New $ork tote QlolUse of Agriculture &t (farnell UnUretBitB 3tt|ara. N. I- ffitbratti Cornell University Library U 22.M8 The management of men; a handbook on the 3 1924 014 519 510 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014519510 THE MANAGEMENT OF MEN A Handbook on the Systematic Development of Morale and the Control of Human Behavior BY EDWARD L. MUNSON Colonel, General Staff (Med. Corps); Chief, Morale Branch, War Plans Diiiision (Lately Brigidier General, General Staff) PREPARED WITH THE LITERARY ASSISTANCE OF ARTHUR H. MILLER Major, Coast Artillery Corps NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1921 Copyright, 1921 BY HENEY HOL/T AND COMPANY TO THE YOUNGER OFFICERS OF THE SERVICE AND ALL FUTURE LEADERS OF MEN PREFACE The management of men and the development of morale are so inseparably associated that they are properly to be considered together. Each has heretofore been regarded as an art, in the application of which success by the in- dividual largely depended on the relative degree in which the latter possessed inherent qualities of leadership. The purpose of this book is to show that they should also be considered as a science, whereby mental state and human behavior can be comprehensively and effectively con- trolled by the scientific application of the fundamental laws governing human nature itself. The writer has long been impressed with the latter fact. Twice in charge of certain civil matters in the Philippine Islands, it was early apparent that no administrative methods could be successful which did not take the mental attitude of the human subject into full account. Four years ago, in relation to the army, he editorially wrote, " There must be systematized education and training in the psychology of the soldier and of war. This field is not now covered. It is a ' no-man's land ' into which neither line nor staff penetrate." In March, 1918, he submitted a memorandum study showing the need for the systematized psychological stimulation of troops in the pro- motion of fighting efficiency and outlined general measures to that end. Later, as commanding officer of a camp of much more than divisional strength, the opportunity was utilized of trying out practically some of the measures thus proposed. Still later, in the organization and administra- tion of the Morale Branch of the General Staff and the extension of its work over the entire army, there has been unique opportunity for the study of military psychology, the factors of human behavior and the methods of morale vi PREFACE control. A wide diversity and succession of great problems in human relationships, based on armies aggregating some four million men, have served the purposes of a psychologi- cal laboratory on a vast and unprecedented scale. These points are mentioned so that, while approaching the subject from the standpoint of theory, it may be clearly under- stood that every point here advanced has been abundantly verified by actual experience. Not only are the measures proposed correct in principle, but they have been shown to work in practice. It would have been possible to illustrate almost every point and principle laid down in the following pages by quotation of specific instances and examples. This would doubtless have added interest and force to the presenta- tion of the subject, but it has been necessary to exclude such matter in order to keep down the size of what would other- wise have become an unduly large volume. It is believed, however, that the vast majority of readers will be able to illustrate the subject sufficiently well to themselves by ex- amples and evidence from their own experience. It has also seemed better that the subject, while scientific, should be discussed in a practical way easily understood and readily applicable to the daily affairs of ordinary life. The book is not written for the abstract scientist but for the executive man of affairs who is to apply its teachings. For this reason, a style of expression has been followed which is simple and direct in language and often homely of refer- ence or application. While the book has been written from the military stand- point and thus has the appearance of special pertinency to military purposes, it is believed that the greatest field of usefulness of the principles which it brings out will relate to civil life in respect to industrial morale and that these should go far toward the solution of the disturbing economic, social and political problems springing from human relations in industry. PREFACE vii The subject of the development for war purposes of negative morale in an opponent has been given very ex- tensive and careful study. A book might be written upon it alone. It does not seem essential to present purposes, however, and for that reason has not been included in this discussion. To Major General William G. Haan, Director, War Plans Division, General Staff, the author desires to express thanks for kindly interest and valuable advice born of rich experience in leadership. Lieut. A. D. Showalter, Coast Artillery Corps, has given material assistance in the prepa- ration of diagrams. The kindness of Major Harold G. Bingham, psychologist in the office of the Surgeon General of the Army, who read the manuscript and approved its psychological presentation, is much appreciated. The sincere thanks and appreciation of the author are due to Major Arthur H. Miller, Coast Artillery Corps, who re- viewed and corrected the rough manuscript, typewrote the pages and prepared the index. His continued interest and assistance has been very valuable. E. L. M. Washington, D. C. November ist, 1920. CHAPTER I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX CONTENTS PAGE Morale i General Principles of Morale Control . . 32 General Psychological Principles .... 66 The Basic Instincts 93 The Basic Instincts (Continued) 146 Psychological Qualities, Relations and Meth- ods 211 Psychological Qualities, Relations and Meth- ods (Continued) 247 The Human Agents of Morale Control . . 295 Civilian Factors Affecting Morale .... 356 The Mechanics of Military Morale . . .371 The Functioning of the Morale Organization 391 Some Elements of Leadership 411 Education, Information and Training . . . 461 Recreation 526 The Recruit, Recruiting, Reenlistment and Discharge 553 Some Special Problems of Personnel .... 579 Health in Relation to Mental State . . .618 Some Factors of Physical Environment . . .637 Reward, Punishment and Delinquency . . . 650 Industrial Morale 730 Index 777 PASS ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE i Diagrammatic Conception of Uninfluenced Morale in Rela- tion to Military Efficiency 24 2 Diagrammatic Conception of Influenced Morale in Rela- tion to Military Efficiency 25 3 Levels of Stimulation 38 4 Distribution of Population in Reference to Military Service 73 5 Diagrammatic Conception of the Human Reservoir of Power gg 6 Diagrammatic Conception of Energy Stimulated Through a Blocked Channel Seeking Expression Through an Open Outlet 101 7 8-Hour Sleep Period 134 8 8-Hour Military Period . j 135 9 8-Hour Personal Period 136 10 The Relative Strength of Temperament and Civilian Envi- ronment is an Unknown Variable 219 11 The Unquestioned Greater Influence of Military Environ- ment in Modifying Temperament in Producing Char- acter is Roughly Suggested 220 12 Maladjustment of Environment to the Soldier . . . 276 13 Maladjustment of Soldier to the Environment . . . 278 14 Proper Adjustment of Soldier and Environment . . . 278 15 Inter- reaction Between Any Human Unit and Others Which Compose its Environment . . Facing page 280 16 Influence of the Environment on the Individual . . .281 1 7 Illustrates How the Introduction of a New Factor of Envi- ronment Alters Mental State .... Facing page 282 18 Diagrammatic Conception of the Sequence Through Which Environment Affects Act 292 19 Chart of Morale Organization in Camps . Facing page 390 xi xu ILLUSTRATIONS I-'IGL'Rr PAGE 20 Athletics in the S. O. S. — Week Ended March 27, 1919. Participants in Athletics Under Supervision of the Army and the Y. M. C. A. Source of Information: Y. M. C. A., Athletic Director for S. O. S 536 21 Data in Connection with Failure to Reenlist .... 572 22 Distribution of Intelligence in Army Groups . . . .585 23 Proportions of Low, Average and High Grade Men in Typical Army Groups 586 24 Intelligence Rating of Men of Poor Military Value as Com- pared with Complete Draft for a Certain Camp . . 587 25 Intelligence Ratings and Success at Officers Training Camps 587 26 Intelligence Ratings and Success in Non-commissioned Officers Schools 587 27 Proportion of Literacy in the Draft Army .... 598 28 Shows Psychological Insulation and Internal Interrelation of Group 612 29 Individual Resistance Reinforced Resistance of Group . 613 30 The Prepared Environment, Specially Reinforced, with its Converging Lines of Suggestive Influence Modifying the Mental Color of the Subject .... Facing page 617 31 Nature of Military Offense and Civil Criminal Record . 671 32 Nature of Military Offense in Relation to Bad Character in Civil Life 672 33 Distribution of Bad Civilian Characteristics, with Reference to Military Offenses 672 34 Rough Classification of the Mental State of Certain Prison- ers at Fort Leavenworth 676 35 Proportionate Classification of Military Offenses . . . 677 36 Distribution of Offenses by Group Cause, as Revealed by Records of General Courts-Martial 689 37 Desertions Compared with Convictions by Summary Court- Martial 694 38 Desertions per 1000 Strength by Years 696 39 The Problem of Desertion and Absence Without Leave . 699 40 Comparison of Desertions and Reenlistments, by Services 701 ILLUSTRATIONS »ii FIGURE PAGE 41 The Average Rate of Desertion for the Thirteen Peace Year Period 1904 to 1916 Inclusive is 45 per Thousand Enlisted Contracts in Force per Year. The 45 Deser- tions Are Distributed Monthly as Above .... 701 42 Monthly Desertions Compared with Monthly Enlistments. Period 1906 to 1915; Excluding 1909 and 1910 . . 702 43 Analysis as to Cause of 663 Desertions, as Revealed by Court-Martial Records 706 44 Comparison of General Causes Underlying Desertion and Absence Without Leave Facing page 709 45 Analysis by Group Cause of 625 Cases of Absence Without Leave Convicted by General Courts-Martial . . .710 46 Analysis of Group Causes of 122 General Court-Martial Convictions for Escape 7 J 4 47 Analysis of 422 Cases of Offense Against Constituted Authority, as Revealed by General Court-Martial Records 7^9 48 Group Causes in 164 Cases of Offense by Sentinels and Guards 720 49 Analysis by Cause of 92 Miscellaneous Offenses Solely Mil- itary in Nature 7 2 3 50 Analysis by Cause of 451 Convictions by General Courts- Martial for Offenses with Violence Involved . . . 724 51 Shows Group Causes in 417 Convictions for Dishonesty by General Courts-Martial 725 52 Group Causes in 72 Cases of Offenses Against Decency Convicted by General Courts-Martial 727 53 Group Causes in 15 Cases of Miscellaneous Offenses, Civil in Nature 728 MANAGEMENT OF MEN CHAPTER I MORALE Definition of morale as a basis for the study which follows; dis- cussion of morale from the standpoint of efficiency as the result of mental state; spirit as an equivalent of numbers in respect to accom- plishment; need of developing spirit like that of keeping up numbers; morale and conviction ; morale and team work; negative morale in opponents. Importance of morale implies need for its scientific study. Purpose of morale work to develop practical efficiency. Morale work always helpful to the individual and organization; practical value of morale work. Positive and negative morale explained. Qualities of morale defined; some elements of morale. All successful commanders have recognized the tremen- dous value of mental forces in war. History is full of ex- amples. Napoleon said, " In war, the morale is to the physical as three is to one." Sherman said, " An army has a soul as well as a man." Foch wrote, " Ninety thousand conquered men retire before ninety thousand conquering men only because they have had enough, because they no longer believe in victory, because they are demoralized — at the end of their moral resistance." Marmont wrote of " the mysterious forces which lend momentary power to armies, and which are the key to the reasons why at times one man is equal to ten, and at others, ten are worth no more than one." And French drill regulations say, " The moral forces constitute the most powerful factors of success; they give life to all material efforts and dominate a commander's decisions with regard to the troops' every act." A prize fighter epitomized the same idea in a few words — " A man is licked when he thinks he is." 2 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The experience of the war has been a practical demon- stration of the fact that morale is as potent a factor in the industrial army as in the military. Wherever human be- ings are grouped together in mutual endeavor or for the accomplishment of a definite task, morale is bound to be a" controlling factor in their work. That their mental state, their will to do, their cooperative effort, their morale — all of which are synonomous — bear a true relation to their output, productivity and the success of the joint undertak- ing, is so obvious and has been proven so often as to require no supporting argument. That modern industry has failed so often to comprehend this basic and vital economic truth or, comprehending it, has failed to. grasp the opportunity and turn it to practical advantage, is regrettable. Directive and administrative energy has been turned too exclusively along mechanical and operative lines with disregard of the intrinsic and vitalizing psychological factors of producing. Definition of Morale. Morale is a word not easy fully to define in the English language. Most dictionaries vary widely in their definition, while many of the definitions are not in accord with the popularly accepted understanding of the word at the present time. Perhaps the best is the fol- lowing: — "A state of mind with reference to confidence, courage, zeal and the like, especially of a number of per- sons associated in some enterprise, as troops." But even this does not fully cover morale as it is understood in the light of this discussion, for collective morale is the resultant I of the individual morales which compose it. Thus morale I is an intangible which cannot be reduced to a concrete defi- nition. No two conceptions of it are alike. Its qualities vary with conditions. But it can be felt, described, stimu- lated and guided. Rather than attempt to define morale, it is perhaps better to express its qualities by comparison with those of its antithesis, the better known word " demoralize." This is defined as " to render untrustworthy in discipline, efficiency, MORALE 3 spirit or the like : hence, to disorganize." Every officer can readily picture- to himself an army which is de-moralized — that is in which its morale has been gravely impaired or lost. Similarly, demoralization in an industry implies lack of team work, decrej^e^f^effortj, and lowering of produc- tion and other factors upon—whi ch business success de- pends. On the other hand, morale work does not mean " moraliz-| ing," for the dictionary sense of this is not one of action, j but rather of explanation or reflection of a purpose or the! drawing of a moral lesson. Morale work is the actual do- ing of something beneficial to the man and the service of j which he is a part. i The older dictionaries include a relation to morals in re- spect to morale. This is an error in the present acceptance of the word morale. The two -have quite different mean- ings. Morale represents a state of mind — morals a state of conduct. There is no connection between- them save to the degree in which immorality may impair military or other efficiency. Thus a venereal disease may represent the result of bad morals, but whether it affects the soldier's morale or not depends on whether it impairs his will to fight. The definition of morale deduced from study by the writer is that morale is a term which should be used to ex press the measure of determination to succeed in the pur pose for which the individual is trained, or for which th group exists. It describes the nature and degree of co- operation, confidence, and unity of understanding, sympathy and purpose existing between the individuals composing tr e group. It is fitness of mind for the purpose in hand. It s a sense of solidarity of strength and purpose, and ability to undergo in the accomplishment of a common cause. It rises and falls from causes which intelligent analysis car^ usually detect, and which when once detected are usually capable of being corrected. The emblem of morale work 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN might be clasped haj^Sj_sjiribolical of comradeship, unity strength. It isat least as important that soldiers should want to fight as that they should know how to fight. Good morale in an army may be likened to the " temper " in a Damascus blade. There is a " temper " in men like a " temper " in steel. If good, it means in both a keen, hard " fighting edge," with a resiliency that no shock can crack. Morale is to the mind what " condition " is to the body. Good morale is good mental " condition " ; bad morale is poor mental " condition." In good morale, the commander can get most from his organization, deliver blows with greatest effect, receive them with least depression and hold out over the longest time. Morale is not merely enthusiasm, nor mental courage, nor " pep," nor the fighting spirit. It is all these things — and more. It has a sterner element. It is that mental training and mental hardening which, in a body of troops, continue to function after everything else has broken. It is the quality which, in the trenches or in the charge, keeps things going at the last desperate moment, when all of the external circumstances which would naturally create it have disappeared. It is not only the " will to win," but it is the refusal to consider anything else possible. It is the col- lective character of the army made up of the " will to win," the discipline which directs that " will," and the mental endurance necessary to carry it through to a con- clusion. A civilian cannot be changed into a soldier merely by put- ting him into uniform, providing him with a weapon and instructing him in the rudiments of military discipline. If, month after month, he is to endure with cheerfulness and unshakable resolution the hardships and dangers, the ex- hausting nervous and emotional strain and the monotony of modern war, there must obviously be within him some powerful motive capable of dominating many of the MORALE 5 ordinary weaknesses of human nature, of so controlling his will that the victory of the army of which he is a part be- comes the supreme object of his desire. Similarly, giving a worker a job and instructing him in its technique is far from satisfying the full requirements of successful industry. Morale for all purposes of war is a state of faith. It is belief in ability to see anything through to a success- ful conclusion. It is a measure of the man's confidence in himself, his leaders and his cause. If any leg of this tripod fails, the whole structure falls. When the soldier has met and defeated the enemy, confidence runs strong that he can do it again. It is the unknown that is feared and tends to sap will-power and thereby diminish ability to'act. Con- fidence rests further upon belief in the ability and desire of comrades to help win success. This is confidence that in- dividual abilities will give power to fight collectively as a team. It is esprit de corps. Morale further means not only fighting power but staying power and strength of mind which resists the mental infections of fear, discouragement and exaggeration of difficulties, and which furnishes the mental stimulus that brings troops back to endure further punishment in the determination to win. Confidence in leaders, in industry as well as the military service, is based primarily upon the strong personality of the leaders themselves. Their presence must quicken morale. The ingredients of this personality must include ability, devotion and justice. To inspire the highest con? fidence in a leader he should have achieved previous success. Confidence in cause rests upon a conviction that it is right and worth working for or defending. This depends on education. The soldier will not fight at his best for a cause of which he knows little or in which he does not fully believe. Instruction in such matters must be effectively given. This is particularly necessary in troops such as ours, drawn from diverse racial and national stocks. Morale in General. Perhaps the first act of a new com- 6 MANAGEMENT OF MEN mander on joining his troops is to call for a statement of their effective strength. The adjutant takes the total number of the roll, makes deductions for those absent sick, on leave, absent without authority and in confinement, and gives him the figures for the balance. This balance, how- ever, does not represent effective strength at all. It rep- resents numerical strength only. Effective strength repre- sents power of accomplishment. Numbers and efficiency are quite different factors. The important thing in any organization is not how many soldiers there are in it, but what is the fighting capacity of the mass. Business success is not based on number of employees but on the degree of their productivity. In any organization, efficiency relates to that subtle but mighty influence which passes from man to man, spiritualiz- ing and energizing the whole. It pertains to the unseen but potent forces of the mind, which dominate matter, direct act and rise superior to obstacle. The stirring painting, " The Spirit of 1776," depicts no material strength or physi- cal power, but expresses the mental harmony, conviction and determination which brought success to the Colonial Army. It bared the soul and not the body of the new-born Nation. In modern war, the spirit of troops seems sensitive to outside influences as never before. This is probably due in part to longer periods of waiting and tension. It is also due to better means of communication and higher degree of literacy, whereby the men are better informed as to con- ditions at home and what is going on about them. Battle conditions are watched and interpreted in the light of ex- perience for the results they may forecast, and as these are favorable or not the morale is correspondingly affected. This spirit is a quality of the human element in war. Its stimulation and control are problems of understanding and management. Curiously enough, while military litera- ture is full of references to the psychological factor in war, they nearly all relate to its abstract importance and throw MORALE 7 little, if any light on its practical application to war prob- lems. History shows morale as an essential factor the scientific study of which has in the past been neglected, while its problems have been left to the individual to solve unaided as best he might. The results were naturally variable and imperfect. The comfortable idea that the old army was good enough is not borne out by facts. No better evidence is needed that something was lacking in the spirit of the old army than the great number of de- sertions and refusals to reenlist in time of peace, and of the absentees in time of war — the Revolutionary and Civil Wars, for example. It is true that certain results were ultimately achieved. It is also true that better results could have been accomplished in less time and at smaller cost if the full power of mental force had been exerted. The difference between success and failure in industry often depends upon the mental attitude of the workers. Spirit is the mainspring of fighting power. Equal numbers of men, even assuming further equality; of equip- ment and training, are never equal in fighting efficiency. Still further, the fighting efficiency of the same force is never equal at two different times. It is well worth reflecting that military organizations are recruited, organized, armed, equipped and trained along common lines. In comparison in such respects, one organization has no more to offer than its competitors. The officer and soldier are in a business to which they can contribute nothing but quality of service. Absolutely the only difference between a " good" regiment and a " bad " regiment is the intangible one of spirit with its controlling effect upon conduct. Among organizations, competition is keen. Starting otherwise on the same basis, the organisation will succeed best which has made the most of its human factor. History shows that mere numbers alone, without adequate military incentive, do not bring victory. If numbers alone counted, China, with its vast population, would have the 8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN greatest fighting ability of all nations. The force which de- cides first that it is useless to fight longer, no matter what its relative strength in men, armament and position, is de- feated. Nor is war won by the physical destruction of the enemy. Only in the warfare of small groups of savages is physical extermination practiced or possible. But wars are won by the overcoming of the powers of resistance through demoralization and inability to conduct concerted action. Obviously, the larger the military force and the more complicated its mechanism, the more important be- comes this problem. Even when a military force or nation is tremendously outclassed by overwhelming superiority, it will put up a sturdy resistance through high morale. The latter adds stupendously to the price an overwhelming enemy of only fair morale must pay for victory. The spirit of the Swiss, quite as much as their armed force, deterred invasion. A long war is habitually decided by " staying power," which is one of the expressions of morale. As Clemenceau prophesied of the war, " The side that holds out for the last quarter of an hour will win." In the World War, defeat was measured not by the miles of territory yielded, but by how the courage and confidence of the troops endured. For more than four years the Germans, according to the map," had won. Their defeat was due to their inability to break the spirit of the de- fenders of France and Belgium. When they found that they could not win, their morale dwindled. By their ac- ceptance of failure and offer of an armistice they set Allied victory forward by a year and rendered the use of the pre- ponderating force of the Allies unnecessary. Morale broke before the army was physically crushed — it was merely psychologically beaten. General Ludendorff says : " The results of the further fighting depended mainly on the main- tenance of the men's morale." The efficiency of an army as a fighting force obviously MORALE 9 depends on the willingness of its component individuals to contend and if necessary to die for ideas and ideals. Here- tofore no systematic effort has been made to create, elaborate, explain and implant such ideals. They have been left to chance, hazard and casual environment. Hence they have been proportionately imperfect, crude, variable and lacking in psychologic stimulus. Traini ng has been focuss ed on gi ving ability^to^ fight, while the will to fight has been " "let to look out f or itself. This is neither l ogical n or prac- "TicaL Few me n are born figh ters. Many may be raised by mental stlrnujTtojthe bravery of hemes... In most of its wars, the United States has placed de- pendence on volunteers, whose very act of enrollment demonstrated an initial and dominating desire to fight. All that remained was to transform their individual psychic initiative into that unity of thought and purpose which is the soul of an army and distinguishes it from the mob. The last war was quite different. A majority of the men under arms came there under the draft and not through individual desire. In them, the incentive to use arms needed largely to be created, as well as the molding of in- dividual ideas into community of thought and purpose. The same will apply to any great war in the future. The added difficulties of this task bring increased obligations for systematized and persistent preparation for its neces- sary accomplishment. The United States has been too materialistic where the military service is concerned. It tends to think of the army only in terms of men, money and munitions, which it assumes make the soldier. This is but part truth, for this combination does not necessarily make a fighting soldier. It is the psychologic stimulus that makes the soldier fight. Morale is the driving force behind the bayonet point. It is morale that gives effect to equipment, training and ex- penditure. It is that intangible, imponderable, yet domin- ating power which brings victory to armies through stimu- io MANAGEMENT OF MEN lation of the purpose to use arms to the highest efficiency and to the last extremity. And as that power falls below the highest standard, the probability of victory is by so much lessened. Of the fundamental truth of this history is replete with instances. The Russian collapse of 19 17 is probably the greatest breakdown of morale in all history. Great armies became impotent, and their weapons became dangerous only through employment against fellow na- tionals and former comrades. War, to the average mind, merely means a' clash of arms. This is a superficial interpretation. War is more a con- test of will and endurance than a physical collision, for if one nation in the conflict confesses its weakness the physi- cal contact necessary to warfare is withdrawn. And this is true not only of the military forces, but of the entire nation which stands behind them. The whole purpose of the entire machinery of war is, in final analysis, merely to create a desired change of mental state in the adversary. It is the factor of will power that decides upon or accepts war, assembles the materials for war, wages the war, and that — on one side or the other — admits defeat and ends the struggle. All physical agencies are but the means of mental end and purpose. During the recent war there was a marshalling of figures relating to the man-power, guns, finances and equipment to prove that one or the other force could or could not win or achieve a certain thing. All of these calculations left out of consideration the fact that mind triumphs over physi- cal difficulties. " Faith moves mountains." A firm de- termination to fight to the bitter end defies all mathematical methods of prognosticating the duration of a conflict. Every method known to science is used to perfect mili- ary material. But material is useless without personnel trained in its operation. In turn, personnel in an army is useless unless it be animated by proper spirit. Flaw in morale is more disastrous than defect in material. Sue- MORALE ii cess may be won by the poorly equipped, but victory never crowns the banners of an army disbelieving in itself and without the will to win. Therefore it is as important to arm the mind as it is the' body. Material things do not win wars. Men win wars — these things merely help them. The quality of the men behind the guns determines how efficiently the guns are served, or even if they are served at all. Morale work enters to develop quality of man- power. It is as necessary to deal with emotional states as with the physical side of military life. Morale means conviction. The soldier is entitled and expects to understand the cause, reasons and principles of the government which he . is called upon to defend. Un- less he both understands and believes in them, he is always a potential danger to the morale of the unit to which he belongs. Particularly in time of special strain, of long con- tinued inactivity, or of disaster, if uninformed he tends to become a focus of discouragement or disaffection. The man who questions the cause for which he contends has his energy and efficiency sapped at their source. The morale of an army of the United States, therefore, must be based solidly on conviction of justice of cause and the right of ideals and principles. This conviction can come only through information and understanding. Edu- cation, the mainstay of democracy in peace, must also be its strength in war. It follows that an educated democ- racy will not engage in an unrighteous war, but will prose- cute one for humanity to the utmost extent. Ideas are as important as armament. Ensuring that the soldier is pro- vided with both becomes a military duty. When a conviction of right and justice of cause is enter- tained, men who detest war and have little aptitude for military life become formidable soldiers. " Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just." The resulting morale is steady, neither unduly elated nor depressed by any move- ment of events. There is a clear, settled, absolute" con- 12 MANAGEMENT OF MEN viction of the necessity that the enemy must be decisively defeated — a conviction resulting from vivid realization of what the enemy's success would mean. The conviction to be desired is one which is produced by knowledge of the purpose of the soldier's efforts; of good to be reached by them, evil to be averted, or both. Ra- tional action is to be directed toward some future end, and it is toward the future rather than the past that the mind of the soldier should be directed. The aims of the war are far more important to the soldier than its causes. In the unselfish, just war which is the only kind that the United States would wage, a far more effective type of conviction can be produced by stressing the evils to be averted than the positive good to be realized. The instinct of fear is stronger than that of the instinct of acquisitive- ness. An intolerable situation resulting from an enemy's victory can be made clear to all, while the positive benefits to accrue to the individual and his group are less certain of comprehension and always open to controversy. Never- theless, neither motive should be neglected. In addition to conviction as to cause, purpose and result, the soldier must have conviction as to self-ability to con- quer. An army is not beaten until it believes itself beaten. Marshal Foch, on being asked what had turned the final enemy offensive into defeat, said: "You ask me to tell you much in a few words. Victories are won by science, that is true, but also by faith. When one has faith, one does not retire; one stops the enemy where one finds him. You tell me that I gave victory to France. It was our ad- mirable soldiers who gave it. I have but one merit, that of never despairing." Where there is conviction of right and confidence of self, temporary failure and reverses merely serve as additional stimulus to endeavor. In the recent war, there were many dark days, when the line of democracy swayed and stretched under mighty blows. Only ideals held it together in dogged MORALE 13 tenacity of conviction and purpose. Great as was the ma- terial aid of this country, even more valuable was that moral support which created new vigor and zeal in the wearied Allies, caused loss to be regarded as a step to cer- tain victory, turned defense into advance, and cancelled and annulled the achievements of the enemy in final success. The idealistic morale of the Allies was often an example of mental unity and steadfastness. It rose above surprise and survived apparent defeat. At times it made up for lack of numbers in the field and for inferiority of arma- ment. Countries overrun by the enemy maintained their heart; they might be physically overwhelmed, but refused to accept the status of conquered. Frightfulness deliber- ately planned to break morale and destroy resistance failed of effect against peoples who did not falter. There is also a materialistic morale based on belief in superiority and inability to be defeated. This the Teutons had in high degree as a result of carefully cultivated egotism by which as a people they had come to regard themselves as super-men. They craved power and the ma- terial things of life. Posing as exponents of " Kultur," they were apostles of the most sordid materialism the world has ever seen. Faith in the justice of their cause was prob- ably a lesser motive than their code that " might makes "right," which also removed all moral obligations in respect to conduct against opponents. If the Allies had been brought to believe that their cause was morally wrong, they could no,t have won. So too, when the Germans found that they could not win, they could not go on, for belief in any abstract justice of their cause was not sufficient as an incentive. After a series of brilliant successes, physical superiority passed from them. Once this was understood, t'he decline of morale was swift. Morale means team wo rk. The army represents the apotheosis of team work. Here_ ind ividualism mu st be cheerfully merged in the common end. The problem be- 14 MANAGEMENT OF MEN comes one of not how much the man can get out of it, but how much he can put into it. The question is not who did it, but was the work done. This implies the importance of carrying on, if need be, irrespective of personal opinions. But if personal opinions can be molded along the lines of the plans of higher authority the results will be far better. Cooperation is better than compulsion. Kipling expressed the idea when, he wrote: ^ / " It ain't the individual Nor the army as a whole, But the everlasting team work Of every bloomin' soul." Good morale implies attention to physical welfare. This merely means the securing for the men of such degree of reasonable comfort as army requirements contemplate, the government makes provision for, and local conditions render practicable. Every owner of a race horse knows that its care is necessary to develop best effort. Every officer has a similar duty toward his men. Morale work assists him in the performance of this obligation. But morale work is in no sense pampering, nor does it diminish military obligation or the performance of duty. On the contrary it operates to cause the soldier to accept greater responsibilities, perform harder tasks, and give the- best that is in him in a cooperative sense. The keynote of morale work is to have him " do it with a smile." This especially means when things are going badly — any one can smile when they are going well. It is the gospel of cheerfulness in adversity. It makes military life more in- teresting and attractive to the men and on the other hand smooths away the unnecessary asperities which interfere with efficiency and ability to " put their heart in their work." To this end, it develops and uses the factor of mutual good will. The good will of industrial workers is well recognized as worth money and can be estimated in terms MORALE 15 of products and profits. The good will of soldiers is ex- pressed in efficiency and demonstrated in success. The most successful organization is that in which contentment and harmony exist between all ranks. It works longer and harder because a collective state of mind exists which de- sires to see the common object accomplished with greatest- efficiency. The general tendency in fighting an evil is to fight the people by whom it was brought about. But under morale methods it is often possible to so alter conditions and pro- cedures that the evil does not occur and conflict with any one becomes unnecessary. Friction and cross purposes are avoided. Most persons are reasonable and most fault is due to error and heedlessness rather than intent. In many instances, wise guidance averts any need for later punish- ment. The usual military standard of welfare is that of the old idea of " the greatest good for the greatest number." As a general principle, this is correct. But morale goes further than this in its methods by endeavoring to secure the great- est good fo.r every one. Such consideration for the in- dividual interests of subordinates entails a little more time than if such matters received no official attention. But it pays tremendous dividends in efficiency. Even if condi- tions are such that personal difficulties cannot be fully remedied, the sympathetic interest shown in their welfare is more than appreciated by the men and tends to offset the results of physical fault. Officers who practice such methods have their men enthusiastically behind them. The efficiency born of good will is far greater than that of half- hearted or grudging obedience. All great leaders of men have had a profound knowledge of the human soul. An understanding of men is quite as important as all of the theoretical knowledge of other branches of military science which the student can acquire. The ability to win a war means not only ability for the 16 MANAGEMENT OF MEN troops to act alike, but to think alike. A common purpose is necessary before community of action is possible. This must be brought about through indoctrination. Conversely, the use of high explosives has a value in destroying morale through the terror and confusion of purpose which it creates in the enemy, in a measure as great as the actual physical destruction of the objective. Focussing the attention of troops on one purpose makes morale work much easier, for the numerous minor problems of individuals tend to disap- pear or to be held in abeyance. Conversely, when a group is without a common purpose, friction and criticism develop. Unity of purpose, in which personal elements were sub- merged, prevailed before the signing of the armistice; once it was signed, an increase of criticism and recrimination developed, based oh personal interests and motives. In our army, no single racial stock, deep-rooted national traditions or ancient, historical background serve as unify- ing elements. The maintenance of morale is accordingly relatively difficult by reason of the chaotic multiplicity of nationality and racial strains. Each brings to the military melting pot its own psychology. Some, through recent ar- rival in America or through defective Americanism in their surroundings, enter the service with more or less complete Old World ideas, ideals and methods of thought. There are the fundamental differences of race, which everywhere throughout the world press for solution when different races come together and which are never fully solved. Similarly, these factors- complicate the morale problems of industry. A temporary morale can be built up on deceptions and false hopes. But aside from the ethics involved in the use of such an agency, morale created in this way rapidly dissi- pates when falsehood is revealed and false hopes crumble. The depression which follows such disclosures is far greater than that which would otherwise occur, and those of high- est intelligence display this depression the most. All MORALE 1 7 morale of troops must be founded on confidence and reliance in officers. If these be betrayed, morale disintegrates. Morale work is a two-edged tool. The result may be disastrous unless the psychological premises are correct. The enemy found this out to their cost when the fright- fulness that, they had expected would promote the instincts of fear and submission instead aroused pugnacity and self- assertion. Also when the false morale they had created among their own men by falsehood and deceit reacted against them. In a high degree of morale, the individual or group is in such a state of mental exaltation as . holds them superior for the time to factors naturally depressing to mind and body. The individual, through internal psychological forces, becomes in a way oblivious to external influence except along the preferred channels. In a sense, there is adjustment to the environment. The standards by which morale is judged are variable through alteration of purpose. While these standards are complex in that they are the resultants of many factors, yet certain factors are always predominant. In war these are the desire to fight and the will to win; in peace, efficiency, contentment and self-respect. There is a strong similarity between the purpose of morale work in peace time and the creed of a great business institution expressed in the words : " To do the right thing, at the right time, in the right way; to do some things better than they were done before; to eliminate errors; to know both sides of the question; to be courteous; to be an example; to love work; to anticipate re- quirements; to develop resources; to recognize no impedi- ments; to master circumstances; to act from reason rather than from rule; to be satisfied with nothing short of per- fection." Beside the state of morale of our own forces, that of the opponents is similarly important. A knowledge of it indi- cates when and where to strike, or whether or not an attack 1 8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN may be expected. A negative phase of morale obtaining in the enemy has a military value equal to heavy reinforce- ments of one's own side. For this reason, every com- mander needs to know not only how many troops are op- posed to him, but who they are, for every organization soon comes to have a relative standard in fighting capacity. Within the same national group, some organizations habitually fight better than others. After our troops shat- tered the Prussian guard regiments, they acquired supreme confidence in their ability to defeat any enemy troops. Given the same numbers and equipment, the difference in battle efficiency is purely one of morale. If this is true in respect to the enemy, it is even more important that the commander should accurately gauge the fighting efficiency of his own troops at all times so as to know when to give or decline battle and fight to best advantage. In deciding, care should be taken lest feeling becloud judgment. Study of Morale Methods. Because morale is of such fundamental military importance, and its purposes and methods are demonstrable both as an art and a science, the essentiality of its systematized study is clearly indicated. This should be carried out in all of the army schools to the extent which its prominence deserves. The practicability of systematically controlling act through mental state should be understood by all officers. Morale, either in military life or civil industry, should never be regarded as an uncon- trollable force working for good or ill according to for- tuitous circumstances. It is true that the problems of morale are never the same for any two places. They even vary in the same place from time to time. Their number and combination may approximate infinity. But study shows that they fall into a certain few general groups, ready of approach and sus- ceptible of handling by the simple application of a few gen- eral principles. MORALE 19 Study and instruction in morale work as the cardinal factor of leadership, or the management of men, should be carried out as simple, practical measures, divested of all of the scientific abstractions which make psychology so difficult to the ordinary inquirer. Instead of considering the subject as abstruse and mysterious, it should be. treated on a common sense, every day basis, and as a potent force for controlling the conduct of troops, amenable by the in- telligent officer in its generation, direction, application and results. But in addition to reading and reflection, practice in ap- plication of methods is necessary. Once a superior has mastered the basic general principles and familiarized him- self with the methods which they suggest, they should be put into practical experiments and the results carefully noted. Every organization furnishes this opportunity. Better diagnosis of mental states and more skilful selec- tion of appropriate remedy come with practice and fuller understanding. The officer should know the variations of his human units and groups as the sharpshooter recognizes and allows for the special peculiarities of his rifl«. — - Purpose of Morale Work. The purpose of morale work is to make troops more effective, creating a discipline which is voluntary and enthusiastic rather than enforced, stimulating and centering the minds and wills of individuals upon desired ends. Its ultimate aim is military success. In industry, it functions for greater interest, contentment and productivity. In time of war, morale work exists for the psychological stimulation of troops. A fighting temper which can survive every possible mischance is the fundamental factor in all military operations. Equipment, discipline, drill, strategy — none avail with maximum effectiveness unless backed up by tenacious resolution which makes death appear prefer- able to defeat. Effective morale in war time is that which ao MANAGEMENT OF MEN can survive defeat or disaster, disappointed hopes, retreats, physically enervating conditions and heavy losses. The supreme tests of morale are time and adversity. The objects of morale work in peace are to place troops in such mental condition that they will be most receptive to psychological stimulation in event of war; also to render the army as representative as may be of the standards and ideals of the country whose armed, vital force it embodies. The accomplishment of these purposes will result in a more contented, tractable personnel with few disciplinary prob- lems, greater progress in training over any given period, and cause the army to be viewed by the civilian population with greater pride and interest. So far as the individual is concerned, morale work is cal- culated to bring out, encourage and develop the best there is in him, and whatever betters the individual betters the group of which he forms a part. It aims to stimulate and assist the weak, direct the strong, correct the erring, edu- cate the uninformed and encourage the successful. It brings the soldier to enjoyment of his work, to pride in its accomplishment, and to that end to give the best he has in him. To use a slang expression, " it puts the soul in soldier." Under its influence the individual comes to want to do what it is wanted that he should do. It is the in- teligent stimulation of willing effort instead of possibly un- intelligently planned compulsion. It seems often to be tacitly assumed that the will to win exists preformed among troops, or may be safely left to develop itself. Such assumption is false. A few in- dividuals have it; more only in a limited extent; some little or not at all. But it thrives under culture. Morale work points out the best cultural methods according to the special needs of the individual or group. It analyzes behavior in respect to cause. It evaluates cause and conditions in rela- tion to their influence on the soldier affecting what he may do. It forecasts conditions which may be impending and MORALE 21 enables suitable measures to be taken in advance. Like weather observations which enable the farmer to gather crops or the mariner to shorten sail before the impending storm breaks, morale work acts like a barometer to warn of threatening emotional storm and the acts which may re- sult from it. It goes still further, for it can avert the mental storm which threatens by dissipating or neutralizing its elements and diverting them, into useful channels. The purpose of morale work is in no sense critical. If undesirable conditions appear, they are accepted merely as problems which exist and in which morale agencies may co- operate in helpful solution. There is neither espionage nor discredit. The fact is recognized that even if an officer is at fault, any undesirable results are due to errors of judgment rather than intent. So long as intent is good, morale work safeguards and promotes the personal interests of officers and men alike. It takes no side, whether of per- sons or groups. Its concern is the common welfare and its functions are wholly beneficent. Morale work is intended to promote contentment, both in the individual and group, by removing or diminishing as far as possible any factors operating to impair physical com- fort or buoyancy of spirit. Only the individual who is rea- sonably satisfied with his lot can achieve in high degree the qualities of self-sacrifice, loyalty to superiors, devotion to comrades, endurance in adversity and cheerfulness under hardship, which must be possessed by the soldier if he is to be efficient. One of the chief functions of morale work is to take the men's minds off their troubles, whether the troubles be real or fancied. Of the two, a fancied trouble is often harder to deal with, because it has no real substance, than an actual difficulty which can be located and removed. Many diffi- culties are entirely unnecessary and are the result of inad- vertance or misinformation. Once they are pointed out, all are interested in their removal. Conduct in a body of men 22 MANAGEMENT OF MEN is their way of expressing their interests, or what they take to be such. By exercising influence on interests and upon their translation into behavior, conduct may be controlled. Morale work, at its best, is preventive rather than re- medial, though, as in 'medicine, these two aims may go hand in hand. In many ways its purpose and methods are much like those employed in infectious disease. Thoughts are far more rapidly transmissible and capable of develop- ment than are disease germs. The disturbing element, as with disease infection, needs prompt recognition or diagnosis before it has a chance to spread and affect or contaminate others. Once recognized, it needs neutralization or disin- fection; or if this is not possible, then isolation, so that in either case its power for harm is prevented. Further, morale work extends to the mental immunization of pos- sibly susceptible subjects, similar to physical inoculation against smallpox, so that if the infectious germ or harmful idea escapes control it will find the soil in such subjects so unfertile that it will fail to establish itself. Finally, there comes the mental or physical cure of those already affected, with protection of others while this is being accomplished. Morale work is not intended to reform offenders, though it frequently does so. Its primary purpose is to strike at any potential sources of inefficiency and disorder, thereby preventing conditions resulting in a state of mind in which the individual is willing to commit offenses. It has a distinct purpose in the reclamation of recruits who may enter the army with vicious or anti-social tendencies acquired in civil life. These young men need to be improved and strength- ened mentally and morally as well as physically. The army has a moral obligation, not only to make good soldiers of them, but better citizens; to teach them, not only how to die for the Nation, but how to live for it. Morale relates to efficiency in its expression of the desire to do things worth while, and to do them well. The very accomplishment of the task stimulates to further endeavor MORALE 23 — to making the most of opportunity. In all morale work, the purpose should be to develop the best in the soldier and not to be satisfied with less. It is perhaps where the material seems least promising that the greatest improve- ment can be accomplished and the most gratification come to the officer through the results of his constructive efforts. The pessimist may say, " Count no man a success until he is dead." Morale work counters with the addition, " nor a failure until he is through." Value of Morale Work. The practical value of scientific morale work has now been clearly demonstrated, al- though still in the infancy of its possibilities. What has been found to be true in the army has similar applicability in civil life. Recognition of the value of general morale measures is not new — it is as old as history. Famous leaders in the past possessed full appreciation of its worth and each in his own way used it in molding the minds of his followers for the achievement of his purpose. Philip, Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Napoleon and many others were leading exponents of morale work. One has but to turn back his- tory's pages to the story of their campaigns and victories to see how they used it to attain military efficiency and superiority. Elsewhere in this book are quoted the words of great modern military leaders in testimony of the value and importance which they attach to it. What is sought now is a complete recognition of this importance by all officers and others concerned. Positive and Negative Morale. All psychologic in- fluences relating to military efficiency naturally divide into two main classes : (a) Positive, which have to do with everything relating to. the upbuilding of the mental state and the promotion of efficiency. (b) Negative, which pertain to everything which oper- ates as a psychologic depressant and reduces effectiveness. 