron turbine, by M'Adam, of Belfast, was ordered. The quantity of water in the River Ellen was measured, when it was high and when it was low, and the result was a twenty horse-power wheel, on a fall of about seventeen feet. Thousands of loads of stones were carted off the farm to the building site. How many can never be known, but it appears from an estimate made by the builder that there were 3468 loads scattered over the farm. The estimate had this significant remark — " Probably below the mark." All this time plans were being prepared, and estimates made ; and on August 29th, 1862, the estimate for the new building was ;^3,5oo. But stones were wanted, not for buildings only. Thousands of cubic yards of broken stones were wanted for miles of new roads to intersect the farm ; and one day in January, 1863, no less than twenty-two stone-breakers were at work, breaking stones by the yard. It must have been about this time that Mr. Lawson, going to inspect the heaps, was followed by a troop of stone-breakers as he went from 152 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Difficulties with the Turbine Water Wheel. heap to heap, and refused payment on them all, not one being according to contract; and ultimately a fine, according to desert, was levied on each heap. Stone heaps multiplied quickly, and I can remember measuring fifty-two one after- noon, the result of one week's work. ■ It was a delightful time — destroying the old-fashioned work and preparing the new. Nothing beats destruction for evoking a right good-will. But 1863 comes in upon us, and we must begin construction. The. site was levelled, and, starting to build from the lowest point first, the tail- race was excavated, the builders following hard, so as to get the work done before the sides should rush in. Four feet deep at the river, increasing to twenty feet at the wheel- pit, over a distance of 180 yards, was rather a large job. During this year the buildings went on apace, and in Nov- ember a man came from M'Adam's to fix the turbine, which had arrived some months before. As the turbine w& to work under water, even when the water was at its lowest, in the dryest summer, the tail-race was sunk one foot below the river level; and as the turbine-pit was two feet lower, it could not but be excessively flooded in November. We were thus" in a difficulty, having to fix the wheel on its shaft three feet below the water. It would be wearisome to recount all we did in trying to get rid of the water, so as to get the wheel in place ; suffice it to say, that after trjring to fix on the wheel above water, and lower the whole apparatus (above a ton weight) down to its seat, it fell a few feet, and bent the shaft, which had then to be sent to Carlisle to be ' straightened ; we at last got it fixed in working order. Mean- while the head-race was proceeded with. It was made with a beautiful serpentine curve, to bring the surface level with that of the intersected field, so that when the wheel was at rest the water should gently overflow, and without trouble or expense, water the head-race meadow. The race had be^n constructed so wide and deep, that it could run the water without much waste of fall. When it was in full flow, the water surface was only four inches lower at the wheel-pit than at the river, a distance of 670 yards. A similar difference of level ran the spent water down the tail-race, so FARMING LOSSES. 153 Measurements of the Buildings. that only eight inches of fall, was thus used to overcome the friction of two channels, 850 yards long; and we thus obtained all the available fall just where it was needed — over the wheel. By and by the machinery, including a straw-cutter, got a peculiar disintegrating root pulper, &c., &c., fixed. In autumn, 1864, the baihff removed to the new dwelling- house, and soon after the cattle were taken to the new byre. We were far from being finished yet. The excavation of the liquid manure tanks commenced on December 27 th, and was rather a huge job. They stood close to each other, aqd had a connecting pipe at the bottom. One of' them was thirty feet diameter and twelve feet deep, and lined with dressed ashlar j the other was thirty-two and a-half feet in diameter and twelve and a quarter feet deep, and lined with brick and cement. Both were puddled (by professional advice) with moss soil, a plan desirable, perhaps, for its cheapness, but certainly not for its efficiency. For safety and dignity, such buildings must needs be lighted with gas. On April 19th, 1864, an estimate was made; but it was not till April ist, 1865, that gas was lit for the first time. The byre and stable were under one roof, or rather three roofs, the two valley gutters of which were supported by strong oak pillars, along which were the fixings for tying up the cattle, and the long, continuous cast-iron troughs for watering and feeding them. This building measured 100 feet east and west, by 78 feet north aijd south. Along the south side, running east and west, were 7 calf pens, i2J5^ by 11^ feet, then a. row of stalls holding 29 cattle, then a double row holding 52 cattle, then the horse stalls and loose boxes in the third row. The breadth taken off for the stables was 20}^ feet. The 8 stalls were 6 feet broad inside, with ioj4 feet clear behind them. The loose boxes were 16 feet by 13 feet. The 3 rows of cattle therefore occupied 55^^ feet of this building's breadth. The roof was high and well-ventilated, and our cattle would have had a luxurious life had we not arranged to keep them on boarded floors without bedding. This was to facilitate the washing of their droppings into a channel .154 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Bam and the Water Works. under the boards, which had a descent from each end of the byre to the middle, where the byre was crossed by a large sewer pipe, draining all into the liquid manure tanks, which lay to the north side. The remainder of this block of buildings was thus arranged : — Along the north side of the byre and stable ran a two-storeyed block, 24 feet wide inside. Starting from the east, this building was thus divided : — The engine-house, with its lofty doorway, came first, and was 28 feet long; next the harness room, 8 feet; then the cart shed, with three fine archways, 55^ feet long; and lastly, the granary stairs, 4 feet broad, finished the length. Above the engine-house was the joiner's shop, and over the harness room and cart shed was the granary. At right angles to this, enclosing the end of the byre, and running south, was another two-storeyed block, 24 feet broad, occjipying in its length the breadth of the granary, and also the whole of the west side of the byre. The north end of this block was occupied by the barn, 48^ feet long, and the south end by the pulping house, 52 feet long. Over these two was a loft for straw and hay. Here stood the straw-cutter, so placed that the cut straw dropped right' down through the floor and into the pulping house, and close to the root pulper. It was customary to mix the cut straw and turnips, and after a few hours' standing, to give them to the cattle. To facilitate this, rails were laid from the pulping house into the byre, and up between the rows of cattle. Close to the north end of the barn appeared the upright shaft of the turbine, gearing with four horizontal shafts, the longest of which ran through the barn into the pulping house. On the granary was placed, in a suitable corner, a grinding mill, driven — through a hole in the wall — from the long shaft. The same shaft also carried the straw-cutter on the loft above, and the pulper in the pulping house below, and lastly, a churn. To the north-west corner of the north side was built the pump-house, 32 feet by 12 feet, covering the turbine pit and shaft, and containing the large liquid manure pumps and the little fresh-water pump. To the west of this stood the tower, with the fresh-water cistern at the top, FARMING LOSSES. 1 55 The Manure Tanks and Pumps. supplied by the little pump. From this cistern the water was conveyed all over the buildings ; and at the cattle troughs, by turning only three taps, 8i cattle could be watered in a few minutes. Below the tower, and opening to the north, was a wide passage into the barn for the port- able Clayton & Shuttleworth's thrashing machine. Running west from the tower and bam was the spacious Dutch barn, measuring 60^ feet by 59 feet, the two-gabled roof of which was supported by 24 brick pillars, each 20 inches square and about 20 feet high. Between the barn and this build- ing were two large sliding doors, through one of which the sheaves were passed right to the feeding board of the thrashing machine. The other door was close to where the machine deposited the loose straw. It had at first been intended to carry the sheaves to the thrashing machine by machinery, but the first cost would have been too great, so this was never accomplished. The gas house and smithy — a block measuring 48^ ft. by 28 ft. — stood alone, to the north, and faced the farm road, which passed up the east side of the byre. It ran back parallel to the north side of the granary, and had close behind it the liquid manure tanks. The dwelling-house was placed at a respectable distance from the byre, off the south-west comer. It measured 48 ft. by 37 ft. In ad- dition to this, the out kitchen adjoined its west end, but ran northwards towards the byres. It had the laboratory above. It was a long time — lasting till well into the summer of 1865 — before the three-quarters of a mile of irrigation pipes were laid, the pumps erected, and the liquid manure at work, raining down fertility on the Italian rye grass sown especially for it. When the tanks were finished — a con- siderable time before the pumps were erected — we bought many carcasses of cattle and old horses — chiefly for their bones. These were killed, skinned, and tumbled into the ashlar built tank. But, as putrefaction went on, the smell was great, and we were threatened b}' the local sanitary authorities. When the wind was favourable, the dullest nose in Baggrow and Blennerhasset could tell that the pumps were at work, the scent was so strong. We were IS6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Large Granaries and Model Sheep-sheds. now left to ourselves. Miles of hedges had been uprooted, the farm had been drained, and the gardens laid out. Builders and engineers had gone away. True, it was this year (1865) that Hodgson's estate had come into our pos- session, and hedge levelling and drain cutting was again somewhat brisk, but the buildings were all up, and the new roads formed or forming, and some of us expected no more new buildings. But one night in June, 1865, Mr. Lawson and the bailiff were seen examining the space to the south of the byres and east of the dwelling-house. Orders were given to have a plan ready by next morning for a building 1 14 ft. by 53j^ft. Though not so quickly as requested, a plan was drawn, and freely criticised, and then the clock tower building was erected. It ran east and west, having, of course, a mid partition wall sup- porting the valley gutter between the two roofs, and dividing the buUding into two breadths, the north division being 22j^ ft., and the south division 26 ft. wide. At the east end of this last, rose the clock tower, where was placed a fine turret clock with three faces, each 3 ft. in diameter. The ground plan of the south side was 108 ft. by 26 ft., and had ten pens for sheep on each side, with a gangway up the middle. The pens to the south had also each a door opening outside, by which the sheep could pass into temporary pens out of doors. These were to fatten sheep at a wonderful rate ; but the scheme never did well. The ground floor of the north side was thus divided: — first, the office, 19^ ft. long, with a store room taken off one side; next the implement room, 37 feet long, with its 3 arches. The remainder to the east end was occupied by the coach-house and butching-house, of nearly equal dimen- sions. The lofts consisted of two rooms only; one being 108 ft. by 22j^ ft., and the other 108 ft. by 26 ft. One of them, on account of the rise of the ground at one end, was but a few feet above ground level, and carts could easily unload into it. It is not too much to say that the energy and perseverance manifested in preparing for model farming would have been equal to carrying it on, had it only been continued. It is remarkable that the irrigating apparatus, FARMING LOSSES. I57 Comments on the Balance-sheet. costing the amount shown in the balance-sheet below, never had one fair trial. In 1870 Benson's estate was added. A repetition of draining and hedge-levelling followed, but only on a small scale. The great interest once manifested in these operations had subsided. Our improvements had become an accomplished fact ; and we were now ready to reap the fruits of our enterprise, and, perhaps, we should have done so had not the establishment passed into other hands. The following balance-sheet calls for some comment, and also some apology. It has been found impossible from the in- extricable muddle of the earlier account books, or rather book, to separate the charges to each department. In con- sequence, the above statement includes many sums that our recent investigations would place to other accounts. This transfer to other departments was made in 1866-67-68, but was done more by guess-work than by knowledge, simply because we could not then tell the real costs. Now that the accounts are got into shape, it would be very difficult to pull down and re-arrange them, and as the totals are correct, and the divisions artificial at the best, it does not matter much under which head some of the items are ranged. Thus the "machinery" of the above debits includes ^^282 7s. 2 J^d. really chargeable to flax, starch, and manure departments; the "buildings," ;^876 i6s., chargeable to cottage pro- perty; "unexhausted manures," ^^400, chargeable against the farm in 1871, and altogether a total of j£i,S77 3S- 7j^d., which, in strict book-keeping, would have been charged to other departments. A statement, therefore, taking in only what might be called landlord's capital, shows a loss of only ;^59Si, the other ^^528, being chargeable chiefly against the farm. Indeed, this balance-sheet must be taken in connection with that of the farm. The farm larid averaged about 303 acres during the ten years it was in possession, and it will be seen that our draining cost about ;^7 los. per acre all over the farm. About 6J^ miles of old hedges were uprooted, and as, including headriggs, each hedge prevented the proper cultivation of 4 yards on each side, about 1 9 acres were thus restored to fuU cultiva- tion. 158 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Expenditure on the Land and Buildings. LAND AND BUILDINGS BALANCE SHEET, Dr. from 1862 to 1872. To Amount paid for Dawson's Estate, „ „ „ Hodgson's „ ,, ,, ,, Benson's „ . j ,, Enfranchisement and Conveyance of Benson's Estate. „ Purchase of Benson's Tenant's Lease, &c. ,, Draining the Land, ,, Removing old Hedges, ,, Planting new Hedges, „ Making new Roads, „ Purchase and Planting of Trees, &c., „ „ ,. Fruit Trees, ,, Unexhausted Manures in 1870, ,, Sundry Land Improvements, . „ Construction of Farm and Cottage Buildings, „ Re-construction after the Fire, „ Turret Clock, 1866, ,, Farm and other Machinery, . „ Cost of Irrigation, Pumps, Piping, and Hose, „ Cost of Water Supply, ■ ,, Hose and Appliances against Fire, ,, Grant's portable Railway, „ Laboratory and Library Furnishings, ,, Weighing Machines for Manure Works, ,, Iron for Smith Work, „ Wood for Joiner's Shop, ,, Furniture for Farm House, „ Lodging-house Furniture, &c., ,, School Benches and Ventilators, ,, Share of General Account, ,, Sundries, .... „ Expenses and Commission on Sale of the Estate, ,, Transfers from other Departments, 1 872: — Cottage Property, . . ;^z,900 Market Garden, Manure Works, Flax Mill, Starch Mill, Gas Metre, Store Room, &c., 2,458 10 230 o 145 16 62 2 5 ;£i4,ooo S,200 4,050 870 363 2,296 347 64 265 216 138 400 "3 7.637 509 93 1,158 894 160 50 47 56 15 55 44 72 19 14 93 47 301 o 3 o o 9 o 8 4| 14 2 18 of 15 o 12 10 IS of o 9 2 7 8 3i 19 4i IS 34 18 9i o 5 10 18 l\ 1 7i 6 Hi 19 2i U 8" 17 2i 1 I 5 loi 2 4 5,810 I o ;^4S,4io 18 4i FARMING LOSSES. Receipts and Realisation. 159 LANDS AND BUILDINGS BALANCE SHEET, From 1862 to 1872 — {Continued). Cr. By Transfers to other Departments: — Cottage Property, . £2,440 Garden, . . . 2,094 Manure Works, . . 429 Flax Works, . . 268 Wood to Joiner's Shop, . 28 jfS.2S9 14 ,, Firewood Sold off Hedges, 'i 2i „ Scrap Iron, Lead, and Brass, 26 18 4 „ Byre Stalls, .... 23 5 9 „ Machinery at Auction Sale, . , 75 15 9 „ Sand 6 „ Burnt Wood after the Fire, 7 II s , , Transferred to other Accounts, . 3 8 10 ,, Rents, ..... 413 3 3i ,, Damage by Fire, estimated and charged as Loss by Fire, .... 606 I ,, Land Sold at different times. 1,431 7 6 ,, Estate sold for . 30,200 , , Machinery by Valuation, 847 „ Goods on hand, .... 23 5 ;^38,93i IS 7i „ Loss, ..... , 6,479 2 9 ;£'4S,4io 18 4i l6o TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Rents, Acreages, and Prices of the Three Estates. • The subjoined statement shows some interesting facts at the time of the estates coming into Mr. Lawson's posses- sion : — Date of Entry. Feb., 1862 Rent. ... ;£38o . Acreage. 260 Price. ... ;£l4,000 „ 1865 ... 113 . „ 1870 ... I2li . Enfranchisement, &c. 73 .. 87 S,200 4,050 861 ;^6i4i 420 ;^24,iii The rentals thus yielded very little over 2^ per cent., and it is doubtful if a rental could at present be obtained to yield much more. The cottage property would, however, be a help in this direction. The buildings added over ^^21 per acre to the cost, taking the average holding during the 10 years, the new roads, about 17s. 6d. per acre, and taking out old hedge- rows, 23s. per acre. The reader is referred to the frontis- piece, which shows the hedges as we found them and as we left them, as well as the arrangement of the new roads and new hedges. The irrigation cost about ^2 19s. per acre, and the machinery nearly ^4. By far the greater part of these expenditures was incurred before 1867. Total. After 1866. Buildings expenditure, ;^7,637 £^2° Machinery „ 1,158 140 Irrigation „ 894 no 9,689 470 These three items show about,. 95 percent, of the expendi- ture as occurring in the first four years. It is, therefore, plain, that the profits shown in these years were profits of valuation, from which the later years had to suffer. That 1872 gives only a loss of ;^288, proves also that in 1871 our estimate of the value of the land was very close upon its real value, as shown by its selling price, and that our expe- rience had , not been without good result. In selling the FARMING LOSSES. l6l The Question of Rem. estate, we could not expect to realise anything like full cost for the extensive buildings, the machinery, and the irriga- tion. The whole estate was purchased for a little under ;^6o per acre; and, to have sold for what it cost, it should have realised ^93 per acre. It realised, in fact, under ;^8o per acre and perhaps the lesson is this — land worth ;^6o per acre, cannot be raised to £^7, by building, draining, irrigation, and machinery. M. T. II. The Blennerhasset Farm balance-sheet might have been included in the foregoing, but its separation will be found a convenience in many ways. Neither rent nor interest appears in these sheets, Mr. Lawson's idea being at first simply to show, how much could be" earned by so much land and so much capital. These charges not appearing, the balance-sheets are not, of course, so useful for commercial comparison. The amount of rent to be charged would, however, not have been easy to decide. You had but to make a remark about our heavy crops, to be told that the farm had always been the best in Cumberland; and nearly every critic thought ;£ 2 los. a fair rent (for a gendeman to pay). But the fact was, that the total rentals of the previous tenants averaged less than j£t. tos. per acre. And if we look at the Land and Build- ings Account, and take only the reasonable improvements, £2 per acre, all over, should represent a fair average annual rent, during the last four or five years of our possession. It is, of course, worth morenowin 1874, both because of the general rise in rents, and because of some of our latest improvements. In keeping our farm accounts, it was found that the horse- men were unused to having the provender weighed out to them, and it was therefore impossible, at first, precisely to obtain that outlay. There was also trafficking" in horses which makes these figures only approximate. Indeed, in every item of farm expenditure there is no means of deter- mining its precise cost, without a minute and exact system of book-keeping, which no farmer ever undertakes. My experience of the cost of clerkship, and the labour expended in keeping our accounts, with the view of their being useful M l62 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. DiiEculty of keeping Farm Accounts. to Others, leads me to distrust all farm accounts as being anything more than approximate siatetnents of profit and loss. Certainly no farmer within my experience, ever took more than half the trouble which Mr. Lawson did to keep his accounts accurately, and in such classification that they should be useful and instructive. The reader, therefore, will take this into account in his examination of the tables placed before him. The following tables show the chief items of farm expendi- ture, and farm receipts for each year after 1864. FARM ANNUAL EXPENDITURE, &c. 1863-4. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 18W. £.' & £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Wages . . , . 23S3 1240 iS«9 744 652 564 700 684 92 Implements, &c. . 379 137 172 31 164 112 133 107 zs Steam Cultivation . 320 3«3 104 7.') 243 84 271 I.S9 103 Seeds . .. S4 .. 100 2S7 2';7 272 431 7!i Roads and Fences . SI 37 36 34 S4 24 22 I House Expenses, &c. 347 67 81 60 89 26 61 33 8 Smith, Joiner, and ) Saddler's Work \ 177 119 158 168 59 • ■ 7 .. Horses and Food . 232 78 126 lOI 612 30s 428 644 64 Veterinary 34 37 33 2 ,. Railway Carriage . 2 116 16 18 18 17 8 2 General Expenses . 132 S 1S8 iSi 176 200 192 244 207 Profit . 438 •• 60s 131S FARM ANNUAL RECEIPTS, &C. 1863-4. 1865. 1866. £ 556 4531 104 2271 3408 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. Sale of Farm Produce Sale of Cattle and 1 Sundries . ( Rents of Land Stock onhand in Dec. Loss £ 447 3137 26 4019 2937 £ 378 3374 24 3333 1919 £ 2090 47 26 "59 £ 2209 14 24 2856 183 £ 2333 6 42 3339 £ 2797 II 48 4828 £ 4815 27 28 3063 62Q £ 2418 6 I 3 337 * All these sums are given in round amounts. The shillings and pence, however, are always included in the totals, and both are given in the balance-sheet. FARMING LOSSES. 1 63 Three Years of Profitable Farming. Wages, horse labour, and others of the above items, form the subject of other chapters, to which the reader is referred. The farm produce sales, it should be explained, mean the annual receipts for grain, hay, potatoes, &c., — everything produced on the farm, except live stock. The farm balance-sheet shows a total loss of about _;£' 7,000; but it must not be thought that our farming was all loss, for of this ;^ 7,000 nearly all was lost during the first fpur years. For if we exclude the reduction of the valuations in 1868, before referred to, the year 1868 showed at the time a balance of £,\,2/i,\ (wherewith to pay rent, interest, and profit); and 1871 alone of the later years was clearly a loss, owing largely to the potato disease and the compulsory sale of the crops. It must also be remembered that the manure business was really part of the farming business, the separation being merely for convenience. For the farm used much more than half the manures manufactured; and the profits on these must be added before the farm accounts can be fairly compared with those of any large farm purchasing manures or cattle food to an equal amount. At our harvest home in 187 1, one of the speakers took this view, and it may be well to give the figures in that form. He took the whole of the profits of the manure business, but it will be fairer here to take just three-fourths. During 1868, 1869, and 1870, the profits of the manure business were ^^406, three-fourths" of which' is £,2,0^. During the same period the farm profits (taking 1868 at ;^i,24i) were ;^3,i6r, or, including the manure, ;^3,46s. This represents an annual profit of ^1,155. But let us deduct ^2 an acre for rent, or ;^65o (325 acres being the average farmed during these three years); this leaves ^£'505 profit. The capital, as shown by the stock of both the farm and manure businesses, averaged ;^4,7Si; so that the profit on these three years averaged about 10^ per cent, per annum; or, if we first deduct the usual 5 per cent., it stands at sj^ per cent, per annum. An analysis of all our farm accounts goes to prove that our farming was, in the later years, carried on not only at less expense, but also with more success, as regards the 164 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Blennerhasset Farm Balance Sheet. 0\ ON "-< "^ M OS 1000 vn t^ O 10 Q\ O en i-i m N t-. (-1 i-i HH iri t*i M HC OVO 0\0 - 1100 P) t^t^O ii-)0\ Onxt) eg 0^ VO T 4 si" I ■^Pl f I s |i|f lis f ri oj 01 o rt o cj "Ura O'^ w piS W Sen ftfecncom >i. ...... . .. ..... P5 *rOi-f -^vo O O coONONro-^OcorO Tj-00 tJ- h ^ hi m m CO '^'O O M M s^ M Stock on hand, . Expenditure on Land and Buildings, Expenditure on Fixed Machinery, Expenditure on Impler Wages, Manure and Lime, Steam Cultivation, Seeds, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Cattle Food, T3 n (U 0! 03 S f^:S w g i>,^ nl S ■g JC Ph T3 PIH ■^ ^- ^ o 1-1 bO PQ ^ ip,-i **-" ''t-' t*-i .^ rrf 1^ o '2 o o o'^ 2 y CO CO CO CO PM PQ NOO O H tn^oM ooovo ■^in CO 10 VO ro M O to s^ o_^ 00" Cli ■5 S o M o - - o 00 P P o o ft lU (U to "^^ U w f^ U bo • fi „ ■3 g ..pq o a 2 < C3 Jh O) S^ ^ (U t> ^ ^ p:^ j M d in 00 Tf fi. <4 CO o\ VO M a^ •^ M Ch M M ^i ^ JT^ in _ „ M VO (Ti ' '4 M •^ *^ ? 00 00 in in 'it CO ^ ■* $ ^ •^ CO ■* o. CO . ■■ vO . vo ■ lo 00 VO 00 VD *^ IH M »-" >-« "-• 4 'm ^ in VO M CO 'i- «t! ig- vo N w in ON r-. * CO ■* r. VO IN M ■^ CO ' ON CO - «i « « ON 00 „ i-< ■ti- \o * VO in ■W ro t- ■^ ^^ ir^ (O o\ 10 CO ? ^ «l* ^*J WW ■« VO VO 00 1 t^ Ov cn t^ in VD ^ 1-4 hH 00 t^ CO VO ■* m ON =tj CO 00 in VO ro ro CO Oi CO >!)■ CO ro hKs miV ■^a ^ ■^ M ■^ E^ ,^ 10 ■+ PO )-< »2 '-' M "-• *2 VO ■>*■ CO in M CTv <^ I^^ xn 00 in 0^ Cfl CO t^^ t^ a\ CO t-< M a> V s .§: 1 p '9 u C/3 3 P4 PL| a 3 o PlH W ?:> ,f3 Pi 1 74 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Facts in Dairy Fanning. Dairy farming was the great feature of 1865, 1866, and 1867 ; the Newcastle contract beginning in 1865, and our own shops afterwards keeping up the demand into 1867. When, first in 1865, we obtained iid. per gallon for new milk, delivered there carriage free, we tried some experi- ments as to the relative profitableness of so selling it, as against keeping it at home for the production of butter. We found that 22)^ gallons of new milk gave 13 quarts of cream, and 19 gallons of skim milk. We also found that 72 quarts of cream produced 43 lbs. of butter. At this time we were sending daily to Newcastle about 50 gallons; for which, after deducting railway carriage, &c., we realised the net price of 9^d. per gallon, or a daily net return of j£i 1 8s. 6j^d. But taking the above figures, this 50 gallons, if made into butter, &c., would have realised as follows : — 50 gallons of new milk would produce- 42^ gallons of skim milk, at 3d., . 17^ lbs. of butter, at is. 4d., . 5i gallons of butter milk, at 2d., . /:o 10 7i I 3 , 4 ir ^r 14 10^ This gave for the home price about 8id. (8-37) per gallon, or nearly 4s. less per diem than the Newcastle returns — a difference that proved of great weight in inducing us to enter upon the disastrous Newcastle business. The quantity of milk obtained on an average, 'from each of our cows we cannot tell. We should have been able to do so, but the milk sheets showing the daily yield of milk were kept much better than the account of the daily number of cows ; and we cannot, in consequence, be sure of our facts here. We had a list of the yield in a friend's dairy, and from it the following figures have been taken : — Yield of Milk per Cow. Average yield of milk per annum, . 1928^ quarts Highest 3831 „ Lowest „ „ 528 Average „ per diem. S"i9 » Highest 19 FARMING LOSSES. 175 A Market Garden Begun. The above shows considerable variation, and the average yield is rather lower than some I have seen published ; but, judging from our balance-sheet, our own yield was probably lower still. * V. The Garden is almost as deserving of a separate chapter as the steam-plough, as it was nearly as unique in its way. The gardener, who became farm bailiff in 1867, was asked to write an account of it, but declined. A neighbouiring farmer and critic then took it in hand, but the mass of figures and facts proved too much for his time, and probably, too, for his patience; and he could not finish it. Much, however, of what follows is by this friend. In the interval between deciding to farm the Blennerhasset farm and entering upon it, Mr. Lawson visited many of the great market gardens, and private gardens as well, in both England and Scotland. Among others, he visited some experimental gardens at Edinburgh, the nursery gardens of Peter Lawson & Son, some gardens in the Carse of Gowrie, and many in different parts of England, including those at Holker Hall, " where they grow excellent grapes, and plant potatoes in November." In February, 1864, the garden was first laid out, and soon afterwards, a small plantation and hedge were planted around it. By November, rooo gooseberry bushes and many hundreds of fruit trees had been planted, Mr. Lawson engaging his father's head gardener to plant every one with his own hands. Things evidently looked well at this time, for in December, when his father's steward valued the estate, the 16 acres of garden land were estim'ated at ;^i5o per acre. Meantime marketing was begun, but proved rather an expensive mode of sale ; the cost of man, and horse, and tolls, often amounting to nearly one-fourth of the sales. But sometimes it was worse; for in June, 1865, a man was sent to Silloth, a watering place ten miles to the north, where good prices were obtained for vegetables and fruit; but night came and he did not appear. Next day a second man was sent to find him, and though he was successful, the cause of 176 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Garden Croppirg and Produce. the delay, and the cheapness of the sales were never clearly explained. Strawberries and rhubarb proved the most paying crops ; foi; the farm generally grew better potatoes and cabbages than. the garden did. Why, it is difficult to say — the chemist claiming that his chemical manure, which the farm used largely and the garden but little, was the cause of superiority, and others attributing it to soil and rotation. Subjoined is a list, rejecting fractions for brevity, of the annual sales of the more important products. Annual Sales of Garden Produce. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. i87J. Strawberries, £6 . . £14 . . £49 . . £40 . . £32 .. ) Other Berries, 3 . • 3 • . 8 . 12 . . II .. [£37 Rhubarb, 7 . • 13 • . 17 .. • IS • . 38.. ) Cabbages, 47 . • 95 • 12 . . 2S • .. 16 .. 3 Potatoes, 40 . • SI • .. 28 . • 37 • •• 34 •• I Peas, 14 . . 6 . .. 10 . • 3 • .. 4 .. ... Onions, 8 . . 8 . .. 15 . . 6 . .. 24 .. 35 The variety and tendency of our garden cropping will be best shown by the following table, which gives the extent of land under the different crops. But it must be borne in mind, that some of the land was under two crops; sj^ acres, included in the table, also containing gooseberry bushes or other fruit trees, cabbages or other crops being grown between. Garden Cropping in 1868. Acres. Roods. Acres. Roods. Potatoes, s I Strawberries, . I li Cabbages, 2 li Fruit Trees,* . li Peas, . I I Currants, &c., . If Tares, . 1 Of Rhubarb, I Onions, I Grass, 3 Carrots, 3 Roads, . 3l Plantations, . 2 3i Cuttings and Seeds I Total, 20 li Young Thorns, 2i Many of the above quantities represent three or four * Besides the 5i acres planted also with other crops, and included in the list. FARMING LOSSES. The Garden Receipts increase. 177 different plots, and a few minor crops have been omitted. The fruit trees, it will be seen, occupied nearly six acres, but they did not do very well, though perhaps six years is too short a period, in which to judge of the success of a new fruit plantation. In 1867, 8 acres of nice loamy soil were added to the garden land, and further extension was contemplated. At this time the cropping sheet system (explained in another chapter) was just begun, and the gardener showed (on paper) such enormous profits per acre, that gardening threatened to oust farming altogether. Leeks were to clear ;£^6 per acre, onions £66, and other crops in proportion. Below, a few figures are given which will indicate the pro- gress of the garden. Like that of the farm, it is a progress in the right direction, the sales per acre reaching ;^20 in 1871, the expenditure at the same time decreasing. The manure was almost entirely farm-yard : — GARDEN ACCOUNTS 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. £ £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Wages 29 19s 332 199 i8S 167 I.S9 176 Plants & Trees 42 132 S° 16 49 i.S 27 Manure . ... 12 27 .S2 SA .S9 47 Sales of Produce ■■12 lo.S 176 249] 209 162 21S 412 Stock in Dec. ... 128 269 466 .S,S4 467 Profit ... ... .S9 47 .31 14 18 Loss 69 91 313 1 1 ■■ ... ... ... It is easily seen that in the earlier years when planting &c., were active, the wages greatly exceeded the sales ; but after 1866 there was a manifest improvement; so that in 1871 the sales were nearly three times as large as the wages. Indeed, the concern was then clearing itself, and perhaps might have been made really profitable in time. Our critic, however, thinks not; as he says " each succeeding year brought more weeds, more work, and consequently more wages to pay; N 1 78 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Irrigated Rhubarb and Strawberries. and while such was the case, the fruit, which ought year after year to have increased in quantity, seemed to be all but an entire failure. Since Mr. Lawson sold the estate, I have had an opportunity of seeing the subsoil, and find it to be a clean gravel, thus giving at once a clue to the cause of the failure of the fruit." Certainly the land was, as our critic remarks, very foul by 1871; but that was an unusual year for weeds ; and it is doubtful if, taking season for season, the land was much worse than in 1862. The balance sheet for the, whole period is given on p. 1 79. It shows a net loss of ;^339 iis. iid., the land being valued as neither better nor worse ; the ;^2,4S8 los. 3d. transferred to Land and Buildings account, including ;^364 los. 3d. worth of trees, plants, and other fixed stock. This loss, it will be noticed, occurred before 1867, the later years doing much better; but never making enough to pay rent, which, at ^^3 an acre, would have amounted to ^60. Latterly, a considerable extent of the garden land was devoted to farm crops, such as hay and oats, ;£^229 of the sales in 1871 being for such crops ; and this prevents a fair estimate of the gardening expenditure. Roughly divided, the wages averaged over the eight years ;^io per acre, the manure p^t r4S., the sales ;^ii, and the loss (no rent or interest being charged) ^2 6s. per acre. Much of the garden land could be reached by the irrigation hose, and to this we largely owe our success in growing rhubarb and strawberries, the latter crop', in 1869, growing ^49 worth of strawberries on about one statute acre. FARMING LOSSES. Market Garden Balance Sheet. 179 U ^ vn pq 00 M 'Z S w ^ H|=» ^!M vo 10 fo w N 00 10 M \o H M •-» N vo 00 ON t^ ro 10 m ro -0 ■* ro ^ N \ "t s^ T3 • C hJ \ \ \ \ s? u C/3 T3 bo ^^ m nS M \ TS 'O S S \. a S 3 rt OJ N . Ph c« tlx) §8 \ \ \ M n M rt -^ s _aj " 2| d ■.M 55 c« PQ rHit, Mb. -l« H«r^ -)s t- r^ ro ■^VO " COCO ON M 10 N M r^ N M M .0 t^ H ■5t-VO M ON ON N CO t^ N Tj-SO -^ ■* M M M •-l M W W T}. N N Thvo 10 N VO Sr^ 10 t- On -^ w « N N J^ 0\MD M N CO ON m ro ^ M M CI (N Tj- N H Tj- N^ f S^ ^ • • • • • • • ■ * • • ■-( n P5 . , , . , . . . , . . TS § . G . =1 cT OJ in" t3 c a en • S Implements, Joiner, &c., Acco Steam Thrashing, Hose for Irrigatio General Account, Ta veiling Expens Railway Carriage, Trees, Plants and Seeds, Hedging and Rai pq Manure and Lim( Bees, . Poultry, Rents, l8o TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Making and Wasting Dissolved Bones. CHAPTER XI. MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. VI. Manure Works. — Beginning as high farmers we soon became large purchasers of manures : and as bones are, and have always been, a favourite manure with farmers, several cargoes were purchased, and a bone mill set up for grinding them. Naturally, too, the dissolving of bones followed, but this was a more ticklish operation; and being also a disagreeable one, it was left to the management of the labourers employed. Dissolved bones, or bones mixed with water and vitriol, always form a nasty, sticky, damp compound, difficult and disagreeable to sow as a manure. The labourers, however, made matters worse by adding salt to the boiling, bubbling mass, produced by the addition of vitriol to the bones. This was useless, and worse than useless, in more ways than one; for it wasted acid and gave rise to a sharp and suffocating gas. It also caused the for- mation of a little calcic chloride, which, having an eager affinity for water, made it impossible ever to make the man- ure dry. The men, however, thought that the sharp gas given off was a "grand sign," and as one of them had once before worked in a manure factory, no one felt competent to correct him. To dry the pasty mass thus produced, recourse was had to quicklime, which certainly was the most powerful drier they could have found. It had, how- ever, two faults, both very serious indeed ; the first was, that it expelled as ammonia gas, the costly nitrogen, worth over jQ2 in each ton of bones; the second, that it undid the chemical effect of the acid; and when added in any quantity, so " brought back" the soluble phosphates, that the resulting compound represented a mixture of undissolved bone and gypsum; but the latter, which resulted- from the action of the sulphuric acid on the lime, and which could have been bought for 153. a ton, was by this process being made at a cost of about ;^4 a ton. After the chemist came, the busi- MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. l8l Honest Dealing proves Unprofitable. ness was put partly under his management in the spring of 1866 ; but beyond stopping the use of salt and lime, he did not then feel competent to undertake the entire charge. In 1867, however, after a complete change of hands, the manufactur- ing was transferred to the old farm-steading, where water- power was available, and a new start was made. One of Carr's disintegrators was purchased for ;£']$, and a system of mixing special manures was begun, which ended only with the sale of the estate in 1871. At an early date a portion of the manures was sold to neighbours, the returns from this source amounting in 1866 to nearly ;^i,2oo. This was, however, entirely for bones ground and dissolved; and as the balance was only ;£64 on a turnover of ;^2,76o (no interest being charged), it is evi- dent that these were sold at a very poor profit : indeed, one cargo, of which pretty full details have been preserved, showed an expense of about 21s. per ton on bones purchased at Maryport and brought to Blennerhasset, and then ground and kept for a few months. Much of this expense was due to a loss of weight by evaporation; which was estimated, from some trials, to equal nearly a ton per month on a cargo of about 130 tons. To prevent this loss, manure dealers generally salt the bones ; but Mr. Lawson declined to do this, unless he advertised " bones and salt for sale." The result was, that, as we were unable to sell at the same price as the regular dealers, only a few farmers whose judgment, or perhaps, rather, whose faith in our honesty exceeded their love of a bargain, continued to purchase our ground bones. Dis- appointed at receiving such poor encouragement, and unable al\vays to use a full cargo ' ourselves, Mr. Lawson decided in 1867 not to purchase any more bones. The chemist also advised this ; preferring the dissolved coprolites, as equal in effect to dissolved bones for most purposes, and yet much cheaper and also better to work with, being always drier and finer in condition. In starting this new system we expected to win the con- fidence of our neighbours by strict honesty in our deahngs, and by perfect openness, both in the manufacturing of the manures and in the keeping of the accounts. This confidence 1 82 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Difficulties with the Agency System. probably might have been won, but for the agency system, which was at that time becoming so excessively developed, that nearly every tenth fanner was a manure agent. Several offers of manure agencies from Liverpool and Manchester houses were made to us ; £2 a ton commission on ^8 being offered in one case, or if preferred, 10 tons would be sent for every 8 tons ordered and invoiced. Many, too, were the offers of would-be agents for our manures ; but the sys- tem of cash payments and small profits which Mr. Lawson desired and largely adopted, prevented our accepting these offers. In 1867, however, one exception was made, and 2j^ per cent, (equal to about 5s. per ton) was promised to a neighbouring friend, whose business took him much among the farmers, and who had broached the subject to us more than once. The result was, however, very few orders; and he finally told us that when he could get about 15s. per ton on other manures, he could not be expected to sell ours, except he could do no better. After this, the sales to farmers averaged about ;!£'6oo annually; the trade being but little pushed, beyond the sending out of two or three hun- dred circulars by post at the beginning of each season. 1867 was the only year in which this department showed a balance on the wrong side; and this was occasioned by the following misfortune. In Liverpool our purchases of manure stuffs had been made chiefly through one firm of brokers, with whom experience had made us well satisfied. From them, in the spring of this year, we ordered 30 tons of bone ash and 14 tons of nitrate of soda, the value of which was over ^300. As, however, we wanted some 20 tons of feeding meal besides, we asked thern to look out for a coasting vessel to take all at once to Maryport. We thus delayed the despatch of the goods, which usually arrived at our station within six or seven days after order. ' The terms were cash fourteen days after purchase ; and as they sent us the usual contract form to the effect that they had purchased the goods for us, we hesitated only a little, when asked on March 2nd to forward them ^^250 to account, seeing that already sixteen days had expired and the delay had been on our part We were consequently not a little astonished MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. 1 83 Our Cash and Credit Systems. when, a few days afterwards, a lawyer's intimation arrived to the effect that the firm was bankrupt. The chemist was immediately despatched to liverpool to see after the goods, but found that the contract was a lie, and that nothing at all had been purchased. The chemist was anxious to eon- suit a lawyer, and was advised to do so by business friends in Liverpool; but Mr. Lawson had warned him against incurring lawyers' fees and bills ; so, after trying the effect of a few threats, he was glad to go back with a promise from the sole member of the firm to call on Mr. Lawson in a few days. This promise he kept, and the money too; as we never recovered any of it. This was the only bad debt of any consequence experienced in the ten years; which is more than can be said of most businesses of a like extent. At first, in this business, we had followed the usual system of allowing credit sales, but had limited the period to three months. In 186.8, however, Mr. Lawson decided on cash payments ; and a circular was sent to every customer, giving notice of the necessity of prepayment. This gave great dissatisfaction ; and was, along with the giving up of the bone trade, the chief cause why the sales of that year proved about ;£'8oo less than those of 1867. This decrease, accord- ingly, led the chemist in September of that year to propose at the weekly meeting, that there be a credit price for manure ; this was carried by 37 votes against 10; but only agreed to by Mr. Lawson, on condition that the difference should be so high, that no one would pay it. Future price circulars, in consequencej published a credit list 15s. per ton higher than the cash prices ; and though the sales increased a little, they never again exceeded ;^7oo in any one year. The farm was the largest customer, and much therefore of the manure profits fairly belong to it. That they were not made at the expense of the farm, by charging a high figure for an inferior article, may be judged from the follow- ing facts. The first is a comparison between the published , guaranteed composition of our wheat manure, and that of a neighbouring company's, the members of which were chiefly tenant farmers. 184 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Bailiffs Test our Manures. Comparative Value of Two Wheat Manures. Company's manure. Price. Analysis. Value. Sulphate of Ammo- nia, . . . 4/3 24 p. cent. ;^S 2 o Soluble Phosphates, 4/3 10 „ 226 Insoluble ,, 2/0 8 ,, o 16 o Alkaline Salts, 0/3 20 ,, 050 Analytic value per ton, . , ^8 S ^ Our manure. Analysis. Value. 27p. cent.,;fS 14 9 14 ,, 2 19 6 6 ,, 016 ;^8 159 The company's manure was oflFered at j^io per ton, but this might equal ^g 5 s. to members. Our manure, on the other hand, was offered to every one at_;^8 155.; though, as has been seen, its value was los. 3d. per ton greater than the company's manure. It is, however, but fair to add, that some others of the company's manures more nearly equalled oursj but in no case, within my knowledge, did any other trader make an equally good offer to the farmers. Other comparisons available on this point were furnished by two of our bailiffs, who, for their own satisfaction, tested some outside manure against our own. In each case, the trial was carried out by the farm people, who, having some little jealousy of the manure business, were not inclined to favour it too much. In 1867 Proctor and Ryland's — a good and reliable manure for turnips — was tried, "value for value," (but in what quantities there is no record, as is usually the case in rough and ready farm experiments). The weights of the rival crops, taken on one-fortieth of an acre, equalled per acre 29 tons 15 cwts. from P. and R.'s, and 31 tons 5 cwts. from our own manure. The other trial was made in 1870 by our third farm bailiff. The weight used of each manure is unknown, but the test was " value for value." The rival manure was obtained from the same tenant farmer's company before mentioned; and the weight of turnips from an equal number of stitches (size unrecorded) was 4i|^ cwts. for the company's and 45 cwts. for our own manure. The differences are trifling|; showing that the opposition manures were good: and it is only what one would expect, that the manures made specially for our soil should show the better result. MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. Manure Business Balance Sheet. 185 1 86 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Annual Details of the Manure Business. Our manures, however, laboured under one disadvantage which disinclined us to push their sale much. This was, , that, being intended as entire substitutes for farm-yard manure, it was found essential to add more potash than was perhaps profitable for ordinary farming. Of course this made them unnecessarily expensive for some soils; and every one could not find them the best for his land 'and system of farming. But experiment showed them to be the very best for our own soil; and indeed it was from experiment on that soil that they were composed. Another circumstance disinclining us to a large trade, was the poor accommodation, in the way of buildings and power, at the old farm steading. These, in the spring, were often found so inadequate for the farm supply alone, that shortly after the fire, it was determined to transfer the works to the new farm buildings, where power was abundant. The accounts are given below. Up till the end of 1871 they show a net profit of ^467 ; but the sale of the estate in that year necessitated a forced sale of the remaining stock, which reduces this profit to about £234. Brief Abstract of the Manure Works' Balance Sheets" FROM Dec, 1865, till 1872-3, 1866. 1865. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 187J-3. Stock in Buildings, Machinery, Manures, Manures, &c.. Purchased, Rail Carriage, &c.. Wages, Engine Power, Field Experiments, Building, &c.. Sundries, . £ 19.80 1922 ^k 126 83 2 4138 4202 £ 1442 1769 137 III 269 £ i69 1335 769 70 67 IS 13 £ 265 180 1 183 61 60 4 £ 260 213 705 1484 126 89 "S5 23 24 £ 230 'J^ 691 1288 128 90 30 £ 210 154 495 60 8 54 "26 Total Expenditure, Total Receipts, . 37SI 3604 2438 2554 2356 2480 '2979 3146 2636 2780 1007 774 Loss, . . ' . Profit, . '64 147 lie 124 ihy 144 233 MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. 1 87 A Flax Scutching Mill. The figures of 1866 are defective; buildings and machinery not being then included, and stock taking being but a rough estimate; 60 tons of dissolved bones were valued at about - selling price, and the January following shows a loss. This, however, is partly due to the Liverpool mishap of ^^250 before referred to (which is in the above included in the sundries line for 1867). After 1869 it is noteworthy that in this department an attempt was made to reduce the fixed stock, the buildings and machinery being valued in 1872 at ^108 less than in 1869. The stock of manures was also less towards the end, experience having taught us to arrange our purchases better. Thus in 1872 it was only one-fourth what it was in 1866, but still quite large enough to cause a considerable loss in clos- ing the business. The stock of manures realised, however, more than 80 per cent, of the valuation price : but the machinery brought less; and the after-expenses of wages, etc., all combined to produce a loss of ;^ 233 on closing the business. This, however, still leaves a profit over the whole seven years of;^234; thus placing the manure business second of the three paying departments of the establishment. The detailed balance-sheet for the whole period is given in page 867. VII. Steam Plough. — Of this nothing need be said, Chapter IV. having very fully dealt with it. VIII. Flax Mill. — Soon after Mr. Lawson began farm- ing, a friend of his — a linen manufacturer — proposed that he should grow flax straw, and made him very liberal offers for good crops. He also advised his starting a scutching mill. This, however, was delayed till the crop itself should be tried. The flax obtained the first year was very fair, being grown under the superintendence of the gardener, who had had some previous experience of it in Ireland. It was, in con- sequence, decided in 1866 to investigate the question of manufacturing, and the chemist was sent over to Ireland in February that he might inspect and advise as to the best machinery, the method of steeping, &c. After seeing 1 88 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Midnight Assault. through some of the town and country mills near Belfast, and visiting Friedlander's flax mill at Knockcloughrim, county Derry, he advised the purchase of three of Fried- lander's machines, at a, cost of about ;£^6o. Rettories in which to steep the flax were also constructed at a cost of about ;^ 1 80, these being dug at such a level as at once to receive the rain water from some of the roofs, and at the same time to be drainable into the liquid manure tanks. Some 200 pamphlets on flax-growing were now obtained from the N. E. Agricultural Association of Ireland and dis- tributed among the neighbouring farmers, accompanied by a notice offering from £•] to ;£2o an acre^ or from 3d. to gd. per stone for the flax straw. In July an Irish scutcher arrived from Knockcloughrim ; and under his directions part of the Dutch barn was boarded off, and the scutching mills got in gear; and all was in readiness to start by the time the straw was steeped and grassed. At first all went well; but soon a difference of opinion arose. The flaxman thought his flax the most important thing about the place, and the farm bailiff did not ; and when the flax had to be lifted out of the rettories, and hands and horses were required from the farm bailiff, he did not facilitate the work. Thus the business did not flourish ; and the end of the first, year showed a loss of ;^ 6 1 18s. 3d. This difficulty grew more unsatisfactory, till in June, 1867, the flaxman was discharged at the instance of the farm bailiff. The flaxman, now that his day was over, *aylaid the bailiff, one night about 1 1 p.m. at a place where a small stream crossed the road, near a ISrge tree which cast a deep gloom on the road beneath, rendering the place peculiarly favourable for an assault The details of that encounter at the stream were never known with certainty, as the farm bailiff and the Irish- man gave different accounts. The flax business did not recover, and the end of the , second year showed a loss of ;^i43. The scutching was now done entirely by Cumberland hands, chiefly women, who had picked up the business with great aptitude. In the following year, with a new farm bailiff, things improved a little, but the business had now a bad name, and it was rather neglected. The MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. 