24 MANAGEMENT OF MEN In a general way, positive morale may be regarded as an expression of optimism — negative morale, of pessimism. Both of these factors are constantly in operation, varying in their components in respect to nature, degree and inten- sity of application. The state of morale, accordingly, may be considered as the resultant of the opposing positive and negative forces. It is therefore a variable, often pass- ing through a wide and rapid degree of fluctuation in re- sponse to shifting environment. Like the tide, it is sub- ject to ebb and flow. The general problem relating to our own personnel is to Maximum of possible accomplishment Implicit faith in commanders Teamwork — _ Hinh spirits— _ _ Contentment Average morale and average efficiency Dissatisfaction-- _. Criticism and complaint-: -- Disorders. _ ^ Unwillingness to obey orders- ^eco point, mutiny Figure i. Diagrammatic Conception of Fluctuation of Uninfluenced Morale in Relation to Military Efficiency. secure as high a degree of morale as possible by adding to the factors of stimulation and subtracting from those of de- pression. Men must be inspired with proper sentiments on one hand, while anything which will make them less keen and resolute must be kept out of their field of experience. This is the essence of morale work in our own service, which is entirely beneficent and has nothing to conceal. The state of morale may be roughly expressed by Figure i, which diagrammatically shows certain possible variations in mental state bearing on efficiency. The problem of management is to watch such mental states and make the necessary changes to remedy any existing or threatened fault. The parallel of this curve in business is discussed in the chapter on industrial morale. Figure 2 roughly indicates the time and quality of the corrective measures to be taken. For explanatory purposes, a morale curve may be assumed to be supported by posi- MORALE 25 Maximum of possible accomplishment implicit faith in commanders. Team work. High spirits Contentment ___ Average morale and average efficiency Dissatisfaction Criticism and complaint. Disorders Unwillingness to obey orders. Zero paint, mutiny i Positive Influence + Negative Influence Possible Morale Curve if uncorrected Possible Morale Curve if corrected by the removal of negative influence and the addition of positive Figure 2. Diagrammatic Conception of Fluctuation of Influenced Morale in Relation to Military Efficiency. tive or plus agencies and to be depressed by negative or minus influences. A number of apparently trivial factors may, in the aggregate, have great potentiality. The curve will tend to fall whenever the sum total of the negative factors is greater than the sum total of the positive factors. As soon as the curve starts to fall from its high level, the Morale Officer should be aware of it and formulate the remedy. In a general way, this would be done by add- ing to the positive or plus factors, similar to increasing the supports of a weakened bridge, or by subtracting from the negative or minus factors, just as excess strain is re- moved from a sagging span. In practice, a good ad- ministrator will endeavor to accomplish both, so that the morale curve instead of falling will promptly take an up- ward trend and be higher than before. His purpose is to create such a high state of morale as to actually constitute a reserve which can be relied upon to offset unavoidable mental depression, in whole or, part, so that morale shall never be able to sink below the standard associated with reasonable efficiency. In respect to the enemy, the problem is so to reduce his positive factors, and so to add to those acting as depres- sants, as to weaken or destroy his purpose and impair or avert act. In this field our opponents excelled. In their procedure, just as they contaminated sources of water sup- ply, so they deliberately set about to poison the wells of 26 MANAGEMENT OF MEN thought of their antagonists and to pervert the channels through which ideas were transmitted. Far more effort was given to undermining the fortitude of their opponents than to strengthening that of their own men. The success of their efforts was demonstrated in Russia and at Caporetto. In extent, their insidious propaganda covered the world. It was a power of darkness. The Qualities of Morale. The quality of morale among troops cannot be determined by laboratory methods, but it will be instinctively and early recognized by the officer accustomed to command men. Ability to sense it is one of the prime essentials of industrial leadership. It has its signs in a thousand expressions of states of mind, while each act, even if in itself trifling, has its meaning to the com- petent observer. The spirit speaks as much in the manner in which a thing is done as in the performance of the act itself. The obedience, alacrity, cheerfulness and thorough- ness with which a required duty is carried out indicates the morale. Action in battle and on the march, the number of men confined in the guardhouse, the number of deser- tions, trials, hospital reports, the appearance of the men off duty as well as on parade, are only its more obvious expressions. In business life, it is directly reflected in productivity. Degrees of morale are required to support diverse de- grees of mental strain. A state of morale which might suffice for training might prove quite inadequate under the stress of a campaign. The only safe plan is to establish early a high degree of excellence to meet possible con- tingencies as well as to facilitate training and preparation. y Differences in morale are cumulative. Nothing succeeds like success. A winning army believes in itself and is eager for further conflict in order to secure the anticipated suc- cesses. Depression grows by leaps and bounds in an army suffering continual reverses, its grip relaxes, and the depres- sion may be a forerunner of fear and the disorder of panic. MORALE 27 Morale measures, important at any time, are doubly neces- sary in reverse. Morale work, takes cognizance of the existence of nega- tive forces harmful to the individual as a man and as a soldier, and takes measures for their neutralization or re- moval by comprehensive, scientific methods. It may here be said that, in a general way, the causes which directly operate to reduce contentment in respect to themselves, further tend to create a generally depressed state of mind and morale, whereby other' factors, both physical and mental, assume an exaggerated importance and become mental depressants, although under ordinary conditions their effects as such would have been negligible. A real grievance is like a Christmas tree, serving as a basis on which to display objects which otherwise would have been stored away and forgotten. In uplifting morale, no source of justifiable complaint and depression can be safely dis- regarded. Morale is good when the minds and wills of the in- dividuals are so firmly fixed on an identical end to be achieved that common understanding, purpose and deter- mination express themselves in voluntary cooperation, in voluntary adjustment of the relations between individuals, in voluntary obedience and in cheerfulness and patience. In war time, morale can be said to exist to an effective de- gree only when the largest possible number of individuals — being relieved so far as may be from all personal wor- ries and maladjustments, purged of all doubts concerning the end to be gained and made proud of the privilege of participating in the task — enthusiastically center all their energy, will and resolution on a purpose which is so desir- able that even infinite discomfort or fear of death cannot affect their unaltering determination to accomplish it. Morale is poor when the degree of cooperation or unity is slight and when individuals are held together and made to act only by fear or force. There is- grudging or half- 28 MANAGEMENT OF MEN hearted response to orders, which may amount to passive opposition. Poor efficiency is obvious. Under contact with the enemy, or in adversity, such cohesion as existed is lost and disintegration occurs. The quality of force dis- appears because the incentive which stimulated it is lost. Morale is absent when troops refuse, or fail through in- difference, to exert whatever physical qualities or training they may possess to the accomplishment of military purpose. Mutiny is the expression of the zero point in morale. All the above qualities have their corresponding phases in civil industry. Good morale does not mean simply good discipline, physi- cal courage, instinctive pugnacity, fear of the social ignominy which attaches to cowardice or disloyalty, esprit de corps or a feeling of hostility toward the enemy. All of these may be aids to it or elements of good morale; most of them are indispensable factors in it, yet neither singly nor together do they make up the whole of it. Good discipline may be mistaken for good morale when troops execute military movements with precision. Esprit de corps may be mistaken for good morale when there is pride in the fame or appearance of the unit. The desire for combat by green troops may be mistaken for good ■morale when it may indicate merely a desire for change of scene instead of actual eagerness to fight or a deep under- lying discontent with the routine of training, or really bad morale. A boastful eagerness to " go over and fight " may be manifested by individuals or units, when in reality they have such poor morale that after one night of trench hard- ship and danger they would want no more of war. Good morale implies high qualities of endurance, initia- tive, self-sacrifice, loyalty, subordination of self, exaltation of the ideal, contempt of danger, reaction against force, re- sistance to frightfulness rather than submission to fear, ability to resist the agents of mental depression and to MORALE 29 come back under punishment. These and other qualities create an efficiency which wins, in war. Self-control enters into morale. This means refusal to be swayed by wayward impulse, lest the resulting act be harmful to the cause or influence others to detrimental action. .Similarly devotion and self-sacrifice are essential elements. This is consecration to a cause and a willing- ness to give up life itself, if necessary, for the furtherance of an ideal. Persistency and tenacity of purpose express the quality of continuing against tremendous odds and in the face of contrary desires that are keen and imperative. They are directly opposed to various elemental instincts and need to be cultivated to a large extent. Yet through them only have come the great results of civilization and military achievement. Initiative is especially valuable. Troops whose confi- dence in themselves is shaken are hesitant and irresolute. Their motivation is insufficient or too clouded to achieve success. An army which can maintain a stout aggressive must necessarily be of high morale. The morale that wins is usually such as seeks and holds the aggressive. General Pershing in his report speaks of the French attacks on Mort Homme and Chemin des Dames as being " characterized by most careful preparation to insure success in order to im- prove the morale of their troops." And of the attack on the Marne salient he said: "But, more important than anything else, it would restore the morale of the Allies and remove the profound depression and fear then existing." Speaking further he says of the Allies: " Discourage- ment existed not only among the civil population but through their armies as well. Such was the Allied morale that although their superiority on the Western front during the last half of 19 16 and during 19 17 amounted to twenty per cent., only local attacks could be undertaken and their 30 MANAGEMENT OF MEN effect proved wholly insufficient against the German de- fense." Ability to wait for a favorable opportunity to strike, parrying the blows of the enemy, is a great test of good morale. Patience under difficulty is a strong test of the quality of troops. Staying power in the face of apparently imminent defeat, when it seems that all help is exhausted, represents one of the highest attributes of good morale. Also a strong indication of good morale is the ability to know the truth without break of confidence or purpose. The enemy commanders who deceived their troops as to military events thereby showed their distrust of their men in respect to standing discouragement. On the other hand; Allied reverses reported in England promptly resulted in great increase in recruiting and a stiffening of the defense at the front. It armed determination. Vision enters into morale. It is the ability to anticipate the need or the event, so that preparation may be made accordingly. So, too, pluck, which embraces not only physical but moral courage, is an important ingredient. Faithfulness is also a factor. It means the continuous per- formance of duty, no matter how hard or irksome, until re- lieved. It is the acceptance of responsibility and living up to the demands made by that responsibility. Buoyancy and humor are great aids to morale, for they express ability, while realizing the gravity of a situation, to throw off de- pression and convert difficulty into jest. Every captain who has a singing or a witty soldier in his company will testify to this. When morale is good, one expression of it is found in the fact that officers and men are " boosters " for their organization and the military service in general. In good morale there is an element of altruism — that i is, concern for the welfare of others. It is the spirit which makes the soldier share his last drops of water or volunteer for the forlorn hope to assist his comrades. Self-interests are forced into the background. Love for the flag is a MORALE 31 great factor in military morale. It has a tremendous in- spirational value, for it visualizes all the ideals which the flag represents and for which sacrifices have been made and will be made. It is because of the ideals and imagery which it embodies that one's own flag uplifts where the flags of other nations merely excite interest. Patriotism and love of country are at the basis of mili- tary morale. It may be perverted, as by autocracies, for sordid purposes. For us, patriotism expresses democ- racy, freedom, civilization, the self-determination of peoples and opportunity for higher things. CHAPTER II GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MORALE CONTROL Need of standardization of measures to promote morale; establish- ment of some best methods as both practicable and desirable; such scientific measures here set forth probably for the first time; morale work based upon collective experience on the one hand and on princi- ples of human nature scientifically determined on the other. Morale work a social rather than a mathematical science; morale work and scientific management; morale problems are those of " human en- gineering " ; mental reservoirs of power; use of basic laws govern- ing human nature to promote rather than hinder efficiency; the waste- ful methods of "trial and error"; study of the human being as a source of " man-power." The media of morale work; selection of appropriate media. Some general measures to promote morale; in- teraction of civil and military morale; some elements of civil morale affecting military success; general factors affecting morale. Some reasons for poor morale; some evidences of poor morale; service as af- fecting morale problems. General methods of morale work. In- formation necessary in morale work. Standardization of Morale Work. Only recently has the logical deduction been made that since morale is such a basic element in the success of military accomplishment, it is important enough to cultivate by every effective means. The fact that an attack upon the morale of enemy troops and civilians has become one of the most important and care- fully elaborated methods of offensive warfare, as practiced by the Germans for example, makes it necessary to adopt ap- propriate and adequate defensive measures. It can never be safely assumed that morale will take care of itself. This is not the case. Such an assumption would imply that while every other factor contributory to military success must be the subject of careful study and painstaking effort, the most important, subtle arid complex of all — the psychological factor — may be wholly neglected. As 32 MORALE CONTROL 33 morale crumbles under attack and wastes under neglect, so it develops under care. To exist in proper degree, it must be built up ; and as with any other construction work, there are some best methods which it is the part of wisdom to determine and employ. A ground-work of correct theory is the best basis for putting principles into practice. The forces of psychology are as old as mankind. All officers use them more or less unconsciously. Some get better results than others. Those who have given special consideration to the management of their men will be par- ticularly interested in what systematized morale work has to offer. For all, the question is whether all has been done that should be done, and done in the best way possible. Whatever there has been of a will to win in our army in the past has been too much a by-product, engendered not of scientific purpose, but incidental to some phase of the serv- ice or to general discipline. Until recently, no official effort was made to create the necessary state of mind intentionally, deliberately and systematically. It is believed that this presentation sets forth for the first time the forces which can and should be scientifically con- trolled and systematically directed to the achievement of high morale. Although these forces are intangible, so is the force of electricity or that which emanates from radium, and both are being steadily brought more and more under scientific control. Similarly, the control of the psychologi- cal forces is as yet in its infancy. The measures here brought out are, accordingly, in no sense final, but merely the beginning in a field which is practically illimitable. Since most of the problems which arise can be classified under a relatively few groups, and since all of them are governed by general qualities of human nature, morale work can be standardized. That is, certain procedures which are recognized as habitually effective can be carried out under all conditions. Others may be practicable and de- sirable only in part or in certain circumstances. But nearly 34 MANAGEMENT OF MEN all of these measures can be formulated in advance, so that as need arises they may be put into operation with such modification as may be necessary. Morale work endeavors to secure and furnish system- atically information of scientifically successful methods of handling men. Experience will teach the young officer in the management of men, and to a degree proportionate to his aptitude and personality. But personal experience is a slow teacher and often a costly one. The experiences of others in the handling of men can be advantageously used in the demonstration of general theoretical principles which, if followed, will not let the officer go far astray when he comes to put them into local application. Few problems are wholly new, and knowledge of how such general situations have been successfully handled in the past will serve as a reliable guide in the solution of similar problems of the present and future. Morale work goes further than collation and presenta- tion of experiences in handling men as examples for the study of the army at large. It has a still more important function in relation to research in the discovery of the laws and principles which lie behind them. Certain general truths concerning the relationships and reactions of all groups of men under any probable circumstances can be out- lined. Bv analysis and synthesis it should be able to formul- ate procedures which are scientifically defensible, practicable of application, and which give every prospect of desired result. On the general background of a knowledge of morale thus produced there appear from time to time special prob- lems, each of which requires its own special measure for solution. These special problems are of most diverse char- acter. Some pertain to individuals only, some apply to smaller or larger groups and some affect whole organiza- tions or even an entire racial class. The most important of these are given separate discussion. MORALE CONTROL 35 Morale Methods and Scientific Management. War is the supreme contest of efficiency. Under its pressure all leaks of efficiency must be promptly located and stopped. Every condition must be studied with a view to determining whether or not it can be handled so as to produce a better and more prompt result, and if so, how. Morale enters here in a way which cannot be disregarded, for it is trans- lated into efficiency of the human element. A science is knowledge gained and verified by exact observation and cor- rect thinking, especially as methodically formulated and accurately arranged in system. Morale work, as here de- veloped, satisfies these requirements. Morale work is not an exact science in the sense that it can be laid down dogmatically for once and for all. It does not deal with dead symbols, but with human beings of diverse character and trend, which enter into every equation. Accordingly it cannot have a mathematical exactitude whereby the same result can be obtained by any one under all conditions. But it is based on fixed laws, which are the same in their application to human nature as a whole, though flexible and variable for countless diverging cases. It belongs rather to the social sciences, and is like economics, sociology^ political science and others. It is also an art, in that not every one can apply its principles with equal effi- ciency. Some persons are born with special ability to make such judicious application, but all can be improved in this respect by training and culture. Depending on the per- sonality and ability of the officer and on modifying condi- tions, the success of its application varies. Even if im- perfectly applied, its results are far better than the mixture of good and bad which results from leaving the matter to rule of thumb methods or the law of chance. The handling of men has been long delayed in reaching a scientific basis. Nearly everything else has progressed to this end to a far greater extent. What has been prac- ticed is empirical — that is, what has been found applicable 36 MANAGEMENT OF MEN during the centuries has been retained and what experi- ence has shown to be ineffective has been dropped. But the reasons for retaining, applying or discarding a method have never been made apparent. Tradition and the force of example and imitation have been the guiding factors, rather than the scientific principles governing the relation between cause and effect. Applied psychology of the pres- ent day is thus in about the same relative degree of develop- ment as the practice of medicine and surgery of two gen- erations ago, when the origin of disease was not understood and remedies were not selected and administered as a re- sult of known premises and their precise influence on symp- tomatology and pathological cause. Morale work is a study of' human nature and the human forces which determine the problems of efficiency. It is neither theoretical nor sentimental. Its purpose is wholly practical and for the attaining of better results. Its aim is to get more and better work out of each individual through his willing cooperation and to produce as nearly as possible uniform results for good. Aside from any other considerations, a basic reason why measures for morale should be carried out is the cold blooded one that " it pays." If it can do this, and at the same time contribute to the advantage of the individual, so much the better.. Men are not inanimate cogs in a machine driven by an outside force, but living units that respond to command only to the extent that willingness has been generated within them. Morale work then, in its essence, is the science of human engineer- ing, which, when applied to the army, makes each living component of the military machine function in higher effi- ciency and better coordination. Human beings have a natural tendency not to exert themselves to the limit. Hence there are latent reserves of strength which may be called out by a powerful exercise of the will. High morale in the individual means ability and iwillingness to draw upon this reserve in time of need. MORALE CONTROL 37 Well disciplined troops, of high morale, make marches in good order, when troops equally well qualified physically, straggle and break for lack of mental power to force the body to act. f The natural " reservoirs of power " are tapped by men- tal stimulation through great emotional stress. This re- serve power seems chiefly due to adrenalin, a secretion of the suprarenal glands, which has powerful stimulating and recuperative value and which is discharged into the Jslood in larger quantity as a result of increased emotion. Every officer has abundant evidence that such reserve power exists. It may be demonstrated graphically as shown in Fig. 3, in which a regiment on a hard march with some long miles yet to go is assumed. After a certain degree of effort, shown in the level " A " of the chart, the troops begin to show signs of exhaustion and to straggle. The comman- der, noticing this, orders the band to strike up a snappy march, thereby appealing to the instinct of rhythm. The troops respond, catch the cadence, close up, temporarily forget their fatigue and expend additional energy to the level"B." But the stimulation of the music wears off, and at the level " B " the men again begin to feel the sense of exhaus- tion, to straggle and to elongate the column. The com- pany officers now bestir themselves to close up the ranks by admonition and encouragement. The appeal is made for the men and company to show the others of what stuff they are made. The instincts of self-assertion and rivalry are aroused, and under their stimulation good order is re- sumed and the command expends further energy up to the level " C." On reaching the level " C," the command again shows evidence of exhaustion. If the commander now sends word down the line that a retreating detachment of the enemy is ahead and may be overtaken by hard marching, he will stimulate the still stronger instinct of pugnacity, which — * D C 8 ;: A = 38 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Stimulation through fear and caution Stimulation through pugnacity Stimulation through self assertion and rivalry] Stimulation through rhythm Level of supposed exhaustion Figure 3. Levels of Stimulation. will impel the men to close up and expend much further effort in marching, reaching the level " D." But on reaching " D," the command comes under long range artillery fire and it is evident that the enemy has escaped. The commander orders his troops to withdraw to a position of safety and, under the stimulus of the strongest instinct of all, that of self-preservation and cau- tion, the command expends further effort and marches to the extent shown in the level " E." It is obvious that, whatever the effort expended and dis- tance marched between "A" and " E," these are expres- sions of will power. The men who started to fall out at " A," " B," " C " and " D " were not exhausted — they simply thought they were. But for practical purposes of marching they might as well have been actually exhausted, if depressing thoughts had not been replaced by emotion- ally stimulating ones and new physical and mental driving power thus created. Effectiveness means power of accomplishment. To this, numbers may make no great contribution if spirit be want- ing. On the contrary, they may enhance disaster. Gen. Ludendorff has written in his memoirs, " The value of masses in war cannot be denied, and without soldiers there can be no fighting. But numbers alone are nothing with- out the spirit that animates them." At Marathon, the ten thousand Greeks had a greater effective strength than the million Persians. Will wins. Accordingly, morale has a value which, like numbers, may be reckoned in ability to accomplish a given task. Fighting strength may be in- creased not only in the usual accepted way of increasing the MORALE CONTROL 39 number of units, but by increasing the fighting power of each unit. If the morale of a certain million men could be doubled it would add the equivalent of a million such men to the fighting power. And such a thing is not impossible. Many leaders have inspired this fighting power, both be- fore and since the leader of whom the poet wrote; " One blast upon his winding horn were worth a thousand men." With a hundred men, a depreciation of morale by twenty- five percent is equivalent in terms of result to a loss of a quarter of the command. In fact, it is worse; for while seventy-five men in perfect morale will accomplish as much as a hundred men in three-quarters morale, in the latter case there are twenty-five dfones who make necessary a larger overhead of superintendence, time and money and who fur- ther act, like unsound, apples in a barrel, to threaten the in- tegrity and efficiency of the others. This applies as much to business in civil life as to the military service. The general principles of the efficiency systems of in- dustrial management include the factors of individuality, functionalization, measurement, analysis and synthesis, standardization, records and programs, teaching, incentive and welfare. Such systems lay great stress on business and mechanical methods, without ensuring that the individual worker is desirous of adopting and carrying them out; this lack of the essential human element of mental cooperation has many times resulted in their failure. Morale methods, here outlined, propose to remove such deficiency. The final combination is such as can be applied as well to making a regiment effective in a military sense as to increasing the output of an industrial concern. Morale work in the army is thus essentially scientific management, since it aims to correlate and systematize the best of all methods in the handling of men, to push develop- ments further in accordance with the principles discovered, and by research to disclose and place in proper relation of importance any new facts bearing on the subject. Such a 40 MANAGEMENT OF MEN helpful factor very obviously has a most important place in the military service. In war, expense counts for little, but the time factor is paramount. Delay frequently means dis- proportionate loss of life, and very possibly of victory. The most serious waste from the strategic viewpoint is not of material but of time. In this respect standards of in- dustrial and military efficiency differ. To make an economy of time, there must be cooperation by subordinates, not only within compulsory limits but voluntary to the extent of human capacity. The commander must be able to inspire his men to do their best. The same applies in making a financial economy in civil industry. It has apparently been considered that the ability to in- soire could only be reached through experience and that the relative degree of excellence in results must depend di- rectly on some innate quality and ability of the individual in respect to the handling of men. This assumption is true in a very limited sense. A few men undoubtedly are endowed with a high quality of leadership ; they instinctively do the right thing in handling subordinates and thereby secure greater output and efficiency. The great majority so develop relatively rudimentary qualities that in time they become leaders. Another few are so lacking in such quali- ties that they will never become leaders of men, though they may do excellently in administrative work relating to things rather than persons. Also it is true to a certain extent that one cannot fully learn to handle men without actually han- dling them, any more than one could learn to ride by a correspondence course. Yet all these classes can profit by a clear understanding of general principles underlying any purpose or method. No one questions the value of books on seats, saddles and bridles in teaching horsemanship or in gentling horses. Yet the training of mounts is merely morale work applied to animals ; the horse is not physically changed by training — he is merely brought into a state of cooperative mental sympathy with his rider. Principles can MORALE CONTROL 41 similarly be laid down in print which will materially assist in molding and managing men. If morale work does nothing more than set down the successful methods of good leaders, analyze them as to the underlying principles and place the results before the service at large, it will have justified itself. For there must be some best method of practice based on the composite ex- perience of successful leaders ; this best method and all that goes with it should not remain, as heretofore, practically " trade secrets " of certain officers. Those of less service and less innate ability as to leadership should have this short cut to higher efficiency opened to them. They can begin where others have left off, without toiling painfully over the same long route. The gaining of knowledge of how to handle men by per- sonal experience is generally wasteful and inefficient. Ex- perience merely means a succession of combinations of trial and error. Mistakes are inevitable and the cause of in- efficiency, while their only redeeming feature is that the wise officer will take their often discouraging and mortifying lessons to heart so that they will not be repeated. Success, too, may have its difficulties, for without understanding its underlying reasons, repetition of what may have been arbi- trarily done and proven successful under some conditions, might not give satisfactory results under others. Merely because the officer has done a certain thing before, or because his associates or predecessors have done it, is no argument in favor of blind continuance. Example is not always safe to follow. A poor commander may establish undesirable standards in inexperienced officers that can be changed only with difficulty. Standards of leadership and efficiency are too important to be left to such chance asso- ciation and diverse personal equations. The alert officer is constantly seeking improvement and using it where he finds that it reduces his failures and increases his successes. Leadership, whether military or industrial, rests on very 42 MANAGEMENT OF MEN definite laws of psychology and human nature. These are capable of being scientifically worked out ahd applied, like those of gravity, or other unseen force. It is the function of morale work to do this and to give the results to the en- tire army, showing leadership not only as an art but as a science, readily mastered by those interested in its applica- tion. The army, with its standardized methods and similarity of environment and character of personnel, serves as an un- paralleled laboratory for the determination of problems relating to the human factor in military efficiency and for discovering their solution. The results will in many cases be similarly applicable to relations in civil life, for the gen- eral principles of human nature are the same. For such analytical purposes, human nature must be scien- tifically studied. The findings must be diligently applied to the object proposed. Modifications to general rules must be made to conform with diverse conditions and with the individual soldier as the basic unit. His particular trend, abilities and weaknesses must be noted, utilized or avoided. Morale work takes concern not. only in ability to do a thing, but in interest and desire to do it. Only with a combina- tion of these factors can there be human efficiency. Medium of Morale Work. The medium of morale work is any agency whatever which comes into contact with the soldier in the influencing of his mental attitude. Anything which can produce effect through any of the body senses can be used for the purpose, the problem being to select those which will operate to best advantage in producing the desired result and to avoid or neutralize those which function in opposition to the military purpose. Beside the body senses, a score of instincts must be considered and their forces utilized. Other than those dependent on the forces of nature ex- pressed in climate and weather, the surroundings of the soldier are practically artificial. Every factor therein has MORALE CONTROL 43 a definite purpose and is the embodiment of an idea or group of ideas. The structure of a bayonet or cup, the artistry of a painting or the complexity of an automobile represent crystallized thought as to purpose and form. So, too, ideas pertaining to the soldier can often be given shape and form where they relate to the physical factors of the environment. In all morale work in our own army, the objects, media and methods are open and above board. They are wholly beneficial. Morale work corrects physical fault and mal- adjustment, fights wrong ideas with right ones, combats lies with truth, and errors* and ignorance with fact. It pro- ceeds on the basis that any proposition not justified by fact, fairness and ethics deserves to fail. This is the opposite to that practiced by the Central powers, wherein were used the agencies of falsehood, deceit, selfishness, fear and contempt for others. They considered morale particularly valuable in its negative phase. That is, in creating such mental atti- tude in others as would, through doubt, discordance, mis- apprehension, suspicion, hatred and fear, to reduce collective opposition to the Teuton and his ideas. In the application of morale work, two factors or media must be considered. The individual or group must be stud- ied to determine natural tendencies and habitual reactions, also the causes or forces which operate on the individuals to produce act. Some of the human factors may have qualities which, if developed or repressed according to re- quirements, may result in better mental state. In others, the relief of personal problems offers the remedy. Most physical factors of environment are capable of improve- ment. No single panacea exists in morale work for all the diffi- culties under which the soldier labors. Military conditions, may necessarily be such as to expose the soldier, physically and mentally, to the greatest vicissitudes — to an environ- ment most depressing to morale. Remedial action which may be effective at one time may fail at another. But it can 44 MANAGEMENT OF MEN be shown for morale work that the systematic, scientific ap- plication of morale measures will materially improve condi- tions, mental state, and the acts dependent thereon. Measures to Promote Morale. Of measures to promote morale some may be deliberately planned from the start, not only to cover routine matters but to provide in advance for contingencies apparently liable to occur. Very much can be done along this line and a systematized campaign can be planned in advance for the stimulation of desirable agencies or acts, or for the repression of others harmful to morale. Other measures will have a natural beginning from circumstances. Here the Morale Officer, or in civil industry, the Director of Personnel, will be alive to taking full and prompt advantage of opportunity, or conversely of removing or destroying at once the power for harm of dis- turbing factors. All morale method needs to be applicable from the gen- eral standpoint. It should suggest attitude rather than develop it. Its literature should clarify and set in order what has been found to be of value, forming a constant basis for procedure by recurrently taking stock. Like an algebraic formula, it should be capable of use without fresh derivation when problems arise. Some measures to improve military morale follow. With suitable modification and addition, many are applicable to the maintaining of industrial morale : i. Stimulation of pride in the service. a. Lectures on aims and purposes, history, tradi- tions, campaigns, deeds of valor, etc. b. Circulation of literature on similar subjects. c. Posters. d. Slogans expressing fundamental ideas. e. Use of camp papers and slides at motion-picture shows. L Assistance of camp library — historical novels, etc. MORALE CONTROL 45 g. Private talks with peculiarly disaffected, dull or confused individuals. h. " Honor Rolls " for Company, Regiment and Division. 2. Arousing interest among line officers in developing morale by: a. Discussion of general morale problems. b. Setting standards in courtesy, discipline, sanita- tion, etc. c. Showing progress of other units. 3. Development of enthusiasm, cooperation and good- fellowship by : a. Distinctive name and slogan for the organization and its units. b. Public parades, ceremonies and exhibitions. c. Commendation. d. Variety of training and recreation. e. Amusements. f. Smartness. g. Stimulation of pride in self, squad, company, regiment, division, army and nation, and in barracks, grounds and mess. h. Day rooms made complete in amusement re- sources. h Personal appeals to the most intelligent and quick T witted to recognize their obligation to inform, cooperate with and enthuse their duller comrades. j. .Competitive games, mass athletics, meets, bowl- ing, pool, billiards, etc. 4. Increase in contentment of the individual through edu- cation, vocational training and citizenship courses fitting him for civilian success. 5. Correction of bad conditions, ascertained by liaison with the Judge Advocate's office, Commander of the 46 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Military Police and from analysis of evidence at courts martial. 6. Liaison of Morale Officer with Education and Recrea- tion Officer, Medical Officer, Intelligence Officer, Insurance Officer, Mail Officer, Chaplains, Post Ex- change Officer, Supply Officer, Prison Officer, Com- mander of the Utilities Unit and other officers in order to ascertain and correct conditions, coming within their respective provinces. 7. Association of Morale Officer with any non-military or- ganizations and the editors of camp publications. a. Familiarization with the work and resources of these agencies. b. Direction of their activities into channels favor- able to good morale. c. Prevention of conflicting movements or purposes among them. 8. Relations with the press — publicity givsn organization activities. a. Cooperation with newspaper reporters — news, camp supplement, etc. b. Ascertainment and exploitation of incidents and facts helpful to morale. c. Prevention of publication or correction of false- hood or distorted facts harmful to morale. 9. Interaction with civilian morale by: a. Social intercourse between camp and community. b. Having men send to their homes letters, portraits, literature, camp papers, menus of holiday din- ners, programs of festivities and lectures of famous soldiers or civilians. c. Encouraging frequent and cheerful letter writing. 10. Special attention to the a. Recruit. b. Foreign speaking soldier. c. Negro soldier. d. Illiterate. MORALE CONTROL 47 e. Personal problems of men. Civilian Morale. Morale in the military service cannot be dissociated from the general state of morale in civil life, for the influence of the latter is exerted on the state of mind of the army just as the state of military feeling is reflected directly back into civil life. In reaching troops it is not only necessary to reach the military forces them- selves but also the citizen body which stands back of them. " Armies fight as peoples think " is a wise epigram. Gen- eral Ludendorff recognizes this in his memoirs as follows: " In Berlin they were unable to accept our opinion as to the necessity to . . . steel their wills to the point of magne- tizing the whole nation and directing its life and thought to the single idea of war and victory. The great democra- cies of the Entente achieved this." Inestimable good must come from realization on the part of the soldiers that not only the army and navy, but the whole nation as well, is a unit for victory — "that everybody is behind them." Every particle of evidence of this fact is ammunition for morale purposes. Especially valuable is such news of efficient cooperation and achieve- ment at home as over-subscription of. Liberty Loans, plenti- ful production of munitions, and the defeat of the sub- marine menace by ship-builders. Wars are not conducted by armies alone — they are clashes between nations in arms. The attitude and efficiency of industrial workers are especially important, and the manufactories of war es- sentials are to be classed as part of the second line of de- fense. No class or group is too small to receive considera- tion in respect to mental state and productivity. The worker and the soldier should be linked up as comrades co- operating to the common end, steeled in resolution to see the struggle through. Through the undermining of the resolution of the civil population, that of troops at the front may be affected or destroyed. The wreck of the Russian army was due. to 48 MANAGEMENT OF MEN propaganda causing civil revolution. In their preparation for the Italian offensive, one of the most important things the enemy did was to undermine the morale of the Italian population at home, thereby weakening the spirit of the soldiers at the front in defense of the common cause. When the same weapon was turned against themselves, General Ludendorff complained that " The breaking of our morale at home, with its effect on our fighting capacity, the war against the home front and the spirit of the army were the main measures by which the Entente hoped to conquer us, after it had given up the hope of a military victory." Conversely there was a noticeable improvement in the morale of French troops whose homes were in the districts where the Americans landed before the effect was apparent elsewhere. The good news from their families that great help had come and really been seen heartened them all. The civil community and its material interests are con- cerned in every war. It is desirable to bring this out so that the soldier may visualize himself as a defender of home interests. Modern armies come from all classes of society and their members are in constant touch with the civilian population. Modern facilities of communication result in community of thought between the men under arms and those they have left at home. Any mental state in one promptly reacts in the other. A break in morale at home is soon reflected in a break in morale in the trenches. When the general public is calm and confident the soldiers repre- senting it are resolute and enthusiastic, but if the people at home are critical and disunited the same spirit is com- municated swiftly and surely through the military organ- ization. The relation between civil and military morale was well expressed by General Ludendorff : — " Every man was re- quired to be kept at the front and to be inspired with the MORALE CONTROL 49 utmost determination. The armistice offer had an un- favorable effect on the men's spirits and war weariness in- creased. No stirring call from home came as a counter- blast and the work of explaining the situation seemed to have been abandoned there. On this point there were many complaints from the army. In the end the army and popu- lation would have to show their colors and let it be seen whether they were really determined to fight, for only thus could we hope to improve the morale of the army. The commands and explanations issued to the troops from Spa were not in themselves sufficient. The intimate connection between feeling in the army and feeling at home could never be more clearly perceived than it was in these critical days. The army wanted to know definitely what was to be expected from the people at home." The family and friends of the man are a most powerful factor in morale. If they back him up in his duties, keep in touch with him, and take pride in him and in the service they are a tremendous force for self-respect, discipline and contentment. Home influence is the best antidote for any tendency toward depravity on the part of the men in the new atmosphere of the camp or garrison. The family must be told what their boy is doing, how he is being treated, of his food, care, discipline,, drills and surroundings, the op- portunities for advancement, and the consequences of seri- ous infractions, especially absence without leave. In other words, the family instead of being excluded through neglect or omission, should be given as close contact with the army as possible, made to feel a share in it, and stimulated to feel a pride in their soldier not only because he shares their blood but because he wears the uniform of their country. Where the family has not been given such an interest in the service, the tendency is to look at the matter selfishly and wholly from the standpoint of presumed self-interest. Let- ters written in exaggeration of conditions at home, with 50 MANAGEMENT OF MEN appeals to leave the service, take the heart out of the soldier even if they do not result in absence without leave or deser- tion. Women have a. powerful influence on military efficiency and morale, as expressed in " the girl behind the man behind the gun." What she desires, man endeavors to secure for her. When women are stirred to patriotic sacrifice, men fear to be slackers. Military morale can be greatly pro- moted through home contacts and association with the right kind of women. Here is an opportunity to use the various women's and girls' organizations in a social way, also, with enthusiasm and definite purposes, by getting them to think and talk about war aims in war time and systematically putting their ideas into letters in clear and persuasive fashion. Only when affairs at home are going well will the soldier perform his duties with full spirits and assurance. Prac- tically all soldiers have dependents or persons in whose welfare they are interested. Here the Red Cross, through its home service, can serve a most useful purpose in reliev- ing the soldier of anxiety and concern. Depressing news of domestic troubles and complaints rapidly sap morale. On younger soldiers the home and civilian influence is exercised chiefly through letters ; on older men more through newspapers and periodicals. Therefore it is important that letters be cheerful and that publications be free from unjust criticism and dissension. If the people at home are thor- oughly informed as to war aims and purposes, the troops at the front will get their own information added to in a most effective way. Political news, indicating dissension as to war aims and methods, is always irritating and depressing. The men resent bitterly, while they are disheartened by, any insin- cere and unwarranted criticisms by political demagogues arousing for selfish ends emotions that should have remained dormant. The education of civilians for morale ends in MORALE CONTROL 51 war is of great importance. Publicity machinery must be organized for civil purposes to combat the depression that follows the reverses, difficulties and disappointments which may come. Such an organization is also necessary to fight with truth the lies, slander, calumny, doubt, suspicion and other causes of dissension which the enemy will sow with a view to weakening the common purpose. Factors Affecting Morale. Every physical thing enter- ing into the environment of the soldier, and the expressed state of mind of every person with whom he comes in con- tact, affects his morale. It is obvious that the number of such factors, with their possible combinations in varying proportion and importance, is infinity. No specific men- tion of each is possible, but the effect of many of them on human nature is common knowledge. The factors affecting the morale of troops broadly fall into three classes : (a) Those pertaining to the military service. (b) Those in civilian communities adjacent to the camp or post. (c) Those in the home of the individual man. All these factors can and should be reached by the officer. Those pertaining to the military service are under military control and can be handled with a high degree of efficiency. Those pertaining to civilian -communities can be largely modified by purposeful cooperation between the commander and his officers on the one hand and the city authorities, civilian organizations and individual civilians on the other. Through letters, publications, welfare organizations and other means of communication, the officer can extend his in- fluence into the home of the soldier. Of the factors affecting morale, some naturally tend to raise it and some to lower it. The positive factors raise spirits and fighting efficiency; the negative factors undermine and lower them. In morale work, many of these positive factors will be created deliberately and with a specific pur- 52 MANAGEMENT OF MEN pose. On the other hand, many conditions which depress morale and unfavorably affect the natural and proper in- terests of the soldier are unnecessary. The detection of these and their prevention or elimination are a most im- portant feature of morale work. It implies the artificial and deliberate elimination of such painful points of contact between the individual and his environment as may be prac- ticable. In practice morale work uses both methods simul- taneously; while it adds to the positives it subtracts from the negatives. In result, the accomplishment of one is as important as that of the other. The state of morale is merely the expression of degree of difference between the factors of plus and those of minus. Inasmuch as morale may be raised or lowered by an in- finite number of factors or causes, or a combination of them, a similar number of remedies with their appropriate modifications is necessary to meet all morale needs. But the problem thus apparent, while extensive, is not as diffi- cult to handle as at first might seem the case. Morale work very closely resembles the treatment of disease, one deal- ing with states of mind as the other deals with physical conditions. As with disease, so cases of defective morale fall into classes and types dependent on specific causes and handled under certain broad principles, whether of the in- dividual or group. These types can be described and il- lustrated. The relation of cause and effect in their treat- ment is as apparent as that relating to their development. As with medicine, where each physical ailment is best reme- died by certain classes of drugs and selective drugs within these classes, so in morale work remedies fall into general classes and the officer must formulate and administer his prescription according to the condition and its causes. Clear understanding of the nature, source and intensity of the cause is necessary to the selection of the proper remedies. Thus discontent may proceed from many causes of which MORALE CONTROL 53 it is merely the symptomatic expression. So also fever in disease is merely a symptom of the tubercular, typhoid, malarial or other infection which gives it rise. Intelligent treatment in both instances is directed toward the source rather than the result. The period of the war has a direct relation to morale. Tolstoy said that "most nations are happy at the begin- ning of war, especially if powerful and long living in peace. There is pleasure in the unfolding of strength by the na- tion and individual — yet no long continued war is fought in this mood. There develop fatigue, lassitude, irritation, criticism, a sense of frustration at the postponement of victory, and envy or even hatred of superiors. The soldier comes to believe himself the victim of the superior power, greed, or cunning of exploiters, and finally the tedium of war exceeds the tedium of peace. Desertions increase, other military offenses increase, courts martial are kept busy, and in the end discipline may turn to complete collapse and anarchy." The recent war has been full of such ex- amples in other armies. Fortunately the United States was not long enough engaged to demonstrate in our own forces the ultimate ends mentioned. Poor Morale. Poor morale will not exist without reason. Everything affects morale either favorably or adversely. To understand the underlying causes of poor morale it is necessary to study the effect which all things in the daily life of the soldier, both physical and psychological, have upon his state "of mind. The purpose of training and study in morale work is to equip officers with a knowledge of the relationship which all things bear to morale and of the scientific manipulation of all agencies for the producing of a desirable mental state. Conditions which obviously can- not be remedied may not seriously affect morale unless pro- tracted or intense. It seems especially the conditions which are apparently due to inefficiency or carelessness that are harmful. 54 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Among the factors which come within the scope of morale study and which have a direct bearing upon the state of morale of a command, influencing it either for good - or for bad, are: i. Environment — Mental Psychological Agencies a. Instincts : use of, diverting or repressing the nat- ural instincts. b. Esprit de corps. c. Interest and pride in the military service gener- ally. d. Ideals, goals, standards, personal pride and or- ganization pride. e. Inspirational ceremonies, reviews, parades, etc. f. Freedom from worry and the elimination of dis- turbing agencies. g. Initiative and individual expression, h. Commendation and appreciation. i. Restraint and discipline, j. Patriotism. k. Balance of work and play. 1. Rumors and gossip, m. Propaganda. Leadership Agencies a. Sympathetic relationship between officers and men. b. Example of officers. c. Justice and " square deal." d. Proper use of punishment and reprimand. e. Encouragement and reward. f. Confidence of men in the leadership ability,, knowledge and efficiency of officers. g. Loyalty, h. Respect. i. Understanding of and personal interest in in- dividuals. MORALE CONTROL 55 j. Adjustments and maladjustments, k. Personality of the leader. 2. Environment — Physical a. Food. b. Clothing. c. Shelter. d. Cleanliness. e. Pay. f. Passes. g. Creature comforts. h. Insurance and allotments. i. Recreation: physical, amusement and entertain- ment, j. Relations with civilian communities, k. Drill schedule. 1. Duties: drill, fatigue, guard, special, etc. m. Sickness. n. Profiteering. o. Climate and weather conditions, p. Educational work and vocational training, q. Library, reading, writing and studying facilities. r. Post Exchange, s. Laundry. t. Transportation, u. Guard House, v. Visitors, w. Clubs. x. Promotion. y. Non-commissioned officers. All of these agencies' exist in greater or lesser degree in every post and camp and are subject either to the use or misuse of all officers with corresponding effect upon morale. • Their misuse renders them causes of poor morale. Like- wise if they are neglected or not understood the state of morale is left largely to chance and the result becomes chiefly S6 MANAGEMENT OF MEN a matter of speculation or subject to the law of probability. Poor morale has its early evidence in a tendency toward inertia, lack, of initiative, apathy toward the common end, increased attention to individual interest and a state of dis- satisfaction not readily traceable to any adequate causes. There is restlessness under the necessary military restric- tions which had previously not been burdensome. With further depression of morale a stage of complaint is reached. The men develop well defined grievances about which they are not slow to complain. With such contagion in the air, fault-finding, based on real or imaginary difficulty, redoubles. The men become slack and slouchy, losing nattiness of ap- pearance and alertness of bearing. Esprit de corps wanes. Soon a stage of disorder supervenes, in which rebellious thought is expressed in careless or unruly conduct, the sick report rises, unauthorized absences increase and the guard house acquires more occupants. Morale work contemplates such recognition and handling of early symptoms as will prevent the development of the later advanced stages. Branch of Service as Affecting Problems. Besides those of general application to the military service as a whole, each branch of the service has its own special and particular morale problems. These depend upon the special char- acter of the service required, the environment in which it must be performed and the special trend of mind resulting therefrom. The results of these relative disadvantages or advantages of certain special arms or services are apparent in the court-martial records, proportion of desertions and in other ways. It is not by accident, for example, that twice as many men per iooo strength deserted from the Cavalry and Field Artillery during the period of reorganization after the Armistice as deserted from such special service Corps as the Motor Transport, Engineers, Signal and Tank Corps. Here inducements to leave the service, originating outside of it, would apply equally as a common factor to all parts and groups of the army. Any difference in desertions MORALE CONTROL 57 must thus spring from causes pertaining to the various arms and branches themselves. Similarly, each industry has its own special morale problems, beyond those pertaining to industry as a whole. It is of course impracticable to go into detail here as to the special causes of depressed morale which adhere to any particular arm or branch of the service, especially as local environmental conditions may at times operate to modify morale conditions in an organization so as to create wide in- dividual deviations from the normal for the arm or branch. But the point is one of much practical importance and offi- cers should keep informed at least as to respective desertion rates as an index of the branch of service in which morale problems are especially to be apprehended. Methods of Morale Work. In certain instances, the handling of the American soldier seems to have been at- tempted in defiance of the laws of human nature. Some of the methods, like the Articles of War, have been largely adopted in the past from other armies of different racial psychology. Whether they were applicable to the Ameri- can mental make-up, or to present day conditions, was not always duly considered. Some commanders, deliberately, if innocently, attempt to repress natural instincts without affording other outlet to the pent up energy. It must be emphasized that all administrative methods not in accord- ance with the laws governing psychology will fail. Morale work is like a business in the sense that some of the methods used are more or less like those of commercial life. It is the " selling " of ideas, which is brought about in much the same way as the selling of physical commodi- ties is accomplished. In both instances the person to be reached is brought to accept the viewpoint desired. Morale work is governed by general principles only. Rules will not apply, for methods which may be successful at one time or place may be successful only in part, if at all, under other conditions. Selection and application must be efastic. 5& MANAGEMENT OF MEN Methods for promoting morale are many. Often diverse methods, if sound, may give equally satisfactory results; just as six and one, or five and two, will each give the sum of seven. All methods must be practical ; most of them will probably have withstood the test of experience. In a gen- eral way, successful commanders have used them, but such use has been empirical and without clear appreciation of how the scientific application of these agencies will give scientific control of the forces they develop. In the meeting of any problem of morale depression it is first necessary to recognize the existence of fault. Sec- ondly, the nature of this fault and the conditions creating it, with their relative importance, must be understood. Thirdly, the measures necessary to the correction of the con- ditions leading up to such fault must be determined and formulated in proper proportion. Finally, they must be effectively applied. Whenever morale is low, the first step should be to in- vestigate the organization affected in order to find the cause. The early symptoms should be recognized and their causes inquired into and corrected, for morale work is essentially not repair work but work of prevention, though both may go hand in hand. In meeting any morale problem, it is of the greatest importance that the remedial measures should be applied promptly, before the unfavorable influences have had a chance to develop and spread. The same general princi- ples apply in respect to the. importance of the time factor as relate to the prevention of an epidemic of communicable disease, the infection of which has been introduced. The work to be thoroughly effective must be continuous. Every effort must be made by constant, but suitably varied endeavor to offset the effect of depressant influences, of whatever nature, and to avert or remove specific potential causes of depression before their effects become apparent. Also because repetition has a powerful influence, and be- MORALE CONTROL 59 cause there are always new men who, in various ways, have not been sufficiently acted upon. A continuously high stand- ard of general morale is important, which can withstand certain negative influences without the resulting depression which they would otherwise develop. It is desirable to maintain not only a high standard of morale, but an evenly balanced one. Oscillations between states of depression and exaltation should be avoided. Morale methods imply " follow up " work. Once a de- sirable state of mind has been induced, it is equally impor- tant to maintain it. The latter task is relatively easier. Morale work implies not only a knowledge of what it is best to do, but also a nice discrimination as to what not to do. All general morale work should be carefully planned out and fully scheduled. Nothing should be left to chance which can be systematized; Otherwise the scope and methods will be imperfect and the results incomplete. Such stand- ardized plans should avoid any direct approach savoring of compulsion and should be so flexible as to permit the meet- ing of unexpected contingencies. The results of morale work represent no one thing, but the cumulative effect of everything. Morale work, to be effective, must not become monoton- ous. The maintenance of interest is necessary. Often several quite different measures will be found to give the same results and it is desirable to use them all successively as soon as the predecessor begins to pall. The element of surprise is valuable. It may often be well to jar the com- mand out of its rut by an unexpected sensation. Later an original approach may be returned to and used until the novelty has again worn off. In carrying out morale work, its effect should be con- stantly watched with a view to determining the continual production of the desired reaction. Too much should not be done at one time, but a system of dosage devised which 60 MANAGEMENT OF MEN will be necessary to counteract undesirable symptoms. When it appears that as much has been done as is neces- sary to accomplish the desired result, or when the command gives evidence of approaching the " saturation point," the time has come to modify the morale work and perhaps dis- continue it along certain lines while continuing or initiating it in others. In all morale work it is good psychology to make the last impression summarize the idea which it is especially desired to convey and to make it vivid and forceful. This point is not infrequently overlooked. In all positive morale work it is a basic principle that attention shall be focussed toward one definite aim by directing energies and ideas to- ward it. One of the methods of creating negative morale, on the contrary, is to introduce so many and such confusing issues among the enemy as to raise doubts and produce acts "at cross purposes. i Morale methods for controlling act may be grouped un- der several headings; physical betterment, educational, in- formational, inspirational, recreational and special. All have their proper place in any morale system, varying in their relative importance according to the conditions to be met. Methods for physical betterment have to do with cor- rection of the physical environment and the removal from it of any points of painful contact producing unpleasant re- action in the individual or group. The number and variety of such possible corrective measures are obviously great. A reasonable amount of physical comfort is necessary with new troops to induce a good state of morale, though once gained, it may survive with old troops under hardships for considerable periods. Educational factors in promoting morale are numerous. They include instruction in war aims, history and citizen- ship. This implies publicity, carefully directed, systematic MORALE CONTROL 61 and thorough. The lower the standard of knowledge, the greater the need of education. Information is a part of any educational system. It is, however, more casual and primarily intended to give the soldier facts pertaining to his immediate needs. One of the most discouraging features of early army life to the recruit is ignorance of what is expected of him and for knowledge of which the military system holds him responsible. Much of the early life of the recruit can be made interesting and stimulating by the giving of information, in the absence of which it is depressing and may prove intolerable. Inspirational methods are those which tend to dramatize and idealize for the man the things he is doing or will be expected to do. They make him feel not an isolated unit but part of a great organization and plan. Thus parades, ceremonies, mass activities, group singing and similar func- tions arouse the herd instinct and esprit de corps and glorify the humble part of the individual in that of an impressive whole. So, too, addresses and other methods for the crea- tion of ideals se/ve the purpose. Recreational methods are important factors in morale. They include athletics in all forms, games, hikes, amuse- ments, etc. Some, as athletics, bear close relationship to, and help fit the soldier for the regular military program. Reading, the drama, moving pictures and other methods may serve to educate and inspire as well as amuse. In a general way, recreational methods are used to fill up the leisure time of the soldier. Special methods for the handling of particular problems may include any or all of the foregoing, and to varying extent. It is obvious that their total contains all the essen- tial qualities and requirements of personal leadership. Information Necessary in Morale Work. Any scientific process of investigation or deduction must proceed from the known to the unknown. There must be premises of facts. 62 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The foundation of morale work rests, accordingly, on the constant possession of accurate, up-to-date information. Without such information results will be unsatisfactory and misleading. In order to modify the ideas of men which are affecting their conduct, it is clearly necessary to know what these ideas are. It is further necessary to get their mental viewpoint and to understand the processes of human mentality, in order to interpret these ideas properly. Few men are natu- rally perverse. The great majority do not do undesirable and exasperating things without reasons which, to them- selves at least, are satisfactory. In general, they do the things which they think are best for themselves- These need to be given facts and instruction, and voluntary de- parture from error of thought and. act usually follows. In all morale work, a system of information, checked up by overhead inspection, is thus necessary. Minor and cen- tral authorities must be constantly informed as to the fac- tors that sap morale and be continually in touch with the shifting situation relative to the development of depressing conditions and the measures being employed, or which should be employed, for their remedy. Without this serv- ice of information, higher authority cannot properly become aware of undesirable states of mind until they have received expression through act. But the effectiveness of morale work is judged by its ability in modifying or averting act through the changing of the thoughts which tended to prompt it. Early and comprehensive knowledge of states of mind is therefore necessary. Words usually precede acts and are warnings of undesir- able conduct yet to come. Through words, therefore, the nature and degree of impending conduct may be forecasted and steps taken to avert and prevent undesirable action. It is therefore important to know what the men are talking about and the character and extent of criticisms or commen- dations. MORALE CONTROL 63 Where morale problems seem to affect the individual alone, investigations may show that overt complaint is but the scapegoat for difficulties of a more personal and inti- mate character and sore points of complex nature. Secre- tiveness is often due to calculation- and the dread of betray- ing interest in some definitely foreseen way. But it some- times occurs as a blind propensity. The impulse to conceal is more apt to be evoked by superiors than by equals or inferiors. The wise officer will, accordingly, not be led aside by superficialities but will satisfy himself as to facts. " Actions speak louder than words " and what the men tend to do is thus important. Behavior should be known so that it may be analyzed as to cause or causes. It is im- portant to know not only how a thing was done but the man- ner in which it was done. From this knowledge, states of mind may be deduced. Warning may thus be had of po- tential acts which may eventuate if measures are not taken to avert them. If the quality and morale of an organization start to fall it is the duty of the officer to recognize the fact and to insti- tute prompt inquiry and correction as to the causes for its deviation from its .own and other accepted standards. Therefore, the first problem confronting the officer is the necessity for ascertaining the existing state of morale. Until he has some comprehension of this he cannot hope to direct his activities intelligently. In a general broad sense some idea of the state of morale can be secured from personal observation. But it is the object of systematic morale work to have extensive, definite and reliable information from many sources which cannot be secured to any trustworthy extent by any one individual merely by observation. It is for this purpose that the mo- rale organization is planned. The company morale opera- tives are designed to bring detailed information concerning any matter affecting the morale of the company to the company commander. Matters of serious moment will be 64 MANAGEMENT OF MEN brought by the company commanders to the attention of the regimental or unit organization commanders. These, in turn, will bring to the attention of the Commanding General matters which they consider important enough to demand his attention. With all important matters and the mental state and attitude which they produce, the Morale Officer, as the eye and ear of his commander in such matters, should be informed. In industrial morale, a similar organization is necessary. Besides the morale organization, the chief sources avail- able to the Morale Officer in securing desired information may be classified as follows : i. Line and staff officers, especially a. Intelligence Officer. b. Provost Marshal, Military Police. c. Officer in charge of the Utilities Unit. d. Athletic Officer. e. Education and Recreation Officer. f. Insurance Officer. g. Company Officers. h. Non-commissioned Officers. , i. General and Special Inspectors. 2. The Judge Advocate's office; evidence given in courts- martial. 3. Surgeons, psychologists, psychiatrists. 4. Chaplains. 5. Representatives of any non-military agencies, such as Red Cross representatives, etc. In ascertaining the existing state of morale in the body of troops to which he is attached, and in each of its component units, and in dealing intelligently with problems presented by it, the Morale Officer will need such information as the following : MORALE CONTROL 65 1. General information, a. From personal observation. b. From general expressions of opinion ; e. g. in gen- eral conversation at mess, conferences, etc. 2. Special information from those best qualified to give it: a. Character of the enlisted personnel of the several units; e.g. whether urban or rural, racial or ethnic, make-up of units, etc. b. Nature and frequency of minor offenses in each unit, with analysis of reasons for their occur- rence; e. g. exceptional circumstances, etc. c. Nature, frequency and cause of serious offenses — to be secured from the Judge Advocate's office, from evidence given in courts-martial and camp disciplinary records. d. Discontent as expressed in wanton breakage or de- struction, to be obtained from the officer in charge of the Utilities Unit or Supply Officer. e. Evidence of serious disaffection and of enemy prop- aganda, to be secured from Intelligence Officer. f. General health and living conditions of the organi- zation from the Medical Officers. g. Responsiveness and enthusiasm and general good feeling from the officers in charge of athletics and others, h. Insight into camp conditions from the viewpoint of the men from the Chaplains and officials in charge of any non-military organizations coming in contact with the men. These are indicated as but a few of the sources from which information can be gained to supplement the informa- tion secured from personal observation, from other officers and from the morale organization. Once in the efficient discharge of his duties the Morale Officer will discover and utilize many other agencies and means besides those here enumerated. CHAPTER III GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES Psychology in general; its use in developing energy along desired lines; its empirical use as a force old but its scientific application new; morale and electricity compared. Necessity in morale work for knowledge of psychological principles, methods and purposes; normal persons react in normal ways; applied psychology and psychanalysis; applied psychology as a two-edged tool; some difficulties of mental conformance. The' special psychology of the soldier; military limita- tions of psychological problems; mental attitude of the soldier class. ' Group psychology; the crowd mind; the character of crowds; com- mon incentives to crowd reaction; leaders and followers; utilization of crowd impulses; importance to the leader of knowledge of mass psychology; mental groups and " key men " ; suggestibility of crowds; crowd acts and psychic contagion; credulity, irresponsibility and as- sertiveness of crowds; measures for controlling the crowd mind; homogeneous and heterogeneous crowds. The psychology of peace and war; special psychological states developed from strife. The psychology of pubescence; special mental states characterizing the youthful and immature ; their relation to delinquencies and charac- ter; need for their consideration in handling young recruits. Psychology in General. Psychology is the study of the genesis, powers and functions of the mind. The manage- ment of men, and the exercise of efficient personal leader- ship, are merely the application of psychological principles to the daily affairs of life. Morale is a psychological state, and the study of psychology is therefore necessary for its satisfactory maintenance and development. However, the reader need not be daunted by this necessity, for this book endeavors to strip psychology of its abstractions and often obscure phraseology, and show it as a force which can be practically utilized on a basis of common sense for the con- trol of behavior in the solution of every-day problems. Its purpose is to take a science which by itself is dull, dry and 66 GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 67 uninteresting, endow its skeleton with flesh and blood and make it play a giant's part in the direction of human en- deavor. The recognition of psychology as a force is of course not new ; probably it was coincident with the dawn of the human mind. But it was considered wholly as an abstract and speculative matter until recently, when efforts were made to apply it practically in a certain few limited fields, as of advertising, salesmanship, teaching, and the differentiation of mental caliber and aptitude. It is believed that the present study is the first time that the psychological forces have been shown as agencies which may be intelligently de- veloped and directed for any of the purposes of human life through comprehensive understanding of the natural laws behind them. One reason for the long delay in its appli- cation to acts is the common idea that many of these acts are brought about in some mysterious way, precluding the ne- cessity or possibility of even attempting to explain them by natural laws. Another is that some are so complex as to discourage analysis of their causes. Still another is the well known difficulty experienced by the human mind when it attempts to deal with the intangible and invisible. But electricity was likewise long known to exist as a force, though it has been actually only within the present genera- tion that the laws governing it have become understood so that it could be utilized for practical purposes. Between the forces of psychology and electricity there is close resem- blance. Both are invisible, imponderable and without di- mension. Results alone evidence their existence and power. Electrical force moves, lights and heats the street car; the psychological force is evidenced by the physical act. Both may be scientifically generated and controlled. Nor does it take an expert to do this. It is within the power of any one who knows the laws of psychology to interpret them for the more effective carrying out of meas- ures affecting the individual and society. The daily life of 68 MANAGEMENT OF MEN all human beings in their relation to each other requires the exercise of psychological forces. Men achieve success in their purposes according to the efficiency with which they evoke appropriate mental states, or repress those in oppo- sition, among the individuals about them. This is particu- larly true in the case of officers. Morale work thus implies not only a knowledge of psy- chological principles and methods, but also of the purposes to which they are to be applied. All officers know some- thing about mind, but such fragmentary, uncoordinated knowledge does not make them psychologists nor meet the psychological needs of military science. The facts and laws of mind must be so arranged and organized as to give a systematized idea of what they are and how they work, if they are to be successfully applied. Further, and of similar importance, morale work presupposes adequate knowledge of the human nature and material to which the psychological processes and methods are to be applied. A thorough ap- preciation of existing defects, best method of approach and receptivity is essential. Man is a reservoir of potential forces, which are roused to expression and development by appropriate stimuli. Whether these shall be excited for good or ill is a problem of mental control. Human life is spent in seeking adjust- ments to environment. This means a series of responses to situations in forms of behavior. There are certain ac- cepted norms of conduct and those who do not conform to them are classed as eccentric or insane. But within the limits of normal conduct, acts are as diverse as the emotions which arouse them. If the emotions can be regulated, the impulses which they arouse and the acts which flow from them will be controlled. Theoretically, this can be accom- plished with mathematical certainty if the appropriate stim- uli are brought into appropriate operation. In practice, various mechanical difficulties may arise in endeavoring to create an environment in which all appropriate stimuli are GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 69 blended in proper proportion and desired intensity. Ac- cordingly results cannot be prophesied as matters of exact certainty in all cases, but they can usually be made satisfac- tory for all practical purposes, and even in the most difficult cases they can be made far better than if allowed to develop without control. The reactions and behavior of the great majority of soldiers can, by proper understanding of psy- chology, in the great majority of instances, be forecasted and modified. Applied psychology as a factor in promoting efficiency has come to stay. The wise officer will use it in accomplishing his ends. His command, with its peculiar, intimate and controlling official relations existing between officers and their subordinates, opens to him a field of observation, inter- pretation and deliberate causation of human mental states, reactions and behavior. His results will be doubly gratify- ing in that they not only redound to his credit and to the benefit of service efficiency, but that they at the same time add to the sum total of human contentment and happiness. In the application of psychology to such purposes, how- ever, it should never be forgotten that its results may be nullified or work in the opposite direction to that desired if the premises or inferences be not accurate. There must be careful study of the individual or group to determine how they presumably will react to the measures contemplated, and this study must fully take into consideration the view- points and temperaments of the subjects. Failure, results if such a, study is not made. In the judging of individuals and peoples, the right inter- pretation of their thoughts and acts can only be obtained from a knowledge of their own psychological viewpoujt, for they tend to act according to their own menyL^^^lards, processes and promptings and on no othefppiplfs basic point the Germans utterly failed to grasp jn|,'|hj^||.idesigns for world control. Their methods were properly worked out for their own racial psychology — that is, their home 7o MANAGEMENT OF MEN reactions were what were expected. But these methods, in their effect upon most of the rest of humanity, worked against and not for the purposes intended. The Germans made the fatal mistake of assuming in advance that the mental processes of other peoples would function the same as their own. Hence they found that measures which were expected to produce fear merely crystallized into pugnacity; those which were to cause submission actively aroused stronger self-assertion; those intended to create despair resulted in inflexible determination. Just as no two people are alike in body, so they are no more alike in mental qualities. Nor can they be brought exactly into a common mold. This is a fact which less suc- cessful officers often seem to disregard. Similarly, the same differences exist between races and nations. Races no more think alike than they look alike. Their mental proc- esses are different and the results consequently are diverse. The United States is at a disadvantage in war because it is racially heterogeneous and because its diverse stocks, due in considerable degree to recent immigration, have not been fused into common standards of thought. Its very geo- graphical vastness and diversity of resources develops differ- ences of interest. Many called to the colors will have been born abroad and still entertain many of the ideals and cus- toms of the old country. There are sectional differences. Also the national trait of individualism, so evident in this country, stands in the way of acceptance of community of thought and purpose. One of the great problems of the army, therefore, is the harmonizing of racial differences of mind. It is the real melting pot of the diverse types that compose it. Some traits can be modified only and not eradicated. In any case it takes time to abandon old standards and establish new, even with the assistance of the cohesion under pressure of the military environment. On the other hand, the application of psychological meas- GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 71 ures in the army is much easier and more exact in its results than is the case in civil life. The reason for this is that soldiers are carefully selected, and that various factors dis- turbing to the efficiency of psychological work in the general civilian class, are, in the army, more or less effectively elimi- nated. Those due to disease, deformity or weakness, or common to persons with evidence of intemperate, filthy or vicious habits are excluded; the psychiatrists reject those with mental aberration and the psychologists those of men- tal deficiency. Past records of applicants are looked into, and the criminal, with his tendency to delinquency, is kept out. The physical and mental defectives, who, in civil life, operate indirectly to complicate the psychological prob- lem and its solution, are not allowed to enter the military service. Further, the soldier is the physically, mentally and mor- ally elect of the male class representing the military age group. The diverse psychological problems presented by females, and the psychological variations dependent upon age in the extreme thirds of the period of life, are here ab- sent. Most soldiers are unmarried and have no strong family ties; practically all of them are in the period of strongest self-expression. In addition, the soldier lives in an environment, which not only makes him more susceptible to suggestions, but which provides the administrative agencies for presenting them to him. Finally, the many special ideals of military life appeal strongly to the indi- vidual and group representing the soldier class. The Psychology of the Soldier. The psychology of the soldier is a special thing, apart from the psychology of the race or nationality as a whole to which he belongs. As already indicated, the soldier is in a special mental class be- cause he is a male of the fighting age and of a group from which physical defectives, mental substandards and moral delinquents are excluded. The psychology of women, chil- dren and of the extremes of life does not enter as a factor. 7.2 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Furthermore, soldiering is a profession of its own, different from thoss of civil life, performed in a totally different en- vironment, with new standards and ideals for the judging of conduct, and with new ways of testing character by unfa- miliar difficulties. Individuality is merged, to a large ex- tent, in the common identity of the group. Many of the influences obtaining in the army have thus no counterpart in civil life. These factors produce in the soldier a state of mind and modes of mental process peculiarly his own. The psychological problems pertaining to the soldier are accordingly special problems, being more restricted in num- ber and extent than those of the population from which the soldier is drawn and, on the other hand, including a number in which the former does not share. All this makes the soldier think differently from civilians, even differently from what he himself thought before enter- ing the service. There is a correspondingly different reac- tion as expressed by conduct. The soldier, therefore, needs to be studied in the light of close observation and long expe- rience with military conditions by those who would forecast his reactions and interpret his behavior. The eligible class from which soldiers are drawn com- prises a very limited percentage of the population. In round numbers, all males from twenty to thirty-one or thirty-two years of age comprise only ten percent of a com- munity; an extension of the age limit to forty years increases the proportion only to fifteen percent, and extending it to fifty years takes in twenty percent. Failure to qualify in physical fitness for service reduces the percentage of actual eligibles still more. Rejections for physical causes in the draft averaged 29.1 percent. Thus it will be seen how the psychological problems of the soldier are narrowed down in variety from those of an entire civilian community. See Fig. 4. In considering the psychology of the soldier there are two factors requiring attention. One is natural endowment in GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 73 C— Available for military service, appro*. 6.5$' 6 -Rejected for physical reasons, iy A-Detalned In civil Institutions' Figure 4. Distribution of Population in Reference to Military Service. respect to mental qualities. The other is adaptation or re- sponsiveness to environment. These vary with race and individual. To all, however, certain general principles will apply. These are discussed in detail elsewhere. It may be stated here that the soldier in many ways comes closer to being the ideal man than one of any other occupa- tion. His selection, training and development require quali- ties which are recognized universally as desirable, yet which are cultivated to far less degree in other walks of life. Physical soundness and well-rounded muscular development, with strong, erect posture, are essential. There must be neatness of clothing and person. His life inculcates high sentiments and ideals, good habits, team work, comradeship, response to orders and subordination of self to general wel- fare. The American soldier possesses a high degree of intelli- gence, individualism and initiative. He responds best where he understands most. He has been accustomed to survey and evaluate conditions, formulate action for him- self and initiate and carry it out. These civilian standards of thought, with all their individualism, curiosity and free- dom of mental process are retained after he enters the serv- 74 MANAGEMENT OF MEN ice. The average soldier thinks for himself and is not con- tent to perform a duty unthinkingly or to accept a situation without knowledge of reasons or purposes. If not in- formed as to these, he will endeavor to deduce them for himself, and his deductions are usually all that could be expected if his original premises are correct. It follows that, to avoid mental or physical error, information should be given where opportunity offers and there is no reason against it. In his individualism, the American soldier likes what ap- pears to be extemporaneous and presents appeal to his rea- son and personality. His instinct of constructiveness is strong and he is perhaps as interested in working out the methods by which a task is to be accomplished as in the results obtained. He subconsciously reacts against repression and responds to stimulation. He objects to the compulsion of " Do this because I say so," and does not enthuse over directions to " Do this because it is right," but he responds with interest to the explanation " Now I will tell you why we do this." Or his gregariousness and self-assertion are both appealed to by "Do you know, Smith, why this is done? If not, I am sure that Jones does " — and Jones is asked to explain. As with all groups, the soldier class contains certain indi- viduals whose qualities appear to be chiefly negative. They give no trouble. But in many such soldiers the desired qualities are latent and merely need encouragement and stimulation to ensure their development. How far this de- velopment may be carried depends on the individual in re- spect to opportunity and response to stimulus. Some need only to be inoculated with the virus of ambition and to demonstrate to themselves, through minor successive steps of success, their power of accomplishment. Others may need appropriate stimuli of another sort. But, generally speaking, without special attention by their officers, such will scarcely achieve mediocrity. GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 75 For a full understanding of the matter of soldier psy- chology, it is necessary to appreciate that each individual forms a dynamic center, the individual mental state of which directly affects morale in others so far as that particular unit is concerned. Each also has its indirect suggestive in- fluence, for from each radiate thoughts, emotions and exam- ples, both in greater and lesser degree and in large or small groups. The state of mind of the individual soldier thus reacts upon that of all with whom he comes in contact. The psychology of the individual is accordingly more or less of a reflection of the psychology of the group to which he be- longs. The influences are mutual and interlocking, in that each individual is both an active agent through which the thoughts and conduct of others are modified and also is the passive object and recipient of the influence of others. Each bears somewhat the relation to the others that a single cellular element of the human body bears to all other cells which together compose the body. They cannot properly be considered apart from each other. Accordingly, the degree to which the individual soldier is discouraged and depressed is the degree of drain exerted by him upon all those associated with him either in morale or in their confidence in the cause for which they are striving. Every man in the army has his influence upon some one else. Whether this is good or bad depends upon the soldier, and in the last analysis it largely relates to the influence the officer has had upon the soldier in determining his mental outlook, conduct and attitude toward others. It therefore pays in terms of military efficiency to remove any unnecessary causes of physical or mental discomfort in any individual or group, not only for the obvious relief which is thus afforded them, but for the removal of a focus from which discontent, transmitted through the instinct of sympathy, might later be aroused in others. In any general depressed state of mind, each individual tends to imagine his own case the worst. By exaggeration 76 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and repeated expression of his views, his imagination tends to get the better of him. He comes to believe as fact what was at first assumed. He tends to reason from the par- ticular to the general and applies the result of his own environment and mental state to the whole -^- to the soldier in flight, the whole army is defeated. One marked characteristic of the soldier's psychology which may here be mentioned is the tendency to exaggerate both by word and deed. This exaggeration is usually un- conscious, may be due to lack of discrimination, and tends to increase as a result of repetition. Memories of actual perceptions are confused with imaginations. Of this, the stories told by old campaigners furnish an example — like- wise the excess to which the soldier tends when released from restraint. Such are expressions of pent-up energy which, checked along certain channels or at certain times, find relief in expression in a degree above normal through other channels of instinct or through those temporarily opened. As the special characteristics of the soldier's psychology will be discussed elsewhere in detail, they will not be treated under this special heading. Group Psychology. The ultimate purpose of military morale is success through community of ideals and interest. Hence, in the maintenance of military morale, it is the group which is of particular importance. The disaffection of an individual may be numerically a trifle. Its importance lies in the fact that states of mind are communicable, often very rapidly so, and what began as an apparently insignificant in- dividual matter may become a most serious group sentiment. There is a general incentive, based on the gregarious habits of human kind, which impels a crowd toward a com- mon resultant in action. However, it is a fact of impor- tance that under certain conditions the crowd mind presents group characteristics quite different from those of the indi- viduals composing it. Men in groups think, act and are GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 77 influenced otherwise than the component members in their individual responsibility and capacity. Their mental fusion results in a crowd personality, differing from that of any of them. Crowds as mere physical aggregations are the same the world over, but their psychological reaction is never the same. City and rural crowds behave differently under par- allel conditions. Soldier and citizen groups of Americans, Europeans and Asiatics all respond differently to the same stimuli. The foreign spokesman fails to gauge the effect of his words through inability to understand the psychic reac- tion of his hearers. Similarly the foreigner in the crowd fails to react to the aggregate response. The bond of unity carries a psychology of its own, and the mental cohesiveness of a military or industrial organization is due to its common ideal. The moral of this is that a proper understanding of the racial and psychological make-up of a crowd, whether it be a company of infantry or an unorganized group of workers, is essential to its effective handling. For the superior, it means that he must know his men collectively and individ- ually, not merely superficially but in such a way that he understands their limitations, trend and viewpoint. The individuals contributing to a crowd mind do not have to be long together. If mentally trained along common lines, they will present the crowd characteristics on first coming together. This is one of the products of standard- ized methods of military training. It shows the advantage of presenting common ideals in advance to all who are later to work together in larger assemblages created for military purposes. Since every decision taken by the mass develops from an accidental or prepared majority, it is the part of common sense not to trust to chance where advance plan may substitute it. The common incentive is presented in advance of the group emotion later to be aroused. This is a basic argument for standardization of character, extent 78 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and methods of training. When a command is scattered, provision should be made to accomplish this standardiza- tion. All men are either leaders or followers. Civilization and organization cannot exist without despotism of a sort, for without leaders the state is one of anarchy. The aver- age man removed from isolation soon falls under the influ- ence of a leader, for the special reason that most men do not possess clear-cut ideas on any subject except the one with which they are most familiar. The leader serves as a guide to those of weaker personality or lesser conviction. The group responds to his personality rather than to a cause, and to emotional appeal rather than sober reason. Every crowd must have a leader. If it finds itself with- out a selected leader, it chooses one for itself. This leader is necessary before the forces which actuate a crowd can be put in motion. In the army the men look first to the senior officer, on account of his acquired prestige, for guidance. If he fails, either confusion results or some one else takes hold; when this appointed leader fails, he not only loses his prestige, but usually there is a revulsion of feeling against him. His position is especially hard because a crowd of any sort always tends to idealize its leader. If he falls short of their expectations, their outcry against him becomes far greater than the conditions justify. Excuse will not re- establish him. The only thing which will restore his pres- tige will be some unusual act which will appeal to their emotions in such a way as to restore him to the pedestal from which he has fallen. In time of war the officer must be calm when all about him is excitement; he must appear fearless, however great the danger. In time of peace, he must be a little better informed than his men in a multitude of subjects, and in addition he should be an executive of unusual ability. Some officers naturally never attain such excellence, but deficiency is unusual as a result of the gradual process of development through which most officers pass. GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 79 The submission by crowds to the leadership of a chief is instinctive. In civil crowds, the leader may be merely a casual agitator, who suddenly becomes conspicuous and is vested by the group with control of its destinies. The lead- ers of such casual crowds are more often men of action than thinkers. They hold profound convictions, beyond the effect of reason, and their will power supplies the mental force that many in the crowd lack. In any permanent organization, leadership for the group is always definitely provided. This is particularly true of the army, in which every group or subdivision has its leader furnished, ready-made and trained to a common purpose. These leaders are invested officially with all the prestige and influence that can be conferred artificially, in addition to that pertaining to the personality of the individual him- self. About the will of any leader, the opinions of the crowd crystallize and acquire identity, while his purpose creates the crowd state of mind and its fixed direction. The qualities of this leader are magnified to his followers, thus conferring prestige and exalted significance. Office, station and mo- mentary exaltation tend to create uncritical aggrandizement. The uniform, rank and power accompanying military status help tremendously at once to establish acceptance of appro- priate leadership. Distance, actual or psychological, mag- nifies. The superior, accordingly, must stand a bit apart if he would more fully control his men — yet not so re- motely as to lose a communal relation with them. The practical utilization of the crowd impulse is seen in the complete reliance of the soldier on his leaders, in whom he rests the responsibility for his own safety and conduct and the outcome of affairs. This can and should be used to direct the activities of the group to good advantage. The natural tendency of the crowd is to the free exercise of the primal instincts, but the wise leader may convert its latent forces into efforts for the attaining of high ideals. 80 MANAGEMENT OF MEN An important factor in the success of an officer's adminis- trative work is his recognition and understanding, in rela- tion to mass psychology, of the anti-social groups which tend to appear in his command just as they occur in civil life. These may become more or less potent and constant agencies to the detriment of morale and good order unless steps are taken intelligently and tactfully against them. It not infre- quently happens that wise handling wilL not only neutralize these negative influences, but convert them into positive forces for good. Such groups should be broken up, both through physical separation of their component units, espe- cially in removing weaker characters from close association with those of undesirable personality, and by undermining in various ways any anti-social ideas which may be enter- tained by the group. These ideas are nearly always based on misapprehension and error, and can be dissipated in the light of truth. Sometimes they develop from actual in- equity affecting the group or others, and merely require being known by superiors in order to be remedied. In handling such problems of group morale, it should be further recognized that there is a " key man " in every group, who is consciously or tacitly recognized as a leader. The identity of such men should be ascertained and efforts to modify the group state of mind focused particularly upon them, since if their mental attitude is altered the weaker personalities of the followers will be influenced through un- conscious imitation of their example. A very few men are really the controlling factors of public opinion in a company; if they can be reached, such difficulties as pertain to others will tend to settle themselves without further attention. Conversely, to handle a situation without special recognition of the influence wielded by these leaders is usually unsatis- factory in results, since those of weaker mental force may revert to their former undesirable mental attitu.d e if allowed to come again under the influence of leaders who have not also been won over. if. i GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 81 Suggestibility is exhibited in its fullest force in the crowd, and the normal standards of the individual tend to be over- thrown for the time being. Even the individual who may have unwittingly joined an excited crowd may temporarily depart from normal standards of self-control; though race psychology is here an important factor, since there must be sympathetic understanding for community of thought and act. The psychic contagion in a crowd is a phenomenon to be compared with a pathological contagion. The acts of a crowd or group are very often of a nature entirely different from those which involve only one person. Such acts as are expressed in a riot, a St. Bartholomew's Night, a lynching or a mutiny are manifestations of crowd psychology. Panic, perhaps without physical cause, may result, for there is neither the check of individual reason nor of public opinion. Being one of a crowd stimulates the instinct of gregari- ousness and gives a sense of personal safety, while being one of a large number gives a feeling of cooperative power which nullifies the sense of personal caution and responsi- bility. The least observed and known is the individual in a crowd, the sooner he parts with the feeling of personal responsibility, and therefore those of lower status or charac- ter are first apt to go to excesses. A high degree of will- power on the part of any individual is necessary to oppose the action of a crowd of which he is a part. However, it is often not difficult to divert crowd action away from one line by introducing new and appropriate suggestions. The crowd, having surrendered its responsibility, becomes especially credulous. For it, the improbable does not exist. In this rests the extraordinary facility among troops with which rumors are manufactured, exaggerated and dissemi- nated. Mobs are impelled to violence by stories of acts which a little reflection would show to have been impossible of accomplishment. The power of analysis is in abeyance. Being unreasoning, the crowd is uncritical and vacillating 82 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and is capable of being influenced toward a rapid succession of quite dissimilar acts. It is only vaguely aware of its own motives and tendencies. A crowd is always self-assertive and intolerant. Those who directly oppose or contradict it arouse resentment, anger or force. Once suitably influenced, the members of the crowd are willing to sacrifice themselves for the ideals with which they have been inspired. Being unthinking and irresponsible, the crowd may be led to run risks for the triumph of a cause which its individual units would be un- willing to incur. The interests of the individual do not dominate the crowd, and it is swayed in one way or another by passing causes and impulses. It is not only emotional but carries its emotions to extremes, sympathy rapidly be- coming adoration, and antipathy changing into hatred. It is also swayed by preference, prejudice and sentiment. Crowds, being unreasoning and unintelligent, have a high imaginative power, pay heed to suggestions from any source and are readily impressed. Mental pictures evoked in the crowd mind have vividness almost as great as the reality. This quality, if uncontrolled, may produce the direst results, as in panic. On the other hand, it is one of the most potent agents in leadership. Since crowds tend to think in images, they respond to pomp, pageantry and the dramatic and sen- sational. Military service, like religious observances, makes large use of these qualities. Crowds may be controlled through force and fear, but consideration is often interpreted by them as a form of weakness. The crowd mind is, however, readily taken pos- session of by leaders and molded to the purpose they desire. For the control of a crowd the latter must have a certain degree of unity of spirit, a community of outlook and in- stinct, and mutual sympathy and comprehension. The race factor enters as favoring certain expressional trends, but is largely modified by circumstance and tradition. In controlling the group mind one should remember that GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 83 it is impulsive, changeable, swayed by the momentary im- pression, more susceptible to manner than to matter, subject to the influence of contagion, requires adroit approach to clear away prejudice or opposition, responds to vigorous, direct address when the avenues of expression have been cleared, is prone to extremes, is loud in demands when roused and is easily led into excess. Crowds are readily swayedjby mere association of ideas. Logic does not appeal to the crowd, for the reason that it responds to sentiment rather than reason. In the control of crowds, an impression must be made on their minds by the creation of mental images. This can be done by means of physical images such as flags, insignia, etc., representing simple ideas, simply expressed. They may be further evoked by words and formulas. Catch-words and epigrams are particularly potent, and often reason and argu- ment cannot successfully combat them. They may evoke grandiose and mysterious mental images, only vaguely pic- tured and differing with each individual. The crowd mind thus appears as the easy prey of the unprincipled and also as the resource of the great ideals and enthusiasms of man- kind. When it is desired to move a crowd to action, it should be rapidly worked upon by appropriate suggestions, followed by a direct forceful appeal, and concluded by an act to furnish the example for imitation. In forecasting the probable effect of an action upon a cer- tain group, the information given by psychology varies with knowledge of the mental attitude of the individuals or organization concerned, and especially with their reaction under more or less analogous conditions. The good com- mander who knows his men has a very good understanding of what his men will do under a fair range of conditions. On the other hand, it seems impossible to prophesy success- fully in civil life, with accuracy, as to the probable reception of a new play or book by a public whose units are unknown. The probable reaction in such cases may be tentatively 84 MANAGEMENT OF MEN tested on a small scale with a minor group, and the results may be considered as applicable to the group as a whole under consideration. Politicians use this method by giving out tentative ideas through the press and then carefully noting the reaction toward them, with a view to making them official if well received. This method of trial and error is the only feasible way of determining the reaction of the civilian body-public under ordinary conditions, when a wide diversity of circumstances and influences must be con- sidered. However, in the presence of some dominating condition, as war, the public mind very obviously functions toward certain ends and its reactions can be foretold with considerable accuracy. When any plan of procedure has been decided upon as representing the greatest good to the greatest number, it is often desirable to ascertain who react unfavorably to it and to modify their ideas as soon as possible by approach and information through suitable agents. It is probable that no single action could be taken which would be completely satis- factory to everybody within a military group of any con- siderable size. But to many a knowledge of necessity will remove objection. Heterogeneous crowds are composed of individuals of any description, of any profession, and any degree of intel- ligence. Homogeneous crowds are composed of the same sect, castes or classes. Trained soldiers always belong to the same caste and usually to the same class. If a crowd is composed of people of the same race, religion and caste, it represents the highest degree of organization of which a crowd is capable and is, therefore, the most susceptible to mental unity. A heterogeneous crowd is subject to indirect suggestion, and a homogeneous crowd to direct suggestion. The crowd which is homogeneous to start with does not require the hypnotic influence of a powerful leader to render it sub- ject to direct suggestion. In a well-trained military organ- GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 85 ization, the officers may lack in qualities of leadership, but the men will cheerfully obey their orders so long as they do not actually betray qualities of cowardice or show signs of ignorance or inefficiency to such a marked degree as to merit contempt. The more disciplined a crowd is, the less emo- tional it is and the less subject to hypnosis. It is thus much more difficult to arouse a high pitch of enthusiasm among veterans than among recruits. Under the influence of strong leaders, untrained troops will become entirely uncon- scious of personal danger and perform acts of heroism, but the same troops are subject to unreasonable panics. There are times, however, when veteran troops require strong leadership. Certain conditions cause an abnormal disinte- gration of the conscious mind, such as extreme hunger, thirst or fatigue. The same troops which won the battle of Wagram by their heroic fighting were seized with panic that same day toward evening and ran away without any real cause. When a leader wishes to imbue the mind of a crowd with ideas and beliefs he resorts to affirmation, repetition and contagion. Their action is somewhat slow, but the effects, once produced, are very lasting. Affirmation is stronger than logic in impressing an idea upon a crowd. It has no permanent influence, however, unless it is constantly re- peated, and so far as possible in the same terms. If an affirmation is repeated often, it is finally accepted as a tru- ism. After a certain number of converts have been made to an idea, a current of opinion is formed, the ideas pass by imperceptible channels from one set of individuals to another and the influence of contagion intervenes. Conta- gion is so powerful that it forces upon an individual not only certain opinions, but certain modes of feeling as well. Since imitation is an effect of contagion, crowds may be guided much by force of example. There are always a few individuals whose examples are followed by their associates and contemporaries. These leaders, however, must not 86 MANAGEMENT OF MEN differ in fundamentals from those which determine the char- acter of the crowd. This fact sometimes makes the posi- tion of an American army officer a difficult one, because of the diverse classes from which Americans are drawn. A wise leader in speaking to a crowd follows the rule of frequency and last impression rather than to try to reason with his crowd. Many ministers have been discouraged because their most learned discourses fall on deaf ears, while the personality and methods of the revivalist carry the members of his congregation off their feet. Unorganized crowds break up through the fact that personal interests and advantage soon resume supremacy. Mutual obligation is slight and cohesion lacking. When officer-control of the Russian army was lost through Bol- shevist ideas, it is stated that whole army corps disinte- grated and disappeared almost in a night. Psychology of Peace and War. It is obvious that the largely dissimilar environments of peace and war must pro- duce corresponding change in mental attitudes and in the behavior resulting from them. These environmental con- ditions are so diverse that it is not possible to set down the various expressions through conduct which flow from them. In time of peace, conditions of life are well ordered and the soldier is not subjected to the mental stress pertaining to war. Matters which would be regarded as inconsequen- tial in time of war thus assume, in peace, a far greater im- portance. Everything is relative, and in peace the supreme ideas and standards of war no longer exist. In time of peace, therefore, minor matters may arouse discontent and trouble. This was particularly well shown in the recent war after the signing of the armistice, when forgotten griev- ances not only came to the surface, but were reinforced by new ones based on conditions long accepted without thought of complaint. Within sixty days after the armistice the court-martial cases among the troops in France not only doubled in number but increased in gravity. Thoughts and GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 87 desires had changed and acts had changed accordingly. Prolonged peace, like prolonged prosperity in business life, tends to produce lax methods in the military service. Ideals are lowered unconsciously and imperceptibly. Faults tend to go unnoticed, or if noticed are often allowed to con- tinue. It is the easiest way, and the natural tendency is to move along lines of least resistance. The greatest by- product of peace, so far as the military service is concerned, is inefficiency and failure to progress. War, accordingly, tends to find the army unprepared as a natural result of the mental inertia due in turn to the lack of visible stimulus. This is a very real and at present imminent danger which thinking officers will recognize and do their best to avert. One great purpose of morale work in peace is to induce such a state of mind as will promote preparation. War, of course, creates intense psychological states of its own. Its nervous and mental effects range all the way from the specific shock suffered by the individual soldier through noise, suffering and hardship to the subtle effects which an atmosphere surcharged with hatred, fear and change has upon the minds, thoughts and acts of whole nations. The soldier is subjected to nervous strain from the day he is sent away from home. At camp he is confronted with a life different from any he has known and he must adjust himself to it. In some cases, military life may be intrinsically dis- tasteful to him, yet he cannot leave it until his mission is performed. A struggle between duty and desire ensues. This may not be acute in the camp or in the first few months in the field, but as drudgery and battle follow each other, the mental struggle becomes more strongly emphasized. War generates great discontents and stirs emotions that have- lain dormant throughout many years of civilization and peace. Many of the discontents and emotions are healthy, and are but the yeasts of progress. But they are too strong for all but the strongest ; ill-balanced minds give Way under them and weak and diseased nervous systems col- 88 MANAGEMENT OF MEN lapse. All sorts of criminal tendencies, many of which are caused by nervous and mental troubles, tend to break loose from the bonds of habit and circumstance which have held them in check. This state of mind is carried over by many soldiers after return to civil life. After our Civil War, there was a period of crime and brigandage that lasted a quarter of a century — the hey-day of the James and Younger brothers — and some of the psychic effects of that war are still apparent in the more primitive parts of the country. It will be a generation before the present emo- tional state of the people returns to normal. War, and the community of military service, blends the differences of race and pure nationality into a common American consciousness. The individual devotes himself to a common cause which he recognizes as a worthy one. It is relatively easy to achieve a fighting spirit when the enemy is near and battle imminent. Here the military at- mosphere is electric with the feeling of preparation and conflict. Purposes are few, interest is active and necessity presses. The phase of morale work that occupies attention in war-time is aimed to produce a fighting edge and may be summed up in the words " information " and " confidence." It consists in explaining and keeping before the soldier the righteousness of his cause, the need the country has for him in its defense, the sufferings of the oppressed who look to him for aid, and other exalted considerations. It is also aimed to keep the soldier confident of the excellence of his arms, equipment and gas mask, of artillery support, and of sufficiency of reserves. It is intended to keep him comfort- able in respect to material things like shelter, food and clothing, and if these fall short of what is desired, to make him accept the situation as one which is inevitable and which might be worse. Also it is to protect him against the work- ings of propaganda, spies, lies, false reports, disquieting rumors and other factors calculated to create discourage- GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 89 ment and doubt. The methods by which this may be done are set forth under their appropriate headings. Psychology of Pubescence. Pubescence does not mean merely endowment with sexual capacity, but implies also a considerable period of general development and change due to the functioning of the sex glands. In this country, the period with males is usually placed as covering eight to ten years, beginning at about the age of fourteen and including that of twenty-four years. The last four or five years of this period comprise the time of life at which very many recruits are enlisted, and accordingly, the relation of pubescence to mental state is a matter for due consideration in the military service. Maturity, either physical or mental, varies with the in- dividual. Age is misleading in this respect, and certain young men of from eighteen to twenty-four years may still be subject to the mental stress and emotions characterizing the period of adolescent life. Condition, rather than years, should be considered in such cases. Some individuals really never seem to grow up in the sense" that they acquire mature control over the emotions. The outward physical changes of puberty, the rapid growth of body, sex development, beard, etc., have their psychological counterparts in altered mentality, disposition and resulting conduct. The rapid growth in body strength implies mental growth in individuality, imagination, self- control and abstract reasoning. It is not only the period of new desires but of psychic hyperaesthesia and suggesti- bility. Since the higher mental qualities are of later de- velopment, the individual may for a long time be the subject of impulses which he has not yet the judgment to control. Pubescence thus often influences conduct to a very great degree, for the new chain of thought created may be the inspiration of a new line of conduct. Adolescence is characterized by instability of ideas and emotions and hence of behavior. There are excessive im- 90 MANAGEMENT OF .MEN pulses with excessive lack of control. The conduct of youth may seem at times irrational under the perspective of maturity. The community wonders " what that boy will do next," but after adolescence wears off he probably settles down and becomes as staid and orthodox as any of them. Frequently there is excessive physical or mental lethargy, sleepiness or laziness, which may often be combined with recklessness. The adolescent is hyper-sensitive, as shown in romanticism, dissatisfaction, hypochrondia, etc. There is a lack of foresight remaining from childish mentality. On the other hand there is egotism manifested by ambition, conceit, etc. Some of these adolescent states of mind ap- proach those of beginning insanity, though the latter state is not reached and the mental symptoms gradually subside in those who never reach a true psychosis. The tendency is toward exaltation — not toward depression. But a definite condition of mental instability may exist and pro- duce conduct irregularities for which no real reason could later be adduced. The delinquencies of adolescence are obviously largely those of immaturity of mind, namely of impulse and irre- sponsibility. Rough violence is readily indulged in and there is a recklessness of conduct that is not found in the more cautious later stages of life. There is not an accurate appreciation of results, nor their balancing against desires, to determine whether gratification of the latter is really " worth while." There may be a tendency to rebel against authority, and desire for new experiences formerly not even imagined. It is easy to understand how various exaltations and depressions and morbid imaginings come about together with the peculiar fault-findings and dissatisfactions with surroundings that are frequently noted among adolescents. Fortunately, most of these states of mind are temporary only. This state of adolescence in the undeveloped soldier is of special importance in the determination of future char- GENERAL PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 91 acter. Intelligent handling by his commander at this time will largely determine his later efficiency and discipline as a soldier and his standards after returning to civil life. The wise officer will recognize that slight breaches of discipline in soldiers who are immature do not necessarily mean de- pravity. Usually they spring from a childish irresponsi- bility. There is a tendency to do something on the impulse without authorization rather than to go to the proper authority for permission. The thoughtful officer will also remember that such soldiers are profoundly affected by environment, that in the military service their environment is beyond their own control, and that he himself has it in his power to materially alter such environment to their advantage and secure their better adjustment. And in recognizing and accepting such responsibilities he will see that he performs the obligations which go with them. The best treatment for adolescent troubles is preventive. This means to create and stimulate healthy interests, espe- cially athletics, but not forgetting other forms of recreation. The adolescent class does well both when worked hard and played hard. With this goes due overseeing as to companionships and associations, the remedying of faulty environment, stabilization of the new environment and the instillation of ideas of discipline, respect for authority and self-control. Of final importance is the giving of knowl- edge which will prevent misconduct due to ignorance or mental vacuity. It should be remembered that the young soldier is en- dowed with great surplus of energy and is under a constant physiological sense of urge for its expenditure. What he needs is wise direction for its outlet, for his unfolding char- acter resents obvious pressure. He will idealize and sup- port the sympathetic, aggressive, leader as much as he will resent and react against the uniform repressions and re- strictions of an iron discipline. He is managed better through the emotions than cold logic. In many instances 92 MANAGEMENT OF MEN where the mentally immature soldier gives cause for con- cern, inquify as to his antecedents by letters to relatives asid friends may give insight into previous environment, revealing causes of indiscipline, and indicate proper modes for present handling. What has been said regarding the adolescent soldier of course applies with equal force to the apprentice, young worker or student in civil life. The attributes of their special physiological state must be taken into account in de- termining their successful handling. With this state, how- ever, goes an impressionability which renders their control relatively easy to sympathetic understanding and oversight. CHAPTER IV THE BASIC INSTINCTS Definition of instincts; their effect on emotional state; examples of instincts; instincts and behavior; stimulation of instincts; the blocking of instincts and resulting mental pain; inevitable effect of community life in blocking instincts; channels of stimulation and ex- pression; the development of energy through stimulation of instincts; need of release of mental energy once generated. The instincts of hunger and thirst; their reactions as expressed in behavior; their deprivations and mental state. The instinct of fear; its compelling power and infectiousness; fear and self-preservation ; effect of fear on physical act; human control through the agency of fear; mental endurance and military success; some generic causes of fedr; panic; methods of preventing and controlling feat. The instinct of repul- sion; its nature, manifestation and value; reaction of blocking repul- sion. The instinct of pugnacity; its stimulation and exercise; its use for self -protection; race, age, sex and individual as affecting pugnacity; anti-social qualities of pugnacity; war as an outlet for pugnacity; stimulation and development of latent pugnacity; ex- haustion of pugnacity ; anger and hatred. The instinct of self-asser- tion; a desire to be found worthy; its expressions; pride as compared with self-respect ; reactions to repressions of self-assertion; adjustment to place and status; development of self-assertion. The instinct of self-submission; its nature, expressions and importance; its necessity to discipline and community life; submission and initiative; need of checking undue submissiveness ; special attention needed by men of vleak character: Instincts in General. Instincts are primary inherited tendencies to act in such ways as to produce certain ends, but without rational foresight of these ends, and without the necessity of any previous education in the performance. Everything about psychology has relation to them. In- stincts form the background of character as it is developed through environment under guidance of the intellectual facul- ties. Instincts are known to exist from the fact that they 93 94 MANAGEMENT OF MEN function more or less effectively the first time the appropri- ate stimulus is experienced. For example, the newly hatched chick pecks objects before it; the new-born baby grasps the finger placed in its hand, perhaps a reminder of the instinct of its arboreal ancestors; the setter puppy " points " its first partridge. All instinctive acts are ex- pressions of innate and inherited tendencies. They con- tinue to function throughout life, but in a degree variable with the individual and his environment. Every instinct is the basis of some emotional excitement whose quality is peculiar to it. Many of the instincts relate primarily to self-protection and the preservation of the race. Examples of such are the taking of food, holding out the hand in falling, flight from a dangerous environment, etc. Other instincts have their appropriate reactions. There are some twen ty-one instinctive tendencies that are generally recognized as~EasTc, and of these about twelve or fourteen have a particular value in relation to the mili- tary service, and to military conduct. All, however, have importance. Their relative significance, the reactions which they cause, and the best methods by which they may be turned to military or industrial purpose should be fully understood by superiors.. All these instincts essentially represent a dynamic force, which, if blocked in its expres- sion, reacts with explosive violence in the form of anti- social conduct, but which may be controlled and directed through more desirable channels with beneficial results. Instincts are more clearly exemplified in the lower animals than in human beings, since in the former reason does not appear as prominently as a factor in controlling conduct. But the effects of instincts in human behavior must not be underrated. They are a factor in conduct which always has its influence ; variable it is true, but none the less positive. They are common to the human race as a whole, are more complex than reflexes, and are usually accompanied by con- sciousness, though the latter is not necessary. They may THE BASIC INSTINCTS 95 be modified as to intensity by experience, volition and habit. Certain instincts are racial and lead to diversity of action. Some races are proverbially pugnacious, some are submis- sive, some are acquisitive, etc. Standards of expression of basic instincts may be different; thus ideas of harmony and reproductive art among the Mongolians are quite different, for example, from those of the Caucasians. Some instincts may be abnormally strong or abnormally weak in individuals, with the result of marked variations in behavior. Some men are by nature wholly unfitted for certain duties or environments and highly qualified for others. This is true both within the army and in civil in- dustry, yet it is a fact too often disregarded. What the individual likes and dislikes is largely determined by instinct based on peculiarities of cellular quality. Physiologically it is a fact that " what is one man's meat is another man's poison." The same applies to mental difference and capa- bility. There is truth in the adage that " poets are born, not made." In man, many of the instincts ripen later in life, when considerable power of mental control has been acquired. Hence the acts which they naturally tend to excite are modi- fied by experience, custom and the inhibitions of reason. But when the repressive influences of ordinary life are re- moved, these instincts may flare up as mob-spirit or war- spirit, apparently with primitive intensity. Repression does not abolish — it merely produces latency. The primal instincts form the basis of the more complex experiences and acts of life. According to the varying de- gree with which the individual is endowed with them, they furnish a modifying factor in the behavior resulting from environment. The control of instincts in the military group is in various ways simpler than in civil life, for the restric- tions as to enlistment tend to bar out many whose un- checked expression of one or more instincts has resulted in anti-social acts or criminalities which disqualify them for 96 MANAGEMENT OF MEN service. It is these individuals, remaining in civil life, who especially create the problems of the habitual delinquent. Instincts may be aroused not only by their natural and appropriate excitants, but by ideas of such excitants. This makes the release of the force which they represent a rela- tively ready and simple procedure. It is possible, accord- ingly, to more or less organize instinctive tendencies about certain objects or ideas and bring them into permanent serv- ice for a desired purpose. It also shows the necessity of avoiding or suppressing ideas which might arouse instincts tending to expression in undesirable acts. Every instinct embodies an impulse. These instinctive impulses determine the general ends of activities and supply the driving power which sustains them. Complex mental activities are the channels through which these impulses receive satisfaction, while pleasure and pain guide instinct in choice of the means. Accordingly, in any consideration of the control of act, the fundamental instincts cannot be disregarded. They can, however, be modified and directed, but no instinct can express itself except under conditions of environment more or less adapted to such expression. If they do not find such environment, they tend to be repressed and become latent. Hence the importance of creating con- ditions favorable to the stimulation of instincts promoting military purposes and unfavorable to the exercise of those instincts whose action would be undesirable. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the gratifica- tions of instincts are basic human interests, and that the blocking of all instincts, or many of them, would be intoler- able. Yet the needs of the military service require that some be repressed or minimized and others stimulated, ac- cording to the necessities of varying situations and objects desired. It is often not difficult to do this, for with proper understanding of instincts and their expression, it will be found that their control will fall largely under certain gen- THE BASIC INSTINCTS 97 eral principles capable of wide application and with such modification as the local situation may require. The instincts of primitive man rarely crossed those of others and so he could act much as he pleased. But in re- sponse to his " herd " instinct, the tendency was to draw closer to his fellows and to form larger and still larger alli- ances. With the increasing size of the group came corre- sponding limitation of action, for many of the things that he wished to do ran counter to the wishes and instincts of others in the community. The size of armies, and the military necessity of subordinating all interests to a common end, obviously implies the repression of instincts to a greater degree than under any other conditions. As progress toward the end of instinctive striving elicits satisfaction, so continued interference with it is painful to the individual and tends to be reflected in conduct. But an unwise administration of the military machine will often thwart certain instincts without necessity, thereby creating difficulties of mind and conduct that might just as well have been avoided. Further, the acts of the enemy directly and of necessity block certain instincts, and these difficulties may not be susceptible of remedy. But in such case the reaction may be against the causative agent and thus serve the mili- tary purpose. Therefore, the acts of the enemy, in propor- tion as they block natural instincts through being threaten- ing, brutal, treacherous, arrogant or otherwise intolerable, focus resentment and anger upon that enemy and call forth the acts through which these mental states find expression. The expression of a certain instinct in one individual or group tends to arouse the same instinct in another. A sym- pathetic state of mind arouses a desire for reciprocal under- standing, as soothing a child evokes an expression of its trou- bles. Pugnacity tends to arouse counter pugnacity. Acquisitiveness by one is met by desire to retain or increase property rights in another. " Whatsoever measure ye 98 MANAGEMENT OF MEN mete, that shall be measured to you again " related to qual- ity as well as quantity. The channel of an instinct is used both for afferent and efferent impulses. That is, external stimulation of an in- stinct produces the development of energy within the indi- vidual, which preferentially seeks release through some out- ward expression of the instinct stimulated. Thus if the reproductive instinct is stimulated by persons, books, pic- tures, sights or conversation, the natural tendency is to seek gratification of the instinct of reproduction. But if an instinct has been stimulated and its expression checked by ethical considerations or other means, the energy which has been developed may be drawn off by the suitable opening of other channels through the stimulation of compensating instincts. An example of this is where the play instinct is aroused, and free expression to energy given through sports as an offset to the tendency of the reproductive in- stinct to find expression. As a corollary to this, the importance of preventing or of minimizing the stimulation of undesirable tendencies is obvi- ous. Human nature is weak, and one of the pleas of the Lord's Prayer is " Lead us not into temptation." If the factors which tend to stimulate undesirable acts are kept at a distance sufficient to prevent their influence, the act does not occur. A too common fault in the handling of men is based on the idea that instincts and personalities can and often should be suppressed. The tendency is to produce conformance by compression. This teaching is not only unscientific but dan- gerous, for the unnecessary blocking of an instinct inevitably produces discontent and usually trouble. The better way is to recognize that instincts exist as laws of nature, that they have to be reckoned with, and to direct and utilize them so as to promote the purpose desired. In the military society, some instincts need to be repressed \or controlled. Among these are fear, self-assertion, the THE BASIC INSTINCTS 99 reproductive instinct and others. But when an instinct is to be repressed, its energy should not be blocked, but provided with some suitable avenue of expression. Prohibition fails of the complete results desired, and some substitute activity ttimdei* .Aea»li»tfctfWi«4» Figure 5. Diagrammatic Conception of the Human Reservoir of Power. should be found. Conversely, when certain instincts are to be stimulated, the energy released in this way will tend to relieve pressure in undesirable channels. In the better understanding of the control of instincts, the individual may be represented as a reservoir of energy generated within himself by appropriate stimulation. See Fig. 5. This surplus energy tends to seek release along the lines of the instinct which has been stimulated. If it can be dissipated through the channel of this instinct, pleasure ioo MANAGEMENT OF MEN results; if its release in this way is abruptly checked, the result is painful and reaction is expressed through conduct, which may be anti-social or destructive. On the other hand, the energy so aroused may be drained away through minor outlets of the main channel for expression of the basic in- stinct aroused, but in such a way as to do good rather than harm. A fair comparison is seen in the waters of the irriga- tion ditch, which, if dammed back will gather volume and power until they break through all obstructions and, as an uncontrolled flood, create wide devastation. In the same way, checking the flow in the main ditch may do no harm if sufficient outlets nearer the source are opened and the floods thus dissipated in the growing of crops before they reach the main obstruction, -s/ The same analogy applies if the energy aroused through one instinct is diverted through entirely different channels pertaining to other instincts. This is similar to tapping the reservoir at the head of the irrigation ditch, and lowering the water level and pressure by means of other ditches so that little, if any, water flows through the main ditch in excess of its proper capacity. See Figure 6. The point especially to be remembered is that energy is constantly being developed for the fulfilment of one instinct or another, and therefore must constantly be expended. If it is not directed through proper channels, its pressure will force it through harmful ones. Fortunately, it is largely possible to select the useful channels of other instincts through which this surplus energy should be diverted. The particular instinct or instincts which should be catered to and made to serve as a " by-pass " will vary with circum- stances. The play instinct usually affords a very convenient and satisfactory channel for the release of such surplus energy, and is commonly used for this purpose without full appreciation of the reasons behind it or the principles in- volved. In order to master his own instincts, the individual must THE BASIC INSTINCTS 101 Object of stimulation and reaction Fear and Flight, stimulated and blocked Release of energy through outlet of Pugnacity Figure 6. Diagrammatic Conception of Energy Stimulated Through a Blocked Channel Seeking Expression Through an Open Outlet. have a clearly defined ideal "supported by a sufficiently strong will. It is a logical duty of officers, therefore, to supply such ideals or to correct any deficiencies, and to reinforce any weak will by oversight, advice and moral support. If this is not accomplished, false concepts will induce wrong 102 MANAGEMENT OF MEN conduct, or a weak will will not enable recognized ideals to be attained. Efficient leadership consists of stimulating the desired instincts to the requisite degree; in preventing the stimula- tion, as far as possible, of those which are not desirable; or if the latter have been unavoidably stimulated, in diverting, through the channels of instincts useful to the purpose in hand, any excess of energy thus generated. Of great im- portance is doing this at the proper times and in the right ways. The handling of the instincts is like the handling of an organ of twenty-one notes, from which the selective master-touch evokes rich harmonies and from which the tyro brings forth discord. Hunger and Thirst. These instincts ar6 basic in that they relate to self-protection and the preservation of the species. They are excited only in certain body states, in which fluid and material for the upbuilding of the body cells are more or less lacking, and are probably aroused through the stimulation of sense organs within the body. Opposition to any restriction in the use of food and drink is thus instinctive with the individual. So also, inability to satisfy adequately the instincts of hunger and thirst is promptly reflected in anti-social conduct. Strong as other instincts are, hunger and thirst habitually over-ride them. Every other desire is subservient to their satisfaction, though on occasion, the parental instinct may rise above them. Both the hunger and thirst instincts* are powerful, but thirst produces the more immediate and violent reaction. Even the most timid animal when thirsty braves the hunter to reach the water hole, and the soldier will risk almost certain death to replenish an exhausted water supply. March discipline cannot be maintained in the absence of water. Orders and authority are brushed aside and mutiny may result when the instinct of thirst is blocked. Exhorta- tions arid force are useless as deterrents where an intense THE BASIC INSTINCTS 103 need for fluid exists within the system. There is instinctive recognition within the body that its mechanism will not function without water. One of the early symptoms of intense thirst is loss of will power toward other matters, and as the deficiency becomes greater, delusions, halluci- nations, mania, coma and other mental symptoms, develop. The power of reason dwindles until it disappears. The sensation of thirst may, however, precede the serious physical lack of fluid or in some individuals may be an ex- pression of habit. Here training in water discipline, par- ticularly with unseasoned troops, will be of value. When the actual deficiency of fluid is only slight, will power may control the outward expression of thirst. But where the deficiency of fluid is considerable, the instinct of thirst will supersede all other instincts, emotions and sentiments. Under such conditions, to prohibit men from drinking any water they can get is to invite disobedience of orders. Hunger is likewise a personal instinct, which, if left un- satisfied, will result in the submergence of other instincts. Starving game will come down from their fastnesses to pro- cure food in the vicinity of human habitations, and at such times may lose all shyness. Hungry troops will break all restraint to forage, and thence proceed by easy transition to loot, pillage, disorder and mutiny. Blocking the satisfac- tion of hunger produces the most intense anger and de- structive tendency toward the agency believed at fault. Under-fed peoples revolt against the governments be- lieved to be at fault. Bolshevism springs from deprivation and want, more especially that of food. With troops, hunger destroys discipline and morale and produces physical disintegration of a military force. Where there is chronic starvation, as in famine, a state of mental apathy results, for malnutrition saps strength of mind as well as of body. Troops, however, lose their cohesiveness and efficiency long before such apathetic state is reached, disintegrating in re- actions of indiscipline, disorder and violence. 104 MANAGEMENT OF MEN A sufficiency of suitable food is absolutely essential to morale. Under-fed or starving troops cannot and will not fight effectively. Every military plan must be subordinated to questions of food supply. The character and quality of the food he gets forms a large part of the thoughts of the average soldier, whose nutritional needs, due to age, de- velopment, and nature of duties, are practical problems of the greatest importance. Even temporary deprivation of food promptly and adversely affects the mental state, and with it, the power for action. Conversely, the value of a good meal in maintaining or restoring cheerfulness and courage to troops going into battle, as well as increasing their power of endurance, is proverbial. The eating of food has a power of restoring self-confidence that exceeds mere food value. Hunger may be supported over longer periods than thirst, merely because the fat and glycogen stored up in the body furnish a reserve food supply. To a certain extent, there- fore, the body may be called upon to subsist on itself. But habit and appetite clamor for satisfaction, and mental state exaggerates physical lack. If shortage of food continues, the men will inevitably get out of hand. Even temporary departure from normal food standards produces profound discontent. These standards include not only sufficiency of nutrition but time of meals and nature and palatability of foods. Much discontent and difficulty in a company can often be traced to a faulty kitchen. The old adage that " the way to a man's heart is through his stomach " is based on a primary instinct. The moral of this is that the first duty of a commander is to attend to the proper feeding of his men. It is not a duty to delegate to a subordinate as being something of a minor significance and more or less unmilitary in nature. On the contrary, the provision, planning, preparation and supply of food are duties of basic psychological and military importance. THE BASIC INSTINCTS 105 It may well be said thai when the instincts of hunger and thirst are readily satisfied the vast majority of mankind tends to be humane and benevolent. The altruism of America is based on its abundance and prosperity. But in time of want and famine, when the instinct of hunger is unsatisfied and malnutrition prevails, the emotion of selfishness, based on self-preservation, arises. At such times, discontent, envy and resentment have their fruitition in disorders, as man fights with man, like beast against beast, for the right to survive. Fear. Next to hunger and thirst, fear is the strongest and most compelling instinct. In primitive life, it controls largely the matter of self-preservation through its final expression in flight from any agent in the environment which cannot be confidently opposed in the expectation of success. When followed by flight, fear is often further expressed by the tendency to concealment. Terror represents the high- est degree of fear. Fear may induce almost any act. Realization of place and space are lost, and fugitives, acting under its compul- sion, may run toward the enemy. In a general way, how* ever, they tend to flee over the route by which they ad- vanced. Flight is usually accompanied by illusion and hal- lucinations; ideas of numbers and strength, time and space may be clouded or lost, and exaggeration is the rule. Fear is extremely infectious, whether in men or animals. Horses stampede and men run in panic. The appearance of one or more fugitives giving expression to terror by voice, motions or facial evidence may break the steadfastness of troops that their own casualties have not shattered. Imme- diate measures, of the strongest character if necessary, are required in such cases. Courage is not inborn in man, but rather the domination of will-power over the instinct of fear, The latter is the common standard from which varying degrees of courage represent departures. All persons feel fear in varying de- 106 MANAGEMENT OF MEN gree and at some time or another. The absolutely fearless person does not exist, but some, through stronger volition, are able to hold the expression of fear in more or less com- plete abeyance. Fear may be repressed and kept under control by disci- pline and mental training; when the mind is prepared and determined on a course of action, fear is absent. But an unforeseen circumstance may release it, to spread its influ- ence broadcast from its original source through an entire group by contagion. Men who have become habituated to risk of any kind are predisposed to take the larger risk of war. The big game hunter, explorer, miner, lumberman, cattleman or others of the more dangerous pursuits have learned to discipline themselves against fear in a way that serves well in war. Narrow escapes either confer a greater self-confidence or inspire timidity and caution. With young men, the former is more apt to be the case. Fear is a natural reaction against an unfit or unfriendly environment, and to a considerable extent an unknown en- vironment. After the conditions of the environment are actually experienced without harm, the liability to fear from that particular cause is greatly reduced. Contact produces callousness toward it. On the other hand, if any factor of an apparently satisfactory environment proves on experi- ence to be painful, the reaction of fear, perhaps modified into caution, tends to be developed in the presence of that factor. While fear is a common mental quality, susceptibility to it is a variable. In some races it is more highly developed than in others. Susceptibility to fear also varies between individuals, and in the same individual under different con- ditions, either physical or mental. Some men have an in- born dread of heights, others of water, while the opposite extreme is marked by men who find a real exhilaration in high places or in swimming in deep or rough waters. Fear tends to develop in those who recognize that their power of THE BASIC INSTINCTS 107 physical res : stance is materially impaired, as for example by an exhausted supply of ammunition during action. Practically all other mental activity is brought tempo- rarily to an end by fear, the attention being focused on the object of fear to the exclusion of all others, a deep and lasting impression being created on the mind. The impres- sion thus created may be stored away in the subconscious recesses of the brain and later recalled either in dreams or waking life. Shyness is closely allied to fear, and expresses imperfect adjustment to environment. The mental stress due to shyness may be considerable. This explains the ap- preciation often so obvious in the new recruit for kindly interest manifested by officers in his welfare. An army is weakened more by fear than by the enemy. It destroys the power of resistance more than could be ac- complished by any means of physical destruction. Knowl- edge of its origin, nature and of methods for its prevention and control are accordingly most important for commanders. Once developed in an individual or force, it destroys the military value of all previous training. Ability to remain Calm in crises often determines victory. New conditions of warfare, such as gassing, flame throw- ing, aerial bombing, or submarine torpedoing, operate to impair morale until strangeness has worn off and actual danger can be estimated. The long continued strain of trench fighting is particularly depressing to morale. All soldiers realize the increased personal hazards of war. To risk them is to oppose the natural instincts of self-preserva- tion and to create a condition of mental stress. With some, the inner conflict is far less than with others. With them, the will is disciplined, the baser emotion of cowardice is strongly repressed and the mind turned into other chan- nels. Others yield more readily — perhaps because of in- herited tendency, or of less development of the power of control. Fear enters as a factor in the making of many so-called " conscientious objectors," who hide timidity be- 108 MANAGEMENT OF MEN hind the pretext of religious idealism. Fear enters into dis- ease, not only developing or exaggerating symptoms, but retarding recovery. It is the subconscious basis of many cases of shell-shock. Fear is properly to be regarded as one of the most un- military tendencies, with vicious effects upon efficiency in war. Cowardice in the soldier is thus rightly considered as a most disgraceful attribute. Yet the use of the fear in- stinct, in certain restricted channels, with some individuals and at appropriate times, is a valuable agency in the man- agement of men. One of the qualities of good leadership is to know when and how to evoke and utilize it. Another useful quality of the fear insti»ct is its development in a restricted sense and along certain lines, in creating caution. In the soldier, this means an appreciation of useless risks, and their avoidance, without impairment of initiative and self-assertion. But the definite control of men and the direction of their actions through fear result in relative inefficiency. Even when passive opposition or sullenness is not aroused, men do not do their best work in an atmosphere of fear. Fea^ conduces to nervousness, mistakes and loss of initiative. The mind is cramped and the sense of judgment is impaired. There is no desire to venture on anything which has not received official approval in advance. On the other hand, this element in fear has a definite function and a proper use. Fear is the great inhibitor of action, both present and future, and in primitive societies is a powerful agent for social order, by means of which individuals are led to control their egotistic impulses. Ac- cordingly the fear instinct is at the basis of punishment. The lower the intellectual scale of the individual, the more the agency of fear must be utilized to control conduct. The young child, without experience and of undeveloped reason- ing powers, needs appropriate corrective punishment and control through fear. But those of higher intelligence and THE BASIC INSTINCTS 109 maturity require its stimulation for their control only in a relatively small degree, and are animated to desired stand- ards of conduct better through the stimulus of reward than fear of punishment. Fear is the only instinct the stimula- tion of which is essentially painful, while stimulation of the remaining score of instincts is pleasurable. It is clearly wise to avoid mental hardship where this is possible. In industry, fear of losing employment is a powerful factor in conduct, which unquestionably is too much relied upon by superiors to the minimization of other measures. Nevertheless, a few individuals require corrective meas- ures through force, fear and painful experience, to control other instincts and compel reflection before action. The wise commander will recognize these and govern them through fear instinct as individuals and not by repressive measures applied to the organization as a whole, many of whose units respond, far better to quite- different methods of handling. The fear of punishment, and not punishment itself, is quite sufficient to control most men. In this lies the value of inspections, made frequently, unexpectedly and at irregu- lar periods by commanders. Knowledge of their liability to occur and the fact that a fault may at any time be found out and perhaps result in penalty tends to keep it from being committed. Punishment need not be physical to be effective in many instances. The commander who is him- self admired and respected by his men will find rebuke, re- proach and disapproval among his most powerful agencies of coercion. The ancients recognized that mental endurance, equally with physical endurance, is the deciding factor of success or defeat. As their battles were short and soon decided they endeavored to strengthen their will power for the brief period necessary by making the soldier fear his commander more than the enemy. The Teuton war machine was chiefly ruled by fear and no MANAGEMENT OF MEN its discipline was largely the discipline of fear. This means inculcation of subserviency in individuals. The plan may work with submissive types of people, while organization is preserved; but if the latter is disrupted the fear attitude toward superiors is transferred toward the enemy, with tendency to acknowledge inferiority by act of surrender. Ccmduct founded only in the fear of punishment, the sense of accountability and on habits formed under this influence, is essentially servile conduct. With the average x^merican, accustomed to reasonable initiative and self-reliance, control through fear only will fail. Such attempts tend to block unduly the instinct of self-assertiveness and reaction is apt to occur with expres- sions of sullenness, resentment and acts of disorder. Fear may be excited by certain specific impressions trans- mitted through any of the special senses. For the soldier, these channels are practically limited to sight, hearing and painful sensation. Smell and taste function in a far lesser degree. The threatening attitude of others may arouse it, especially if accompanied by terrifying and gruesome sights of the results on others of such hostile attitude, as on the battlefield. Loud noises, especially if of a strange or compelling nature, seem especially an agent which evokes fear. Ani- mals are startled into panic and flight by strange sounds. Thunder and lightning create fear not only in children but in many adults. The enemy, attacking, is the more dread- ful from the noise he makes, which explains the reason for the shouts and battle cries that are part of bayonet training. An artillery bombardment often has more value through its destruction of morale than of men. Through painful sensations resulting from experience, fear is aroused by apprehension lest they may be repeated. Thus through injuries received the soldier may learn to fear, or in a smaller proportion of cases to be angered by, the THE BASIC INSTINCTS in presence of individuals or things to which he was at first indifferent. But fear may also be excited by a variety of objects or sense-impressions prior to all experience of hurt or danger. Here it is based on imagination of the possibility of harm, and as there is no limit to imagination, it follows that fear of the strange and unknown is often greater than fear based on fact. This is a relic of the time when prehistoric man, almost defenseless, was surrounded by a multitude of dan- gers liable to develop from anything not fully recognized as harmless in character. Whatever is totally strange or untried tends to arouse it. This apprehension of the un- known in the soldier can be largely or wholly prevented or removed by timely information, explanation and advice as to environment and procedure. The supernatural also arouses fear. The mental state produced in the superstitious and ignorant is liable to ex- press itself in acts of unreasoning terror. The idea of their being supermen, which the Germans promoted to increase their own self-confidence, was also calculated to produce fear, despair and submission in their opponents. Darkness tends to cause fear. This probably descends from the danger of attacks on our prehistoric ancestors by nocturnal animals. It lies at the basis of the greater effi- ciency of night attacks, especially when combined with the element of surprise. It explains the nervousness of sentries at night, and the need of special oversight by officers to counteract it. Fear may be due to blocking the instinct of self-expression through withholding the opportunity for retaliation. This explains the shaken morale of troops held in reserve and receiving fire to which they cannot reply. The soldier's fear may leave him when he is ordered to advance, when he opens fire, or comes into hand to hand combat with the enemy. ii2 MANAGEMENT OF MEN There is a fear of being afraid. This is much more com- mon than actual cowardice. Here there is apprehension that will-power will not suffice to live up to an ideal. The moral fear of shame may be greater than the physical fear of harm. Few men act cowardly when the actual test comes, though many may experience apprehension at the vague but tremendous mental pictures of possible danger conjured up by imagination. Soldiers should be made to realize this fact and given confidence in themselves. There is a true fear of blood, or the shedding of blood, in a few individuals. This is seen in its highest form in cattle, which may be thrown into a state of mingled fear and pugnacity on smelling the blood of one of their own kind. Frequently the fear of blood is an apprehension which may not be realized by the soldier in battle, when he is under the influence of more powerful emotions evoked through other instincts and ideals. A few persons have a fear of closed spaces, and to these trench warfare is far more trying than open warfare. Others dread the crossing of open spaces. Some persons have an inherent dislike of crowds and others cannot bear solitude. Still others inherit fear of some particular animal or object. This form of fear is perhaps of prenatal origin and founded on some experience of fright or aversion on the part of the mother during motherhood. Most of these spe- cific fears may be overcome by will-power and habituation to the environment. On the other hand, hereditary tendencies to fear may be so strong as to persist despite efforts to re- move them, and render the individual unfit for service. Fear is accompanied in the individual by a characteristic group of symptoms. Its involuntary physical manifesta- tions are rapid heart action, rapid and irregular respiration, goose flesh, dryness of the mouth, dilated nostrils, staring eyes, perspiration and muscular tremors and involuntary contractions of the bowels and bladder. The face of fear is characteristic and speech is incoherent. The intellectual THE BASIC INSTINCTS 113 faculties are impaired or in abeyance and there is inco- ordination of muscles, which manifests itself in inability to carry out movements which are so habitual as to be almost automatic. Trembling makes it impossible to hold the rifle on the target. Fear also dilates the pupil of the eye and interferes with its accommodation so that objects are not clearly seen, distances cannot be accurately estimated and rifle sights are blurred. The distinctive effect of fear on ability to fight, as well as on willingness to make the attempt, is thus obvious. Panic is the expression of a fear which has taken posses- sion of the individual or group and cannot be controlled by reason. It is based on the idea of self-preservation, driving away all other ideas and emotions and causing the individual to " lose his head." Panic is caused by direct and indirect factors. The latter are predisposing causes like fatigue, mental depression, doubt and uncertainty, which make the individual and group receptive to emotion and suggestion. The direct factors are those which excite panic in persons already more or less susceptible. These factors are events, usually unforeseen, unexpected and suddenly and violently changing the current of thought. The military value of surprise has long been recognized, as not only preventing initiative in the attacked but being destructive of clear judgment. Panic is further due to the operation of certain psycho- logical processes — illusion, hallucination, suggestion and contagion. Illusions are due to the fact that the mind per- ceives the wrong object, because although on this occasion it is not the real cause, it is still the usual or most probable cause, or the mind is temporarily full of the thought of that object, and this is especially liable to suggest itself. An example of the deliberate creation of an illusion is seen in camouflage. Hallucinations are mental images with no out- side objective stimulus, but causing as true a sensation as if a real object were there. ii 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The victims of illusion or hallucinations are the first to start panic. The mental state inspired by them produces an appearance and acts, which, seen by others, convey a similar state to them by suggestion. Credulity is increased, and the most improbable tales are readily believed. The factor of contagion then enters to spread the suggestion from every focus. The sentiments of fear, self-preserva- tion, ferocity and violence are thus rapidly aroused through- out the mass, replacing all others. The organization is de- moralized into a mob, unreasoning and without purpose other than the seeking of safety. The individual mind is submerged by the crowd mind. Brave men thus succumb to collective fear, and accept the position of helpless vic- tims without thought of defense. One of the most important functions of training is to overcome the instinct of fear and bring it under control. The primary problem which faces every officer is how to secure control of fear, both in himself and in his subordi- nates, else the individual is of no use as a combatant soldier. Fear may be brought under control in many ways. Some of the measures are direct, as when the fear of the enemy becomes less than the fear of punishment by higher author- ity, or the fear of contempt of comrades if there be yielding to cowardice. They may be indirect, as where the thoughts may be tunned into another channel and not allowed to re- main focused on the peril. Any diversion which involves personal activity is especially useful in relieving the mental tension and averting fear, particularly in awaiting the mo- ment of attack or lying in reserve under fire. Physical activity under such conditions may not be possible, yet usually the attention can be secured under some pretext which will keep the mind off the supreme task to come. The very order to advance into the dangers which have been apprehended will often come as a relief. Example by superiors or comrades is a powerful agent in the dissipation of fear. All men are imitative. When the THE BASIC INSTINCTS n 5 act is performed by one who is respected and admired, its influence for imitation is greater. Here is where the officer must set the standard. Unconsciously the men watch him and take their cue from his attitude. So, too, the stories of brave deeds are valuable in building up a foundation of courage through emulation. Decorations tell the same story, for they are the outward evidence of achievement and glory. Fatalism is a factor in the control of fear. Many old soldiers have it. They have seen their comrades fall while they passed scatheless. Ultimately there may come a time when a fatalistic idea is engendered, If the bullet which is to kill them has not been cast, no harm can come to them. If it has been cast, they cannot escape it. Such ideas give relief from fear, for under them an immutable fate, and not relative danger, governs destiny. A few find relief from fear in religious solace. This is high, for example, among the Mohammedans, who feel more than repaid for the dangers of battle by the promised delights of " Paradise " if they fall. Others are of the stuff of martyrs, and lose their fear in the willingness to die for country and ideal. In preventing fear, the conditions which might be as- sumed to be capable of arousing it are avoided, neutralized or explained as far as possible as soon as recognized. The problem is to tide the soldier over his mental distress and later to relieve him of his discomfort. Among groups, fear has its evidences in agitation or irresolution, and those who are weakening under the strain should be given support. Here advice, occupation, encouragement, moral support, touch, example, or anything which will turn thought into a better channel is useful. A stern command may turn yield-^ ing into strength. Physical ills and hardships, since they predispose to fear, should be avoided as much as possible when troops are due to undergo- mental strain. There is nothing like a rest and a good meal to restore confidence. n6 MANAGEMENT OF MEN In the control of fear, action affords an outlet for the repressed energy. If possible the men should be given something to do, and especially a minor task of an accus- tomed nature, the required movements of which have, be- come more or less mechanical as a result of habit. Another way is to charge the individual with responsi- bility, especially that which has to do with the welfare of others and in which fear, as a self-conscious element, is lost in altruism. It is important to have the soldier ap- proached in a reasoning way and made to realize that the situation is as bad for the adversary as for him. Further, idealism can surmount fear by sinking the individual interest in the promotion of the ideal. The recognized interest of the officer in the welfare of his men will do much toward allaying apprehension among them. The soldier feels that with his officer- safeguarding his welfare, his personal concern is more or less unnecessary. Superior intelligence and ability to reason often prevents or removes fear by showing the relatively harmless qualities of apparently fearsome things, or of developing ways for successfully opposing those with power for harm. Fear is always anticipatory — not of what has been done hut what may be done. Information will, in such cases, avert fear by clearing up misapprehension and preventing exaggeration. If the unknown is explained, it is robbed of most of its vague terrors. If a danger be forecasted, it is not only minimized, but deprived of the element of surprise as a factor in the unleashing of fear. Thus school children, trained in fire drill, do not have fear when the alarm is sounded and there is no panic if the fire is real. The ele- ment of the unexpected has been eliminated, the difficulties shown, and the methods of overcoming them explained and demonstrated. The outward expressions, of fear should be looked for in action. The able company officer will know the sol- dier's ordinary manner of conduct, will have already esti- THE BASIC INSTINCTS 117 mated the probable degree of fortitude possessed by the individuals of his command, and will recognize the weaker links which are apt to show the first signs of yielding. General measures to stiffen the will-power of the latter should be taken in advance, depending on the personality of the individuals. Proximity of superiors will strengthen them. A non-commissioned officer may be stationed near by, or a man of doubtful fortitude may be made the cap- tain's orderly. Systematic encouragement and explanation should usually be practiced. A clap on the back of the hesitant soldier by his officer, with a word of encourage- ment, a joke, or some passing remark relating to something entirely different from the object of attention will serve the desired purpose. Close individual contact of this sort will succeed where general methods to divert attention will fail. The best agencies for the prevention of fear are the ideals inspired and the mental processes established as a result of training. If these are strong enough, and are supported by the determination of volition, fear does not occur. Repulsion. The instinct of repulsion, like fear, is one of aversion. It is manifested when any object which produces painful sensation, and which it is believed can be mastered, is introduced into the environment. Repulsion thus differs from fear in that, while the latter induces flight, repulsion prompts removal of the offending agent. The reaction of repulsion, for example, is aroused against such agents as pestiferous insects, snakes, and dangerous, filthy or loath- some objects generally. Fear and disgust are apt to be closely allied. Accordingly, the repulsive instinct may be said to express reaction against anything which is disliked or dreaded. There is a desire to prevent contact. The man strikes at the snake ; the horse kicks at the dog barking at his heels. Fear, repulsion and pain probably account for all aversions. But the repulsive instinct is not manifested alone against physical objects. Through the higher intellect it extends to n8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN offensive mental traits and peculiarities of character. This accounts for the aversion felt toward certain individuals purely on the basis of their irritating personality and the desire and effort to keep them at such a distance that they cannot affect one's individual environment. It accounts also for the effort made to reject and remove ideals and ethical standards which clash with our own. In general terms, repulsion expresses the tendency of the individual or group to correct fault in environment which is remediable by his or their own effort. As with fear, some relief is found in repulsion through corrective effort, even if it be incomplete. Hope of diminishing the painful state through the action permitted tends to relieve mental stress. There is much satisfaction of this instinct in the knowledge that at least the best possible under the conditions is being done. Repulsion is thus an instinct of very great practical im- portance, for it has to do with the correction of faulty en- vironment from which undesirable acts may flow. It has to do more with minor than with major difficulties of adjust- ment; but the '-pin-pricks" seem to have a psychological influence often greater than any physical effect, while the sum-total of the iritation and discomfort they produce may be very great. The relief of any of them subtracts by so much from the total amount of annoyance. It should not be forgotten that, especially for the recruit, the military environment tends to include many points with which con- tact is painful to the individual and which, if left to himself, he would remove. Further, many such points are remov- able without detriment to military purpose, often yielding easily to a little intelligent effort. If the instinct of repulsion is blocked, irritation and re- action tend to result in proportion to the intensity of the repulsion desire. Any factor of maladjustment in the en- vironment, from which escape is not possible, produces an- noyance until removed. Restrictions which interfere with THE BASIC INSTINCTS 119 the voluntary tendency toward such removal are resented. This applies, for example, to the physical and mental strain involved in keeping a persistent fly at a distance; to the irritation at being forced into constant and close association with uncongenial individuals in barracks, and in a broad way, to painful contacts with various points of the compul- sory environment necessary in the military service. In all these the desire of the individual to take steps to relieve himself of irritation may be largely blocked. Restrictions which are artificial and the need for which is not understood, in so far as they interfere with the personal correction of the environment, are particularly resented. However, this feeling may be greatly diminished by explaining their neces- sity when they exist. The moral of this is that the necessary military restric- tions involving checking of the individual soldier in his ef- forts toward self-comfort imply the corresponding responsi- bility of superiors to safeguard in every way the interests of their subordinates. If the latter are to be deprived of powers of initiative and of free agents, then these powers must be fully assumed and exercised in their behalf by their superiors. If this is not done, discontent, perhaps crystal- lizing into definite resentment against certain superiors, is bound to result. Acts of disorder or even mutinous conduct may arise. If a painful environment be uncorrected through the exercise of repulsion, relief may be sought in separation from the environment through desertion. The soldier acquiesces to a state of relative personal helplessness only if the powers which he would naturally desire to exer- cise are adequately exerted by others in his behalf. The foregoing remarks apply with equal truth to industry, where failure to correct fault and blocking of the exercise of the instinct of repulsion by the worker is a powerful factor in the causation of labor turnover and discontent. Conversely, where the superior looks out for the welfare of his men in every way and sees that every irritating object 120 MANAGEMENT OF MEN is removed as well as possible, their appreciative reliance on him engenders a loyalty and support which is at the basis of discipline and esprit de corps. Information here is also of value, so that subordinates may know that even if results are not wholly satisfactory they are at least as good as earnest and intelligent effort by superiors can provide. Human nature tends to accept the inevitable with resigna- tion, provided only that it is known to be inevitable. Pugnacity. The instinct of pugnacity, with its corre- sponding expression through anger, is not nearly as uni- versally and intensively implanted as fear. However, it ranks with fear in the great strength of its impulse and the high intensity of the emotion it generates. Pugnacity is peculiar in that no specific object arouses it, but rather opposition to the free exercise of any impulse aroused by any of the other instincts. Pugnacity, therefore, presupposes other instincts and de- velops intensive reaction against opposition as their pur- poses are blocked. Any effort toward checking satisfac- tion arouses pugnacity; it does not exist where there is com- plete satisfaction. Also if the desire for the object wanes, the feeling of hostility correspondingly diminishes. Even fear may induce its opposite, pugnacity, when there is no escape; as for example, the " cornered rat " turns and fights desperately, or the command with its retreat cut off renews action in the hope of breaking through. Women natur- ally have less pugnacity than males, but danger to her child, through blocking the maternal instinct, will change the timid mother to an Amazon fighting without sense of fear. This also applies to the lower animals, which in defense of their young will fight desperately to the death, refusing escape from hopeless odds. Pugnacity is exhibited in appearance as well as acts by men and animals. The expression of anger in man is char- acteristic — the scowling brow and raised upper lip. Man also shares with animals the tendency to express anger, and THE BASIC INSTINCTS 121 at the same time frighten an opponent, by characteristic cries as well as by threatening appearance. These qualities are developed in bayonet drill, where effort is also made to have the soldier think and look the part he acts and terrify his opponent into submission. The fighting instinct represents an inherited tendency to seek physical combat with those who threaten welfare, in- vade rights and destroy or appropriate property. It thus expresses the purpose of self-preservation and the perpetua- tion of the species against aggression. It is a check against undue self-assertion in others and an essential in the struggle to survive. It is often aroused in behalf of the weak or helpless and without idea of personal advantage. Fighting is preceded by the feeling of resentment, and if this feeling cannot be adequately expressed, it rises to anger or rage, culminating in physical combat. Championing the weak is sublimated into chivalry and freed from all sordid motive. The same applies to the defense of ideals, which are more desperately defended than even property or life itself. The nobler the ideal the more it is cherished and attack against it is resented. But property acquisitions, such as those per- taining to family, home, money, and things, are jealously guarded, and aggression against them arouses reaction in pugnacity. Its simplest form is seen in the family dog, which snaps at its friends on attempt to take away its bone. Certain physical states relate to pugnacity in the lower animals : the stag in the mating season may attack persons toward whom it had been well-disposed, or dash its horns against inanimate objects. Similarly clashes over women tend to occur, especially where soldiers and civilians are to- gether, or soldiers of different nationalities are garrisoned together. Race has a strong influence on the intensity of the pug- nacious instinct. It is highly developed in the Celt, for example ; little developed in some Asiatics. In volatile peo- ples it bursts quickly into flame and as quickly subsides; in 122 MANAGEMENT OF MEN those of less emotional qualities a succession of stimuli is necessary, but these ultimately create the implacable fury of the Berserk. This should be considered in averting difficulties and disorders on the one hand, and in arousing combativeness in a proper cause on the other. Pugnacity, too, is a quality which finds its expression early in life and dwindles with advancing age. " Young men for action, old men for counsel." In the soldier class it reaches its maximum degree as an incentive for combat, together with the highest physical ability of accomplishment. It is especially an attribute of males. In childhood it is the boys — not girls — who readily fall into disputes only to be settled summarily by violence. Games and contests which have a vicarious element of pugnacity are the games of boys and men. So, too, in war; the "Amazons" and " Death Battalions " of all history are so few as to be recordejd as notable. Yet women, even if they are not prone to exercise this instinct themselves, may arouse it among their males. They are emotional, and once swayed by a conviction they call on the other sex to do what their own will not or cannot do for itself. The Spartan mother who told her son to " return with his shield or on it " was merely one of the multitude of women who adjure their defenders to prefer death to dishonor. To arouse the women to the will to win is to furnish the greatest incentive to pugnacity in troops. How far feminine influence should be used, and in what direction, is a factor which the wise commander will effectively determine. As this source of inspiration of troops exists only in civil life, measures ap- plicable to its control must extend beyond the confines of the military establishment. Pugnacity is also expressed in that class of individuals who seem always " spoiling for a fight." In such it may be expression of excess vitality, which can be given outlet in other ways when pugnacity is not desirable. The com- bative individual is usually a leader through sheer force of THE BASIC INSTINCTS 123 personality. Actual authority conferred on such an in- dividual usually changes a quarrelsome, contentious attitude into one of upholding the official standards. Gang spirit can be far more successfully coped with by directing the potential influence of the leader in the right channels than by adopting drastic measures. If one leader is removed another will spring up. A high degree of pugnacity in an individual, manifested toward persons offending against accepted ideas of ethics is a mental quality usually admired. But if such pugnacity is exercised against persons generally, the individual is re- garded as quarrelsome and his attitude resented. To ex- ercise pugnacity against a weaker object, especially without full reason, is regarded as bullying and seldom fails to arouse resentment and to produce a champion for the person incapable of defense, through the instinct of sympathy thus aroused. It therefore follows that pugnacity, to be a vir- tue, must be exercised within certain limits recognized as fitting for time, place and object. Pugnacity by personal violence in civil life is repressed as being an anti-social quality. Civilization and its laws assume the protection of the individual and his property, and not only relieve him of the necessity but, except within certain limits, deny him the right to exercise it. Assault is an offense against law and order, and even the victim of it must prove right of resistance in self-defense. Duelling is outlawed and a felony among most civilized peoples. While savage peoples may feature pugnacity as a desirable attribute, even among them it may be exercised only within certain recognized limits and must be directed against some common enemy of the family or clan. The armies of civilization, therefore, start in with a handicap in fighting qualities which needs to be deliberately and syste- matically overcome. War thus affords almost the only out- let for pugnacity. ; Not only are the artificial repressions of the instinct due to civilization removed in so far as the spe- i2 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN cific objects against which the pugnacity is to be directed are concerned but everything is done which will stimulate com- bativeness against the resisting enemy. Psychologically, training along certain lines tends in the average man to compensatory expression in others. The soldier whose pugnacity is developed against enemy resist- ance, tends to lose it once that resistance is abated by sur- render or armistice and to exercise greater tenderness to- ward friends and the helpless. " The bravest are the ten- derest." There must be opposition for pugnacity to be aroused or maintained. Acquiescence or servility does not arouse pugnacity, though it may engender contempt. Ac- cordingly, the harmful acts and hostile purposes of the enemy should be given publicity in order that pugnacity may develop from the opposition. War aims are necessary stimuli to the defense of national rights. International law represents an effort to control national pugnacity. How far this artificial agency has succeeded in repressing a primary instinct recent events testify. How far any international combination will do it without invok- ing a constant impelling influence of fear through the use of force, and creating the condition it was proposed to avoid, each may decide for himself. Innate tendencies are not trifles which can be set aside for any ideal, no matter how alluring and right in theory. Human nature is changed not by a dictum but by a slow evolution working through environment. Pugnacity will doubtless cease to operate as a factor of human conduct only when each mem- ber of society possesses all he wants at all times. Until that time comes this instinct cannot be disregarded. Recent events show no reason to believe that the fighting instinct has weakened or died out. Civilization has merely rendered it latent and altered its modes of expression be- tween individuals. As expressed by collective combat be- tween nations and various forms of competition, the instinct remains and the right to gratify it is conceded. THE BASIC INSTINCTS 125 In time of war, the repressed instinct of pugnacity needs stimulation and development. It can be directly promoted by athletics and mass games. Minor oppositions must be created and increased in difficulty so that the men may gain mental strength and confidence by overcoming them; every success makes the accomplishment of the next task easier. Pugnacity must be aroused to make bayonet training effec- tive, where a mental state of regarding the dummy as an adversary is quite as important as the technique of the thrust and parry. More important still is the giving of ideals to the soldier for which he will desire to fight — of rights to protect and wrongs to redress. There must be an object and the object must appear sufficiently worthy to the individual who entertains it, however it may be re- garded by others. For this reason, even the Germans were made to believe that their war was one of defense. Their leaders knew that many might have little incentive to fight a war of obvious and