1 89 A Starch Mill Wanted. loss for 1869 was, nevertheless, only ^43; but it was decided to give up the manufacture ; and scutching was con- tinued into 1870, only to use up the stock of flax straw already on hand; but after 1869 no more straw was pur- chased. The accounts, which were finally closed in 1870, show a total loss of ^^330 over the five years. Dr. FLAX WORKS. Balance Sheet, from 1865 to 1871. Cr. To Flax Tanks, &c. (From Land and Buildings Account);^268 o o „ Flax Straw bought, 400 i 5 J „ Wages, 304 8 i „ Chemicals, 5 7 10 „ Machinery, 31 II loj „ Travelling Expenses, 3 17 2 ,, Railway Carriage, 26 5 gj ,, Advertising, - 096 ,, General Expenses, 11 II 3 ;^I05I 12 lij By Sales of Scutched Flax, ■ -;f32i i8 4* ,, Do. Linseed, - 145 4 0* ,, Stock on hand, 145 16 „ Loss by Fire, charged General P. & L. Account, 107 17 ,, Balance being loss, 330 17 64 /■1051 12 "i IX. Starch Manufacture was the last new business we undertook: and as it was begun under the compulsion of circumstances, it was with great unwillingness that we started our farina or starch mill. The case stood thus: in 187 1 we had 100 acres of potatoes,. of a probable value of nearly ^£'2000, and which, early in August, showed unmistakable signs of being much diseased. Anxious co-operators who, the year previous, had tasted ;^io of bonus money, walked over the farm, and, pulUng up the potato tops in different parts, counted the diseased roots and the good ones. Dis- mal tales were circulated of three-fourths being diseased; which, with the already heavy blow of the great fire the same autumn, made the prospects of another bonus poor indeed. Parliaments and councils talked the matter over, and starch mills were mentioned as a profitable way by which the healthy portions of the diseased potatoes could be utilised; but the nearest mill was eighty miles away, and -Qt. per ton for railway carriage exceeded the price offered at the mills. Enquiries were then made as to the cost of a starch mill, and TQO TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Difficulties with the Diseased Potatoes. j£4o being mentioned, it was finally decided to send the chemist north to inquire into the matter. From Glasgow- he reported that ;!^iSo at least would be necessary for the proper machinery, but that ;^2o of this might be saved by the immediate purchase of a second-hand machine then offering in Glasgow. When, however, he returned, the price seemed to have damped the council, and Mr. Lawson had gone from home. As the offer required a speed y answerhe followed Mr. Lawson next day, and induced him to make the purchase the same night by telegram. For working a starch mill we had already numerous advantages, which dispensed with nearly half the cost. Water-power and wash-water were abundant, and of old iron piping, shafting, and pulleys from the irrigation and flax works, there was nearly as much as would be required. A kiln was, also, . already built, and the large flax ti^nk was admirably suited for a pulp holder. Indeed but for these facilities it may be safely said we should never have ventured' on this enterprise. A Glasgow gentleman (Mr. John Dalglish) who had greatly improved many processes of the farina manufacture in Scotland, took an interest in our co-operative farm, and very kindly came, and not only gave freely the best of his experience, but planned the greater part of the gearing ; and when the manufacture proved much more difficult and deli- cate than we had anticipated, but for his continued kindness we should have been at a standstill more than once. It was late in September before the order was given for the machinery : nevertheless work was begun before the end of October. But by this time many of the potato heaps had already heated, and sunk in the centre to a black rotten mass. The crop, also, proved short of our expectations; and instead of 500 or 600 tons, only about 300 tons were furnished by the 100 acres. An attempt was made to purchase some diseased potatoes for the starch. mill; but Cumberland being principally a turnip county, only some four tons were obtained. Then followed the sale of the estate, which, of course, meant only one year's trial of the farina mill; and the workers were further assured that it MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. I9I The Starch Mill Machinery. would not show a profit, by the council's voting ;£j per ton as the price to be credited to the farm for all diseased potatoes, good, bad, or indifferent ; although 8s. per ton was the price being paid at the regular mills in Scotland. The machinery and apparatus worked well, and attracted many visitors; who were generally most interested in the shaker, a machine in which a long heavy sieve was shaken backwards and forwards 130 times a minute, sliding so as to strike its iron-shod ends against the iron-bound frame : the noise near it was deafening, which seemed the great source of attraction to the visitors. Another part of the machinery which attracted much notice, was the large churn, ten feet in diameter and six feet deep, where the impure farina was churned up with some chemicals and water, and then washed with pure water repeatedly till white enough. To save expensive gearing, the vertical shaft of this churn was driven by a twisted belt from a horizontal shaft, a device planned by our clerk, who had formerly been one of our steam plough enginemen. It was always a puzzle to the natives why the belt did not fall off the large horizontal pulley. The kiln mentioned was in connection with the gas-house; and though at first it promised well, it proved very slow in action, and delayed us much. The first cwt. of dried farina was a nine .days' wonder, being visited by all the curious of the neigh- bourhood ; and the croakers and prophets of evil were by it almost silenced ; but not wholly so, until receipt of the first cheque for a sale of nearly ;£z°°- Only 24 tons of farina, were obtained from the 290 tons of diseased potatoes pulped; perhaps four or five tons more might have been extracted, but that the sale of the estate and machinery prevented our making the latter as complete as it ought to have been, and also made us hurry the manufacture. The whole business shows a loss of ^307, about ;£'iSo of which is due to the sale of the new machinery by valuation, only ;^62 having been allowed for jQ\^^ of new machinery, and a very considerable amount of old machinery and cast- iron piping. Under all these disadvantages, and with only a first year's experience, but little can be said as to the profitableness of 192 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Minor Departments. this business. With more experience, a higher quality of farina could have been obtained, and the working expenses would have been much reduced. STARCH MILL. Balance Sheet from Oct., 1871, to June, 1872. Dr. To Machinery & Oil,;^i90 16 8 ,, Buildings, . . 4 o 84 „ Cement, . . 040 „ Potatoes, . . 323 16 S „ Chemicals, . 216 „ Wages, . . 73 7 6 „ Travelling Expenses, 2 12 10 „ Cartage, . . 32 10 3 ,, Bags, . . 16 6 o ,, Coal, . . 24 16 5 ,, General Account, 61 60 ,, Sale Expenses, . o i8 8J jf732 17 o Cr. By Sales of Starch, . ;^3S3 11 o ,, ,, Brock, . I I o ,, Starch-Cart Sold, 500 ,, Sundries, . . 3 12 4 ,, Machinery trans- ferred to Land & Buildings Account, 62 2 9 „ Balance, being Loss, 307 911 /732 17 o X.^The Minor Departments of our establishment included the joiner's shop, the smith's shop, the gas works, and the store room ; all of which subdivisions were made in 1867; the separation being to faciHtate the apportioning of their cost against each of die larger departments. The loss shown by them should, therefore, really be charged against the other departments; in the proportions, say, of ;^8o to the farm, ;^8o to the steam plough, ^^40 to land and buildings, and the odd ;^i 7 to die manure works. The joiner's shop usually kept two men busy, and some- times more, especially when cottages were being built. The smithy kept one man at work, and another half his time; though, when the steam engines were at home, it was no uncommon thing to see four or five all busy over the iron. The gas works were generally managed by the man who assisted in the smithy. They supplied gas not only to the farm, but to the village, which was distant about one-third of a mile to the east At first, the villagers in general wel- comed it ; but when their quarterly gas bills were presented, MANUFACTURING PROFITS AND LOSSES. 1 93 The Flax Shoves make bad Gas. many of them stoutly denied having burnt so much (the meter, notwithstanding), and many of them went back to candles, finding it easier to pay id. occasionally for a dim light, than 3s. or 4s. qiiarterly for a good one. The chemist was at one time the occasion of an amusing incident in connection with the gas supply. He had advised atrial of flax shoves, for gas making, these shoves being quite useless for any purpose whatsoever. Accordingly, the gasman wheeled in a quantity of shoves to the gas-house; and was delighted to find them make gas so quickly, the gas holder filling in a few hours. But when the villagers began to light up their houses, after the first few seconds of good gas (from that previously in the pipes), the lights speedily turned blue; and for that night, at any rate, candles were brighter than gas light. These shoves were the refuse woody matter of the flax straw obtained in the scutching process ; but being deficient in oily matter, the gas was quite wanting in the heavier hydro-carbons, and burned with a blue flame, like that of a spirit lamp. The price charged for our gas was 6s. 8d. per 1000 feet; but it did not pay us at this price, a result due chiefly to the smallness of the demand : as the same expense of manufac- ture, and the same size of piping would Aave sufficed for a very much larger consu-mption. MINOR DEPARTMENTS. Balance, Sheet from 1867 to 1872. Dr. Cr. To Wood from Land and iiuildmgs, ;^28 o Iron, . . 283 19 2 Wood, . . 226 10 S* Paint, Varnish, Oil, &c., . 17 8 9 Coal, . . 117 6 8 Gas, . . 91 II Wages, . 976 3 8 Railway Carriage, 21 16 "i General Expenses, 81 19 2 Sale Do., 39 3 £l^6s 16 o By work done and ma- terials sold, /Si 372 10 o , , Gat consumed and fittings sold, . 166 17 3 , , Transfer to Land & Buildings Ac- count, . . 800 ,, Stock on hand, . o 13 6 „ Balance being loss, 217 ij 3 .;^i76s 16 o 194 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Management of the Newcastle Shops. CHAPTER XII. Shopkeeping and oTHEk Ventures. XI. The Newcastle Shop. — A previous chapter contains a sufficient history of this business, and but little need be added here, except a few details of the annual sales. Some Details of the Newcastle Business. House Property, Cattle, &c.. Purchased, Milk from Blennerhasset, Vegetables ,, Wages, 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. £££££,££, 625 .. .. 31 30 18 .. 80s 837 376 .. 66 18 73 Rates and Taxes, . . . 24 411 8 . . 29 Stock (including House), 768 761 705 710 600 600 630 Rents Received, . . 23 15 39 36 41 44 34 Sales 818 1004 Loss, .... 415 15 54 .. 112 8 Profit, S .. .. 54 The first two years show a perfect fever of trade. Not content with the shop on our own property in Pine Street, another was taken in the market, and the trade pushed to considerable loss. However, after two years of this, but for the property we had purchased there, we should have given up the business. As it was, we tried a new plan, giving the shopman ;^6o of capital, on which he was to trade, and pay rent, wa^es, and profit. On this new basis the next year showed a loss of £sAi ^^^ ths year after (just when we had decided to let the shop) a profit of £<,. We, however, closed the business : and the figures after 1869, refer wholly to the house property; the ;^ii2 loss of 1870 being due to a reduction of ;^iio on the previous high valuation oi £^^o. . SHOPKEEPING AND OTHER VENTURES. 1 95 The Carlisle Shop a heavy Loss. The charges in the first line of ;£3i, &c., for the house property, were paid to the town authorities for paving; so that the property cost us, on the whole, ^^704; but we eventually sold it, in 1872, for ^£630. The property, besides the shop, contained dwelling houses; hence the item of rents appear for every year. When we let the shop in 1869, the tenant seemed a decent painter and paper-hanger; and consequently, we were aston- ished, some months afterwards, to learn from an anonymous letter, that our tenant had made the shop into a public-house. We made immediate inquiries, and found that he indeed sold beer, but that it could not be called a public-house. We, however, gave him notice to quit, but neglected to enforce it at the proper time, and I rather think he is there yet. NEWCASTLE SHOP AND PROPERTY. Dr. Balance-Sheet from 1866 to 1872. Cr. To Cost of Buildings, ;,f 704 9 loj „ Cattle, Sheep, & Pigs, in 1866-7, 1,641 10 li „ Milk in 1866, 376 6 2i ,, Butter in 1866, 5 S 6 ,, Vegetables in 1867, 66 i 10 ,, Wages for 1866-7, 91 " 2 „ Travelling Expenses, 18 19 7 ,, Railway Carriage, 62 17 6 „ Rent, Rates, & Gas, 76 7 4 ,, Sundries, . 218 o 5 ;£'3,26i 9 6i By Sales in 1866- 7,;£'i, 821 10 6 „ Rents, . . 243 3 loi ,, Sale of Pony and Cart, . . 14 10 , o ,, Sale of Shop Fix- tures, . . 7 15 o ,, Sale of Property, 630 o o ,, Balance, being Loss, . . 544 ro 2 £3,261 9 6i XII. The Carlisle Shop is but a repetition of the New- casrie shop. It, also, was begun as an outlet for our milk, cattle, and vegetables; and was soon put on an independent basis, with a floating capital of ^^50. At first pure milk was its " specialite," and a very good trade was done; but the cattle trade was mismanaged; and latterly neither the milk, the vegetables, nor the meat, were any credit to us. The balance-sheet shows a total loss of ;^2oo— more than half of which belongs to 1867. It was closed in 1868: but for 1869 it shows a profit of ;£'33, the result of the recovery of several bad debts. 196 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Blennerhasset Shop alone proves rrofitable. CARLISLE SHOP. Dr. Balance-Sheet from 1866 to 1869. Cr. By Sales, . . ;f 1,258 14 ,, Stock on hand, 2 i „ Balance, being ^ ^ Loss, . 200 17 To Fixtures, . ' £^A 2 24 ,, Pony and Cart, 10 ,, Floating Capital, 50 „ Cattle, Sheep, & Pigs, 947 1 2 „ Milk, 277 IS 3 „ Butter, 4 3 5 „ Potatoes and Gar- den Produce, . 41 II 2i „ Wages,' 1867, . II 10 „ Rent, Rates, and Taxes, 78 8 5 ,, Railway Carriage, 9 6 6 „ Milk Barrels, . 5 10 2 „ Collecting Accounts, 1 3 3 „ General Account, I I 6 7 ,461 13 I ;^I,46l 13 I XIII. The Blennerhasset Shop business has been already referred to in a previous chapter. It was always rather a pet with Mr. Lawson; and its short-comings (;£^io5 the first three years) were patiently endured. Our critics frequently said we could not keep a shop; and before 1870 it was true: for, though 1867 showed a profit, it was a doubtful one; But 1870 cheered our hearts with an undoubted profit of about ^2; 1871 a profit of;^24; and 1872, £^6: — demonstrat- ing conclusively that We could keep one. This shop was tried under three different storekeepers, the two latter of whom were elected by universal suffrage. The present shop- keeper, however, and the one who has made it pay, would have been put in, two years earlier, but for universal suffrage. The balance sheet shows a loss of .^^43, all of which occurred in 18^8 and 1869; its progress, since, being one of uninterrupted prosperity. For the size of the village, it has done a large business, the sales amounting to nearly ;£^ 5,000. This business, as has been already mentioned, has been made into a limited liability concern; which pays "]% per cent, to its shareholders; and besides, a bonus on all pur- chases, irrespective of membership. It is still flourishing. SHOPKEEPING AND OTHER VENTURES. The People ask for a Shop at Ireby. 197 Dr. To Stock, . . £^2 ,, Goods bought, 4,692 „ Wages, . . in ■ ,, TravelUng Ex- penses on two years, . ,, Railway Car- riage, . . 43 , , Rent "and Gas, 50 „ Coal, . . 3 ,, Licenses, . 5 ,, Fixtures, . 5 ,, General Account, 29 10 ,, Investment Scottish Co- operative Wholesale Society, . 25 o ,, Sundry Credit- ors, . . 234 15 BLENNERHASSET SHOP. Balance Sheet from 1866 to 1872. Cr. 9 34 14 10 I 9 21 8 II £$,264 14 si By Sales and Dis- counts, . ;^4,95o 5 „ Sundry Debtors 234 15 ,, Value of Shares in Scottish Co-operative Society, . 25 o ,, Accumulated Dividends & Interest in the above, . . 114 being Balance, Loss, 43 9 7 ;^5,264 14 si XIV. The Ireby Shop. — When the balance sheets of 1867 showed an apparent profit of ;^2o on the Blennerhas- set shop, the shop party revived; and though the Newcastle and Carlisle branches showed, that same year, a loss of _;^is and ;^i03, yet a motion was brought before the parliament " that we should extend our shopkeeping business." This motion was, however, negatived by 25 votes against 9. The question was then carried to Ireby, a village near Mr. Lawson's former Prior Hall estates; and where, in 1864 and 1866, he had held two co-operative meetings. On Monday, June 15th, 1868, he held a meeting, at which it was proposed " That it is desirable that Mr. Lawson open a shop in Ireby." It was opposed by the village schoolmaster, and by Messrs. Hunter and Tiffin from Blennerhasset, who advocated a co-operative store by the people themselves. The meeting, however, adopted the motion by a majority of 22. Eleven candidates were nomi- nated the same evening for the office of storekeeper, and 198 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Election of the Ireby Shopkeeper by Ballot. their respective merits were discussed at a meeting called on the following Saturday. Four of these withdrew at this meeting, and another candidate was added, making eight now in the field. Meantime Mr. Lawson had declared that the election would be by ballot, and the suffrage uni- versal. Brisk canvassing followed, between Saturday and the following Monday; when the vote was taken in a crowded meeting, made up to a great extent of people who had come only to see; as the total poll numbered only 36. At the head of the poll was Mr. Johnston, already a very successful shopkeeper, with the largest business in Ireby. Mr. Lawson found, however, that he could not get him to work at a cheap enough rate, and accordingly the next on the list was appointed. Before July was out, about ;^8o worth of goods had been purchased ; and by the end of the year the sales had amounted to j£^5°i 3-iid the stock being valued at £^5, a profit of j^4 was declared. This, under Mr. Lawson's co-operative system of that year, could not go as a dividend on purchases; but went with the general business profits ; all of which over 2j^ per cent, (for interest) were to be spent on public uses. Some grumbling followed when the profit was declared, and none of it went as a bonus to purchasers. Next year the business was pushed largely, the butter trade being gone into; but the result was unfavourable, showing a loss of _;^52. This doomed the whole shop trade ; which, except in Blenner- hasset, was soon balanced up and concluded. The detailed balance-sheet of Ireby is given below : — IREBY SHOP. Dr. Balance-Sheet from 1868 to 1869. Cr. To Goods Purchased, ;^40 1 7 3I „ Wages, . . 22 16 8 ,, Railway Carriage, i 6 54 ,, License, . . 079 , , General Account, 209 ;^427 i8 Hi By Sales, . .;^338 9 &i ,, Goods transferred to Blennerhasset Shop, . . 40 18 o| „ Balance, being Loss, 48 11 2J ;^427 18 iii XV. Cottage Property. — When Mr. Lawson built the new farm-steading, all the out-buildings of the original stead- SHOPKEEPING AND OTHER VENTURES. 1 99 The Cost of our Cottages. ing became unoccupied; and, as most of these buildings faced the main road through Blennerhasset village, it was resolved to make some of them into cottages. The first lot, when finished, was speedily inhabited, and, in consequence, we built many more ; a few, new from the foundation, but the great majority out of the old stables, byres, and barns. Some of these were built as late as 1870 j and as the old buildings were never separately valued, it is difficult to give a statement of the worth of this property for each year. The subjoined statement, however, gives the valuations adopted, and the amount expended in building each year. Both these items are given for 1865 and onwards ; but rents, &c., only after 1867, when this account was separated from that of Land and Buildings. COTTAGE PROPERTY ACCOUNTS. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. ££££££££ Estimated Value, . H59 1934 1958 3440 2871 2922 2749 2900 Building and Repairs, 240 794 24 605 135 105 48 i General Account, . 4 14 l8 13 5 Rents, . . . 99 148 177 306 40 Sundries, . . . 7 Loss, . . 51 Profit, ... 117 87 4 33 It is probable, from the amount of the first-given valuation, and the building expenditure of that year, that about ^900 was the estimated value of the old farm buildings thus utilised. In the above statement, the profit of 187 1 stands at only ;£'4, but it was in reality, ^£124. The difference is due to a reduction of the valuation by ;^i2o; the necessity for which reduction, arose from the high figure at which they were first valued in 1868. Only five cottages were built new from the foundations ; and four of these, the west-end cottages, as they were called, may serve as a sample of the cost of our cottages. They were built in 1866 in one row; and contained three rooms and a kitchen, all of fair size and finish. The cost in 1866 was_;^475, or ^118 iss. each; but out-houses were afterwards added, so that by 1870 they averaged ^^132 7s. TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Baptism of " Tullochgorum Row." each. These cottages were always in good demand; and 2S. 6d. per week was generally obtained for them ; a return equalling almost exactly 5 per cent. The rentals of the cottages varied from is. 6d. per week for the smallest, to 2s., 2s. 2d., and, once or twice, 2S. 6d., for those of three rooms and a kitchen. But the best year — 1871 — did not yield a clear profit of 4^ per cent, on the estimated capital. Cottage gardens were at first prohibited: but about 1868 the weekly parliament passed a resolution in their favour; and Mr. Lawson assenting, a field was divided off into plots of about 300 square yards. These were let to the cottagers for 6s. 4d. each, annually. The naming of the cottage rows was a difficult business. At first, indeed, they were left unnamed ; but one row being baptised "Tullochgorum Row" by one of our chief critics, with some disparaging remarks, the name was adopted, and the others were soon afterwards named too ; — some from the name of a previous proprietor or tenant, some from their position, and one row after the controlling agent, in whose reign they were built. But of Tullochgorum Row more remains to be told. The author of the name was, at the time of its baptism, comfortably housed in a nice cottage, a little way out of the village; and as chief of "the opposi- tion," he frequently and severely criticised our system of cottage letting, and declared that he would on no account ever become a tenant of Mr. Lawson's. But circumstances compelled him to vacate his nice cottage, and no other place being convenient, he was glad to take a house in Tullochgorum Row. Cottage property stands as one of the four paying depart- ments, out of the seventeen into which, for convenience, we sub-divided the business or rather businesses. The balance-sheet given below is for only four years; during which a profit was realised of ;^ 189, or less than 2 per cent, per annum. But to get at what the cottages really paid, 1868 should be omitted, as it was only a nine months' finan- cial year; and the separation of the accounts was not then as perfect ,as afterwards. The reduction of valuation in SHOPKEEPING AND OTHER VENTURES. The American Investments. 1871 should also be omitted as due to earlier causes. Ex- cluding also as unfairly favourable, the ;£^33 of profit made in 1872, we find that the three years, 1869-70-71, made a clear profit of ;^329, on an annual valuation of ^£'2, 847, or about ;£s 1 9s. per cent, per annum. The gross rental (including 1868) averaged ^^7 2s. 8d. per cent; so that four or five per cent, net should be easily obtained on such cottage property. COTTAGE PROPERTY. Balance-Sheet from 1868 TO 1872. By Rents, PR. To value of Property in 1868 (from Land and Build- ingsAccount),;^2,440 o o ,, Repairs and' Re- newals, . . 872 12 3 ,, General Account, S3 '^ ^ ,, Reduction of Val- uation in 1871, 120 13 2 ,, Balance, being Profit, . . 189 18. 2i Sundries, . Value of Pro- perty in 1872 (to Land and Buildings Ac- count), . >^77o 6 Cr. 6 oi 14 I 2,900 o o ;^3.677 o 14 /3.677 o 14 XVI. The American Investments department is the pro- fitable one. Its commencement and purpose has been already explained in a previous chapter in connection with the auc- tion mortgage. The balance sheet shows a profit of ;^i,i69; though there were heavy expenses in starting it, mortgaging the estate, &c. AMERICAN INVESTMENTS. Dr. Balance Sheet from 1869 to 1872. Cr. By Interest, . . ^^768 14 7 ,, Amount withdrawn to Private Ac- count, . . 5,412 4 II ,, Stock (representing value of present Investments), 21,095 '9 2 To Investments, ;^25,6s8 5 ,, Commission, 42 19 4 „ Cost of Mortgage in 1870, . 286 13 4 ,, Legal Expenses, . 14 10 I ,, Interest, 10 10 ^ „ Income Tax, 9 19 „ American Agent, 78 ,, General Account, 6 8 6 ,, Balance, being Profit, . I 169 13 2 ;^27 276 18 8 ;^27,276 i8 8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. StatemeDt of the Interest Account. XVII. Interest. — The statement given below shows ;^2,i6i i6s. 4d. of Interest against us. Much of this was incurred in 1866, when we had some ;^9,ooo borrowed from the bank; on which sum, for a few months at any rate, we had to pay 10 per cent. This was at the time of a severe commercial crisis, when the Bank of England rate was raised to 10 per cent. Dr. Interest Account from 1862 to 1872. To Current Ac- counts, ' . ,, Mortgage In- terest, . Cr. ;^I,8SI 12 3i 1,105 9 10 ;^2,957 2 li By Current Ac- counts, . ■ £1^1 9 7i „ Mortgage on Prior Hall Estate, 596 1 8 ,, Loan, . . 79 16 8 ,, Investments, . I 17 10 ,, Balance, . 2,161 16 4 ;^2,957 2 li WHAT OUR NEIGHBOURS THOUGHT OF US. 203 Criticisms sought from Nine Neighbours. CHAPTER XIII. WHAT OUR NEIGHBOURS THOUGHT OF US. [As we had no objection "to see ourselves as others saw us,'' and, indeed, were willing to believe that a knowledge of the impression our proceedings made upon others, might be instructive to us; we asked many of our old critics and opponents to give us this information on their part. But we found most of them unwilling; and indeed but three letters were the total resijlt of nine invitations. At one time we had in view to give in detail an exact and more minute history of our doings and sayings. This it has been found undesirable to attempt, chiefly because of the immensity of the task, and the " blue-book style" of the probable result. We have, however, given more of our practical farming facts than was then intended. The following letters, though brief, will at least serve to show both sides of many features of our proceedings, and help thoughtful readers, to a juster estimate, both of our deeds and of our difficulties. The first letter is from Mr. Lawson's first farm bailiff, who left in the autumn of 1866. The second is from his third Blennerhasset bailiff, between February, 1868, and the sale of the estate ; and who had previously been farm bailiff at Prior Hall for three years. The third received was from a neighbouring tenant farmer ; but being to the same efiect, and going over much the same ground as the other two, it is omitted. C. D. H.] Letter I.* " In reply to your note requesting my opinion on Mr. Lawson's Co-operative and Farming experiments on his Blennerhasset and Prior Hall estates, I must say that I feel * These Letters were addressed to Mr. Hunter. 204 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Uselessness of the Councik and Meetings. / it to be rather a delicate undertaking. However, as I hold •that no man's opinion is of much value who is afraid to express it, I shall give mine in my own way, conscious that not only shall I oppose the views of Mr. Lawson himself, but also those of a great number of so called scientific farmers. " First, then, as regards Co-operation. I must confess I could never understand how that could be called co-oper- ation, where all the capital was invested by the proprietor. But then you tell me, 'Labour is Capital.' I grant this; but the question forces itself upon me — -How much extra labour was executed by each individual operative upon the farm, over and above the quantity daily stipulated for? If none was expected or none yielded, there was no two-sided co-operation. " It was always urged, ' brain work is superior to manual labour.' Undoubtedly. But; I ask, was all the advice ten- dered, the plans proposed, the arguments resorted to, the suggestions thrown out ; in a word, do the results prove that all the brain power employed at the weekly meetings held for years, led to any practical money result? In my view, no. I am aware that a wise man has said, ' In the multi- tude of counsellors there is wisdom;' but after all much depends upon whether the counsellors are competent for their office.* " For instance, here was a motley mixture of boys, girls, women, and men ; of all trades and no trade or profession ; indiscriminately drawn together into a council chamber, for the purpose of discussing and deciding upon the most im- portant subjects regarding farming operations; though eight- tenths of them were quite ignorant and inexperienced regard- ing farming operations. I ask, how do they act? It may be a question of thousands of pounds — no matter to them; what do they care ? — they have nothing invested, therefore • (The writer of the omitted letter^entioned puts this observation in this form — "Solomon says, 'in the multitude of counsellors there is safety,' but this maxim does not hold good on a model farm." Solo- mon, who followed more attractive piursuits than farming, probably never expected that his maxim would be appUed to agricijture.)--- G. J. H. WHAT OUR NEIGHBOURS THOUGHT OF US. 205 Wherein Mr. Lawson began Well. can lose nothing. I ask again, how do they act? Just as they are carried away by the prejudice or excitement of the moment. The vote of the meeting is taken, and of course the vote of the most ignorant and inexperienced counts equally with that of the wisest and most judicious man in the assem- bly. In this alone I can see sufficient cause for failure. Had Mr. Lawson secured an intelligent practical agricul- turist, who would have gone in with him for high farming ; and been guided by his advice, he would have saved not only the yearly bonus, but much, very much money which was voted away besides, without any return in the working of the co-operative system at Blennerhasset. " Second, as to the farming. There are many things which, in my view, were sure to lead to failure in the end ; but I will only name a few : and before I do this, allow me to say Mr. Lawson in many instances went the right way to work ; for instance, in thoroughly draining and liming all the land, taking down all the old broad earth fences, clearing his land of boulders and trees, manufacturing artificial manures, putting in good roads all through his farms, buying up the best Shorthorn (though not pedigree) cattle, near calving or newly calved, and as soon as they began to milk, feeding them for the butcher ; also selling all his new milk to huck- sters, and feeding the young stock for the shambles.from the time they were calved. All these things showed, to my mind at least, that by patient perseverance the farm would have paid well ; but getting too many irons in the fire all at once, spoiled the welding heat. " It was a great mistake getting the steam plough and grubber too soon ; yes, years too soon. All the land ought to have been drained and levelled, every boulder taken out; every large tree root completely stubbed up ; and good metal roads made all through the farm, before ever one puff of steam was raised at ' Mechi.' During the first years of the steam plough she tried to do her work, but the expenditure in men and boys' wages, horse labour, coals, oil, breakages, and STOPPAGES (which were not merely of daily, but almost hourly occurrence), must have been very great. This, to a great extent, would have been saved, had all been fitly prepared 2o6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Mistakes with Irrigation, Water-power, and Cattle. for her coming. Steam cultivation is proving itself to be the right thing everywhere, but only after the land is properly laid out for it, will it pay at all. " Another mistake was irrigation from manure tanks. The loss here was not merely in the machinery and fittings for applying the liquid, but also through laying valuable cattle on open wooden flooring (in order to convert all the dung into liquid), where so many valuable animals were sacrificed. Counting, then, the money value of the cows and calves, the force pump, tanks, pipes, hose, labour, turbine wheel, pit, head-race and tail-race, &c., in connection with this concern, we find it a complete loss ; for a very little best Peruvian guano and nitrate of soda, with a mixture of home- made bone manure, would have produced after every mowing plenty of Italian grass, and saved all the outlay above described. " I am of opinion that a small steam-engine would have done all the thrashing, grinding, pulping, straw and hay cutting, and saved all that the turbine wheel and water courses cost. The sheep-shed, io a farmer, was a dead loss; for it is abundantly proved that' sheep do best in the open field. " Another mistake, in my opinion, was giving up feeding cattle, sheep, and pigs. The plan at ^ first adopted by Mr. Lawson showed he had got the right idea, had he patiently stuck to it, viz., milking and feeding for fat, &c. But by discontinuing to keep stock, he robbed the land of the very best material (a good muck midden) for producing crops of the very best feeding quality ; for, had good farmyard dung been used, along with artificial manures of his own manu- facture, strength and stimulant would have been combined ; so that on such splendid cropping land as the estates at Blennerhasset and Prior Hall, the yield and quality would have been such as to warrant the keeping of a numerous stock, which, at the good selling prices since prevalent, would have yielded sufficient profit. " Another mistake was the attempt to make all the land on both estates into a garden and nursery. Here there was such a diversity of departments, involving so much horse and WHAT OUR NEIGHBOURS THOUGHT OF US. 207 Letter from the Prior Hall Bailiff. hand labour ; and of necessity causing to be employed a whole host' of gaffers, clerks, managers, and foremen, that these alone would devour the rent of any ordinary farm. " These, then, are some of the things which, in my opinion, proved disadvantageous both to co-operation and farming on the Blennerhasset estate. No doubt, Mr. Lawson has this consolation, that by his endeavour to carry out this scheme, he has blessed many scores of his poorer fellow- creatures. Thomas Bell." Letter II. "I entered the service of William Lawson in. January, 1865 ; and about the middle of February we commenced agricultural operations on the Prior Hall farm, which mea- sured 146 acres, in eight or nine small fields. Mr. Lawson made particular inquiries as to what I thought about the farm, and its value per acre; and after I gave him my opinion, he asked if I could make it pay. I said I could, if he was not too fanciful, as many young gentlemert were. " We soon commenced to lead hme and pull out fences ; and in a short time had the farm arranged in three large fields, so as to be suitable for steam cultivation, which we tried with great success. " Prior Hall is a farm suitable in all respects for steam cultivation. Its soil is strong and loamy, with a good subsoil ; and land suitable for all ordinary kinds of crops, such as wheat, oats, cabbages, hay, leeks, Swede turnips ; and in fact every kind- of crop except onions : but most of it required draining for the finer crops, which we intended to grow. " The second year we commenced to drain, and made a thorough job of it, laying most of the drains five feet deep; and a large amount of money was expended on draining, making roads, and taking out fences. " An engine was quite a new thing so near the Binsey Hill, arid it attracted many ladies and gentlemen from the neigh- bourhood, who all admired our farming operations. " The three jears Mr. Lawson had Prior Hall, he was almost always successful in raising fine crops; the only failure 2o8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Onions and Leeks as Farm Crops. we had being six acres of onions, which were sown in good time, and came away well, until drought came when they all failed : but as we were determined to grow good onions, the crop being in general a profitable one, we made a second attempt on the same land ; but again failed. We had good crops of turnips on the same ground both seasons ; but I would not recommend any one to sow large fields of onions so far up the hills, as we did. We had also two acres of leeks, which were the best crop I ever saw ; the land being well adapted for them: but the difficulty was to find a market. Our crop finally found a' purchaser at ;^i los. an acre, but even at tljis figure he found them unsaleable. " I can recommend cabbages as a profitable crop, and good for feeding lambs as early as August ; which we did with great success. We also grew flax, and had capital crops, but failed to manufacture it successfully. The greater part of the farm was top-dressed with half-inch bones, at the rate of a ton per acre ; and as we wintered a good head of sheep and cattle, at the end of three years the farm was in a high state of cultivation, and quite ready to repay Mr. Lawson his outlay on it. As he was bent on farming, we got possession of Newbiggen and Parkhouse, two neigh- bouring farms ; and as soon as the crops were off the ground we commenced to cultivate these farms by steam power, as we had previously done Prior Hall. " On August ist, 1867, I left the farm to visit Paris, Mr. Lawson having been there for a considerable time. It was the year of the Great Exhibition, when I saw all the places of interest in and around Paris. We also went over the Emperor's Home Farm. Mr. Lawson directed me, on my return to England, to go to Aldershott and see Mr. Black- burn's farm ; and also to Tiptree to Alderman Mechi's. I was there to learn all I could and turn it to account at home. Alderman Mechi was very kind, and showed me everything that could interest me on the farm. I asked him how his cattle did so well standing on the boards, as Mr. Lawson had not been fortuna'te when he did so with his ; but he explained, that as he reared all his young stock on boards, they were accustomed to them, whereas Mr. Lawson had WHAT OUR NEIGHBOURS THINK OF US. 209 Blennerhasset Farm unsuitable for Irrigation. bought stock reared by others, which accounted for the difference. " Mr. Blackburn's manager showed me his mode of irri- gation j and as the land was a sandy soil and very suitable for it, the liquid remaining near the surface, it grew very fine potato and hay crops. I was much interested in his irriga- tion scheme, as we had commenced it at Prior Hall with very good results, having cut Italian ryegrass early in May, weighing above 220 stones per acre; but I am thoroughly convinced now that land, to be suitable for irrigation, must be either very sandy or heavy, and with a good subsoil. ■ " Blennerhasset farm lies in a good position, near the railway, and is quite a model one, having been made almost anew by Mr. Lawson, who thoroughly drained it and culti- vated it well, by means of two powerful steam-engines. I was four years with him on this farm, carrying out his orders ; and, save for some mistakes, which might have been avoided, the result might have encouraged him to be a farmer yet. " The farm, I think, is not suitable for irrigation, the soil being so sharp and gravelly that it cannot hold the liquid, which speedily finds its way down the drains. This is one mis- take we afterwards made on the Blennerhasset Farm ; about a mile of pipes being laid through different parts of the farm, and connected with tanks ; there being only four acres of moss which could be irrigated with good result. I am confident that, from what I saw at Aldershott, and my ex- perience of irrigation on the Prior Hall Farm, this is a cor- rect conclusion with respect to irrigation on the Blennerhasset Farm. " Mr. Lawson, I am certain, would have lost nothing by all his improvements on these estates, as the present rents at which the farms are let, would have paid him well, had he kept them. " One mistake, as I have indicated, was making hquid manure tanks, and laying about a mile of pipes through the farm. Another was made in purchasing old cattle and tying them up on boards; leading to great loss, as all such cattle should have been reared on boards. Making flax tanks at a TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Councils and Meetings. great expense, which were rarely used, was a mistake ; as also was putting up too many buildings for the acreage. These four mistakes, as I think, would cost Mr. Lawson above ^8000; and after putting them all in order, they were laid aside or neglected. "Our chemist attended to the manufacture of the manures, which were good and genuine ; but the nature of the soil, and continual cropping, all combined against them, as did also the want of farm-yard manure. " Mr. Lawson, rich as he was, and surrounded with a multitude of counsellors ; and although he did nothing rashly, yet an)rthing which was strange or out of the ordinary way, he took delight in, and did not believe sufficiently in what he called old-fashioned farming. Had Mr. Lawson com- menced on good strong clay land, he would have been able to carry out his intention of fanning without cattle. I was bound to apply a certain quantity of manures ; which was a difficult task, as it is risky to force wheat or corn, and you are sure to get too much straw. Had his chemical been assisted with farm-yard manures, " Cain" and "Abel" would have had some credit, as they did their parts well. " Mr. Lawson, by building and rebuilding, much improved Blennerhasset village. He also took great interest in the welfare and education of those in the village and neighbour- hood ; and commenced a series of Tuesday evening public meetings, which were well attended by farmers, ministers, and the public. I have sometimes even seen gentlemen from London, Liverpool, and Carlisle attend them ; and I have heard many useful subjects discussed there. These meetings were very entertaining, as the working-classes attended, and brought forward — as any one • had liberty to do — subjects for discussion. Many young men are indebted to these meetings for much of the knowledge they possess ; as the balance-sheets and matters of importance connected with the farm or of public interest were there discussed. " Mr. Lawson's views on co-operation, I think, are good and sound, and he has taken great interest in this movement, delivering many lectures on the subject. He would have done striking good had he fully carried out the branches WHAT OUR NEIGHBOURS THINK OF US. 211 The Main Cause of Mr. Lawson's Non-Success. entered upon ; but as soon as any new scheme was got into working order, it was laid aside ; and, in my opinion, this was the main cause of Mr. Lawson's non-success. Mr. Lawson co-operated with his workers very successfully, all his offers to them being highly appreciated and well ^vrought for ; and the workers were just beginning to have full confidence in their employer, when the establishment was broken up. The class of workers on the farm were quite a superior body, and well worthy of co-operating with. " George Glassbrook." TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Visit to Paris. CHAPTER XIV. THE FRENCH EXCURSION." The successful application of the sewage of towns, for the purpose of promoting the growth of many crops grown by the farmer, is an admitted fact, and Mr. WilUam Lawson was early impressed with the advantages attainable by the adoption of irrigation on the Blennerhasset Farm. The most noted sewage farms of the day were visited by him, as he has stated, and the various systems of apphcation studiedj while no expense was spared, to make the Bleimerhasset Farm Sewage Works as perfect as any that had preceded them. Steam and water-power were both applied, whUe the arrangements for collecting the liquid manure from the farm steading were aU that could be desired. The results, however, were anything but satisfactory;, yet whether from misapplication, unsuitableness of sewage, or soil, or all com- bined, was never, I think, determined. Mr. Lawson's non-success did not, however, destroy his faith in the principle; for, on visiting him at Paris in October, 1867, I found him advocating irrigation as the sine qua non of future farming. He had spent much of the summer in Paris, examining its wonderful exhibition. From the Blen- nerhasset Farm and district, batch after batch of travellers had, by his generous aid and assistance, enjoyed the same advantage. • The excursion here recounted was mainly undertaken with a view of supplementing, if not of superseding, the Blennerhasset Model Farm. As the expenses of the journey appear in the balance-sheet, some particulars of the expedition will be relevant. Being written by a practical farmer, the comparisons of French and English agriculture in it are instructive ; and the impressions of French life and manners made on visitors to the Exhibition in Paris, illustrate the advantages of those visits which Mr. Lawson generously afforded to his neighbours and workers. — G. J. H. THE FRENCH EXCURSION. 213 Proposed Irrigation Farm in France. During Mr. Lawson's loiterings in Paris, he became acquainted with two 'cute, clever Frenchmen ; of a class we have no lack of in England ; who have no faith in hand work, but who depend more on brain than on bone and sinew for a livelihood ; they had evidently a good know- ledge of men and things, and seemed to be no novices in the art of adapting the principles of irrigation to the soil. One of them, a lithe, active young man of some 35 to 40 summers, by far the cleverer of the two, and evidently the prime mover in the affair to be investigated, had discovered a plot of land somewhere in the heart of France, most suit- ably situated for irrigation purposes ; sloping gently from outside to middle, from top to bottom, with a sluggish river, available for every purpose of irrigating the land and driving the required machinery. It seemed, by all accounts, to be a case worth looking into ; and, if found equal to representa- tion, a desirable investment, and a property ready formed by nature for a superior model farm. Plans and specifica- tions were prepared, and the whole process of bupng, draining, building model farm buildings, breaking up, liming, cropping, irrigating, securing crop, and marketing, were discussed. Arrangements were made in due time for visit- ing the place, the services of an eminent agricultural engi- neer were secured, I was invited to accompany the expedi- tion ; and, on the 12th of October, 1867, accompanied by the two Frenchmen, we set out to visit this desirable estate of 800 acres. Co-operation was to be the basis of management, and this perhaps in the true sense of the term; Mr. Lawson to find money, the two Frenchmen the controlling agency. Cain and Abel were to be exported ; and I am inclined to think the steam-plough managers would have winced somewhat under the new directorship, — for the Frenchmen were in a in a few years to become joint proprietors of the estate with Mr. Lawson. We leave Paris, then, by train. Scenes ever new, curious, and interesting, crop up continually. Now a nice, tidy, well- cultivated little farm, with its flock of ewes and newly-dropt lambs ; then a division and sub-division of the land into such 214 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Drawbacks to Good Fanning in France. an infinity of small, badly-managed plots, with no fences for miles, that the wonder to me is how everyone knows his own. This system of cutting up the land, so prevalent in France, is far from being a satisfactory one. With all our disadvantages of soil and climate, laws of primogeniture and entail, and increasing tendency towards larger holdings, statisticians tell us that the- British Isles produce more food for animals than the entire surface of France, though of double the extent. If the comparison is made with England alone, the results are more striking still; for, taking all the pro- ducts, animal and vegetable, into account, we find England, one-fourth the size of France, producing nearly double the amount. Owing to the cultivators of the soil in France being gathered into villages, often far apart; the occupation, of the land being bad, and the small plots often far away from the steading; the deficient means of the cottiers often prevent them from obtaining the necessary implements for proper cul- tivation; whilst the many improvements carried on in thetowns and cities, and the enormous standing armies always kept up, require such hordes of the most stalwart of the population, that labour is even more difficult of attainment than in England, and taxes are very materially augmented. Want of fences necessitates continuous ploughing, and requires the removal of all crops; want of roads often requires the removal of crops and addition of manure to be carried on by hand-labour; and whUe they seem to depend almost exclusively on the production of corn crops, without suffi- ciently considering the exhausting process of such con- tinuous cropping, need we wonder at the deficient pro- duction ? In passing over a bleak, barren, and, to all appear- ances, uninhabited moor, some 50 or 60 miles from Paris, and still about 100 miles from our destination, our French friends tell us it is the district whence we are to expect our best customers for produce. We look out of the carriage window in vain for any signs of life ; but are told that the white rock we see' jutting out here and there is the French' burr, and that in the immediate neighbourhood are immense quarries, where the French burr millstones are THE FRENCH EXCURSION. 21$ How to make a smooth Macadamised Road. manufactured, employing many hands, and causing much traffic. Although the district is very deficient in food-pro- ducing capabilities, it was hard not to be sceptical as to the inhabitants going upwards of loo miles to buy either Italian rye grass or mammoth mangolds. The aspect of the country is generally level, tame, and monotonous ; but in passing along the Vale of the Manie we had occasional glimpses of hill, dale, and varied pros- pects. Along the sunny slopes were dotted pretty-looking whitewashed villages, with extensive vineyards, stretching far as the eye could reach ; and although the grape-gathering season was far advanced, we had one opportunity of seeing a wine-press at work. We were informed that, notwith- standing the many improvements in the mechanical arts, the French generally — nay almost universally — preferred the old-fashioned mode of treading out the juice with the feet, and that it was very rare to find machinery lised for the purpose. After a ride of considerably over a loo miles by rail, we passed the night at a considerable fortified town, surrounded by a moat, and which was entered only by a drawbridge, guarded by soldiers. We hired a cabriolet and pair for the rest of the journey. The road was a good one — what in England we would call turnpike, and which in France is made by Government ; — and here, I think, our highway boards might take a lesson to advantage from the French system ; for instead of patch- ing a little here and a little there, they cover the whole road well with nicely broken metal, pass a ponderous self-pro- pelling steam roller a few times back and forward ; and a good firm, durable, and smooth road, capable of enduring years of hard work, is the result. About two o'clock p.m. we reached the house of a small cottier, where we were to dine. The place was not one of the most inviting; it was, in fact, a mud hovel. Vines, apples, pears, and other fruits, were very plentiful about the neighbourhood; and, being only two miles from our "Land of Goshen," visions of luscious fruits ro^e up in our ima- gination. In the course of a stroll I discovered the river we were to irrigate with; and if the tall reeds and rank 2l6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Proposed Site. grasses growing in its muddy bed were any criterion of its manurial fitness, it augured well for our success. I saw one of the most primitive and cumbersome ploughs I had ever seen, the drawing part resembling the front wheels and shafts of one of our wood waggons. A long beam was fixed to the axle, somewhat similarly to the pole of a waggon; a short, deep mould board and very short stilts, made up this apology for a plough ; which was being used for ridging up wheat land in a very rough and unworkmanlike fashion. An old woman was herding some cattle and sheep on some meadow fog; and as the French generally show the utmost kindness to animals, they show no signs of fear. I caught one of the sheep, only to find its wool of the coarsest, and its bones nearly cutting its skin. The cows were rough, mongrel-bred ones, not superior to our low- class Irish. The house where we dined got wonderfully tidied up, and we all partook of boiled eggs, grapes, pears, apples, nuts, and preserved cherries. After dinner we set out for " the estate : " and after plod- ding on through mire and mud for some time, a short break in a large oak plantation brought us at once to the scene we sought for. And what a sight ! Some 600 acres of water and 200 acres of mire and reeds ! Frogs there were in thou- sands, and fishes, too, I have no doubt, in the water. But how unlike an " El Dorado" now, and what a transformation neces- sary ere the wished-for model farm appears ! The site was really a beautiful one; the fine old oak plantations, completely surrounding it, gave it not only an imposing appearance, but afifprded shelter, which the vines and other fruits would revel in. The soil and subsoil were considered all that could be wished, while the projected improvements and necessary buildings seemed to be all that was required to make it at once a most desirable model farm and a complete success. But where are the necessary labour and building materials? How much will buy up the several mills on our irrigating stream ? Where are our markets for produce ? — It is need- less to inquire further; — for two days we worked out the problem in every conceivable way — we examined inlet and outlet — soil and subsoil — probability and improbability; — THE FRENCH EXCURSION. 21 7 French Cultivation. yet the same result ever comes uppermost, the speculation is not feasible, and we pronounce accordingly. Mr. Lawson's office of interpreter was no sinecure, while the various plans and necessary operations, from purchase of property to sale of crop, were being overhauled. Up to this time,' our active French friend had laboured under a most severe cold ; he had answered question after question until quite hoarse, his whole appearance indicatLog extreme suffering; yet, impelled on by hope, he bore up bravely against all difficulties, until, when our verdict went against him, nature gave way, and a more com.plete collapse I never saw; he was fairly wrecked. Since that time I have often felt thankful that this proposed " exportation" was never executed ; for, when the Franco-German armies, three years after, ravaged the whole neighbourhood of the "swamp," the settlers might have found a market for their produce speedy enough, but far from satisfactory. In this neighbourhood I saw the only solitary attempt at turnip culture. Observing at a distance some sort of crop growing that I could not make out, I proceeded to the place, and found it a miserable attempt to grow turnips. They were sown broadcast on the flat; and having cast in the seed, the owner had evidently thought Nature or Providence would do the rest, for they had evidently never been touched afterwards, the produce being nothing but tops and weeds. In the same field wheat sowing was going on quite extensively. Two ploughs were at work ridging up, each with four horses, one before the other, and a driver to each plough. Another party was busy setting out manure, with large unwieldy two-horse carts, something like the Blennerhasset Farm hay carts. A man at each end of the cart dragged out the manure, a driver attending to the horses. This gave one the idea that the farm must be an extensive one, with no scarcity of either horse or manual labour. I watched the proceedings for some time, and was satisfied that in England we could have put in a greater breadth of wheat in less time, with half the number of men and horses. The harrows were made wholly of wood, and their having wooden teeth implies light and porous soils. 2l8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. French versus English Politeness. In some parts they were busy lifting potatoes, the usual mode being to use drags similar to our manure drags ; — quite a tedious process. Bullocks, ponies, and mules were used, as well as horses, for both ploughing and carting; two, three, or four being used, as the extent of the holding or the means of the occupier permitted ; while many of the small cpttiers were obliged to turn over their plots with a spade, a fork, -or a drag. We saw the drag used one Sunday morning to turn over stubble somewhat dexterously. The want of fences must be a great hindrance to farmers making the most of their land; for depasturing the land amid such an infinity of plots, with different owners, and under different crops, seems altogether out of question. The villages seem to have a sort of common right to grazing land, 'and jointly engage a herd to drive the cattle and pigs out in the morning, watch them during the day, and bring them in at night. During our journey we saw droves going out for the day; and lean, hungry, and miserable looking things they were. In some places, notwithstanding the late- - ness of the season, the farmers were at work with their after- maths or fog. Being unable to eat them where they grow, they mow them and make them into hay. Of course, the continuous cropping often causes a very poor return of fog, especially where the plots are small and badly cultivated. The French people are praised for their politeness and civility, and I think truly ; for I have always found them affable and kind : they often, at great trouble and much inconvenience to themselves, assisted me to find out places I was in quest of, an appeal to them for help never being made in vain. If I had difficulty in making myself understood, the bare men- tion of the word "Anglais" (English) was an "open sesame" to their " heart of hearts." Some say it is more show than sympathy. I have no doubt strangers , generally will prefer such " show" and attention to the sympathy of some of our London police. For instance, on our journey to Paris, as we were leaving Euston Square Station, London, we wished to find our way to Aldersgate ; and meeting with a pohceman, we civilly asked him where it was ; to our great surprise we were gruffly informed that it was " whor it always was." This THE FRENCH EXCURSION. 219 Street Manure of Paris. may be a solitary instance of English incivility: but in France we had only to write .down the name of the place wanted, draw a gendarme's attention to it, and he imme- diately did his best to point it out. Did he not know it, he would draw a book from his pocket, and, having found out the place, would indicate the nearest way to it. In passing through the streets of Paris one day, my atten- tion was drawn to a feature of sewage economy new to us, through the breaking of a cart-axle; — the cart being laden with a sort of manure known by the name of "poudrette," and manufactured in some way from street sweepings and other refuse, and afterwards sold at so much per cubic foot. The market gardeners find it very useful for growing early- potatoes and vegetables generally. The Telegraph, I find, states that, " during the last forty-five years, the yearly refuse of the streets of Paris has risen from _^3,ooo to ;^24,ooo, that being the sum the contractors pay for the street sweepings." The estimate for scavenging the streets of Carhsle for 1867-8, I find is set down at ;^83o, while the sale of manure is estimated only at ;^ 120. Of course the sewers remove much valuable matter, and, when properly applied to the Holme lands below the town, do much good. On my return from Paris, I visited Mr. Blackburn's camp farm near Aldershot ; here I found a plot of Italian ryegrass let for ;^ 2 4 per acre for the season, the said land two years before not being worth twenty-four pence per acre. While in Paris I had many opportunities of seeing that the lower classes were very much dissatisfied with the Emperor. After the principal meal of the day, at six to eight o'clock p.m., we generally had some vocal music, the host as well as some other of the diners being excellent singers. On more than one occasion we had the " Mar- seillaise,'' which had been suppressed by the Emperor. Before our host and his friends dared attempt to sing this hymn, the doors were all closed, and the hostess and ser- vants set to watch that no gendarmes were near. It was then sung with a fervour most astonishing. When the sub- sequent revolution broke out, I found that I had been located right in the midst of the Communists. 220 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Absence of Drunkenness and Squalor. Seeing what an immense amount of poverty and wretched- ness there is in all our large towns in England, I was much gratified to find so little appearance of it in Paris. In fact, the squalor and rags so common with us seemed wholly absent; the nearest approach to poverty I saw being a sort of nondescript rag and refuse gatherer, having a large basket or fruit hamper slung over his shoulders, and a short stick with a hook attached to the end of it in his hand. He went from dust heap to dust heap picking up all sorts of odds and ends, and throwing them dexterously over his shoulders into the basket. Another pleasant feature of Paris every- day life, was the absence of any appearance of drunkenness on the streets. Although I stayed at an hotel, visited a cafd at a late hour, attended a theatre, and was on the streets soon and late, yet I never once saw a drunken man during my stay. What a contrast this to any of our large towns ! Well might the Frenchman say, it was well we were a drunken nation, or we might conquer the world. How- ever, one sad phase of French life, to my mind, was, the great number of soldiers kept throughout France. Go where you would there they were, eating up the very substance of the nation. In many other respects our visit to France was suggestive to us, and brought us advantages which spring from wider knowledge and means of comparison before unknown to us. A Neighbour. VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. Costs and Returns of each Field and Crop. CHAPTER XV. VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING— FARMING FACTS, OR OUR CROPPING SHEETS. In 1868, careful accounts were kept of the cost and returns of each crop. All the hay, straw, grain, &c. , used by the cattle and horses, were weighed and charged at current market rates. By this means a very fair idea was obtained of the relative profitableness of the various crops. After 1868, still more was attempted, and the accounts of each field were kept separate. The value of this will be evident, for no two fields were treated exactly alike ; soils, too, differed, and the previous cropping and tillage. Those details thus furnish field experiments on a very large scale; and it is very interesting to study these large experiments, comparing the returns from two fields for the same year, and tracing the various causes of difference. If the reader will turn to the Wheat cropping sheet. No. 10, and glance at the returns for 1870, he will find one field showing;^ii profit per acre, and another more than £^7. loss. In the Potato cropping sheet, No. 8, he also will find for the same year a large field of 2Sj^ acres showing ss. 4j^d. loss per acre, and a neighbouring field of 1 5 ^ acres showing nearly ^j, per acre of profit. The causes of these differences it is interesting to analyse, and they are analysed as far as possible in the course of these chapters. Each of these crops is taken up in the order indicated below, which is alphabetical, as nearly as the placing of two or more crops on one sheet would allow. It has been found necessary to divide the matter into two chapters. The second begins with the Oat cropping sheet, No. 7. TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Actua^ Crop Profits and Losses of Three Years. No. I. Crop Profits and Losses for Three Years on the Blennerhasset Farm. i86S. 1869. 1870. CO Kind of Crop. o 1 Profit. Loss. Profit. Loss. Profit. Loss. • £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ .. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 2 Barley, . + 5 7 .. 3 6 7 5 I 10 3 Cabbages, I 7 " 3 Carrots, o 15 II 15' 4} 8 II II ., 6 Flax, 4 12 6 I 5 li 4 Italian Rye Grass, . 6 i' 4i .. Lea Hay, 5 9 II 5 7 oi 3 o' Si 6 Meadow Hay, . 6 15 4 2 9 5J rs' 9 3 Mangold, o 12 I 5 n 7 Oats, 5 19 2 4 II II 4 6' 2j z Oats (Canadian), 4 II 3 2 IS 7 4. Pasture Grass, Z 12 4 13 7 .<, I 7 9i 8 Potatoes, 2 8 9 11 3 2 6 3 9 Swedes, S 12 8 5 10 51 ♦ 15' 7i lO Wheat, . 12 12 6i •• 3 14 "i 3 4' 9i The above figures show in many respects a striking con- trast to the first made estimates of 1866 and 1867. The Cropping Sheets were at first intended as a basis, upon which a correct valuation of the land should be made ; but the crop estimates by different persons varied so much, that we at last decided on keeping exact accounts of the actual expendi- ture and returns for each. These we have since found to be of much greater practical use than had been anticipated; They furnish many important hints on rotation, and on the best kinds of cultivation, manure, and seed, as regards both quantity and kind. Some of the early estimates were very amusing. The gardeners gave always the best promise by far, their profit columns showing for young larches ^^67 per acre, for young thorns, ;£4i ; leeks, jQ'jb; onions, £fi(i; carrots, ;£^38; and Italian rye grass, ^29. When, however, it was gravely proposed (!) to crop the whole farm with leeks and young larches, these promised profits were considerably modified. In the following Sheets, the cost of cultivation has been obtained by charging the labour of each horse at VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 223 The Expenditure included in the Cropping Sheets. 3s. gd. per day, or 7s. 6d. for a draught. This includes food, tear and wear of horse flesh and implements, and the joiner's, saddler's, and smith's biUs. The actual cost, however, was lower by 8^d. a-day; as may be seen by reference to the , subject of Horse Labour in the Index. Manual labour and steam cultivation are also included in the cultivation columns, being charged at cost price. Manure from the cattle was charged at 7s. 6d. a ton, and the chemical manure at the prices given in the chapter on Manures. The seed is at cost price, including railway carriage. .There are a few other items of expenditure charged against the farm, and not included in the Cropping Sheets. These were as follows, given both per annum and per acre : — Farm Expenditure not Charged in the Cropping' Sheets. Per Annum. Per Acre. Bailiff's and Clerks' Wages, Rates and Taxes, Stationery, Postage, ic, . £tS° '" ° £° 9 " House Expenses, Travelling do., Coals, Gas, Servants' Board, &c., . . . 88 4 7 o 5 10 Paint, Slates, Insurance, and Trips, . . 11179 00 9^ Roads and Fences, . . . . 25 16 iij o I 84 Sundries 17 17 11 o i 2I Total ;^294 7 24 £0 19 Si This means an expenditure on the whole Farm of nearly ^^300 per annum (about ;£i per acre), not included in the Cropping Sheets. It is better, too, that they are not included, as most farmers do not incur many of them ; the only com- mon one being Rates and Taxes; which amounted with us to .nearly 3s. 6d. per acre. The above extras, however, amounting to 19s. 5^d. per acre, are the average of the whole ten years, in the earlier part of which, only, was much of this expenditure incurred. Taking 1870 as our guide, we find it was only about 15s. 7d. per acre. Rent, it will be noticed, has no place in the above table, nor has it in the Cropping Sheets. As has been shown, j£2 an acre may be allowed for this. Nor has interest on farming capital been taken into account. Perhaps ;^io an acre of capital, which gives an average all 224 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Condition of Land and Previous Cropping. through of ^^3,030 per annum, is at least on the safe side ; and this, at 5 per cent, would give a further charge of los. per acre against our Cropping-Sheet profits. . Another point of evident importance left untouched in these Cropping Sheets is the after-condition of the land. This must vary greatly with different crops, and different quantities of manure and tillage; and probably hardly two farmers would estimate the value of these alike. An estimate has in general been made for each crop; but properly each field demands a separate valuation. Our attempts to deal with this question will be found detailed in the chapter on Manures. See also " Soil Exhaustion," in the Index. Subject to these qualifications we offer our Cropping Sheets, as fairly reliable statements of the actual expenditure and returns of our farm, crops ; for three, and in some cases four, years. The fourth year's returns (1871) are those mainly of the auction sale ; but' only a few of the crops are given for 187 1, of which Lea hay and Potatoes are the most important. The returns of the latter are especially valuable; as, any annual average for Potatoes would be misleading, which did not include the results of a year of disease; and 1871, in Cumberland at least, was notorious in respect of Potato disease. Previous cropping having much to do with the results shown in these Cropping Sheets, it is necessary that, for the principal fields at any rate, a list of the annual cropping should be given. This is attempted on the next page, but has been a task of some difficulty; the want of proper account- books during the earlier years, being chiefly to blame for this. So that for 1864 the cropping is mainly guess work, and partially so for 1863, 1865, and 1866. At first, too, some of the larger fields were cropped in parts; but, for simplicity's sake, only the main crops are stated. The acreages are given roughly, some of the field boundaries not being con- stant; but subject generally to enlargement, as the uprooting of hedges, the purchase of Benson's estate, and latterly, a better system of farming, enabled us to arrange our land better. VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. Cropping of the Large Fields. 225 O ►J w w o < w w o 00 g S3 i5 iS S S g; FLi Oh PLi ^ :S ph fiH W W ph W W III W ffi R CO WW w ° S S « Is Srt CO i pqKE-OOOKPM^ffiOOOO^^O t cflPqOPnOOP^CQPHOxHOOBHli: i t/l Ul IT. trt S « OOHOHOHOOrHOP-feOHO? f 3Si3gai3aEj5.2Si2J2«i2S« UHOh^OOHOPHOOOOOUfS i .i2...>ro Ha, 2 226 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Barley not much grown. This Table presents considerable variety of rotation, or rather no rotation : a circumstance, as will be seen, very disadvantageous to the farm profits, though advantageous to the reader. For the greater the variety of the cropping, the more instructive should the results be. Some of the details are, indeed, amusing; but to any one engaged practi- cally in farming, they will be found much more than that. The attention should be fixed on one of the irregularly cropped fields, and its results studied in the "Total Income" or "Profit" (or "Loss") columns. Of such fields the Nursery was one of the hardest cropped; and Longlands (East) and Wet-flat (Central) nearly as much. It must, how- ever, be remembered that much of the irregular and seem- ingly random cropping of 1868 and 1869, was due to an attempt to bring many of the larger fields under one crop, and into a proper rotation. This was manifestly the inten- tion on Longlands and on Wet-flats, as every part of these two fields shows the same crop in 1870. With these explanations ; and with Table I. ready to hand for reference, we may now consider the Cropping Returns ; taking them in the order (chiefly alphabetical) indicated on page 222. 2. Barley, then, in this order, is given on pages 228-9. Our soil was well adapted for it, and the crop generally was fairly profitable; but it was not a favourite, and only on specially well adapted parts was it sown at all. Perhaps the only noteworthy point is the yield of only 9 imperial bushels per acre on the Head-race field. No. 2, in 1869. This field contained a gravel pit, and was quite an awkward corner ; the cultivation and manure columns indi- cate also but little attention, and this, probably, was the main cause of the failure. The 8 ^ acres of Festival field show a much better return ; but, as a whole, the barley crop presents but little interest. The average profit shown per acre (No. 7) is ;^4 19s. 6^d. ; but this should be lower comparatively, as the manure was trifling,. and the exhaustion of soil appreci- able. The manure used for this crop was the general com manure; but the quantity applied was so slight, that the VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 227 Canadian Oats. ' reduced condition of the land would be considerable, and might be reckoned at least at 20s. per acre, reducing the profit t0;^3 19s. 6d. The variety of barley sown was in general the chevalier, and the quality of the produce was fit for malting. I think a safe, though rough and ready rule, is to charge the land, in a four-course rotation, as ^^ per acre better after the root crop, and £1 an acre worse after each of the three following crops. By this rule each course clears itself, and the Land does not, as I have often seen it in such estimates, show an impossible profit at the end of several rotations. The Canadian Oat crop is also included in Cropping Sheet No. 2. Of it, it may also be said as of barley, that it Avas grown only on picked soil, or in small corners. The average profit equalled ;£i 13s. 5d., which exhaustion of soil would reduce by ;£i per acre. It thus shows _£i 743. per acre less profit than common potato oats. Oats with seeds stands separated from the ordinary oats only in 1867. This crop is credited with 3s. rod less profit per acre ; but the land being valued _£i better because of the seeds, it stands i6s. 2d. beyond the ordinary oat crop. It IS, however, more a question of convenience than profit, and we have no fairly comparable results on the question. 3. Carrots, given on pages 232 and 233, is the next on the list. It was always a profitable crop, and paid well for manure; and it was not, like potatoes, liable to a disease that might rot half the crop. It was, however, as the bailiff said, a "petted" crop; and he had to choose its ground, and watch for good sowing weather. A peaty soil, or one of friable deep loam was always preferred : and we had few failures. In 1868 and 1869, both very dry springs, it almost refused to come; but the precaution of damped seed, mixed with wet sand, generally ensured some crop. The profit shown for r 86 7 is doubtful, but the others may be relied upon. The best of these is the 1870 crop, which shows ;^8 iis. lo^d. of profit per acre : the preceding crop had been oats after five years' lea. 228 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. (Si O < < 1—1 H D O Q en <: o 5 U o ?^ <; > w < o ■AE(3no lEJOX ■AjaAjiaa ■3UTI[SEJIIJL •SuisnoH ■SunsaAJEH ^ CO V o_ r^ w s O •3ujiio-a •3uiAftOJIEH •3u[i[3noid O w o t- j^"3uiqqnjo ■aSEaiDv b o 3 s v^ « ,B^ r; £ IS a7 , iC cei °o CO 1 £ S •§ "iS Q M PC •< 1 .> o (^ pa -3 O & g > <1 ' ' :: :: 5 1869, Head Oats With See Average of _ (1 WJ m r-^ z - 1 VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 229 ■ -.• 6CW Hw-W -** w HH^l-lVOt^O^O cot- VO (4 tc3 l-< 1-1 U •^ CO Li^ ■^ UT© »-l ON i-< U-) CO . ON VO ►-1 '1 l-l HH HH >-l int- 1 h 4i -^N irjio^N ^ ■^ CO !>* r*«H« Pi Ph "B t ^ Xj '^' « r^ i>*y3 •+ c\ VO CO ^ c ^ii 2 K f^ CO -< =fi ooro.t-.c> ONVO 11 ;2; '^ "H -^ O^li-? ON Pi *"* . . t3 i ^ r-^ • ■' ON c^ • • N ^ H 2 M w M -« W ft* HN 1 sauoisg-^ : : £■[;; : ■^ • d ^- .-|« -■0' t^ ^ a. 00 00 ■3 Q '^ - - • • • : : ; 1 5 •^ cK 1 -**::: : ; 00 N ^ 000 Q <3\ t-. 00 c t-i k. t^ nvo • ■ \o tI- • * uf HH M I-. H ^ !>. 11 VO VO ro ---**. r^?l -^ -. 00 o^ Z HH 230 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Prices obtained for Carrots. The manure was at the rate of nearly 22 cwts. per acre; it contained about 5 cwts. sulphate of ammonia, 4j^ cwts. of muriate of potash, and 11 cwts. of superphosphate. This crop, thus saddled with ^^25 per acre of expenses, leaves, however, nearly jQ^ after all expenses are paid ; and, seeing that £,"} worth of cultivation and ;^io worth of manure were applied, surely ^^4 per acre, or less than one quarter of this expenditure^ is not too much to allow for unexhausted man- ure and tillage. If this is allowed, carrots proved by far the most profitable crop, and come best up to our early crop- ping-sheet estimates. At Prior Hall, this crop was also highly profitable ; and on one occasion an amusing scene occurred at Wigton market ; the Blennerhasset bailiff having offered a customer some carrots at about £,2 los. per ton, just a few minutes after this customer had purchased a quantity from the Prior Hall bailiff at ;^3 6s. 8d. Even when sold by auction, as were the 8 acres of 1871, the price, although a low one, left the handsome profit of jQ(> 8s. I Y2.6.. per acre. Deep steam grubbing, and autumn manuring with farmyard manure, were under trial this year ; and over 4 tons of potato manure had been also applied on part of the field ; but the sale of the estate put a stop to any testing of the results. The prices obtained for carrots varied from ^2 to jQj, 6s. 8d. per ton, and the weight per acre from 5 to 18 tons. The acreage, however, was so small, that nothing reliable can be drawn from a study of the previous cropping. The variety sown was almost invariably the Long Red Altring- ham Carrot. Cabbages, also on Cropping Sheet No. 3, on pages 232 and 233, were largely grown in the cattle-feeding days; but no accounts were then kept of the yield. It was a very useful crop for sheep and lambs ; but when the feeding of these was given up, we could not easily find sale for all we grew. Small lots were sold at about gd. per dozen, or nearly 2s. per cwt. ; but though Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds were tried, we could not readily dispose of large lots ; and this crop had to be given up in consequence. It was gen- , VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. Experiments on the Cabbage Crop. 231 erally manured, half with farm-yard manure and half with artificial. The weight grown per acre was never tested except in the experiments ; but facts on this point and on that of manure, are furnished by an amusing contest, which arose at one of the weekly parliaments in 1870. The bailiff who had grown prize cabbages at Prior Hall,. held that they could not be grown without farm-yard manure. To this the chemist replied that they could ; and forthwith a trial was arranged for, each party being unlimited as to quantity and cost of manure. The baiUff, however, afterwards wanted Peruvian guano with his manure; so his plot was divided into two, one half to have guano and the other half not. Four plots of four drills, each 28 inches wide and about 120 yards long, were manured as below, and the plants dibbled in, about a foot apart, on March 21. A part of the garden had been selected — more for convenience than utihty, as it was rather stiff and cold for this crop. The season also was unfavourable. On Sept. 22nd, the gardener, in whose hands the experiment had been placed, took the first cutting, and on November 3rd the second. One fifty-sixth part of an acre from each plot was weighed as a test ; the plants were also counted, and the results calculated per acre, the cabbages being vaJued at is. 6d. per cwt. Table II. — Experiments with Different Manures FOR Cabbages. Manure per Acre. Potato Manure lo^ cwts. Cattle Manure, 21 tons Cabbage Manure 13 cwts. Cattle Manure, 21 tons, ) and Peruvian Guano, > 3 cwts. . . . j Cost of Manure. « 2 4 7 J7 6 5 17 o 856 Weight ol tlie first Cutting. 164 cwts. 146 ,, i6Si „ I53i „ Weight of both Cutting) Average I Value of Weight of Crop less 10 Cab- the Cost of bages. I Manure. 244 cwts. 187 „ 335 „ jiilbs. £1^ 3 S 26I 35 28i 6 3 ^ II 15 6 5 5 3 Many plants, however, had burst; but these were counted, and, if valued at the average weights, bring up the dunged plots considerably. No. i, then, becomes 251 cwts.; No. 2, 204 j4 , No. 3, 247; and No. 4, 206 cwts. It is somewhat strange that the plot No. 4, with Peruvian guano additional, 232 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. < t^ On o< z *^ Hn p^n ^>r M « M 00 CO \o c* _l- M O ^D o S 3 •^ \o t^ •* \n m VO e» o M H ■^ •^ ■^ ^*% O in ■ss m CO VD o > '-' '-' •■• <^ M o o o o o CO 00 OD o S! o o o IH o O ■-• M VO CO in o o y Cn 00 CO : M tt o 00 X "^ 1-1 w Pt -* <-i xr> M •-. -^ K -^ CO M 9 lO m CO c« CO CO M t^ o o "^ >-. \0 -d- O \o VO r- C^ \n ™ * C% CO -1 o ■* CO ■a SJ ^^ CO HH to •^ O O O o o o O o C* l-( ™ . \0 CO VO c* o cl N m Cv On .>c O vo CO r* r^ CO 3 -w O *-« r M m t- in -+ M CO CO H« •3utt[snjo .. M : ■3uri[0^ - : : •3UIM0JJEH r- c* ^ •3uiq3noid M " : M : : •3uiqqnjo CO : N ■33B3J3V 5 c/ VO *" 00 .t^ "^ N p» "^ a ^ O c t^ E S 1 1 1 1 :2 '6 O CO 1 to 1 1 1 k o ^ Q fn ' ^ ^ - o - O ; 5 o s 1 •n 0. £ \D .K- M. eg R 3 I> S <: ti >- c 'il oo M M tH U ^ O d ^H n CO ■* u-l "O t^ . 2 1 __ VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 233 u <: Pi w u ^-, < 1-1 < pq O < t3 M I ui M O . £ 1-, i-( i-( i-( i-( "-t =rt 00 ooovo n- CO ■^ COltJ-WW Hm -+9'-«?» 09WHM rowooooooco vocs Omo t^ ■i: >^ nl -J 1.^ ro«roo-*m tsa^ yD fo ^<§ \0 ON ^ ui w^^O M N « M =n '-IN'-'-' »-< M ■« W,j.,^-t3»-- t>-0\-* t^fO t^ CO — d « I- S3 H OCOOSMNOO '<*-rO M |- t^S ■^ iOO>J^rONO roO ■O «-! CO Cf? (N'-i'-ir^NM i-.(^ IH M M *^ «WHO< ■^VO -^ '^ ; I M h^ ; C r cn I r ; BJ "^ ^ <^ rt a 1 • . Lo On • • -co m . . ro • ■ > . . 13 On H* i-H w M '^* I ^\0 'H ^ - - On > r I fid >-l l-t hH 1 "« S^ ? HV -5 s . - 000 . - . N ■ • On ■ • ■ r^ : ; ; '-t 1-4 ro H*-*)"-**-*! -W -aSeajov CO rovo w CO On '-i M w »-• • '^'^ ' tT ^■■:s M jife u! ss • u< 'C s " -J-. »i J3 » 00 -M^S 1^ Sti .SS 'S OJ *. r^oo Ov I-" a 00" 0" M 00 00 00 00 00 5 ff 00 00 ■^ S r^oo" Si ■< =12 "S^ M 6 •-• M ro "^ vonO t-^OO CT, "> 2 234 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. „ M CO -^^ i^ VO r^ 00 ON o ^ "^ l-t ^ «w Ml- r*l "Hci" "^^ >. ■^3 O. t->. kO O *o VO •^ o ON m 00 1 - ■* \r% 00 _ r^ VO ;* CO NO 00 •-< '-' t-" o ■^ M N rO M CO N o O ■* o " E- HO* -W =** >. '^ U-l 11 m o CO 1 ^ : ON -« !>. o " : ■ o : ■ Q ^ o o O » o — -+* SOW- u •^ CO >-< t-i c s ^ CO O i-i • •• • « • • ' o ^ B =>J o -< o -** W •^ o ON ox !>. O NO i.f. t^ o r^ « ^O •JD 'J- ; ; o * ■ X <^ ^• O O o o >-. — r-«N "^ O -*- o o p t^■ O ■ ON NO o o , l^ , c s ■^ o ■^ O N •^ ■* nW r*« >3 CO CO M O I-I ■? 0) <^ MM t^ ■* NO m . ■ . to „*=*> P -P . o_ o -!3» o •-Kt -^ 3 ^2 O VO "-« VO VO lO O o '~' t-i _ Si to ro « o c< i-i N o CO o > 3 ►H w O o -P_ _o_ o o _o_ wN- «QW -**« HN Hw ■aSEaiDv •>*■ CO w ■^ 00 o M NO i^ ON • 4J . . a CJ U. 3 . d ^ r^ O 1 "So s 1 1 1 eS S 2 ^ 00 (U ^ J8 P^ P< OO Q M o s ^ o •§ na - r3 "o c C8 CI] CM NO 8. 2 o a o 6 VO g s b 2 u VO g 00 3 ^ NO o- £2 < 1 1—1 OO cya < S 00 rt ^ 00 -d 00 00 OO OO . vo ** fOvO 000 oZ! H = ^0 Cj^ W W roc* fO N Tt-O - ni'T -«t "tj CO ro -^t 00 00 <-! 00 vo •r: = S2 ^ '-''-' fO vo ^00 roil E-. S b: ctj rooo 00 t^ CO ro >-" N M N •a HO*colVM|Tj< ■>3 M invo S" w t^ I \0 iJ-i'O tz b h ■«ii rOM w Hw-+f "^ mONO 1 . <^ I li^iJTO ; ; >- ■a «f} ■^c^"^ 0) -wrow 0' C . M W CO : a\ t^ CO - „m« e** W'* -w H9* HOI '33E3JDV ^cow -^ CO hH \0 in OS . Q J U w tn M na TJ la i ifl 1 .8 2f§ OJ u % Pi cJ rt CO < ^i-e n ^ -§ p [ pi g s 5 U vo 1 00 di '-' 3 •< fl 00 00 00000000 r; „ i_ M w <; M rt >• l-H u ^ Ph c t-i PI r^ Ti- wi VO r^oo OS >-• Z 236 TEN YEARS OF GENTI-EMAN FARMING. The Mangold Crop and its loss oi weight when pitted. should yield less than plot No. 2, without it. This lies, it will be noticed, entirely in the second cutting ; for in the first it is 5 J^ cwts. superior; or, including the burst plants, it was 17 cwts. superior. Both the baihflf and the gardener had, however, to admit that in this one trial at any rate, cabbages as good and heavier, had been grown by the chemical manure. The cabbage manure in this experiment contained 330 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia, 157 lbs. of muriate of potash, and 780 lbs. of superphosphate. The potato manure contained 70 lbs. less of the first, 200 lbs. less superphosphate, and 70 lbs. more potash. It thus seems that the largest supply of potash was better for gross yield ; but the cabbage manure gave the heaviest plants. In this experiment, 1 2 tons 4 cwts. was the heaviest weight grown per acre; and in some experiments in droughty 1868, 10 tons 16 cwts. was the highest; and half this weight nearer the average. But neither year was favourable; and very much heavier crops had been grown on the farm, but as no accounts of these were kept, nothing certain can be stated. The cabbage crop, on the whole, shows an average profit " of 17s. 8d. per acre — increased t0;^2 17s. 8d., if ;^2 (about one-third of expenditure) is allowed for unexhausted manure and tillage. Compared with turnips, they always paid well : and even in 1868, when, through want of rain, the turnip crop returned only _;^2 i6s. 4j4^d. per acre, cabbages returned ^n 2s. 7d., and lost less by over £4. They generally cost more by about ^4 per acre, but the surer and larger return more than balanced this; and when well manured, they can be recommended, as supplying a heavy acreage of sheep or cattle food of the best feeding quality. The variety chiefly used was the Drumhead cabbage. Mangold, also on Cropping Sheet No. 3, resembled the cabbage crop, in standing the drought of 1868 much better than the Swede turnip crop. It also cost more .than turnips, but returned proportionally much more than it cost, showing an average profit of 3s. i^d. per acre, increased to over £2 by the improved condition of the land. The ig cwt VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 237 Italian Rye-grass and the cost of our Irrigation. per acre of potato manure used for it in 1870, contained about 4 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, 3^ cwt. of muriate of potash, 9 cwt. of superphosphate, i cwt. of salt, and i cwt. of gypsum ; and the yield per acre was nearly 1 9 tons, selling or about a guinea a ton. Mangold is generally stored in pits for spring use, and of course loses much weight by this process. On Oct. 26th, 1868, we stored 2008 stones of mangold in a good pit ; and on March 5th, 1869, 130 days after storing, the pit was opened and the roots dressed and weighed. The result was a loss of 608 stones, or nearly one-third of the autumn weight. Compared with Swedes, they proved more profitable by over ;£^ per acre ; but the soil was always selected, which accounts for much of this difference. The seed was generally a mixture of the long red and yellow mangolds. 4. Italian Rye-grass, liquid manured, is next in turn, on Cropping Sheet No. 4. This crop was with Mr. Lawson always a favourite, but with the bailiffs a bugbear. From the first, it had been intended to use the cattle manure in the liquid form only, after the plan of Alderman Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, and Mr. Blackburn, of Aldershot. The byres were planned for this, the cattle lying on open boards, from which the manure was washed by hose and jet, dpwn through wide drains into two circular tanks, each 1 2 feet deep and 30 feet in diameter. From these tanks a large double force-pump sent the manure through about three-fourths of a mile of underground cast-iron piping, chiefly of 5-inch bore ; this was tapped by various hydrants in the fields, from which the liquid was distributed by hose (each nozzle discharging about 144 gallons per minute) over 25 acres of farm and 8 acres of garden land. The cost of all this was considerable, being about ;£'joo up to the end of 1865 ; and amounting to nearly ^^900 before the estate was sold. At first, pretty full advantage was taken of this, and nearly twenty acres were kept under irrigation ; but even before the cattle were all sold off, the acreage had dwindled down to four. The latest trial of it was on the Moss field. The second bailiff had an idea that this field was well adapted 238 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Our three Cuttings of Italian Rye-Grass. for irrigation, and forthwith an additional 200 to 300 yards of piping were laid down ; but the only result was four acres of Italian rye-grass. More would probably have been grown, but that the keeping of cattle was shortly afterwards almost entirely given up; thus reducing both the quantity of manure, and the demand for its use. Six cuttings of this crop should have been obtained annu- ally; but two, and sometimes three, were more usual in practice. The fault was, that no one took sufficient interest in it, and consequently no fair irial was ever made of its capabilities. Looking now at the cropping returns, that for 1867 is. too much of an estimate for dependence ; but in this year only has a charge been made for irrigation and the tank liquid. No accounts were kept of those items, but as the above was charged when the system was in full action, it is probably not too high at any rate. The estimate of 1867 is based upon three cuttings of 10 tons each; one cutting of 10 tons per acre has been obtained in the middle of summer; but the other two cuttings would be nearer 5 and 3 tons. For- in 1869, with little or nothing about irrigation, 3, 6, and i^ tons respectively were obtained in three cuttings ; so that 5, 10, and 3 would be about the real weights under heavy irriga- tion. This, however, shows the crop a loss; and such, with us, it undoubtedly was. In 1869 the first cutting was on 7th June, and weighed 10 tons i6j^ cwts.; the second, in July, weighed about 21 tons, of which 43^ tons were used . green, and probably 17)^ tons were dried to make up the 692 stones of inferior hay. Cuttings were also obtained in August, a few tons being cut almost daily ; the date of the last being August 2 1 St. These weighed, per acre, nearly 3 tons for the first, 5 tons 19 cwts. for the second, and i ton 5}^ cwts. for the third cutting; or a total of 10 tons 4j^ cwts., — rather a poor return for Italian Rye-grass. Had 1869 been as hot as 1868, and the irrigation frequent, this might have been nearly doubled ; for it is in hot weather that water is the most powerful manure. As it is, the lea hay crops of 1869 nearly equal the Italian rye-grass in weight, VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 239 Common Grasses Liquid-manured. and exceed it in value ; but the expenses on lea hay were heavier, if nothing is charged for the tank liquid on the Italian rye-grass; and for this reason only the latter stands superior by 9s. per acre. This applies, however, only to the Moss land, the one acre of Longlands being all made into hay ; and the fog being also grazed in autumn ; showing it better, on the whole, by about 25s. per acre. One reason for the later neglect of this crop, was a belief that our open gravelly land was unsuitable for liquid manure. Because, unless soils contain a fair amount of clay or peaty matter, they are more likely to lose than gain in richness by frequent washing with a highly diluted liquid manure. Dr. Voelcker confirmed this idea when he saw the farm : and his recent analyses of Messrs. Lawes and Gilberts' drainage waters supports it. In the garden, however, irrigation was found very useful for strawberries and rhubarb, which grew and paid amazingly under its use; — strawberries under its kindly showers, return- ing about ;^ 49 per acre, and the rhubarb at the rate of;^68 5s. per acre; these figures being the actual returns in 1869 from nearly one acre of strawberries, and quarter of an acre of rhubarb. Common Grasses, liquid manured (also on Cropping Sheet No. 4), were tried for four or five years on East Wet-flats, which was also planted with fruit trees. Being near to the steading, it was continually under the scythe as long as cattle were kept; but the trees did only poorly, and in 1868 this field was broken up for oats. That the long course of liquid manuring had not enriched it much, is well proved by a reference to the potato experiments, series E, which were afterwards tried on this field; the three unmanured plots, Nos. I. 5, and 10, showing an inferior condition of land to that of series C or D, both of which, in the same year, gave nearly a ton per acre more produce; though unmanured potatoes had been on C and D the previous crop also. A glance at the Potato Cropping Sheet, No. 8, also confirms this observation. East Wet-flat giving the lowest return of the three fields of 1869. In 1868, too, when this field was in Oats, though the accounts of each field were not kept 240 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Water Meadows and Pasturage. separate, yet the stocks were counted; and these, if any guide, show this field the lowest but one in that year, it having only 50^ stocks per acre, the average of the year being only 61 J^ stocks (over gs}4 acres). In 1867, under irrigation, this crop is charged ^2 for manure; this is probably for the tank liquid: but 1867 is too much of an estimate to be reliable. If for liquid manure, then the Common grasses were not far behind the Italian rye-grass for profit, this ;£2 reducing the difference to about ' j£^ psr acre : but even at the best, the ordinary lea hay crop was superior to the irrigated Common grasses. Water Meadows have also a line in Crppping Sheet No. 4. Two fields are included, both old meadows ; — the one, the Tail-race field, appearing again as " Pasturage," in 1868-69- 70; the other as Meadow hay till 1870, when it was broken up for oats. Both fields lay convenient to the head-race for irrigation, and at first were pretty well looked after ; but by the time that careful accounts were kept, the interest of novelty was gone, the watering became irregular and spas- modic; and the crops were lumped in the general hay and grass crops of 1869. The Tail-race field was systematically watered in the Spring, but being used mainly for horse pas- turage, 'the benefit is not so apparent, only j£i 6s. 8d. per acre being charged against the horses, as the soft condition of the soil prevented the full use of the field. This estimate for 1867 is, however, about the mark; but as no other year offers, little can be said about it. Pasturage concludes Cropping Sheet No. 4. The returns are small, however, as the field was kept more because of its convenience for the horses and two cows. It shows, in consequence, only a poor profit. In the Spring of 1869 6iJ^ tons of swede turnips were consumed on it, by 256 sheep in 38 days. The charge of id. per day per sheep all went to the credit of the turnips ; but the field was cropped so thoroughly, that only ^i 6s. 8d. per acre was allowed for its further use by the farm horses. The sheep manure, however, improved it for next season. In 1870 this field was also composted pretty heavily, and top-dressed besides* with 8 cwts. per acre of grarfs manure ; but as our horses VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 24 1 Importance of the Hay Crop in Rotation. and stock were insufficient to pasture it to advantage, the returns per acre were still meagre. The year 1868 stands highest in the "income" column; the reason being, that so dry was the summer, and so scarce was food for stock, that every green thing was eagerly pur- chased; and, our fields being in pretty good condition, they were speedily stocked to the utmost. The following is a statement of the stock grazed on 20 j4 acres of Gill- bushes and Gill-heads : — Stock. Grazed on 2o}4 Acres in 1868. 514 Ewes and Wethers, for 143 days, at 6d. per week . . £^6 7 loj 63 Lambs, „ 143 ,, at 4d. ,, .. 21 lo 6 7i Young Cattle, at pf 2 10 o each 18 1$ o 2 Horses, at ;^5 o o each 10 o o Total on 20J acres £76 13 44 This gives ^3 14s. lod. per acre, and as the Cropping Sheet shows 2iJ^ acres, there was probably another acre idle or unusable, the addition of which brings down the average income to j£3 11 s. 4d. per acre. The four years show an average profit of ^i 2S. rod. per acre, which is very low, indeed ; but the field was left in much higher condition at the end of our occupation ; and able to carry a much greater head of stock than we had to put on to it. 5. Lea Hay, on Cropping Sheet No. 5, was always a profitable crop, and presents many features of interest, though it was one that we avoided in our early farming, having grown in 1867 only 27 acres. This crop is very important in a rotation, especially where but little farmyard manure is available; as its stubble supplies many valuable tons per acre of vegetable mould. This mould, on heavy land, promotes friability, and on light land is the great retainer of manures ; keeping them out of the drains and within reach of the plants. Our experience teaches this very pointedly, as regards light soils at any rate; as those fields seldomest in hay proved the poorest. R 242 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Lea Hay — Actual Cost of Growing and Marketing for- Four Years. u < a, < H D O I PS D O a o tn pL, o C! U >- <; w <: ►J o a ^ N ro •0- lO \0 r* 00 o\ o -< M Z -w — * Hn .** i«W OSN- -**> -** Hw ■« VO oo o r^ «-« -^ CT> o CTv ON t-^ - rS ^ ri n] ,°'5 <^ c^ 00 o\ o \o O M -q- 00 0\ VO ^O ■-' "^ "-■ "« -■^ w ro CO N CO m VO VO CO CO lO ■* •**" WW »w HM >. « r- o fO ro W N *^ 2 CO O l-C > Q H « ■* ■*• m ro -^ CO CO VO CO CO " M __o_ o _o^ O O O O O o o o WN- i»r HM -*?) -«« -*c --i »-( 1^ X trt o o O O o o o o o o bO raw 9** -^^ 5W* -+* -*«■ -«H B S o CO »o 00 r>. u-> Tj- VO 00 « tj o 0^ o o ^ o Cs 00 CO Ov O ; M )iN rt X •^ o O o o o o _0__Q_ o o o r*« -*n rfi* ->» rw -ffl» »** -4* Hot . O O lO VO m VO Ov 'O M lO s i-i '^t N M u O I-. TO Tf- -^ M »-i m M -t* -^tv WtJ- r-Kq ■^ ro r^ lO CO O N O ON VO t5 u «i N N i_i *^ N C> t^ M M »-« 00 CO >- •-I »-' •-< •-f M ttj o o O _o_ O O O O o o o o -«« •BM- Hw -Hw -n» -«» HM ■rW -** |c >j ■>»■ -O CTi CO *-* CO ir> o 11 (I W 11 , n o •A l-l m o> « VO lO lO « CO VO Ti- ■ a'S ►■* O •^ o O O O o o o o O o o -*• tniv mtv ~m HN rw 1« -** enw •aSEajay VO o N « S ■* VO CI VO M D • • • . . . . • u M J o M 1 •d u ^ fe o ■3 - ^1 g i 00 9> o 1 'o 1 II VO 00 VO !>. 00 00 M 11 X)0 (41 , AND N tH p 3 »3 o O o O s o ^ 6 ^ H 1 0\ - a" - 00 ;-> i-< 2 CO = * z ;; ^ ^ <: < < < d ^ N to Tj- lo \0 t^ 00 Cv O -• N 2 "^ VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. Lea Hay — Yield and Profit per Acre. 243 W o < o •Q 03 - o O < < w I o d « « « ■* in ^o t^ 00 OS I M CO Z l-t l-l M !-• ^. i- « i . "rt ^ ^ -S 1 ^ .S 6 ^ ^ Q ^ -** -** ""H* -lot (iW H* «(* w* -+»■ >3 « Ov VO ■-« t->. 11 OS OS OS t>. CO bS- bH 1 s| c^ M a\ 00 a* y3 N T|- 00 OS VO t^ ^0 M -H •^ '" "^ ^ H- ro fO N CO »o \o VO CO CO to -^ t|- -Wt -**-*) -W HOT W* •H^q H« BH" -*< BW i-W r^ c ■« 00 00 0\ o\ « "-« a\ « VO t^ ii 1 • ro CO VO »0 M CO 10 « CO to r* M »H hH l-l IM 1-1 =u CO Ch ON 00 « 00 00 00 OS 00 bo OS OS E- -W --W wv HIM -w -h* •«■ »-( "^ •0 "-1 •^ !>. t^ U) t^ VO vo ro '-' OS 00 vo 00 . r^ ro -^ • h 1 H H4 =rt -■ ^ M M -*»■ nN- -IN WW HN --|;n nw HN -f* r^N "« CT. 00 Th t^ CO vD ■-" OS t^ VO ■-* "-■ l-t bH g ^ VO VO rO u-j PI 10 00 CO CO 00 VO 00 vo a. >> •X *H tM •-< l-H =rt r^ 00 00 t^ i-t 00 t-^ 00 OS t^ r^ 00 00 Sfi rt a -** HO* H(M fit -M, riff* .-M* X e: t-* M m r-^ rO OS r^ CO to to to l-r ro M 00 -" vo OS <-i OS ■* <-" w CO CO r^ N rj- ro w CO M CO « CO CO -iM -** nw eow -M He* WW HN -hji W* H<*i ■a3B3JDv \0 VO N 00 -^ ■* VO *^ t^ r^ N to CO M vo to (N. "I "I M. fO a in J j_, T= -rt M *-ri c J^ 6: J— < t/i nl . ■a Ji (=H g) f^^; s Si ■ 5 00 OS ■-" 00 ;S K 5 s ■0 tn ^ vo t^ I^ VO ^ 00 00 00 00 00 M 9 'B g •^ ■& l) <*- Vh «4-. W^ 14-1 E ^ ^ ^t s »3 jj t> 0) tU 1) ^ bo bjO CjO bfl U ^ m ffi (4 rt cd OS 00 )-) )M k< »H :-• S£ ^ ' ' ' > U U U QJ >• ■■5^ ^ ^ -5 d f* N fo -^ 10 vo t^ 00 OS M M CO Z t-t l-l M M 244 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. irrigation at less than One Shilling per loo Tons. The Fitz field, first in this sheet, is a good illustration 'of this. It came into our possession in 1865, probably in oat stubble, so that this was at least the seventh year since the last hay crop. It gave in 1869 — the Moss excepted — the lowest yield of hay, althou^ it got the most manure. Longlands (West), No. 5 (or Rettory, or Irrigation field, — for it had many aliases), which gives the heaviest yield and greatest profit, had been two years in Italian rye-grass under irrigation, and had since been only two years under tillage in potatoes and wheat. Both West Wet-flat and Borehole were perhaps as long out of hay ; but they were of a stiffer nature, and could better stand the constant cropping : for clay is also a reta,iner of manures. It is doubtful if the five short liquid dressings Longlands had, helped it much; the dates, &c., were Novem- ber 24th, II hours; ditto 25th, 3 hours; December 12th, 9 hours ; January 7th, 4 hours ; and March 5th, 4 hours. Actual experiment gave the discharge through our |^-inch nozzle as 8660 gallons per hour. At this rate, each acre had 137 tons, or just equal to one good day's rain, from all five dressings ; and as the liquid was exceedingly dilute, the manurial value would be but slight. The labour of applica- tion was, however, very small — ^just under one shilling per 100 tons ; the pumps, driven by the turbine, requiring almost no attention, and two women sufficing to work the hose. The value of this power in a droughty summer was great ; but in 1868, when by its aid we might have grown double crops of hay, unluckily none of the fields within reach were under grass. The Moss, No. 4, was a meadow in 1861, and was not broken up probably till 1864 or 1865; its soil was, however, quite of a different nature from that of the other fields, being soft and peaty. No manure was given to it, in case the crop should be laid', — a needless care, evidently; as this field gave the poorest yield of the season, only 36 cwts. of hay per acre. This, however, was no doubt largely due to 6 days grazing in April (i6th-23rd), when 256 sheep cropped it pretty closely, at los. 8d. per acre. In December of the same year it was again grazed for los. 8d. per acre. Both of VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 24S Yield of Hay in 1868 and 1870. these items are entered in the column for fog. All the fog of 1869 was grazed ; but the Fitz field could only stand 6s. ii^d. per acre, and the Moss los. gd., while West Longlands proved four times better than the Fitz, and nearly three times better than the Moss. Looking now at 1870, it is difficult to see why Gillgooden, No. 7, should give the smallest yield. The two men who spread the grass manure did it, indeed, badly, to annoy the bailiff; but the Festival field fared no better at their hands. Some of our practical men held that the thrice grubbing for the previous wheat crop was against the clover; but if so, it gave, at any rate, the best wheat crop. Some held that it was clover sick, which seems more probable, it being just one year out of hay. The soil of this field, too, was about the stiffest on the farm ; and it could, perhaps, least stand the cold Spring of 1870. This field, when under hay after wheat in 1868, gave the lowest weight. The three fields of 1868 yielded as follows : — Mid-Heads, 322 stones of hay per acre. East-Heads, 284 ,, ,, „ Gillgooden, 280 „ „ „ Far Pasture, No. 8, came into our hands only this season (1870), and, being poor in condition, required much manure. All the fog of 1870 was eaten in October by sheep at 6d. per week, and lambs at 4 J^d., and Gillgooden grazed besides some horses at 8d. per acre up till Candlemas, 1871. Hay returns are also given for 187 1, but not for each field ; the auction sale having prevented the separation of the details of marketing. But all the gross weights of hay stacked from each field are available, and will be made use of presently. But, first, some deduction must be made for loss of weight in the stack : for the weights given in the cropping sheet are not those direct from the field, but the selling weight ; and between these two there is a consider- able difference, as the following facts show : — 246 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. One Ton of Grass makes Five Cwts. of Hay. Table III.