unnecessary aggression, but all could be roused to fight by the idea of self-protection and defense of possessions. In battle, pugnacity comes out in its highest form when the instinct of self-preservation is required to make choice of " kill or be killed." Here this latent quality is developed to. the fullest, and once aroused it may pass all bounds of control. Troops may pursue the enemy beyond the ob- jective, and slay when capture might be an alternative. It is important, therefore, that officers should know how to keep the quality of pugnacity under control, lest the im- petuosity of their men cause them to interfere with a general plan in which they are but minor units, or to fall under their own barrage. Pugnacity is an instinct which relatively soon exhausts itself and requires opportunity for renewal by rest between activities. Men long exposed to the enemy suffer deprecia- tion of will to fight — that is, ability to fight. The recog- nition of this fact is seen in the necessity for the periodic 126 MANAGEMENT OF MEN sending of troops to rest areas — ostensibly to refit physic- ally in supplies and recruit in numbers, but quite as much to allow the depleted mental quality of pugnacity to recover its force by rest and change of physical and psychological environment. Here the fighting instinct needs to be rein- forced by the will and by sentiments which set standards for further conduct. Ideas must constantly be supplied as the effect of the old ones wanes, or the latter must be pre- sented in new form in order to arouse or hold interest. At rest areas, psychological stimulation of this sort is often more important than minutiae in physical training and the use of arms. The hardships and hazards of war tend to make the soldier seek compensation in thoughts of peace which undermine determination to be victorious. Not a few soldiers are so constituted as to react against danger by bravery and increased effort. Some have recourse to strength in religious conviction. Others seem to entertain the idea that, while many may fall, no bullet can stop them. In time of peace the innate love of combat finds outlet in cock-fights, boxing matches, etc. Competition in sports, especially in rough games, such as football, gives expression to the fighting spirit which is inherent in all males. Prepar- ation for war implies the cultivation of the instinct of pugnacity, and hence in military training all games should be promoted which especially imply physical contest. Like any other mental or physical quality the development of pugnacity results from cultivation and use. In certain of the lower animals, such as game-cocks and pit bull-terriers, the combative instinct is methodically developed by careful mental training which is as much a part of the preparatory course as the securing of physical fitness. The same is even more necessary with troops, especially under the draft where men are taken in whom combativeness is latent or poorly developed. Most soldiers can be made to acquire it in satisfactory degree. Recruits should be watched in this respect. The integrity of the fighting line is too im- THE BASIC INSTINCTS 127 portant to be jeopardized by any weak units whose fault in this respect is due to mental make-up or temperament, per- haps as much beyond the control of the individual as time and patience have shown it to be beyond sufficient modifica- tion by his officer. Those who do not develop pugnacity in sufficient degree on account of inherent defect should be transferred to some branch of the service in which this quality is not essential. This should be done before the soldier loses respect for himself, not only as a combatant but as a man. Not every individual has the innate qualities necessary to a high grade fighting animal. Anger and hatred are great stimulants to pugnacity and endeavor. Under their influence many things can be done foreign to usual character. But anger and hatred to be most potent need to be personal. Modern war prevents this and it is not easy to keep an impersonal anger at high pressure, since there is no individual to serve as an excitant. Under such conditions, indifference develops. Steps should always be taken to prevent fraternizing, since the enemy may take advantage of it, as the Germans did on the Rus- sian front and against the Italians at Caporetto, to under- mine the fighting spirit of their opponents and pave the way for their own success. It is as important to success for troops to depress pugnacity among their opponents as to promote it among themselves. Physical exhaustion also drains away pugnacity. This explains the great advantage of bringing troops into action fresh, even though it may be for the defense in which no great physical exertion is required. The desire to fight necessarily implies some ability to do so. The converse, however, is not true, for physical strength and cowardice may co-exist There is profound advantage to morale in fighting fair, and in clean, sportsmanlike methods. Underhand methods such as the enemy used may secure a little temporary, material advantage, but they arouse a contempt for such 128 MANAGEMENT OF MEN violations of honor as steeled the Allies to a determination to stop such methods forever. Atrocity merely imposed an added obligation to deal with the agent, not only according to his deserts, but that no one afterward should repeat such things. The pugnacious instinct, though in itself essentially de- structive, is nevertheless also a constructive force. The great steps of human liberty and realization of ideals have been secured only through the compulsion of warfare. Pug- nacity, expressed through armies, operates more than any other instinct in producing collective behavior on a large scale. As combat passed from the phase of the individual to the group, the various qualities necessary to cooperation were developed, while the necessities of a life and death struggle stimulated inventions which were to find later util- ity in peace. Pugnacity may also be a source of increased energy of action toward the. end set by other instincts in overcoming difficulties. They are attacked in a combative sense as if they were personalities rather than things and other impulses are thus reinforced. Self-Assertion. Self-assertion is a true instinct, apparent in children at an early age and particularly well demon- strated in the lower animals. It is closely akin to pug- nacity. The child of forceful character tries to attract at- tention, " shows off," and domineers over its nursery play- mates, strange dogs bristle as they approach each other, and the game-cock crows defiance and seeks out the chal- lenger. Self-assertiveness in human beings is merely a desire to be found a worthy person among men. This wish to hold one's own with one's associates is a strong motive which should be fully utilized. Life for the individual centers about himself. He judges the whole world as good or ill according to the way he considers it has treated him and the consideration it has given his merits. The outstanding * THE BASIC INSTINCTS 129 moments of life are those which bring him, in one way or another, an increased sense of ability and accomplishment. Assertiveness lies at the basis of the cardinal military vir- tues of self-respect and agressiveness. Military success de- pends not so much on ability to suffer casualities as on main- taining the will to win. The enemy is not conquered by a defensive. Self-assertion varies with race and individual. The Anglo-Saxon race, as compared with some others, is bold, confident and dominating. The selfTassertive indi- vidual, if properly endowed with other essential qualities, has the forceful and basic character vital to leadership. He is above the petty doubts and apprehensions that make most human beings mediocre. In all, it plays an important part in the volitional control of military conduct. Self-assertion is much more of a masculine than a feminine quality. Men are more aggressive, and within certain limits this is regarded as a necessary masculine attribute. For mili- tary purposes, its development is necessary in those in whom it is deficient. On the other hand, it exists naturally in high degree in children and youths regarded as " self-willed," and here it needs curbing or directing lest it result in extremes of individual conduct not compatible with the standards of complex society. Self-assertion tends to increase with age and develops rapidly in the male at the time of pubescence, coincident with the appearance and development of the reproductive instinct. In older persons it is expressed in dogmatism. In extreme degree it is one of the manifestations of certain types of in- sanity, as the general paralysis of the insane. It is a qual- ity only brought into action in the presence of spectators, especially those who are regarded as inferior in one way or another and whom it is desired to impress. In fact, most persons, on noticing that they are objects of attention, tend to do something more rapidly, energetically and with dis- play of activity. It puts them " on their mettle." Ac- 130 MANAGEMENT OF MEN cordingly, contact with rival military organizations and with civilians, and such ceremonials as parades and reviews tend to arouse it. The self-assertive instinct leads to self-consciousness, dis- play, domineering and other acts which tend to excite the instinct of self-abasement and submission in other and weaker personalities. It may develop the extremes charac- terized by pride, vanity and arrogance, but if the expres- sion is futile in such cases and the self-valuation of the in- dividual is not accepted, the emotions of shame and humiliar tion may supervene. Some persons exhibit this instinct in over-tendency to display, as expressed by swaggering and boasting. Such proclivities were deliberately developed in the German army and civilian population, who went so far in offensiveness in thrusting their ideas and personalities on others as to arouse intense antagonism when they failed to produce acquiescence and submission. It was at the basis of their contempt for others, arrogance and the self-conceit contributing to the mental state known as " Prussianism." Here what in lesser degree was a virtue was exalted and ex- aggerated until it became a fault. In this form of self-assertion attention for one's self is craved. To be ignored is resented, unless it be accepted as a part of menial estate. Usually this feeling results in more or less effort to secure the attention that the instinct requires for its satisfaction. The butler, for example, does not yield to this tendency, for he is paid to cultivate the quality of self-submission, and the energy developed by blocking self-assertion expends itself along the channel of acquisitiveness. The wealthy leisure class, with its con- spicuously useless waste, is an evidence of craving for public attention and approval. Its prodigality would lose its savor if it were not advertised. Where a high belief in self exists, pride tends to result and self-consciousness is extreme. Pride is nourished by the admiration and gratitude of others but is indifferent, to THE BASIC INSTINCTS 131 moral approval or blame. It may be illogical in that it may be based on ignorance and blindness, rather than on real worth. The demonstration of the superiority of others only arouses anger, but pride yields to scorn and ridicule and turns to shame and pessimism. Pride is a powerful factor in the direction of act as long as such acts meet with success, but it has little to do with the morale of adversity, being quite different from self-respect in this matter. In its higher stages, pride is an expression of egotism that cannot tolerate contradiction. In this way it is the ani- mating spirit of the bully. Self-sufficiency and self-assertive- ness which, in really efficient individuals, make for great accomplishment, often appear in those of less qualifications as an expression of over-compensation for grave defects of character. There is a blind faith in self which disregards facts. Such persons express opinions about everything with a concrete finality, obtrude themselves on all occasions, and believe themselves capable of any- thing, no matter how difficult. For this reason, it may cause the attempt of the almost impossible and thereby, at times, bring success. On the other hand, it causes the un- derrating of the abilities of an opponent and thereby more often leads to failure. The contempt of the Germans for the ability of the Russians to mobilize quickly caused dis- aster in East Prussia and a change in plans and results on the western front. Accentuated too far, pride may turn the soldier into a braggart and arrogant swashbuckler with a sense of over- importance and special privilege — as the results of the Prussian military training gave example. Carried to the extreme found in the borderland of insanity, neither the sentiments of shame, humiliation, admiration, 1 gratitude nor reverence are possible. Self-respect differs from pride in that it includes an ele- ment of self^negation as well as self-assertion. Accord- ingly it is a quality that enables the individual to make an 132 MANAGEMENT OF MEN accurate estimate of his own qualities and to profit by ex- ample and precept, by advice and exhortation and by moral approval and disapproval. It admits a capacity to do wrong since it accepts the obligation of social standards. It opens the way for the subtle influencing of conduct through public opinion. While striving for the ideal of perfection, it does not claim to have achieved it. It is not shaken by adversity that would destroy pride. It is satisfied by fame, where pride is gratified by notoriety. Self-respect should be adroitly appealed to and carefully stimulated in the men by their officers. Action should be avoided which will result in detracting from the self-respect of troops. A strong sense of self-respect in the individuals of a command is a powerful factor in good conduct, efficiency and in the regard they bear for their officers. Such quality of pride as properly enters into the com- position of self-respect is of great morale value. This should pertain to the military forces as a whole, to the regi- ment, battalion and company, and finally to the individual. Such organizations and units may fight to the death because of belief in self. Such belief can be stimulated and ex- pressed by friendly competition in drill and military require- ments. It should be behind athletics, and extend to neat- ness, smartness, loyalty and responsibility. It should be re- flected in surroundings and in the treatment of public prop- erty. In the management of men, self-assertion and reputation are powerful agents in the hands of the wise superior who knows how to turn them to account. Every normal man has not only an earnest desire to succeed, but a deep in- terest in winning success. One measure of success is repu- tation. For this reason, commendation should be as public as occasion warrants. A certain amount of expression of self-assertiveness is necessary to satisfaction in the normal man — otherwise he chafes under restraint and la.ck.4tf opportunity, is moved THE BASIC INSTINCTS 133 to bitter complaint and often opposition and seeks expres- sion of his individuality through such outlets as may remain open to him. These expressions tend to excesses, because the pent up energy of individualism, instead of being dis- sipated along the general line of endeavor, is forced to ex- pend itself through a few channels. A reaction normally to be expected against a so-called iron discipline is thus ex- cesses of conduct. These excesses especially develop under conditions in which the individual is a free agent, namely, during the period off duty, when he is relatively indepen- dent. In civil life, the individual of the military age has various outlets for self-assertion after business hours, which are denied the soldier. One of these is the expression of assertiveness in domestic relations, while another is asser- tiveness in civil and political affairs. To the soldier who is hemmed in by too great restriction, and in whom initiative is repressed and stifled by the unwise exercise of too much authority from officers, exuberancy of spirit and assertive- ness tend to find outlet and expend themselves in sex excess, drunkenness, profanity, and anti-social conduct or over-em- phasis of anything which can be done uncontrolled. These are common ways of assertive expression among all re- pressed classes not only military, but in civil industry. As a result, the repressed individual especially brags of his sex conquests, while his ability to " hold his liquor " he con- siders a mark of superiority, and the whole is garnished with exaggerations of language expressed by oaths. Profanity doubtless expresses self-assertion through what the psy- chologists call " side-tracking." Such profanity is often habitual, unconscious and exaggerated, and is usually devoid of intent and application. Workmen and soldiers who have- apparently reached their limit of advancement and are held under economic or disciplinary stress particularly exhibit the above tendencies. Both are suffering from limitation of opportunity for self-expression. With the soldier, it therefore pays to deliberately develop 134 MANAGEMENT OF MEN opportunities for the expression of self-assertion during the off-duty period and to see that they are utilized in such a way as to bring the satisfaction required without resort to anti-social measures for gratification. This is a safety- valve for military repression and has the further advan- tage that it affords a wide range in choice of activities whereby something can be found in which even the most unpromising can do creditably well. But conditions would be much further improved if mili- tary life, methods and tasks were so studied and amended as to af- ford the maximum opportunity for self-expression along military lines. A small task becomes ennobled once its responsibilities and results are made our own. The accompanying diagrams, showing the divisions and level of the soldier's day and illustrating the provision of opportunity to demonstrate individual capacity, express this ideal graphically. In these, the soldier's day of twenty-four hours may be com- pared to the operation of a hand air-pump, with two sets of cocks, one set to represent the outlet for energy in military activities or drill; the other to represent the flow of energy in personal activities or recreation. The positions of these cocks — whether open or closed — deter- mines the proportion of energy devoted to military and other activities. The soldier like any other individual will, in so far as he Figure 7. 8-Hour Period. Sleep As the piston is drawn up- wards, the cylinder fills with air. This process is com- parable to the sleep period of the soldier during which he stores up energy. It will be noted that in this diagram all cocks, both military and other, are closed. Cocks Military 1. Exercise of initiative 2. Opportunity for advance- ment 3. Physical exertion Personal 4. Domestic 5. Civic 6. Pleasure THE BASIC INSTINCTS 135 can, devote the most energy to that in which he is most in- terested. Hence, open the military cocks — that is, increase the soldier's opportunity for the exercise of initiative at drill — and he will expend the major portion of his energy in his work. Close all outlets but that of mere physical exertion, and the soldier carries over to his personal period a surplus store of energy which might have been diverted to drill. As the average soldier has neither domestic nor civic interests, this surplus is devoted mostly to pleasure and much of it is wasted. 1 The explanatory diagrams (Figs. 7, 8 and 9) show the application of the air-pump as representing the three periods of the soldier's day — the sleep period, the military and the personal. The sleep period is shown first, as it is during this period that the soldier stores .up the energy he expends in the other two. T I Closed 8 Hours N 2=S= (Open)-S^'fl Flow '" 3 Insufficient Position of /' Piston at Start of Day Position at /■ End of 'Drill Period .2. 4-5 - — Closed Hour: Drill All Open fi II T Position of /'Piston at Start of Day 4=5- 4-6* Position at End of Drill Period -Closed Figure 8. 8-Hour Military Period. As it often is A. During half the waking per- iod, initiation and opportunity are repressed and represented by closed cocks i and a. As it should be B. Cocks i, 2 and 3 are all open, indicating opportunity to express per- sonality as well as expend physical energy. 136 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The love of adventure expresses a desire for self-expres- sion and self-activity under exceptionally stimulating or un- usual surroundings. It is especially strong in youth and early manhood. As a factor in recruiting its strength is well recognized. This is doubtless one of the chief reasons why desertions and absences without leave are so much more frequent in time of peace than in war. The routine and lack of the spectacular in peace time does not satisfy the craving for adventure. Self-assertion should be stimulated along lines outside the necessary restrictions imposed by military discipline and within the limits implied by self-respect. The soldier should be encouraged to do things for the betterment of himself and organization. The very strength of his self- assertive impulses which, if left to themselves may lead to harm, can, if properly directed, be turned to good. He Clo«d-24 \ 34 4.4 N 8 Hcjurs Recreation Closed / Closed— >2 >4 \ 34 £ fr— Open ]__ = ^Output Excessive Figure 9. 8-Hour Personal Period. T .5^- 8 Holirs "~~~-~ Recreation All Open As it often is A. With more than half of the day's store of energy at the soldier's disposal and cocks 4. and 5 as well as military outlets, closed. The result is a heavy flow through No. 6. As it should be B. The position of the piston at the beginning of the period shows most of the day's energy already ex- pended. Cocks 4, 5 and 6 are all par- tially open and there is some flow through each. Education has en- larged the soldier's field of interests so that this period is not confined to pleasure alone. THE BASIC INSTINCTS 137 should be given opportunities for the development of self- reliance and initiative. Competitive games and sports af- ford an always ready opportunity, while study, training and the exercise of suitable authority are others. Promotion and success in wider fields give assurance of ability to win larger success. The instinct of self-assertion can also be stimulated in urging the emulation of a good example. Men like to feel that they have strong character. If this be emphasized and soldiers shown that it takes men of strong character to see a hard task or a hard march through, they will try to live up to any reasonable standards set for them. Superiors can stimulate aggressiveness and persistence in the face of ob- stacle, in those of weaker will, by causing them to believe that a high estimate is set upon their abilities by others. It is an old adage that " nothing succeeds like success." This is because the stimulus of victory reacts to stimulate all of the instinctive qualities that make for success, the psychological value of which is that it increases military self-assertiveness. The victor no longer shrinks from con- test when he has proved by experience that his foes are his inferiors. The negative self-feeling in him diminishes and the mere presence of such a foe arouses self-assertiveness and desire to demonstrate further superiority. The psycho- logical value of the early successes of the Germans, in their materialistic frame of mind, cannot be over-estimated as a factor in maintaining their fighting efficiency. The same factor is at the basis of the success of the in- dividual. The comrades of the new recruit try to impress him with a show of superiority, but he soon finds out those who are really superior, those whom he may master by effort, and those below him in ability of accomplishment. His gradual success against the weaker makes him a more formidable competitor of the stronger, until he reaches and recognizes his final limitations. The officer who helps the 138 MANAGEMENT OF MEN recruit find himself and his place in the company cosmos as rapidly as possible does much for the efficiency of the in- dividual and the organization. A marked and easily recognized human trait is obstinacy. In some it is so marked that general conduct may be meas- ured in its terms. Such persons are so opposed to every- thing as to be always ready to do the opposite of what is desired of them. This is really an extreme degree of self- assertion to the extent of ego-centrism. It calls for tactful handling and wise discrimination as to whether suasion or punishment will be more effective in the individual case. If fully roused and developed, such refusal to yield becomes an obsession, dominating all ideas and acts. It is impor- tant in such cases not to let the status of martyrdom be as- sumed, lest the sympathy of comrades be evoked whereby moral support will be gained and mental comfort secured. This condition is particularly well demonstrated in the case of so-called " conscientious objectors." Self-will in an in- dividual becomes undesirable only when directed toward objectionable and anti-social purposes. Individualism, within military limits, is a valuable quality. It should mean a desire to perform some duty better than any other person or organization. The bully in the company is very often a man who finds an outlet for self-assertion in overbearing, offensive conduct toward others. Various responsibilities and opportunity for leadership will not rarely divert this forceful personality into wholesome channels of action. If such be called upon to help the class of men least able to express themselves, both may be helped at the same time. Thus self-assertion implies initiative, perseverance and confidence based on knowledge of proven efficiency of self. It is the driving force back of purpose to achieve an object despite obstacles and opponents. It gives self-respect and utilizes the assurance that the public very considerably judges people on their own estimate of themselves. It should not THE BASIC INSTINCTS 139 be stimulated by mere assumptions not warranted by facts and unchecked by achievement. The soldier should be told of his efficiency merely as a basis of stimulation of confi- dence in larger achievement. Many a man enters the army who has previously had little opportunity for self-expression. He then suddenly dis- covers that he is as good as the next man and has equal chance for promotion if he applies himself. He begins to grow and develop new powers as he gains confidence in him- self. His commander should watch such a man, for often he is at first shy and a small rebuff may send him back into himself and the makings of a good soldier thus be ended. Such men need encouragement to find themselves and their powers through successful effort. The constant blocking of the instinct of self-assertion in many ways, through the necessary loss of individual freedom dependent on the military service, is something that the soldier never ceases to feel and in many instances uncon- sciously resents. The same applies to civilian industry, in which the worker feels that his abilities are unrecognized, ig- nored or belittled. Repressions of self-assertion are com- mon causes of reactions against industrial management. The same outlet for self-assertion holds good here — to give the individual duty to perform which requires personal initiative and judgment and to bring him into contests of competition and rivalry. The delegation of a task of re- sponsibility, leaving the details to be worked out by the in- dividual, will serve as a safety-valve and help to offset the necessary physical and mental restriction along other lines. Delegation of authority is the essence of effective mili- tary and industrial organization. Still superiors will be found who try to carry or prescribe all details themselves. This is resented by subordinates, who see in it reflection on their own abilities and intelligence. They should be held strictly responsible for results, but given all reasonable lati- tude as to methods. The superior who prescribes every de- i 4 o MANAGEMENT OF MEN tail for his subordinates stifles self-assertion. The men are prepared to give way in this respect to superiors to a very large extent, but there is always a limit beyond which the average man will not cheerfully accept the blocking of his own self-expression. He prefers to cooperate rather than mechanically execute an obligation. Moreover, where the superior descends to detail, he tends to fall in the respect of his men as a man of large caliber. Making subordinates the executive agent gives them the feeling of personal in- terest and of pride in the result. Inculcating initiative and the ability to execute details enhances their ability in an emergency and makes them capable of higher things. Self-Submission. Self-submission is the opposite instinct of self-assertion. It avoids self-display and is a protective instinct developed in the presence of what is believed to be a superior power. All of its expressions denote submis- siveness to the will of others and are calculated not to at- tract attention or to mollify and not to arouse the pugnacity of others. It is more of a feminine than a masculine qual- ity. Children show it early. All who admit a higher au- thority express it. The puppy, which on the approach of a strange dog, rolls over on its back and puts its feet in the air in a position of helplessness furnishes the extreme ex- ample. In the human being it is outwardly manifested in appearance and behavior, as a drooping of the head and shoulders, lowering of the eyes or hesitating glance, a gen- eral weakening of the muscle tone, absence of any posture adapted for attack or defense, and hesitancy of movement. Constant submission destroys initiative and becomes servil- ity. It may be the basis of shame, yet if habitual the sense of shame and degradation may be lost. It is responsible for social caste. In undue exaggeration it may be an early symptom of unsound mentality. There is an instinctive tendency to submission, at least in certain respects, in the presence of one larger, more pow- erful or of greater prestige. Here the element of caution THE BASIC INSTINCTS 141 enters as a factor in self-preservation, for the possession of superior power and knowledge of reliance thereon by an- other is tacitly recognized as implying obligation of pro- tection. But the existence of slave-driving, persecution and the hazing of the submissive shows that the mutual obliga- tions resting upon submission of one to another do not al- ways obtain. Submission is recognized usually as a means of securing protection. Nor does submission enter in defense against wild beasts, with which it is recognized that yielding in- evitably means destruction. The same applies in respect to an enemy being contended against after announcement by him that " no quarter " will be given. If the declara- tion of " no quarter " fails to terrorize into submission, it operates in the opposite way and provokes a resistance and cohesion based on desperation and in the greatest degree of which the individuals are capable. Persons who are habitually self-submissive to an undue degree are apt to reach and assume an exaggerated degree of assertiveness toward those whom they regard as in- feriors. This is a tendency to seek an outlet for emotions which they have been called upon to suppress. At such times they swagger, strut and bully. The idea is manifested in Prussian officialdom, in which submissiveness to superiors tends to be matched by harshness to those below. Certain races manifest a high degree of submissiveness. They disarm what they regard as superior power by ac- ceptance of domination by stronger wills. Individuals show it in varying degree, sometimes to the point of arousing contempt in others. Recruits have it more than old sol- diers, some through temperament, others through character formed by repression in civil life, and still others through desire to conform as rapidly as possible to the requirements of the unfamiliar military environment in which they find themselves. Every human being, like every one of the lower animals. H2 MANAGEMENT OF MEN seems, when in groups, to arrive at a state of mastery or submission toward every other individual of that group. Clashes are thus inevitable. With animals, these clashes are usually physical combats, though one may give way be- fore the menacing aspect of another. But with man, phys- ical combats are relatively rare and are practically always preceded by a contest of wits and wills. Here the able of- ficer will gain recognized supremacy. He will be more suc- cessful if he secures this result in a succession of minor mat- ters, kept as far as possible from any outward appearance of personality and not allowed to develop as an acute situa tion of much gravity. Relationships can be established in this way which are satisfactory for disciplinary purposes without the subordinate really being aware that they are be- ing so established. Rank in the army imposes submission without the necessity or possibility of trying conclusions to determine supremacy. Settlement of status in respect to self-assertion and sub- mission is a desirable adjustment of relationship which makes for harmony. Where there is serious clash within a company and where barrack conditions require individuals who are discordant to live in close physical relationship, the old method of letting the men get together with boxing gloves behind the barracks to " see who is the better man " may at times have advantages. No great physical damage need be apprehended, emotion gains outlet and expends it- self through physical effort, and the men usually part with mutual respect and frequently become firm friends. In war, one of the first steps in the self-submission of a military force is loss of initiative and impairment of ag- gressiveness. The army which is psychologically content to act merely on the defensive against its opponent is on the road to disintegration and defeat. Of the final fighting in 19 1 8, General Pershing's report says of the enemy: " His morale had been reduced until his will to resist had well-nigh reached the breaking point." It is obvious that THE BASIC INSTINCTS 143 when such breaking point is reached, group self-submission occurs, defeat has been accomplished and surrender of mili- tary aims as well as of military forces is the final result. If the military situation is such that general aggressiveness must be delayed or withheld, it is thus desirable to demon- strate a certain degree of initiative through raids and minor attacks, not only as a physical check to the enemy and to im- pair his confidence, but to strengthen the will power of one's own forces. It is obvious, that in a large sense, submission is out of place in a service which, like the military, is essentially ag- gressive. Yet it plays a valuable part in the maintenance of internal discipline through promoting respect for su- periority. Also it is obvious that some nicety is necessary in determining the degree to which it should be developed and in confining it to the limited channels through which it should be exercised. This is a matter of individual and racial psychology: The disciplinary relations of the Ger- man army would be tolerated in few others, certainly not in our own. Not a few non-commissioned officers completely fail to grasp this important point. Unconsciously perhaps, the bullying of a recruit into submission expresses desire on the part of those with authority to gratify their own instinct of self-assertion and possession of power. The result, from the standpoint of service efficiency, is bad. A horse whose " spirit has been broken " is a poor goer, and the analogy applies to men. Rough handling, and the ostentatious forcing of submission, has driven many a recruit of strong character and high promise into desertion rather than accept self-abasement. It has destroyed the vestiges of initiative in the shy and self-deprecatory who really needed to be brought out of themselves and given confidence and respon- sibility. Wise handling of men in respect to the instinct of submission is especially necessary. Those who do not ex- ercise this quality are not worthy of authority. i 4 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Only that degree of submission is necessary in the military service which will cause the individual to sink his mental self in the common mind to the extent required for military purposes and to cause his official reactions to conform to the common reactions of the whole. To go further is to impair efficiency by tending toward automatism and undermining that self-reliance so valuable when the soldier, deprived of direction from above, is thrown on his own resources. All this is best accomplished by information and training. The better and more sturdy the soldier material in the recruit, the more readily he conforms to reason and resents force. Given time, the constant and unappreciated pressure of the normal military environment will usually do all that is neces- sary in evoking due submission. The mounted services take time to gentle horses and make them submissive to military requirements; the same applies to men. Blame and disapproval check self-assertion, reacting in blind submission. If deserved, and given in a manner of impartial justice, they evoke repentance and shame in which self-negation is paramount. Further punishment is often unnecessary. If it is imposed in excess or unjustly, it not only fails of its intended purpose but has the opposite ef- fect by arousing resentment and anger in which the desired mental submission is lacking even though force compels physical conformance. Toward the enemy, no suggestion or implication of sub- mission should be permitted. An essential part of the German propaganda was that they should be regarded as irresistible and that opposition was therefore useless. No such expression as " held up " or " checked " should ever be permitted, lest it carry with it the stimulation of submis- sion. No officer or man should be allowed to conceive of an obstacle which could hold up his organization. Inquiry should be not " can you do it? " but " how will you do it? " The same principles apply to the development of personal initiative and forcefulness in industry. THE BASIC INSTINCTS 145 The general methods for the undermining of the unde- sirable elements in submissiveness have been outlined under self-assertion. The carrying out of these by officers is an important duty. Men should be studied from the stand- point of self-submission so that excess of this quality may be removed. Those of naturally weak, submissive char- acter do not excite admiration and interest, yet they are the ones with whom officers should be particularly concerned. Their natures in this respect should be changed as far as thought and opportunity may permit. They are weak links in the military chain, and submissiveness has too many ele- ments of cowardice to permit commanders to allow its ex- cess to go unremedied. Just as every group has its leader, so it has members who are relatively retiring and who have no great popularity nor many friendships. Such individuals are comparatively inaccessible, are slow in getting ac- quainted, and perhaps suspicious as a result of misappre- hension. Men whose instinct of submissiveness is observed to impel them to keep out of individual stress, competition and responsibility should be deliberately placed in situations where these are involved, and where one success will merely mean another situation requiring the exercise of greater as- sertiveness. The two opposing instincts of self-assertion and self-sub- mission, therefore, require a proper correction and balance, and no more. Undue weakness or strength require com- pensation. The able but submissive man needs to be given initiative and self-confidence, while the too self-assertive sol- dier learns to recognize his own weaknesses. CHAPTER V THE BASIC INSTINCTS (Continued) The instinct of rivalry; its nature and value as a source of energy; self-standards and self-competition ; . group competitions ; envy and jealousy; the stimulation of rivalry. The instinct of curiosity; its nature and value for protection and progress; repressions of curiosity and their reactions; American individualism and curiosity; purpose and methods of satisfying curiosity. The gregarious instinct; its value in promoting collective action; physical and mental gyegarious- ness; group solidarity; American individualism and gregariousness ; sociability and social forms; organization and discipline; esprit de corps and public opinion. The instinct of sympathy; mental quality of sympathy; its influence on concerted action; reactions from lack of sympathy; efforts to secure sympathy; praise and blame; the shar- ing of emotions; sympathy as a stimulant; sympathy in human rela- tions. The instinct of imitation; its character and purpose; imita- tion as affecting behavior; usefulness in training; example of superiors and associates. The instinct of acquisitiveness ; its nature and use- fulness; acquisitiveness, rivalry and publicity ; thrift; usury; gamb- ling; intangible rewards; the souvenir habit; property rights; pillage. The play instinct; its usefulness as a by-pass for energy and emotion and to stimulate interest; the motives for play; play and mental and physical development; mass play; limited function of play in morale work. The instinct of constructiveness ; its motive in work; pleas- urability of constructive act; personality of the worker; pride of workmanship ; value of occupation with latitude as to method; team work and " doing one's bit." The migratory instinct; its seasonal stimulation; need for change of surroundings; desertions and labor turnover; passes and furloughs; unnecessary repressions. The re- productive instinct; its relation to home and family; its antisocial status in the army; methods for control. The parental instinct and its expressions; pets; chivalry. The religious instinct; its support < UJ z o z UJ s UJ z O N (- Z UJ s z o H Z < o I < EC H X UJ 5 « 2 i- 5 .£ w ts ■ a it?l §11.. j ill: ,s<> «E 11:11 s"-!,. 3 ?S ll SSj2 5* 8°3 c CO o c o c c hi O « Ui o i X u> X | Hi o « u u. 5 < s = o o f £ °« tc ui a. M OC SB go «.3" Ui jr _J ftS tf ■ *" * UI V> c s - S = *; is! i? 2 3 - 5 IS • UJ Co §S o 2 f; 2 -» 3° V) fl." ~ uT ■ tr s= 3 §3 E ® £2 W a Is N i- — cc < t- co UJ o z UJ 3 o z z < _J > o I 31 3 $1 S 22 UI K £ * 3 w o u. g qllnoiinj' SSo: IO < 2 s o o H1IWS CHAPTER XI THE FUNCTIONING OF THE MORALE ORGANIZATION Illustration of the principles already laid down; the analytical solution of typical problems; a problem of the individual; a problem of a class group of sympathetic mental state; a problem of a company group of sympathetic mental state; a problem of the regimental or larger group of sympathetic mental state; general elucidation of prin- ciples by which undesirable reaction may be avoided. The Functioning of the Morale Organization. The psychological laws, human agencies and administrative ma- chinery available to the Morale Officer for the production and maintenance of a wholesome state of mind have already been outlined and brief mention made of the part, in the stimulation of morale, which each of their components may be expected to play. But it is desirable to show how these various parts to the morale machine function together as a whole and to demon- strate the general principles of this application which may be employed, also to show how thoroughly simple and prac- tical is its method of operation. This is best done by dem- onstration of the solution of typical morale problems, just as law and medicine are best taught by the application of the " case " system. This brings methods from the in- definite, thoretical and little understood to the concrete, practical and obvious. In the handling of problems under the morale system, there is nothing mysterious or obscure. They are simply handled on a basis of common sense. The things are done which are the obvious things to do. Under ordinary condi- tions the measures necessary may be relatively vaguely, if generally, recognized, or they may be carried out in part according to the experience and quality of leadership of the 391 392 MANAGEMENT OF MEN officer concerned, or not at all. Under the morale system they are carried out in all appropriateness to full comple- tion. Under it the commander handles his men, not as the impersonal units of a cold-blooded military machine, but as human beings with personal problems and difficulties much like his own, which not only have not ceased to vex through the donning of the uniform, but some of which may have been directly created because of it. The first essential is promptly to become aware that an unwholesome .mental state exists either in an individual or a group. This implies the existence of an organized service of information. The next step is, of course, to investigate carefully and find out the nature, degree, location and extent of any depressed mental state. The next would be to make a careful inquiry into the cause or causes, their source, and the probable relative degree of potency with which they act. The next would be to outline the action whereby good in- fluences would be substituted for depressing ones, and a faulty environment, whether physical, psychological, or both, corrected. The final step would be to intelligently select and appropriately utilize the agencies appearing on the graphic chart of the morale organization shown in Figure 19 to remove or neutralize the faults of the environment and to add - new factors, or stimulate the old ones, which may promote a wholesome state of mind. The following brief outline shows how the morale system might work in the solution of certain specific morale prob- lems of diverse type and varying in magnitude from the problem of the individual to the problem of the group, com- pany, regiment or camp. It is of course to be understood that any other problems would be handled along similarly appropriate lines. The same principles would apply in problems of industrial morale. Type A — The Problem of the Individual. State of Mind. A morale operative reports to the com- pany commander that Private Smith is much depresssed. FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 393 Specific Cause. Inquiry shows that Private Smith has just received word from his absent wife stating that his baby has died and she has not sufficient funds for the funeral. Nature and Extent. The company commander appre- ciates that Private Smith's mentai state is obviously one which can extend directly but little, if at all, beyond Smith himself. It relates to matters which pertain almost ex- clusively to his personal interests. It is practically not con- tagious to Private Smith's associates, for its cause is of such an individual nature as to find direct reaction only in a highly limited class having a recent death in the family and suffering acute financial embarrassment. Indirectly it is a depressing factor to the spirits of his comrades and the com- pany in proportion to Smith's contact with them, his degree of leadership, popularity, etc. But it will not spread; its depressing effect will be transitory with many, and time will cause it to rapidly diminish or disappear. General Cause and Effect. The company commander analyzes the situation and realizes that Private Smith's men- tal state results from several causes. Some of these causes are psychological, as grief for his child, sympathy for his wife, financial worry, etc.. But these depend on physical conditions, e. g., loss of child and lack of money. The former cannot be remedied ; the latter may. The company commander realizes that the instincts chiefly concerned are the parental, sympathetic and acquisitive. Private Smith chiefly needs two things — personal sympathy and financial and other assistance at home. Both should be offered in practical form. A Solution of the Problem. The company commander calls Private Smith in and relieves his mental tension by an expression of sympathy. If conditions permit it, he offers Smith a short furlough to go home. He tells Smith not to worry about how to pay for a suitable funeral, gives him a note to the local Field Director of the Red Cross and tells him that the latter, through its Home Service in Smith's 394 MANAGEMENT OF MEN home town, will wire its agents there, not only to provide for the suitable burial of his child, but to do what it can to look out for and console his wife. He further sends a note to the regimental chaplain, telling him the circumstances and asking him to see Smith. It is apparent that the channel of the parental instinct has been blocked in Smith by the death of his child, and that this is irremediable. But the blocking of the instinct of acquisitiveness has been removed, while the wider opening of the channel of sympathy, together with the use of an emergency outlet through the religious instinct, relieves the high degree of mental tension. Obviously under such handling the mental attitude of Smith, and his reaction on company morale, will be materially altered for the better. The attitude of the Captain toward Smith is accepted by the other men of the company as emblematic of his attitude toward them; their mutual relations are strengthened and the esprit of the company is enhanced. Type B — The Problem of the Class Group of Sympa- thetic Mental State. State of Mind. A morale operative reports to the com- pany commander that Private Jones is much depressed, as are a few men with whom he has. been associating. Specific Cause. Inquiry shows that Private Jones is a young recruit, a country boy just from home, who is ex- tremely home-sick. Some of the older soldiers are hazing Jones and trading on his inexperience. Nature and Extent. There are several young recruits who joined about the same time as Jones, and whom he is depressing by word and example. He has been heard to say: " I can't stand this much longer, I'm going over the hill." The company commander realizes that Private Jones' depression is one which is highly contagious within the group of recruits to which he belongs. It is not con- tagious at all for the old soldiers who have become adjusted to the military environment and some of whom are teasing FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 395 him. Their stage of susceptibility to this particular form of depression is past. The condition is like seasickness — a real affliction to the sufferer but a subject for joking by those who have passed through the seasick stage and become im- munized against it. In both homesickness and seasickness the mental state is aggravated by teasing. Private Jones' mental state is such that he admits that it may impel him to the military crime of desertion. If he can induce another homesick recruit to accompany him, he will be all the more apt to absent himself from an environment which is psycho- logically painful to him. The problem is essentially one of temporary maladjustment. In the great majority of cases this particular type of problem settles itself with the elapse of time and familiarization with the new environment. But such cases as Private Jones' may reach a crisis, resulting in his desertion, before sufficient time has elapsed to permit a normal mental adjustment to new conditions; and his words and acts may induce others, in the sympathetic recruit state of mind, to do likewise. General Cause and Effect. The company commander at once realizes that expulsive influences and. affairs at home are liable to exert a stronger influence on Jones than attractions toward the company. When the . former actually become stronger, Jones will desert. What he needs is a sufficient local interest in his new environment to hold him there, and temporary protection pending his adjustment. He also misses the personal relation and family sympathy to which he has been accustomed in his home life. It is important to know what general interests Jones has, which can be so stimulated under local conditions as to become a local inter- est. On inquiry, the morale operative reports that Jones is much interested in boxing: " He can't fight much, but thinks he can." A Solution of the Problem. The company commander tells the first sergeant to see that the men stop teasing Pri- 396 MANAGEMENT OF MEN vate Jones, and thereby stops the blocking of the instincts of sympathy and self-assertion. He himself calls Jones into his office, evinces interest in how he is getting on, the food, his friends, etc., and says a few kindly words about his op- portunities in the army, etc., stimulating him through the in- stincts of hunger, gregariousness, sympathy, self-assertion and acquisitiveness. He winds up by telling Jones that he looks as if he had the makings of a good boxer in him, and that he will see that the Athletic Officer tries him out and gives him daily boxing lessons. If he can make good, the commander tells him, he will put him on to represent the company at the next boxing tournament. The commander has thus further called the instincts of pugnacity, rivalry and constructiveness into play. He sends a confidential note to the Athletic Officer, giving sufficient details of Jones' case and suggesting that he be tried out with one or more men whom he can best,, to give him encouragement at the start and thereby further stimulate his self-assertion. He takes similar selective action relative to any of the other young recruits who, like Jones, are depressed and homesick for lack of local interest. The measures he selects depend upon the special nature of their problems. The chances are that the mental attitude of Jones and his recruit associates promptly changes. They give up any idea of desertion as a result of increased local interest and their depressing re- action on company morale disappears. A little attention to change of motive has saved to the service individuals whose previous unfavorable attitude toward it would have resulted in the commission of the crime of desertion and made them outlaws with a price on their heads, forfeiting family rela- tions and rights of citizenship. Such attention would seem well worth while, from the standpoint of advantage not only to the service but the soldier. Type C — The Problem of the Company Group of Sym- pathetic Mental State. State of Mind. The morale operatives report to the FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 397 company commander that the men of the company are gen- erally discontented. Specific Cause. Inquiry shows that the mental state is due to alleged poor food, resulting from the inefficiency of the mess sergeant. It is heightened by the disagreeable, domineering personality of the latter. On investigation, the complaints seem generally warranted. Nature and Extent. The commander realizes that here is a mental state which is highly contagious to all within the influence of its cause. The blocking of the proper satisfac- tion of the instinct of hunger inevitably produces profound irritation and reaction, and is operative in this instance. Further, men who hear constant complaints about the food served them, whether fully justified or not, may be uncon- sciously brought to a state of mind, through suggestion and sympathy, whereby they are prepared to disapprove of it even before they sit down to meals. This would tend to be accentuated by the unpleasant, aggressive personality and un- popularity of the individual held responsible for the phys- ical fault. His attitude and actions block the instinct of self- assertion in the men. Moreover, these factors are ones which operate three times daily and in a way which directly impairs the comfort, satisfaction and peace of mind of every man on whom they act. He must deal therefore with envi- ronmental conditions which are undesirable from both the physical and psychological standpoints. But the mental state produced, while general through the company, does not extend beyond it. It is contagious only within the or- ganization exposed to the physical disadvantages resulting from an inefficient mess sergeant and to the mental irrita- tion produced by his unpleasant personality. It will not occur at all in any other organizations unless they have the same unsatisfactory kind of a mess sergeant. Cause and Efiect. The difficulty here pertains, in both a physical and psychological sense, to an inefficient mess ser- geant who is likewise a poor handler of men. 398 MANAGEMENT OF MEN A Solution of the Problem. The removal of the ineffi- cient mess sergeant, or his improvement in duty and manner to a satisfactory degree, will clearly cause the disappearance of the irritating factors and the undesirable company state of mind depending on them. The instinct of hunger is such a powerful agent in the control of, mental state and conduct that it needs to be satisfied in order to remove mental stress. Attempts to relieve mental tension due to hunger, by drain- age through the channels of other less powerful instincts, will prove ineffective. The sergeant may be a misfit in his present position. In- quiry of the Personnel Officer may throw light on his case. He may prove highly efficient in charge of property rather than men, or in other ways. His appropriate transfer may thus prove to his own advantage as well as to that of the company. Type D — The Problem of the Regimental or Larger Group of Sympathetic Mental State. State of Mind. The morale operatives report to the company commander that there is a general smouldering hos- tility throughout the company of a colored regiment toward the adjacent civilian community, and that this is liable to be expressed at any time by acts of violence and lawlessness, perhaps even to the extent of race riot by individuals and groups. With such a tense state of mind, these acts may result at any time from a relatively trivial exciting cause. Specific Cause. This is a matter of alleged race discrim- ination against colored soldiers. Whether such discrimina- tion actually exists to any extent or not, is not at all necessary to the state of mind at present entertained or to the acts which may result therefrom. A minor episode, perhaps of a personal nature, exaggerated, extended and fortified by assertion and repetition may produce such conviction in a sympathetic racial group in the absence of adequate premises of fact. Further investigation by the company commander shows FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 399 that Private White says that last night, while visiting the nearby town and talking to some friends on the street cor- ner, he was told to move on by a policeman. He stated that before he could obey, the policeman clubbed him severely, knocking him down. Also that other policemen came up, beat him and cursed him, applying opprobrious epithets based on his race, and that this morning their testimony secured his conviction and heavy fine before the court on charge of obstructing traffic and resisting arrest. White, who is regarded as a " bad actor," is saying freely through the company that the next time he meets the policeman he will more than get even with him. Another morale operative reports that Private Green likewise had trouble with the police several days ago and believes he was treated, by reason of his race, with unjust severity. Green threatens the life of any policeman or other civilian who may hereafter attempt to lay hands on him. There are also reported the cases of Private Brown, who is understood to have had a fight with the conductor and motorman of a street car over the so-called " Jim Crow Law," and of Private Gray, who alleges he was set upon by a crowd of white men without any apparent reason. These, and other stories or rumors of alleged racial disturbances, have aroused bitter feeling among the troops, in whom the instincts of racial gregariousness and sympathy powerfully impel them to give credence to such allegations. The com- pany commander now recalls a certain amount of general talk about such friction which has reached him from time to time during the past week or so, and the importance of which he only now realizes. He appreciates that he has, by this oversight, let matters go too far without correction, and that the earlier and lesser symptoms of this state of mind should have received prompt attention and correction. Nature and Extent. The condition presented to the com- pany commander is obviously one based on differences of race and psychology. As such, it presents a problem which 4 oo MANAGEMENT OF MEN is not limited to any individual or small group, but is com- mon not only to his company but to the entire regiment and all other troops of the same race. It is a psychologic axiom that any mental state in any individual which has as its fundamental factor the one of race, at once finds prompt, powerful and sympathetic response in other individuals of the same race on whom it reacts. It may be that the feel- ing is even intensified in the latter, and that possibly privates White, Green, Brown and Gray, who consider themselves physically unjustly treated, do not harbor such animosity as may others, who, like Private Blue, have had no physical clash at all, but who, on hearing the stories told by their comrades, resent the alleged ill-treatment on the broader ground of presumed race prejudice. It may also be very likely that these stories have been exaggerated before they reached the latter and that therefore they have correspond- ingly exaggerated ideas on the subject. The instance illus- trates how a physical environment and a psychological envi- ronment, operating at different times on different persons, might result in a common state of mind, whereby men who were struck and men who only heard of the striking harbor similar ideas. The company commander realizes that the problem before him is one not only fraught with most dangerous possibili- ties but which extends beyond his own company and jurisdic- tion. The instinct chiefly concerned is that of self-assertion, the expression of which has been blocked. Gregariousness enters as a further factor. Through sympathy, the emo- tion has spread throughout the susceptible group. Con- tinuation of the exciting factors may produce such mental tension as will express itself through pugnacity. Just as his company possesses potentialities for infecting the entire col- ored regiment to which it belongs with the contagion of its ideas and mental state, so, even if he removes or alters this state among his own men, they are constantly liable to rein- fection with the same general idea of race discrimination FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 401 coming from other organizations of the same colored regi- ment. The remedial and precautionary