— Loss in Weight of Hay in the Stack. Year. Weighed into the Stacks. Weighed out of the Stacks. Loss of Weight. Loss per Cent. 1868 1869 1870 Tons cwts. qrs. 140 8 I 141 14 3 62 16 2 Tons cwts. qrs. 120 14 I^ 126 12 I 53 IS Tons cwts. qrs. 19 13 5i 15 2 2 912 I4'02 IO"67 14-44 Total, 344 19 2 301 I 2i 43 17 3i 12-73 This loss was no't a constant quantity for every year, nor did it depend altogether upon the length of time the hay laid in stack. For, in 1869, when the loss was least, the hay was not all sold till June, 1870; whereas in 1870, when it was greatest, all was sold off by March, 1871. The loss, it will be seen, varied from about 14 J^ to 10 J^ per cent., the average being about 12^ per cent., or nearly one-eighth the gross weight ; equalling a loss of nearly 20 J^ stones of hay in each ton ; and, this being the average on 344 tons, it may be relied upon as pretty safe. Grass drying into hay loses nearly three-fourths of its weight. Numerous trials on the experimental hay crops gave an average of 30}^ lbs. of hay from each 100 lbs.- of grass. But this was the weight in cock, and there would be a further loss before it was placed in the stack. If this amounted to about 6 per cent., then the additional loss of one-eighth in the stack would bring the total loss of weight as between mowing and selling to exactly three-fourths, that is, every ton of grass making 5 cwts. of hay. For 187 1 the field weights are all available : and deducting one-eighth for loss of weight in the stack, the selling weights should stand as below. An abundant fog, or aftermath, was_ also mown on some of the better fields, and made into hay. The weights given for this are those of the field, less one- seventh, as it would probably lose more than the first hay crop. Only the larger fields are given. VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. The Hay Crop of 1871. 247 Table IV. — Weight Per Acre of Hay in 1871. Name of Field Acre- Hay per acre. Hay per acre. Preceding age. First Cutting. Second Cutting. Crop. Mid Heads, ' 17^ 409 stones. 160J stones. Wheat. Mire-Ings, I.-i 340J ,, 79 Oats. Wet-flats, 24^ 34°* „ 90 Wheat. West Heads, 24i 304 „ Oats. Nursery, ': 6i 280 „ ... Oats. Mid Heads, the best of this season, was also the best in 1868, when it gave 322 stones per acre. It shows, however, a great advance this year, giving 87 stones more hay per acre in the first crop ; and yielding in both cuttings a weight of 3 tons 1 1 cwts. and 1 7 lbs. per acre. But even this is only the supposed selling weight, the actual weight put into the stack being 4 tons i cwt. and 3 quarters per acre. Wet-flats field shows also a marked improvement over its crop of 1869; when it grew, at least, 15 stones less per acre. Nursery field is another of the never-resting fields. In 1 86 1 it was in second-year's grass ; and if in 1864 it was under tur- nips (as is probable), then 187 1 is its first year in grass since, at least, 1862. But the effect of this will be considered immediately, when some lessons on Rotation will be drawn from our erratic cropping. West Heads was last in hay in 1867, and should have given as good a hay crop in 1871 as Mid Heads. Why it did not it is difficult to say. The chief difference in their cropping was that in 1869, when both were under potatoes, the crop on Mid Heads was after lea, and that on West Heads after oats. I am inclined to believe that the lea stubble of Mid Heads was eminently useful in retaining the unexhausted potato manure, as decomposing vegetable matter has great power in this respect. Some facts and suggestions on this point will be found in chapter xvii. on " Manures," when farm-yard manure is under consideration. (See also Index). The heavy Fog of 187 1 was all sold as hay, along with the 248 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Good Returns for Lea Hay in 1868. spring crop ; and the whole realised j£g los. 6^d. per acre. Of this sum 22s. has been debited as for fog, and the rest to the spring crop. Besides this, there is also entered in the fog column 2s. per acre for grazing, making the total there ;£i 4s. per acre. Looking now at the annual averages of the four years, 1868, No. 9, shows best in the profit column: not that it grew the heaviest crop, but because of the high prices ruling that year. Indeed, it shows the lightest crop ; ijut the aver- age price obtained per stone for that year was nearly 7 }^d., or almost ij4d. per stone above the average of the three years following. The summer was excessively dry; and though Cumberland had a very fair hay crop, yet its browned and bare pastures, and deficient turnip crops, all tended to raise the price of hay. Abundance of rain, too, fell in August; and the fog, thus refreshed, carried afterwards a deal of stock. From the want of hedges, grazing was, however, always an expensive process with us; as stakes, nets, and hurdles had to be erected and looked after. In this year. Mid Heads, the field heaviest for hay, both in 1868 and 1871, and measuring about 17 acres, grazed, between July 8th and October 26th, the following head of stock, &c. : — Table V. — Stock Grazed on about 17 Acres in the Autumn of 1868, over a Period of 84 Days. 21 Milch Cows for 74 days at 3s. a-week, ^^31 16 o 50 Ewes „ 15 „ ) , J SI Ewes :: 2 ;; \^^- - 3 oio 75 Lambs )j 30 )) 4d. l> a 7 I 12 Stirks J) 12 Jj 2S. JJ I 10 7 -£41 14 6 This sum, amounting to nearly ^£2 los. per acre, is not entered in the Cropping-sheet for 1868 ; not because of any oversight, but that year's attempt being the first towards an actual statement of the expenditure and returns of each crop, only the total of each crop was taken, the accounts of VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 249 The Heaviest Yield obtained in 1872. each field not being kept separate till 1869. Hence, in taking the totals from the ledger, the hay only was taken, as it only could fairly be divided by that year's acreage. 1869, No. 10, stands second in the profit column, and second also in weight per acre of hay. The manure applied was trifling in quantity — this year being the transition one from the abolition of cattle feeding with use of Farm yard manure to the adoption of a complete system of manuring by chemical manures only. iByojNo. II, stands lowest in the profit column, and almost lowest in the yield of hay. The expenses against it are unusually heavy ; for, in consequence of the under-manuring of 1869, it was determined to manure well this year. Un- fortunately the two men employed as manure sowers had quarrelled with the bailiff about wages; and they wasted the manure, throwing it down in handfuls here and there. This spoiled the crop, most of it receiving absolutely no manure, and every yard showing several small rings of a rich, deep green colour, with a bare patch in the centre con- taining the handful of manure. The two men were of course discharged as unfaithful workers, but their bonus money was paid in full at the year's end. Next year's bonus offer, however, contained this significant clause : " N.B. The bonus is not payable to delinquents." 1871, No. 12, shows by far the highest weight of hay per acre : but, as has been observed in connection with the hay experiments, 1872 excelled the yield of 187 1; the pro- bable yield of 1872 being more than 400 stones per acre on those fields long in our hands, and 320 stones on fields recently acquired. The manure of 187 1, though less in quantity than that of 1870, was better spread, and the result in every way satisfactory. But hay was cheap, which told against the profits, the price averaging exactly J^d. per stone under that of 1870. Had it sold at the same price, the crop of [871 would have realised fully ^^2 an acre more. Our experience is that, both for hay and straw, a very light yield pays much better than a heavy one, the price in the former case always ruling more than proportionately higher. Comparing now the four years of hay, and adding 1872 250 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Our Acreage Yield of Hay for Five Years. as given by the hay experiments, — series K of that year,- they stand as below. Table VI. — Comparisons of Lea Hay, 1868-1872. Year. Acreage under Hay. Weight of Hay per Acre. Average price per Cwt. Return for Hay per Acre. Profit per Acre. 1 868 1869 1870 1871 1872 67i 57* 77i II2f 295 Stones. 3i°J .. 295i » 345 380 „ 5$. od. 4s. id. 4s. 3d. 3s. lid. £9 3 Hi 7 18 9 7 16 7i 8 8 6i £5 9 Hi 5 7 oi 3 5i 4 15 loi The greatest profit shown above is that of 1868, and is from the lightest crop. The heaviest crop does not, however, show the least profit. The rainfall of April and May has much to do with the growth of hay ; but the above returns are too few in number to warrant a discussion of this ques- tion. The monthly rainfall of Blennerhasset for the four years 1868-1871 inclusive, is given in the opening of chap. XX., on Experiments upon Potatoes. That of 1872 was only taken to the end of June, and was as follows : — January, 4.71 inches; February, 3.19; March, 3.23; April, 1.63; May, 2.43; and June 1.58: — quantities, upon the whole, one-half greater than the average of the four preceding years. The value of the hay, both as a safe and always saleable crop, was becoming better understood as we continued farming ; and a steady increase of the acreage under hay will be noticed in the above comparisons, and 1872 would have shown a still larger acreage. Two-years' hay was also under trial both in 1871 and 1872. In 1871 only one field, Far Gilgooden, was tried ; but having been sown down for one-year's hay only, the test is not a fair one. This field, measuring about 4 acres, gave, in 187a, 8 tons 18 cwts. ; and in 187 1 only 8 tons ^ cwt. And, the land not having been cleaned sufficiently for a second crop, the hay was of inferior quality. A smaller experiment tried in 1869 and 1870, on 1613 square yards of the experimental field, was VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 25 1 Mowing Land Two Years for Hay. more successful. ' The land was well cleaned, and the seeds sown down in 1868 with barley, half of which was dunged. The two halves, each about 400 feet long by 18 feet broad, were again halved, and to the southern halves of each, 2 cwts. per acre of nitrate of soda was applied; and to the northern halves, 4 cwts.. per acre of a grass manure. In 1870 nearly the whole of the plot dunged for barley was dressed with 2 cwts. per acre of sulphate of ammonia; and the other plot with 3 cwts. of the same, and, in addition, 4 cwts. of superphosphate, i ^ cwt. muriate of potash, and J^ cwt. salt. The returns of hay were as follows : — Table VII. — Produce of a Piece of Land Mown two Years, for Hay. Manures for the Manures in 1869. Weight of Hay per Acre. Barley. 1869. 1870. Dune iq tons ( Nitrate of Soda. 454 stones. 418 stones. °' -' ■ ( Grass Manure. 423 ,, 445 „ Com Manure, &c. i Nitrate of Soda. 425 ,, 401 „ 9 cwts. I Grass Manure. 364 „ 446 „ Average of_ the four plots, .. 416 ,, 427 ,, The second year's yield is in this Case the heavier. It was also much richer in clover; but the cost of production was much greater, the manure of 1870 costing ^2 4s. 3d. per acre more. The Cropping Sheets, however, show 1870 as, on the whole, an inferior season; which placed the second crop at a disadvantage. But this question of the year's hay, though of importance in our system of farming without cattle, is not of consequence in ordinary farming, and need not be discussed further. A proper rotation is at the base of all good farming : and our erratic cropping furnishes some interesting lessons on this head. Now, the hay crop, being the only one of which we have separate field details for four years, supplies the greatest number of facts on this question. Examining our materials, we find fifteen fields available ; two of them in 1870 and 1871, with only one crop between hay and hay; three fields, — one in 1868, one in 1869, and one 1871, with two crops between hay and hay; and the remaining ten fields as examples of no rotation. These facts are, how- 252 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Rotation Teachings of the Lea Hay Crops. ever, few enough; and the gaps in the different years make comparison more difficult: but, averaging for each year these three classes of rotation, the weights are as below. Year. Two-course. Three-course. No-course. 1868 ■ ■• 280 stones. 303 stones. 1869 423 „ 313 „ 1870 267 Stones. ... 320 „ 1871 340 „ 409 „ 308 » Averaging 'and comparing, then, returns of the same year only (otherwise seasons would interfere), we find the three- course rotation averages 371 stones per acre, as against 308 from no rotation. Then the two-course rotation averages 304 stones against 314 from no rotation. Or to put the differences side by side — A two-course rotation averaged 304 stones of hay. No rotation at all averaged 10 stones heavier. A three-course rotation averaged 63 stones heavier still. Our experience is therefore decidedly against no rotation, and still stronger against a so-to-speak two-course rotation. A reference to "Rotation" in the Index will direct to fur- ther facts upon this question. The average profit on Lea Hay from 315 acres, as shown by our actual expenditure and receipts for four years, was ^4 13s. 4^d. per acre ; but this is below the reality, the fog pasturage of 1868 being left out — an omission which would probably add 3s. an acre; bringing the average t0;^4 i6s. Our grass seeds were for only one year's crop, and con- sisted of three pecks of perennial grass seeds per acre, mixed with 6 lbs. of Red and Alsike clovers, and about i lb. of Timothy. But different fields, though seeded alike, showed very different proportions of herbage. 6. Meadow Hay, begins Cropping Sheet No. 6, on pages 256 and 257. The average return was ^6 13s. 6d., the outlay ;^3 i6s. 4}^d., and the profit ;£2 17s. ij^d. per acre ; all much less than for lea hay. The losses shown in 1870 were on fields taken into our hands only that year, and both of them in poor condition. VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. Estimated Expenditure on One Acre of Flax. 253 < o H Oi U <| H Z O o g o iz; < O 2; (73 U CO b£ bo .s .s vu O 3 CO CO f^ u .a bO 3 o a CO ho 3 4-r CO ?; •R o S U < o bo t-, ^ 3 (U 3 a £ a n( tU :§ o H "^ k! o O H H o s o u o H ^54 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Receipts for One Acre of Flax. Returns of Flax Per Acre. 34 stones of fibre, at los. per stone, . ^17 o o 60 „ seed at 2s. 46. „ . 700 Tow, shoves, steep-liquor, &c., . 100 Total return per acre, . . ^£25 o o Deduct total cost, . . . 16 15 o Which leaves of profit, . . j£8 5 o Flax will be found on the same sheet as Meadow Hay; and its financial history in a previous chapter. In 1865 we grew about 10 acres, and in 1866 about 16; in this latter year we also first began to manufacture the fibre. The first estimated cropping expenses and returns were calculated from Irish sources, of which page 253 is a fair specimen. It shows a very handsome profit, such as we never realised. The facts which we can give regarding the Flax crop are not many, its history belonging to the period when our details were less valued and less taken care of. But about 20 acres were . purchased ; and of one lot, said to have been grown upon one imperial acre, the details happen to have been preserved. This purchase, after being six months in stack, weighed, seed and all, 3 tons 23^ cwts. : and, when jippled, there was of seed 85 stones, of chaff 81 stones, and of straw 336 stones. The straw, after steeping, &c., scutched down to 35 stones of fibre, which sold for 9s. 6d. per stone; giving, per acre, ;^i6 12s. 6d. 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"ii >t! in o I p o u] V 1 1 1 s 1 u 1 < U s 1 >- < 1 ^ a g E H "3 SI H >• 4J g o tr^ 00 o\ o P" «^ 00 o i^ VO \o VO t^ P^ VO VO c^ 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 •^ >~t '" »-l •^ M kH 6 „ « ro ■^ li-i VO 00 Ov o z "• VARIETIES OF FARM CROPPING. 257 M N rn •^ iri VO t^ 00 a\ HH z ■^ r4tSi -** 13 >-( ro 00 • ■^ M OH H« •^ "O ■* 'm ►t in i-i 1 »o M . t^ 01 m (L, =« ro VD « « ■^ - in -*« r*S 'M F*> HO* -»" •<3 M « \o t^ CO " •* m ro p -s CO VO r^ CO "-f vn in m m ^5 ^ »-i M ►H hH ^ vO 10 PO n dMi -^* «(« -*» F*) -*l -*N -** -«M ,^n ,4n ,w>I *^ooooooooooooooo J: c T3 »nr^tH t^coo wo mr-o r^»nvio '-COOOOOOi-iO'-'i-.OOOOO .5 o ^3-*O'-«Q000ai'>d-co-<*o tnwi ^SOOOOMOOOOO oo li ^lomcoQCO -< o-*«^eowo '^OOOOOOOOOO'-'OOOO . i a ; s 1,' -\D«C0«ThCsOinCO(»"*OOO Cf3 Vooooooooooooooo o *-i?mmO'-'OmwOi-(mOOwi-iO >p3M0JJBH ■*prcoc»co«eoMco<;o : ; ; : ; ■paiio-a ---------- :|::: •pailSnoid ■a3B3JDV* s 2 o Ed i ' ' ' ' " ' ' % Jli?lll!lrf'«'i S S £. E o S 5 s ^ ^ a 6 i-t « co-*\nsoi>co CT^O w N ec-d-»f! FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 26 1 Oat Crop -Yield and Profit of Ten different Fields. — rt CO ^ 10 \D t- 00 Cfs „ I* CO ■* in z ■^ ■^ bo .5 • ^ ■ s •S to % CO tj T^ ^^ (44 <4« -d- -SO CN 00 ■S -* 'IT ■$ IH s w ^ ^ VO CO IH t^ r~- GO •^ M CTi " "^ m c» 00 CO VO ^0 m -d- 10 -" >> •^ SS "SI -** r+f •** 00 1? -d- 00 CO 00 MM m 1= ^0 'i rr p» r^ •0 CO CO « « VO \n t^ 00 00 j^ VO VO VO ^ \n VO in ■S' ■s TV CO •?? KM -d- ■;S 00 ■* r^ CT' On m *£t I> r^ VO ,° « t^S ■-« IH IH 2 M w CO M e* CO IH " TJ -*! ■S -'t^ - ■ffi -*» S S "^ Cs 13 "* s "4 c* 0^ J? «5 VO ■* ^ r^ CO CO >n -* VO M 2 CO S7 „ M CO p» CO CO CO « CO r, -«. ,-Hi r4* PH -t» M , to c^- ct CO CO ■^ •^ ^ :? ^ '*' -* ^ ^ CJ% «s» -^ ■a s ■^ in •-< •H -* in • c» CO * CO * i ■-fl n a i-H K S IH "^ CO «, M <4 r- "* o^ 00 i> Cs 00 CT* M ■s? >£) I- \o CO 00 CO 00 c> r^ 00 t- SO 00 t- -Jei 2 4 !S IH t ^ 4 if ■a >n ^ y. ^ m ? m -flM Hn •aSeaiDv " •s VO N 00 M a Cs ■K ^ P E . H % q 1 1 1 2 1 1 s bo c ffi >% ^, t t ss 1 ^ 5 5 ^ E s 1 Z 1 ? < IH ' ^ IH ' ' - - ' 1 d „ « CO ■ 2s. 4d. As both the corn and the straw were sold by weight, we have a ready means of comparison between the two. The oats were sold per 9 stones, or 3 imperial bushels; and a comparison of their weight with that of the straw, shows that in 1868, for every 106 lbs. of straw there were 86 J^ lbs. of corn; in 1869, 50 J^; and in 1870, 55 J^ — the average of all three being 605^ lbs. of corn per 100 lbs. of straw : or, to put it roughly, for every 3 stones of corn there FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 263 Potatoes Manured with Clemical Manures only. were 5 stones of straw. Comparing the money-returns of the two, for every ^i obtained for corn, 8s. 3d. was received for straw- Both these comparisons exclude, however, the hinder ends, which are given for two of the years only. The oat crop was, upon the whole, our most successful one. It shows very nearly the highest average profit. Wheat surpasses it as far as mere figures go; but the growth of wheat was confined to a few special fields, and its severity on the soil was much greater. Wheat was also costlier to grow, the outiay reaching £,•] 9s. per acre; while that of the oat crop was only £,^ i8s. Oat straw was also much more saleable in large quantities than wheat straw, being readily purchased both for its feeding and its paper-making qualities. Over the four years, the annual acreage outlay or expendi- ture on oats averaged ;^s i8s. sj^d. ; the income, or actual receipts, ;£\ r 6s. sd. — leaving an average profit of jQ<-^ 7s. ii^d. per acre. The returns are much too few in number to warrant any attempt at comparing the effects of the preceding crops on the yield. 8. Potatoes, detailed on pages 264 a-nd 265, were a very frequent and favourite crop with Mr. Lawson; because they both gave much labour, and seemed to pay well. As far as can be learned from old and uncertain records, there were two acres grown in 1863, thirty-two in 1865, thirty-four in 1866, and twenty-seven in 1867. In 1868, when cattle were discarded, it at first seemed as if potatoes were in danger too ; but a chemical potato manure was then made, and about four cwts. per acre were used to assist a half manuring from the farm-yard. Experiments, tried the same year, proved that, used alone, the chemical manure was quite reliable, and indeed at first it promised to prove antiseptic also, as may be seen in Chapter XX. Next year, therefore, the chemical manure was applied alone, and with the best results; our potatoes selling in Wigton market at id. per stone above the average, and getting a good name every- where. And for this, the seed cannot be fairly credited, as it was bought in the usual way, in small lots in Wigton market. 264 tEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Potato Crop Expenditure from Ploughing to Selling. M -* ^■^ 2 "^ ^ ^ 3? -^^ sS M w ■i!^ CO m Ot CN so ^S ^ ec r* ir CO 11 ON CO VO 1> VD m i-i s M J>. P S? M M M bh **• I> r** •-M -n ■?!■ ON H* ^ VO VI ■* f* •in tJ- CO CO « o\ w •s? n n 1 ■s? r^ C^ t^ (M CO to CO ca-'n X *>« „ p» „ l-t C* r« c» r* IH n IH M Hn £ VO « C\ ■^ ■^ "* CO CO i ^ \n Ul ■>* CO !>. »o tJ- 10 CO VO so "S « li-l. n Cn Ci c* f>» VO ON 10 m . ^ w (n .^ m 1_ M M « CO « r 0M> M SO c^ .£ d •-< ■-" I> CO 3 *3 ^ w f* Cfl « c< ^ CO CO •3uu|snio - ; : = : i : ; 1 ; : : •Suriio^ 'SuiMOJjrH >o w N « 'd- ID •auiqSnoij " - - ■SurqqnjQ P» « f* p* N N e* : ■93BajDV CO »o »o % s S! S 1 ° § 4-1 r- ANDNA FIELD. 1 ■a s •a •3 1 s 1 ^ f - = 00 = ^ - 1 . d M M CO ^ m vo c^ CO o\ ^ '■ _ __ _^ "^ FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 265 Potato Crop — Yield, Profits and Losses of Four Years. < w w u < < 4-1 4-1 C nS Ed cti fd cV o a o o o f O (7v CO ■* On CO CO OS C> ■* CO vo •a ■s ts 5? n j_i ^ ^ '^ o* (*» 3^ "-< CO l^ ■<*■ CN CN W1 Tt- Th 00 »n Th CO E-S ^! VO yD 00 CO r* VO m OS 00 CO c* ■^ ■« -** ^ ■s 1^ sf 7? m f nf'? M « » CC Cs CT> ■* J>. " 00 »n OS 00 S' •s! CO CO CO CO f* CO Pi ^ CO CO M CO S. •£ s « ^ CO ~ 8 vS S t ft R >R to ct ■* Hm - ■3 ■d 1 1 f t 00 00 g ■d s JJ s - - - - , H S & M pq ffl & s 1 ■■< .S^ - , R ^ >• "^ - c* CO -* lO vo J>- 00 c^ m e* ■ 266 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Potato Crop of East Wet-flat. After 1868 the manure used was entirely chemical; and 14 cwts. (the usual quantity applied per acre) contaihed about 7 cwts. of superphosphate, 3 of sulphate of ammonia, 2]^ muriate of potash, ^ salt, and J^ cwt. gypsum. Beginning with the first line of 1869, E. Wet-flat (Orchard) field gives the poorest return. The fault is not, however, in the weight, which is above the average of the year; but in the smaller proportion of large potatoes, and a lower aver- age price, arising from deficiency in size. In looking for the cause of this, the first point that strikes one is the small- ness of the charge in the seed column. The weight of seed planted per acre was 71 stones; while that of West-heads was 150. But on the other hand, Gillbushes No. 5, which had also the least seeding of its year (1870) gives the heaviest )deld of its year. But East Wetrflat differs ; in that the seed, besides being scanty, was also inferior. This field had been irrigated for many years previously, and frequently mown for green food; hence it was in a very dirty state; and though it was lightly steam grubbed in spring, the after-clean- ing delayed the planting till May. But by this time the new seed obtained from Scotland was exhausted ; and to plant this field all the odds and ends had to be'cut small, and planted wide. Another disadvantage was the condition and character of the soil, which was rather too stiff in its nature for potatoes. Late planting might also have been blamed, but that Gill- bushes resembles it in this respect also. Our experience as regards the Potato crop is, upon the whole, favourable to early planting; Mid-heads, the best field of 1869, having been planted in February. But this ques- tion was long a moot one with us, and in 1869-70 was made the subject of an' experiment on East-heads field. The results were at the time pubhshed in most of the agri- cultural papers. Planting was begun in October, and three drills were planted every month; the date of the last plant- ing being May 9th. The sets were Regents, chiefly whole, and varying from 3^ to 1}^ ounces in weight, i^ being the average; and were planted about 9 inches apart. They were sorted from one field's produce, and of a uniform size to insure equality of conditions. The plots, of three drills FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. Autumn Planting of Potatoes a failure. 267 each, were, just before planting, sown with a mixture consist- ing of superphosphate (mineral), 5 cwts. ; muriate of potash, 2^ cwts.j and sulphate of ammonia, i^ cwts. per acre. The March plot was first to turn yellow, then the February one; and after April, all the others ripened simultaneously, except May, which ripened last. All were raised, sorted, and weighed, Oct. 6, with the following results : — Table I. — Autumn versus Spring Planting of Potatoes. Date when Planted. Weather at time of Planting. Weight per Acre. Value per ton Value per as raised. Acre. 1869. Oct. 6.. Nov. 5.. Dec. 15.. 1870. Jan. 12.. Feb. 7.. Mar. 7. . April 8.. May 9.. Mild and dry Cold winds and heavy showers Cold and slight rains. Cold and damp Frost and slight snow. Dry frost Warm Warm tons, cwts, 3 II 8i 6 6j 9 Si 9 loi 8 8 9 li £ s. d. 263 2 5 II 2 n 3 2 lo 9 293 280 280 2 8 5 £ s- d. 8 4 I II 13 5 13 17 9 16 o 7 22 16 2 22 16 7 20 3 2 21 18 9 In the January plot the misses were very numerous ; the April sets were much sprouted ; in May the seed in hand was insufficient, and this month's plot was planted with a mixed lot containing rocks ; it cannot therefore be fairly compared with the others. The column " Value per ton as raised " is calculated from the weights of large, medium, and small, when hand-picked; the large being valued at 4j^d. per stone, the medium at 3d., and pig-potatoes at 2d. These sizes are such as would be sorted by inch-and-half and inch-and-seven- eighths riddlps. Excluding October and November, and also May because of its n^ixed seed, it will be seen that the best quaUty, i.e., the highest value per ton, was produced by the seed longest in the land; December standing highest in this column, then January, February, &c. Thus February, though 5 cwt. per acre less in weight than March, is of almost equal money value per acre; because of its greater proportion of large potatoes, and consequently higher value per ton. 268 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Cultivation of our Potato Land. Autumn planting is here condemned, and the experience of 1869 is confirmed J February and early in March proving superior to any of either eariier or later planting. Frost, and even slight snow at the time of planting, seem also to have been in no vi^ay injurious. Mid-heads, the second field, was the earliest planted; and, - being the first trial on a large scale of the chemical potato manure, it was closely watched by some of the labourers, who were rather opposed to the innovation. The crop, though not the heaviest, is the most profitable (if all the potato land is valued as jQt, per acre better)', — the quality being very good : for, dividing the money returns by the weight in stones, we find that the Mid-heads potatoes sold about 5 J^ d, but Wet- flat and West-heads only about 4^d. per stone. We also find 70-1 per cent, of the potatoes from Mid-heads saleable at this price; but only 58'6 from Wet-flat, and 67 "2 from West-heads. This latter kind of comparison is of great value, a heavy crop of f»za// potatoes being very unprofitable; each ton giving as much trouble, and taking as much from the land, whether the tubers are large or small, or whether they sell at £,t, or £,1 per ton. But this point will be con- sidered presently, and the question investigated whether a lea stubble has anything to do with it or not. This field, like most of our intended potato land, had been deeply steam-grubbed in autumn, and afterwards ridged up for the winter. In spring these drills were generally split and the manure sown on them; they were then har- rowed down, and again ridged up with tiie double mould board plough ; after which the seed was planted and covered in by re-sphtting these drills. In 1870 the potatoes on East-heads and some other fields were planted in the driUs which had stood over the winter, with the view of saving the time and labour of re-splitting them in .spring. As an ex- periment, about a third of an acre was, however, first re-split: and when the crop was weighed in November .against the next ten drills which had not been split, the former proved better in weight by 7 J^ cwts. per acre, value about iss., a sum much more than sufficient to pay for the extra labour. The previous cropping of Mid-heads, as given in the FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 269 Wide Planting produces the Largest Potatoes. Cropping list (page 225), shows this to have been- the fourth green crop in seven years ; and as all these had been well manured, the land was in good condition. Its further production will be found in the Wheat Cropping Sheet, No. 10. West-heads, No. 3, gives the heaviest yield; but in quality and return it stands second, and in profit third. Looking at the various items of expenditure on it, the heavy charge for seed first takes the attention. The weight of seed was about 150 stones per acre, a quantity as much above the average as Wet-flat was below it. The cost of this seems the chief cause of its standing lowest in profit ; probably it was heavily seeded as a farm experiment, but no note of the intention or result was made. Another experiment was also tried in this field, half an acre getting cattle manure ; but the bailiff must have been satisfied with the appearance only, as the threat- ened discomfiture of the chemical manure was never heard of afterwards. The year 1870 presents also some features of interest. Perhaps the first thing that attracts notice is, that a heavy seeded field (No. 4.) is again the worst paying one; evidently 125 stones per acre was beyond the paying quantity. On this question of the most profitable seeding, the chemist tried nearly 70 experiments, which, but for pressing duties, would have appeared in this book. The results are not yet fully analysed, but this much may be said, that the most pro- fitable seeding — taking into account the cost of seed — was 107 stones per acre, of small cut seed, planted 9-inches apart; but that a heavier yield ^^tx acre was obtained from 162 stones of seed. Also, that cut seed was not superior to whole potatoes, if the latter were planted as much further apart as would supply exactly the same weight per acre of seed. It was also found that wide planting produced the largest potatoes ; and that medium-sized seed, say of 2 ounces weight, set about 12 or even fourteen inches apart, promised the best crop, quality being considered as well as quantity. Gillbushes field. No. 5, *ill also attract attention; showing, as it does, a profit of £1 i6s. ^d. per acre ; or rather of" £z «iore, on account of the unexhausted manure and 270 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Loss of Weight in Storing and Sorting Potatoes. tillage, chargeable against the succeeding crops of the course. Its previous history at once explains this : four years of grass till 1869, then oats, and now potatoes; no wonder then if, with a good season, and over 16 cwts. per acre of potato manure, it yields 9 tons, 16 cwts., and 14 lbs. per acre. As weighed into the pits, the weight was 9 tons, 19 cwts., and 97 lbs. : but there is always a loss in storing; and a trial of this year with 1,980 stones pitted in November, and weighed out after about 170 days, showed a loss of about 242 stones, equal to 12 "2 per cent., or 2 cwts. and 50 lbs. out of every ton. This loss was much less where the potatoes were not kept till spring ; for the loss between the field and the selling weight of the S77j^ tons of this year was only 29 tons, 14 cwts. But, seeing that 158 J^ tons of this were sold unsorted, and that the loss of weight must have occurred chiefly in the sorting, let us deduct this 158^^ tons. This, then, shows a _loss,'in the sorting and selling of 419 tons, of 7'i per cent, or I cwt. 47 lbs. out of every ton. Borehole, No. 6, is the next field in point of profit. It received an excessive manuring, getting nearly 21 cwts. per acre of potato manure. About half of the field was very poor, having come into our hands only this year; but even in view of this, the manuring was excessive, and told upon the flavour of the potatoes. They, however, improved with keeping; and the larger part of the crop was sold in February, at the highest price of that yean Beat/s Croft, No. 7, which gives the poorest return in weight and value — ^though not in profit — was also a field just acquired this year ; it also was in poor condition, and might, with advantage to both, have received some of the Borehole field's manure. It underwent much cultivation; getting, besides the usual grubbing, four steam harrowings, and one harrowing by the horses; it shows, notwithstanding, a less costly cultivation than Borehole, which must have been steam-grubbed more deeply. The proportion of large potatoes is, on this and Borehole field, above the average ; which, csupled with the fact that in 1869 Mid-heads was also highest in this respect, suggests the conclusion that grass, the preceding crop- in all three FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 271 Potatoes grown in a Lea Stubble have the largest Tubers. cases, had something to do with it. The proportion of large potatoes has been obtained by taking the weights of the Jarge and the pig-potatoes, and calculating from these the per centages. In 1870 the sales of unsorted potatoes are included in the "large potatoes" column; deducting these, the nett weights of large potatoes were, for No. 4, 513 stones ; No. 5, 521 : No. 6, 783 ; and No. 7, 646^ : calcu- lating, then, from these, the per centages, and comparing Nos. 2, 6, and 7, which had grass or hay as the preceding crop, with Nos. i, 3, 4, and 5, which were preceded by oats, we find the former superior in every case. This will be better seen in the following table. Table II.— Per Cent, of Large Potatoes in the Gross Weights, when this Crop is Grown after Grass and after Oats respectively. After Grass. After Oats. 70-1 68-5 72-0 per cent. 58-0 per cent. 67-2 „ 63-2 63-5 „ Average, 70*2 jj 63-0 „ The difference in favour of planting after grass, as com- pared with oats, is 7-2 per cent., which, on a weight of six tons per acre (the large potatoes seUing at 4j^d. and the small at ij^d. per stone), would amount to a difference of 17s. 6d. per acre; the gross weights, of course, remaining the same. The weight, however, was always less also on the after-lea fields, the deficiency on the above averaging 23 cwts. per acre. But this cannot be entirely attributed to the preceding crop — Gillbushes having special causes for its superiority, as also Beaty's Croft for its infe- riority. But, even leaving out these two fields, our experi- ence is, that, taken after grass, the potato crop is generally lighter, but of better quality ; and as the evidence for the "better quality" is much the surer, I should be inclined to 272 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Potato Drills one Yard in width prove the most profitable. value the lea stubble as worth at least los. per acre to a subsequent potato crop. Increase in the width of intervals between the sets has also been referred to as producing larger potatoes; and naturally one would expect wide drills to have the same eflfect. The following experiments were tried on this latter point in 1869 and 1871 : — Table III. — Experiments as to the Best Width of Potato Drills. size of Drill. Large Pota- toes, p. cent. Seed, per Acre. Weight of Pota- toes, per Acre. Value of Crop, deducting Cost of Seed. 60"! 4i 1869. 1871. 1869. 1871. 1869. 1871. T. C. Lb 6 II 29 5 1445 3 19 72 1869. 1871. Inches. 18 24 27 30 i 43'a 40-7 49'3 6i-s 45 ■+ 44-4 52-7 56-1 56-0 Stones 180 135 108 90 Stones I5ii 135 121 noi lOI T. C. Lb 8 6 96 7 no 6 8 38 6 19 73 £ s. d. 15 6 6 13 3 12 19 15 15 2 £ =. d. 12 16 4 11 2 7 12 15 10 11 2 10 12 14 Ij £. ,. d. 12 19 8 12 17 5 14 4 8 The final averages are here in favour of a drill of 36 inches; for, excluding the 18, 27, and 33 inches' experi- ments as supplying only one year's data, we find the heaviest weight always in the narrow 24-inch drills ; but the greatest proportion of large or high-priced potatoes in the widest, or 36-inch drills; and, balancing these two advantages, the wid^ drills stand the highest The proof is not, however, quite satisfactory; for the 1871 experiments were tried on a much larger scale than those of 1869, and each item of 1871 is the average of two plots placed at some distance from each other. And seeing, too, that the results from 27 and 33 inches are so contradictory to the others, further experi- ment is very necessary to decide the question. Returning again to the Cropping Sheet, the yearly aver- ages call for attention. The year 1870 shows itself in every respect the best season, as is easily seen on arranging the years together, and adding to the profit per acre £3, for unexhausted manure and tillage. FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 2 73 Effects of the Disease on different varieties of Potatoes. Table IV. — Comparison of the Potato Crop Returns OF Four Seasons. Year. Weight per Acre. Per Cent, of Large Potatoes. Average price per Cwt. Profit per acre. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. Avrg. Tons. Cwts. Lbs. 4 7 3S 5 14 7 7 18 14 4 14 80 5 13 66 46-5 667 66-4 37-6 54'3 3S. 3id. 3s. 3 id. 3S. 2S. I lid. 3s. lid. £0 II 2i 2 8 8i 5 6 3 16 4f 1 87 1 would stand at a loss per acre of ;^s os. 8d., because of the disease; there being 296 tons diseased out of a total weight of 474 tons. There were, however, very great differ- ences in this respect, both between the fields and the different varieties of potatoes. The Regents, or rough whites, stood thus — After Oats, Longlands field had 65-4 per cent, diseased. „ Oats, Moss „ 69-2 „ „ „ Oats, Fitz „ 787 „ „ „ Grass, Festival „ 71-3 Preceding crop seems thus to have had little effect ; the only noteworthy feature being that the hardest cropped field, Longlands, shows the least disease, — giving also, as it did, I by 3 cwts. per acre the heaviest crop. As for the differences between varieties, they stand as follows : — Regents were 70-6 per cent, diseased. Rocks were 297 per cent, diseased. Skerries showed very little disease. Without this year's experience, our potato cropping facts would have been very incomplete ; and instead of an annual profit of 16 shiUings per acre, as the average of 221 acres, we should have shown £2 15s. 4j^.d. over 12 ij^ acres. Even with this low rate of profit, potatoes, as a green crop, were preferred to Swedes; the latter always proving very unprofit- 2 74 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Swede Turnip Cropping Sheet. - W Pi u <: w Oh W Pi < >< H W w 05 W Q CO H W P o u-1 VO 1-. 00 CT. O >-• z e*ji c*f -»> ■^a 00 -+ P» CO lO r* ■J V I> r*- •* ■u-t no -* >/1 "-I CO ■SE "a CO W 11 ^ o <^( CO ■o VD >- -* o : ^ « CO CO d CO CO CO CO w i-t «« (4 O CN \o vo o \o w ^5 ^ g CO 00 00 CO 00 CO "* CO £ ■ vn l> M !>■ n 's? u IH M o «- o o M O -T3 o -+ -+ -in s •n? W5 f^ « cl CO CO I-. 0^ -*1 CO o \0 i-i ON o o v. ^ "=h -* "* CO -+ M CO -* -T^ OS '^ O o O O O O O M ■-> 0> CO ■-S '-' •^ o o O ■* I-- c* n O 'n3 to -+ ■d- tT -* -* CO O c^ ■paiio^ \ : I i I : • 1 - -pdMOJJ^H rt n M r» CG 1 „ -paqSnoid : : ^ • M •paqqnjo M M Pl « M : *a3B3J3V CO CO s Q -1 M b R •s S i JS c\ 2 s s CO ^g' R SR ■ 3 1 i t ■1 1 1 X 1 o & 1 i ° 1 ^^ N Z |l FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 275 Thirty-six Shillings Loss per acre per annum by Potato Disease. able, as Cropping Sheet No. 9 (p. 2 74) will show. Potatoes were, however, less cleaning to the land, and much more risky; but, even placing this year of disease against the three good ones of potatoes, Swedes show a much lower average return per acre. If the four years, 1868 to 1872 inclusive, present a fair average of seasons and risks for potatoes, our figures show this risk of disease as 117 per cent. This is obtained by crediting each of the four years with an income of ;£^is 9s. 5d. per acre (the average of the three good years), and then calculating the deficiency of 1871 {£,1 4s. loj^d.) from this average, as risk on £,(ii 17s. 8d. (four times ;^is 9s. sd.). So taken, the risk stands at 117 per cent., and equals j[^\ 1 6s. 2^d. per acre, or a tax of 2s. 4d. in the jQ. 9. Swede Turnips, Cropping Sheet No. 9, show a loss all through ; the final average. No. 7, showing from three years (and 74^ acres) a loss of ;^s 6s. lYe^A. per acre ;— reduced, however, to about £,2 when the unexhausted manure and tillage is valued against the succeeding crops of the course. (See page 274.) The cost of cultivation of this crop may seem excessive, but Mr. Lawson believed in deep cultivation for root crops; and in the autumn of i868 the land was deeply steam-grubbed — four of the seven tines of the grubber being removed, so that all the engine power was concentrated on three tines. Of course the cost of this was heavy, being £2 12s. per acre. The land was then stitched up, so that a large surface was exposed to the winter frosts. The hot, dry summer of 1868 told all over England, making the turnip fields like fallow-land; but our early sowing ensured us a partial crop : and, some of the roots bemg sold at 33s. a ton, this year stands about equal with the others. Most of the j868' crop was carted home and stored in pits, in anticipation of a good spring demand; but 61^ tons, after lying till April, realised only 8s. per ton for sheep on the fog. In 1869 we had fair crops; West-heads, No. 3, testing about 27 tons per acre, and Mire-ing, No. i, about 20. A a 76 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAtf FARMING. A Field Three Years under Wheat. few tons were taken home and eaten by sheep on the fog, the price charged being 8s. a ton ; but by far the largest portion of the crop (at least seven-eighths) were eaten on the land by lambs at 45^d. per head per, week. The returns for this are very low, and led us latterly to prefer potatoes, cabbages, carrots, or anything to Swede turnips whenever a green crop was to be grown. The seed used was chiefly Sutton's Champion. On Swedes we tried many experiments, which cannot at present be given. Cattle manure gave the heaviest yield of them, but not the most profitable crop ; this having been grown by 3 cwts. superphosphate, 2 cwts. muriate of potash, and I cwt. sulphate of ammonia. 10. The Wheat Crop, on Cropping Sheet No. 10, is one of the most instructive. For, as in science far more is learned by failures than successes, so, in farming, the exact record of failures does most for a correct knowledge of the true con- ditions of success. In this crop we have the two extremes of profit and loss : for, valuing the after condition of the land, it shows (in No. 9) the highest profit, and (in No. 5) the heaviest loss experienced in all our cropping. Beginning with 1869, No. 2, C. Wet-flat shows least profit. A reference to its previous history shows it to have been also under wheat in 1868, and that this is its second wheat crop; and it again appears, in No. 5, a third year under wheat, showing a heavy loss. These three wheat crops were tried partly as an experiment, but chiefly to get the three parts of this field all under one crop and into a kind of rotation. In 1867 it was under four different crops ; but after the Cropping Sheet system of accounts was adopted, an effort was made to crop each large field as a whole. The second wheat crop, 1869, had about 10 cwts. per acre of wheat manure, half applied in autumn and half in spring. But even with this quantity of manure its yield is sur- passed by Longlands, No. 3, a field rather over-cropped, but just out of potatoes which had been manured with both cattle and chemical manure. Longlands field had all its manure in the spring, and then only about 3 cwts. per FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 277 Severity of Wheat — it prevents Soil Aeration. . _t — acre of wheat manure ; it shows the highest profit of the three fields of 1869, chiefly because it cost less than the other two for cultivation and manure, and partly from the superior quality of both its grain and straw, which sold at the highest prices; the grain selling at 21s. lod. per 13 stones, a price is. 2d. above the average of the year. Gillgooden field gives the best yield, but not the highest profit. The cultivation was costly, the land being grubbed out of lea in the autumn by steam power, which also gave it six of the eleven harrowings. This field was of a stiff nature suitable for wheat, and the cropping list shows wheat, hay, wheat, hay, and wheat as the cropping for 1867 to 1872; a rotation which does not seem to have been a good one, as will presently be seen. 1870 presents striking contrasts. No. 4 showing over ^11 profit, and No. 5 over ;^2 loss per acre. Taking the failures first, as being the more instructive. No 5 will be recognised as the field of three successive wheat crops. A glance at the manure column shows an attempt to meet this case; 50 tons of cattle manure were applied, being at the rate of 8 tons per acre; it had, besides, 2j4 cwts. of wheat manure in autumn, and 7 cwts. in spring ; the whole costing over _;^ 7 per acre. But nothing can make up for that aeration of the soil which spring cultivation alone can give, and which the ordinary wheat crop always prevents. This is probably the main cause of the severity of a wheat crop ; since it removes from the land but little more than a crop of oats or barley; its roots, too, going so deep during the long winter's rest, in reality it exhausts the surface soil less than a crop of barley. But the airing of the soil in spring, when all nature is alive, and growth is in every breeze, pro- motes the formation of ammonia in the soil, and the release ' of insoluble fertilising matters. Hence the success of Smith of Lois-Weedon, who grew his wheat without manure, by sowing it in wide rows, and cultivating the soil between. But this question requires more experiment and study, and must at present be left an open question. West Wet-flat, No. 6, gives a return even poorer than the third wheat crop of No. 5. In rotation it differs from No. 278 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Wheat Cropping Sheet — Outlay per Acre. ^ -o t- 00 „ {z: '"' '^n ^n' ON -o C\ CTv « co d On ■* c^ ^s ^? C^ CO CO ^ CO ^ ■* CO C\ J> "■ ~5 '" •" " •^ ^- CO -* -d- in ^J M ^ '^ M cc * •* M ■* CO <* X. ^ -_o_ _p_ _P_ _o_ M 00 CN „ 00 CO CO E ^7 M. ■ M ■O IH (M -+ )_ p* cti s *^ ec CO M ■* r- in -* c* VH M m CO 1-1 ti , -3 « t-r "* •n- ^ u^ C^ e^ VI CO "-^ ^ M ._, n HH M •^ in o* 00 .£ = i^ ^ in »n 00 \o 00 r^ « ON c* ^ cc >_i ■-I M M M n l-l H •paiio^ M " - - " - : •p3Aft,0JJBH S CO « -rt ^ 00 Th -- •paqSnoid cr; 1-1 - " - 1-1 tH ■paqqiuo : c* : •aSesjav a' V£S in CC s « 5 4 CO b . }i c ■a « -a so CO .? i ^3 60 C K CO if ^ ^ ^ ^' 6 hJ a cJ ^ F- & Si < f - CC ' ' £ 6 _ PI fr. ■* 10 so ,^ 00 0^ ,^ c* z ^_a_ ■^ FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. Wheat Cropping Sheet — Yield, Profits, and Losses. 279 U .o p.. 00 On ^ P* Z w t a. ■a =r 4> 2 s rt ^ m 1 1 1 1 _!. -^v r*< w -« 00 ON ■ : : ON CO 1-1 ^ (^ C» ^j ' ot* arr n-Bl CO CO \a CO SO ON 0^ H J.., Wl CO OS CO I-.. 2 •+ ■«* *- Ph S; N H XO " -* CO M CO c; T3 -*l Ot4< 2^ ■o N in On n ■* t— CO ON 00 -%^ S ON ^0 £? ON ON CO CO c* OS in -d- ON ^ C\ CO in SO CO J> ■* CO ON x> i-W f-t* HtN V '** •»£ 13 ^o »n ■* c? ON ON m ^^1 S l-> "^ M ON t; ti CX) ^ M c^ ON CO n ■O I> M c* S M _ 11 "Ti^"" -*J* F*) ""h^~ -t3 VO On ON ■^ t^ "* 00 CO n r- n in -si- c? so r^ i ■^ w <** <-*« e*v •aSeaiDv CO \n CO ^0 c* \o 3 4 CO Eu X-- H ■s g 4^ ta Pi S 1 ■d g c E 1 iZ 1 ■a n £ ■a 1 U-i bo nl l-l f CO * 1 •< cpi s co ' > d M N CO "* m r- 00 On ^ C( Z ^^^ ^ 28o TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Eleven Pounds Profit per Acre on East Wet-Flat. 5, only in hay taking the place of the second wheat crop; as, like No. 5, it was also under wheat in 1868. We tried this kind of two-course rotation on two fields, but not with good results. This field when under hay in 1869 (see No. 3 field, No. 5 cropping sheet) had less than half the manure of No. S,. and had this year less manure also, by over £,2 per acre. Weighted even by these odds, No. 6 might have been expected to yield more than the field in a third wheat crop, but it did not, the loss column alone merely showing it not so bad as No. 5. Lookifig now at the successes of 1870; East Wet-flat, No. 4 (another portion of the same field), stands highest, and considerably so; for in the "Total Return" colum.n it has no equal, standing as it does at close upon;£'2o per acre, and this, too, over 8J^ acres, landlbrd's measure. The pre- vious history of this field was : — four years under irrigated grass, then a poor crop of oats in 1868, a poor one of potatoes in 1869, and now in- 1870 a first-class crop of wheat. The soil, as has been before remarked, was one of our heaviest, though far from being a clay soil. It was not suited for potatoes, but the;^s per acre of manure applied for that crop has told upon the wheat. Of manure for wheat, it had about 4)^ cwts. in autumn and 5 in spring. Financially it might have been shown much better, but that the crop was thrashe^ soon after harvest, and most of the corn sold in February at 21s. per 14 stones (196 lbs); only a few bushels of it being sold in summer, when 25 s. were obtained for much of the corn from fields 5 and 6. Mid Heads, No. 7, is another of the successes of 1870. It gave a very fair crop, though not equal to that of No. 4. The soil was lighter; the Heads being a gravel hill, consisting largely of a " shivery sandstone." For the pre- vious potato crop it had rather more manure than No. 4, but gave also a much heavier crop. For the wheat, the manure was very much the same; and difference of soil seems to be the only reason for its yielding i8j4 bushels per acre less than No. 4. Some attributed this deficiency to the deep steam grubbing which Mid Heads had in the autumn of 1868 for the potato crop (No. 4 receiving FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 28 1 Rotation Teachings of our Wlieat Crops. only a light steam grubbing in spring); but difference of soil and position is the more evident reason, the Mid Heads being much more exposed. Having now considered each field by itself, it may be well to compare their returns as affected by rotation, &c. Both i86g and 1870 furnish examples with three different preceding crops — hay, wheat, and potatoes. Where hay was the preceding crop, it had in both instances been pre- ceded by wheat, a fact which should be borne in mind; as wheat after hay, in a proper rotation, might be expected to show a better result. Table V. — Produce of Wheat after Various Crops. Produce per Grain to every Acre. loolbs. of Straw. Wheat grown after potatoes, ... 28-6 bush. ... 51-5 lbs. » „ hay, ... 19-5 „ ... 38-4 „ „ „ wheat, ... i6-6 „ ... 32-3 „ This shows the wheat grown after potatoes superior in every respect; the average of two years giving 28-6 imperial bushels per acre, and showing the straw not quite twice the grain. After hay (preceded by wheat) the yield is much poorer, being only 19 '5 bushels, and the straw is nearly three times the grain. This two-course rotation it will also be remembered, was found to be the worst for hay. But a yet worse rotation is wheat. After wheat the two trials, Nos. 2 and 5, averaged only 16 -6 bushels, and the straw was more than three times the weight of the grain. This field, central Wet-flat, it will be remembered, was three years under wheat; and if we assume its return in 1868 to have been as good as the average, its three crops compare as follows : — Table VI. — Produce of Three Successive Wheat Crops on Central Wet-flat Field. Produce per Grain to every Acie. 100 lbs. of Straw. First Crop, T 868, ... 41 J^ bush. ... 73-4 lbs. Second „ 1869, ... 19^ „ ... 40-8 „ Third „ 1870, ... 14 „ ... 237 „ 2»2 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Acreage Yield and Profits of the Wlieat Crop for Three Years. The season of 1 868 being unusually favourable, the contrast is more striking than perhaps it would otherwise have been ; and the first crop exceeds the second fully twice, and the third nearly three times, in its yield of corn. But the proportion of grain to straw, except in the third season, is not very different from the general average of each year. In the third season, however, it is very low, the average proportion in 1870 being 39*6, but from this third crop only 237; the straw being thus about four times the weight of the grain. Turning our attention now to the average returns for the different years, 1868 is seen at once to be vastly superior to the others. The hot dry summer of that year was extremely favourable for wheat, and the profit shown of _;^i2 12 s. 6j^d. per acre is thoroughly reliable. 1867 stands next in point of profit; but it cannot now be said whether the estimate (for 1867 is only an estimate) was founded upon some actual test of that year or not. 1869 and 1870 stand very much alike ; in both years the worm affected the ears very much ; and some fields promising well, yielded only poor returns when thrashed. This was especially the case in 1870, W. Wet-fiat being very badly affected. Comparing the annual returns in kind, in money and quality, the various years stand as below: — Table VII. — Wheat Crop Comparisons for 1868, 1869, AND 1870. Bushels Average Stones Grain to Year. Acreage. ofWheat price ob- tained Straw every 100 lbs. Profit per acre. per acre. tf'bushel. ^ acre. ofStraw. ' 1868. 26J 4li s. d. 6 8i 24s 73-4 ;^I2 12 6| 1869. 