measures indicated can only be made complete and satisfactory by extending them to include, not only his own company, but all other units affording, as a result of race, a sympathetic state of mind toward this particular mental concept. To so extend them, however, he will need to invoke the assistance of higher au- thority, beside doing what he can in his own organization. Cause and Effect. He realizes that what is needed is a removal or diminution of any external source of irritation, whether real or imaginary, physical or psychological, and the diversion of thought within the command into new channels, whereby the present state of mind, relative to group discrimination, may be dissipated. A Solution of the Problem. With this purpose in mind, the company commander at once does a number of obviously desirable things, based on the information he has obtained. The first relates to the physical environment. Arms and ammunition are put out of the reach of the men to limit the effect of harmful act if more intense emotional state should cause it to develop. The individuals, like Private White, who seem most liable to cause serious disturbance, will be denied or limited in respect to passes to town on one plausi- ble pretext or another. This will keep them outside the in- fluence of the particular factors of the environment which create the undesired reaction. Some of them may be quietly appealed to to keep out of trouble, both for their own interest and, through gregariousness, for the reputation of their company, regiment and race. Intimate associates of the men who are the more active disturbing agents should be brought to use a restraining influence on them. The company commander then carries his problem to the regimental commander for further solution. The latter states that information has come to him that similar dan- gerous sentiments seem to be entertained in other organiza- 4 02 MANAGEMENT OF MEN tions throughout the regiment. He further states that the source of irritation is in the civilian community and out- side his jurisdiction and will therefore require action by higher authority than himself for its abatement. He calls a meeting of his organization commanders for conference in the matter, requesting the attendance of the Morale Of-. ficer. In the meantime, he orders carried out through all the organizations of his regiment the physical precautions already outlined as taken in the first company. The Morale Officer, on being fully informed of the sit- uation, works out and suggests in outline a general plan of procedure. It includes measures to be carried out within the camp as well as within the civilian community. It aims to reduce friction between them at the points of contact. If this cannot be satisfactorily done, the contact is to be broken. By reason of the importance and magnitude of the problem, the solution will bring into play every possible instinct which can be used to weaken the tendencies toward disorder. Some of these instincts will be brought into play in diverse ways. Accordingly, in addition to the measures already taken by the regimental commander, the Morale Officer recommends as follows : (a) That the morale operatives in every organization promptly report to the commander the names of all men who appear to be particularly aroused in the matter and who are liable to create disorder as a result of further contact with the disturbing environment. This information, when turned in to the Morale Officer, indicates the points of greatest danger and the special individuals toward whom the neces- sary measures of control should be particularly directed. In order to arouse and hold in harmless directions the at- tention and interest of such individuals, the personality of each will be considered and each will be brought to enter some suitable activity which will divert thought from the civil community and focus it, in a personal and wholesome way, on affairs within the military service. FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 403 (b) Passes to town will be generally restricted for the purpose of reducing the number of potentially dangerous points of contact. Men in a state of high intensity of emo- tion will have. such passes withheld, under one excuse or an- other, lest disorder result from the reaction of a painful environment upon a mental state of high irritability. These restrictions will be carried out in such a way as not to call attention to them, so that self-assertion and the migratory instinct may not be unduly blocked. (c) That an athletic meet and prize competition for the regiment be ordered and that mass games and plays be espe- cially pushed by the Recreation Officer and Athletic Officer. That competition between the regiment and others in the camp, in baseball or other contest be established. That the disaffected men whose names were listed under paragraph (a), be tactfully brought into participation in "try-outs" or as principals, in any sports in which they manifest an ex- cellence or interest. The mental tension resulting from con- ditions in the civilian community would thus be dissipated in a wholesome way within the camp through stimulation of the instincts of rivalry, self-assertion, play, gregariousness, ac- quisitiveness and curiosity. (d) That " try-outs " be held for company quartets and a regimental glee-club, as well as for instrumental music in company and regimental organizations. This will appeal to the instinct of rhythm, particularly strong in the dark skinned races. It will serve as a mental sedative. Such leaders of disaffection as are musically inclined will be tactfully linked up with the various musical enterprises. (e) That a dramatic entertainment, with extensive per- sonnel, be promoted as a regimental affair. As far as pos- sible, the disaffected individuals should be included in the " try-outs " or permanent cast. Mental tension will be relieved in this way through the instincts of the comic, rhythm, self-assertion and constructiveness. (f) All these recreational activities should be so arranged 404 MANAGEMENT OF MEN as to take a large part of the time and attention of the par- ticipants while off duty. Company commanders should be active in promoting this program and in directing company thought away from the subject of irritation, creating a bet- ter state of mind by impersonal suggestion and by direct admonition in a few special cases relative to the matter of racial maladjustment. (g) The regimental chaplain should reinforce the action of other officers through his direct interest in the welfare of the men as well as in his religious capacity. Here the re- ligious instinct will serve as a channel to diminish mental stress. (h) The educational workers and Red Cross agents within the camp should use their influence to reduce feeling against the civilian community, substituting more wholesome thoughts for those which tend to indisciplinary expression. (i) Suitable articles and editorials should be published in the camp publications, calculated to promote indirectly the above result. These publications should similarly advertise the special camp activities mentioned above, thereby reliev- ing the emotional state through the stimulation of curiosity. By featuring the participants, self-assertion in them would be directly gratified. Outside the Camp. The foregoing plan of action re- lates to the mental molding of the human subjects which have been subjected to the disturbing environment. It is even more important to modify this environment itself by acting on its human factors. The Morale Officer can do much, through outside agencies, to reduce the source of friction which exists in the civil community and which reacts on the camp and its colored soldiers. He would doubt- less: — (a) See the editors of local papers and have them pub- lish pertinent, suggestive articles showing how much the camp means to the business interests of the community, the value of mutually good relations, and the injury to the good FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 405 name of the city which would follow any breach of such re- lations. The appeal here to civilians would be through acquisitiveness, self-assertion and gregariousness. (b) Address the local Chamber of Commerce, Rotary Club and other commercial bodies along the foregoing lines, but in a more frank way, stating that friction existed, that it had already resulted in some restriction of passes and, if continued, might result in keeping all soldiers out of the city; that it would be most unfortunate for the commercial in- terests if this should happen and soldiers thus be restricted ■ from coming to town to make the purchases that business houses were prepared to supply. It might be stated that, if the average pay of the officers and men of a regiment of 3,500 is $40.00 per month, this would amount to $140,000 per month, and that such a pay-roll for the camp of, say 25,000 men, would be $1,000,000 per month. Acquisitive- ness, and the limited expression of fear through caution lest the former be blocked, would serve here to inhibit undesir- able action. (c) See prominent citizens, bankers, business men, poli- ticians and talk to them personally along the lines already mentioned. Here the reputation of the city would add to the argument, functioning through self-assertion and gre- gariousness. (d) See the pastors of the colored churches and ask them to get together and provide organized social facilities and good entertainment every night, through their congrega- tions and otherwise, for as many men as come in town. It might also be suggested that light refreshments would serve as an added attraction to the men. Here the instincts of hunger, thirst, gregariousness, rhythm, home, religions and others would be played upon. They should also be urged to endeavor, by suggestion, to promote better feeling on the part of the colored soldiers toward the civil community, and vice versa. (e) See the more prominent and substantial members of 4 o6 MANAGEMENT OF MEN the colored civil community and urge that they use their in- fluence toward better relations between the men of the camp and the townspeople. This appeal creates a restraining in- fluence through self-assertion, gregariousness, acquisitiveness and other instincts. (f) With the approval of the Camp Commander, a con- ference will be arranged between him and the Mayor of the town at which the local Chief of Police might also be pres- ent, for these officials are the " key men " in the existing sit- uation. At this conference, the Camp Commander might say that serious friction between his men and some of the townspeople, particularly certain of the police, is beginning to develop, and that this is doubtless as disquieting to the Mayor as it is to himself; that it would seem to him very unfortunate for the military interests if any situation should be allowed to develop as a result of which the soldiers might have to be kept away from the town and thereby debarred from purchasing the articles and amusements which they might desire; that from the standpoint of the civil com- munity, its business interests, to whom all city officials must look for political and other support, would probably not re- gard with favor any lack of administrative efficiency whereby highly profitable relations with a camp, whose financial re- sources were equal to those of a small city, were interfered with or broken off. Also that any disturbance between the camp and town would very likely bring wide-spread notoriety and criticism on the civil community and those in charge of the management of its affairs. The Commander might say that the Mayor presumably did not know of the belief among the men that the city police were unduly harsh, and that the latter and the city administration as a whole, doubtless would not wish to be placed in a false and undesirable position through the in- judicious actions of subordinates, and that if arrests had to be made, they should be made impersonally, without undue harshness and certainly without any reference to race. It FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 407 might be suggested that, in the interests of all concerned, the Mayor himself look into the situation and take such correc- tive action as might seem to him to be desirable. The Camp Commander would also inform the Mayor that he would, for his part, take every measure within the camp which might seem to be helpful in promoting better feeling, and ask for a similar attitude on the part of the city authorities within their jurisdiction. By such action the instincts of fear, acquisitiveness, gregariousness, sympathy and self-as- sertion would be stimulated toward the various objects. It is probable that there are but few, if any, city officials who, if approached in such manner, would not take effective meas- ures to promote better relations between their community and the camp and remove the sources of friction thus pointed out. The Morale Officer would have reason to believe that the foregoing measures would so alter the relation and men- tal attitude of the troops toward the town that a greater part, if not all, of the elements of friction between them and their more important points of contact would be removed. Such measures would have reduced the number and potency of the agencies outside the camp, which had been provoking racial irritation, and, within the camp, would have insti- tuted activities to alter the undesirable state of mind which had prevailed there, through its diversion by new interests, by the direct and indirect approach on individuals, by modi- fication and safe-guarding of the physical environment, by the resulting numerical reduction of the more dangerous soldier units and the frequency with which they would make points of contact. In addition, the Morale Officer would frequently verify the efficiency of these measures through his information sys- tem on the basis of words and actions of the men composing the command. If the foregoing methods should by any chance prove for a time not wholly satisfactory, as deter- mined by his information system, and should sufficient ele- 408 MANAGEMENT OF MEN merits of danger still remain, he still has a more direct and drastic measure to recommend to his commander. This measure is physical separation of the psychologically affected soldier group from the environment which reacts unfavorably upon it. In case of such separation, the outside points of irritation obviously would cease to operate as such. If they cannot be suitably prevented from acting on the com- mand, the command itself can be withdrawn from their in- fluence by cutting off communication between the two. This might be done by issuing an order placing the civil commun- ity " out of bounds " for certain troops or for the whole camp. But such an order would be undesirable as creating a new psychological situation which would be both irritating and depressing to morale and discipline, for recollection of the cause necessitating the breaking of contact would con- stantly remain and rankle in the minds of both parties. As another alternative, the contact may be broken by the re- moval of the troops in question to a new environment, either temporarily or permanently. Therefore, if the Morale Officer is not satisfied with the results of his preliminary palliative measures as outlined, he might recommend to his commander, as a final measure, that the troops in question be ordered out of camp on some log- ical military mission, such as target practice on a distant rifle range, a practice march, or field manoeuvers. The new interests thus created in respect to preparation and depar- ture, especially if stimulated by judicious publicity, together with relief from outside irritation, will promptly produce a new state of mind and wholesome behavior among the troops. Here the migratory instinct, curiosity, gregarious- ness and other factors come into play. During the ab- sence of the troops, efforts will be made to allay and re- move any future outside sources of irritation by further measures of reaction taken by the Commander and the Mo- rale Officer in modifying the attitude of the civilian com- munity. FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION 409 If these further efforts prove insufficient, the Commander, on information furnished him by the Morale Officer, would properly recommend to the War Department that the troops in question be sent without delay to another station where the factor of local antagonism would not apply so strongly. The psychological problem of group state of mind rep- resented in Type D, shows a potential " Houston Riot," with the loss of life and property, judicial proceedings, ex- ecutions, and lasting bitter feeling which that disorder en- tailed. It is not too much to say that, if such measures as the above were effectively carried out, such extreme condi- tions as resulted in the Brownsville and Houston riots would neither have been allowed to develop nor remain uncor- rected, and that under the intelligent and tactful handling of the morale system, as outlined, no such racial outbreak would ever have occurred. The foregoing problems are probably fair types of mo- rale situations which have occurred in the past. In the absence of tactful handling, similar problems, under suitable conditions, will occur again. The same general principles and methods which have been demonstrated in their solution would be utilized in the solution of any other special morale problem, whatever its nature. The exciting conditions and mental state would never be twice alike, and the same agen- cies might not be used, or if used, not exactly in the same de- gree or application, but the general plan of procedure would, in its essentials, remain the same. It cannot be questioned that, by the intelligent use of measures of psychological prophylaxis, depression, discon- tent, indiscipline, desertion, disorder, riot and worse, may be averted. By altering the undesirable state of mind, the undesirable act which is the expression of any such mental state, would not result. This is not hard to bring about. On the contrary, it is a simple matter. Effective agencies are at hand and one may, as it were, " play checkers " with the emotions by suitable selection of these agencies and their 4i6' MANAGEMENT OF MEN movement into appropriate combination to function at the proper time and in the best way. There is nothing to pre- vent any superior from achieving a high degree of success in the control of the behavior of his subordinates if he will but bring the principles of psychanalysis and scientific selec- tion of corrective measures into appropriate play. CHAPTER XII SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP Personality and leadership; its importance in peace and war; the individual as typifying the condition to many; expressions of per- sonality; opposite methods of handling men; diversity in leadership efficiency; need of bringing about a common satisfactory standard. I Manner, language and tact as elements of leadership. ^Cheerfulness, courtesy and justice. ^Discipline and its factors; forced and volun- tary disciplines; willing /Cooperation. PSDuty; the sense of obligation; unnecessary asperities. ^Patriotism; its conception; its influence in efficiency. "yEsprit de corps; its quality and source; its promotion of efficiency; traditions, community of service; community of ideals. The negative factor of discontent; its psychology ; stages of dis- content; its development into delinquency ; discontent as productive of inefficiency; remedies for discontent ; discontent as the yeast of progress; imaginary difficulties; the removal of discontents ; special causes of military discontents; introspection. Complaints and criti- cisms; precursors of disorder; minor difficulties and disproportionate complaints; dangers of destructive criticism; value of constructive criticism; complaint as outlet for mental stress; the receipt and cor- rection of complaints; some service causes of complaints ; chronic grumblers. Knowledge of the men; its indispensability in leader- ship; collective and individual knowledge; ability to turn this to practical account; means of acquiring such knowledge ; ability to predict reaction from circumstance. Relation between officers and men; complexity of military relationships; social status; common sense in relationships. Personality and Leadership. Leadership in itself is a subject, which, if discussed at length and in its entirety, would fill a volume. It has its importance to civil industry quite as much as to the military service. Everything con- tained in this book bears directly or indirectly on the sub- ject, for the scientific handling of men implies the essential qualities of good leadership. True leadership elicits cheer- ful and willing obedience and cooperation from subordinates and is the antithesis of " Prussian militarism." Under it, 411 412 MANAGEMENT OF MEN men perform acts because of a desire to do so, not merely because it is their duty or the order of higher authority. Leadership is the creative and directive force of morale; the two are inseparable. This vital relationship might be likened to the closed electric circuit, morale being the cur- rent — the powerful electro-motive-force — and leadership the conductor which guides and transmits it to the motor. Either one without the other is of no great practical value. Morale without leadership is like the unconnected dynamo, while leadership without morale is but a dead or crossed wire. The ideal and effective organization is the one which embodies both factors. Leadership has gained recognition and prominence in the military world far greater than the mere tactical and tech- nical manipulation of troops in the field. The success of an army in peace or war, or the functioning of a great indus- trial establishment, depends very largely on the human- leadership ability of its superiors. The mere holding of a commission does not make an officer a leader. It assumes that he is a leader but it is further necessary for him to prove that he is one. The responsibility of leadership in- cludes not only the officer but extends through him and be- yond him to his men. Personality is a powerful factor in leadership, for the suc- cess or failure of a commander indicates the worth of his personal qualities as a leader. Military organizations, like businesses in civil life, reflect, in their work or operations and the results they obtain, the personalities of those who create or operate them. There is no person of experience who has not seen the degree of morale and efficiency in an organization fluctuate for good or ill with change of ad- ministrators and the influence of their diverse qualities of personality. The morale qualities of both officers and men, the spirit and way in which they do things, are cardinal elements in all military enterprise. - Men and the human element, not SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 413 material, are the determining factors in war. In any mili- tary force, its component organizations are equally well equipped and any differences in military efficiency is repre- sented by qualitative difference in personnel. One not only " knows how," but " does " things better than the other. History is full of- instances where some leader ofnaen turned defeat into splendid victory because he reftfsed to acknowledge that he had come to the end of his strength and resources and because he imbued his men with the same idea. Similarly, imminent business failure has been turned by some great " captain of industry " into business success. No man is beaten until he thinks he is ; no army is conquered until it accepts the idea of defeat to such an extent that its acts transmute ideas into facts. Thus a study of the personality of great commanders in relation to leadership would be very valuable, for it is per- sonality which enables one man to succeed where another fails. Unfortunately, military history is faulty in such mat- ters, giving little information on the personal equation and dealing with results rather than the attributes of the leaders who brought them about. Similarly, where failure has oc- curred, history tends to let the commander and his person- ality pass as rapidly as possible into oblivion. The personality of superiors is a most important factor in its reaction on mental state brought about by physical conditions or environment. In many instances, the agent is more important in this respect than the system represented. The fact that the individual frequently typifies a condition is too often disregarded. Thus the child kept after school for failure to know its lessons nurses far more resentment against the teacher who enforces this requirement as a means of bringing out education than it does against the edu- ■ cational system itself. The latter is submerged by the per- sonality of the teacher, against whom the resentment of the child may be manifested by epithets, caricature or disorder. So, too, the officer or sergeant brought into close directing 4 i4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN contact with the soldier, and especially the recruit, embodies the military service in his mind. The concept of army life is largely based on the personality of those who are most immediately related to the carrying out of its requirements. The soldier who deserts is very frequently led astray under the idea that the requirements of the service are intolerable, when in reality it is the personal characteristics and methods of one or two military agencies that are offensive to the point of being insufferable. The same applies equally in industry. Personality in the officer is expressed by appearance, voice, dress, bearing, expression, intonation and gesture. Every one of these factors should be considered in relation to its effect upon the soldier, for the leadership which morale work, promotes is personal, not mechanical. The esteem in which a commander is held by his brother officers is known to the men and gives proportionate prestige to him in their eyes. Success breeds confidence and thereby draws and stimulates support. Few successful officers have any appearance of haste or worry. Their machinery is too well organized and their perspective and sense of proportion are correct. They do not consider that leadership ends in giving proper orders, but rather in so inspiring the men that they make a volun- tary contribution toward the required purpose beyond the essentials of duty. The officer who has to fall back on rank, authority and punishment for the accomplishment of his purposes is a driver of the unwilling and not a leader of men. Only the officer who has the power .of evoking voluntary cooperation to the utmost limits can be considered a real leader. There are two ways of handling men. One has as its ob- ject the determent of undesirable act by repression through the use of force, fear and punishment. It is the most direct- way, and to many officers it is the shortest and easiest. It is the refuge of the superior who is without full confidence in self-ability to lead. It is vastly more potent in keeping men SOME, ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 415 from engaging in undesirable acts than in stimulating to good ones. By it, some of the more conspicuously undesir- able qualities in some men are crushed out. The refractory ones fill the guard house or desert. Those who are left tend to be fair soldiers of more or less colorless character. The other method is more difficult to employ and takes a thoroughly interested and able officer to carry it out. It calls for tact, patience, an understanding of the psychological factors involved, and a capacity to meet men on a plane of intellectual honesty and equality, without patronizing, bully- ing, or seeking popularity. It keeps the guard house clear, the absentees few, and controls conduct by incentive and stimulation rather than repression. It arouses and develops the best there is in a man. Efficient leadership is based on knowledge of the human mind and all morale factors. In peace, the tendency is to overlook this point; in war, it dominates all other considera- tions. The power to inspire, as a reinforcement of pro- posed act, is well recognized. History abounds in stirring examples of the ability of great leaders to inspire and sway the soul of their armies to the achievement of victory. Alexander, Hannibal, Caesar, Mohammed, Cromwell and Napoleon all possessed this ability and used it to definite purpose. The arousing of faith and conviction is one of the essentials of leadership. Faith, as the Scriptures say, will move mountains. To inspire faith is to give ability to accomplish. The difference in the efficiency of officers in handling men has long been recognized. It varies from the high degree of success of those who are born leaders to those who, de- spite their best intentions, are followed through their army career by a wake of disorder and desertion. The secrets of the success of the one and the faults resulting in the failure of the other have never been properly studied, classifiecj^and made of general knowledge. One function of morale work is to bring this about, so that the methods of the successful 4 i6 MANAGEMENT OF MEN may be given to others for the benefit of the service # as a whole and not be allowed to lapse with the retirement or death of the officer originating and practicing them. As necessary to the accomplishment of this, morale work contemplates inquiry into the methods of handling men which appear to be good, the determination of relative val- ues, the formulation of general methods of procedure with an exposition of the principles of which they are an expres- sion, and the placing of the entire matter before the army as a whole. This will enable the officer lacking in adminis- trative knowledge to educate and inform himself and cor- rect his faults. It will enable those who are willing to learn and adapt themselves to higher standards to do as well as the best, and the best, by pooling their information and methods, to do still better. In all matters of administration in relation to morale, su- pervision and advice from higher authority is valuable. It is true that a certain few individuals, left to themselves, will handle morale matters reasonably well merely because they possess a personal ability and tact in the management of soldiers. It is also true that the experience of each and any of these officers, quite irrespective of their interest and willingness, will never be as broad as that of the total group of which they are a minor part, and that if left to them- selves, their efforts must fall short of what they would ac- complish if given the benefit of a central clearing house of information where the best ideas and methods of all are turned in for use to the mutual advantage. There-is another class which possesses no special natural abilities in the management of men, and in whom such quali- ties, in the past, have been wholly the development of experi- ence. But practical experience of this sort, valuable though it is, must inevitably result in a line of conduct based quite as much upon recognition of the mistakes committed as of the successes achieved. Most such officers are careful to avoid any sources of error which other officers have found SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 417 to exist, and to govern their conduct accordingly. Morale work points out the practical difficulties which others have encountered in a way that they may be avoided. This group represents by far the largest proportion of officers and one which welcomes suggestions looking to the better- ment of their administration, weighs them intelligently, and applies such as appear of probable advantage to the extent and in the way apparently best suited to the meeting of their local problems. Another group is one naturally deficient in judgment, tact, discretion, common sense, sympathy and other essential qualities in one or more respects. These qualities can to some extent be cultivated, but in many cases they will not be except through pressure from outside exerted through their military superiors. The morale organization is intended to furnish superiors with an efficient agency by which they may more readily determine and remedy such short-comings. There is a fourth group, fortunately small, which is the antithesis of the first group mentioned. Its members are, for one reason or another, more or less temperamentally un- fitted to command men. Some of these cases are unques- tionably due to unsound mentality manifesting itself in ar- rogant, tyrannical, harsh, capricious, nagging or suspicious conduct. Not a few such superiors ultimately find their way via medical reports to institutions for the care of the insane. The morale organization can do nothing for this minor class other than to call attention to their mental in- stability and vagaries of conduct earlier than would other- wise be the case and thereby more promptly relieve the serv- ice of the burdens which they impose. Where morale is depreciated by bad management and leadership, the superior at fault is usually quite unconscious of his part in the results. He is wholly honest in his de- sire to get proper results and honest in his belief that the methods he adopted were the ones most suitable and proper. To show such error and demonstrate better methods with- 4 i 8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN out arousing undue resentment necessarily requires the ut- most tact. Manner. Manner is one of the qualities of behavior. It is usually a good index of the state of mind, even though it belie words. As such, it has an important influence on the mental state of others. Frequently it is not so much the act itself that matters as the manner in which it is done, which may denote intent. And intent is important in its effect on others, whether in word or deed. The injury which was obviously unintended is excused; the calculated slight, even if trivial, is resented. In Owen Wister's novel, " The Virginian," when the villain uses a " fighting name " the hero says: "When you call me that name, stranger, smile ! " The importance of manner is expressed in the jingle: " It isn't the thing we do or say But all in the way we do or say it, What would the egg amount to, pray, If the hen got up on the perch to lay it ? " The manner of superiors is carefully watched by their subordinates. What is going on in the minds of officers may often be understood without a word being spoken, just as the moving-picture actor registers emotions without the aid of words. The cultivation by officers of a calm, dis- passionate manner, under such control as to be unswayed by undesirable emotions, is clearly essential. They must possess self-mastery over facial expression, intonation and gesture. If an officer's stout words come from an appre- hensive mind, he will not easily conceal the fact; some ex- pression or act will be apt to disclose their emptiness and thereby belie their intent. Similarly, a benefit conferred in an obvious spirit of condescension fails in the results desired through the feeling of resentment and .opposition aroused by manner. Austerity of manner closes the door to reciprocal sympathy and confidence. Over-emphasis may defeat its SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 419 own ends. In war or business relations, manner of supe- riors toward subordinates makes for or against sympathetic relations and cooperation. Not only the thing to do, but the manner of doing it, may be conveyed by suggestion. The snap and vigor with which a command is given carry with it the implication of similar qualities in its execution. Human beings are imitative, and soldiers tend to adopt the outward expressions of those whom they look upon with respect. Gestures are sugges- tive in that they carry shades of meaning which cannot be fully interpreted in words. They are used not only for direction but for emphasis. They are violent and uncon- trolled according as the individual is carried away by his emotions, as in panic. Language. Language is the chief agency for the direct transmission of ideas and the control of purpose. It is one of the components of manner, and its nature and form of expression give much information of the mental state or attitude behind it. The language of the individual is one of the qualities by which he is judged, particularly by his subordinates and to some extent by his superiors. It should always be clear and to the point, yet modified by self-re- straint. Words should be well chosen for the thought or pur- pose to be expressed, should be short, and preferably of English derivation. Sentences should also be short, clear, incisive and uninvolved, so that there may be no mistaking their meaning. Statements should be positive and direct, rather than negative, uncertain and inconclusive. Such lan- guage as " you may be able to do it," " see if you can do it," " I doubt if you can do it — but try," should be avoided in giving instructions. It is far more effective and productive of results to say " you can do it," " you are just the man to do it," " there must be a way — find it." One produces uncertainty, doubt and wavering; the other incites confidence, self-reliance and determination. 4 2o MANAGEMENT OF MEN Officers would do well to consider the phraseology of their orders, both verbal and written. Although the purpose of the srder or the instructions it is intended to convey are perfectly clear to the officer himself, it frequently happens that the language of the order is capable of quite different interpretation or construction. Before criticizing men blindly for failing to comply with orders, it might be well to look into the character of the instructions they have received. When these are taken into consideration it will perhaps ap- pear that subordinates may honestly have understood the purpose quite differently than was intended. The mentality of the persons for whom orders are intended should also be taken into consideration in formulating them. Simplicity of language is the keynote of success in issuing orders that are effective and universally understood. The language used in the orders of famous military leaders, par- ticularly before or after battle, is noteworthy for its sim- plicity, purity, forcefulness and inspirational beauty and power. Innumerable examples of these are accessible to any one caring to study them. Exaggerations and extremes should be avoided, not only as unfair, but as revealing a per- turbed or prejudiced state of mind. As elsewhere brought out, the energy pent up by the many restrictions of military life tends to find outlet through im- moderate language, cursing and profanity, especially on the part of enlisted men whose instinctive tendencies are par- ticularly repressed by their environment. This tendency was long recognized in the Articles of War, which endeav- ored to repress it by putting a penalty on the use of profane language by offirers and men, probably not only for ethical reasons but for its effect on possible human objects. If such language is used in the handling of men the results are un- fortunate. To curse a man in civil life is ordinarily to affront him through recognition of intent to insult. Occa- sionally such intent may be modified or shown to be absent by manner. Also there are men in whom the habit of pro- SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 421 fanity is so deeply seated and carried out so habitually as to be ultimately recognized as unconscious or impersonal. Such, however, are exceptions. Unquestionably, one great cause of discontent and ani- mosity, and one of the factors in desertion, has arisen from the swearing at men in the ranks by their superiors. In re- plies to a questionnaire by a large number of enlisted men, this matter was reported as one of their experiences in the military service which they bitterly resented. The indi- vidual subjected to it feels affronted and humiliated, and that his self-respect has been impaired in the eyes of his comrades if he makes no retaliation. As the latter is impossible in the military service, either by word or act, he feels that the offending superior has taken an unfair advantage of military status and authority. As an insult, he may brood over it in secret or with his friends. If quick tempered, he may resent it by disobedience of orders, assault, or other act of indis- cipline. In any case, it will produce animosity, sullenness and a passive opposition or lack of zeal which results in in- efficiency. A too common result is a state of mind in which the condition seems not only irremediable but intolerable, and absence without leave or desertion may seem the only means' of relief from the situation. Similarly, the so-called " bawling out " of men will always be resented as something personal and not warranted by higher authority. Too frequently it is not so much correc- tive as an expression of anger on the part of the superior. Here the impersonal point at issue is lost and the matter be- comes one of mental clash between individuals. All but a few officers avoid the foregoing faults. Many more non-commissioned officers are offenders. This is espe- cially the case with regard to recruits, with whom such lan- guage is used under, the mistaken idea that it promotes and emphasizes military authority. Drill masters, and others handling recruits, should be especially watched to see that they are not transgressors in this respect. If violent Ian- 422 MANAGEMENT OF MEN guage ever has any basis for use, it should be reserved for the extreme emergency, as in rallying a breaking line or stop- ping a fugitive. A tongue lashing of this sort, like the use of the whip on the draft horse, has a stimulating and steady- ing effect which is lost if it be habitual. Undue or habitual sarcasm may produce an effect similar to cursing, but to a lesser extent. The wittiness of sarcasm tends to take off the sting of the reproof while leaving the lesson. Sarcasm is not necessarily an insult and hence is not objectionable on that account. The manner in which the sarcasm is rendered denotes the quality of intent. But it is an edged tool, unquestionably useful within certain limita- tions and with certain individuals, but as a whole to be em- ployed with care and never with an apparent purpose of causing personal humiliation. It should be used as a stimu- lant rather than a repressant. Tact. Tact is the adaptation of method, manner, time and suggestion to the individual group personality of those who are to be acted upon, so that the best results may be secured. It implies mental perception whereby ability is secured to deal with others, not only without giving offense, but with the least friction. Tact may put men whole-heartedly behind plans which they had not previously looked upon with favor, smooth out difficult relationships and harmonize forces which might otherwise be harmful or antagonistic to morale. Tact im- plies not only understanding of human nature but knowledge of how to put this insight to use. It means not only knowl- edge of when and how to do things but of when and how not to do them. It implies a diplomacy which leaves even prejudice disarmed. Tact is one of the greatest assets of the good leader. Like good judgment, it is to a certain extent an endowment. But it can be taught and is susceptible of very great develop- ment in most cases. It tends to be acquired more or less SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 423 unconsciously and as a by-product resulting from human re- lationships. Lack of tact is always resented, even though the absence of hurtful motive in the pain-producing act be admitted.- The tactless superior alienates the sympathy of his men, substituting tolerance, resentment or opposition. He is soon aware of this through act or by sensing alteration in their mental attitude. This may in turn be resented as un- fair by the officer, who feels himself to have been governed in his acts by his best sense of justice. The result is further clash of wills and undesirable effect upon behavior and effi- ciency. The original proposition may be largely lost sight of through the new personal element which is injected. Every officer will recall to himself individuals and instances in which tactless methods have produced results the opposite of those desired, or where the exercise of tact has been a constant factor for good or has dissipated situations which bid fair to be very serious. Cheerfulness. Cheerfulness is one of the great objects of morale work. It. is part of the mental machinery neces- sary to getting desired results. It is an essential to high efficiency, for when men are cheerful they respond willingly to any call and give the best effort that is in them. The factors promoting cheerfulness are so many that they will not be entered into in detail here. Suffice it to say that this book as a whole is devoted to methods and measures for its development and maintenance. Closely allied to the quality of cheerfulness is that of op- timism. There is always a brighter side of things and the successful commander will look for and emphasize it. Those who look unduly on the dark side sow gloom, distrust, doubt and despair, and create a mental state which tends to make apprehensions come true. Conversely, the optimist sees the possibilities which make for success and incite to effort. 4 2 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Beside cheerfulness and optimism there is another essen- tial factor of a similar nature which makes largely for suc- cess — enthusiasm. Cheerfulness is the only entrance into the realm of enthusiasm and is as potent a factor in an army as grimness or grit. Enthusiasm comes from the Greek, and in the original means " God striving within us." It trans- forms work into play, hardships into part of the game, and failure into success. It is the difference between doing things perfunctorily because it is duty and doing them with vim and vigor because of a desire and gladness to do them. It underlies esprit de corps and means not only an appre- ciation of conditions from their better aspect, but unceasing effort for their further improvement. Enthusiasm for a task on hand ensures its successful completion. It is an old adage which says, " Where there's a will, there's a way." It might be well in this connection to caution about over- enthusiasm. Enthusiasm cannot be too great in carrying a matter through, despite all obstacles. But over-enthusiasm is sometimes disastrous, in that it may blind to vital mis- calculations. In Benjamin Franklin's philosophy occurs the maxim, "Be sure you are right — then go ahead." Per- haps it would be better to amend this by adding, " and while you are going ahead, be sure that you continue to be right." Courtesy. Courtesy is the lubricant of human relations. Army Regulations recognize this fact when they say, " Courtesy among military men is indispensable to disci- pline." It will be noted that the above quotation estab- lishes no limits as to rank or status, but applies alike and reciprocally to all in the service. By courtesy is understood politeness, originating in kindli- ness and good breeding. It is a civility in which a superior cannot afford to be outdone by a subordinate. It is often expressed quite as much by act and manner as by words. The official expression of military courtesy is the salute. This is the sign of courteous recognition between officers and men of membership in the same blood-brotherhood and SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 425 is not to be construed and enforced as evidence of the in-' feriority of individuals. The popular ' criticism of it is chiefly due to the erroneous assumption that the latter is the fact — an assumption which the attitude of inexperi- enced officers sometimes tends to justify. The salute is rendered, not to the person of the individual superior, but through him to the high command, the State and the authority which he represents and which is vested in him by virtue of his commission. In its true conception it is no relic of feudalism nor vassaldom as is often held by those in ignorance. The same salute is prescribed for the General as for the private, and it is just as incumbent upon the General to return it in a soldierly manner as it is upon the private to render it in a soldierly manner. There is no distinction whatever in the manner of saluting. All officers will do well to keep this constantly in mind. The superior may safely count on being rendered the salute in much the same manner as it is his custom to return it. .Too many officers are indifferent or listless in this re- spect. It is just as essential for officers to return the salute, when standing still, from the position of attention as it is for soldiers to render it from the position of attention under the same conditions. Officers and men alike are often judged by the quality of their salutes. At one camp, during the war, the commander ordered all new officers to attend a courtesy school to remedy their faults along these lines. Similar to the salute rendered to the superior officer is the salute rendered to the flag, which is an expression of support_to the country and the ideals which the flag itself typifies. It is not rendered to a yard of bunting, but to the sacred standard of the Nation and the traditions which it symbolizes. Presentation of arms is symbolic of offering up self and weapon. The rendering of the salute is one of the best expressions of military morale or cohesiveness. At the beginning of the Bolshevik rule in Russia, the Soviet Congress passed a reso- 426 MANAGEMENT OF MEN lution as follows: "The men in the future will not salute officers." Of this Colonel Applin wrote: " Now isn't that a trifle? Yet that small trifle has led to the telegram that reads, 'The troops have left the trenches; the artillery is being sold; officers are serving as cooks and orderlies.' " Justice. Justice is not considered here in connection with penology only. It means the rendering to every one of his just dues, whether these are rights, rewards or pun- ishment. It is the expression of the " square deal," which gives the man " what is coming to him." The success of any officer largely depends on the justice which he accords his subordinates. His powers are great and it is therefore essential that they be exercised with even- ness and fairness. Men work well in an atmosphere of im- partiality, regardless of the amount of work which they are required to do. If an idea gains ground that favorit- ism or prejudice exist, contentment is destroyed. This may be in the matter of advancement and opportunity, the assign- ment of duties other than by roster, or the inequitable aw.ard of commendation or punishment. Personalities are beneath the real administrative, who, because he is aware of their inevitable influence, takes particular care not to be led astray by them. In any matter of doubt or conflicting interest, all aspects should receive patient and equal attention. Hasty superiors who make quick judgments often fall into error through basing their conclusions on false or incomplete premises, and so lose the confidence of their men in respect to their quali- ties of judgment. Decisions must be judicial, yet a sym- pathetic element should be present. Above all, subordinates must be convinced of a desire to be fair and just. Full credit for success, as well as censure for failure, should fall inevitably where due. Discipline. Discipline is a word more or less repellant to American ears. The basis of our government is the fos- tering of individualism, and pressure from above is resented SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 427 unless in pursuance of an obligation, not only accepted but understood. As civil government rests on the just consent of the governed, so this same principle, in its essentials, ap- plies to the military service. Thus disobedience and mutiny occur in any army where there is failure to continue to give such consent. Discipline, under wise command, is enforced by public opinion and formed and directed by those above. It is the result of positive and not negative action, by which is meant that government rests on approval of what is handed down from above, rather than on its enforcement through painful experience and deprivation. Experience shows that the indiscipline of the individual makes neither for his own happiness nor that of the mass. He is a misfit, out of harmony with the scheme of things and his associates. He impedes team work and coordina- tion for a common object. Through faulty adjustment, he interferes with the effective functioning of the military ma- chine as a whole. The soldier soon comes to see this him- self; but civilian critics, in their failure to grasp the military scheme, see in discipline only an unnecessary interference with individual purposes and preferences. It is true that army discipline is not pleasant. No disci- pline is pleasant, for human instincts are such that freedom from their control is generally enjoyed. But the unneces- sary asperities can be so removed from army discipline by judicious officers that there will be little left to cause chafing. When an artillery harness is to be worn it can be worn best and most efficiently by the animal when well adjusted. Careful investigation shows that the dissatisfaction of enlisted men toward the service is not due to the general requirements of discipline so much as to the manner in which such disciplinary requirements are enforced by their supe- riors. There is no special objection to discipline per se, for its necessity is recognized. Restrictions which appearto be unnecessary to the efficient performance of duty, but which 428 MANAGEMENT OF MEN have been imposed under the presumption that they might be aids to discipline, too often have the opposite effect and arouse resentment and indiscipline through the idea that such requirements represent an arbitrary and harsh exercise of power. The martinet antagonizes those upon whose sup- port he must rely. Discipline is due to two factors, training and morale. One represents the knowledge and ability to fight, the other, the will to fight. Training affects the machinery, while mo- rale is the power that makes the machine function. Both factors are indispensable. Discipline is not a state which can be brought about by rule, but by general principles only. In their methods, no two successful disciplinarians are alike, even though similarity of results may make them seem so. With common standards, each must try in his own way and with the degree of success which his individuality permits. Military discipline is popularly understood to be a state which is necessarily created and maintained by force. The general public believes it and too many superiors practise it. Such discipline of force endeavors to compel adjustment rather than prevent maladjustment, and therein its methods are opposite to those of morale work. It is a poor method of control, for it arouses reaction and opposition. Where discipline is maintained through punishment, rather than through willing cooperation, there tends to arise a state of deception, evasion, and contest of wits between the offender and those charged with the enforcement ©f orders. Amer- ican soldiers will not long support a disciplinary system of a wholly repressive sort. If persisted in, resentment and acts of disorder may be expected. It is true that Prussian discipline rested on force and fear. It was an effective system for Teutons, for it was adapted to their racial psychology. Strongly gregarious and of in- ferior initiative, it suited them to be crushed into a state of military communism through a machine of their own making. Such a discipline is rigid and inelastic. It provides poorly SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 429 for emergency and, under adversity, it does not yield resili- ency but tends to crumble apart. A misguided soldier once expressed the idea of discipline as " doing something you don't want to do." Nothing could be more illogical, — as if, because soldiers did not want to retreat, were proof that they ought to, or, that because they would rather be anywhere else, they would demand ad- mission to the guard house. The expression, however, is in- teresting because it shows the popular understanding of dis- cipline, but the word really means something quite different. " Discipline," says the dictionary, " is the treatment suited to a disciple." And " disciple," in turn, it should be em- phasized, means " a willing follower." True discipline can- not be forced, it must' he induced. Certain results are indispensable to military efficiency. That method is best which brings the best results with the least delay and difficulty. The handling of men by appeal- ing to sentiments of honor, duty and patriotism, rather than by coercion, will usually prove superior. Human beings are best governed by the application of measures other than those of simple force. True discipline, accordingly, is the result of volition rather than of fear of punishment. It is due to stimulation rather than repression. Such a discipline exists and functions, not only while men are under the eyes of superiors, but while they are off duty, because they are in a frame of mind heed- ful of admonition and are anxious to do right. This higher form of discipline is due to the voluntary submission of the individual to a common purpose. Voluntary submission of this kind is based on knowledge, reason and idealism. It is the discipline of the Allies which, after apparent defeat for four years, still held a thin line — bent, stretched, but un- broken. It is the discipline which the psychology of the American makes best adapted to our army. If a com- mander has built up such a state of mind that his organiza- tion trusts and supports him, the force of public opinion 430 MANAGEMENT OF MEN largely replaces any official compulsion as the agency of dis- cipline. He rules, not through such unlimited and auto- cratic power as was exercised by the German officer, but by having developed a cheerful and willing obedience, which seeks to. respond to need without being driven to it. It is a spirit of mutual helpfulness in which all ranks desire to take a little of the burden off their superiors and are con- stantly watchful for the opportunity to do it. The organ- ization becomes regarded by its members as a joint-stock concern, in the success of which all, as share-holders, are in- terested. Although discipline means submission, it does not mean submission to officers so much as to the system which they apply. In the military machine, certain individuals must dominate their respective groups. If this authority is worn as a personal attribute, it is liable to be resented by sub- ordinates, which, in turn, perhaps results in rebuke or threats of punishment by the superior. Here the main point be- comes obscured through contest between self-assertions and, while outward conformance may be enforced, sullenness, ani mosity and resentment may result. This brings up the point that, while discipline is intended to control men, its meas- ures, in practise, are usually seemingly directed more to the training of the body than the mind. It teaches rather the outward conformance with the military environment than the more important purpose of inward adjustment to its characteristics. Practically everything in the military service enters as a factor for the promotion or subversion of discipline. Some- times the effect is direct and obvious; in other influences the effect is subconscious and cumulative. It is essential always, however, that there be a feeling of solidarity and group sup- port in order that there may be good discipline. When, for example, personnel is frequently transferred, a feeling of uncertainty and insecurity results that makes for disintegra- tion. On the other hand v the probability of active service SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 431 is a great aid to discipline. The guard house tends to empty itself almost automatically when troops are ordered for active service; in other words, when the purpose of disci- pline becomes concrete and imminent instead of abstract and remote. The mental acquiescence resulting from a recog- nized military necessity alters behavior. Duty. The sense of duty recognizes ideals and implies the acceptance of obligations dependent upon them. It is largely the result of artificial culture and in its nature and extent depends upon the code accepted as the standard. An appreciation of duty is the basis of trustworthiness and de- pendability. Without it, the soldier will place personal in- terests first and fail in a crisis affecting his command. Duty is at the basis of social organization and human interrela- tions. The performance of duty should be brought to the atten- tion of the men in such tactful way that they unconsciously come to regard it as a privilege rather than a matter of compulsion. Through the instincts of cOnstructiveness and self-assertion, duty, well done, should bring the glow of satis- faction. There are certain duties the very nature of which causes them to be unpleasant. But these unpleasant effects can be eliminated or neutralized by appropriate states of mind, whereby the unpleasant reaction is submerged under whole- some ones, often artificially created. Any duty that is nec- essary, however humble or disagreeable, is ennobled by that fact. But duties should be rotated as far as possible, lest there be suspicion of partiality. To make punishment of a duty is to pervert purpose and degrade duty. The relation of this to kitchen police as punishment is well worth consid- ering. The restriction of privilege serves equally good dis- ciplinary purpose. As in industrial work, it is frequently possible to so con- duct duties that the personal comfort of the men and the resulting efficiency are both promoted. In many instances 432 MANAGEMENT OF MEN there is no reason why this should not be done. That it is not done habitually is often due to the traditional and er- roneous idea that the duty of the soldier should be hard and uncompromising, even if this be unnecessary, lest he be soft- ened by so-called coddling. Commanders should reflect that the American soldier is intelligent enough to both discern and resent the imposition of needless discomfort, whether it be due to ignorance, neglect or poor leadership. The same quality of intelligent discernment also makes him cheerfully undergo equal or worse discomforts when he realizes that they are unavoidable. In the promotion of morale, an orderly routine makes for contentment. Duties should be so classified as to have an appropriate time for everything. Because the sense of duty implies the acceptance of obli- gations is no reason why it should be so overburdened and overworked as ultimately to render everything obnoxious and abhorrent