44i 24i 6 loi 222J 47-8 3 14 "i 1870. 42f 234 7 6i 277 39"6 3 4 9i Avrg. ... 30 7 oi 248 S3-6 6 10 9 Each year thus shows worse than its predecessor. Whether 1871 would have followed the same course it is difficult to say; the stacks of that year having been sold by auction for FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. Thin Sowing of Wheat a Failure. 283 _;^247, and a little wheat that had been previously thrashed having been sold for ;£^i6. The 25^ acres thus realised ;^263, or rather more than p^io per acre; but as this was before thrashing, we must, in deducting the average outlay per acre, exclude such charges. This would show a profit per acre of about ;^3 los; so that in all probability, had it been sold in the regular way, it would have proved superior to either 1869 or 1870; though very much inferipr to 1868, which must be looked upon as quite an exceptional season. Thin sowing of wheat has been much advocated, and was twice made the subject of experiment at Blennerhasset. The first trial was made in 1869 on the Gillgooden field. One and two imperial bushels per acre respectively were drilled in by the machine, each plot measuring about three-fourths of an acre. The produce was speedily thrashed (Sept. 8th), and gave the following results : — Table VIII. — Experiments on Wheat sown by the Drill AT the rate of One and Two Imperial Bushels, i 868-9. Seed per acre, I bush. Yield per acre ofWheat. Bshls. Pecks. 27 2i 29 Oi Weight per Bushel. 64 lbs. 64i „ Yield per acre of Straw. 36 1 cwts. 34^ » Com to 100 of Straw. 42-9 48-6 In the above experiments, the thin seeding is in every way, except the weight of straw, behind the 2 bushels seed- ing. The differences were, however, slight: and as we had a leaning towards thin seeding, another and more complete trial was resolved upon. And, as the farm bailiff believed in " the drill for oats, but the hand iai wheat," one plot sown broadcast by himself was included. This second trial was made in 1869-70, in West Wet-flat field ; and the results were pubhshed at the time in several of the agricultural journals. The report stated that " thin sowing is so strongly advocated by some who are favoured with a milder clirpate than ours, that the following results of a trial 284 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMINa Drill-sown Wheat — Two to Fourteen Pecks per Acre. of it, as against medium and thick sowing, will prove useful. The winter was a severe one, and well calculated to test the matter thoroughly ; its severity is well shown by the com- parative smallness of the yield, the best not giving eight Carlisle bushels per acre. The field sloped gently to the north; and the soil, though too light to be a good wheat soil, was otherwise in fair condition. The previous crop had been first year's .hay. The land was well grubbed and ploughed in September, and the wheat sown Oct. 22, in favourable weather. The seed — Hallet's White Pedigree, of two years' previous home growth — was well brined before sowing. Each plot was two drill widths, and measured over a quarter of an acre ; except the hand-sown plot (broadcast), which was one ijieasured acre." Table IX. — Thick versus Thin Sowing of Wheat, 1869-70 — Second Experiment. Total Dressed Corn Wght. Corn No Seed per Corn less the straw per to 100 Acre. per acre Amount of per Bushel acre. of in Lbs. Seed. straw Bshls Pks. Bshls. Pcks. Cwt. Qrs. 'I broadcast by hand 2 I 842 12. ■l\ S6| 40 171 2 Drill 6 inch rows. 2 905 13 14 58i 46 I 17-6 3 ., 12 I 711 II of 58 3" 2 20 '2 4 12 ,, . 2| 857 14 o\ 58i 31 2 24-2. 5 6 3 2f 993 n' li 584 49 3 17-9 6 12 ,, 1 2| 836 12 2i 5S4 36 3 20 '3 7 6 1 24 1308 20 I 59i 43 2 26 '9 8 8 I 24 1007 IS li 594 40 22-5 9 8 2 ■ 1146 17 I 594 40 2 25-3 ip , 8 2 3 1117 16 I 58i 33 2 27-0 II 8 I 04 955 15 of 59 34 25 -o " The results show hand-sowing inferior to the drill. Of the drill-sown plots, i J^ bushels in six-inch rows gave the best return. But, taking the experiments as a whole, the eight- inch rows prove superior; and at eight inches, two imperial bushels of seed per acre gave the best return : and a close analysis of the results shows that any seed over that quantity lessens the crops. Plots 6, f, and 8 were sown at as nearly .the same rate per acre as the drill would permit. Plots 2, FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 285 Wheat drilled in Eight-inch Rows does best. 3, and 8, had the same quantity of seed per row, though, of course, different quantities per acre. Plots 4 and 1 1, and 5 and 10, had also the same seeding per row." The report took up merely the main practical conclusions, as, at the time, further experiments were contemplated. But, now that these are impossible, it will be well to see what other lessons are taught by these experiments. First, as regards the space between the rows of drill-sown wheat, let us compare the results from the three different intervals experimented upon. At 6-inch intervals. At 8-inch intervals. Bush. Pecks. Bush. Pecks. A seeding of more than 2j^ bushels gave - 13 i^ .. 16 i „ about 2 ,, „ . 13 4 .. 17 I „ less than 2 ,, „ . 20 i ..15 i^ Average of the three, 15 2^ .. 16 i This shows the eight-inch intervals superior to the six-inch. The twelve-inch intervals could not be compared in the above, the quantities of seed being too small ; but vfith two of the eight-inch intervals they may be compared. of about I'A 8-inch intervals. Bush. Pecks. [ bushels, 15 I J i2-inch intervals. Bush. Pecks. 12 2i less than I I . IS of II 14 0? Averages, .15 i . . 12 2^ This shows the eight-inch intervals superior to the twelve- inch, the difference being considerable. I^ooking now at the quantities of seed per acre, let us divide these into classes, and compare their averages. Intervals. Over3B.shls. Between2&3. About 1 4 bshls. Underijbshls. Inches. Bshls. Pecks. Bshls. Pecks. Bshls. Pecks. Bshls. Pecks. 6 ... 13 ij ... 13 li ... 20 I ... — — 8 ... — — ... 16 I ... 15 ij ... 15 of 8 ... — — ... 17 I ... — — ... — — 12 ... ... ... 12 2^ ... II of 12 ... ... ... ... 14 0} Avrgs, 13 a 15 2^ 16 o 13 286 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. One and a Half Bushels of Seed per Acre gives the best Crop. This shows that about 1% imperial bushels was the best quantity of seed for drill-sowing. The 2 bushels per acre is not far behind it; and if we discount the exceptional yield of Plot 7, the 2 bushels shows decidedly the better; and as such I should be inclined to regard it. But, as noted before, every increase of seed beyond 2 bushels per acre reducfed the yield of grain. Testing, now, the quality in the same manner, as it is shown by the weight of the wheat per bushel, and by the proportion of corn to straw, we get the following averages : — Weight per Bushel. Com to ' 100 of Straw. 6-inch intervals. 58-8 lbs. 20-8 8 „ 2 59'2 „ 58-2 „ 24-9 2 1 '6 Agajn the 8-inch intervals stand in every respect superior, the wheat being the heaviest, and the proportion of corn to straw the largest. But between the six and twelve-inch intervals there is less to choose, the six-inch being superior in weight per bushel, but inferior in the proportion of corn to straw. Comparing now the quality from the different quan- tities of seed, we get the following averages : — Com Quantity of Seed. Weight per Bushel, to 100 of Straw. 2 bushels and over, ... 58-75 lbs. ... 2i'95 About ij^ bushels, ... 59*25 „ ... 23'23 Less than I J^ bushels, 58'4i „ ...• 23'i3 This again shows the ij^ bushels superior. And as the' solitary plot seeded with 2 bushels (No. 9) is still better, showing a weight of 59*5 lbs. per bushel, and a proportion of 25*3 of corn to every 100 of straw, the former conclusion — tkat any increase of seed over 2 bushels deteriorates the crop — is again ratified. The weight of straw per acre might be also analysed, but perhaps we have already dwelt too long on the results of only two years' experiments. Our chief reason for this is that we were prejudiced in favour of thin seeding ; but from the above, and from some informal experiments, we have FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 287 Average Crop Profits and Losses at Blennerhasset. been convinced that in the North of England " one imperial bushel of seed" is much too litde; and that the best quantity is from i ^ to 2 bushels, sown by the drill, and at 8-inch intervals. After wheat we always valued the land as ;^i per acre worse, even when much manure had been applied. This valuation was an arbitrary one ; but, even with this disadvan- tage, the wheat crop proves about the best in our experience : for, taking the average profit, as shown in the cropping sheets (most of which are the average of three and some of four years), and deducting from this the rough estimated improvement or deterioration of the land, the average re- sults are as below. Table X. — Average Profits obtained per Acre, from Thirteen different Crops, in 1868, 1869, and 1870. And these also as affected by the Abiter-condition OF THE Soil. Kind of Crop Average Profit or Soil Improved or Nett Profit or '^' Loss * per Acre. Impoverished. * Loss • per Acre. Barley £4. 19 6^ *£i 00 ^^3 19 ^i Cabbages 0178 200 2 17 8 Carrots 4 2 loj 400 82 loj Flax S 10 10 *i 00 4 10 10 Lea Hay. 4 13 4^ o 10 o 5 3 4i Meadow Hay 2 17 i^ o 10 o 3 7 i^ Mangolds...... 03 ij 3°° 33 li Oats, Common 5 7 rij *i o o 4 7 ni Oats, Canadian 3135 *i o o 2 13 5 Pasture Grass 12 10 100 22 10 Potatoes *2 3 7| 300 o 16 45 Swede Turnips '''5 63^ 300 *2 6 3^ Wheat 6 10 9 *i o o 5 10 9 * An asterisk prefixed to a sum signifies a loss. Carrots is the only crop in the above that exceeds wheat, but as it is not a general farm crop, and can be grown to pay as above only on special soils, wheat stands highest in our experience. Second to wheat conies lea hay, then flax 268 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Brief Summary of the Chapter. (a very doubtful case), then oats, barley, meadow hay, man-^ golds, cabbages, &c., &c.; swede turnips alone showing a positive loss. It must, however, be borne in mind that the above estimates of the improvement or the impoverishment of the soil are not general, but particular, the quantity of manure and the cost of tillage having been considered in each case. But this question is a large one, and as we had to value the after-condition of the land for the balance sheets of 1869 and 1870; the figures we adopted, and our reasons for adopting them, are the subject of fuller consideration in the next chapter. Exclusive of the Field Balance-sheet facts, which could not be epitomised here, the main points of this chapter may be briefly summarised as follows : — 1. That the best time for planting potatoes was in February or early in March. 2. That neither frost nor snow, at planting time, seemed to affect the crop. 3. That potato drills, twice split, grew a heavier crop than those once split. 4. That the fields heaviest seeded with potatoes paid worst. 5. That by re-splitting our potato drills, the crop was increased 7 J^ cwts. per acre. 6. That about 12 'tons of potatoes stored in pit for £70 days, lost nearly 2 J^ cwts. in each ton. 7. That 419 tons of potatoes lost, between storing in pits and sorting for sale, i cwt. 47 lbs. in each ton. . 8. That potatoes grown after grass were of better quality, though less in weight, than those grown after oats. 9. That 36-inch potato drills grew a better quality, though less weight, than narrower drills. 10. That in 1871 our Regent potatoes were diseased more than two-thirds, the Rocks less than one-third, and the Skerries hardly at all. 11. That in the four years 1868-1871 our loss by potato disease averaged 11. 7 per cent 12. That our best wheat crops were grown after potatoes, poor ones after hay, and still poorer ones after wheat. FIELD AND CROP BALANCE SHEETS. 289 Brief Summary of Chapter xvi. 13. That in sowing wheat by the drill, about ij^ bushels, and certainly not more than 2 bushels, per acre, proved the best seeding. 14. That 8-inch intervals proved the best for drill-sown wheat. 15. That in point of profit, our crops stood thus: — Carrots, wheat, lea hay, oats, barley, meadow bay, &c. ; pota- toes standing last in point of profit; and swedes alone proving a loss. 290 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Six Years of Farming with Cattle and Four without Cattle. CHAPTER XVII. MANURES AND THEIR -^ALUE. Mr. Lawson's first intention was to have a great stock farm, after the plan of Mr. Mechi's at Tiptree Hall; and hence the name " Mechi Farm" at first given to the estate. Farming was commenced in February, 1862, but it was 1865 before the farm buildings were all completed and atten- tion turned to farming alone : 1866 is, accordingly, the year of greatest activity. Stall-feeding of sheep was tried then, and large sums were expended on cattle, sheep, and feeding stufis. The Newcastle and Carlisle shops were also then opened, as outlets for the milk, beef, mutton, and vegetables. But, as has been seen, the profits bore an inverse ratio to the activity; p.nd, as 1867 proved no better, it was evident that change of some kind was necessary. It was then that Mr. Lawson decided to try farming widiout cattle ; and hence, after 1867, only a very trifling head of stock was kept, the numbers being gradually reduced, till, in 1870, only two cows remained. This gives six years' farming with cattle, and four without them. The latter mode of farming, though too brief for any decisive results as an experiment, is not without interest. Throughout this chapter, facts from various sources, which were found of value to ourselves, are given ; both as explain- ing the ground of the experiment, and also in the belief that agricultural readers will find them useful. The question of unexhausted manures is noticed, and our attempts to estimate their value described. The composition of the special manures used on the farm is explained, and their advantages and disadvantages are compared with those ot farmyard manure. Some recent analyses of farmyard manure are also given, and their values estimated. Soil exhaustion, too, is touched upon; and the severity of the different crops in this respect compared and roughly estimated. The first point to be taken up is the value of manure MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 29 1 Annual Values of Manure Applied at Blennerhasset. applied each year — an amount which varied from less than £,2 up to nearly £fi per acre. To include in those amounts the cattle manure is a little difficult, but it may be approxi- mately estimated. Up till 1867 the cattle made into meat, milk, and manure, — unfortunately chiefly manure, — the pro- duce of nearly 300 acres : as only £, 1,376 worth, or just jQ\ per acre of farm produce was sold during that period. In addition, the cattle and horses consumed j£5,2^2 worth of purchased foods, chiefly oats. To estimate the farm pro- duce and the resulting manure, the annual produce may be safely estimated at ;^6 per acre — a sum 25 per cent, lower than our average annual sales. On this basis 1862-4 would supply per annum ;^J:,s6o of farm produce, and 1865-6, ;^i,8oo. Deducting now the trifling sales of farm produce, and dividing by five, we should come nearly about the value of the cattle manure. One-fourth the value of the food might perhaps be nearer Messrs. Lawes and Gilberts' estimates; but, considering the kind of food, it is well to keep on the safe side, and to estimate the manure at only one-fifth. Dividing also the purchased foods by five, and adding both sums together, we get the figures given below for cattle manure, for 1862 to 1866 inclusive. After that period, the expenditure on cattle being separated from that of the farm, the manure used by the farm was credited to the cattle at the rate of 7s. 6d. per ton. Table I. — Manure Applied to the Blennerhasset Farm, per Annum and per Acre, 1862 to 1872. Year. Cattle Purchased Total Acreage Manure Manure. Manures. Manure. each Year. per Acre. *l862-4 £ii9& ;^I386 £2^84 260 £3 6 3 1865 490 42s 915 300 3 I 1866 742 1013 I7SS 300 5 17 1867 148 372 520 296 I IS I 1868 los 531 636 296 2 2 II 1869 12 638 650 296 2 3 10 1870 37 1374 1411 382 3 13 10 1871 33 1448 1481 380 3 17 II Avrgs. . . 276i 7i8| 995 i 303 3 5 .8 *The figures of the first line are those of three years. 292 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Heavy Manuring in 1866. The purchased-manure column includes lime and also farm-made compost. For 1866 the figures are alarming; but of the ;^s 17s. worth of manure per acre, probably nearly ;£'i worth should go to 1867, bringing it up to ;^ 2 153. per acre. But even deducting ;^i from 1866, the manuring of that year must have been enormous. Cattle food, chiefly oats, were purchased, costing J[,z\()(i, and must have been nearly all consumed during the year, as the greater number of the cattle and sheep were sold by auction early in 1867. The manure accounts show 108 tons of purchased manure applied in 1866 ; and of this at least 60 tons were bones, in one form or another. The cattle manure, too, so abounded, that much had to be stored in great heaps ; four or five of which ' were to be seen in the spring of 1867, placed in the comers of the larger fields. Most of them were covered over with soil, which was a partial protection; but much must have been wasted. In 1868 the .^£105 worth of cattle manure was applied chiefly to the i6}4 acres of potatoes; which received besides about 4 cwts. per acre of potato manure. In some of the experiments it was necessary to assume a certain composition for the cattle manure ; a difficult matter, depending, as it does, chiefly on the contained nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash: the following analyses may, however, be taken as samples. The prices used in the valuations are as follows : — Nitrogen, lod. per lb.; from Nitrate of Soda at 15s. percwt. Phosphoric Acid, 3^d. per lb. ; from Superphosphate (28) at 4s. 6d. per cwt. Potash, 2d. per lb. ; from Muriate of Potash at gs. 6d. per cwt. These are pretty nearly the present market values; but the tendency is even yet upwards. To value manures from an analysis, at the above rates, the multipher for nitrogen would be i8s. 8d. per. unit; for phosphoric acid, 7s. (equal to 5s. oj^d. for bi-phosphate, or 3s. 2^d. for bone earth made soluble) ; and for potash, 3s. 8^d. per unit. The first is the average of eight, by Dr. Anderson (pub- lished in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1871); the second is the lowest of these eight; MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 293 Farmyard Manure — Analyses and Values of Six Samples. and the third is the highest. No. 4 is an analysis by Dr. Voelcker of good manure when fresh ; and No. 5 the same when rotten after standing a year, with the loss of about half of its original weight ; No. 6, by Mr. W. C. Spooner, is taken from page 103 of " Hints to Farmers," a useful book, published by George Routledge; and No. 7 is the average of all, except the highest; which was thought too uncommon, and therefore likely to spoil the average. Table II.— Quantities and Values of Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and Potash in one Ton of Farm- yard Manure. No. Authority. Nitrogen. Potasli. Phos. Acid. Value per ton. I Anderson, . 9i lbs. 9 lbs. S lbs. £0 10 84 2 Do. . 4i .. 2i „ 3f „ s li ^ Do. . 62i „ 42 „ 46 „ 3 13 Si 4 Voelcker (fresh) . Hi „ IS ., 8| „ 17 4 ■S Do. (rotten) I3i „ Hi „ 124 „ 17 li 6 Spooner 9 .. 7 „ 7 ,. 10 loj 7 Average of five . 10 ,, 8| „ 7i „ 12 2j The average thus shows a value of 12s. 2}4d. per ton; but as these analyses must be chiefly of manure made by cake-fed stock, Nos. 1 and 6, value about iis. per ton, are perhaps nearer the common average ; and it is only through mismanagement that cattle manure can ever analyse like No. 2, value ss. i}^d. Professor Voelcker found that in fer- mentation, a manure heap, when freely exposed to the weather, lost nearly half its weight in twelve months; and this not so much by evaporation as by drainage — ati evil quite preventible by keeping the manure under covef, or spreading it when fresh on the land. At the time that Professor Voelcker analysed Nos. 4 and 5, nitrogen was very much cheaper and the other two substances dearer; and 13s. 6d., instead of 17s. 3^d. per ton, was the estimated value of No. 4. I now pass to the consideration of the chemical or arti- ficial manures; of which ;£jiS'j worth was used on the farm during ten years, being at the average rate of ^2 is. 4d. per 294 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Composition of the Special Manures Mixed at Blennerhasset. acre per annum. Bones were largely used at first; but, for reasons before stated, none were purchased after 1866. In 1867, special manures were mixed for the various crops; but their composition was altered yearly, as the field experi- ments of the previous year suggested improvements. Below is a statement of their general composition per cent., for 1869 and 1871; and the manures are mentioned in the order in which they are afterwards considered separately: — Table III. — Composition per cent, of the Special Manures made in 1869 and 1871. No. Manures. Wheat. Grass. Potato. Turnip. Sulphate of Ammonia . Nitrate of Soda . 1869 1871 1869 1871 iS69'i87i 1869 1871 I 2 13 27 13 21 13 22 3 14 S Peruvian Guano . 6 6 4 . , 4 , , 4 Muriate of Potash 4 , , 4 10 IP 20 s 9 S Dissolved Bones . q 9 !■; , , 22 6 7 8 9 Superphosphate . Bone Dust and Sulph- ate of Magnesia . Manure Drier Price per cwt. 44 7 S 7 62 6 5 44 7 S 7 60 S 4 36 S 4 4 ~9f SO S 3 48 8 i 6 70 7 8/3 8/9 8/3 8/9 9/9 7/3 7/9 Looking now at these special manures from the stand- point of six years' experience on our light land, we would be inclined to alter some of them still further. The potato and turnip manures of 1871 are, as far as our land was con- cerned, nearly the best we could make with the raw materials offered in the market. But, for wheat, a better mixture would be about half sulphate of ammonia and half super- phosphate; four cwts. to be applied in autumn, and, if necessary, to be aided in April by i or 1 J^ cwts. of nitrate of soda, per acre. For oats, the wheat manure may be used, if sown early, say in March; but, after this month nitrate of soda is preferable. For barley, on our light soil, nitrate of soda used alone proved superior; but, generally, we would 295 Sulphate of Ammonia and Nitrate of Soda. prefer, say i ^ cwts. of nitrate with 2 y^ cwts. of superphos- phate ; decreasing the latter in proportion to the lateness of application. For grass, the kind of manure depends more upon the nature of the soil ; and our experiments on this are given in a special chapter. For cabbages, the potato manure did well; but for carrots, the turnip manure is better. For mangolds, when cattle manure cannot be had, the potato manure is the next best. The raw materials going to make up these manures re- quire some short notice : each is taken in the order mentioned in the preceding Composition table. Sulphate of Ammonia, No. i in the above table, was a manure very largely used by us; and tried frequently on grass, oats, potatoes, &c., against nitrate of soda. The parcels bought were always subjected to some general tests; and two purchases .were analysed, one of which showed the high strength of 25-47 per cent, of ammonia. In the experi- ments it was generally valued at 23-85, equal to 19-64 per cent of nitrogen; or 22 lbs. in each cwt. of the manure. Nitrate of Soda, No. 2 in the table, was estimated to con- tain 18 lbs. of nitrogen per cwt. of manure. This equals 16-07 per cent, and allows some margin for the trifling im- purities generally met with in commercial, samples. Not • much was used ; chiefly because of its damp nature, which spoiled several of our first attempts at making a wheat- manure. One lot, weighing some four or five tons, grew heavier and pastier every day; and finally we had to re-mix it in small quantities with other manures. Peruvian Guano, No. 3, was estimated to supply, per cwt., 14 lbs. of nitrogen, or 12 "5 percent.; equal to 15-18 per cent, of ammonia. This was about the average of good guano up to 1870, when we made our last purchase;, but the general published analyses of the dealers were always higher; they, of course, showing their best to intending purchasers. Muriate of Potash, No. 4, ranged in strength from 80 to 83 per cent, containing about 58 or 60 lbs. of potash per cwt Sulphate of potash was purchased only for the experi- ments, and analysed 83-4 pet cent Dissolved Bones, No. 5, were our own make, and the 296 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Dissolved Bones — Method and Cost of Making. bones used were chiefly shanks, the hardest and most phos- phatic kind. For dissolving, we used white vitriol of full strength; thinking it cheaper to purchase this because of the very heavy railway carriage. Brown vitriol of i '40 specific gravity, being about half water, its purchase doubles the already almost prohibitive cost of railway carriage. To our strong vitriol much water had, of course, to be added : and in the following details of a two months' making, the quan- tities are well proportioned : — Ground Bones, z8 tons, 4cwts, olbs.; eqiialtoSg'Spercent. WTiite Vitriol, 9 „ 19 „ 47 „ „ 21 -I „ Water, 9 „ o „ o „ „ 19-1 „ Totals, 47 „ 3 „ 47 „ 1000 The labour of dissolving this cost;^i2 ros. 6d., or 5s. oj^d. per ton. It employed two men, at 1 7s. each per week, for about seven weeks. Two fire-clay troughs were used, both much too small for the purpose. Into these the bones, chiefly about quarter-inch, were first placed; water was then. poured over them, and afterwards the acid ; the mass was then well stirred for a few minutes, and allowed to stand while the other trough was being emptied and refilled. The contents, when lifted out, were hot and steaming; and in this state were placed on the top of the heap, which at one time reached a height of nine feet. The dissolving was always done in the autumn, so that several months elapsed before use. In spring the mass turned out comparatively dry, but could never be compared with the purchased superphosphate. Before the chemist came, salt was largely used in the process of dissolving; with the result of a wet compound, difficult to dry; and then hot lime had to be employed to make it usable. No exact analysis of these dissolved bones was ■ made; but 10 '3 of bi-phosphate, equal to i6'o of soluble phosphate, 17 "8 of insoluble phosphate, and 2-0 of ammonia, would be about the per centage composition. The superphosphate. No. 6, was Packard's make, and purely mineral. It analysed i8'23 of bi-phosphate, equal to 28-55 of soluble phosphate; but was guaranteed only 25, and is taken generally as 27. It was always dry and mealy. MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 297 A want of Method in the Earlier Cropping and Manuring. The salt, No. 7, was principally bacon sweepings, contain- ing a trace of saltpetre. , The manure-drier, No. 9, was partly bone-ash pulverised to a meal; which, being sharp, kept the manures free for sowing. Latterly the manure-drier used was a desiccated gypsum — a very good substance for the purpose, but liable to cake the manure if added in too great quantity. The sulphate of magnesia, except that used in the hay experiments, was the calcined variety; but, as is shown in the experiments on hay, this salt was not of much use. Only about 8 tons of it were purchased, in the earher part of the business. These different manures, alone, and in mixture, were largely used on the farm, as has been seen ; and at first but little method was shown in their application, many fields being overdosed and others neglected. This may be gathered from the fact, that though no rotation was followed, no reli- able record was kept of the cropping of the different fields. Latterly some attention was paid to previous cropping and manuring, but the early neglect led to some confusion, and hence such a course of cropping as that on East Long- lands, which was not once in hay for ten years. These shortcomings, however, would all have been rectified through, time; for hay and rotation were growing in favour; a favour which would have been greatly increased by the study of our cropping sheets. For it should be borne in mind that the cropping sheets for each year were never made out until nearly every scrap of that year's produce had been sold and paid for. This generally delayed their appearance till about eighteen months after the end of the calendar year. As a consequence, the cropping details of 1870 were not ready till some time after the estate was sold; and the useful lessons on rotation which they teach came much too late to be of any practical use to us. Unexhausted manures and tillage have been referred to, as affecting the profits and losses shown by the different crops. This difficult question we tried to solve by experi- ment; but found that a three years' trial only seemed to increase the difficulties ; and that many and long-contiaued 298 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Rotation Experiments with various Weights of Manure. ^ « CO -d- li^ VO t^ 00 Ov HI . z HI HI £S r«> r*l H« -«l •*l -J "<3 CO Tj- t~. t^ to 10 CO 00 HI HI 00 •* V CO vO o\ VI 00 CO Ht 00 10 ■* ^s •^ *-i *~* H* HI HI _3 ^ ■Ln r^ M 10 t^ VO VO tl CT> HI in "m oi s? CO Tt- ■* ■^ CO CO ■* ■* ■* ■* CO >g lA t-* o\ N to HI 00 VO CO in jQ o\ W3 CO cq v> 00 CO tl a >. tn 1 CO t^ '^ ^ ^ VO HI « M ■■E-; 01 « « CI « N C^ M M M « ^ ■st- 00 00 10 ^ VO ON M 00 VO ^ l-l ci « CO M u-» ■<1- ^ M m 1 m u \o m VO N 5 00 Ov C« i_i CO ^ io \j-i ■^J- ■* 4 •* CO CO CO ■ cd ri4 u a** WW '^f H!M H« mhe H* 'i- •* o\ CO !>. 'J- CTi t^ N 00 5J R s VO 00 « M o\ a\ VO W J CO 00 00 nl 1^ u P4 H t^ ►1 o\ r^ VO Ov " OV t^ d • • - in • • • §" . en 5 CO 00 a" o\ • s s C4 VO • s S 3 PS a 1 ' Jf § i" • £J § a" sT • :3 1 1 1 i 1 1 3 i i R 4-1 ri s 1 iz; Pk fe Pk h ^ Pk fe (S Ph !? d M « CO * 10 VO f^ 00 ov ^ ^ ..«« HI ^14 MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 299 Necessity for Long- continued and Numerous Field Experiments. experiments would be necessary, to lessen the amount of error from differences of season, soil, &c. To this end more than one series of experiments were in progress when we gave up farming in 1871. In the absence of anything better, the results' of this three years' trial may be given. First among its drawbacks stands a piece of land too high in condition; this the unmanured plots show. Secondly, the occurrence of a very bad season, when the plots were under wheat; and thirdly, the occurrence, conversely, of a very good season, when they were under grass for hay — a season so good for this crop, that the want of manure told but httle against a heavy yield. A glance at the results of the third season, suffices to show that the above experiments are quite insufficient, for anything hke a satisfactory solution of the question of the after value of the manures. These experiments are therefore offered only as a contribution to this subject. Other facts bearing also on the same question, are furnished by the series B, C, and D of the three years' continuous experiments on potatoes in Chapter XX. But all these, and many others of a similar nature on oats, barley, &c., were found quite inadequate to form a satisfactory basis, for a valuation of the unesdiausted manures. But it became imperative, in the end of 1870, that some attempt should be made to estimate the after-value of the ;^rsoo worth of manure applied that year, and with the re- sponsibility of this attempt the chemist was saddled. On looking into the literature of the subject he found many diverse opinions. Messrs. I^awes and Gilberts' suggestions could not apply, being based on the amount of the produce, and with reference to the cattle feeding and manure. One estimate that bore the stamp of authority, occurred in a paper on Tenant Right, read by Professor Wrightson before the Hexham Farmers' Club in January, 1872. The Professor, in this paper, quoted a Mr. Piper, who had reproduced from the scheme of an eminent land agent in Devonshire, as follows : The tenant to receive compensation for unexhausted improvements according to the following rules — I. Bone manure with turnips over 300 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FAJIMING. Our Attempts to Value the Unexhausted Manures of 1870. five years, ist year, 20s. in j£; 2nd year, los.; 3rd, 5s.; 4th, 3s.; 5th, 2S. Rule II.^-Guano over four years, ist, 20s.; 2nd, 8s.; 3rd, 4s.; 4th, 2S. Rule III. — Super- phosphate of lime and turnip manure, same as Rule II. Rule IV. — Corn, linseed, or oilcake, used in last year of tenantcy by fatting cattle or sheep, to be repaid one-fifth. Rule v.— Purchased yard, pig, or any decomposed manure, ist year, 8s. in the £ ; 2nd year, 4s. But these rules, though they might be applicable where a regular rotation was pur- sued, and much of the crop consumed by cattle, were much too favourable for us ; giving, as they would have done, a valuation of ;£'6oo for unexhausted chemical manures alone. Puzzled here, the next attempt was a more scientific one ; and consisted in valiiing the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, removed by the crops from the soU. But here one great difficulty, only to be appreciated by those who have tried it, was to know the normal composition of the ash of the various crops — the various authorities differing so much in their results. However, averages were taken of published analyses by Professor Voelcker and A. J. Sibson, his late assistant; and generally too, of those by Messrs. Lawes and Gilberts. Table V., page 301, shows the averages so obtained, and gives also an approximate valuation of each. The nitrogen is calculated at lod. per lb., the phos- phoric acid at 3|^d., and the potash at 2d. per lb. Perhaps the most notable point in this table is the com- parative severity of the Lea hay crop, which much exceeds that of any of the commoner green crops. The difierence lies chiefly in the amount of nitrogen it removes ; -and, as nature supplies much of this, all of the above valuations must be looked upon as merely comparative. This scientific basis will doubtless be recognised by many readers, as an attempt to construct for our farm, that " chemi- cal balance-sheet" of the incomings and outgoings of a farm; which an eminent chemist, many years ago, had recom- mended to be done by every farmer. As the seeming simplicity of the scheme may have charmed others, as it did ourselves, it may be well to give the total additions of the two sides of the account, as it stood for about 360 acres of MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 301 Weight and Value of Manurial Matters Removed by Various Crops. \J~i \0 t-^ CO 01 u u « a,-a S ■^ 3 5 «rt 0^ m O O en "*0 *-« 1= i i t^ 0^ 00 i pi 8 CO ON ro ro s - ~ - : : ; : - ;; - :; n\ t^ fT. 00 *^ vn 3 VO J>. 00 ■* !-• CO § S 2 e s s 1 :; - - - :: -° H n N N 1 >o « ■* VO lil VO &> w pq o Pl( S U 302 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The " Chemical Balance- Sheet" idea practically absurd. our farm. The manure account includes that applied the preceding autumn : — Value of the Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, and \ r,, s u e. Potash removed by the Crops, . . J •«.'540 " ° Value of Manure applied, . . . 1534 S 4 Balance against the I^nd, . . . ;^I4 6 2 It was self-evident that this estimate could not be practically true, and that jQ^ 6s. per acre of manure could not be re- quired every year to meet the drain of ordinary farm crop- ping. ■ It was then considered, that as the rain, &c., furnishes every year an amount of nitrogen sufficient for a small crop, this natural supply should be deducted from the estimate. But when the amount of this natural supply, was calculated from the yield of the unmanured crops obtained in^ our experi- ments, its deduction, on the other hand, promised to give too much for unexhausted manures ; for instance, from the Lea hay estimate, it took off ;^3 7s., and from the above esti- mate, £,^2)^ ; giving a balance in favour of the land, of ;£'7i8; — a sum quite as absurd as the other. In this dilemma the chemist fell back upon the old arbi- trary estimates of the early cropping sheets; which, being the work of three farm bailiffs (all practical men), were likely to be, at any rate, the least open to objection. These he modified a little, where later experience had suggested modifications; and, finally, the valuations given on page 303, in the last column but one, were adopted by the council. The minute fractions of the acreage column, are only ap- proximately given as %,%, &c. In the Land and Valuation columns, " before any sum, means that it represents a de- ficiency. The last column, added and balanced, shows the land;^38 worse at the end of 1869, and ^252 better at the end of 1870. (For the latter year the balance-sheet shows jQ/^oo; this sum including besides, about ;^i30 for Sheep manure and ;^i6 for the Garden land.) These estimates were, I think, quite within the mark, when it is remembered that in 1869 the manure and lime alone cost about .^650, and in MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 303 Valuations adopted for Unexhausted Manures and Tillages. 6 11 M CO -^ u^\0 l>-00 ON ^ « CO ^ i^^O t^OO CT\ ^ N 0^ CO Tl- O^"^ 0000^0-«;!-00\OvOvOw coOt^^ C3« g- CO C3 00 M ON •-• C '^VO «0'<*0'*N'O0N ONOO l>^ ■<*■ !-<> ,HKI_,»_((-l)H •-« • »-(l-l 5 SP !>* com ri-pocqcoro covo o « co tJ- lo ^oo vo *^cc m t^ 0010= =i-iM t~t\o a\ ■^'*f?ij> X rt ? = .d t3 bon) ■ KSS wvo I-I '^■^r--t^ - t^ ^ M • • H a w H b fi 00 O0000O0000vO0r*^0 O^O \0 .00 -t-^ONTj-O^^OlOOCOOw^OONON-l-lON. , ooH Si "^ Qi-iONOC^iii^OOOcnNN wO "0. Q^ HCI r*a ^*J< -+N HC4-W H^MW" HMHNHM rt- r^ON wt-io OW Oco wiiCl-^iOMO 5 vo -OOC^ -vO\OM 'Ot^'OO "inOcO ii-)00 r;!- M • . O^H S .MM- )-(.)-) .MHI> i-l M •■ (/I s w Tj-o ©"-fco COON •-<« Th inoo ci CO M 10 _. v^ g-c c C^ covO C^ MM hH MOOi-iioii-iONcnOO •-< mOs coqo •* ^ ow Hc4 1 00 li^ COOO VO « "O ■* « ON C0\0 T|- N to VO 00 tI-VO Ovr^ "u P-i ij. 3 OOii->t^coOOO'-«OcoO'-'i-iOO'*rO'^'^?> los. ; this sum included £zo?> for hay — ^112 of which was for old hay. You must bear in mind, that there is a very small amount of capital required, to carry on a farm on this principle. There being no stock, little manual labour is required. The whole live stock on the farm, when I was there, consisted only of six cart horses and one milking cow. I must tell you that when I was at the farm, I met many leading agriculturists of that neighbourhood, whose opinion it had been that Mr. Prout must come to grief after growing three corn crops in succes- sion; but they now think differently, and acknowledge that there is a quarter more corn grown on this farm now, than the general average of the district. And the farm, which was let eight years ago at 23s. per acre, is now worth 46s. You must bear in mind that Mr. Prout has never used one load of farmyiird manure on the 400 acres of his farm ; and what astonished me most was the percentage capital will pay if strong land is farmed on this plan. " During the discussion which followed, Mr. Ruck said that Mr. Prout used about ;^640 wor^h in the first four years, but he did not use artificial manures now to any great extent. What he did use was a kind of mineral phosphate, which he bought for about £^1^ or £,\(i per ton, ready prepared. It was a fact that five wheat crops had been taken in succes- sion, and he never saw such splendid straw in his life; some of it, he believed, was sold for;^3 los. " Mr. Prout never had had one sheep on his farm since he 308 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Present Condition of Blennerhasset Farm. purchased it. He tried the cattle one season, but he found that horned stock did not pay; and he did not feel inclined afterwards to try the fleecy stock, and therefore he never had any stock at all. As to the artificial manure, there are 400 acres on the farm which had never had any manure upon it since Mr. Prout had been there." Still more recently, in a letter to the Times on the crops (July, 1874), Mr. Thomas Scott said of Mr. Proufs farm: — " I have visited Mr. Proufs farm, in Herts, and Mr. Middle- ditch's, in Wilts, where deep steam cultivation is substituted for live Stock and manure, and I must say that their wheat crops surpass anything I have seen or heard of this season. Mr. Prout has had no live stock on his farm for 13 years, and Mr. Middleditch for four, and on Monday the latter sold nearly 500 acres of wheat at ;^ii an acre on an average, some reaching ^^17 53. Either of these gentlemen might challenge England for wheat crops, and, though this may not induce landlords to relax prescriptive — I may almost say restrictive — clauses in their leases in favour of enterprising and intelligent tenants, it should at least make them and their advisers think." This question is one that time alone can decide. The rentals of the three farms, when Mr. Lawson entered upon them, averaged less than 30s. per acre ; and now it cannot be worth much less than 45s. per acre. We sold the farm in 1871 ; and now, in the autumn of 1873, the present bailiff reports that, as regards the manurial condition of the land, he has no complaint to make. Some, too, of the old hands, who, in our reign, suspected the chemical manures of im- poverishing the land, now say that " the new folk" have put nothing into it, and yet are getting good crops out of it. To give, however, an imp^tial view of this, we insert the follow- ing letters; the first of which was addressed by us to a neigh- bouring tenant farmer, who had freely criticised our doings in the weekly parliaments and in conversation : — " Dear Sir, — In view of the system of manuring latterly adopted on the Blennerhasset Farm, it is an interesting question as to how far the soil seems to have been improved MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 309 How much Compensation for Unexhausted Manures? or impoverished by it. And as you have known it by hearsay, before we acquired it in 1862; and since, by frequent per- sonal observation, both when in our hands, and now, for two years in those of another : you cannot but have a very fair idea as to its present condition. I .would therefore esteem as a. favour your opinion on the following points:^ " ist, Do you think that our ten years' farming has increased the productive power of the soil? " 2nd, As a tenant farmer, and acquainted with farming land as usually left at the end of a tenancy, would you say that our farm was left in poor manurial conr dition, or otherwise? " 3rd, Do you think that, under a just land law, we would have been entitled to compensation for unexhausted manures? " 4th, How much would you have felt entitled to if, during the last year of your tenancy, you had applied to 382 acres ;^i,48r worth of manure, as below: — Sulphate of Ammonia, 33 tons.' Superphosphate (27.8 per cent), 86 , Muriate, of Potash (80 per cent.),... 14 , Salt, 7 , Gypsum, 5 , Farm-yard Manure, 89 , Remembering, however, on the other hand, that you left only a small dung heap, valued at ^24. " But for the interest you have all along taken in the farm, I should not have ventured tlyis to trouble you, and trust you will excuse the liberty. "Sept. 26, 1873." Charles D. Hunter. {Answer.) " Sir, — Your four questions I will endeavour to answer honestly and fairly as between landlord and tenant ; — trying in the meantime to forget, as far as possible, the relations between Mr. Lawson and his brother. " I. I was not acquainted with the farm prior to its occu- pancy by Mr. Lawson, but have often heard that it was one And ^^1,448 worth the year before. 3IO TEN YEARS OF- GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Tenant-Farmer's Opinion about the Farm. of the best farms in the neighbourhood and well farmed; — at least as the old-fashioned idea of good farming was at that time known. And, while I am ready to admit that Mr. Lawson's mode of cropping and manuring was much more productive than that of his predecessor, yet I fear the con- tinuous cropping was so exhaustive, and the constant deep grubbing of such light porous soil so absorbing, that it must be a question for time to unravel whether or not any real improvement has been effected — I mean in a manurial point of view. I think, however^ that few will be found to question the great benefit to be derived from the grubbing out of so many old crooked fences, the levelling and preparatory process for re-forming new fences, and many other lasting improvements. "II. In looking over the farm this autumn, I was pleased to find the part now in grass looking so well; but the corn and turnips were far from what I expected. No doubt, much plant food put into the soil is either wasted or unas- similated; and from the fact that the grass seems to progress ■ more than either, corn or turnips, it is more than probable that too much corn and too little grass have been grown, and that a change of crops may prove more remunerative; while, no doubt, the land will be better for the rest. "III. An arbitrator, under a just land law, would, no doubt, set down something considerable for unexhausted manures ; but he would also have to take into consideration the 'per contra' of the ledger; he would have to consider the wholesale removal of the vestures, the over-cropping of the farm, the total want of mjick producers, the foul state of the land, and .various other matters: — and I have some doubts whether in your case the balance would not be on the wrong side. "I don't forget what your fourth question states, that ;^i48i worth of manure has been put on the 382 acres; but the sum is made up principally of what is generally con- sidered exhaustive manure, and of which the crops would take up the most part in the first year. For my own part, I should say the manure was misapphed, or rather over- appUed. j£4 per acre of forcing manures over the whole MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 3II Foul Condition of the Garden and part of the Farm. farm, per year, would, one might reasonably expect, rather exhaust than improve, the soil ; and it may be a question, should any plant food, applied through the manure, be left in the soil, whether in such porous soil it may be available for next year's crop. Be this as it may, I am not in a posi- tion to state how much you -would be entitled to under the circumstances. You will not fail to observe that your case in farming and mine are very different; my sole aim being to carry as much stock as possible, while yours is to carry none at all. The stock system would carry much more weight with honest arbitrators; and much more would be allowed for the same quantity of forcing manure under the stock system than the other; for the very reason that the combination of farmyard and the said forcing manures would produce very considerably more available plant food. "Sept., 1873." That our constant and erratic cropping made the land very foul there can be no doubt ; but this was no fault of the manures. Indeed, the high garden land was in this respect very much worse than the farm land, although the garden land was, to the last, dressed with farmyard manure ; the gar- dener being free to crop and manure as seemed best to him. This fact was brought prominently forward in the last dis- cussions of the weekly parliament, when the subject of soil exhaustion was under consideration. It was, in fact, the main argument urged then against our systemless rnode of constant cropping; and against the idea that the chemical manures were directly to blame for the foul condition of some fields. Indirectly they were to blame; as must any- thing which, while necessitating change, does not provide against all the drawbacks arising from such change. Expe- rience alone can provide against such drawbacks ; and as we chose unbeaten paths, we had our experience to buy. Farmyard manure has, for some purposes, many advan- tages over an equivalent of chemical manure, and it has also many disadvantages. Chief among the latter is its great bulk. Professor Voelcker's two analyses of a good SI2 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Farmyard Manure more Stimulating than some Chemical Manures. specimen show each ton to contain a great quantity of water, as the following table proves : — Fresh Manure. Well Rotten Manure. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. Fertilising substances, 47f 47i Other materials, 6 i lo 4 i 27 Water, 13 ••• 26^ 15 ... gi The disadvantage of carting 15 cwts. of water with each 47|^ lbs. of manure is very great, and especially so when the field is distant from the steading. For, before a dressing of 10 tons per acre can be applied to a field, say a mile dis- tant, the carts have to go backwards and forwards at least .sixteen times ; and 8s. or los. is soon spent in the labour of applying to one acre 477 lbs. or 4^ cwts. of real manure; which, abstracted from the bulk of refuse and water, would hardly have cost in the application as many pence. Another disadvantage of farmyard manure is its liability to 'contain the seeds of weeds, derived chiefly from the bed- ding; and which, when the manure is spread upon the soil, often give much trouble. The third disadvantage is one that holds good for almost all crops but wheat, and is a fault of composition ; the fact being, that farmyard manure, compared with most artificial manures, is too stimulating. This will seem to many practical men a paradox ; it is, how- ever, no mere tlieory, but a hard indisputable fact, forced upon us both by experience and analysis. Generally speak- ing, by a stimulating manure is meant a nitrogenous one, such as nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano, or sulphate of ammonia ; and a feeding manure means one more phosphatic and mineral, such as bones, potash, salts, &c. Now, if we look at the average composition of farmyard manure, we find for every 100 lbs of nitrogen only 75 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 87^ of potash; whilst for instance, in a potato manure, the proportions should be nearer 130 lbs. and 260 lbs. of the two minerals to every 100 lbs. of nitrogen. And if the reader will turn to Chapter XX., on "Experiments upon Potatoes with Potash Salts," he will find, in Series C, this MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 313 Fannyard Manure less Liable to be Washed into the Drains. opinion confirmed by actual experience ; — a three years' trial on potatoes with potash, salt, and lime, with a reduced dunging, having proved better by j£s per acre than a full dunging. Farmers, too, recognise this fact themselves, in applying generally only a half dunging for turnips, and adding some superphosphate to supply the deficient minerals. Indeed, in farming practice, this stimulating nature of farm- yard manure is continually recognised and guarded against. Especially is this the case in the growth of flax, for which the manure must be applied fo the previous crop, otherwise the flax would be inferior. In market gardening, too, this fact is appreciated and allowed for; autumn manuring in this case being common. For wheat, however, the proportions of farmyard manure are better, and to this crop it can be ■ applied with the least waste, especially on light soils. Man- golds also utilise it well; and its autumn application to grass is highly useful. The advantages of farmyard manure are, on the other hand, many; on heavy land it opens the soils so that it works easier and drains better, and the air gets readier into it. The car- bonic acid, too, furnished by its decomposition, dissolves the insoluble soil compounds, rendering them more available for plant food. But on light land the 5 cwts. of decaying vege- table matter contained in each ton, is of still greater importance as a retainer of manures. Professor Voelcker, in a recent lecture before the Chemical Society, on " The loss of Plant Food by Drainage," gave numerous analyses of the drainage waters from Messrs. Lawes & Gilberts' wheat plots, which for about thirty years have been dressed with the same man- ures. Those analyses show a considerable loss of manure through the drains even from a clayey soil. From a light gravelly soil it must, therefore, be very much more. In getting his samples he had great difficulty with a plot dressed annually with 14 tons per acre of farmyard manure, " the drains being found to flow seldom more than once a year." At first they suspected some stoppage, but this was disproved; the fact being, that so sponge-like had the land become under this constant dunging, " that, when saturated, it retained i^ inches (or about 150 tons per acre) more rainfall than 314 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Loss of Plant Food by Drainage. some of the other plots."* And with this rain it retained the manures also. Another advantage is the large supply of nitrogen it fur- nishes to the careful farmer. Every pound of nitrogen (in view of the present prices of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and high-class guanoes,) is of great value; for what some years ago cost 7^d. per lb., is difficult now to purchase at lod. And it is well to remember that the liquid manure is, in this respect, about five times richer than the solid; and should accordingly be more carefully husbanded.. Farmyard manure, as before mentioned, should, in conse- quence of its richness in nitrogen, be generally used for green crops only as a half dressing. Ten tons per acre of fair quality supply as much nitrogen as is useful for potatoes, swedes, &c. ; and the deficient minerals should be added. • For potatoes, say ij^ cwts. muriate of potash, and 2j^ cwts. superphosphate ; and for swedes, say i cwt. of the former, and 3 of the latter. In this way a better return will be obtained for the farmyard manure, both in quality and quantity; for a badly proportioned manure is wasteful, both in itself and in its effect upon the crop. Perhaps another advantage of farmyard manure may lie in the warmth produced by its decomposition. This would be of use chiefly for swedes, as forcing them rapidly beyond reach of the fly. Another quahty, but one of very doubtful value, though often claimed as an advantage, is the lasting quality of farmyard manure. Of course there are cases where it is wise to pay for this quality, as in laying down land for permanent grasses; but for general farming, is it not rather a disadvantage? and for three reasons : First, the outlay of unproductive capital involved ; secondly, the danger of its loss by drainage ; and thirdly, the danger of its economic loss by passing into an insoluble form. Upon the first point nothing more need be said, but the dangers of the second and third have forced themselves upon the observation of every observant farmer, * Messrs. Lawes & Gilberts, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, for 1871, page 115. MANURES AND THEIR VALUE. 315 Nitrogen in Cliemical Manure more active than in Cattle Manure. whether scientific or notj and are such as every farmer will recognise more and more, as he takes careful note of all that goes into his land, as compared with what comes out of it. Professor Voelcker, in the lecture before referred to, says, "I am inclined to think that at least three to five times as much of all the more important fertihsing matters have to be put into the land, as is removed from it in the crops." And what becomes of the rest ? Messrs. Lawes and Gilberts have analysed some of their soils, and say of the nitrogen not recovered in the immediate crop, "much remains in the soil in such a state of combination or distribution as to be extremely slowly recoverable by succeeding crops of the same description." Rotation certainly recovers more of this, and limeing also seems to release much of it from this locked-up condition; but analysis has shown the presence of vast stores of accumulated nitrogen in nearly all soils; stores which seemingly are of but Httle service to many crops. Professor Voelcker's analyses of Messrs. Lawes and Gil- berts' drainage waters show also a great loss of nitrogen in the drainage, a loss which, in cases when one-third of a rain- fall of 30 inches passes through the soil, would amount to 22}^ lbs. of nitrogen per acre, value about i8s. 7d. From this it is evident that, other things being equal, the manure which returns most in the first crop is the most economical; and it is also evident that, though a farmyard manure may analyse to a value of 12s. zd. per ton, it may, from many causes, prove worth not one half of this. - Some important facts bearing on this point will be found in Messrs. Lawes and Gilberts' papers on the growth of barley, &c., in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1873, pages 89 and 275. Their experiments, continued now for nearly 30 years, show that out of every 100 lbs. of nitrogen supplied in the manure, only 14}^ lbs. were recovered in the wheat crop, when farmyard manure was used; and only io|^ lbs. in the barley crop: whereas, when nitrate of soda was used, about 45 lbs. of the nitrogen were recovered in the wheat crop ; and when ammonia salts were used, about 30 lbs. in the wheat crop, and nearly 50 lbs. in the barley: or, roughly speaking, the nitrogen of the 3l6 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. A Slock Farm Lighter on the Soil than a Crop Farm. chemical manures was worth three times as much as that of the farmyard manure. It must, however, be allowed that these results were obtained under the disadvantage of con- tinuous white crops; and that, with rotation, farmyard manure would in all probability show comparatively much better. For such facts, however, many of the so-called artificial manures might be styled the natural manures ; as being more readily of service to the plant. Nitrate of soda and super- phosphate are instances of this, that will readily suggest themselves to every farmer; and with a little observation, the hst will soon extend itself. Another advantage of farmyard manure, or rather of the system which produces it, is the small quantity of fertilising matters which are thus sold off the farm. (Indeed, the money-value of all the sales is less per acre ; a disadvantage in some respects.) In the following table, the loss to the soil of fertilising matters, when mutton and milk only are sold off the farm, is shown ; and also the loss on a purely crop-farm, taking oats and potatoes as typical crops. It is somewhat difficult, however, to estimate accurately the loss of nitrogen, the amount of this expired by , animals being a vexed question that we cannot now go into. Con- sequently, the figures for nitrogen placed opposite mutton and milk may be too high or the reverse. The amounts of nitrogen actually recovered in the produce are — for mUk 1 2 "8 lbs., and for mutton 4*03; about an equal amount being estimated as lost in respiration. For mutton the potash seems also at first sight excessive, but 4 lbs. are recoverable from the wool alone. Table VII. — Fertilising Matters Removed per Acre BY same Crops. Kind of Crop, and Amount. ^'^"^^"^ Potash. Nitrogen. Oats, 48 imp. bushels, - 13 J lbs. 8 lbs. 38 lbs. Potatoes, J}^ tons, - - 24 „ 76^ „ 6oi ,, Mutton (from 20 tons of Swedes), - 3i ,. 44 » 10 „ Milk 1,933 lbs., (3 acres per cow), - - 3 „ If „ 23f „ FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. 317 Farming from a Social Economic Point of View.' Looking only at the amounts of phosphoric acid and potash, the advantage of the stock farm is evident, the average value of the quantities removed in milk and mutton being is. 6^'d. per acre; whilst that of the oats and potatoes is I2S. ToJ^d. Including the nitrogen, this difference would be greater still; but it is usually woefully reduced by the almost universal waste of the cattle manure by drainage from the middens. There is, however, another side to this question, which demands a few words in .passing; though it is more a national than a farmer's question. It is — What amount of food per acre is obtainable under the different systems? Adopting, as the basis of comparison. Dr. Frankland's determinations of the amount of muscular force obtainable from various foods ; and for the weekly rations. Dr. E. Smith's inquiries into the dietaries of the working classes; we find that the relative food-supplying power of loo acres under different crops is as below. The weight given for mutton is exclusive of offal, but inclusive of all the carcase fat, which forms about one-third of the total weight. Table VIIL, Showing the Number of Men Capable OF being Maintained on ioo Acres under Different Crops. Kind of Crop, &c. Mutton from 20 tons per acre of Swedes, Weight of Pro- duce per ICO Acres. 26,000 lbs. Number of Men supported for 52 weeks. 4 if men. Milk, 3 acres to one cow, Wheat, 25 imp. bushels, Potatoes, 7 tons 3 cwts 193.3°° „ 150,000 „ S3 „ 2S° „ per acre. 715 tons. 683 „ Goldsmith speaks of the time " when every rood of land maintained its man ;" but unless the land was very good, potatoes must have been the main diet, as they alone come up to that mark; one acre nearly supporting seven men. Wheat and the other grains sustain about 2)4 men per acre, but the introduction of milk or mutton reduces this greatly; 3l8 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Why Britain is a Grain-importing Country. SO that, even with our modern green-crop system, four roods cannot maintain half a man, when mutton is taken as the measure of his sustenance. The above differences — ten to one against the stock farm — explain, along with the increase in population, why we are now so largely a grain-importing country: for the consumption of flesh meat has increased far out of proportion to that of the population ; and for every acre turned from wheat and potato-growing to the produc- tion of flesh meat, the produce of nine acres of grain, &c., has to be imported from other countries. To the farmer individually this is of perhaps little importance, or to the nation either in times of peace; but war with a maritime nation might at any time make it a question pf life and death. FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. 319 The Wage Expenditure and General Account. CHAPTER XVIII. FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. The subject of the agricultural labourer is especially interest- ing at the present time. In this chapter it is shown that, during three years, our labour bore the proportion of one- fifth to the total cost of production. There is also given our annual expenditure on farm labour, and the cost of boarding servants at the steading. The cost of horse labour is also detailed, including the food, the smithy, saddlery, and im- plement expenditures. The manual labour of the farm was a very heavy, and as will presently be seen, a very variable amount. After 1866, the wages of the farm-baiUff, clerks, and those employed about the cattle, gardens, flaxworks, &c., were kept quite separate from the farm labour proper; so that only the crop-producing and crop-preparing wages were, with a few evident exceptions, charged as farm wages. From this period, therefore, the annual expenditure on wages, if divided by the acreage of each year,_ will furnish a very fair indication of our progress or otherwise in economical farming. To make the comparison complete, however, there must also be shown the annual wage charge against the farm for manage- ment, and other matters, included in what was called the General Account, to which was charged the baihfi's and clerks' wages, and part of the chemist's ; and also all expen- diture connected with buying and selling, rates and taxes, and other minor general charges: the total, of which, at the end of each financial year, was spread over the different departments, according to their respective liabilities. 320 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Annual Wage Expenditure at Blennerhasset. Table I. — Farm Wage Expenditure per Annum and PER Acre. Manual Labour. General Account. Year. Acre- age. Per Annum. Per Acre. Per Annum. Per Acre. 1862-4 260 £1H 8 7 £i 4 £i^i 15 9i £0 12 8 1865 ■^00 1240 7 8 4 2 8 122 19 9i 8 2i i866« SOO 1519 6 7i S I .3i 282 9 iij 18 10 1867 2q6 744 6 10 2 10 4 213 6 4i 14 s 1868 296 652 2 2} 2 4 04 276 16 74 18 ^ 1869 296 563 14 I 18 I 238 13 6 J 16 ij 1870 ,82 700 5 I 16 8 259 IS 6 13 74 187 1 s8o 6S3 16 9 I 16 282 6 2 14 104 1872 •• 91 10 2 •• 216 10 7 • • Average 3.3 845 14 2 17 217 I 14 3i The above table shows, hke that on page 165, a decided improvement from 1866 onwards, every year indicating a marked decrease in the amount expended per acre on wages. For, beginning with 1867, when the other departments were separated from the farm, the expenditure on manual labour, then at ^£2 los. 4d. per acre, decreases steadily; so that in 1871 it stands at ;£i i6s. per acre; and this, too, with 78 more acres under potatoes than in 1867. As far as mere figures go, co-operation seems not to have been without effect on the labourers, so marked is this decrease in the cost of labour. Our mode of farming necessitated more labour than is usual: and, through the kindness of a neighbouring and successful farmer, I am enabled to compare our wage expen- diture with what may be taken as a fair sample of the aver- age annual expenditure on farm labour in Cumberland. His farm consisted of 316 acres, 265 of which were arable, 35 meadow, and 16 old grass; and therefore not unlike our own in the extent of arable land. During the six years, 1864 to 1869 inclusive, to which period the figures apply, our neighbour's farming will more easily compare with ours FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. 32 1 The Nine-Hours S3rstem Introduced. than if a later period was included; as sheep and cattle were our chief production during the first four and a-lialf of these six years. Our neighbour's wages expenditure for the period mentioned was ;£^2,oi5 13s. 8d., increased by the board of two lads and one girl (at 8s. per week) to ^£^2,390 is. 8d. ; which equals ;!^398 6s. ii^d. per annum, or ^1 5s. 2}^d. per acre per annum. But perhaps a fairer comparison would be4f)ne based upon the arable acreage only. This gives for his farm ^i iqs. J^d. per acre; but for ours (including the wages of those employed in feeding and tending cattle) the expenditure was in 1867 ;^j 5s. 2d. per acre; and in 1869, ^2 2S. 2d. per acre; a difference greater than was warranted by our extra acreage under potatoes. But our constant cropping would also tend to make our wages higher: for a glance at the Cropping list, on page 225, will show that it was our custom to break up the lea after taking the first hay crop, whereas at least one year's grazing after hay is the custom in Cumberland. But, all things considered, it is still evident that our farm labour was at least one-half too costly in 1867, and probably much more so previous to that year ; and it is also evident that towards the end of our farming we had greatly improved in this respect; co-operation doubtless helping towards the improvement. During our ten years' farming, the number of labourers employed varied considerably, especially in the earlier years, when buUding and draining were in progress. Indeed, it is on record that in March, 1862, when we had only 260 acres of land, 120 men were at work on the buildings, drains, and farm. In 1867, Mr. Lawson introduced the nine hours system, ten and a-half having been the number before; and it is noteworthy that 'the labourers did not at first approve of the change, although they afterwards strenuously resisted an attempt to lengthen the day's work by half an hour. As a specimen of the rate of wages then prevailing, a copy is subjoined of the farm wage sheet for one week in April, 1870. It includes a considerable amount of broken time. 322 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Extra Labour for the I'otato Harvest. Table II. — Detailed Farm Wages for One Week in I Man at 3 s. 2d. 2 Men „ 3s. 2 „ „ 2S. lod. I Man „ 2S. 9d. 4 Men „ 2S. 8d. 3 „ =, 2S. 6d. I Man „ 2S. 9 Women „ is. 3d. I Boy, „ IS. 3cl. I Girl, „ IS. S persons. April, 1870. 2d. per day, 6 days, ;£o 19 7 6 17 8 6 S3l 6 16 o o 19 10 16 6 6 o a o Hi 6 o £^'2 7 3i This shows a weekly expenditure of ;^i2 7s. 3j^d. for manual labour; and as the yearly wages varied from about ;^6oo to ;^7oo, the above may be taken as an average week. The summer weeks generally showed less, and the harvest weeks more. Female labour was generally paid for at about half the male rate. We employed many women, — ^£2 1 7 being paid in 1B70 for female labour, out of a total of jQtoo os. 5d.; and from this it appears that just about as many women as men were employed, allowing for the' difference of wages. In harvest time the women were paid double wages ; but of the men, only extra hands were paid 6d. or is. per day beyond the ordinary rate. In 1870, when the large acreage under potatoes, and the heavy weight of that crop, required many extra hands, the time-book shows for the week ending October 21st, that 22 men, 20 women, 12 boys, and 11 girls were employed. This fully doubled the farm wages, making that week's £2^ is. 3}^d. ; but it more than doubled the number of hands, .65 per- sons being employed on the farm. If to this we add the other departments, the total number then employed was 83. The total wages paid for this week in October amounted to ^42 I2S. sd., a sum not much above the general average; because, although the farm wages of that week were more than FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. 323 Total Wage Expenditure of an Average Week. doubled, the steam plough and manure departments were quiet. The total wages for the week in April, before referred to, were j£4.i 5s. g}4 16 9 ... 2 4i Mutton, >•• -•• 9 I 4 ... 3 li Bacon, ••• ... 2 2 8 ... 9 Milk, ••• ... 2 14 8 ... iii Butter, 1... 16 ... 3^ Tea, •■■ ... 13 4. ... 3 Sugar, ... 9 7i ... 2 Rice, ••• ■ •• 2 10 ... 0^ Currants, ... ••• I 8 ... oi Yeast, ... ... I 4 ■ >• oi Mustard, ... ... 8 ■ •• Peas, ••• 6 ... Treacle, ••■ ••> 5 ... Soap, ••■ •■■ 6 2i ... li Blacking, ... 9 ... Teapot, I 6 ... oi Total, ^23 10 3 ... 8 iJ^ 3s. lod. per week for butchers' meat alone is, I am afraid, a very unusual allowance for farm servants ; and evidently our expenditure on this head cannot.be taken as a sample of what prevails in Cumberland. There is still, however, attendance and coals to add to the above. The dairymaid received 5s. gd. per week, or, including board, 13s. ioj4d.; and the girl iis. 8j^d. Of the dairymaid's time, three- eighths were charged for cooking, &c., for the men; and of the girl's three-fourths, making a total of 14s. oj^d. ; which, divided by 8^, gives is. 8j^d. per head per week addi- tional. Then the coals cost 4s. yd. per week, or yd. per head, additional. The men were hired by the six months, at an average rate of ;^ii 153.; so that their actual weekly wages were as follows : — Wages £0 9 o^ Food, Attendance, Firing, Total, ., o 8 li o 1 Si 007 £0 19 si FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. Food of Twelve Horses for One Year. 327 The hired men thus cost us about 3s. 6d. more per week than the day labourers ; a difference that led to our giving up this system soon after the production of the above return. The horse labour has been referred to as being charged at 3s. gd. per horse per day. The actual cost was, however, less — some years, at any rate; — as will be seen from the following statement of the horse-keep at the Blennerhasset Farm in 1870. Of the barley and wheat used, all — and of the oats, some — were " hinder-ends." Table VII. — Food of Twelve Horses in 1870. Oats, 1,059 ™P- bushels, ... £iis 12 I* Inferior Barley, /^% imp. bushels, ... 6 9 „ Wheat, 22j^ » I 13 9 Hay, 4,851 stones, ... 126 1 6i Straw, 697 „ 9 19 2 Grass, 433 cwts., ... 10 IS 6 Green Oats, 24^ cwts., 14 9 Carrots, 1,422 stones. ... 19 17 2 Bran, 1665^ „ 5 9 6 Oatmeal, 4 4 Grazing, 5 14 10 Salt, 8 n Total Food, ;^3i6 18 oi Shoeing, £ IS 19 4 Breaking, I 3 4 Veterinary Account, 6 19 2 Hire, I — c J 10 — 25 Total Cost, .1^341 19 i°i During the year some horses were sold and others bought; but the total period to which the above applies equalled one horse for 621 weeks, or close upon 12 horses for the year. .Each horse thus cost yearly ^26 8s. 2d. for food, and, £2 IS. lod. for shoeing, &c. ; or, for both, per week, I OS. ii>^d. Then, as regards the working day, if we deduct Sundays, and allow 12 days for stormy weather. 328 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Cost of a Farm Horse per Annum and per Day. slack days, and sickness, we have 300 working days; which gives IS. lo^d. as the cost of a horse per working day. To this sum we must add soruething for tear and wear of horse flesh, for interest on first cost, and also the annual expenditure for carts, implements, and harness. The tear and wear is a difficult question. Our own horses finally sold for very much more than we paid for them, but prices had risen greatly. In the absence of anything more reliable, we may safely take the first cost of a horse old enough for work at say ^42; which, allowing 14 years of work, gives ^3 per annum for tear and wear. Then, interest on this, ;^42 at 5 per cent, per annum, gives JQ2 2s. ; and both divided by the working days, gives 4d. per day. Then, as to implements. Our ten years' expenditure on them amounted to ;^i,2ii; and, as what was left in 1872 sold for ;^343, the annual expenditure amounted to £&(i i6s. But from this something must be deducted for implements used only in hand labour, which may be taken at £,\(> i6s. This would leave ;^7o to be divided over lohorses (thenumber used for farm work); the result being S J^d. per working day. Then there are the saddler's, smith's, and joiner's bills; which stand at ;£^688 14s. 6d. for the ten years, or ^£^68 17s. 5 J^d. per annum. Deducting from this the jQ\^ 9s. 4d. already charged for shoeing, we get ^^53 8s. ij^d.; which, divided over ten horses, gives ;^5 6s. gj^^d. per horse per annum, or 4^d. per working day. And if we now add all together; we find the cost of our horse labour to be 3s. o J^d. per day. The details were as follows : — Table VIII. — Cost of a Farm Horse per Annum ■AND PER Day. Per Annum. Per Day Food, ..£26 8 2 £0 I 9 Shoeing, Veterinary, &c.. 2 I 10 If Tear and Wear and Interest,., 520 4 Implements, 700 5^ Saddler's, Smith's, and Joiner's Bills, • 5 6 9i 4i Total ^45 18 9f ^o 3 ok FARM LABOUR AND ITS COST. 329 Manual Labour One-half the Total Labour. As has been mentioned, each horse was charged 3s. gd. per day; so that our Cropping Sheets are in this respect overcharged, but the error is at least on the safe side. The horse labour, as has been shown, averaged in 1870 ^1 13s. id. per acre; but if we include with it the steam cultivation, the two together just about equal the amount for manual labour. This furnishes a handy though rough rule for their separation, as our Cropping Sheet figures include the three in one sum. 330 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Value of a Manure depends on many Circumstances. CHAPTER XIX. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. Upon grass for hay, upwards of a hundred and fifty experi- ments were tried, extending over five years, and embracing the questions of kind of manure and time of application. Twelve different manures were tested, used both alone and with each other; and some curious and interesting results were obtained. The value of a manure was foimd to vary very much. The same quantity of salt, for instance, proved worth 2S. per cwt. when used in a particular manner ; and, on the other hand, destroying 6s. worth of hay per acre, when used in a different manner. Each manure was found to act better under certain conditions; and though of these conditions only a very few have been ascertained, many others are sug- gested, and a method of proving some explained. Another point of evident importance in grass manuring, is the proper time of application. The experiments on this question show, that the answer is not alike for all kinds of manures. They also suggest, that, by the autumn applica- tion of a purely mineral manure, the need for that costliest of all manures — nitrogen — might possibly be dispensed with. It is somewhat difficult to write of experiments in a manner at once simple and accurate; but perhaps the best is that followed in this chapter, of placing all the details at the end, and of introducing the reader at once to the more important and practical conclusions. Each manure will be discussed in the order shown in the following list ; in which each has a value attached, — not the highest, but generally such only as is warranted by several independent experiments. The hay is valued through- out at 6d. per stone of 14 lbs. : — EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 33 1 Field Value of Twelve Manures for Grass. Table I. — Weight and Value of Hay per Acre Pro- duced BY One Cwt. , of the Following Manures. No. I. Nitrate of Soda gave6cwts. ySlbs. of Hay value;^! 6 9 ,, 2. Sulphate of Ammonia ,, 6 „ 39 ,, ,, '55 ,, 3. Peruvian Guano „ 5 „ 26 ,, ,, 10 10 ,, 4. Sulphate of Potash „ 2 „ 5 ,, ,, 082 „ 5. Dissolved Bones „ 2 „ o „ „ 080 „ 6. Superphosphate „ 1 „ no ,, >> ° 7 n „ 7. Muriate of Potash ,, i ,, 75 ,, » 068 „ 8. 'Farmyard Manure ,, I ,, 47 ,, „ 058 „ 9. Bone Dust „ o „ 72 „ „ 027 „ 10. Sulphate of Magnesia , , o „ 50 ,, ,, 019 „ II. Gypsum „ o „ 24 „ „ 00 10 ,, 12. Salt decreased the produce. Nitrate of Soda, it will be observed, heads this list with a good round sum, and deservedly so ; for it was found to be upon the whole the best top-dressing for grass-land, where quantity was chiefly aimed at. Of the nitrogenous manures it was the most thoroughly tested, being cross-examined in many experiments. Thir- teen, trials of it are available; but, for convenience, we will first analyse five of these, in which the nitrate of soda was applied alone : these are arranged in the table below, the increase of weight only being given; but the full details can be found at the end of this chapter; by a reference to the figures in the last column, which are those of the two plots, and the series which furnish the data, &c. Table II. — Increase by Nitrate of Soda, when used alone. 4 cwts. per acre produced pe: 4 i> >> 4 » >> 3 )) >> Average of the five The last experiment, Series I, was tried on a poor clay, where sulphate of ammonia proved much better than the nitrate ; and the one before it. Series H, is calculated from *For Farmyard Manure the produce is calculated per ton. er cwt 54i stones of hay. See A II- 7 „ 504 „ D 2- 4 „ 554 „ F 2- 4 „ 384 ,. H 12-13 39 .. I 2- 3 „ 474 332 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Heaviest Dressing of Nitrate of Soda the most Profitable. the first cutting only; the second cutting reducing the in- crease of hay to 13 stones over that of the no-manure plot. Four cwts. per acre, it will be observed, did very much better than a less quantity. Farmers, as a rule, err in this respect; applying too little manure, and reaping a corres- pondingly small return. The four cwts. of manure gave, over three diflferent seasons, an average increase of 53^ stones of hay for every cwt. of nitrate of soda so applied; while the less quantities gave only 38^ stones. So that, when nitrate of soda was applied in a less quantity than four cwts. per acre, the returns fell off about IS. on every cwt. so applied. The quality was, of course, inferior with the larger quan- tity; but to determine the quality of the produce, would require both feeding experiments, and analytical comparisons. Nitrate of soda used with phosphate, &c., was the subject of the other eight experiments yet to be discussed. Three of these will be considered first, in which 4 cwts. per acre were used with an equal quantity of superphosphate. Table III. — Increase by Nitrate of Soda with Super- phosphate, BOTH being at THE RaTE OF 4 CwTS. PER Acre. In 1868 each cwt. produced 404 stones of hay. See A 3-9 .. 1869 „ „ 84 „ „ „ D II-5 .. 1870 „ „ 52i „• „ „ F ii-S " Average of three years ,, 33I „ „ Here it is at once evident, on comparing the above returns with those 6f Table II., that 4 cwts. of nitrate of soda was not improved by the addition of 4 cwts. of superphosphate; but that in every case it proved less productive than before. A contrary result was, however, obtained in three out of six similar experiments reported by Dr. Voelcker, which will presently be more fully referred to. But the remaining three show results similar to the above. It is, however, possible that the smaller yield of the nitrate in these three experi- ments may be due to excessive manuring; let us, therefore, examine the remaining five experiments, in each of which not more than 2 cwts. of the nitrate was used, with from 4 to s cwts. of superphosphate, potash, &c. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 333 Nitrate of Soda best Used with Mineral Manures. Table IV.- Increase by Nitrate of Soda WITH Mineral Manures. 1 cwt. per acre produced I if ,, „ per cwt J )> )» »» 2 )» »> »j Average of the five ,, „ 30 stones of Hay. 45|- 42f 67i 52 SeeB „ E „ G „ H „ I 8- 7- 9- 2- 7- 2 14 2 7 S At once we see, that though 4 cwts. of nitrate of soda did better than a less quantity when it was used alone, it was far too much when other manures were used with it. We see also that the highest return per cwt. was obtained by using it at the rate of i or 2 cwts. per acre in conjunction with mineral manures; 75 stones and 673^ being thus obtained, whereas 5S}4 stones was the highest weight obtained when it was used alone. The averages from Tables 11. and IV. are also practically the same, warranting the conclusion that, as a rule, nitrate of soda is most profitably used in con- junction with mineral manures. The mineral manures used in these experiments contained superphosphate, potash, soda, and magnesia (for the details, see the end of the chapter) ; and as some one of these may have been unfavourable to the full action of nitrate of soda, it is much to be desired, that it should be again and repeat- edly tested with, at least, the first three of these. How this testing should be conducted on an exhaustive system of cross experiments, will be presently described when our cross tests, with superphosphate, muriate of potash, &c., are described. The nitrate of soda used in these experiments was of the best commercial samples, containing about 5 per cent, of impurities. It is estimated as containing in each cwt., 18 lbs. of nitrogen, equal to a percentage of 16 '07. No. 2, Sulphate of Ammonia, though second on the list, is but very little behind nitrate of soda; to which, indeed, it is superior in some respects. What these are will be seen pres- ently, when we analyse the eleven available trials, in which the two were tested under exactly similar conditions. As before, we will first consider its effects when used alone. 334 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Sulphate of Ammonia Used alone and in Mixture. Table V. — Increase-by Sulphate of Ammonia used ALONE. 4 cwts. per acre produced per cwt. 644 stones of hay. See A 10- 7 & 18 4 >> ,, >. 464 .. .. D 3-4 4 „ „ „ 351 .. .. F 3-4 3 .. „ >. 34i .. .. H 11-13 2 >> „ „ 65I „ „ I 1-3 Average of the first four, 45 J ,, That the sulphate is not so reliable, or constant in its effects as nitrate of soda, will be seen by a comparison of Tables II. and V. At the same time, under favourable conditions, it produces much the heavier crop. It is analytically a stronger manure, containing the larger proportion of nitrogen. The last trial was on clay land, and shows the very high value for the sulphate of 33s. per cwt. ; but as only one trial was made on this soil, it can only be regarded as probable that, for clay soils, sulphate of ammonia is superior to nitrate of soda. Mineral manures applied with sulphate of ammonia formed the subject of the six experiments given below, all except the last being tried, as usual, on light land. Table VI. — Increase by Sulphate of Ammonia when USED WITH Mineral Manures on Grass Land. cwt. per acre produced 45I stones of hay. See B ,, B I cwt. per acre produced 45I stones of hay. See B 7" 2 I „ „ 38i „ .. B 5-4 1 „ „ 43 >. .. E 5-14 I? cwts. ,, ,, per cwt. 28i ,, ,, G lo- 2 I4 .. ., » ,. 414 .. „ H 4- 7 2 „ „ „ „ 95 .. "I 5- o Average ofthe five light land trials, 394 „ Mineral manures did not here correspondingly increase the value of sulphate of ammonia, except in the case of the trial on clay soil, Series I, where the improvement is very marked, amounting to nearly 14s. 6d. per acre, and giving the high value per cwt. of ;^2 7s. 6d. A reference to the details of Series I, at the end of the chapter, will show how poor this soil was ; the two plots unmanured growing only about half a ton of hay per acre. From this it seems probable that, except upon poor land, sulphate of ammonia acts better when used alone. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 335 Peruvian Guano gives the Best Return when Used by Itself. This conclusion may possibly need some qualification : for time of application, and wetness of season, have much to do with the action of sulphate of ammonia ; and in the last year of our farming we had in progress a series (K) of 22 plots to test this point. These will be considered in their proper place; but meantime it is well to remember; — that sulphate of ammonia proved inferior to the minerals in October, almost equal in January, and superior in May. No. 3, Peruvian Guano. — As showing the value of guanitic nitrogen, the following results are of value ; other- wise it were almost unnecessary to say much about Peruvian guano, the original Chincha Island supplies having failed, and the reliable kind not being now to be had. Eight ex- periments on this manure are available; and in the three given below it was applied alone, and at the rate of4Cwts. per acre. Table VII. — Increase by Four Cwts. of Peruvian Guano used Alone. Each cwt. produced of Hay, 514 stones per acre. See A 12-7 ,, „ „ 42 ., .. D 1-4 >, ., » 3ii >> >' F 1-4 Average of the three, . . 41J ,, It is thus seen to be inferior to either of the two other nitrogenous manures, when used alone, at the rate of 4 cwts. per acre. Applied thus, the relative values of the three were, for light land — JJitrate of Soda gave per cvrt. S3J stones of hay per acre. Sulphate of Ammonia ,, 49 ,, „ Peruvian Guano ,, 4^4 >> >> The addition of minerals (bone dust on B 13-12) to Peru- vian guano was tried on five plots, the results per acre were as below. Table VIII. — Increase by Peruvian Guano used with Minerals. I cwt. per acre produced yi stones of Hay. See B 9-2 1 „ „ 64i „ „ B 13-12 I J cwts. ,, ,, percwt. 36I „ ,, E 6-14 2 „ „ „ „ I2i „ „ G II- 2 2i „ „ „ „ 40 .. >> H 3-7 Average (excluding B 13-12), 24 336 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Value of Nitrogen different in Three Nitrogenous Manures. Except bone dust, no addition was of any advantage; and with bone dust, only this one trial was made. The evidence, therefore, tends to show that Peruvian guano does best on grass la?id when used alone; and also that it is more depen- dent on season than the other two nitrogenous manures. Comparing now, the three nitrogenous manures already reviewed, we find that nitrate of soda is the most reliable in all seasons; and as a rule, the best manure of the three. If we assume the whole of the effects to be due to the nitro- gen they contain ; and reckon the nitrate of soda to con- tain 18 lbs. per cwt. (equal to 16-07 per cent), the sulphate of ammonia 22 lbs. per cwt. (equal to i9'64 per cent), and the guano 14 lbs. per cwt (equal to i2'5o per cent), we get the following value for nitrogen in each manure. Table IX. — Increase of Hay per Lb. of Nitrogen FROM Three Nitrogenous Manures. Used alone. Used with Minerals. Nitrate of Soda, . . 38I lbs. . . 37J lbs. Sulphate of Ammonia, 29 ., .. 25 „ Peruvian Guano, .. 41J ,, .. 24 ,, Peruvian guano stands highest, but its phosphates, &c., have probably placed it there, as used with minerals it stands lowest Upon the whole, the nitrogen of nitrate of soda seems by far the most active; a fact worth remembering when a grass manure is purchased by analysis. No. 4, Sulphate of Potash. — ^With this salt, three trials were made at the rate of 4 cwts. p^ acre; the increase varied from 34 J^ stones to 85 stones of hay per acre, and averaged, per cwt of sulphate of potash, 16^ stones of hay, value about 8s. 2d. It proved better than an equal dressing of muriate of potash by g}i stones of hay. The numbers of the plots were A 5, D 8, and F 8. In B 3 it was also tried at the rate of i cwt. per acre, in conjunction with superphosphate, sulphate of magnesia, and salt; and gave an increase of 8}^ stones over B 2, a similar plot with i cwt. of muriate of pot- ash. It was a little unfortunate that no good chance of weighing the fog occurred; for, on the only occasion (Series EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. Dissolz/ed Bones — value for Hay. 337 D) when this was attempted, the heaviest weight was from the sulphate of potash plot Kainit contains its potash in the form of sulphate; but as will presently be seen, has other drawbacks which more than counterbalance this. (See also Kainit in the Index.) No. s, Dissolved Bones. — The experiments with this manure on grass are few in number, and difficult of exact comparison. The only one in which it was applied alone was B 1 1, in which 5 cwts. per acre gave an increase of exactly 10 cwts. of hay, equal to 16 stones from each cwt. of manure; thus placing its value at 8s. From one experi- ment, however, no safe conclusion can be drawn. In the other two it was used with Peruvian guano, which prevents our directly estimating its value; but indirectly we can do so, by comparing each of the three with a similar plot, in which mineral manures were substituted for the bones. (See notes to E and G near the end of the chapter. Table X. — Dissolved Bones versus Mineral Manures on Grass. M.inures per ^cre. Dissolved Bones. Plots. 5 cwts. used alone, gj „ and Per. Guano \\ cwts. 5 „ „ 2 T. Cts. Lbs. 3 5 80 3 o 63 U 6 Difference against Dissolved bones, T. Cts. Lbs. 2 10 20 Z 18 89 I 15 6 Cts. Lbs. 4- 52 I 86 58 B II- 2 E 8-6 GlI-IZ This shows dissolved bones inferior to the mixed minerals by 5 cwts. 8 lbs. of hay on the three experiments, equal to 46 lbs. of hay per cwt. of manure. And therefore, though valued in the list at 8s. per cwt., the prpbSbilities are that its real value is less. As to the lasting qualities of dissolved bones. Series D experiments on potatoes supplies some facts. The above experiments, confirmed also on potatoes and turnips, went far to induce us to give up the use of bones on the farm ; and looking at all the experiments, the evidence tends to show, that, being a favourite manure, bones command 33^ TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. How to find the real Field Value of a Manure. a higher price in the market than is warranted by their real manurial value. Another lesson to be learned from the above is, that dis- solved bones do better when aided by some nitrogenous manure, such as Peruvian guano, &c. No. 6, Superphosphate. — Coprolites, treated with sul- phuric acid, so as to test about 28 per cent, of soluble phos- phate, form the subject of fifteen experiments available for comparison ; but it was employed in fully one-half of all our experiments tried on grass land. MTien the problem of how to make a good grass manure for our farm first presented itself, ammonia, phosphates, potash, magnesia, and soda, naturally suggested themselves as necessary. But the practical question was, what are the respective values of these ? Applying each separately would not tell, for a deficiency of one necessary element would prevent the full action of the others, just as the best managed crop cannot grow without a sufiiciency of rain. Nor would using them together tell, for how could it then be known how much of the increase was due to each ? At last, after many plans, what we called the " Test plot" system was contrived; in which four simple manures were tried, each with, and without, any and all of its neighbours. Now, as three manures on this plan required 8 plots, and 4 required 16, and 5, 32 ; it was evident that only the likely manures were worth the trouble involved. So superphos- phate, potash, magnesia, and salt, were chosen; as being both readily obtained, and likely to be useful. To test these four manures, sixteen plots were required, eight with each manure, and eight without. It will readily be seen that superphosphate would thus be applied four times with muriate of potash, and four times without it; and so on with the other two manures. By this means the effect of each manure alone, as well as on its neighbours, was fully tested ; or, as a friend remarked, it was " ringing the changes," on the four manures. This system was tried on hay, potatoes, and oats ; but variation of the soil, that bane of field experimenters, inter- EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 339 Superphospliate examined by the Test Plot System. fered in two of the trials; and those on hay alone were of value. The results of these cross tests, when examined, give rise to more questions by far than they answer, and open up a wide field of inquiry. The effects of some of the manures on its companions were of so striking.a nature that, in the absence of confirmatory proof, they should be accepted, not as conclusive, but suggestive only. A study of the plan of these cross tests will show that, if repeated often enough to present reliable averages, the results would warrant a much closer analysis than has been attempted. There is one drawback under which this series labours, namely, that a cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, applied about five weeks after the other manures, was unfortunately not applied to the unmanured plot This was a mistake, as it excludes this plot from use entirely ; and limits the averages generally to six plots, whereas eight should have been avail- able for each manure. The details of these experiments are all included in Series C. Beginning, then, with superphosphate, let us take the average of the seven comparable plots, and deduct from this the average yield of the analogous seven not-superphosphate plots, thus — Average of seven plots, with J cwts. of superphosphate, 44 cwts. 49 lbs. ,, ,, without superphosphate, 35 ,, 86 „ Increase from 5 cwts. of superphosphate, 8 „ 75 ,, Giving I cwt. 82 lbs. of hay per cwt. of superphosphate. But this is its action in the presence of a general medley of other manures, some of which may have been favourable and others unfavourable to the crop ; and the effects of each one of which we must now find and eliminate. To begin with muriate of potash, which was present in an equal number of plots on each side of the above equation ; let us take first the three superphosphate plots, dressed also with potash, and then from these let us subtract the three potash plots, similarly manured in every respect, except that superphosphate was absent; — ^thus 34° TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Superphosphate one-third more effective in the presence of Potash. Superphosphate and Potash averaged 45 cwts. 81 lbs. Potash without Superphosphate „ 35 ,, 93 ,, Produce of 5 cwts. of Superphosphate, 9 „ 100 „ Giving I cwt. no lbs. of hay per cwt. of superphosphate, in the presence of muriate of potash. Now, if we can get at its action in the absence of muriate of potash, we can soon tell whether the latter was a help or a hindrance to superphosphate. This can be done by pur- suing the same course, but using this time the superphos- phate, and not-superphosphate plots, which received no muriate of potash. Their averages were as follows — Superphosphate without potash, averaged 42 cwts. o lbs. Three analogous plots, wanting both, „ 34 ,, 68 ,, Produce of 5 cwts. of Superphosphate, 7 „ 44,, Giving I (wt. 53 lbs. of hay per cwt. of superphosphate, when ■muriate of potash was absent. But it has befen seen that, in the presence of potash, it gave I cwt. no lbs. ; being 57 lbs, or nearly by one-third greater increase than in its absence. The muriate of potash had of course besides this, an independent value of its own, as will presently be seen ; but the fact to be clearly under- stood just now is, that the presence of potash made superphos- phate one-third more effective. A similar result is obtained from A 2-6-9, D 5-7-12, and F 5-7-12, in which 4 cwts. of superphosphate were applied, both with and without muriate of potagh. The increase, however, is smaller, being only about one-tenth ; but Series C had the aid of i cwt. per acre of sulphate of ammonia, in the presence of which, mineral manures are almost always more active. - But the strongest proof of this interaction of these manures is to be obtained from the results of six experiments tried in different parts of England, and reported by Dr. Voelcker in the Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1866 and 1869. These were the same in arrangement as Series A, D, and F, all three of which were tried for Dr. Voelcker, having been arranged by him for trial throughout the country. These six show the produce per cwt. of super- phosphate at I cwt. 69 lbs. of hay per acre, in the absence EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 34I Superphosphate as affected by Magnesia and Salt. of muriate of potash; but 3 cwts. 7 lbs. in its presence; — results far outstripping those obtained at Blennerhasset, showing indeed an increase of nearly double, the exact amount being 89 "5 per cent. Returning now to the test plot, Series C, and pursuing with the sulphate of magnesia plots, the course adopted with muriate of potash, we find that magnesia decreased the effect of superphosphate by about 4 per cent.; an increase of 208 lbs. of hay per cwt. being reduced 8 lbs. by the presence of magnesia. The salt plots cross-examined in the same manner show this manure favourable to the action of superphosphate, but only slightly so, increasing its effect 9 lbs. on 184, or about S per cent. ■ These are important facts ; but similar experiments should be repeated with varied quantities of these manures. That on the whole, the quantities used in Series C were not excessive, is shown by the fact that plot 1 1, dressed with all four, gave a very good crop, standing third of the sixteen. Nitrogenous manures also greatly affected the value of superphosphate ; but though we have great numbers of ex- periments with both manures, it is difficult to separate the action of each; for in most cases, less nitrogenous manure per acre was used with the superphosphate than without it ; and as has been • seen, quantity is an important disturbing element in all experiments, and where the quantity has been varied, reliable conclusions can rarely be drawn. In three trials — A 2-9, D 1 2-5, and F 1 2-5 ; — 4 cwts. of nitrate of soda were added to 4 cwts. of superphosphate ; and in each case the result was a decrease as compared with the effect of nitrate of soda alone ; a decrease due, as has been shown on page 332 to the quantities used. But even this does not hold good for every part of the country; three of Dr. Voelcker's six experiments before referred to showing a decrease, and other three an increase. The test plots. Series C, also furnish evidence on this point, the seven superphosphate plots giving an average 342 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Superphosphate doubled in value by Sulphate of Ammonia. return per cwt. (in the presence of sulphate of ammonia) of 194 lbs. of hay, value 6s. iid. There is also the experiment on poor clay, Series I, 4-1, in which 4 cwts. of superphos- phate gave (in the presence of sulphate of ammonia) 4 cwts. 72 lbs. increase of hay per acre. Difference of soil, however, excludes this latter experiment. The value given for superphosphate by Series C, was much higher than that obtained by using it without nitrogenous manures ; and though the evidence is thus indirect, it is to the effect that superphosphate should have the aid of a nitro- genous manure. This conclusion must, however, be modified by circumstances, as was explained when sulphate of am- monia (No. 2) was under discussion. Collecting now the facts just shown, and reducing them to the uniform basis of t cwt. of manure per acre, they com- pare as follows : — Table XI. — ^Value of Superphosphate per cwt. for Hay, when used in three different ways. Manner of Using the Superphosphate. Lbs. Increase of Hay per cwt. of Superphosphate. Value of the Hay. Used alone, Used with Muriate of Potash, . Used with Sulphate of Ammonia, ifec, A. 108 210 D. 114 *43 F. 16 91 Aver- se. 79 86 194 £. 0. d. 2 10 3 I 6 II * This sum represents a decrease. The last value, 6s. iid. per cwt, representing as it does the average of seven experiments from Series C, is very satisfac- tory, and shows a great advantage from the aid of sulphate of ammonia. The absence of that manure reduces the value of superphosphate to 3s. id. per cwt., if with muriate of potash; and to 2s. lod. per cwt., if used alone. As has been noticed. Dr. Voelcker's experiments give re- sults much higher, the averages of his six showing from superphosphate applied alone, 181 lbs. of hay, value 6s. 6d. With muriate of potash, the superphosphate gave 343 lbs. of hay, value 12s. 3d.; and with nitrate of soda, 257 lbs. of hay, value 9s. 2d. Probably the Blennerhasset results are lower. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 343 Effects of four different Manures on the action of Superphosphate. on account of the farm having been generally so well manured with bones. This would render phosphates of less value to the soil. Below is given a brief tabular summary of the foregoing facts, which will simplify comparison. Table XII. — Effects of the Presence of Some Manures ON the Action of Superphosphate. Sulphate of Ammonia increased its effect by 126 per cent. Muriate of Potash ,, ,, 34 ,, Common Salt ,, ,, 5 ,, Sulphate of Magnesia decreased ,, 4 „ These facts, if confirmed by further experiments, would be of great practical value. But on a few experiments we must not build too much. As they stand, the facts tend to show that, on light land, superphosphate should be aided by nitrogen- ous manures, and generally, too, by potash. No. 7, Muriate of Potash, formed the subject of many experiments, and was also one of the manures selected for the test-plot experiments. With salt, its behaviour was espe- cially striking; and also, as has been seen, with superphos- phate. The strength of this manure was generally 82 per cent., but it varied from So to 83. Beginning with the test-plot Series C, we find its average increase was 3 cwts. 5 lbs. of hay per acre, which, as 4 cwts. of potash were used, equals 85 lbs. of hay per cwt.' of manure. But the main value of this series lies in the separa- tion of the effects of each manure. The first question is, therefore. Does superphosphate help or hinder the action of potash ? Pursuing a course similar to that used for determining the effect of muriate of potash on superphosphate, we find that the averages of the three superphosphate plots with, and the three without potash, to stand as follows : — Muriate of Potash, with Superphosphate, &c., averaged 45 cwts. 81 lbs. Superphosphate, &c., without Muriate of Potash, „ 42 „ o„ Produce of 4 cwts. of Muriate of Potash, 3 „ 81 „ Giving 104 lbs. of hay per cwt. of muriate of potash, in the presmce of superphosphate. 344 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Muriate of Potash Threefold more effective if used with Superphosphate. Taking next the three potash plots and the three not- potash plots, receiving no superphosphate, we find their averages as follows : — Muriate of Potash, without Superphosphate, averaged 35 cwts. 93 lbs. Three analogous plots wanting both ,, 34 ,, 68 ,, Produce of 4 cwts. of Muriate of Potash, i ,, 25 „ Giving 34 lbs. of hay per cwt. of muriate of potash, in the absence of superphosphate. This shows that the presence of superphosphate increased the action of muriate of potash threefold; the figures being 70 lbs. on 34, or 205 '8 per cent. Results at first sight contradictory to the above, are fiir- nished by the three experiments given below. These diifered from Series C in the absence of any nitrogenous manure. Table XIII. — Produce per cwt. of Muriate of Potash WITH AND without SUPERPHOSPHATE, BOTH BEING AT THE RATE OF 4 CWTS. PER ACRE. with. Each cwt. gave increase of hay per acre 19S lbs. »» )» j» ,, 3*^ sj »» j» )» »> 7^ j» Average of the three, loi „ The averages show a better result in the absence of super- phosphate, but examination shows this entirely due to the experiment of Series D; and excluding this, the averages of the others were 65 and 133 lbs. i showing the effect of muriate of potash more than doubled by the presence of superphosphate. Dr. Voelcker's six experiments, before referred to, con- firm this; muriate of potash averaging per cwt., per acre, only 108 lbs of hay, when used alone; but 465 lbs. in the presence of superphosphate; an increase more than threefold. Of these results, that from muriate of potash used alone is almost identical with the Blennerhasset average; but the others are much higher, probably for the reason before mentioned in connection with superphosphate. This, of course, includes also the increase due to the effect of muriate of potash on the superphosphate : but the number of experi- ments is much too limited for a satisfactory separation of these. 