which comes within the most broad concep- tion of it. Any claim that all things unpleasant and labori- ous must be done just because obligation requires it merely destroys the high ideals and fine conception of duty. Therein lies a grave danger, for by persistent pursuance of such a plan men may eventually detest the very mention of the word and everything connected with it. It will become a task-master instead of an ideal or a standard to be achieved. If a task is laborious or unpleasant it is far bet- ter to give a man some real incentive for doing it than to drive him to it under a perverted sense of duty. Patriotism. The earliest conception of patriotism con- sisted of a passion to destroy a rival tribe. Alexander the Great, to make his empire glorious, determined to bring under tribute every tribe and nation under the sun. Rome pursued the same policy in her ruthless destruction of Car- thage. Even the ancient Hebrews were not immune from the toxin of a barbarous idea of conquest. The German menace, with its " Deutschland iiber alles," represented the old school patriotism — direct in its descent from the dreams SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 433 of conquest and world dominion of Assyria and Babylon, and, in its attitude toward some other nations, very much like the Roman attitude toward Carthage. v Under the old idea, patriotism consisted in doing one's utmost to bring power, honor and glory to one's own nation, even, if expedient and necessary, at the expense of other nations. The American conception of patriotism is of a higher order — to bring power, honor and glory to the United States through honest effort, through good govern- ment, through unselfishness and not conquest, through friend- ship toward the other nations of the earth and especially the weaker, through making the name and flag of the United States honored and respected among all nations — and all this not alone for its own sake but for the benefit of hu- manity and the race. Such a conception does not belittle pa- triotism, it ennobles it. Neither a man nor a nation can exist worthily for his own or its own sake alone. Both have a part and a duty toward others in lifting civilization to a higher plane and in contributing permanent values to the life of the civilized world. This is the true conception of patriotism — and nationalism. Patriotism is the esprit de corps of a people — the merg- ing of individual minds into a national, communal mind. To this is added the factor of tradition, an intangible yet vital force, which idealizes effort and stimulates and unifies action. The traditions of American patriotism are the tra- ditions of free men — right, justice, liberty, supreme na- tional honor and the inalienable privilege of a people to govern themselves. There is no black-letter lore in the traditions of the United States, no ulterior motives of con- quest and selfish dominion, for they sprang from the prin- ciples of religious and civil liberty which still guide and de- termine the development of its destiny. All interests -,- family, class, party and the material good of the individual take their places in the scale of values be- low the ideal of patriotism. It is the neutral ground of 434 MANAGEMENT OF MEN class differences and should be an arbitration factor in all disputes between capital and labor. It should be an active quality m citizen and soldier, in capitalist and worker. Even as " Civis Romanus " was the title of honor in the days of the Roman Empire, so, even more significant to- day should be the title, Civis Americanus — an American citizen. The patriotism of the Romans was not typified by the geographical conception of a Mediterranean peninsula, nor that of the Greeks by an Adriatic archipelago. The Roman patriotism was love of the Empire, its excellence, the su- periority of its arms, the glory of its statesmen, the superb beauty of its art, its conquests. That of Greece was founded on nobility, physical and mental; on courage; on the love of the beautiful and the true, on freedom from op- pression and domination. And so, neither is American pa- triotism a mere conception of a geographical area called the United States. It is all that was best of the Greek and Roman patriotism, the spirit of the Magna Charta, the courage of Bunker Hill, New Orleans, Chapultepec, Gettys- burg, Santiago and the Argonne. Patriotism may be the medium of expression of several of the basic instincts — the creative, the self-assertive, the religious and the gregarious. It is closely akin to the fam- ily sentiment, for through the nation comes protection for the home and family. In a child it may be blind devotion, but in the man it should be an intelligent love. His coun- try's honor should be as dear to him as his own. It is the spirit of Scott's immortal lines: " Breathes there a man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own — my native land ! " Patriotism varies greatly in different countries and with different peoples. As we understand the term, patriotism is not high among certain peoples, who do not realize a na- SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 435 tional community of interests as some other nations do. In addition to tradition there enters into patriotism love of physical environment, mountains, rivers and scenery; com- mon language and hence community of modes of expressing thought ; common customs, including diet, clothing and other expressions of habit; common history; a common form of government; common industries and other economic inter- ests. Inasmuch as all of these factors are different, the con- ception of patriotism varies with the nation. One cannot understand that of another. Similarly the patriotism of any two persons in the same country is a variable. In our country, with its heterogeneous population, a con- siderable part of which is foreign born, the problem of pa- triotism is a great one and is largely linked up with the one of Americanization. An individual must have a sympa- thetic understanding of the ideals of his country and a per- sonal interest in its welfare in order willingly to encounter perils in its behalf. The immigrant of transient purpose of residence, whose life in this country is led with the view- point of an outsider, can scarcely be expected to be acutely interested in its defense. In inculcating patriotism, soldiers should be taught to regard themselves as selected men, charged by the United States as its direct representatives with the defense of the ideals of its government. Esprit de Corps. Esprit de corps is a mental state which represents the resultant of all forces making for cohesion of an organization. It is as necessary to commercial suc- cess as it is to military efficiency. It is the sense of strength and pride which comes from feeling oneself a part of a dis- tinguished and efficient organization of splendid traditions, engaged in a noble work, each member of which is giving the best that is in him to the common end. Esprit de corps is a quality developed by the commander and transmitted through subordinates until it pervades the mass. Practical psychologists recognize the influence of con- tagion as of first importance in creating " a common mind 436 MANAGEMENT OF MEN to a common end." Unusually alert, cheerful and enthusi- astic officers and soldiers should be made to feel their spe- cial value, and responsibility in communicating their spirit to the unit, and beyond it to the army as a whole. They should be made to understand that the degree of esprit de corps is largely in their hands. In sublimation, esprit de corps is a valuable agent. This relates to the accepted obligation of the individual to pre- serve the honor and welfare of his organization, and to the promotion of a comradeship which is even more effective against fear and bad conduct than the abstract sentiments of honor and duty. Esprit de corps in peace is usually based on long service; in war, on intensive service. Battles weld organizations together like nothing else. Organizations vary greatly in their degree of esprit. Where it is low, the commander has failed in one of the main attributes of leadership. Esprit expresses itself in , efficiency. The sentimental bonds of comradeship, though light as air, are strong as steel in holding men together for common purpose. The promotion of comradeship in every possible way should therefore be one of the first interests of supe- riors. It begins with the close "buddy." relationship be- tween individuals and extends through the larger group be- yond the limits of direct acquaintance. Mutual knowledge and relations between individuals and units within the same greater group, promoted in the various ways, are very valu- able in bringing this about. The intimacy within a unit by the men calling each other by their first names assists in comradeship and good feeling. Reciprocal good feeling for large units and the service as a whole should be encouraged. Similarly, it should be developed between allies. A measure to this end was taken by King George when he caused an autographed letter to be sent to every American soldier sent to England for training. The envelope was SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 437 addressed, " A message to you from His Majesty King George V." The letter read: — "Soldiers of the United States, the people of the British Isles welcome y&u on your way to take your stand beside the armies of many nations now fighting in the Old World the great battle for human freedom. The Allies will gain new heart and spirit in your company. I wish that I could shake the hand of each one of you and bid you Godspeed on your mission." Where there is lack of community of interest there will be a tendency not to give the utmost and perhaps to " loaf on the job." The highest type of morale is found where each man is so imbued with the spirit of his organization that he comes to believe that his own interests and those of his company are identical. An essential to esprit is living up to the motto, " All for one and one for all." Here help is looked for and given within the organization. If a man gets into trouble his first thought should be to tell the captain, feeling that though re- proof and admonition will be forthcoming, help will be given. The sense of equity makes a man give help to the limit that he may expect to receive it in return. Where superiors are not fully trusted and relied upon there tends to be a certain amount of passive resistance, which will none the less impair efficiency because it is unconscious. Where, a high degree of esprit de corps exists in an or- ganization, an appreciation of its high quality remains long after the efforts and difficulties that have been through are forgotten. Difficulties overcome in common are, through the instinct of sympathy, but an added bond of interreliance and comradeship. The Articles of War embody with great precision a code of conduct as to what not to do. They are negative and repressive. Under the morale idea, it is believed that each organization also should have a positive code of its own, in- dicating what should be done constructively. If such posi- 438 MANAGEMENT OF MEN tive standards were expressed in simple terms and impressed upon the men, they could not fail to have their influence on the modifying of conduct. Traditions are a powerful factor in creating esprit. They represent the crystallized ideas, needs and sentiments of the past. They are a controlling force of the greatest power in their effect on the human race, especially groups. The splendid history and traditions of his army should be brought home to the soldier to stimulate his imagination and con- fidence. When we entered the world conflict, Ambassador Jusserand voiced this idea when he said: "I accept the omen; America has never lost a war." History is similarly of great value in stimulating morale. The accomplishments of a regiment in the past set a stand- ard for the conduct and achievements of its present mem- bers. Lectures, pictures and the celebration of anniver- saries of great events are of much value. Regimental anniversaries of great achievements, with formal parades, stirring addresses, competitive sports and special dinners are very desirable. To this end, the desirability of maintaining pictorial and other historical records of an organization is obvious. For the purpose, books of photographs, with proper captions, showing the activities, stations, services, officers, etc., of or- ganizations should be maintained, and their looking over by the men, under proper restrictions to prevent damage, en- couraged. The same applies to scrap-books containing newspaper clippings, menus, programs of special events, copies of letters commending the organization or pertaining to its history. A few photographs, suitably enlarged, show- ing the organization in activity, especially copies of official war photographs, might well be framed and hung on the walls of the company office or recreation room. Community of service is necessary to esprit. One agency highly destructive of morale is the repeated and often un- explained and apparently unnecessary transfer of officers and SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 439 men, wrecking laboriously achieved efficiency, pride and ambition. In organizing new regiments, instead of creating them complete from raw material, the British increased the number of battalions as far as possible in the regiment, so that the new recruits and organizations should have the benefit of honorable traditions and high standards. Esprit de corps necessarily implies team work developed to a high degree. Efficiency is the sum total of many things — some small, some large, but all well done. With any aggregation of men working in a common purpose and toward a common end, success is the success of team work. It is the success of getting the most out of each individual and unit and making it count most for the common purpose. In unity there is strength. With unity of purpose goes special interest in the task in hand, so that each individual seeks out and makes use of all opportunities to the fullest extent. The problem of the superior in handling men is complex by reason of the necessity for making each man do not only what is best for himself but best for others. The stimulus of selfish interest must be subordinated to altruistic motives, for close military relationship imposes careful observation of the rights of others. It is almost axiomatic in the commercial world that there is no friendship between business organizations, their purpose is that of self-advancement. They function on a competitive basis, with the development of trade secrets of production and management. But within a business organ- ization, friendliness is a great asset. Fortunately outside competition does not apply in armies; instead the higher loyalty calls for cooperation. The individual must subordi- nate himself, or the unit itself, to the higher needs of the larger group. There should be mutual confidence for a common end. The reward for sharing a good method comes from having its merits recognized in its adoption for the general welfare. Legitimate competition strives merely 440 MANAGEMENT OF MEN to excel in applying common methods to the common object. Mutual helpfulness creates the feeling of loyalty, which is a state of mmd expressing itself in team work. One factor thus reacts with the other to increased advantage. Discontent. Discontent is a factor with which all officers have to deal at one time or another. Although a negative element, it has such bearing on the results of leader- ship that.it may well be discussed here. Under certain conditions of physical and mental environment discontent may become an almost continuous problem. An under- standing of the psychology of discontent is therefore of great value in solving the problems in which it is a factor. It is true that they are solvable with great precision and certainty, provided the proper procedure is followed and the correct operations performed at the right time ; but just as in mathematics, a wrong sequence of operations, or a wrong operation performed at the wrong stage of the prob- lem, will produce an incorrect result. Discontent in general may spring from an almost infinite number of causes. Whatever the cause of ill temper, a natural tendency is to extend prejudice to other things or per- sons with which there is contact. In the army, causes of discontent are more limited and can usually be quite readily traced to their source. Lowered morale is invariably at- tributable to discontent of one kind or another. It must be borne in mind that, psychologically, discontent is caused by the blocking of the denial of adequate expression or satis- faction of one or more of the basic instincts. The first step in the problem, therefore, is to determine which of the basic instincts is at the root of the trouble. With this informa- tion in hand the rest of the problem yields more readily to analysis and solution. A psychological analysis of discontent might divide it into three stages, dissatisfaction, disaffection and delinquency. These stages are progressive in the order named. The first has its origin in the primary aggravation, while the second SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 441 and third depend mainly on the intensity, continuation or repetition of the original aggravation. The rapidity of progress from one stage to another or through all three also depends to a very large extent on the continuation, intensity, spread and repetition of the original stimulus, although the personal element embodied in the individual who is subjected to the aggravation enters in this respect; his characteristics, training, mental balance and development. At any stage of the progress or development of the problem there are one or more appropriate remedial operations which can be applied. Dissatisfaction, the first manifestation of discontent, strikes at the individual and is what might be called a per- sonal affection. It may spring from disappointment, morti- fication, vexation, annoyance, regret, opposition, pain, un- easiness, disapproval, displeasure or an unsatisfied or ungratified state of mind or being. This is the easiest time to apply a remedial operation to the problem, for here it is mainly individuals, at first relatively few in number, who will have to be dealt with; thus rendering the handling simpler than when the problem advances to the group stage. Also it is attacking the trouble at its source. If the morale organization is functioning properly, the first evidences of dissatisfaction will be reported, for this is one of its chief functions. The cause should then be removed by direct or indirect measures. Disaffection is dissatisfaction which may pertain only to the individual, but it may have passed on to the group stage and in such cases may be called sympathetic affection. It often reaches this stage as a result of reasoning taking form in dissension, discordance, non-conformity, non-compliance, contradiction, denial, protest and repudiation, though not always. The result is expressed in terms of antipathetic reaction such as hostility, bitterness, rancor, alienation, dis- loyalty, dislike, ill-will, disgust, estrangement, animosity and malevolence. The remedial operation is now harder to 442 MANAGEMENT OF MEN apply, for the disease has grown and spread. A well-estab- lished state of mind must be torn down and a new and favor- able one built up. This is infinitely more difficult to do than to attack the problem in its first or dissatisfaction stage, for in addition, the original aggravation must also be removed, which in itself would have solved the problem in the first place. Before taking up delinquency, the third stage of discon- tent, it would be well to consider the actual indications of dissatisfaction and disaffection, for at this point in the prob- lem their appearance will be most obvious. Chief among them are complaint and criticism. As they represent the stage of discontent which usually precedes overt act, the importance of recognizing it and taking advantage of its warnings is obvious. Complaints are often the barometer of mental pressure and the indication of impending storm. The third stage of discontent is delinquency, which is a bad moral condition as well as a bad state of morale. Here the disease, having passed through the preliminary stages, breaks out openly and the crisis is reached. Mental state is given form and expression in act implying disorder, dere- liction, offense, misbehavior, transgression, misconduct and mutiny. It should never have been allowed to reach this stage. Remedial action now becomes a complex and in- tricate operation, for it is like locking the barn door after the horse has been stolen. But it must include everything prescribed for the first two stages, namely the removal of the original aggravation, destroying the existing bad mental state and building up a new and desirable one. Severe pun- ishment may, under certain circumstance merely add fuel to the fire, but under others drastic measures may be necessary. The remedy must be constructive rather than destructive. Discontent is thus the direct precursor of delinquency and operates as its cause. The little child, denied some grati- fication, throws down its toys, stamps its foot, says, " I'll be just as bad as I can be," and thus illustrates the relation in SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 443 its simplest form. The discontented individual, who, denied certain gratifications, slows down his production or practises sabotage to " get even " demonstrates another type. It is a fact that widowers, in the earlier period of their bereave- ment, and while not yet adjusted to their changed environ- ment, show a higher rate of delinquency in the courts than married men of the same age and class. Discontent, dissatisfaction, disaffection and delinquency represent a host of attitudes and tendencies which work counter to any smooth existence or performance. They are the natural sequence which proceeds from maladjustment to environment, whatever its nature. They are the instinctive reaction of the individual against painful surroundings in the effort to secure relief. The synonyms given under the three stages of discontent call up mental states and reactions which affect physical effi- ciency exactly as do physical depression, fatigue and ex- haustion. Both reduce snap and effort and lessen initiative and persistence. As interest and desire wane, so there de- velop indifference, fleeting of attention, sensitiveness, im- patience and resentment, with the acts of slovenliness and indifference which express them. The discordance of thought in discontent leads to discordance of action, for the mind is diverted away from common ideals and purposes. All superiors appreciate the obvious effect of physical fatigue upon the performance of work, but many do not realize the similar influence of depressed and disturbed mental state upon the result. The practical efficiency, value of prompt recognition and removal of psychologic irritants should be better understood. As contentment is a balance between expectation and real- ization, so discontent implies failure of realization to come up to expectation, with the injection of a strong emotional factor. But expectation implies standards, and these de- pend upon class and individual. Accordingly, what may be satisfactory to one may arouse discontent in another. The 444 MANAGEMENT OF MEN problem of discontent, like any other phase of morale work, thus ultimately resolves itself into the problem of the in- dividual or aggregations of individuals. Discontent is a state of mind due to an infinite number of causes in varying number and combination. There is, ac- cordingly, no wholesale remedy for it. Each case must be considered on its own merits as to nature, cause and severity. Thus the solution, in final analysis, usually falls on the company commander, but as human nature is more or less the same, general measures carried out by higher com- manders will be of essential assistance to the company of- ficers in solving the personal problems of their subordinates. But as discontent is a most destructive agency to efficiency if poorly handled, so it may be made a helpful stimulus to improvement if wisely directed. In the latter case it is the yeast of progress and has a protective value. It is responsi- ble for efforts at improvement of an environment or for the efforts of an individual to lift himself into more desirable surroundings or status. Hope, anticipation and ambition all have a basis of discontent which is thus turned into a con- structive force. Complete satisfaction with a condition im- plies no desire for change or progress; it means stagnation. Thus the problem in discontent is to check undesirable in- fluences which tend toward pessimism and relative ineffi- ciency, and to stimulate that discontent which is expressed through ambition and a higher efficiency whose purpose is betterment. Laudable discontent is not only satisfied with nothing less than the ideal but spurs the individual on in efforts to secure it. It enters into rivalry, and is a ready tool for the commander in inciting an individual or group to a desired task in which advantage can be demonstrated. Discontent is instinctively understood and imparted. It is carried, and directly and instantaneously read, in the face ' and in the little hesitations and changes of manner which denote reaction to an unpleasant environment. Under the instinct of sympathy, it tends to be expressed in words, and SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 445 thus focuses the attention of others on faults or difficulties which had previously been overlooked or disregarded but which are now magnified into matters of personal import- ance. Moreover, as the soldier lives under conditions of life which inevitably bring him into close relation to his com- rades, the factor of propinquity favors the development of states of group discontent with a rapidity rarely equaled in any other walk of life. Further, the community and sym- pathy of thought into which soldiers are molded combine to accelerate and aggravate the interreaction of mental states which in many instances find their origin in causes common to all, but affecting different individuals in diverse degree. Even a minor grievance or fault, if real, serves as a nucleus about which imaginary difficulties tend to crystallize. The importance to an organization of constantly seeking out the varying human agents of discontent, and altering their mental states, not only for their own benefit but for the sake of others, is apparent. The officer, therefore, who regards the contentment of the men as a matter not greatly concerning him, and one for the men themselves to settle, is paving the way for loss of efficiency, individual delinquency and perhaps group disorder, which he deplores when it oc- curs but has not taken measures to prevent. Great causes of discontent in the military service are rel- atively rare. Difficulties created by the enemy are accepted as part of the inevitable of war. Reasonable efficiency of leadership and supply, and support by the people, usually keep other great causes from arising. Petty difficulties, large to the sufferer but small to the onlooker, determine most matters of military discontent. They can only be ap- preciated and solved by considering them from the soldier's viewpoint. It is, after all, his state of mind, not that of his commander, that needs correction. Investigation usually shows that most of the difficulties under which a man labors are imaginary and can be cleared 446 MANAGEMENT OF MEN away by a proper approach and adequate explanation. They create, by exaggeration, their own bad psychological state. But merely because an officer recognizes a difficulty of a subordinate as imaginary is not sufficient in itself for its removal. The man himself who is laboring under the difficulty must have it shown and proven to him conclusively that his discontent is founded on something unreal. The final step in the alleviation of any discontent is, of course, the recognition of its existence, nature, extent and cause. This can only be secured by study and inquiry of the men themselves, using the morale operatives and other agents to full advantage. Suggestions as to the nature of problems of discontent should not only not be repelled, but should be elicited. Immediately on the end of a war or campaign, prompt steps are necessary to combat ennui, homesickness, and be- lief that there no longer exists necessity for sacrifice. Here the attitude of officers is all important in its effect upon the spirits and morale of the men. In setting a good example, o-fficers may be applying desirable methods of prevention or cure to themselves. Pleasurable activity is the best measure against painful introspection. Interesting tasks keep thought off self and pass away time until adjustment has been better accom- plished or the offending agent removed. Work alone is not sufficient. It must be mixed with play, and the character of the play should be varied. The participation of the men as actors, rather than spectators, is essential to the best re- sults. Complaint and Criticism. By complaint we understand the expression of pain, grief or resentment; criticism implies censure or an unfavorable judgment or opinion. Both of these express discontent and disapproval. They usually precede offense or disorder and represent the effort of the individual to put his state of mind into words and thereby relieve his mental tension. SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 447 Criticism, as ordinarily employed, is a marked depressant of morale. Used freely and captiously it tends to break the spirit of the subject. On groups it is productive of un- certainty and discord and is destructive of unity of purpose and action. Unjust criticism may rancor for months and, if spoken in the presence of others, may embitter the in- dividual toward whom it is directed. The tendency of criticism is to direct itself less toward things and condi- tions than toward the persons who are held responsible. It inclines to be not only personal but superficial, often pro- ceeding from false or incomplete premises. The proper values of perspective are often lost. It is a peculiar psychological fact that men who are pre- pared to risk all and sacrifice everything are often quite ready to criticize bitterly minor faults and complain of trifles if it appears to them that these faults and trifles are unnecessary and that no military benefit will accrue from their having undergone such discomforts. After every war or campaign, a mental reaction sets in and an epidemic of discontent, homesickness and criticism results. Marked mental depression occurs and suicide be- comes more frequent. The reason for this altered mental state is the sudden withdrawal of the motive which acted as a stimulant to the spirit. Even though duties were un- changed, the force that impelled to effort was withdrawn and had to be replaced by other forces, and the progress of replacement was not always successful. One of the greatest handicaps to efficiency in our army is the tendency to criticize to excess, for the American feels at liberty to express his views freely on all subjects. Usually this criticism is based on limited viewpoint or im- perfect knowledge. The higher the rank of the critic, the greater his influence and the wider the extent of the dam- age done. No officer should ever criticize a superior in the presence of subordinates if he does not wish to weaken his own influence over them. They will be* quick to follow his 448 MANAGEMENT OF MEN example and, in turn, subject his own methods and himself to unfavorable comment. Moreover, the element of criti- cism is directly opposed to community of purpose; discord- ance of thought results either in discordance of act or failure to carry it out to the fullest extent. Paragraph 5, Army Regulations, is the law on this subject of criticism. Loyalty enters into morale. There must be unswerving allegiance, absolute fidelity and unchanging support toward leaders, organization, country and cause. When once a plan is adopted by higher authority, or an order issued, it is the duty of all to carry it out to the fullest extent, in spirit as well as letter. Admiral Jervis once said: " I dread not the seamen; it is the indiscreet, licentious conversations of the officers and their presumptuous discussion of the orders they receive that produce all our ills." Helpful criticism, used constructively, is an agent for the disclosure and correction of fault and thus serves a most necessary and important purpose. Fair criticism, if judi- ciously used, may act like the whip which, occasionally em- ployed, stimulates the draft animal to proper and coordi- nated effort. But it must be more than the mere showing up of fault; it should carry with it the direction or sugges- tion of a better procedure. Human progress toward better- ment is possible only by constructive criticism of things as they are ; the art of war or industry will never crystallize into a perfect science. Ordinarily, only constructive criticism, in which a better alternative is offered, is good. Such criticism should be invited rather than repelled or resented. The manner in which such criticism is given is important. Courtesy and impersonality are indispensable. These factors largely in- dicate the intent of the criticism and therefore determine the mental state in which it is received. Sometimes unfair criticism, by provoking resentment, may rouse to activity in the effort to demonstrate its injustice. Like discontent, criticism may thus become a power for good or for harm, SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 449 depending on purpose, method and manner of employment. Complaints and critical states of mind on the part of the men will necessarily be found to exist and will often be re- ported to higher authority. It is a natural tendency for superiors to resent such criticism, especially if founded on error. But such criticism is not without psych jlogical value, for it enables fault to be traced to its source and gives the men an outlet to ventilate their grievances, real or imaginary. Such " blowing off steam " relieves mental tension. Mental stress in any one is allayed by opportunity to get a doubt or difficulty "off his mind." Men in a depressed or critical state of mind will ordinarily seek, to express it to somebody, and it is better to have it come to the attention of those who can correct fault, explain error, or give the personal sympathy unconsciously being sought than to have relief looked for by complaint to the ignorant, misinformed or ir- responsible. Having an officially available outlet for fair criticism is often sufficient in itself to allay difficulties. Officers should be receptive and sympathetic to- the statements of their men, whether the difficulties concerned are general or personal, real or imaginary. An official outlet for complaints has been tried in the " want boxes," similar to the complaint or suggestion boxes in clubs, which were posted in various camps and hospitals for receiving matters of complaint or opinions regarding things which seemed to require remedy. Experience showed that as soon as a vent for public opinion was created in this way, and its existence and purpose was. well understood, the complaints themselves fell off rapidly — almost to the vanishing point. The average subordinate, if he finds that his complaints are given careful considera- tion, ceases to make them except for strong reasons. He does not, on the one hand, wish to be found in error, and on the other he acquires confidence in the alertness of the su- perior in the welfare of his men, whereby he can be trusted to determine and correct most defects. 45Q MANAGEMENT OF MEN Every complaint should be carefully investigated, whether apparently sound or not. If this is done, unsound com- plaints will soon cease and the ones received will be those expressing facts and revealing faults which require remedy. Often action can be taken which will result in a particular complaint never occurring again. Acting on complaints is one of the best evidences of interest and builds up good will. What the complainant wants is interest and a de- cision; he is quite as well satisfied if the latter goes against him provided he is made to see the justice of it. The manner in which superiors receive complaints is im- portant. If done in a grudging or irritable way, the man feels that there is lack of interest in his problems and that there is small chance of justice being done. Complaints should be listened to patiently. Some are just, some not. But the point is that the complainant thinks he has suffered an injustice. If this be true, the physical fault should be remedied; if not true, his faulty state of mind should be corrected. A fancied ill has the same effect on the individ- ual as the actual existence of the conditions about which he is complaining. Any serious disagreements among the men should ordi- narily be brought to the company commander. Their han- dling may not be pleasant, but it will generally mean the settling of differences without rancor and to the betterment of morale. In some instances the complainant is at fault. This is not due to intentional error but to misunderstand- ing. Any undesirable reaction which has developed can readily be removed by a plain statement of facts and an appeal to the individual from the standpoint of explanation, logic and esprit de corps. In many matters brought up by aggrieved individuals who want higher authority committed and involved, the wise officer will transpose the words of the sign at the railroad crossing and "Look, Listen — and Stop." His purpose should be to limit trouble and disagreements in so far as may SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 451 be consonant with justice. Misunderstanding of orders is quite a prolific source of discontent and trouble. Here ex- planation is all that is necessary to remove the difficulty. The apparent disregard of the importance of the time factor in the functioning of the government machinery is a frequent source of complaint. The latter is so complex and ponderous that the results desired, although finally appear- ing, are not infrequently delivered too late. Such instances tend to arouse bitterness on the part of those affected, and contempt for the efficiency of official methods in compari- son with the more direct ones of civil life. Some of the checks on rapid action are matters of law and cannot readily be changed. Others depend on regulations requiring too great centralization, resulting in a large number of indorse- ments by various persons; this it may be possible to amend within the service. Still others, and perhaps the most im- portant and annoying, depend upon failure of administrative officers to give quick decisions and see that the action pre- scribed is promptly carried out. Here every officer is con- cerned in so stimulating the transaction of military business as to overcome official inertia. A few chronic grumblers and ringleaders in discontent will be found in every considerable group. Such pessimists rep- resent separate and individual psychological problems and should be sought out and dealt with appropriately. They represent a type recognized as the unpleasant companion; the tendency of others is to avoid them. It is just this class, however, that should be the particular concern of morale work, not only for their own state of mind but for their reaction on others. Every such case has some reason back of it, and whether this be valid or merely fancied has no effect on results. This type of men is not easy to handle by direct means. Usually such avoid breaches of regulations, but subtly sap esprit de corps and morale through a passive opposition to authority which is at once doubly dangerous and hard to 452 MANAGEMENT OF MEN allay. They are in a way possessed of some qualities of leadership and strong character. The problem is to turn such leadership from a negative purpose to one of positive advantage. This can be done, and not rarely such men can be changed into pillars of strength for the organization, but only after a thorough understanding of the personality of such offenders and a careful selection and application of the agencies which are to bring about the desired change in men- tal attitude and outward behavior. No two such individuals can be treated alike. Some need praise, others punishment; some responsibility, others change of duty. All will need to have their personal interests and preferences considered in respect to any measures applied. Knowledge Concerning the Men. An old Greek recipe for making a good citizen read: " Know thyself." A mod- ern recipe for making a good officer might equally well read : " Know thy men."' Personal leadership is based on an understanding of human nature. " The proper study of mankind is man." In his book, General Ludendorff said : — " There is yet another requirement, an understanding of the morale of one's troops and of the peculiarities of the enemy. . . . The greater the task, the more important do these moral factors become. Confidence and faith in ultimate victory are the bonds which unite the commander and his troops." In their mental make-up, no two men are exactly alike. But men as a class are much alike. " One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin." Human nature in general, on analysis, will be found to rest on certain general principles. These are capable of broad application, though particular cases require particular handling. An officer, to have a real hold on his men, so that he can sway their states of mind, must know them and care for them. He must enter their lives, hopes, fears, joys and sorrows as much as may be proper. Then he will know what they really think and can play Upon their mental state SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 453 as on an instrument of which he 'has learned the strings and stops. Nor is this subversive of discipline if done with common sense, any more than the kindness of the father is subversive of his son's obedience and general conduct. The good company officer will know his men not only collectively but individually. His first duty will be to study the roster until he cari associate the name with each individ- ual. Every human being appreciates recognition of his per- sonality. One of the greatest assets of a politician is ability to call a name and bring up some incident of identification and remembrance. It means much to discipline to be able to call a man " Smith " or " Jones " instead of hailing him as " you man." The latter blocks the instincts of self- assertion and sympathy and makes the man feel that he is nothing but a cog in a machine in whom the superior has little or no human interest. The training camp plan of hav- ing the men wear their names stitched on the left breast is very valuable in the case of recruits whose identity has not yet been fully established. Also the wise company commander will know his men personally as individuals. He will know their racial and temperamental characteristics, their weaknesses and strengths, their hopes and apprehensions, the things they do well or ill and the spirit that animates them. He will en- deavor to find out about their life before enlistment, their families and friends and their educational, social and voca- tional opportunities. He will constantly endeavor to know their state of mind, their attitude toward the military serv- ice in general, their frame of mind toward any local military situation and the minor factors which tend to raise or de- press their morale. He should secure such information about their difficulties, desires and prospects for the future so far as may be done without offense, and should use the information thus acquired to the advantage of the soldier for the benefit that will thereby accrue not only to him but through him to the organization. He will turn it to prac- 454 MANAGEMENT OF MEN tical account so that qualities of weakness may be removed and those of strength increased. Such knowledge of a man and his capabilities will, in the aggregate, save a vast amount of inefficiency and friction in placing him where his qualifications and talents may be utilized to best advantage. The man himself, as well as his qualification card, should be studied. In studying men, the officer should consider not only their obvious qualities but look for latent possibilities, with a view of developing or curbing them where appropriate. If considered especially adapted to a certain line of work, the soldier should be told where his greatest field of usefulness would seem to lie. While in showing strength, it may be possible without offense to show points of weakness. Much of the information desired can only be secured from the man himself. This, may be tactfully elicited, but unless the man has confidence in his officer much will be withheld; so too if he be formally questioned. To get the best results in all matters of personal difficulty, the man should be put at ease by being told to sit down and official military relationship thereby temporarily dispensed with. The company commander should study and understand his organization from the collective standpoint, from race and temperament. Particularly is he interested in the spirit which pervades it, for upon that its efficiency depends. Con- tact with a number of individuals will give such informa- tion. Where higher officers cannot know their men individually by reason of their numbers, they should recognize them as falling under certain types, which in many instances will give reasonably correct ideas as to best methods of approach and management. Superior officers whose rank is such that they cannot fully know their men can nevertheless require that their junior officers secure such information. Leadership depends on a knowledge of human character. Successful leaders always study their men, though this is SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 455 often done more or less unconsciously and without specific purpose in view. Under morale methods, such study is to be done deliberately, systematically and thoroughly and as a means of reaching definite ends. No officer can do every- thing himself, and much must be left to his subordinates. His efficiency is not based upon what he himself can do per- sonally but on what his subordinates accomplish. It U on this that he is rated, and according as the rates are high or low he is classed as a good or a poor officer. Thus the direct relation between knowing men and an officer's own efficiency becomes obvious. The officer can predict what any soldier will do in propor- tion as he personally knows his character and the general tendency of his responses to stimulation. From close ob- servation of his organization he can infer with much exact- ness what the reaction of his particular group will be toward its environment. He can thus forecast and create reaction and conduct. Ability to talk to a soldier in a way that indicates a com- prehensive knowledge of him as a man is one of the surest ways to his confidence and to creating the belief that, in emergency, his personal interests will be safeguarded as far as possible because they have been recognized. But the officer who attempts to handle his men on the basis of his own personal psychology is doomed in advance to failure. He can work effectively only by recognizing their own psy- chology through their thoughts, ideals and acts. These are the basic factors of his problem. In determining character, everything pertaining to the man should be considered — physical, mental and moral qualities, appearance, manner and performance of duty. Attention to the subject, checked up by experience, will give a high degree of proficiency in sizing up men. In this, the psychological ratings are of material assistance. While estimation of an individual from personal appearance is useful, it is open to a certain element of error, depending on the knack of the 456 MANAGEMENT OF MEN superior in sizing up men. Some men on entering the serv- ice are " rough diamonds " who merely need polishing to determine their sterling qualities. Nor is there any com- mon standard of estimate, for one officer may put an over- estimate on the value of certain elements where another might underestimate them. The only way to become pro- ficient is by the systematic checking up of first impressions in the light of later acquaintance, thus perfecting the measur- ing rod of experience. Another point to consider is the matter of the duty to which the individual is assigned. If this be adapted to him, the result may be the bringing out of all the qualities which were anticipated; but if uncongenial or over-difficult it may cause their repression, resulting in non-conformance to the original conclusion. First estimates should therefore be tentative and subject to modification by experience. A man who may not show up well in one position may demonstrate exceptional efficiency in another. The proper handling of men calls for patience, tact, judg- ment and many other qualities. Knowledge to this end is best acquired by experience, for it includes many things not yet covered by books. Yet, on the other hand, books are invaluable in bringing up suggestions for attitude and ad- ministrative conduct which would otherwise, in part at least, be overlooked. The experiences of others form a helpful guide and help to eliminate the mistakes which would result from working entirely on the basis of trial and error. In large commands, it is of course impossible for the su- perior to know all of his subordinates. Personal knowledge of this sort, like detail of other kind, can only be had by the company officer. But if the high commander cannot know all his men, the next best thing is to have the men know him by seeing him and hearing about him, thereby establishing a sympathetic understanding. Relation Between Officers and Men. The relation be- tween officers and men is a subject of much popular interest SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 457 in civil life. It is also a matter of the greatest military im- portance in its bearing on efficiency, for the extent of sym- pathy existing between superior and subordinate determines coordination of purpose and success in result. The adminis- trative relation of the officer to his men is far more ex- tensive and complex than that of persons in charge of men in civil life. The officer is responsible for them throughout the twenty-four hours. He sees that they are physically cared for, are clothed, housed, fed and kept free from dis- ease. He has direct or implied responsibility for, and power over, their morals and conduct. He supervises not only their work but their play. Their interrelations with each other, and with the surrounding community, are a part of his concern. He not only touches every one of their official problems but many which are of a personal nature, and possesses the power to rectify much that may be bad or pro- mote that which is good. He is thus the directing force which exerts pressure on the soldier through the military environment. The tools and agencies are placed in his hands ; it behooves him to use them intelligently and effec- tively. Many persons in civil life, and quite often officers newly appointed from civil life, cannot conceive that there should be any difference in the status or distinction between officers and men when not in formations. Such overlook, or choose to ignore, the fact that wide divergence in education and other qualities necessarily create differences of character and purpose. They would not expect the general manager and the day laborer in a factory always to find each other mu- tually congenial. It is of course true, especially in time of war, that there are many individuals of high educational and social qualifications in the ranks who have not yet had time and opportunity to demonstrate their fitness for commis- sioned status. Such, however, demonstrate no special desire to have social relations with superiors, but rather the re- verse, and the same applies to enlisted men as a whole. 458 MANAGEMENT OF MEN As an extreme, one finds the occasional tactless officer who, imbued with exaggerated ideas of rank and authority, uses his conferred status to impress subordinates with his military and social superiority. Such assume a caste which has no place in American institutions. Their attitude is resented by subordinates, who quite possibly may be both by birth and education their social and intellectual supe- riors. This is similarly true in industry. The wise officer will set a middle course between extremes. His problem is to bring himself as close to the enlisted man as may be without impairing his status and weakening his authority. He will be on conversational terms with the men, so that they can talk to him freely and frankly without embarrassment or fear. This relation should be personal, frank and candid. It is not one sided, but mutual. Mili- tary and social status should have nothing to do with it. It is the controlling relation between the head of a family and its members. This does not mean familiarity on either side. There is an old saying that " familiarity breeds con- tempt," and nowhere is this more true than in military life. Officers who neglect the importance of a certain respect to be paid to rank are never fully successful in the management of their men. Too intimate association sacrifices the ele- ment of prestige, which is such an important factor in com- mand. For this reason, relations, while close and cordial, should be sympathetic rather than social. The relations between officers and enlisted men while off duty are those which any officer of good taste, manners and judgment will instinctively adopt, and which the enlisted men will appreciate without improper presumption. Civilians ignorant of military customs may unwittingly create sit- uations which only tactfulness and good breeding on the part of the officer and men can save from being embarrassing to all concerned, and which should be met in ways most appro- priate to the situation. During the war, the border mobilization of militia, and SOME ELEMENTS OF LEADERSHIP 459 at other 'times, questions have arisen in connection with the patronage of civilian clubs, etc., by both officers and en- listed men. Many clubs extended their privileges to enlisted men, especially where they were members of other clubs on a reciprocating status. Under such conditions, the club usually took on the character of a " no man's land " in which military rank was not actively presented. The viewpoint of the men on this subject is shown by their comments on the disciplinary relations between officers and men in a questionnaire filled out by 138 1 enlisted men at the time of their discharge after the Armistice after an average length of service of from 10 to 6 months. It should be noted that the great majority of their officers were new to the service and inexperienced in management of men. The replies relative to existing disciplinary relations were : — Undemocratic 155 Unnecessary 135 Harsh 140 Necessary but undemocratic 35 Necessary but need not be so harsh 34 Depends on officers 193 Not harsh 295 Democratic ' 278, Necessary 767 Not replying 1 74 To the question, " Could discipline be maintained when officers and men mingle on terms of intimacy and famil- iarity?" the answers were: — Yes 275 No 1007 Not replying 99 To the question, " Does the soldier lose his self-respect on account of this relation? " the answers were: — Yes 361 No 976 Depends on officer 74 Not replying 65 460 MANAGEMENT OF MEN To the question, " Could treatment be fair if this relation did not exist? " the answers were: — Yes 264 No 1004 Depends on officer 40 Not replying 73 In the foregoing replies many criticisms were leveled at the overbearing manner in some of the younger, inexperi- enced officers. Many of the men, however, seemed to see in this attitude merely greater inexperience in the handling of men rather than a desire to be unduly strict with them. Most of the men took the common sense ground that suc- cess in the administrative relations between officers and men depended upon the ability, thoughtfulness and tact of those in authority. This is obviously an argument for giving not only officers but civilian superiors special instruction and training in respect to human relations in the military service and in industry. CHAPTER XIII EDUCATION, INFORMATION AND TRAINING Principles governing education and training; learning has value only in behavior; faults of understanding ; some principles of peda- gogy in relation to military training; primacy, recency, frequency and vividness; association and explanation; incentive and interest; repeti- tion and monotony; mental and physical fatigue; memory and the subconscious mind. Education and vocational training; their value as morale agents; relation to recruiting; some necessary phases of in- struction; physical means for accomplishment. Information; com- parison with education; its relation to .certain instincts; its necessity to common purpose; the thinking man and his need for reasons; ex- planations. Orders, informative and inspirational ; examples of the latter; special citations. Uncertainty ;■ its influence on behavior. Rumors; their importance and dangers; impairment of contentment; violent reactions from rumors expressed in disorder; means of pre- venting or neutralizing rumor. Erroneous statements ; their effect on conduct and morale. Disloyal propaganda; methods for its opposi- tion.. Publicity: its value in morale work; proper function of pub- licity; military attitude toward it; morale results of publicity; undesirable publicity; the public press; correction of erroneous ideas; suppression of news; various agencies for publicity. Cam1> publications; their practical value; suggestions as to employment and administration. The library; its purpose; effect of literature on mental state and conduct; popularization of library. Pictures and posters; the universal language; special appeal to the illiterate; psy- chological principles of posters. Mail service; letter writing; home communication. Symbols and slogans; their value and use; spenal epigrammatic appeals and titles. Drills,' parades and ceremonies; their mental and inspirational value. Principles Governing Education and Training. Every- thing in the world is undergoing a process, of change, de- velopment or progress, and will continue to be subject to it, though perhaps only in a small degree. The entire universe is operated under certain functions which we call natural laws, and from these the changing of man himself for the better is not excluded. Education and training are nothing 461 462 MANAGEMENT OF MEN more nor less than intentional and systematized human effort to accomplish this progress and development along desirable lines. This is modified by a vast number of un- noticed influences for good or bad, functioning incessantly. The more these influences are recognized and controlled, the better the result. Unfortunately, results have been given the most attention, and relatively little study devoted to the scientific methods by which they may be best brought about. The psychology of pedagogy is in its infancy. Training is the result of environment, chiefly human. It influences mind and feelings, furnishes ideals, outlines con- duct, and makes the individual conform to its requirements. After a man secures a certain amount of information, he tends to form an opinion and vigorously defends and acts upon the same. The purpose of training, then, is to develop ideals upward to a point in which conduct not only contents the individual but benefits his associates. All learning has a value only as it may be expressed in appropriate behavior. It creates a psychological factor which helps to determine ensuing act. Education means preparation for an environment which may later be imposed, so that adjustment to it may be accomplished as efficiently and quickly as possible. Military education and training are the efforts to constantly increase the proportion of the known to the unknown in preparing for the many situations encountered in combat. They represent an effort to secure desired responses when certain military conditions are pre- sented. Special training, such as bayonet exercise, is merely the development of a special reaction to a special situation. The same applies to special training in industry. In the stress of battle, the officer can exert little influence over the soldier, who for the time becomes almost an inde- pendent unit, mechanically carrying out the movements in which he has been rehearsed until they have become habit. The purpose of preliminary training is thus to enable the soldier to act calmly, methodically and efficiently in situations EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 463 which would naturally tend to upset standards of conduct as a result of the desire for self-preservation. Training thus confers a facility which is more or less me- chanical in the execution of acts. It makes the horrors and hardships of war much less noticeable as a result of mental concentration on a definite purpose. It gives confidence, in that the soldier vaguely recognizes that if his mind becomes confused in combat, his subconscious mind will cause his trained muscles to carry on the task and his defensive and aggressive powers thus continue. Mass training also gives the sense of solidarity and greater reliance on the group. The man does not readily yield to an individual emotional state if the group behind him is unaffected. On the other hand, it renders him more liable to react to suggestion from without, especially of the officers over him. Ideas are gathered from an infinity of sources. Mainly they are unconsciously gathered. The latter is important in connection with the use of suggestion. Some seem to pro- ceed on the theory that if a soldier is told something in words, he is sure to understand. In many instances this is not the case. The statement of a proposition does not nec- essarily imply that it has reached the man's understanding. The lower the intelligence or literacy of the individual, the more this is true. Some men have not the imagination to call up a mental picture, appropriate to the words. Visual- ization convinces. If this cannot be employed, a suitable parable may be effectively used to embody the thought. In any case, information should be given in simple, clear lan- guage and homely illustration, with checks to see that it is thoroughly understood. The impression of the men in re- gard to training should be that superiors are interested in informing them in useful ways for their own benefit. Errors