116 lbs. A 2-6- 9 198 „ D 5-7-12 13 ,. F S-7-I2 109 „ EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 345 Salt injurious to the action of Muriate of Potash. Returning again to the test-plots, and cross-examining the sulphate of magnesia plots, we find this manure a help to muriate of potashj an average increase of 167 lbs. of hay (in its absence) being raised to 517 by its presence; an increase of 209 per cent. Magnesia, therefore, increased the effect of muriate of potash threefold. Salt, on the other hand, was found by a similar examina- tion to decrease the effect of potash; the 4 cwts. muriate of .potash giving an increase per acre of 610 lbs. of hay in the absence of salt, but only 200 lbs. in its presence; showing a decrease of 67 •! per cent. Salt, therefore, decreased the effect of muriate of potash about two-thirds. I am not aware of any similar experiments having been tried on the interaction of magnesia and salt with potash manures; Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert's experiments show rather their joint effects, and confirmatory proof is therefore wanting. Some other Blennerhasset experiments (see Series F in Experiments upon Potatoes), however, partly confirm them. It would be of great service to agriculture, to have this subject well investigated. The above results show, of course, only the effects of sulphate of "magnesia and chloride of sodium on chloride ol potassium; and it is not improbable that other salts of these bases might act differently. As it is, the little evidence available tends to show that the potash in Kainit and other low-class potash salts, is placed at a great disadvantage, by the compulsory presence of so much salt. The presence of nitrogenous manures was also found greatly to affect the action of muriate of potash. The test- plot Series C furnishes good evidence on this point, if we use only the not-salt plots. Series H, Nos. 4 and 8, give also good evidence; and Nos. 5 and 4 of Series I, the Gowrie clay experiment; but the nature and poverty of this latter soil interfered. Below, however, these three experi- ments are compared with the results from A, D, and F, in which latter superphosphate was used without nitrogenous manures. To facilitate comparison, all the weights have been divided by the cwts. of manure apphed. 346 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Muriate of Potash as affected by various Manures. Table XIV. — Produce per cwt. of Muriate of Potash USED WITH AND WITHOUT SULPHATE OF AmMONIA. With. Without. Each cwt. gave increase of hay per acre 152 195 ., » .. •,, 263 38 .• .. I4S 70 Average of the three, 187 loi Giving the potash a value per cwt of 6/8 3/7 TAt's shows that the presence of sulphate of ammonia nearly doubled the effect of muriate of potash; — each cwt. then giving - 3s. id. more value in hay, or an increase of 86 per cent. Indirectly this result is confirmed by Messrs. Lawes and Gilberts' experiments, which show the power of these mineral manures as always improved by the presence of ammonia salts. This ends the examination of the potash experiments on hay; and before concluding, it may be well to place side by side the various facts which the soil has given in answer to our chemical questions. Table XV. — Effects of the Presence of Various Manures on the Action of Muriate of Potash. Sulphate of Ammonia increased its power by 86 per cent. Superphosphate ,, ,, 205 ' ,, Sulpl^te of Magnesia „ „ 209 „ Salt decreased „ 67 „ When it is remembered that each of these manures has also an independent effect of its own, which is aU but eliminated from the above ; and that this table simply ex- presses the increased power of the potash manure in their piresence, the above facts must be recognised as furnishing most important and practical lessons. They also raise the question, what of the effects of other manures on these ? and open up a wide field of inquiry : — a field in which there is room and honour for many workers : for Mother Earth never fails to answer the questions of the patient and unprejudiced experimenter. Muriate of potash was not, in any of the Blennerhasset grass experiments, a profitable manure. The best result obtained was 8s, lod. per cwt.; which sum might have been EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 347 Farmyard Manure — its value for Hay. raised to the paying point (about iis.), had the fog been always weighed, and the after-eflfects on quality valued. Dr. Voelcker's experiments, however, hold out much better encouragement, showing returns of hay, value i6s. and 20s. from each cwt. of muriate of potash. Used with superpTiosphate, only one decrease occurred from its use ; but tlie variations were so great, that every farmer should test for himself its value on his own land. Let him try i}4 cwts. of muriate of potash, 3 y^ cwts. of superphosphate, and I cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, against the two latter without the potash; and if he cannot make it pay in such good com- pany, he need hardly try it in any other way. The usual market value of good muriate of potash, testing 80 per cent, is about los. per cwt. In 1867 we purchased it at less than 8s., and in 187 1 at nearly 14s. When of good quality it should be worth fuUy four times as much as a good Kainit testing 13 per cent, of potash. This for intrinsic value; but the action of salt on muriate of potash suggests that this latter is really worth comparatively much more. Some useful facts on this point are brought out in the chap- ter on " Experiments upon Potatoes." No. 8, Farmyard Manure, proved eighth in value, as far as the spring crop of hay was concerned ; but when in Series E a sUght fog was cut, it proved heavier than any of the other manures of the series. The fog, however, though valued in that year's results, was unable to balance the de- ficiency of the spring crop. This manure was generally applied earlier than the chemical manures. In Series E it was applied in February, and in Series G in December. Table XVI. — Farmyard Manure on Grass. Manure per Acre. Per ton of Manure. 9j tons gave increase of Hay 15J stones. See B i-6-o 14 » » .. l\ .. .. E 1-4 14 .. ,. .. 114 .. " G3-1 Average, „ „ iij „ This shows the value as low as 5s. 5d. per ton. No attempt has been made to estimate the after-value of any of 348 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Field-experiments with Bone Dust. , the manures, nor could a second grass crop be cut, as the farm grass, after one year's hay, was always broken up for oats or potatoes. The lasting qualities of farmyard manure have already been considered in a previous chapter. (See Farmyard Manure in the Index.) No. 9, Bone Dust, is placed very low indeed, and unde- servedly so J but in the absence of a second year's crop, there was no help for it. Like the dissolved bones, it had only three trials : in the one it was tried by itself, and in the other two with Peruvian guano. Used by itself in B 12-6, S cwts. increased the yield of hay only 3 cwts. 24 lbs. per acre, or each cwt. gave 72 lbs. of hay, value 2s. yd. With Peruvian guano it did better, but how much, can only be indirectly judged, as there were no equivalent only-guano plots to serve as subtracters. Comparing it, however, with equal dressings of mineral manures, it stands as follows : — Table XVII.— Bone Dust versus Mineral Manures — Yield of Hay per Acre. Manures per Acre. 5 cwts. used alone, 4. ,, and Per. Guano I cwt.. 3i „ „ .„. li T. Cwts. Lbs. I iS 104 a 6 108 3 . . 3 87 Difference Plots. T. Cwts. Lbs. Cwts. Lbs. Bone Dust inferior to Minerals by 18 89 28 4 12 4. no 10 42 B ia-2 B13-9 E 9-6 The bone dust in the first two experiments is inferior by ,7 cwts. 76 lbs. per acre, but in the last experiment it proves superior by 4 cwts. no lbs.; results rather perplexing. As regards the lasting quaUties of bone dust with guano, some facts are given by the potato experiments. Series D, plots 7, 5, and 8, which were continued on the same land for three years. In these potato experiments, though bone dust was superior to dissolved bones, it was beaten every year by the mineral manures and guano of plot 5, which yielded about 24 cwts. better. The dust used, however, was from the hardest of bones, and much of the last season's dressing would still be inactive. Nothing very definite can therefore be said as to the value of this manure; but I think that except on cliy soils, EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 349 Magnesia condemned as injurious to the action of Superphosphate. it is not a useful hay manure. For permanent pasture it has long been a favourite; and its comparative value for that purpose is- at present a subject of investigation by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. No. 10, Sulphate of Magnesia, is in the list credited with a value of is. gd. per cwt., an average derived from the seven plots dressed with it in Series C. Another experi- ment from E, Nos. 13-12 and 14, shows from just half-a- cwt. the large increase of 181 lbs. of hay per acre; but other considerations suggest the soil as the main cause. Another experiment on a poor clay soil (Series I, Nos. 6-4) shows a considerable decrease from 2 cwts., the magnesia plot giving 150 lbs. less hay per acre. Its price being about 6s. per cwt., it is not a profitable manure; and must be valued more for its action on those manures un- doubtedly profitable, and in whose company it will always be applied. Of these, superphosphate is the most important, and the averages of its test plots (Series C) were as follows : — Sulphate of Magnesia with Superphosphate averaged 45 cwts. 43 lbs. Superphosphate without Magnesia ,, 44 .> S§ >, Produce of 2 cwts. Sulphate of Magnesia ,, .. 99,, This is in the presence of superphosphate. In its absence the results were as below — Sulphate of Magnesia without Superphosphate averaged 36 cwts. 50 lbs. Three analogous plots wanting both „ 35 „ 25,, Produce of 2 cwts. Sulphate of Magnesia, „ i ,, 25 „ In the absence of superphosphate it produced 137 lbs., or 3 8 lbs. more than in its presence. Superphosphate is therefore plainly injurious to its full action ; and, as the former manure is of itself profitable, this condemns sulphate of magnesia. Following out the same course of analysis, we find it aflfected by other manures as follows : — Table XVIII. — Increase of Hay per Acre per One Cwt. of Sulphate of Magnesia, as affected by some M.ANURES. In the presence of Superphosphate, 50 lbs. ; in its absence 68 lbs. „ ,, Potash, 152 „ „ »22 „ „ „ Salt, 97 „ „ *6 „ * Before a sum means a decrease of weight. 350 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Gypsum worth Two Shillings per Cwt. for Grass. Superph6sphate decreases its yield, while muriate of potash and salt (muriate of soda) very considerably increase it. These interesting facts suggest that the action of sulphate of magnesia was due more to the sulphuric acid it contains than to the magnesia ; for with superphosphate, which con- tains much sulphuric acid, it is useless, or worse than useless; whereas -with the two muriates, or rather chlorides, it gives - a very marked increase. At its best, however, it was unpro- fitable ; and its action on ■ superphosphate excludes it from use at any price. The kind used in these experiments was in crystals, and tolerably pure. No. 1 1 , Gypsum. — As Carlisle possessed large gypsum quar- ries, this manure was readily and cheaply obtained, the. price delivered at our station being 15 s. a ton. There was there- fore every inducement to use it, and experiments as to its usefulness were speedily begun, both on grass and potatoes. Five experiments are available. In three it was used alone at the rate of 10 cwts. per acre, and in the other two as an addition to other manures, and at the rate of only 4 cwts. Table XIX. — Increase of Hay per Cwt. of Gypsum. Weight of Gypsum per acre. 10 cwts. used alone gave increase of Hay 22 lbs. See A 4- 7 10 ,, „ decrease ,, 4li „ „ D 9-10 10 „ „ increase „ 23I ,, „ F 9-10 4 with minerals ,, ,, 70 ,, „ B 4- 2 4 „ minerals, &c. „ „ 45 „ „ B 5- 7 Average of all five experiments, 24 „ The average yield of hay, if valued at 6d. per 14 lbs.., gives a value to each cwt. of gypsum of 10 J^d. At this price it is hardly profitable, but the experiments approve its use at the less rate per acre; the 10 cwts. averaging only 2 lbs. of hay per acre, but the 4 cwts. 57^ lbs. Used, then, at the rate of 4 cwts., and in conjunction with other manures, it proved worth 2S. per cwt. But to judge reliably of this manure, a second year's cutting should have been obtained. No. 12, Salt, is of all the twelve manures the most fickle. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 35 1 Salt an exceedingly variable, and often injurious Manure for Kay, Its only constant and reliable action seemed to be that of reducing the yield from muriate of potash. Out of twelve experiments, nine showed a loss, and only three a gain from the use of salt. The details of these were as follows, the weights in the table being those of the hay per acre : — Table XX. — Twelve Experiments with Salt for Hay. Quantity of Salt per Acre. Decrease. Increase. Authorities. 4 cwts. used alone, . . 4 4 >. 4 ,, with Minerals, li ( >> with Minerals 3 < and nitrogenous • 3 ( manures. Cwts. Lbs. o 6o 3 lOI 3 "67 IS 90 Cwts. I 4 2 Lbs. 23 37 A 7-8 D 4-6 F 6-4 E 13, & 14-12 H 4-5 C 14-6 C 6 Plots Totals 23 94 7 68 The balance against salt in these experiments was thus more than i6 cwts. of hay. This balance, too, should strictly be still larger, as the heaviest increase, that from Series E, is a doubtful one, as the favourable yield of plots 12, 13, and 14, is too much to attribute to the effects of the manures only. This variable action of salt is, however, no uncommon one ; thirteen experiments reported by Dr. Voelcker show so many losses arid gains that the average of all gives an increase of only 47 lbs. of hay per acre, from 4 cwts. of salt. Used with other manures, some of the effects of salt were very curious. The test plots (Series C), compared and averaged, show its action upon the other three manures to have been as follows, the quantity used being 3 cwts. per acre : — Salt increased the effect of Superphosphate by S per cent. „ increased ,, Sulphate of Magnesia considerably. ,, decreased ,, Muriate of Potash by 67 per cent. Salt thus proved, on the whole, a slight help to super- phosphate for hay, but very injurious to the action of muriate 352 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Value of the early application of Top-dressings. of potash. These two facts should guide the farmer in the mixing of his grass manures ; and on soils where tnuriate of potash can be profitably used, salt had better be put some- where else. This ends the separate consideration of the twelve nianures ; and the experiments next to be considered refer ' to the best time of applying them. Time of Application of the Manures. The first trials are from Series G, Nos. 4, 5, and 6. The grass manure "used was a general one. The 7 cwts. contained of sulphate of ammonia, 116 lbs.; Peruvian guano, 70; superphosphate, 392 ; and of potash, magnesia, gypsum, &c., 206. Grass manure applied Feb. igth, gave of Hay 42 cwts. 22 lbs. ,, „ April 20th, „ 38' „ 67,, „ March 7th, „ 31 „ 50 „ The February application, it wUl be seen, gave much the best yield, exceeding April by nearly 14s. per acre in its return of hay. But March was inferior to April, a result rather perplexing. Encouraged by the above result, a series of thirteen experiments were planned for the year following, in which a grass manure was to be sown at six intervals of 14 days each. Two plots were sown at each date, so as to furnish , duplicate trials ; and in June, 1871, the experiment promised very well. But at mowing time the weather proved so broken that some days elapsed between the cuttings of several of the plots j and the weather was so damp, and the crop so heavy, that the rain clung obstinately to the clover, spoiling the accuracy of the weights. This was the more vexatious, because in the year 1871 the only good second cutting of grass was obtainable. Below are given the four weights of the most reliable cutting, but even this was far from satisfactory. Each plot received 40 lbs. of manure,— ra dressing equivalent to 800 lbs. per acre ; — consisting of sul- phate of ammonia, 113 lbs.; Peruvian guano, 67 lbs.; super- phosphate, 462 lbs.; alkaline salts, 115 lbs.; and gypsum, 43 lbs. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 353 Attempt to Dispense with the Nitrogen of a Grass Manure. Table XXI.— Hay Produced by 71^ Cwts. of Grass Manure Sown at Intervals of a Fortnight (Series J). No. Date of Sowing. First Cutting. Second Cutting. Botli Cuttings. 6. 1: 9- May Sth. Feb. 24th. March 23rd. April 22nd. Tons. 2 2 2 2 Cwts. Lbs. 7 39 7 11 17 95 Tons. Cwts. Lbs. I 6 78 I 8 SO I 7. 67 I 9 II Tons. Cwts. Lbs. 3 14 5 3 IS SO 3 18 67 4 6 106 No satisfactory conclusion can be drawn from the above. For, if we look at the weights of the first cutting, there is practically no difference between those from the earliest and latest topdressings ; while both are strikingly inferior to the yield from the topdressings of intermediate dates. Certainly the latest topdressing, that of May, does prove the worst all through; but its teachings are contradicted by ' those of the next latest topdressing, that of April, which proved the best all through. The weights of the other plots not given in the above only add to the perplexity. But this is far from a solitary instance of how, in experimenting, we frequently found our care and patience at the mercy of the elements ; and " Try again " was our only remedy. The same autumn (1871) saw another series planned and begun, which aimed at more than finding the best time for top-dressing; the main question being no less than the possibility of disfieming with the costliest' element of our grass manures, by means of an earlier application of the cheaper elements. Good Peruvian guano was now difficult to pur- chase, and sulphate of ammonia had doubled its price ivithin the last six years. Nitrate of soda, too, was dear; and was besides excluded from mixed grass manures because of its damp-attracting nature. It was therefore of importance to save every pound of nitrogenous manure ; and autumn manuring of grass land with mineral manures, suggested itself as the best method, for taking the fullest advantage of the natural nitrogenous compounds which are constantly being formed in all well-ventilated soils. These expecta- tions have been so fully realised that doubtless the season 2 A 354 TEN YEARS OF GENTLESIAN FARMING. Plan and Arnmgement of Series K. had much to do with the special results. But this can only be proved by a repetition of the experiments, and we would hardly have published them unconfirmed but that they were tried in the last year of our timing. Two different mixed manures were employed; the one purely mineral, and the other representing the ordinary grass manures, containing 20 per cent of a nitrc^enons salt The mineral manure, applied at five intervals of seven weeks each, consisted of superphosphate, 540 lbs. ; muriate of potash, 270 lbs. ; and gypsum, 90 lbs. per acre. The grass manure, applied at three of these intervals, differed only in the substitution of 180 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia for two-thirds the muriate of potash, reducing the weight of the latter to 90 lbs. The eight plots thus manured had also duplicates, as we wished to make sure of some results, and to reduce the chances of &ilure from soil-variations to a minimum. These duplicates were placed at some Uttle distance fi'om each other, and the whole was so arranged that extremes of time and differences of manure were placed side by side: A second duplicate of the first-sown mineral manure was also added ; and two other plots were dressed in October with only a half quantity of the mineral manure. The remaining two plots received a mixture of both manures — one plot receiving this dressing in October and the other in May. Rain fell within a few hours after each dressing — except in December, when three days intervened — and all had thus a good chance. The first dressing only was applied while rain was falling, and the second when a slight fi'ost was oa the grass. All the others had mild weather. The experiments extended into i&yz, and after the farm had changed hands; but by the kindness of the steward and the farm bailifl^ they were continued, and the grass cut at the usual time. It was weighed immediately, and the weights have been reduced to hay, each cwt of grass being estimated to make 30 lbs. of hay. This estimate was afterwards found to be rather high; but this circumstance does not affect the comparative value of the results. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MAlfDRISa 355 Autumn 7/ersus Spiing Topdiessii^ of Gcass. Table XXII. — Experiments ox Grass \L\xure3 Sowx AT In'tervals of Seven Weeks each, betvfeex October i6th, 1871, AXD May 2x0. 1872. (Series K.) Sl. Date of AppBcadon. Maanre per Acre. 1 Weight of HzfperAoe. 1 Ko. 1 T. C. lbs. I May 2iid Grass Masnre 7 cwts. 2 19 0! I 2 Silay 2iid Mmeial , ' 2 19 48i 2 3 October ifith Mineral , ^ 3 2 96! 3 4 October i6th Mineral , ', 34 ,' , 2 19 i& 4 5 October i6th Grass , 2 14 4i S 6 October l6th Mixed 2 18 68 6 7 December 8th 31ineral , 3 7 7 8 Jaraiaiy 22iid Mineral 3 3 80 8 9 Grass , 3 8 9 10 October i6th Mineral , 3 4 40 10 II March nth Mineral , > 3 10 96 II 12 ^iaj 20A Mineral , > 3 3 40 12 13 May2iid Mixed 3 3 4* 13 14 Ma7 2nd Grass 2 12 64 14 15 October l6th Grass , , 2 7 72 15 16 Jaiaiaij22nA Grass , > \ 2 7 16 17 ^aaaaxj 22iid Mineral , , 2 6 96 17 18 October i6th Mineral , 2 6 18 19 October l6th Mineral ', 34 \ , 2 3 19 20 December 8th ilineral , 1 2 9 40 20 21 March nth Mineral ' h 8 8 21 The value of the duplicate plots is strikingly illustnited in the above experiment, for at plots 13 and 14 a marked change of soil occurred ; but luckily every important plot except one had a duplicate across the line, and the averages of each give practically more reliable results than other- wise. The best time for application differed for each manure, as will be seen by the comparison of the averages of the duplicate plots given below. To get a comparable average of the mineral manure, sown May 2nd (the plot unfortunate in its duplicate), 7 cwts. and 56 lbs. have been deducted from the average of March nth, that being the difference between plots 11 and 12, on which these two dates came together. The average weights of hay then stand as follows : — 356 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. The Nitrogenous Manure Inferior in Autumn, and Superior in Spring. Date of Application. Mineral Manure, Grass Manure. Tons. Cwts. Lbs. , Tons. Cwts. Lbs. October l6th, 2 14 62 2 II 4 December Sth, 2 18 20 — January 22nd, 2 IS 32 2 n 60 Marclvilth, 2 19.. Sz May 2nd, 2 II 108 2 15 60 These averages are very instructive ; and, if similar results could be obtained in every season, a great point would be gained. The best results were from the mineral manure ; and between the December and March applications there was but little to choose ; but December, though slightly less in the averages, seemed the best, as it proved superior to March when tried side by side, as on plots 20 and 21. January was inferior to either, perhaps from the grass being stimulated in the colder weather. October, where close comparison was possible, always proved inferior to every other time (May excepted); as a comparison of plots 10 and II, 17 and 18, and 18 and 20 will show. But May proved still worse, giving about 3j^ cwts' less than October on plot 2 as against 3; and 7J^ cwts. less than March on plot 12 as against 1 1. The grass manure, in both its early dressings, was inferior to the mineral, but in May it proved superior. This is, however, proved only indirectly; the change of soil at plots 13 and 14 preventing direct comparison of the duplicate plots 12 and 14. Plots i and 2 show the grass and mineral manures about equal in May; but the general averages, and all the experiments from Series A to I place the grass manures before purely mineral manures, for spring applica- tion. A March dressing with grass manure would have been very useful, but we cannot know beforehand just what may be wanted. These experiments certainly suggest the possibility of dispensing with the nitrogenous part of the ordinary grass manures. All the previous experiments have shown the effect of the mineral manures as greatly improved by the presence of nitrogenous manures ; but in this series Time EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 357 Early Sowing of Mineral Manures found best. has proved still more of an aid. The season was very wet, which probably on our well-drained soil was a great help to the mineral manure; for it is a chemical fact that in the filtration of air through soil (or other porous material), a little ammonia is formed. Hence the passage of much rain into the drains causes an extra aeration of the soil, and thus a greater production, of ammonia. The quantity may be trifling, and perhaps not the chief cause of the above good results; but this must be tested by further experiment The half-manured plots, Nos. 4 and 19, show very good results, a comparison of plots 2 and 4 showing 3^^ cwts. of manure applied in October to have been practically nearly as good as 7 cwts. applied in May. Early sowing of manures is advised by all the experiments. But it would be advisable to avoid sowing late in December or early in January; for, though December did well, it was the earlier part of it; and January is so decidedly inferior to every neighbouring plot that it should be avoided. With less rain in the spring, the top-dressings of mineral manure then, would in all probability have shown less favourably as compared with the autumn dressings. The rainfall of January to the end of June in 1872 was about 50 per cent, beyond the average of the four previous years; that of 1872 being 2I-II; 1868, 18-05; 1869, iS'i3; 1870, 11-76; and 1871, 12-58 inches. This circumstance was much in favour of the later sown manures; and, indeed, in 1872 a fine crop of hay was obtainable under almost any manurial conditions; the yield of this year exceeding very considerably all our previous experience. Nitrogenous manuring in the autumn did not do so well, of which the heavy rains were probably the cause; and where the rainfall is heavy, late in February or early in March should be preferred for sulphate of ammonia, and a later date still for nitrate of soda. This concludes the experiments on grass for hay : and it now remains but to give the details of each of the series referred to in the comparison. But, before doing so, a short description of the methods and precautions adopted in our field experimenting is desirable. 358 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Method of Conducting the Hay Experiments. Generally each plot was 55 yards long, and about 13 feet wide. The divisions were usually made by the plough, but sometimes only by two or three stakes in haj^-est ; and, as a guide to the mower, a long cord was stretched from pin to pin between the plots, previous to cutting. The weighing, except of the first few pldts of Series A, was all done by means of a good spring balance, which weighed up to 300 lbs. This was attached to one end of a lever, which was in turn suspended from a triangle formed of three wooden legs, each about 12 feet long and 3 inches square. At first the grass was weighed in bundles, by means of a rope ; but afterwards a platform was found more con- venient. This was made of five or six light wooden spars, about J^-inch thick, 4 inches deep, and 6 feet long. These were placed on edge, and fastened by cross pieces, so as to leave spaces of about 5 inches between each spar. This formed a light, manageable platform, about 6 feet long, and 2j^ feet broad; and, with the addition of a small upright to each comer, it was quite able to hold about 280 lbs. of fresh- cut grass. Each plot was at first weighed both in grass and in hay ; but the ratio was found so variable that, after 1869, generally only the grass was weighed. This was calculated into hay, on the assumption that each 100 lbs. of grass made about 27 lbs. of hay. An average of 22 trials gave 30*5 lbs.; but, as was shown in connection with the lea hay cropping sheets, hay loses from one-tenth to one-seventh in the stack. This gives 26 lbs. or 27 lbs. of hay per 100 lbs. of grass. The following are the details of the kind and quantities of manure used in the foregoing experiments, and also the weights of hay obtained from each. DETAILS. In t868, Series A, B, and C were tried on the southern slope of the Mid-heads. The soil of this field was a nice gravelly loam, in fair condition. The season was also a good one for hay in Cumberland, but the summer was so excessively dry that in July all the pastures were brown, and a second crop was not obtainable. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. Details of the Hay Experiments. 359 The manures were sown March i8th ; and plot i A was also re-sown by mistake, when the rest of the field was manured. It was therefore useless as an experiment. Plot i8 A is the same plot as 6 B, and i8 F as 8 G. Hay. — Series A, D, and F, i868, 1869, and 1870. No. No. A. 12 I II 2 10 S 7 4 9 5 8 6 6 7 S 8 4 9 I 10 3 II 2 12 18 18 Manures in cwts. per Acre. A. 1868. F. 1870. Peruvian Guano, 4 cwts., . Nitrate of Soda, 4, Sulphate Ammonia, 4, No Manure,. ... Superpliospliate, 4 cwts., .Common Salt, 4, Muriate of Potash, 4, . Sulphate of Potash, 4, Gypsum, 10, ... No Manure, .... Superphosphate, 4 ; Nit. Soda, 4. Superphos., 4; Mur. Potash, 4, No Manure, .... T. C. lbs. 2 16 108 2 18 64 3 5 80 I II 28 I 15 100 3 16 8 2 2 96 I 15 80 T. C 2 14 7 : 13 lbs. 13 18 70 16 77 II no 15 88 107 106 30 C. lbs, o 90 o 63 76 1 no 2 28 . C. lbs. .4 62 16 73 6 84 I 8 t 8 95 =6 ?♦ 12 67 9 95 7 8+ 15 73 II 106 7 28 Hay.— Series B, 1868. No. Manure in cwts. per Acre. Weight. T. cwts lbs. 0. No Manure (plot 7 A.), .... I II 28 I. Farmyard Manure, gi tons, 2 II 28 2. Mineral Manure (4 cwts.) 2 10 20 3- Minerals (Sulphate of Potash), 4 cwts.. 2 II 28 4- Minerals, 4 cwts.; Gypsum, 4 cwts., . 2 12 76 S- Minerals, 4; Gypsum, 4; Sulph. Ammonia, i. 2 17 l" 6. No Manure, I I'i 80 7. Minerals, 4; Sulphate Ammonia, 1, . 2 ,15 100 8. Minerals, 4; Nitrate Soda, i, . . . 2 13 104 9. Minerals, 4; Peruvian Guano, 1, 2 II 8 10. Grass Manure, S cwts 2 12 76 II. Dissolved Bones, 5 cwts., .... 2 s 80 12. Bone Dust, 5 cwts., I 18 104 13- Bone Dust, 4; Peruvian Guano, i. 2 6 108 Minerals supplied — Superphosphate, 2 cwts.; Muriate (Sulphate on No. 3) of Potash, i cwt; Sulphate of Magnesia, 45 lbs.; and Salt, 67 lbs. The grass of A was cut and weighed on June 5th ; of B, 360 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Details of the Test-Plot Series C. June i6th ; and of C, June 17th. The hay of A was weighed July r7th, and of B, July 24th. C was weighed as grass only. Hay.— Series C, i8'68. I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 Manure in cwts. per Acre. Superphosphate, S cwts., Superphosphate, 5; Sulphate of Magnesia, 2. Super., 5; S. Magnesia, 2; Muriate Potash 4, Superphosphate, 5; Muriate of Potash, 4, Muriate of Potash, 4, ... Muriate of Potash, 4; Sulphate of Magnesia, Sulphate of Magnesia, 2, . . . No Manure, ..... Superphosphate, 5; Salt, 3, Superphosphate, 5; S. Magnesia, 2; Salt, 3, Superphos., 5; S. Magnesia, 2; Mur. Potash, 4; Salt, 3, ..... Superphosphate, 5 ; Mur. of Potash, 2; Salt, 3 Muriate of Potash, 4; Salt, 3, Mur. of Potash, 4; S. of Magnesia, .2; Salt, 3, Sulphate of Magnesia, 2; Salt, 3, Salt, 3, Weight. T. cwts. lbs. 2 I 37 I 37 IS 37 9 18 3 74 I o 8 18 7 93 19 o 18 37 ii 7 o 220 I 13 18 I 16 o I 15 o 1 13 56 All, except plot 8, had besides, later in the spring, about ^ cwts. of sulphate of ammonia. Series D and E were tried in 1869 on West Wet-flats, a field rather heavier in its nature than Mid-heads; though in better condition as a whole, and especially the part occupied by Series E. But the season was less favourable. The manures were sown March 6th, and the grass cut and weighed June 25th and 26th. The second cutting was taken August 23rd. Series F and G were tried in 1870 on the south-west end of the Festival field. The soil — an open, gravelly loam — was lighter than that of any other series, and also more equal ; and was in rather poor condition. The season was also less favotrrable than that of 1868. The manures were sown March 7th ; the grass cut and EXPERIMENTS ON, GRASS MANURING. Details of Series E and G Hay Experiments. 361 weighed June 20th and 21st; and the hay weighed July 7th and 9th. Hay. — Series E, 1869. No. Manure in cwts. pfer Acre. First Second Total Cutting. Cutting T. C. lbs C. lbs. T. C. lbs I Farmyard Manure, (14 tons), . 2 12 10 8 S4 3 44 2 Clover Manure, 10 cwts., . 2 IS 96 7 22 3 3 6 s Clover Manure, 5, . ... 2 12 60 3 110 2 16 58 4 No Manure 2 2 12 S 94 2 7 106 .S Minerals, 4; Sulph. Ammonia, 1, • . 2 13 48 4 109 2 18 45 6 Minerals, 3I; Peruvian Guano, l^, . 2 13 35 S 54 2 18 89 7 Minerals, 4; Nitrate of Soda, 1, 2 17 6l 4 96 3 2 45 8 Dissolved Bones, 3I; Per. Guano, ij. 2 16 52 4 II 3 63 <5 BoneDust,38olbs.; Per. Guano, 180 lbs. 2 17 74 6 IS 3 3 87 10 Grass Manure, 5 cwts.. 2 IS 42 S 9 3 SI 11 No Manure', 2 4 22 7 32 2 II 54 12 Minerals, 44 (wanting Salt), 2 92 6 42 2 7 22 1,3 Minerals, 4J (wanting Magnesia), 244 5 52!^ 9 S6 14 Minerals, 5 (all four). 2 S 18 7 98^2 13 4 Mineral manure supplied— Superphosphate, 2^ cwts. ; muriate of potash, ij^ cwts.; sulphate of magnesia, ]4 cwt.; and salt, j4 cwt. Hay. — Series G, 1870. Manures in lbs. per Acre. Weight. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 Nb Manure, ..... Superphosphate, 440 lbs. j Mur. of Potash, 44O, Farmyard Manure, 14 tons; applied Dec. isth, Grass Manure, 780 lbs. ; apphed Feb. 19th, Grass Manure, 780 lbs. ; applied April 20th, Grass Manure, 780 lbs. ; applied March 7th, Grass Manure, 390 lbs. ; applied March 7th, No Manure, ...... Minerals, 580; Nitrate of Soda, 200, Minerals, 580; Sulphate of Ammonia, 200, Minerals, SS°; Peruvian Guano, 230, Dissolved Bones, 5S0; Peruvian Guano, 230, T. cwts. lbs. I 7 84 I II 106 2 7 2 2 I 18 95 22 67 I II 50 I 7 1 7 2 2 67 28 17 I 18 28 1 IS 6 Minerals supplied — Superphosphate, 348 lbs.; muriate of 362 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Details of Series H and I Hay Experiments. potash, 128 lbs.; sulphate of magnesia, 58 lbs.; and salt, 46 lbs. Hay. — Series H, 187 i. Manure in. lbs. per Acre. First Cutting. Second Cutting. Total Weight. No Manure, Super., 440; Muriate, Potash, i6o; Nitrate Soda, 200, Super.. 400; Muriate Potash, 140; Per. Guano. Super., 440; Muriate Potash, 160; S. Ammonia. Same as 4, with Salt, 160 lbs., . No Manure, Superphosphate, 440; Muriate Potash, r6o. Superphosphate, 560; Sulphate Ammonia, 3cx>, Grass Manure, Soo lbs., Grass Manure, 400 lbs. , Sulphate of Ammonia, 340 lbs.. Nitrate of Soda, 340 lbs., . No Manure, T.C. lbs r 18 106 2 8 106 Z 10 106 8 78 5 14 106 19 « 5 4. T. C. lbs T.C. lbs 2, a 14 I 19 lOI 4 34 I 14 W 3 §5 I 10 I lo 84 106 22 I II 2 19 28 3 14 6 3 9 22 3 14 106 3 II o 3 14 84 3 16 67 II 78 Hay. — Series I, 1871. Manure in cwts. per Acre. Sulphate of Ammonia, 2 cwts., . . . . Nitrate of Soda, 2 cwts., ..... No Manure, ....... Superphosphate, 4; Sulphate of Ammonia, 2, Super., 4; Mur. Potash, 2; Sulphate Ammonia, 2, Super., 4; S. Magnesiaj 2; Sulphate Ammonia, 2, Super., 4; Muriate of Potash, 2; Nitrate of Soda, 2, Super., 4; Muriate of Potash, 2, . . . No Manure, ....... Weight. T. cwts. IbsL I 7 56 o no 11 8 12 16 14 82 10 90 7 86 10 no 8 14 Series H and J were tried in 1871 on East Wet-flats. This field had the heaviest soil of any of the series, Gowrie pasture excepted ; though not heavy enough to be called a clay loam, being quite friable, and rather dark in colour when damp. It was also in fair condition, and the season was excellent. The manures were sown March i6th, and the grass cut and weighed June 13th and i6th. The second cutting was taken on September 8th. EXPERIMENTS ON GRASS MANURING. 363 Brief Summary of the Results. Series I was also tried in 187 1, but on a soil differing in every respect from those of the preceding series. The field called Gowrie pasture, was an outlying one, distant about a mile from the farm. It had come into our hands in 1870 in very poor condition; and, as its soil was a poor, stiff clay, it was thought to offer a good opportunity for experiment. But its distance from the steading was fatal to its proper manage- ment. The manures were sown April 21st, and the grass cut and weighed June 1 7th. Series K was tried in 1872 on Bore-hole field. Half of the field, the part acquired in 1870, was in poor condition. The land was a light gravel, rather resembling that of Series D and E. The season was, however, by far the best we had experienced, as the figures show. The grass was cut and weighed June 27th. This concludes the details' of these experiments; and it will be well before concluding to recapitulate briefly the more important facts of this chapter. ist. That the values given for the twelve manures in Table I., page 331, are for Nos. i, 2, 3, 6, and 7, the aver- ages of many experiments. 2nd. That the values given for Manures Nos. 4, 5, 8, 9, and 10, are doubtful. 3rd. That nitrate of soda, used alone, gave the best return when applied at the rate of 4 cwts. per acre. 4th. That nitrate of soda should in general be used in conjunction with mineral manures: and then at the rate of i to 2 cwts. per acre. 5th. That sulphate of ammonia was less reliable than nitrate of soda. 6th. That Peruvian guano did best when used by itself. 7th. That where nitrate of soda gave 100 lbs. of hay, sul- phate of ammonia gave 92, and Peruvian guano 74. 364 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Deductions from the Grass Experiments. 8th. That, used in conjunction with mineral manures, each lb. of nitrogen gave, from nitrate of soda, 37}^ lbs. of hay; from sulphate of ammonia, 25 lbs.; and from Peruvian guano, 24 lbs. of hay. gth. That the yield from superphosphate was more than doubled by the presence of sulphate of ammonia, and in^ creased one-third by iivt presence of muriate of potash. loth. That the yield from muriate of potash was increased three-fold by iae. presence of superphosphate, and nearly two- fold by the presence of sulphate of ammonia; and was de- creased more than one-half by the presence of common salt. nth. That sulphate of potash proved superior to muriate of potash. 1 2th. That a good general grass manure, is i^ cwts. nitrate of soda, i J^ cwts. muriate of potash, and 3 cwts. superphosphate or dissolved bones per acre. And that 4 cwts. of gypsum, if obtainable at is. per cwt., may with advantage be mixed with this compound. 13th. That in the experiments of 1872, mineral manures applied in autumn, proved superior to nitrogenous manures applied either in autumn or spring. 14th. That, possibly, grass land might be efficiently manured by mineral manures alone. FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES. Annual Rainfall at Blennerhasset. 36s CHAPTER XX. p'lELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES WITH MURIATE OF POTASH, &c. Amongst the numerous experiments tried on the Blenner- hasset Farm with nearly all the more important manurial substances, the following were undertaken with the view of testing the profitableness or otherwise of potash salts. The matter of this chapter appeared as a Prize Essay in the Highland and Agricultural Society's Transactions for 1873. Potatoes being largely grown, were the subject of many experiments ; and, in the absence of a sufficiency of farmyard manure, potash naturally suggested itself as a necessary con- stituent of a chemical potato manure. The farm was situated about 10 miles south and east of the Solway. It lay between 200 and 300 feet above sea- level, in lat. 54° 45' and long. 3° 17' W. The fields under experiment had all a northern exposure, and were as a rule light and gravelly in their nature, and with an open subsoil. The rainfall, taken daily for the four years 1868 to 1871, is given below ; that of the first half of 1872 has been already given on page 250. Table I. — Annual Rainfall. Months. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. January . 3-23 3-65 3-52 2-39 February- 4-68 5-39 1-87 2-37 March . 4-53 0-54 1-32 1-98 April 2-49 2-08 1-19 2-56 May 2-45 2-23 2-40 . 0-97 June 0-67 1-24 1-46 2-31 July 0-61 1-36 0-91 3-08 August . 4-84 1-35 2-60 3-09 September 2-06 5-91 3-37 2-84 October 4-21 2-49 6-03 2-86 NqYcmber 2-39 4 '24 2-90 2-31 December 5-81 3-33 1-24 4-78 37-97 33-81 28-81 31-54 366 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Market Value per Ton of the Potatoes as raised. Throughout these experiments the questions kept in view were of the two kinds; first, the effects of potash manures upon the potato crop as regards — (i) weight; (2) size; (3) keeping qualities; (4) healthy growth ; and secondly, (5) the kind, and (6) the quantity of potash salt most efficient. On many of these points the testimony will be found conflicting and indefinite: facts will be given bearing on all; but only with reference to the first and second, are the results suffi- ciently uniform and numerous to inspire confidence. In experiments on potatoes, the weight per acre of the tubers, has too frequently been hitherto, the sole test of value. The quality of the produce as regards the size, &c., of the tubers, has not been altogether overlooked; but the difficulty of assigning it a value, has probably been the chief barrier, to its taking a place in statements of field experiments, second only to that of weight. As an illustration of the value of size, however, it may be mentioned that, in an experiment with large and sma,ll potato sets tried in 1869, the produce of two plots resulted as follows : — No. 9 yielded ig4j4 cwts., value ;^ 1 5, 17s. Sj^d.; and No. 13, 160^ cwts., value, ^ig 1 8s. i}4d. The heavier crop when riddled was found to contain 70*9 per cent, of small or pig potatoes, and the lighter only i5"7 ; and hence, though 34 cwts. less in weight, the latter proved ^£4 los. better in value. To arrive at the practical value of the size of the tubers, they were assorted into the three customary sizes, as if for the market. In Cumberland hand picking is the rule, but riddles are sometimes used. These are of i^ to i^ inches mesh for marketable or eating potatoes; and what pasS through this are thrown upon a second riddle oi i^ to ij4 inches mesh. The first quality- or size consists of tubers weighing 2 J^ or 2 J^ oz. and upwards ; and the third, called pig potatoes, of those under i)^ oz. The prices vary some- what according to season, but the following are rather under an average : — 4j4d. per stone of 14 lbs. for the first. 3d. for the second, and 2d. for the third ; or per ton, ^^, ^2, and ^i 6s. 8d. respectively. From these prices the sums in the columns headed " Market value per ton," in the tables which follow, were calculated. The field weights of the three FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES. 367 Method of Weighing the Experimental Crops. qualities were reduced into per cents., and these multiplied by their respective prices, as in the following example. The field weights of plot 3 E, for instance, were — Of Large, . 584 lbs. = percent. 647 x £s o ° = £^94'^ „ Medium, 209 ,, = ,, 23-1 x 200= 46-2 „ Small, . Ill ,, = ,, 12-2 X 168= 16-3 904 1000 2566 Equal to £2 lis. 4d. per ton. Experiments in 1867. — Muriate of Potash: — alone AND WITH Superphosphate. Xhe muriate of potash used between 1867 and 1870 tested 81 per cent.; after 1870, 83 per cent. The variety of potato was rocks j the sets were cut and planted in the usual way, on 7th May ; the manure, mixed with soil, being previously sown in the drill bottoms. The season was very favourable till July, when heavy rains set in ; disease then made its appearance, and was aggravated by some weeks' delay in lifting. This being also the first field experiment, the speedy and accurate system of weighing afterwards adopted was not in use, and hence, but a small portion of each plot was weighed. This season's weights are in con- sequence less accurate than those which follow. The method of weighing afterwards adopted was by a spring balance, weighing to 300 lbs., which was tested frequently, and which, being suspended to a portable triangle, was readily moved about from field to field. Frequently the potatoes were twice weighed — before and after being picked. In showery weather, or when damp soil, adhering to the potatoes, seemed likely to increase the weight to any extent, a weighed sample was placed under shelter and re-weighed when marketable ; the proportion of loss indicated was then deducted from all that had been weighed that same day, and was rarely found to exceed 4 per cent. The soil in this experiment was -in fair condition ; the preceding crop had been oats after lea, and had been top-dressed with about 4 cwts; per acre of bone manure. When the crop was lifted on 29th October, many of the diseased tubers were so rotten as to be quite unweighable. 368 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Potash seems to Mitigate the Potato Disease. The particulars as to manuring and the produce were as follows : — Table IL — Series of 1867. No. Maniu-es in cwts. per acre. Weight of Potatoes. Per cent, diseased. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Farm-yard manure, 15 J tons per acre . No manure Mineral superphoapbate, 4 cwt. Superphos., 4; muriate of potash, 4 cwt. No manure Muriate of potash, 4 cwt. Common salt, 4 cwt. .... Superphosphate, 4; and salt, 4 cwt. No manure ...... Farm -yard manure, 8i tons . T. cwt. lbs. 7 18 91 5 17 63 5 19 70 6 8 101 3 12. 21 6 14 98 4 2 56 8 8 7 4 7 73 11 8 105 26-0 17-5 29-3 16-8 20-0 18-5 20-0 33-3 35-3 41-5 The excessive weight of plot 10 is probably due to its position on the headrigg of the field, where the soil is fre- quendy better manured by the cattle who stand there for shelter in inclement weather. This element of irregularity was noted, and avoided in future experiments. Plot 4 as compared with 3 ; and 6 as compared with 7 and 5 ; show notable increase from the addition of muriate of potash. The disease column is also interesting ; and at the time was thought to be conclusive in favour of potash. Further consideration of this experiment is, however, deferred until the details of all the series are given, when the results of all will be arranged and averaged together. Series A and E — 1868 and 1869. In 1868, four series of experiments were begun, and con- tinued on the same land for three years. Each plot consisted of four stetches or drills, 30 inches wide and 36 yards long, and measured ^Sjth of an acre each. The drills ran north and south, and were divided lengthwise into four plots or series. A, B, C, and D; of these A occupied the most southerly, and best conditioned portion. A slack or hollow FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES. 369 Experiments tried for the Royal Agricultural Society. of heavier soil lay to one side, interfering slightly with the easterly plots of series B, and with the adjacent ends of A and C. 'The soil otherwise was very equal across the plots. The previous crop had been swedes after flax, the roots having all been carted off. Series E, being a repetition of A, is included in the same table. The field in which it was tried was more equal and level, the soil was also heavier, but in poorer condition; and the season less favourable. The preceding crop had been ■ oats after lea, unmanured. The plots measured y^th of an acre each; the date of planting was 30th April, and of lifting 2ist Oct.; for series A these were 4th May and 5th Oct. respectively. The variety of potato was regents or rough whites. This kind was in fact used in nearly all the experi- ments ; and, as a rule, a change of seed was obtained each season, generally from Lanarkshire. The sets were cut to about I Yq, ounces, and set from 8 to 1 2 inches apart. Table III. — Series A and E. Manures in cwts. per acre. A 1868. B 1869. No. Weight. Market value per ton. Percent. sound in Spring. Weight. Market value per ton. 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 No manure Superphosphate, 4; m. of pot- ash, 2; and s. of ammonia, 2 Farm-yard manure, 20 tone . Superphosphate, 4; m. of pot- ash, 4 No Manure .... Superphosphate, 4: m. of pot- ash, 4; and nitrate of soda, 2 Peruvian guano, 4 cwt. . ■ . Superphosphate, 4; salt, 4 . Farm-yard manure, 20 tons . No manure .... T. C. lbs. 6 4 72 9 2 16 9 3 24 7 6 88 6 13 64 7 11 8 6 7 96 6 13 64 8 2 96 S 6 88 £ s. d 2 10 2i 2 9 4 2 8 7i 2 8 8i 2 9 9i 2 8 li 2 6 Hi 2 8 4i 2 9 m 2 10 9| 71-5 67-8 89-3 86 83 81-2 84-8 79-4 T. cwt. lb. 3 8 4 7 100 .8 1 48 6 15 80 3 11 8 6 4 72 4 11 28 4 17 36 7 12 66 3-16 108 £ s. d. 2 7 li 2 11 5 2 11 4 2 11 4 2 7 9 2 10 9 2 8 2 9 5i 2 10 4 2 7 6' A comparison of plots 4 and 8, in both series, renders it very evident that a soda salt cannot take the place of a potash one; and on plot 8 A, salt seems almost to have reduced the produce. Another noteworthy circumstance is, the increase of weight given by plot 2 over 4, where 2 cwts. of sulphate of 370 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Excessive Manuring with Soluble Salts. ammonia were substituted for two of muriate of potash. This increase, 35 cwts. in A, is less marked in E, being only 5 cwts. Probably this is due to the stiflfer nature of the soil, as suggested by Dr. Voelcker,* who planned the above ex- periments, and in whose report for 1870 they appeared. This point will be again considered in connection with other experiments. Series B. — 1868, 1S69, and 1870. The details of this series are the same as for A. Nitro- genous manures were not at first employed in these experi- ments : the results of 1868 are therefore given by themselves. In consequence, also, of the diflference of soil on plots i, 2, and 3, they are omitted from the series, and the numbers begin at 4. Table IV.— Series B, 1868. No. Manures in cwts. per acre. ■Weight. Market value per ton. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Superphosphate, 64; m. of potash, 6 J; and (cd. ) sulphate of magnesia, 2^ . Superphosphate, 64;andm. ofpocash, 6^ Superphosphate, 6J . . . . Superphosphate, 6^; andsi ofmagnesia,2J (Calcined) sulphate of magnesia, 2^ Ko manure T. out. a. 7 2 27 7 8 67 7 3 4 6 12 79 6 7 105 5 18 45 £ o. d. ,2 6 8 2 10 OJ 2 9 34 2 8 54 2 10 6 2 11 9 The absence of nitrogenous manure, and the invariably injurious effects which, in a hot, dry season such as 1868, result from a large dressing of soluble salts; combine to make this experiment an imperfect one. Six and a-half cwts. of muriate of potash were evidently in excess of the requirements of the crop. Plot 4 shows also, how a further addition of 2^ cwts. of a solijble salt reduced the produce and quality; though the same, applied alone, as on plot 8, gave a notable increase. * Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1870, page 412. FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES. 371 Ammonia almost useless in the absence of Potash. In 1869 and 1870, sulphate of ammonia was applied on two plots, the quantities of the other manures reduced, and plot 8 fully manured. The weights of manure given in the table are those of 1869; in 1870 they were increased one- fourth. The date of planting in 1869 was i8th of April, of lifting 27th Sept.; and in 1870, 3d April and 29th Sept. To avoid needless repetition in the table, "s" has been used for "Sulphate of," and "m" for "Muriate of." Table V.— Series B, 1869 and 1870. Manure in cvts. per acre. 1869. 1870. ito. Weight. Market value per ton. Weight. Market value per ton. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Superphosphate, 4; m. of potash, 2 . . . Superphosphate, 4;m. pot- ash, 2 ; and s. ammonia, 2 Superphosphate, 4; s. am- monia, 2 . . . Superphosphate, 4 cwt. . Superphosphate, 4; m. pot- ash, 2; s. magnesia, |; and s. ammonia, 2 iNo manure T. cwt. a. 6 13 64 9 2 16 5 7 96 5 1 48 8 3 104 4 14 32 £ s. d. 2 9 2 6 4f 1 19 9i 2 5 2 6 4} 2 7 2i T. cwt. lb. 6 15 8 3 24 4 10 40 4 80 7 8 104 3 4 32 £ » d. 2 6 Hi 2 3 104 1 15 11} 1 19 8} 2 4 lOi 1 18 6 The above results are very remarkable. On plot 6, with- out potash, sulphate of ammonia can increase the produce only 6J^ cwts. (as over 7); whereas, with potash, as on plot 5, it increases it by nearly 49 cwts. (as over 4). This is a very striking illustration, of how a powerful nitrogenous manure may prove almost useless, in the absence of some other necessary element. In 1870, which was a very favour- able potato season, the result is the same, though less marked. The absence of potash tells very markedly on plots 6 and 7, both as affecting the weight and value. In weight, plot 7 has fallen off 39 per cent, the third year, whilst plot 4, 372 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN EARMING. Farm-yard Manure aided by Muriate of Potash. with potash, only falls 5T; and in quality or value the differ- ence is 7s. 2^d. per ton. Taking an average of the two plots 5 and 8, the addition of potash increased the produce (as over plot 6) by 65^ cwts. in 1869, and 65^ cwts. in 1870. And if we include the increased market value per ton, arising from the greater pro- portion of potatoes large enough for table use ; we find tfiat the field value of each cwt. of muriate of potash in 1870 was £2, 2S. 8d. These remarkable results, being obtained under the ex- ceptional conditions of a second year's potato crop, cannot, of course, be taken as applicable under ordinary farming conditions, except on some special soils. They are of value, however, as showing the after-condition of the soil, subse- quent upon the removal of a good crop of potatoes. The soil of this experiment was in no way special; as is evidenced by its returns in Series A, B, C, D, and F. The field in which these experiments were tried, occupied 6 acres of the south-west corner of Mire-Ings. — (See Frontisfiece.) Series C. — 1868, 1869, and 1870. — ( See Table on page ^n t,.) Muriate of Potash with Lime, Salt, and Farmyard Manure. Series C was originally planned as an anti-disease experi- ment; but, unfortunately (or rather fortunately), no disease appeared during the three years of its continuance. Perhaps, however, by practical fanners it may be looked upon as the most valuable experiment of all; as it is the only one in which muriate of potash was used in conjunction with farm- yard manure. The dates of planting, the seed, &c., were the same as in A and B of these years. The manures given in the table are those of 1868, which, with a few exceptions, were con- tinued with but little alteration over the three years. The first three plots were manured alike, after 1868, with Peruvian guano 3 cwts., and salt ij^ cwts. per acre. Other minor alterations wiU be found in the foot notes. In the table, "potash" stands for muriate of potash, and manures not continued after 1868 are placed in parentheses. ■gl.' ^ H« HN «W r+M -NfHW T3(N iO lO rH r-1 Cq «> i-H rH Ui ■«* »-H rH rH j-H i-H .-< CjjCO i-H «5 J>- t^ lO m Ol -* OS Cfl HH fc! .-+* ^^^ H* H^ 60l'*-«'60W«H* 0** 'Sr-j M CN <£> CO M.t^'^OO '-it O ir ^\a CO u^ !>• lo -^ »-( lo US oi -* 1-H rH rH rH i> Ct^C^a (M CM 4t OO OO '^ >* -^ CD 50 .» -^rH -qi 1£5 O '^l* 00 (N CO O O rH 1 i-H rH acq 'O r» M i-H tH M OO M . S t-( i-Hi-HrHi-lr-l i-HrH ^, &^ir- CO i>- t- CO o -^ CM M -* cq Per Cent. Good in Spring. cq o 7*1 7H CO woi 4« 4*1 03 Ah cq ira Ok OS OS OS O) OS OS h . -|<» «hi< H« T-*N CTlTf H^«t*H^,^en HOioV* Hi t3cM IT* cq cq c» t^ ,-1 CO CM j-h o ^r 0^00 00 00 t^ cq ■ •t rH ' i-H rH "SM t-* CO 10 M CO CM i-( CM 5 rH »H I-H I— I 1— 1 ^ Esco- t>. t^ t^ CD CO '^ 10 "* Per Cent. Good -in Spring. ■ 7H W5 Cq OS cq 4ti i^ jr^ CO J^^ t^ *^ t^j>-a3J>. co oo h .H* H - EhOO 00 00 t-* t^ 00 iO CO COCO no .oSooot- .P-.O -^_„ • • _,^ PhCO p^|:o ftiH ^ ^-^ 00 I'ii'ii'iiB 1 .^~ ^^^ . . l! " I-H ^ r^ 4,-rt i,- ^^^^ a " g Sco Geo n«nt-pg .fi ^_r CO fl^ eSeacqaJG^fgrHj^i-H^'^tlOrS'S'^eS fee. 5- ^ ^ ^ «£izi«fS Es i 1^ rHM iH c« CO "f la (ot. to 1 i-i cq M -* ifl CO t^OOOSO rH - ^ 373 d 00 ■a .3 o t-so ,£| 0000 ft, rHrH _ p « to ■a a,^ .. tO'-' 2c rH u)o ^ F ca o n to a ,^ to o o K §s|| = a- ill rH r-l rH O rt 00 •9... 00 11 .g 1 Sg ■0 fx -"Is 1 ••II .ofS «> iili a 3 0^0 §■2*-^ 1 ^&al 000 rHr-lH 374 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Potash highly profitable as an aid to Farm-yard Manure. Beginning with plots i and 2, it will be observed that the latter shows in 1868 no increase over the former from the addition of potash; looking, however, at the marked increase on plots 3 and 4 over 5, it seems probable that the 8 cwts. of mixed manures in 2 was an overdose, when used with 15 tons of farmyard manure. Used with only to tons, as in plot 3, it increased the weight by nearly 30 cwts. as over plot S, manured with both lime and salt. Though inactive the first year, the potash on plot 2 more than made up the defi- ciency in 1869, when it gave an increase of over 34 cwts., and in 1870 of 28 cwts. Coming now to plot 3,- which had twice as much potash as plot 4, we get the very satisfactory increase of about 16 cwts. from the additional i^ cwts. of muriate of potash. Beyond the first year, the comparison between these two does not hold good, plot 4 having, in addition, farmyard manure every year. This latter plot gives results equally satisfactory. Over plot 5, dressed with lime and salt throughout, it gave the first year nearly 14 cwts.; the second, 31 cwts. ; and the third, 22 cwts. more weight; and over the three years combined, ;^io 14s. gd. of increased value; the result of 3^^ cwts. of muriate of potash. Plot 6 also received potash, the potato manure containing 50 lbs. of the muriate, as well as 55 of salt, 154 of super- phosphate, 80 of Peruvian guano, and 39 of sulphate of ammonia. Though the weight of the crop surpassed that on plot 4, the quality was inferior; so much so, that the acreage value of the two plots differed only by 2d., that of 6 being ;^2o os. 6d., and of 4, £,10 os. 8d. Probably the potato manure was too rich in nitrogen for a merely auxiliary manure. Plot 7 was the trial of a French receipt against disease ; the result would, however, seem to prove it also a receipt against a crop. Coming next to plots 9, 10, and 11, where the potash, salt, and lime mixtures were applied alone, we do not find the results so favourable ; for though all three, when com- pared with 8, paid for the manures ; the plot with potash (10) did not do so the first season, when compared with g FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES. 375 Lime: its action as a Manure for Potatoes. and 1 1 ; showing that lime was at first the most active ingredient of the three. Looking, however, at the weight columns, and the three years' acreage value, it will be seen that, while the other two plots became rapidly exhausted — having fallen off 49-3 and 54-3 per cent, by 1870 — the plot with potash had fallen off but 29-6 per cent. ; and had given returns worth more by j£s 4s. i J^d. Its profitableness in this case is, however, only comparative, the third year's crop being worth but ^g 2s. 2j4d. per acre. This mixture cannot, therefore, be recommended as a suitable one for use, apart from farmyard manure. It is noteworthy, that on plot 11, treated with lime alone, a very considerable increase over no manure was obtained at first, but by the third year the crop was inferior both in weight and quality to that from no manure. This supports the theory that lime is partly of the nature of a stimulant, and that when used frequently, and without a supply of other manures, it tends to rapid exhaustion of the soil. The muriate of potash and salt used in the above mix- tures were first partially dissolved in a large stoneware trough ; and after lying some time, the lime in a hot state was added ; the whole well mixed, and allowed to lie some days before use. Before leaving this experiment, it may be well to draw attention to the fact that, by the third year, plot 3 shows 8 cwts. of the potash, salt, and lime mixture more than equal to the extra 5 tons of farmyard manure on plot i. That this increase is due almost entirely to the 264 lbs. of muriate of potash, was shown- when plots 4 and 5 were under discussion. Series D. ■Muriate and Sulphate of Potash, Nitrogenous Manures, &'c. Series D had a sharper and more equal soil than any previous. The dates, &c., were the same as for C. The weights of manure given are those of ^869, when 8 cwts. per acre was applied; in 1868 the quantity was 6 cwts., and in 1870, 10 cwts. The mineral manure consisted of super- phosphate, 45 per cent. ; muriate of potash (sulphate, on 376 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Sulphate versus Muriate of Potash. plot i), 30 per cent. ; sulphate of magnesia, 15 per cent. ; and salt, io per cent. The composition was slightly differ- ent in 1868 and 1870. Plot I, it will be observed, which got sulphate of potash (testing 83 "4 per cent.), gave a better return in 1868 than plot 2 with the muriate. In 1869, the contrary was the case; and suspecting the cause to be local, the manures were transposed, plot i receiving the muriate, and 2 the sulphate of potash. In 1870, the muriated plot was again inferior; a result somewhat perplexing, and one compelUng the rejec- tion of the weights of 1869 and 1870. In this connection it may not be out of place to mention that the outside drill was ijot included in the experiment, as being from its position more liable to accident, &c. This leaves us with but one reliable experiment on sulphate versus muriate of potash, and it shows the former superior. The discussion of this ques- tion will be again resumed when the " kind of potash salt" is under consideration. Looking, now at plots 3, 4, and 5, on which about 2 cwts. of nitrogenous manures were substituted for about 2 cwts. of the mineral manure of plot 2, it will be observed that the nitrogenous manures very considerably increased the produce all through ; insomuch that the three years' value exceeds that of plot 2 by about £,a^. It is also noteworthy, however, that with a favourable season and 10 cwts. of a very complete manure, the third year's crop of plot 5 was worth only about J^i\ I OS. per acre. Plot 8, receiving dissolved bones and Peruvian guano, resembles plot 6, series B, in the absence of potash; and was introduced as a contrast to plot 5. By the third season it has fallen off 41 per cent, in weight, and considerably in quality; while plot 5, with potash, has fallen off only 22-6 per cent. This concludes the continuous three years' series. FIELD EXPERIMENTS ON POTATOES. 377 (1 IS to 3-» 'S ir- (N i» 00 O O t- lO lO 5S ^1- M«>»Ot-QOMi-tO'*tOMCO iHM rlrHi-lr^rH ? '^COMMTjI'^TjICOMfN-^M > iH 1-1 r-lrH EH"«*(iO10U51O>Ot»(M'N'#M Per cent, sound in spring *-0>OCB OIN -*rH 4(tj>-oih I'^-in : :ihiii o Oioaooi c»a OA s « a> A 'eC»'-<0>-*M0>C0lOr-l00O i ■ass S p, weotOWOM'^MMeOM-* 1, jaiMC0t-'^iD00Se0'*O«> a 1870 369 mi 10 in Q OMiO-^OCOOOiMiOOOM m ^ g: n| (A Per cent. ound in pring OM!>q'*M.t-MOS«-*SO OOOOOOWCaMMOOM in 18 !01b bs.c eas ooo>rooDoooocooooooooo ■ M ." a W - w a, sX-oS S -ilncrM r^M f4»-4:i ,Q -O I- w s CO 1 1^1 2 11 4 2 7 1 2 8 5: 2 7 2 7 5: 2 5 2 2 3 4 2 6 6 2 10 1 2 8 4 2 8 10 1870. in 1868, and 820 1 raonia in 1868, an mi 360 lbs. in 18 ire in 1868, and t ons m 1868, and i t— t OJ,*©atOOO 1 jQOSOOOOOOSOOiO«3«,*t- OCOO>,-(r.tt-rH^d. as the prac- tical value of each cwt. of muriate of potash in these two experiments. To the above estimate there is this objection, that the salt in the rival experiments may have increased or decreased the yield. That salt does frequently decrease the yield is a well known fact j but, on the other hand, it may be stated that in Dr. Voelcker's two experiments before referred to, salt with superphosphate, gave a slight increase over the latter alone. The above results are confirmed by Dr. Voelcker's experi- ments ; for, if we take the results of his four, similar in plan to A and E, and of the two just referred to, the average in- crease of the six is about 9j4 cwts. of potatoes per cwt. of muriate of potash — a return only 67 lbs. in excess of our own. Muriate of Potash with Superphosphate and Sulphate of Ammonia, as against Superphosphate and Sulphate of Ammonia. There are four experiments on this point. No. 2, series G, with 3^ cwts. of muriate of potashj gave in weight 2 cwts. Ill lbs. of potatoes, and in value iss. sd. per cwt. of potash applied. No. 6, series H, with 2j^ cwts., gave in weight 7 cwts. and 96 lbs., and in value 28s. 3d. The other two ex- periments are from the continuous three years' plots, series B, and therefore exceptional; the second year giving ;^5 3s. ii>^d., and the third ^4 17s. loj^d. per cwt. of muriate of potash. Muriate of Potash with Farm-yard Manure. The most direct experiment on this point was plot 4, series C, with 132 lbs. of muriate of potash (with lime and salt;; which increased the yield in 1868 by 11 cwts. 90 lbs.; the quality by 2s. 7^d. per ton; and the acreage value by £,2 9s. 5d. per cwt. of potash. Taking an average of the 2 c 386 TEN YEARS OF GENTLEMAN FARMING. Field Value of Potash used in various Combinaticfns. 3 years, these respective increases were 18 cwts. 38 lbs. ; 2s. 3^d. j and £,2 1 7s. 6d. This plot was also the only one of the series that maintained a good paying crop throughout. On plot 3 a double dressing of muriate of potash slightly reduced the quality, but increased the weight by 13 cwts. 37 lbs. ; and the acreage value by ;^i 9s. ii^d. per cwt. of muriate of potash. Comparing, also, this plot with No. i,- it will be seen that the mixed salts proved more than a sub- stitute for 5 tons of farm-yard manure. Muriate of Potash with Lime and Salt. Series C, plot 10, furnishes the only experiment on this combination. The first year's return was 53. 8d. per cwt. of potash, and was unprofitable. This is, however, raised to 155. 8d. by an average of the three seasons; but the con- ditions were exceptional, and the last season's crop was too small to pay expenses. The foregoing averages and results are given in the table below; exclusive, however, of the exceptional second and third seasons' weights. This table supplies answers, in a limited way, of course, to the first two of the six questions mentioned on page 366. Table XII. — Epitome of the Comparable Results; Show- ing THE Increase per Acre in Weight, Quality, and Value, from each Cwt. of Muriate of Potash applied. Cwts. )f Manure per acre. Value of Value of ) East Heads East. Hazel Loam. 10 „ Capkery Gravel. ,, South. Stony. 13 .. Sandstone. Gardenlow South Good Hazel Loam. 13 ., 18 inch Yellow Clay „ West Sharp Soil. 12 „ and decayed wood Garden high. Sharp Loam. 13 .. Gravel. Gillbushes East. Good Loam. 24 ,. Freestone. West. Sandy Loam. 20 „ Clay. GiUgoodenNorth Stony Loam. 9 „ 1 8 inches Blue Sandy Clay. Brick Clay. „ South Dark Loam. 7 .. Longlands East. Sharp Loam. 13 ., Gravel. West. Sharp Hazel Loam. 12 „ Sandy Gravel. Manure Croft W. The very best Dark Loam. 21 „ The very best Dark Loam. „ East. Soil and Clay. 12 ,, Soil and Clay. Mid-Heads Top. Good Loam. 10 „ Gravel. „ North. Sharp Loam. IS .. jj Moss East. Peat Soil. 24 » White Marl. „ West. Sharp Red Loam. 9 „ Grey Rock. Nursery South. Hazel Loam. 13 „ Sandy Gravel. >, North. 15 „ Gravel. Tail Race East. Fine Good Loam. 21 „ Sandy. West. Stony Hazel Loam. 24 » jj Wet-Flat East. Good Loam. 14 )> Gravel. „ West. » 10 „ )» West Heads. Sharp Hazel Loam. IS ,. It APPENDIX. 397 (From Page ly). seventy-six observations on the depth, &c., of the soil; but, the identification of the positions of these test-holes a little difficult, six given below contain the gist of the whole. Crop in 1861, and present state of the Soil. Remarks. Oat stubble. Hay last year, grazed this. Hay. Hay. Grass one year. Grazed one year. Potatoes. Potatoes. Meadow and wheat stubble. Wheat stubble. Hay. Potatoes. Two years in grass. Grass for six years. Turnips after Oats. Meadow. Grass hay last year, grazed this. Turnips after Oats. Whe'at stubble with seeds. Oat stubble. Grass hay last year, grazed this. Blackish, a mixture, soil and clay, dirty stuff, perhaps wood field, except hill, wants draining, a good many stones. Some large stones, most of it red, part of it black, half drained. Good, few stones, wants draining. Very stony, wants much draining. Very strong, top soil gravelly. Better with more drains. Rather stony. Wants a little draining. Stiff clay, wants a good deal of draining. West side good for turnips. East side black and sandy, half drained. Black, many large stones, wants draining. Rather stony. Wants more drains. It wants draining. Red Turnip field. Black. Some good soil at the edges. Bad with stones, and wants draining. ,, 1) ij J) Not very stony. First-rate. A few stones. Blackish, mixed soils, a good many stones, wants draining. Nice red land on west side, imperfectly drained, some large stones. [Ere this, the reader will have seen ample evidence of what he was told in the introductory chapter, what he might rightly regard as instances of a passion for sdf-disparagement on the part of the authors of this book. Who tut they, after ten years of adventurous and costly exertion for the advantages of others, would inquire among their neigh- bours for any who had objectionable remarks to make, and actually go to the expense of publishing them? If, therefore, the reader, in perusing this book, has not himself formed an unfavourable opinion of the im- usual proceedings described, he vrill find some sharply cut, ready to that purport, provided for him. The spirit, however, in which adverse opinion was sought, and has been quoted, is a creditable one. The desire of Mr. Lawson being to put the reader in possession of both sides of the question, so that what was really practicable in the affair might the better appear. The authors ot the chapters in this book make no attempt to do themselves justice. So far from making the worse appear the better reason, they make the better reason appear the worse. How- ever, one of the most adverse critics admits that if fewer things had been attempted, and those began had been persisted in, a paying result would have 'been attained, despite their latitudinarianism of universal discus- sion, and the inevitable errors of amateur farming in its earlier stages.— G. J. H.] INDEX. Abbey Town, Co-operation at, 91 Abe] Breaks through a Railway Bridge, 65 Abel drags Cain home, 61 Abel, Narrow Escape of, 64 Absurdity of Valuing the Soil Loss in Cropping, 303 Accidents to Steam-Plough Workmen, 64 Address to Labourers, 4. Advancement of Engineman's Office, 61 Adventures at the Newcastle Depdt, 75 Agency System, Difficulty with, i3z Agricultural Experiments, 103 Aldershot, Visit to, 308-319 Ambition, 17 America, Absence in, 33 America, Mr. Lawson's Travels in, 138 American Community, An, 33 American Fruit-growing, 32 American Investments, 30i American Investments, Origin of, 80 Ammonia a Help to Superphosphate, 343 Ammonia almost Useless, 371-383 Ammonia Doublesthe Value of Potash, 346 Ammonia Doubles the Value of Super- phosphate, 343 Ammonia — Field Value for Potatoes, 387 Ammonia for Potatoes, 376-3S1 Ammonia on Stiff Soils, 370-387 Ammonia Salts, Field Value of, 331 Ammonia. — See Sulphate of Ammonia, Sulphate, 295 Analysis, How to Value an, 293 Anchor Drags, 48 Anchor, Exchange of, 59 Anchor Improved, 53 Anchor gets Broken, 53, 57 Anchor, Mode of Working, 44, 45 Annual Wage Expenditure, 330 Arrival of Steam Plough, 43 Artificial Manures. — See Manures Artificial Manures, The Blennerhasset, 184 Assembly of the People, Publig, 30 Association hot always an Advantage, 97 Auction, Cottage-letting by, 98 Autumn-manuring of Grass, 355,356,347 Autumn-planting of Potatoes, 367 Autumn Cultivation, 368 Bad Debt, Our Greatest, 183 Bailiff, Want of a good, 205 Balance Implements, Their Mode of Working, 44, 45 Balance Implements, Defects of, 63 Balance-sheet of Land and Buildings, 158 Balance-sheet of Steam Plough, 62, 67, 68 Ballot Election of Controlling Agent, 38 Ballot Election of Teacher, 111-114 Barbarous Cruelties, 15 Barley Cropping-sheet, 226-328 Barley Manure, 394 Barley, what it takes from the Soil, 301 Barn, Size of, 154, 155 Bath-room, Free, no Bell, Letter from Thomas, 303 Benson's Estate, Farming of, 157, 305 Bi-phosphate, Value per Unit, 293 Blennerhasset, Central for a Library, 104 Blennerhasset Christmas Festivals, 91, 133 Blennerhasset Crop Profits, 233, 287 Blennerhasset, District of Co-operation, 86 Blennerhasset Estate, 17 Blennerhasset Estate Sold, 65, 100 Blennerhasset Farm Accounts, 163 Blennerhasset Farm Balance-sheet, 164 Blennerhasset Farm, Change of Name, 84 Blennerhasset Farm, Condition of the, 17 Blennerhasset Farm offered to the Labour- ers, 91 Blennerhasset Farm on Fire, 83 Blennerhasset Farm, Present Condition of, 304-308 Blennerhasset Farm really Improved by us, 304-308 Blennerhasset Farm, Vacancy of, 16 Blennerhasset from a London point of view, 77 Blennerhasset Improved by Mr. Lawson, 310 Blennerhasset People, Intelligence of , 9 Blennerhasset Parliament, The, 9 Blennerhasset Shop Accounts, 196 Blennerhasset Shop-keeping, 76 Blennerhassetgtorekeeper, Election of, 76 Blount's Farm, 307 Board of Hired Servants, 326 Bone Dust, Field Value of 331 Bone Dust for Hay, 34S Bone Dust for Potatoes, 376 Bones, Dissolved, for Grass, 337 Bones Comparatively too Dear, 337 Bones, Difficulty of Selling Pure, 181 Bones Lose Weight by Keeping, 181 Bones, To Dissolve, 296 Bonus, Great, of 1870, 79 Bonus of 1868, 74 Bonus to Steam Ploughmen, 56 Bootless School Board Meeting, 115 Breakages of Steam Ploughing Tackle, 43,47i53i54, 55,56, 5*7, 58j 61 Bridges, Railway, damaged, 58, 65 Britain, Why it Imports Grain, 318 Building Cottages, 199 Buildings, Measurements of, 153 400 INDEX. Burning of Paine's Works, 105 Burns, Professor, Letters from, 117 Business, A " Gentleman*' in, 7 Byre, Size of, 153 Cabbage Cropi>ing-sheet, 233 Cabbage Growing at Prior Hall, 208 Cabbage Manure, 236, 395 Cain and Abel Arrive, 60 Cain and Abel, Procession 0^ 137 Cain Breaks his Machinery, 61 Cain Dragged Home by Abel, 61 Cain gets a New Firebox, 63 Cain Mires, 61 Cain Serves as a Tea-kettle, 137 Cain worse than Abel, 63 Canadian Oat Crop, a37> 2,2,8 Candid Voting. 22 Candour of the Story, 2, 398 Carlisle Journals and the Festivals, 128, .130, 137 , . Carlisle Shop-keeping, 76, 195 Carrot Cropping-sheet, 233 Carrot Manure, 395 Carrots, Method of Sowing, 327 Carrots, take from the Soil, What, 301 Cash Prices, 183 Cattle Balance Sheet, 169, i7i Cattle, Farming without, 173, 3o6, 290, 3051 307 . „ Cattle Manure. — See Farmyard Manure . Cattle fed on Boards, 169, 206, 208 Cattle Sacrificed on Bare Boards, 169, 204, 2o8 Cattle Stalls and Boxes, 153 Causes of Our Losses, 166 Cheapness a Means of Morality, 94 Chemical Balance Sheet of the Land, 300 Chemical Manures. — See Manures Chemist, Disparagement of the, 30 Children Voting their own Lessons, no Christmas Bill of Fare, 124 Christmas Festivals, 123 Christmas Festivals, Mr. Lawson on, 93 Christmas Festival, The Last. 136 Christmas Festivals, why Discontinued, 143, 145 Clauses of the Reform Bill, 28 Clip-drum of the Engine, 45, 53, 56 Clock Tower Buildings, 156 Coals required for the Engines, 63 Commencement of Farming, 14 Communistic Ideas, 19 Communists, American, 33 Community Theology, 33 Comjjosition of Special Manures, 294 Condition, Present, of the Farm, 304, 3cS, 3" . . Confirmation of Our Experiment, 333, 340, 344, 385 Controlling Agent Elected, 38 Cooking Arrangements, Failure of, 125 Co-operation, Alimentary Association, 1 18 Co-operation at the Steam Plough, 48 Co-operation, EflFect of, on the Workers, 85, 166, 321 Co-operation, English Idea of, 86 Co-operation, Free, 73 Co-operation in Aspatria, 86 Co-operation in England, History of, 1 Co-operation in Italy, 117, 118 co-operation of a Kind, 213 Co-operation, Mr. Lawson's Views on, 210 Co-operation, One-sided, 204 Co-operation Reduces the Labour Cost, 330 Co-operation, Rochdale System, 87 Co-operation , The People interested in , 89 Co-operation, Timothy Tarbucket Sys- tem, 87 Co-operation, Universal, 73, I3 Co-operation, Varieties of, 86 Co-operative Arrangement of 1867, 38 Co-operative Campaign Results, 89 Co-operative Corps, Work of, 88 Co-operative Farming, 14 Co-operative Farm, The Title Objected to, 38 Co-operative Meetings, loi Co-operative Meeting at Abbey Town , 91 Co-operative Meeting at Maryport, 89 Co-operative Meeting in Naples, 130 Co-operative Meetings Prohibited, 89 Co-operative Meetings, School-room de- nied, 90 Co-operative Offer of 1868 and 1869, 73 Co-operative Offer of 1870, 79 Co-operative Offer of 1871, 84_ Co-operative Propagandism in Cumber- land, 88 Co-operative Purposes, 3i Co-operative Shopkeeping, 86 Co-operative Store in Aspatria, 88 Co-operative Store System too Narrow, 88 Co-operative Talk, 19 Co-operative Work, The Spirit of, 5 Co-operator on the Christmas Festival, 1866, 136 Co-operators, Explanations to, 4 '* Co-operator," The, 3o Coprohtes, Dissolved, on Grass, 338 Corn and Straw, 363 Corn Crops, Cost of Growing, 260 Corn Manure, 294 Cost of Boarding Hired Servants, 336 Cost of Cottage-building, 199-201 Cost of Entertaining Missionaries, 78 Cost of Steam Cultivation, 44, 48, 54, 55 67, 68, 69 Cottage-building, 28, 199 Cottage-letting by Auction, 98- Cottage Property Accounts, 199 Council Enlarged, 35 Councils Open, 27 Councils, Usefulness of, 310 Councils, &c., Uselessness of, 204 Council, The Industrial, 10 Credit Prices of Manure, 183 Credit System^ Italy, 118 INDEX. 401 Criticism as a means of Government, 34. Criticism, Parliamentary, at Blennerhas- . set, 34 Criticisms, Letters of, Sought, 303 Criticism, Universal, 73 Crop Balance-sheets, 231, 358 Crop, Expenditure of, 1870, 324. Crop Farm, Disadvantage of, 316 Cropping,'Careless, 297 Cropping, Effect of Constant, 311, 259 Cropping-sheet Accounts, 321, 223 Cropping-sheets, Carefully made, 397 Cropping, Table of the Farm, 335 Crop Profits and Losses, 232, 3S7 Crop Profits, Early Estimates, 36, 177, 332 Crops, Cpst of each for Labour, 325 Crops,_Food from Various, 317 Crops in Oneida, America, 33 Crops, Severity on the Soil of some, 301, 3161 277 Crops, Steady Increase'of, after 1866, 165 Crops, The Prior Hall, 36 Cruelties, Barbarous, 15 ' Cultivating and Breaking by Steam, 4.9 Cultivation without Socs, 51 Cumberland, First Steam Cultivation in, 43 Cumbrian Hostility to Strangers, 98 Dairy Farming, Facts in, 174. Dancing at the Festivals, 14.1 Dancing more Popular than Listening, 131 Debates, Effect of, ri Debates, Uustic, 41 Defects of Engine and Anchor Systetn , 48 Defects of Balance Plough, 63 Depreciation of Steam Plough Tackle, 70,71 Details of Grass Experiments, 359 Determination to become a Farmer, 17 Difference between Social and Mechani- cal Experiments, 3 Difficulties of the Public Service, i Difficulties of Valuing Unexhausted Manures, 302 Disadvantages of Farmyard Manure, 312 Disasters to Steam Plough, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58,65 Discipline and Progress, Effects Unfavour- able to, II Disease, Loss by Potato, 373, 375 Discussion, Universal, 10 Disputes, Petty, 31 Disqualifications, 14 Dissolved Bones, Field Value of, 331 Dissolved Bones for Grass, 337 Dissolved Bones for Potatoes, 376 Dissolved Bones, Making and Wasting, r8o Dissolved Bones, To Make, 396 Double Engine System, 45, 55,-64 Drains Troublesome to the Steam Plough, Drainage, Loss of Manures by, 313, 315 Drainers Make Fake Drains, The, 96 Draining, Extravagant, 96 Drawbacks of Night-shift, 57 Drill Sowing of Wheat, 284 Drill, Wide, for Potatoes, 373 Duplicate Plots in Experiments, 354, 355 Early Application of Grass Manures, 352 Eccelntricity, 7 Editing by Womenj 33 Education Act ends the School, 114 Effects Unfavourable to Discipline and Progress, ii Engine and Anchor System, 44, 45 Engine, a Land Improver, 4S Engine a Wreck, 58 Engine Bevil-wheel Breaks, 55 Engine goes Back to Leeds, W) Engine-house, 154 Engine Mires, 59 Engine Runs Away, 58 Engineman, Motion about the, 29 Engines, Coal required for, 63 England, History of Co-operation in, 1 Election of a Controlling Agent, 37 Election of Blennerhasset Storekeeper, 76 Election of Ireby Shopkeeper, 198 Election of School-mistress, ill, 114 Estates, when Purchased, 160 Excessive Manuring, 391, 370, 393 Exhausted Soil, 379 Extent of the Blennerhasset Estate, 17 Expenditure, Profuse, 19 Experimental Fields, 373, 379, 381 Experiments, Duplicate Plots in, 354,355 Experiments, Method of Conducting, 358, 367 Experiments, Necessity for Many, 293, 343 Experiments on Grass Manuring, 330 Experiments on Potatoes, 365, 368, 267 Experiments Spoiled, 353 Experiments, Three Years', on Potatoes, 369, 371, 373. 377 Explanations to Co-operators, 4 Explanatory Personal Facts, 14 Facts, Explanatory Personal, 14 Facts, Quality of the. 13 Failure of Festival Cookery, 124 Farina Manufacture, 189 Farm Accounts, Difficulty of Keeping, 161 Farm Bailiff, Motion about the, 29 Farm Balance-sheet, 164 Farm Community in America, 33 Farm given up, The, 100 Farm, Height above Sea-level, 365 Farmhouse, Cost of, 328 Farm Horses, Food of, 327 Farm Labour and its Cost, 319 Fdrm Labour per Acre, 330 Farm Manuring of 1871, 309- Farm Proceedings, 35 Farm Profitable for Three Years, 163 Farm, Proposed Letting of it to tie Labourers, 91 Farm Sales increase after 1866, 165, 304 Farm, Site of French, 3i6 Farm, State of the, 17, 160, 304, 308 D 2 402 INDEX. Farm tests our Manure, The, 183 Farm,'The Prior Hall, 35, 168 Farm Thirteen Years without Cattle, A, 307 Farm, Value of Manures Applied, 291 Farm Wages for One Week, 32a Farmer, Becoming a, 17 Farmer's Opinion of our Farm, A, 310 Farming Accounts, 147 Farming, Advice on, §5 Farming, and the National Food Supply, 317 Farming Capital, 163, 223» 334 Farming, Commencement of, 14, 290 Farming tacts, 221 J'arming, Ignorance of, 17 Farming Losses, 14.'^ Farming Profits Easily Lost, 95 Farming without Cattle, 172, ao6, 290, 305, 307. 308 Farmyard Manure, Analyses of, 293, 3^5 Farmyard Manure and Potato Disease , 383 Farmyard Manure and Potatoes in Pit, 389 Farmyard Manure, Best use of, 313, 314 Farmyard Manure, Field Value of, 331 Farmyard Manure in Field, Experiments, 298 Farmyard Manure, Its Advantages, 313, 316 Farmyard Manure, its Disadvantages, 311 , 317 Farmyard Manure on Cabbages, 231 Farmyard Manure on Grass, 347 Farmyard Manure, Lasting Qualities of* ' 313.314 . . . Farmyard Manure Stimulating, 312 Farn^yard Manure, Value of, 293, 3^5 Farmyard Manure with Potash, 374, 385, 388 Female Labour of the Farm, 322 Fences in France, Absence of, 218 Fertility of the Farm Increased in our Hands, 304-308 Festivals, Cost of, 144 Festival Described in Cumberland Dialect, 139 Festival held in Marquees, July, 143 Festivals, Intention of, 92 Festival in the Rain, 134 Festival Refreshments, 124, 131, I44 Festival Tickets Sold at Two Shillings, 134 Festival, Vegetarian, 92, 124 Field and Crop Balance-sheets, 221, 258 Field Experiments, how conducted, 358, 367 Field Experiments on Potatoes, 365 Field Experimenting, Thorough, 338 Field Labour of Women, 32a Field Testing of Manures, 338 Field Value of Potash for Potatoes, 386 Field Value of Twelve Manures, 331 Fire at Blennerhasset Farm, 82 Fire Box new for Cain, 63 Fire, Danger of, at the Festivals, r45 Flax, Cost of*Growing, &c., 253 Flax Crop. Returns, 254-256 Flax Mil!, its History, 187 I Flax Scutching, 40, 255 Flax Shoves as Gas Producers, 193 I Flax Works Balance-sheet, 189 I Fog, Heavy, of 1871, 247 Food Consumed by the Cattle, 169 Food of Farm Horses, 327 Food of Hired Servants, 326 Food of the first Christmas Festival, 123 Food-supply per Acre, 317 Food Question and Farming, 317 Fowler's Double-engine System, 45 Fowler's Tackle Strongest, 51 Fox-hounds, Management of, 15 Fox-hunting in May, 15 France, Poor Cultivation in, 214 France, Roads in, 215 " Fratching," Love of, 27 Free Bath-room, 116 Free Co-operation, 73 Free Food at the Festivals, 132 Free Library, 102 Free Library. — See Library Free School proposed, icjS Free Reading-rooms, 106 Free School, Debates on, 109-111 Free School given up, 115 French Excursion, 212 French •versus English Politeness, 218 Fruits and Grains Man's Proper Food, I23t 317 Fruits, Preserving, 32 Game-keeping Acquirements of Mr. Law son, 14 Garden and Nursery Mistakes, 206, 311 Garden Produce, Annual Sales of, 176 Garden Balance-sheet, 179 Garden Cropping in 1868, 176 Garden, Enormous Estimated Profits, i77i 222 Garden, Good Progress of, 177 Garden Land very Foul, 177, 311 Gardener, Motion about the, 28 Gardening begun at Blennerhasset, 91 ,175 Gas Lit for First Time, 153, 192 Gas Made from Flax Shoves, 193 GaS, Popular Fear of, 83 Gas Works, 155 Gathering Information, 15 General Account Explained, 166, 319 *' Gentleman" in Business, A, 7 Glassbrook, George, Letter from, 207 Good Fortune for once with the Steam Plough, ^4 Gospel of Irrigation, 16 Granaries, Sizes of, 154-156 Grass Autumn Manuring, 357 Grass Crop Decreased by Salt, 351 Grass Experiments, Summary of, 363 Grass, Farmyard Manure for, 347 Grass from Gypsum, 350 Grass, Liquid-manured, 234, 239, ^44 Grass Manure, Composition of, 294, 364 Grass Manuring Experiments, 330 Grass Manures, The Testing of, 337 Grass Manures, Value of, 331 INDEX. 403 Grass, Nitrate of Soda on, 331 Grass, One Ton makes Five Cwts. of Hay- Grass, When to Topdress, 357 Grazing, Returns for, 341, 348 Grinding Bones by Steam, 60 Grubber, an Extra Strong, 57 Guano, Low-priced, 19 Guano, Peruvian, 395 Guano, Peruvian, on Grass, 335 Guano and Salt on Potatoes, 374 Gurdon's Co-operative Farms, Mr., 20 Gurdon's Opinion, Mr., 34. Gymnastics, Musical, IZ7 Gypsum, Field Value of, 331 Gypsum Profitable for Hay, 350 Hair-breadth Escape of Abel, 64 Handbill, An Abbey Town, 91 Harrows for Steam Plough, 55, 61 Harvest Home at Prior Hall, 36 Hay Cropping-sheet, 341, 343 Hay Crops, Labour per Acre, 335 Hay Crop of 1871,347 Hay Crops of Five Years, 350 Hdy Crop, A Second Year's, 351 Hay Experiments, how Conducted, 358 Hay, Five Cwts. from One'Ton of Grass, 346 Hay from One Lb. of Nitrogen, 336 Hay, Loss of Weight in Stack, 346 Hay, Meadow, 353, 356 Hay per Cwt. of Superphosphate, 340 Hay Stubble for Potatoes, 371 Hay, Weight obtained from Twelve Manures, 331 Hay, What it Takes from the Soil, 301 Head Man, Selection of, 18 Heavy Losses in the Earlier Years, 149, 160 Heavy Manuring Pays Best, 333, 393 Hedges Cleared off the Farm, 50, 151, 157 160 Hilly Field Cultivated by Steam, 53 " History of Co-operation in England," i History of Newcastle Business, 74, 194 Honesty not the Best Paying Policy, 181 Horse Food, Cost of, 337 Horse Labour, Cost per Day, 328 Horse Labour per Acre, 324 Horses, Proposal to Sell, 28 Horses Required at Steam Plough, 45-46 Hunting, 15 Ideas, A Premium for, 35 Impediments to Steam Cultivation, 51-56 Improving the Steam Plough, 49-53 Industrial Partnership, An Early instance of, 30 Industrial Suspicions, 23 Information, Gathering, 15-18 Injector added to the Old Engine, 60 fosecu're Heritable Security, 131 Insurance against Potato Disease, 375 Insurance against Fire, 166 Introduction, 1-13 Intelligent and Pecuniary Conditions of Success, 6 Interest Account, 303 Interest in Steam Cultivation, 43 Interest on Fanning Capital, 163, 333, 334 Inventory of Steam Plough Tackle, 65 Italian Rye-grass and Irrigation, 337 Italian Rye-grass Cropping-sheet, 334 Italian Rye-grass Cuttings, 338 Italy, Letters from, 117 Ireby Shopkeeping, 76, 197 Ireby Votes for a Shop, 197 Irrigation at Aldershot, 2C9 Irrigation another Mistake, 206-309 Irrigation at Blennerhasset,309, 313, 335, 339 Irrigation, Cheap, 344 Irrigation, Enthusiasm about, 16 Irrigation from Head Race, 153 Irrigation, Gospel of, 16 Irrigated Grasses, 334, 339, 344 Irrigated Strawberries and Rhubarb, 178, 344 Irrigation Tanks and Pumps, 151, 155,337 Job's Comforters, 50 Joiners Shop, 154, 193 Joiners Work, Cost of Festival, 144 July Festival held in Marquees, 143 Kainit, Disadvantages of, 345, 347, 391 Kainit for the Potato Crop, 378, 383 Keeping-qualities of Potatoes increased by Potash, 389 Keswick Trips, 145 Kind of Potash-salt best for Potatoes, 391 Kirkland Cut Association, 97 Labour, Cost of and Co-operation, 319, 330 Labour, Cost of Festival, 144, 145 Labour per Acre of some Crops, 335 Labour, Weekly Expenditure on, 333 Laboratory Visited, 39 Labourers, Address to, 4 Labourers, Astonishing Indifierence of, 3i Labourers and the Missionaries, The, 8 Labourers, Cost of Board, 326 Labourer ,Difliculty of Dealing with the,3o Labourer's Grievance before the Parlia- ment, A, 98 Lamplight, Cultivating by, 57 Land and Buildings Balance-sheet, 158 Land, Cost of, 160 Land Improving, 156 Land Improving a Losing Business, 150, i6r Land Increased in Value by us, 160, 304 308 Land, Sub-divisions of, in France, 214 " Lang Life ta t' Squire," 141 Latitudinarianism, 7 Law Hard on Steam Plough, 65 Lawson's American Travels, Mr., 138 Lawson as a Navvy, Mr., g6 Lawson's Co-operative Campaign, Mr., 88 Lawson, Education of Mr., 14 404 INDEX. Lawson goes Abroad, Mr., 99 Lawson's Non-success, Cause of Mr., zil Lawson's Objects, Mr., 13 Lawson. Origin of Mr., 14 Lawson's Width of View, Mr., 12 Lawsuit with a Drainer, 96 Lea Hay Cropping-sheet, 341, 243 Leading Facts of Steam Plough Balance- sheet, 71 Lectures at the Festival of 1869, 138 Lectures, Cost of Festival, 144 Lecture in Rhyme, 54 Lectures on Food and Disease, 138 Lectures, Village Evening, 113 Lectures, Popular Impression of the Fes- 'tival, 140 Leeksj Thirty Shillings per Acre, 308 Letter from a Neighbour, 309 Letters from Italy, 117, 118, 119, 130, 131 Letter from Prior Hall Bailiff, 307 Letters of Criticism, 203 Library, and Sunday Opening, 83 Library, Progress of Frqe, 103 Library, Religious Books of, 104, 105,93 Library, System of Checking, 106 Library, Written and Unwritten Law, 103 Lime as a Potato Manure, 375 Lime a Stimulant, 375 Linseed, Yield and Price of, 354 Liquid Manure Tanks, 151, 153, 155, 337 Liquid Manure, To Make, 155 Littlethwaite Estate Sold, 37 Live Stock. — See Cattle. Lodgings, Difficulty of Obtaining, 61 Lodging-house for the SteamPlough Men, 63 Lodging-house Destroyed by Fire, 65 London City Missionaries at the Farm, 8, 77 London, Ride to, 15 Losses and Crosses, 56 Losses and Profits of Steam Plough, 68, 69, 70, 71 Losses Chiefly in the Earlier Years, 149, 160 Losses, Heavy, in Cattle Business, 170 Loss of jC35o in Liverpool, 183 Loss of Manure through the Drains, 313, 315 Loss of Plant Food by Various Crops, 301 Loss of Weight of Hay in Stack, 346 Loss of Weight of Potatoes in Pit, 370 Loss per Acre by Potato Disease, 375 Machinery of Farm, 154 Machinery of Starch Mill, 191 Magnesia Affected by other Manures, 349 Magnesia aids Potash, 345 Magnesia as Affecting Superphosphate, 341, 349 Magnesia for Potatoes, 383 Magnesia for Grass, 349 Magnesia. — See Sulphate of. Magnesia Sulphate, 397, 350 Manager, Discussing the, 11 Mangold Cropping-sheet, 333 Mangold, Loss of Weight when Stored, 237 Mangold Manure, 395 Mangolds take from the Soil, What, 301 Manual Labour, Cost of, 324, 329 Manufacturing Profits and Losses, 180 Manure, Best Quantity for Potatoes, 393 Manure Drier, 397 Manure, Experiments with Various Quan- tities, 398 Manure, Farmyard, Value of, 393, 315 Manure for Potatoes, 263 Manure for Turnip Crop, 276 Manure, Influence of, on the Keeping of Potatoes, 389 Manure, Influence of, on the Potato Dis- ease, 390 Manure Lost by Drainage, 313-315 Manure Mistakes, 206-210 Manure of Paris Streets, 319 Manure Profits, Real, 183 Manure Works Balance-sheet, 185, 186 Manure Works, History of, 180 Manures and their Value, 390 Manures, Annual, of the Farm, 391 Manures Applied in 1871, 309 Manures, Cattle, of the Farm, 291 Manures, Composition of Special, 394 Manures, Lasting Qualities of Chemical, 304, 315 Manures, Lasting Qualities of Farmyard, 314 Manures, Ours Compared with Others, 183 Manures. — See Farmyard Manure Manures, To Test the Field Value of, 338 Manures, to Value an Analysis, 392 Manures, Unexhausted. 387, 297, 300, 303 Manures, when to Apply to Grass, 353 Manurial Matters taken by Various Crops, 301 Manuring, Careless, 397 Manuring of Grass Land, 330 Market Garden Balance-sheet, 175-179 Market Value per Ton of Potatoes, 360 Marquees, July Festival held in, 143 Meadow Hay Cropping-sheet, 356 Meadows, Water, 334, 340 Mechi, Mr., Alderman, 15, 308 Mechi, The Farm at, first named, 83 "Mental Toil," 10,36 Mid Heads Crops, 335, S45i 347, 248, 368, 370, 3S0, 306 Midnight Assault, A, 188 Milk, Annual Sales of, 173 Milk, Butter Produced by, 174 Milk Removes from the Soil, 316 Milk-selling in Newcastle, 75 Milk-yield per Cow, 174 Mineral Manures for Grass, 357, 359 Minor Departments, 192 Mistakes, Three, 19 Mistakes with Irrigation, &c., 306-209 Missionaries and tne Village Parliament, . 8' 79. Missionaries, Cost of Entertaining, 78 Missionaries, Mr. Moore's, 8 INDEX. 405 *' Model Farm, The," lo Mortgage by Auction, 80 Motions Made, 26 Mottoes of the Festivals, 135 Mowing Two Years for Hay, 251 Muriate of Potash, Field Value of, 331, 346, 347, 387 Muriate of Potash for Grass, 336, 343 Muriate of Potash. — See Potash Muriate of Potash, To Test, 347 Mutton Removes from the Soil, 316 Naples, Co-operative Meeting in, lao Natural Supply of Nitrogen, 302,353,357 Newbegin and Parkhouse, 37, 208 Necessity for many Experiments, 399, 339, 34.6, 353 Newcastle Retail Milk Trade, 75 Newcastle Shopkeeping, 76, 194. Night-school Established, no Night-shift Work, 56 Nine-hours System, 331 Nitrate of Soda, 295 Nitrate of Soda, Field Value of, 331-336 Nitrate of Soda for Hay, 332 Nitrate of Soda with Minerals, 332 , Nitrogen a Help to Potash, 346 Nitrogen, How to Dispense with, 353-356 Nitrogen per Acre in Wheat, &c., 301 Nitrogen in Farmyard Manure, 293, 313, 314, 260 Nitrogen of a Grass Manure, 353 Nitrogen of Farmyard and Chemical Manures, 315 Nitrogen Removed by Various Crops, 301 , 316 • Nitrogen Recovered in the Produce, 315, 316 Nitrogen Stored in Soil, 315 Nitrogen, Value per Unit, 39a. Nitrogen, Waste of, through Drains, 315 Nitrogenous Manures and Superphos- phate, 342 Nitrogenous Manures Compared, 336 Nitrogenous Manures for Grass, 336, 356 Nitrogenous Manures for Potatoes, 370, 376, 387 Noble Temple, 116 Oats, Canadian, 328 Oat Crop, Labour per Acre, 325 Oat Cropping-sheets, 258, 360 Oat Manure, 394 Oats, Wliat they Take from the Soil, 301, 316 Objects, Mr. Lawson's, I3 " OlTicials Chief," 31 Old Man, Description of the, 47, 50, 53 " Once-a-Week," 30 Onion Growing at Prior Hall, 35, 2o8 Opinion, Outside, 35 Organic Matter', Value of, to the Soil, 341,^71- 306.313,314 Paine's Works, Burning of, io5_ Paper Read on Steam Cultivation, 54 Paris, Absence of Squalor in, 220 Paris Trip, The, 146 Paris, Street Manure of, 319 Parisi Visit to, 213, 146 Park House Estate Sold, 37 Parliament a Mistake, The Village, 304 Parliament, A Village, 35 Parliament, Missionaries and the Village, 8, 79 Parliament on the Sunday Question, 82 Parliament, The Blennerhasset, 9, sp Parliament, Uses of the Blennerhasset, 31 Pasturage Cropping -sheet, 234, 340 Patient Hearers and Good Natured Friends, 95 People's Shop, The, 196 Personal Facts, Explanatory, 14 Peruvian Guano, 395 Peruvian Guano and Salt, 374 Peruvian Guano, Field Value of, 331,336 Peruvian Guano for Potatoes, 376 Peruvian Guano on Grass, 335 Phosphoric Acid in FarmyardManure, 293 Phosphates, Value per Unit of Soluble, 392 Pietrantonio's Co-operative Store Pro- spectus, 117 Pigs, Balance-sheet, 170 Pipes and Hose, 16,335 Pitman, Henry, 20, 133 Pitman, Letter to Mr., 24 Placard, Extraordinary, 11 Plan of Working the Steam Plough, 44 Planting Potatoes, Best Way, 369, 373 Ploughing by Lamplight, 57 Ploughs, &c., in France, 3jo Poor, Desire of the, 13 Poor, The Benefited, 13 Potash a Help to Ammonia, 371 Potash and the Potato Disease, 390, 368, 380, 381 Potash as Affected by other Manures, 346 Potash, Average of Potato Experiments, 3841 386 Potash, Best Weight per Acre, 394 Potash for a Third Potato Crop, 372 Potash, How to Test, 347 Potash Increases the Potato Tuber in Size, 388 Potash in Farmyard Manure, 393 . Potash in Kainit at a Disadvantage, 345 Potash Improves Superphosphate, 340 Potash, its Action Spoiled by Salt, 345 Potash, Most Effective Salt for Potatoes, 391 Potash, Muriate, 395 Potash, Muriate, on Grass, 343 Potash on an Exhausted Soil, 380 Potash on a Rich Soil, 381 Potash. — See Muriate of Potash, Potash Sulphate on Grass,33i, 336 Potash, the Muriate Inferior to the Sul- phate, 336 Potash, Value per Unit, 29a Potash, Value Trebled by Superphos- phate, 344 4o6 INDEX. Potash versus Soda Salts, 369 Potash with Farmyard Manure, 374, 385 388 Potash with Lime and Salt, 374, 386 Potato, Amount of Potash for, 394 Potato, a Third Year's Crop, 370 Potato Cropping-sheets, 363, 364 Potato Crop, Labour per -Acre, 335 Potato Crop with Salt,' 374, 385 Potato Cultivation, Our, a68 Potato Disease and Farmyard Manure, 368, 38a Potato Disease and Potash, 368, 3S0, 381, 390 Potato Disease in 1871, 379, 99 Potato Disease, Loss by, 375 Potato Disease UnaiFected by Manure, 390 Potato Disease worst on the Regents, 273 Potato Drills, 368, 273 Potato Experiment Averages, 384, 386 394 . Potato Field Experiments, 365 Potato Harvest, Extra Labour of, 322 Potato Manure, A Good, 394, 294 PotatoManure,Best Weight per Acre, 392 Potato Manure through a Rotation, 393 Potato Starch-mill, 189 Potato, Variety of, and the Disease, 390 Potatoes, Effect of Potash on the Keeping Qualities, 389 Potatoes, How to Utilise Diseased, 189 Potatoes increased in Size by Potash, 388 Potatoes in Pits Affected by the Manures, 389 Potatoes, Loss of Weight in the Pit, 270, 389 Potatoes, to grow Large Roots, 269, 271, 272 Potatoes, what they take from the Soil, 301, 316 Potatoes, when to Plant, 267 Practical Results, 31 Prejudices to be Encountered, -4 Premium for Ideas, 2^ Prior Hall Farm, Bailiff's Letter, 207 Prior Hall Farm Balance-sheet, 167 Prior Hall Estate Described, 35 Prior Hall Estates Sold, 37 Proceedings in Open Council, 30 Profits, Advice how to Spend the, 74 Profit and Loss Statement, 1862-72, 148 Profits and Losses of Steam Plough, 71 Profits of Cottage Property, 200 Profits, Distribution of, 74 Profits, Estimated, of Prior Hall, 36 Profits given to Aspatria Cottage Hospi- tal Fund, 74 Profits given to those who made them, ■74 Profits of 1870, 79 Profits of the Different Crops, 222, 287 Profits of the Farm, 163 Profits on American Investments, 201 Profits on Wheat Growing, 280 Programme of Festival, 125 Public Hall Company, 116 Public Good Departments still in use, i22 Public Good Expenditure, loi Public Good, how to work for. The, 73 " Public Good," The Phrase, 12, loi Public Service, Difficulties of, i Quality of Potato by Potash, 388 Quantity of Manure best for totatoes, 392 Question of our Rent, 161 Railway Traffic stopped by Abel, 65 Rainfall and Hay Crop, The, 357 Rainfall, Annual, at Blennerhasset, 365, 250 Rainfall Washing Manures Away, 313, 315 Reading Rooms, Free, 106 Reasons for Farming without Cattle, 305 Reform Bill Introduced, 27 Refreshments by the Ton, 134 Removals of Steam Plough Tackle, 45, 46, 47, 55 Rents of Cottages, 200 Rent of the Farm, 161, 308, 324 Rents of the Three Estates, 160, 161 Report, A Visitor's, 39 Report in the Cumberland Dialect, 139 Reports from America, 32 Results really Attained, 13 Rhubarb, a Paying Crop, 176, 178 Ride through England, 15 Rochdale Co-operation, 20, 87 Rope-porters, 46, 56 Rotation Manure Experiments, 297 Rotation Teachings of our Wheat Crop, 2S1 « Rotation Teachings of Potato Crop, 27I, 394 Rotation Teachings of the Haj Crop, 252 Rotation, Value of Hay Crop in, 241 Royal Shows, Steam Cultivating Trials at, 48, 51,63 Rustic Debates, 41 Sale of Blennerhasset Estate, 100 Sale of Prior Hall Estates, 37 Sale of Steam Plough, 67 Sales of Produce increase after 1866, 165, 304 Salt and Peruvian Guano, 374 Salt as affecting other Manures, 351 Salt Decreases the Hay Crop, 351 Salt, Field Value of, 331 Salt for the Potato Crop, 369, 3S5, 374 Salt Injurious to Potash, 345, 351 Salt, Variable Action of, 351 Savory's Double Engine System, 45, 55 School Board, A Rural, 113 School Board, Attempt to Form, 115 School Established, Night, no School for Ideal Children, 109 School-mistress and the Weekly Parlia- ment, 113 School-mistress Elected by Ballot, iii Scutching Flax, Cost of, 255 Seed Potatoes, Best Size, &c., 269 INDEX. 407 Shaft for the Engine, 53 Shakspeare sends the Labourers to Sleep, 95 Sheep Balance-sheet, 170 Sheep-sheds and Pens, 156, 306 Shooting, 15 Shopkeepers Elected by Ballot, 196, 198 Shopkeeping and other "Ventures, 194 Shopkeeping in Blennerhasset, 76, 196 Shopkeeping in Carlisle, 76, 195 Shopkeeping in Ireby, 76, 197 Shopkeeping in Newcastle, 70, 194 Shopkeeping, Timothy Tarbucket Sys- tem of, 76 Silloth, Marketing at, 175 Size of Potatoes, how Valued, 366 Skill required with Steam Plough, 64 Slack-rope Troublesome, 49 Slack Gear, 44, 46, 55, 59, 63 Smithy Shop and Work, 155, 193 Smokers, Carelessness of, 143 Smoking Troubles at the, Festival, 137, 142 Snuff Shop and General Mart, 41 Social and Mechanical Experiments, Difference between, 3 Social Economic View of Farming, 317 Social Science Congress, A Local, 92, 13:}, 134 Socs, Many Broken, 51 Socs, Working Without, 51 Soil Aeration, 377i 337 Soil, An Over-cropped, 379 Soil Exhaustion, 2,Z^, 397, 3o5)3o6, 311, 376 Soil, Loss to, by Various Cro[)s, 301, 316 Soil, Need of Organic Matter in, 341, 371, 306, 3131 314 -Soluble Phosphate, how Made, 296 Soluble Phosphate, Value per Unit, 392 Special Manures, Composition of, 394 Spirit of Co-operative Work, The, 5 Spring Top-dressings, 355 Stack, Loss of Weight of Hay in, 246 Starch Manufacture, 189 Stables, Size of, 153 Steam Cultivation, 19,42, 310 Steam Cultivation instead of Manure, Steam Cultivation of Howard, 19 Steam Cultivation. &c., per Acre, 324 Steam Plough, Arrival of, 42 Steam Plough Delayed in Good Weather, 57 Steam Plough Does Not Pay, 56, 63 Steam Plough Eradicates Stones, 48 Steam Plough, First Journey of, 42 Steam Plough in Cumberland, 42 Steam Plough Got Too Soon, 205 Steam Plough in a Court of Law, 65 Steam Plough Losses, The Cause of, 71 Steam Plough, Mires', on the Land, 43 Steam Plough Misunderstood, 42 Steam Plough Not to be Sold, 62 Steam Plough put to the Vote, 63 Steam Plough Sold, 67 Steam Plough Stoppages, 205, 43 Steam Plough Tackle on the Road, 50 Steam Plough Too Weak, 44 Steam Plough Working at Brayton, 42, 48, 54 Steam Plough Working at Blennerhas- set, 47, 50,60 Steam Plough Working at Fitz, 55 Steam Plough Working at Flimby, 61 Steam PloughWorkin^ at Hutton Hall, 62 Steam Plough Working at Lanercost Abbey, 64 Steam Plough Working at Oughterside, 49. 55, 65 Steam Plough Working at Prior Hall, 59, 60, 61 Steam Plough Working at Shatton Lodge, 59, 61 Steam Plough Working at Silloth, 52 Steam Plough Working at Workington, 63, 64 Steam Ploughing by Lamplight, 57 Steel-trap Machinery, 32 Stephen's " Book of the Farm," 18 Stimulating Manures, 206, 310, 312 Stimulating Nature of Lime, 375 Stitching by Steam, 51, 53 Stock-farm, Advantages of, 316 Stock-grazing Accounts, 341, 348 Stock, Live. — See Cattle Stone-breakers Fined, 151 Stone Marking, 48 Stones Eradicated by Steam Plough, 48 Stony Land, 44, 48, 52, 151 Stoppages to the Steam Plough, 43, 47, 49,'5o,;;i, 53, 54,55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61,64,65 Strawberries a Paying Crop, 176, 178 Strawberries in America, 3a Success, Intelligent and Pecuniary Con- ditions of, 6 Success with Fox-hounds, 15 Sulphate of Ammonia, 295 Sulphate of Ammonia, Field Value of, 331, 336, 387 Sulphate of Ammonia on Grass, 333 Sulphate of Magnesia, Field Value of, 331 Sulphate of Magnesia. — See Magnesia Sulphate of Potash, Field Value of, 331 Sulphate of Potash for Potatoes, 375, 391 Sulphate of Potash on Grass, 336 Summary of Chapter, 255, 288, 363, 394 Sunday-opening of the Reading-room, 107 Sunday Question at Blennerhasset, 82 Superphosphate Affected by other Man- ures, 343 Superphosphate and Potash for Potatoes, 384 Superphosphate Cross-examined, 339 Superphosphate, Field Value of, 331 Superphosphate for Grass, 339 Superphosphate helped by Potash, 340 Superphosphate Trebles the Value of Potash, 344 4o8 INDKX. Superphosphate, how Made, 296 Superphosphate, Value Doubled by Am- monia, 343 Suapicions, Industrial, 22 Swedes take from the Soil, What, 301 Swede Turnip Cropping-sheet, 374 Tares a Losing Crop, 374 Teaching Jn Night-school, ir3 Teetotal Farm, A, 77 Testing Manures in the Field, 338 Test-plot System of Valuing Manures, 338, 346 Theories, Agricultural, 16 Three Mistakes, 19 Ticket System of the Festivals, 133, I35 Tickets to Workers, 24 Timothy Tarbucket Shopkeeping, 87 Tim Tarbucket, Letter from, 143 Tines of Steam Grubber Badly Shaped, 49 Tiptree Heath, IK Tithe for the Toilers, 34 Toilers, Tithe for the, 34 " Too many Irons in the Fire," 2og Top-dressings for Grass, When to Sow, 357 Trespassers and the Parliament, 77 Trips, Annual, of the Workers, 145 Trip, The Paris, 146, 313 Tullocligorum Row, Baptism of, 300 Turbine Water-wheel, 32, 151, 152 Turn-about Implement, The Best, 63 Turnip Crop always a Loss, 275 Turnip Crop, Labour per Acre, 335 Turnip Culture in France, 217 Turnip Manure, 276, 294 Unexhausted Manures, Attempts to Value, 300, 303, 309 Unexhausted Manures, 387, 297, 303, 309 Uniformity of Wages, 39 United States Bonds, 76, 201 Universal Discussion, 10 Universal Suffrage, Elections by, m, 196 Valuation of 1870, An Over-estimate, 80 Valuation of Manures, 292 Valudtioti of Unexhausted Manures in 1869 and 1870,303 Value of a Manure Varies, 330, 387 Value of Nitrogen, &c.. Removed by Various Crops, 301 Value of Nitrogen in a Manure, 392 Value of Potash in a Manure, 393 Value per Ton of Potatoes. Unsorted, 366 Variety- in Steam Plough Breakages, 57 Varieties of Co-operation, 86 Varieties of Farm Cropping, 221 Vegetable Mould, Value of to the Soil, 341,271,306,313,314 Vegetarian Diet Cheaper, 94 Vegetarian Experience, 93 Vegetarian Farming, 173, 305, 31^ Vegetarian Farming and the Nation, 317 Vegetarian Festival Mismanaged, 133 Village Correspondence with " My Lords," 115 Village Evening t-ectures, 113 Village Lighted with Gas, 192 Village Parliament, A, 35 Village Parliament and the Teacher, 113 Vineyards in France, 315 Visitor's Report, A, 39 Voting by Ballot, 33, sS.'iii, 196, 198 Voting for Steam Plough, 63 Voting on the Reform Bill, 29_ Voting their own Lessons, Children, no Wages and Receipts, Annual, 165, 330 Wages, Economy of after 1S67, 165, 330 Wages in America, 33 Wages, ours too Heavy, 331 Wages Paid for One Week, 323 Wages, Rate of Farm in Cumberland, 32r Wages, Rate of, 15 Wages, Tickets with, 34 Wages, Uniformity of, 39 Wages, Women's, 39, 333 Want of Water, 49 Water in Farmyard Manure, 313 Water Meadows, 334, 240 Water Wheels and Levels, 153 Weakness of Steam Plough Tackle, 53 Weather Unsuitable for Steam Cultiva- tion, 47, 53 Weeds in Farmyard Manure, 313 Weeds, Numerous, on the Farm, 311 Weighing, System of, in the Field, 358, 367 Weight of Manure best for Potatoes, 392 What our Neighbours thought of Us, 303 " What we sud Eat and what we sud- dent," 140 Wheat Best Seeding, 285 Wheat Crop, Labour per Acre, 325 Wheat Cropping-sheet, 378 Wheat, Cause of its Severity, 277 Wheat, Drill-sowing of, 284 Wheat Manure, Composition of, 294 Wheat, Thin Sowing of, 383, 386 Wheat Three Years on the same Field, 276, 381 Wheat Two Pecks per Acre, 284 Wheat, what it Takes from the Soil, 301 Wigton Farmers' Club, 54 Width of View, Mr. Lawson's, 12 Women, Business-like. 10 Women Editing a Community Paper, 33 Women's Labour and Wages, 39, 333 Workers' Keswick Trips, 145 HAY NISBET, PRINTER, 319 GEORGE STREET, GLASGOW. •^*