made by subordinates are not rarely due to faulty instructions given them by those over them. The art of teaching and imparting instruction is largely based on the science of psychology. This is so true that a working knowl- 464 , MANAGEMENT OF MEN edge of psychology is now usually required of those who would be teachers. Yet the army, which is a vast educa- tional establishment, overlooks this fact. This does not mean that the drill sergeant must be a psychologist; it does mean that beside a knowledge of the mechanics of drill he should have a natural aptitude for understanding and han- dling men. The inability of the recruit to do a certain thing reasonably well in a reasonable time may or may not be his fault; sometimes it may be due to an instructor who does not possess the faculty of imparting information. The re- quirements of a good instructor include sound knowledge of the subject, confidence and method in approach, an under- standing of the 'difficulties of the instructed, ability to judge individual differences, and a sympathetic attitude. He should also furnish a desirable example. Pedagogy has long recognized that one of the most im- portant factors in teaching is the art of asking questions in such a way as to bring to light the knowledge and ability of the student. This principle is too greatly disregarded in military training. Men are told to do a thing without being informed as to its reason or purpose, while inquiry as to these fundamentals or the methods of carrying them out is rarely instituted. If the man learns blindly and unintelli- gently, the results are slow in development and success is mechanical, not intelligent. Accordingly, questions should be used to emphasize facts, test knowledge and stimulate thought. Questions should be clearly expressed in novel form, be heard and understood by all, asked before designat- ing the individual to reply, be directed to the bright and dull without regular order and should be of sufficient scope and not too difficult for the group. They should relate not only to memory answers but thought answers, any necessary as- sistance being given in the latter, often through appeal to other students. Some men fail in a task, not because of actual inability to do it, but because they lack confidence in themselves and their EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 465 capacity to carry it out. The moral strength of this class merely needs reinforcing by suggestion or reassurance. Others are so nervous as to be unable to do their best under excitement. In such cases, simple tests should first be given in matters in which the individual is best informed, to serve as mental " shock absorbers " and thus replace excitement by confidence. Moral qualities are not always absolute and inseparable. Often they are relative and depend upon a variety of con- ditions. It has been found repeatedly in industry that ap- parent listlessness or laziness was not necessarily due to moral defect but to the fact that the individual did not like his work or had not the qualifications to pursue it effectively. Such an individual, transferred to a task more nearly cor- responding to his inclinations and capacity, may develop an admirable degree of industry and energy. The foregoing is true in a quantitative as well as a qualita- tive sense. For example, an individual may undertake a task with a considerable degree of natural enthusiasm and industry. If he succeeds at this task within a reasonable length of time, he is likely to maintain and even increase these qualities. If he fails, he may gradually lose them. Here enters the factor of exhaustion of moral resistance and energy due to difficulty or unfitness for the task to which assigned. It may be that the task should be changed — or, on the other hand, an accession of moral strength to master the situation may suffice. The planning of instruction should be carried out in re- spect to necessity, the points to be covered, the review, ad- vance and future assignment, with division of time for each. The aim and method must be worked out in advance and not left to development. With all this goes the need of showing those under instruction how to profit best by in- struction and study, through a clear understanding of as- signment, a knowledge that results depend on aim and pur- pose, ability to organize and judge the value of the subject 466 MANAGEMENT OF MEN matter, effort to supplement information by individual thought, and development of memory by compelling its ac- tion through volition. In respect to the processes of learning, a few general facts need to be considered. It is as important to efficient results to reduce mental action and shorten its processes as it is to abridge physical acts by cutting out unnecessary movements. Learning is a matter of memory, which de- pends in turn upon the phenomena known as retention, re- call, association, correlation and recognition. Retention means memorizing; recall, association and correlation are association with something with which it has been connected; recognition means remembrance only when the thing is pre- sented. Certain laws are important in respect to the making of mental impression. These relate to primacy, recency, fre- quency and vividness. Primacy means that early impres- sions tend to be definite and lasting. Recency means that, other things being equal, the last impressions are best re- membered. Frequency means that the most repeated are best remembered. Vividness means that what makes the best impression is longest retained. Hence in impressing a point, the original assertion should be followed by repetition and frequency. Explanation should be added, for the more interest that is excited in the subject, the greater the desire for knowledge. Association is strengthened by explanation, which gives logical learning, for it creates a number of associated lines of thought which lead to the original. The direction of approach should be varied; if possible the channels of more than one instinct should be used, and in any case its form should be changed. The approach should be brief, clear and to the point. Mere facts, as such, have no value in the control of con- duct. It is only when they have some worth and appear valuable to the individual that they lead to action. There must be feeling, desire, approval or opposition in order to EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 467 make fact the starting point of action. Therefore, it is of little or no use to teach men unless their interest can be aroused in the subject taught. A knowledge of military organization does not make a good soldier unless he is in- terested in playing an effective part in making the machine function. To form a habit for training purposes, conscious- ness must be focused on the movements to be made auto- matic, there must be attentive repetition, and repetition must be allowed to occur until the habit is formed. The value of experience chiefly depends upon analysis of certain results and methods, whereby general principles may be recognized which can be applied to similar, though not identical, situations in the future. Thus the value of ex- perience rests mainly upon the analytical powers possessed by the individual, for only matters resulting in great per- plexity and embarrassment are usually brought by the in- dividual to others for their comment and advice. It fol- lows that superiors should constantly bring the relation of cause and effect in military procedure to the attention of their men, especially those of poorer mentality. In training, mere repetition is not fully effective. There must be attention. This means that if an exercise or drill becomes lifeless and mechanical, it should be stopped or varied. As the power of giving attention is limited, the fewer the objects of such attention, the better the result. Too many such objects, and too complicated methods, merely confuse. In the same way, distractions have a disturbing effect upon mental state and concentration. Training should, accordingly, be carried out under conditions where distractions are at a minimum. Novelty of environment serves to distract, while distraction decreases with greater familiarity. Disciplined will-power can often overcome out- side distractions. The noise of battle may be practically unheard by those who have set their minds on the accom- plishment of an object. A most important factor in learning is the maintenance of 468 MANAGEMENT OF MEN interest and the will to learn. Training should stimulate a disposition to acquire new facts and habits, for this inclina- tion is as valuable to final results as the facts and habits actually acquired. Men will take to drill and training with avidity as long as there seems a motive for them, but as soon as they seem purposeless, excessive or unnecessary, they become drudgery and vexatious. There must be a motive by which work and sacrifice may be shown worth while. The degree of interest and attention evoked is judged by results and not by the acts of the instructor. The latter must be prompt, prepared and enthusiastic in purpose. At- tention relates to the changeableness of consciousness, phys- ical position, movement, change in tone, tempo and point of view, simple methods of approach, visual instruction, group- ing work about interesting problems and stimulating initia- tive and emulation. If the soldier's interest is not evoked, his movements are mechanical and mental impression is relatively slight. He must have his mind on his work in a pleasurable and absorb- ing manner, thus introducing the factor of personal interest. The little benefit which men derive from irksome, monoton- ous,, mechanical drill is proverbial. On the other hand, the recent war has shown how unexpectedly good results can be rapidly obtained when the men are interested in knowing and doing. Only the things that the man wants to learn are likely to be remembered. As an example, inability to describe the face of a watch that is looked at many times a day for years, but for a different purpose, may be mentioned. On the other hand, the individual making his way over un- familiar country for the first time and impressed with the necessity of finding his way back, is able to describe in con- siderable detail the salient features of the landscape. While work is novel, interest is instinctively excited. This explains the zest with which children enter into a new game or the recruit attempts an unfamiliar drill. Too con- tinued practice, however, results in spontaneous loss of in- EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 469 terest, and a feeling of monotony, perhaps amounting to disgust, tends ultimately to arise. Men chafe under con- tinued instruction in matters in which they are' reasonably qualified. Where monotony is great the attention wanders and the soldier becomes absent-minded and his movements more automatic. Proof of this is found in the fact that accidents, due to inattention, occur most frequently at the period of maximum productivity in certain industries where movements are few. Monotony, from the psychological point of view, is due more to the state of mind than to the environment. In the soldier it is due largely to absence of incentive and interest. If these can be artificially stimulated and restored to tasks of repetition, as in drills, for example, by music, the idea of monotony is lost. Variations in military duties are very valuable in relieving monotony and adding interest. Field problems are particularly useful in this respect, especially if the enlisted men are given sufficient information as to what they are trying to do and how well the results are accom- plished. This brings in the factor of personal interest which makes each human unit, however humble, do his best. In its lowest form, learning is acquired for the meeting of immediate needs, and the incentive is found in attaining pleasure and avoiding pain. Curiosity, however, enters as a higher and much more important incentive to learning facts of perhaps no immediate value or application. It is important in training, therefore, that curiosity be not blocked, but that it be satisfied by explanation and stimu- lated to provoke further inquiry. Similarly, where there is learning by doing, the instinct of constructiveness is satis- fied. If the final result is reasonably creditable, self-asser- tion is gratified — and the latter is enhanced if external rec- ognition of success is recorded. In training, skill wanes as interest falls off. The com- bination of monotonous drill, tired and confused men and a sarcastic drill sergeant is productive only of poor results. 47o MANAGEMENT OF MEN An irritable instructor, captious in his criticism, slows down the very efforts he was endeavoring to hasten. The sting in biting sarcasm often draws attention away from the act being criticized and makes the result more unsatisfactory. What is wanted is enough of a stimulus to arouse attention, but not antagonism. There is a tendency for reactions resulting in a satisfying state to make a more lasting mental impression than those reactions which temporarily annoy. This is recognized in the advertising adage, " The recollection of quality remains long after the price is forgotten." The plain lesson for officers is to see the desirability of voluntarily promoting pleasurable sensations as an offset to the unpleasant ones which necessity may impose. Where the element of pleas- ure-can be incorporated in a military function, as music with drills, it should be done. If the instinct of play can be utilized in drill work, pre- sentation may be varied while principles remain the same. This avoids monotony and loss of interest, which tends to neutralize the effect of repetition. In all training, the ele- ment of competition should, as far as possible, enter, — man against man, group against group, and organization against a like unit. This gratifies not only rivalry, but self-asser- tion, gregariousness and other instincts. In fact, teaching seeks out the expression of any instinct to furnish a con- genial motive for learning. Fatigue is usually expressed by a decreased capacity for work. To the individual it is an unpleasant introspective state. The latter reacts upon the body to reduce physical exertion, even though the body may be actually capable of far greater effort. As already mentioned, men ordinarily fall out in marches, not because they can no longer march but because they think they cannot. Nervous fatigue should be differentiated from physical fatigue, though it includes the latter. Physical weariness reacts on mental state. EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 471 Men cannot well learn if they are uncomfortable. A burn- ing sun will take the thoughts off drill. Physical fatigue among soldiers is usually local. That is, certain groups of muscles, which have been in steady use, become tired and their contractions unpleasant. If the ex- ercise be varied, so that fresher muscles come into play, and especially if the formerly contracting muscles be allowed to extend, the total amount of fatigue will not be less, but the shift of movements will allow the mind to divert from those which are painful, while relief is experienced and- introspec- tion is diminished or disappears. Long standing at atten- tion is thus both physically and psychologically painful. Accordingly one group of movements should not be con- tinued too long, but as soon as they become irksome others should be substituted. It further means that rests are nec- essary and should be more frequent among those whose muscles are not yet strengthened by use, as in the case of recruits. The length of the rest needed depends upon the nature of the work and the length of its periods. In drills, it should be only just long enough to permit proper recovery from fatigue. In physical training, the beginner finds much difficulty in correlating muscular movements with mental stimuli. He is awkward, not only making movements not adapted to specific ends but many movements which are unnecessary. All this implies the diffuse and wasteful discharge of physical and mental energy until new channels of association between brain and body have been cleared. Until this is done, there may be a wide breach between knowing and doing. During training, brief intense effort ordinarily produces results which become standards and inspire confidence. Self-com- petition is thus created. Also intense efforts, through the high degree of concentration required, are of especially effective educational value. But speeding up should not be continued if errors occur, lest bad habits be formed. 472 MANAGEMENT OF MEN It is easier in the end to learn a thing as a whole rather than piece-meal, for new connections and mental associa- tions must be created and perhaps old habits broken off. This applies especially to drills and formations. Even though the novice does not make an early good showing, there comes a time when there is a rapid development of a harmonious whole. A matter for consideration is the value of a general train- ing for a specific function, just as the colleges have insisted that higher mathematics and dead languages should be taught for an alleged value in " disciplining the mind." The fact is that the best results flow from practise of the act itself which is to be performed, in the way it should be done ; other acts are of benefit only as they are common ele- ments in both. Learning by doing is the best way, after the underlying principles are understood. There is a psychological limit to learning, just as there is a limit to physical speed or endurance. This is set by the original character of the nervous make-up. Psychological researches into the quality of mentality, as elsewhere dis- cussed, show this very definitely. Certain so-called " pla- teaus of learning " are recognized. The obvious deduction from this is to watch training very carefully, and lessen its intensity and progress in those showing evidence of mental malassimilation. Variability in amount of training gives no indication of final results. The old soldier, who may be near the peak of his own efficiency, and that not of a high order, may be shortly surpassed by the intelligent, alert recruit. Some men also learn slowly, but retain what they learn. This indicates need for watchfulness, lest non-commissioned officers rela- tively slip back, while the higher qualities of new-comers are overlooked. In the complexity and multiplicity of mental operations, the human mind, in matters other than those of great im- EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 473 portance which create a vivid impression, forgets easily. Permanence of learning is a variable, depending on character and relation to personal interests. Some men naturally have an especially retentive memory; all tend to retain in- formation which they particularly expect to use. It is im- portant to note that the process of forgetting is rapid, shortly after the act, but functions much more slowly there- after. Tests show that about twenty per cent, of informa- tion is forgotten at the end of twenty-four hours, while seventy-six per cent, is forgotten at the end of thirty days. Thus during a period thirty times as long, only about four times as much is forgotten. This shows that only one one- fourth of information may be expected to be retained under ordinary conditions, and demonstrates the need for more effective methods of securing mental impressions in training. It also shows the importance of refreshing the memory by cumulative impression during the critical period after learn- ing, when much of the benefit, if not thus reinforced, would be lost. Inquiry and test would show the nature and extent of the deficiencies to be made good. Study of the subconscious mind reveals the fact that what we ordinarily call our memory is in reality a " forgettory." The subconscious mind has a complete record of all our past, which can be reached in dreams or delirium or under hyp- nosis. But if such a record were always crowding into our conscious minds, we should be so bewildered by the conscious- ness of the past that we would be unable to focus our atten- tion on the more important present. And so it may be assumed, for purposes of analogy, that the two are separated by a barrier in which there is a door, and at that door there is stationed a guard whom we call " memory." When we want anything out of our past, we call for it, and memory summons it up from the inner room. But when we con- sciously repress a thing from our thoughts, we give another guard an order never to admit the matter to our conscious- 474 MANAGEMENT OF MEN ness again. He obeys us as long as we are conscious. Not only does he keep out the repressed matter but anything con- nected with it that might bring it back. Due distribution of time and effort is necessary if learning is to be economical. This varies with circumstances and in- dividuals, but it is definitely known that too great concen- tration or distribution is wasteful. Both fatigue and too long time in warming up for the task should be avoided. Moderate distribution of time gives better results than con- tinuous periods. This means frequent rest periods of brief duration, during exercises or drills, rather than one or two long ones. The relation of morale work to training has to do with the placing of men in such mental state that they will re- spond to instruction with maximum efficiency. If attention and interest are efficiently stimulated, and the men's " hearts are in their work," they will be more quickly and better trained. Training and education result in character build- ing. Started early and continued intensively, they so mold the mentality of the individual as practically to make it possible to forecast the result of stimulus in consequent act. Training and education are thus powerful factors in the pur- pose of morale work to control human behavior. Education and Vocational Training. Opportunities for training, either educational or vocational, are important factors in promoting contentment, for they introduce the factors of self-interest and ambition, affording the privilege for their expression and realization. They satisfy the in- stincts of curiosity, constructiveness, self-assertion and ac- quisition. Many men will seek them directly; many more will do so under judicious stimulation by having the advan- tages indirectly shown them. But education and vocational training should not be directly forced on the few who do not desire them; reliance rather should be had on indirect measures of appeal, for compulsion converts privilege into task. Those who desire education should receive every en- EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 475 couragement. Knowledge of any kind not only tends to in- crease efficiency and earning capacity, but promotes self- respect and confers better status. It helps develop charac- ter, which, in itself, is a military asset. The too common idea in civil life, and one which existed in some military quarters, that because a man is a soldier in the army he is necessarily illiterate and rough, is to be deplored. The best way to offset this idea is through the mental capacity and conduct of the soldiers themselves. To this end, they should be educated above the ordinary educa- tional standards of civil life, which school statistics show are not as high as desirable, so that they may be regarded as relatively cultured men. Under the old system of military service, when a man entered the army he gave up all opportunities for education and vocational training. When he went back to his com- munity he was behind the other men of his age in education and technical ability. He found most of the positions taken and, if any were vacant, he was not adapted by training to fill them. The new system proposes that the soldier return- ing to civil life shall, as a result of his military training, take with him a greater earning capacity and ideas and stand- ., ards of conduct which will make him a more useful citizen. Accordingly, the new educational system should go hand in hand with military instruction and training, under a well balanced scheme in which the primary purpose of an army — to make soldiers — is not overlooked or obscured. Time, experience and the development of a fully worked out plan will doubtless result in something satisfactory to all con- cerned. It was early apparent during demobilization that some special appeal must be devised if the voluntary recruiting of the new army was to be a success. Under old methods, no more than 40,000 men had been recruited in any one year, while the existing need was" for five times that number. Educational opportunity offered the only prospect of effec- 476 MANAGEMENT OF MEN tive appeal and so it was featured extensively. The results justified the need and the plan. The few officers opposed to educational work may accept it as a fact that without such appeal they would have had insignificantly small forces under them. The choice was not wholly one of election but partly of necessity in order to popularize the army and at- tract recruits. Vocational training offers many opportunities for enlisted men to benefit themselves. Investigations made shortly after the Armistice showed that more than six hundred vo- cations were being carried on in the military service within the United States to meet military requirements in camp utilities, special technical services and the like. Accord- ingly, they furnished a basis and a going organization which, with relatively little change, could easily be adapted to vo- cational instruction purposes. The morale organization saw and utilized in them a ready agency for establishing a higher state of morale and a corresponding state of disci- pline and contentment at a time when the unrest pertaining to demobilization needed to be allayed. Thus at one of the camps there were at one time 4,000 men taking an intensive course in agriculture. At another camp 4,400 men enrolled for thirty-seven different courses. Night classes were or- ganized for men who were unable to participate in day classes. In this work instruction was given by officers and men who volunteered for such service, by the welfare or- ganizations and by volunteer civilian teachers and others. Similarly, various courses pertaining to a literary, scien- tific and business education were established and put into operation. The welfare organizations agreed to provide instructors, books and equipment for any course for which a sufficient number of students presented themselves. Va- cant barracks, welfare huts and other structures were used for classrooms. Many thousands of men enrolled under the authority and support universally given by commanders, continuing under instruction until they were discharged. EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 477 The work thus begun by the Morale Branch in Novem- ber, 19 1 8, was continued for about eight months on a de- creasing scale as troops were mustered out and its need as a factor to control unrest diminished. It was then taken over by the newly organized Education and Recreation Branch, systematized and expanded and funds provided to carry it on. As the functions of the Education and Recreation Branch in connection with the development and operation of this work are fully covered in official orders and circulars they will not be discussed here. The educational work in the American Expeditionary Force was developed early in 19 19 under the Young Men's Christian Association, which standardized methods, books and courses and provided expert advisors and assistants for schools for officers and men. A school officer was appointed for each army, corps, division, regiment, post, school and special unit, and schools were established wherever there was a constant population of 500 soldiers or more. In- struction was given in common school subjects, modern lan- guages, history of the United States, history of modqrn nations, civics and citizenship and other authorized subjects. Attendance was voluntary, except for illiterates and non- English speaking soldiers, but students once enrolled were required to complete their course. Record cards enabled courses which had been interrupted to be resumed as oppor- tunity offered. Certificates of proficiency were issued. Higher education and occupational training were later provided. For this purpose, divisional educational centers were established, one for each army, corps, division and sec- tion of the S.O.S. A large number of subjects were author- ized for vocational training. Higher education, including courses usually found in high schools, agricultural colleges and business schools, was provided. Selected officers and men were also sent to universities of the nations associated with the United States. An A.E.F. educational center was also established to act as intermediary between universities 478 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and the divisional educational centers. The course was three months. The reports on the educational and training work since its establishment have been overwhelmingly favorable. The men appreciated it, not only by reason of the personal benefit to be gained, but because it was evidence of governmental interest in their welfare. It filled up time which would otherwise have been idle and gave a new interest which bound as well as attracted men to the service. It has prob- ably won the support of the civilian community to the army as nothing else could do. A report from one hospital states that: " The educational and vocational work is the best morale factor that could be devised. Patients who before sat in their beds, cursing their fate, the army and life in general, are now interested in making some toy or trinket. Those who can get out, forget themselves in the more serious shop work. Patients have been heard to remark that they did not care if they were kept in the army if they could learn something. They get tired of being entertained; work and study are the solu- tion." Probably some few men took vocational training believ- ing that it would mean less effort and responsibility on their part than as if purely military work were selected. Those actuated by any such motive soon found that they were doomed to disappointment, for the work is carried out seri- ously and requires the greater part of the time and the best efforts of every man who goes into it. Any system of education and vocational training in the army should be sufficiently comprehensive in scope to meet any reasonable desires on the part of the recruit. Further, the recruit, once enlisted, should be given such station as will enable him to pursue the course he elects. This is not diffi- cult, but merely a matter of administrative bookkeeping. The course thus elected should be carried out in sufficient detail, should be standardized for the military service as a EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 479 whole and should coordinate with the requirements of edu- cational institutions and trade schools so as to fulfill their standards. It should be elastic so as to conform readily to the varying requirements of the service as affected by mili- tary necessity. The general subjects in which instruction is given, and the general purposes and methods employed, will not be gone into here as they are covered in various official documents of the War Department. But certain special subjects may be briefly touched upon, as they have such a close relation to fighting efficiency, contentment and esprit. War aims must be clarified for the soldier. He must know for what he is fighting or preparing to fight. He must be made to recognize himself as the potential force for the ideals of right and justice of the people he represents. The less literate cannot well reason out such matters for themselves, and it becomes necessary to formulate them in simple ways that they can understand. Such instruction is of particular value in establishing a background upon which stimulation of the personal interests of self-assertion, pug- nacity, etc., may later appear. In General Pershing's report he says: — " The earnest belief of every member of the Ex-" peditionary Forces in the justice of our cause was produc- tive of a form of self-imposed discipline among our soldiers which must be regarded as an unusual development of this war, a fact which materially aided us to organize and employ in an incredibly short space of time the extraordinary fight- ing machine developed in France. . . . Without the . . . willingness and enthusiasm displayed . . . the successful re- sults we obtained so quickly would have been utterly impos- sible." In the " War Issues Course " of instruction given to the Students Army Training Corps, the value of its relation to the upbuilding of morale was reported upon by 127 com- manding officers. Of these, five reported negatively, four as doubtful and 1 18 were enthusiastically in favor of it as a promoter of morale. One officer reported that students be- 4 8o MANAGEMENT OF MEN gan the course as " unwilling soldiers," but at the end were " crazy to get into the fight." In educating men in war aims, any agency is useful that can transmit the necessary ideas. Addresses, songs, posters, cartoons, moving pictures, the drama — all are valuable. But the best agent among literates is the printed word. By this agency, the volume of material, methods of approach and pressure induced are what one chooses and is able to make them. In case of another draft, part of the work of the Draft Boards should be the elementary but systematized information of pre-inductants in respect to military and camp conditions and national war aims. The teaching of military tradition is one of the most potent agencies in the building of morale and the strengthen- ing of character to meet the shock of unusual circumstances. Knowledge of the high quality of behavior of other soldiers in our service, either in our own or former times, furnishes standards for emulation and conduct under similar trial or hardship. It should be given to the recruit as part of his early training, especially that relating to his own organiza- tion. It would be well for company commanders them- selves to give instruction in it, as being something so fine and lofty as to require handling by the highest practicable au- thority. Mention should here be made of the great value of stories and other matter interpretative of army life in relation to military morale. Kipling, through his army stories and poems, has been one of the great benefactors of the British army. Such epic poems as " The Charge of the Light Brigade " and " The Loss of the Birkenhead " stir the soul not only of every Briton in uniform but stimulate ideals for every fighting man. Through imagination, men may be -made to mentally visualize themselves as heroes and to respond in emergency to the high standards of conduct thus developed. Beside teaching men how to die for their country, the EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 481 army will not do its full duty toward them unless jt teaches them how to live for their country in the sense of better citizenship. An effective appeal, after the Armistice, to officers who did not get across was, " If you couldn't help smash Germans you can help make Americans." One of the great aids to soldier morale is in showing him his true status as the strong arm of the Government and in- forming him in the history, institutions and ideals which he has been chosen to guard. This should be one of the first things taught to the recruit as a military factor. So, too, on returning to civil life, the soldier should carry with him clear ideas as to the organization of his government, the ideals of a democracy, sound and patriotic citizenship and his civic responsibilities. The Americanization work, in the army should coordinate with that being conducted in civil life, though naturally going much further and securing better results than would be pos- sible in civil life under its more scattered opportunities and less intensive methods. The development of a lecture service holds forth great possibilities as an aid to morale. The professional lecturer should be suitably utilized, though it does not follow that he is always more interesting because he may have a more finished technique. It is the timely lecture on the current topic which is frequently the most valuable. The appeal of subjects of importance to the soldier, both as a fighting man and potential citizen, is always great. The officer who has a real message also commands more attention than the civil- ian. However, the great value and influence of lectures delivered by men of nation-wide repute and power should not be overlooked, for their very reputation and personal- ity in themselves are matters of interest and add .tremen- dously to the influence of what they might say. The utilization of soldier speakers to make addresses, both in and out of camps, is a valuable morale agent, espe- cially in reaching members of a civilian community. It is 482 MANAGEMENT OF MEN also important in respect to troops in camp and particularly recruits. A policy as to their selection and choice of sub- jects, together with the furnishing of programs and material, would be desirable. The discussion of topics of interest in formal debate or open forum has a desirable educational value. It is of course desirable that the men selected to represent the di- verse ideas should be serious minded and not apt to inject difficulties into the proposition by captious criticism or the arousing of antagonisms based on differences of opinion. Competitive essays for cash prizes on subjects such as " What the Army has done for me," are often valuable in focusing the attention of the men on the advantages of the service. Information. Information is particularly understood to include knowledge capable of application to current affairs. It satisfies the normal instinct of curiosity, which is a power- ful and natural urge in all men. It is true that in the mili- tary service an order must be obeyed without the necessity of giving reasons for it, but it is equally true that the in- discriminate reliance on such arbitrary power is not always wise. Information and explanation do much to predispose the mind to receive, without great shock or objection, re- quirements which may otherwise seem to the soldier, and especially to the new man, as harsh, unnecessary and even belittling. Hence, if there is no reason why information should be withheld, it not only should be given, but the giv- ing should be systematized. In addition to its influence on the control of conduct, through the satisfaction of the instinct of curiosity, it is an extremely important factor in relation to self-assertion, one of the strongest instincts of the fighting man. The issuing of an order which, on the face of it and in its application to the men, may seem arbitrary, tyrannical and as imposing unnecessary hardship and restriction on personal liberty and enjoyment, would tend deliberately to block the instinct of EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 483 self-assertion and the result may be s.ullenness, smothered resentment or, under certain conditions, open antagonism, depending on the mood of the men or individual and the drastic or painful qualities of the order. But if judicious information as to the necessity for the order were given, the psychological reaction produced would be totally different. Instead of being blocked, the energy of self-assertion is diverted into the channel which reason points out as the proper one under the circumstances. Perhaps the giving of information as to the necessity for the order will call other tendencies of greater force into play, such as self-preserva- tion. Or perhaps the herd instinct will come into play and dictate that compliance with the order is for the good of the group or organization. Let us see how this works in practical application. Sup- pose an order is issued peremptorily canceling and restrict- ing the passes of an organization. The reaction on the men is resentment, keen and immediate. But suppose that with the order goes the information that a number of cases of contagious disease have been discovered in the nearby ci- vilian community. The chances are that the men will gladly accept the terms of the order, for self-interest tells them that the town is not a safe place to visit. Or suppose the information goes with the order that within the next twenty- four hours the camp or post is to be inspected by some prom- inent personage. Here the herd instinct comes into play and prompts each man that it is for the good of the organ- ization that every man should be at his post and make the best possible showing for the entire group. The giving of information applies not only to orders but to conditions to which the men are temporarily obliged to submit. Suppose that' a consignment of warm clothing, which is greatly needed by the men, is long overdue and has not yet arrived. Grumbling and discontent may manifest themselves throughout the post and there is general criticism of the service. But, under these conditions, suppose that 484 MANAGEMENT OF MEN authoritative information is given out to the effect that the shipment of clothing has been held up in a freight conges- tion, but is now on its way and will arrive in a few days. Men will endure much if they understand there is a good- reason for it or if relief is in sight. Information in the war made this country mentally homogeneous as never before in its history, despite every effort that fraud, chicanery and propaganda could devise. Through information by publicity, the people were educated by Germany itself in the moral rottenness of its ideals as demonstrated by its official acts. As a result, when the issue of war came, the feeble pipings of scattered treason were overwhelmed by the diapason of national wrath. Soldier arid civilian alike gave the best that there was in them to a united purpose. All recognize that in time of war and particularly in the face of the enemy, the reasons for many acts must be con- fidential. In peace, this does not always of necessity ap- ply. Nor is repeated information necessary concerning the routine duties which form the vast majority of the soldier's requirements. But to give it in exceptional instances allays misapprehension and serves to show the men that their officers have a personal concern in them. Soldiers do not object to hard work in a military way when they can see a necessary purpose in it. An unattrac- tive duty will be performed far more effectively if its rea- sonableness is understood; if it is not reasonable it should not be made a duty. In a difficult situation, it is sometimes well to put the matter squarely up to the troops, to let them know of the arduous and perhaps dangerous nature of the work ahead and thereby make them partners in the en- deavor. The exigencies of the military service render it impossible to equalize conditions and opportunities in many instances. These may rankle unless explained. Similarly, soldiers will not so much resent having their personal tendencies or de- EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 485 sires frustrated by military orders if the need of good dis- cipline for the protection of themselves and comrades, and the promotion of the common purpose, is explained to them. Conversely, the stories of enemy deserters and others, re- garding hardships in the enemy forces equal to or greater than our own, can often be used to promote morale. When the enemy is false to the ideals of humanity, it should be very clearly set forth. Knowledge that he himself is champion- ing truth, honor, justice and other high ideals gives strength to the soldier. Explanation can remove most of the vague terrors of an unfamiliar environment in advance of contact with it. Men going over seas, or into hostile territory, should be systemat- ically informed as to the conditions which will be encoun- tered, steps to be taken to meet them, and as to other mat- ters liable to affect their interest and adjustment to the new environment. Many resent the so-called " red tape " of the army. Their attitude would change if they understood that the interlocking interests of a great military force require a definite, common method of procedure in order to secure community of purpose and action. Informing the men that any steps looking to the betterment of matters affecting them get quick action has a beneficial effect upon morale. Men often fall into error through ignorance and heedlessness. To them the facts should be pointed out. The various agen- cies and methods for the transmission of information are covered elsewhere. Orders. Orders, besides being informative, should, in time of supreme endeavor, be inspirational. By reason of the vast numbers of men in modern armies, it is no longer possible for the high commander to make such personal appeal as Napoleon made before the Battle of Pyramids. The men must be reached by subordinates through the agency of the printed word. The following are examples of actual inspirational battle orders : 486 MANAGEMENT OF MEN " Order of the Day " " Soldiers of the front line, — nd Division: " A few hundred yards to the north of you the remnants of the decimated crack divisions of the German army are clinging desperately to the pivotal point of their bruised and broken line, on which hangs the fate of their emperor and empire. " The — nd Division was sent to this sector to shatter that line. You are shock troops. ' Les Terribles ' the French call you. ' Fightin' Sons o 1 Guns ' the Americans call you. You are the very flower of our army. And you who remain up there in front have been tried by fire. The skulkers have skulked — the quitters have quit. Only the men with ' guts ' remain. " Machine guns? You have captured thousands of them. And you took them standing up. The only way to take machine guns is to take them. No use lying down on the ground. They have plenty of ammunition and they aim low. " Shells? Shell casualties are only 3 per cent, of the total. "Tired? You have been in the line two weeks. Your enemies have been in five weeks — prisoners say they have gone through hell. " The — nd Division is going ahead when the first American army attacks. We're three regiments abreast, with one in support. Each is echeloned in depth — one battalion behind the other — except the one on the extreme right. That one mops up Romagne. The others go forward. " It is not enough to say ' I'll try.' " Your resolve must be ' I will.' " " , Brigadier General." " Memorandum to Officers " " I have just seen the corps commander. He and the commander in chief attach the utmost importance to the operation we are about to undertake. We must go through. For that reason we have been strongly echeloned in depth, to give driving power. If for any reason, the front line is held up, the next must go through. We must not be stopped. " Please see your battalion commanders and impress upon them this fact. Keep in close personal touch with the situation and order passage of lines if it becomes necessary. After reaching an objective is a suitable time. "I desire the inclosed ' Order of the Day' to be communicated to every man in the command before the ' H ' hour. " The — nd Division has never failed. It must not fail this time." " Cautions: " Panels. " Wire cutters. " Keep close to the barrage. It is a slow one. " Don't let it get away. It is your protection." EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 487 In the " Ten Commandments " of Marshal Foch is an inspirational as well as a practical message to the troops. As slightly amended by an American division, they read : " 1. Keep your eyes and ears ready and your mouth in the safety notch, for it is your soldierly duty to see and hear clearly, but as a rule you should be heard mainly in the sentry challenge, or in the charging cheer. " 2. Obey orders first, and if still alive, kick afterward if you have been wronged. " 3. Keep your arms and equipment clean and in good order; treat your animals kindly and fairly and your motor or other machine as though it belonged to you and was the only one in the world. " 4. Do not waste your ammunition, your gas, your food, your time, nor your opportunity. " 5. Never try to fire an empty gun, nor fire at an empty trench, but when you shoot, shoot to kill, and forget not that at close quarters a bayonet beats a bullet. "6. Tell the truth squarely, face the music, and take your punish- ment like a man ; pity and shield the children in your captured terri- tory, for you were once a helpless child. "7. Bear in mind that the enemy is your enemy and the enemy of humanity until he is killed or captured ; then he is your dead brother, or your fellow soldier beaten or ashamed, whom you should no further humiliate. "8. Do your best to keep your head clear and cool, your body clean and comfortable and your feet in good condition, for you think with your head, fight with your body, and march with your feet. " 9. Be of good cheer and high courage ; shirk neither work nor danger; suffer in silence and cheer the comrade at your side with a smile. " 10. Dread defeat, but not wounds ; fear dishonor, but not death, and die game, and whatever the task, remember the motto of the division, ' it shall be done.' " The Field Service Regulations of the United States Army, paragraphs 84 to 95, cover the subject of orders quite fully as to form, composition and context. It is therefore un- necessary to go into general details here. Orders may be expressed in letters of instruction, field orders, general or- ders, orders, special orders, verbal orders, and messages either oral or written. Orders must be clear and concise; precise as to time and place; expressed in correct and simple 488 MANAGEMENT OF MEN language; written legibly; positive, avoiding expressions of a conditional nature, such as " at dawn," " if possible." As stated elsewhere, the officer who can express himself clearly, forcefully and concisely in orders has a great advantage over the officer who cannot. The officer who can write an order so that there can be only one possible interpretation of its meaning will obtain corresponding unity of purpose. Every officer should study his own orders after writing them and before issuing them to avoid mistakes, dual mean- ings, complex construction, unnecessary words and vague ex- pressions. It is easier to take a few minutes to study over an order before it is issued to the organization than it is to have to correct it afterward. Clear and accurate expres- sion is a habit which practically every one can acquire by ap- plication and practise. Even the commonplace company or- der can be made a channel for dignified, clear and concise expression. Nearly everything that applies to expression in written orders also applies to verbal orders. In time of war, orders frequently contain citations of various kinds, some for deeds of bravery in the face of the enemy and some for especially meritorious and efficient work. Citations may be either a recommendation for the award of a decoration, such as the Congressional Medal of Honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, or the Distin- guished Service Cross, or they may be merely a recognition of exceptional service with conferring of honor which is made a matter of record of the individual. In form, cita- tions in orders are limited to plain statements of facts, in clear, crisp, official language, divested of all eulogism. All officers should keep in mind the intrinsic morale value of citations and, when appropriate occasion arises, make use of them in rewarding exceptionally worthy service and valorous conduct. Uncertainty. The mental suspense of uncertainty is hard to bear and inevitably depresses morale, especially with new troops. The Germans grasped this point, and part of EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 489 their propaganda was calculated to create uncertainty in both the civil and military elements of their opponents. In many instances uncertainty is unavoidable, but when possible it should be intimated to the command that this is so. In other cases, higher authority may be in possession of in- formation which would tend to allay uncertainty, and which it might be perfectly proper to give out. Uncertainty and apprehension of the unknown are greater depressants of morale than usually understood. Further, uncertainty prevents proper preparation to meet any given situation. Many men are contented to accept any contin- gency provided they are able to make plans, tentative though these may be, in their future interests. But all re- sent an apparent uncertainty of military intent which does not seem to know its own mind, or an apparently purposeless secrecy which, in time of no military exigency, serves merely to irritate and discontent. Indifference is sometimes a fac- tor in failure to inform, but probably most preventable cases depend on lack of realization of what a little information to the soldier means to his peace of mind and efficiency. Un- certainty in civil industry similarly operates as a depressant to spirits and productivity. Rumors. Any great aggregation or organization of men, with incomplete or uncertain information as to their future, naturally becomes fertile soil for the development and growth of rumors. If information is not supplied, ru- mor will develop to supply the mental lack which demands satisfaction. The combatting of rumors has been one of the most arduous, continuous and important tasks of the morale organization. Ignorance is the chief. cause of army rumors, with their disturbing effect upon contentment and discipline. Some false reports that gain currency often have no foundation in fact, but originate in ignorant gossip and idle jest. Other rumors spring from a germ of truth, but these rapidly be- come exaggerations in passing from mouth to mouth. In- 490 MANAGEMENT OF MEN terpretation of conditions may have been wrong in the first place. Class-room tests on highly intelligent individuals have shown the great diversity of evidence for the same con- dition or act, even under average conditions. Hence, in war, when the critical faculty is in abeyance, the most unex- pected and absurd ideas readily gain credence. Enemy sympathizers find depressing rumors an effective means of propaganda among troops and civilian populations. The systematic use of them did much damage in Russia and Italy. Taken up and repeated by persons who may not be disloyal, but whose propensities for gossip are ignorantly harmful or are made use of by enemy sympathizers, ru- mors travel rapidly, causing discontent among the soldiers. Moreover, they shake the faith of the people in the proper functioning of the military establishment and its ability to cope with or overcome the enemy. There is a vibration between the extremes of hope and fear in which mental agreement is impaired. The results are a loss of morale, a lack of confidence, and a feeling that the enemy is more formidable than he really is. The war hysterias of civil life are important factors in the development of rumors within as well as outside the military service. They develop in the neurasthenic, emo- tional and imaginative, whose state of mind is one of credul- ity and exaggeration. Women seem particularly susceptible to their influence, and the garrulousness of the flighty, ill- balanced type makes them most effective agents in spreading their ideas. One special danger with respect to rumors, false information and misunderstanding is that they create honest dupes who create difficulties through believing them- selves to be champions of truth and right. The remedy is to furnish accurate information, whereby a new point of view is established. A good example of the disturbing effect on contentment is shown in the correspondence columns of service papers. Here are printed communications which are mostly critical EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 491 and, to those who know, are very obviously due to lack of information or to misinformation. Such letters spread dis- satisfaction and promote criticism throughout the service. Many would never have been written had facts and reasons, in proper cases, been disseminated in the service. During the war, a vast number of rumors received more or less credence. In this country, some were to the effect that the tongues of American soldiers were cut out by the enemy; that medical officers who were enemy agents de- liberately inoculated the men with disease; that powdered glass was put in food; that hospitals were full of " basket cases," men who were both legless and armless; aspersions against the character of nurses, etc. In France, after the Armistice, our troops believed such rumors as that they were to be sent to Russia, to West Africa, to the Balkan States, etc. It has already been shown that appropriate act tends to follow belief entertained, irrespective of whether the latter is right or wrong. No better example of this exists than in the Indian Mutiny, the outbreak of which sprung from the uncorrected rumor and falsehood that the cartridges of the native troops were lubricated with pig-fat for the pur- pose of indirectly breaking down the native religious aver- sion to it. Such examples demonstrate that rumors of an unfavorable nature should be watched for and refuted as soon as possible. They should not be allowed to secure credence through unopposed affirmation and repetition. One important function of the morale operatives is to keep the company commander informed of the rumors cur- rent in his organization, so that measures may be taken to neutralize them. The best agent for combatting rumor, falsehood and enemy propaganda is truth. American ideals have nothing to conceal; they invite publicity. How the facts can be best furnished is a local problem. To determine the source of a rumor, the limits of its spread and the rapidity of its transmission takes time. A 492 MANAGEMENT OF MEN remedy applied late fails of full effect. The indirect method is not to deny the truth of the rumor, but to bring certain facts to the public attention which would show clearly that the allegations or the rumor must be false. This can be done under the guise of interesting news, and may safely be used as widely as desired. In using direct methods, the rumor is stated and its alle- gations specifically denied and controverted by facts. In combatting rumors directly it is an excellent rule not to apply the proposed remedy to an extent greater than or a place different from that to which the rumor itself has spread. There are times when minor rumors are best left unrefuted, rather than to bring them up afresh in the public mind. To handle a more or less local rumor by general measures of contradiction is often merely to sow the seeds of faulty idea broadcast, for some minds seem to work by con- traries and would accept in a positive sense the statements which were being presented only for the purpose of disprov- ing them. Also there are persons of suspicious character, whose mental operations are along the line of the old, and often faulty, simile, " Where there is smoke there must be fire." Another way to stop rumors is to hold narrators responsi- ble for their truth and trace them back to the original source. This will check the loose talkers and rumor spreaders in a command. Men of great verbal capacity may often become great trouble makers, not because of intent but because they talk loosely and too much. It is of interest, in this con- nection, to note that there is a strange class, fortunately not large, of pathological liars and accusers whose warped men- tality has a natural tendency to untruth. In the work of combatting rumors, the use of ridicule, in the so-called " hot air" bulletins, has proved very successful. This is a space on the regular bulletin board, which is given some title such as the " Pipe Dream Gazette," " Wild Rumor News," etc. The individual in charge of the bulletin board, on hearing EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 493 any of the numerous rumors which float about camp, imme- diately bulletins them, usually with some humorous comment. In cases of serious rumors, he endeavors to get into touch with headquarters and secure a denial, which is immediately posted under the item and verbally passed out to the men. These bulletin boards are very popular with the men, and the mere fact that a rumor appears on them under such a heading discredits it at once. Erroneous Statements. In all morale work, it is im- portant to remember that rumor and falsehood, if believed, have the same influence on act as if they were the truth. It follows, therefore, that these agents may deliberately be used by the unscrupulous to create a temporary morale to tide over an emergency, as has happened in certain foreign armies. Their use, however, is not only to be opposed for ethical reasons, but because they are dangerous. To attempt to buoy up morale by false promises, or by announcing as a certainty what is uncertain, and which later fails to materialize, is sure to be followed by sharp reac- tion and fall in morale as soon as the deception is realized. Not only does the original cause return with increased force and in wider extent, but confidence is shaken and an added source of depressed morale is created for the future. The unauthorized statement by some officers to men re- tained in the service during demobilization, that their reten- tion was temporary only, eased their minds for a period, but was followed by profound disappointment and bitterness against the entire military establishment. Statements in error by those in authority create a unique feeling of distrust for the whole military organization. The stronger the expectancy of truth from any given source, the greater the emotional upset and reaction in behaviortoward any appearance of deceit. The American soldier responds best to squareness and openness. Absolute frankness, if explanation is appropriate, is a supreme requisite in the military service at all times. 494 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Disloyal Propaganda. It is important that efforts to undermine the patriotism of the soldier and his loyalty to the Government, whatever the purpose, source or method, should fail of intended effect. This can be accomplished by counter-effort, probably exerted in advance. As to when or how evidence of disloyal activity may appear, it is im- possible to say. In war, it may be expected to appear early and continuously, either by direct and more or less obvious efforts of the enemy or by the more guarded propaganda of enemy sympathizers in bur own territory, whose influence may be even more potent because exercised through innu- endo, insinuation and suggestion. In peace, certain groups of disorderly purpose may attempt to introduce the yeast of unrest within the service. A main purpose may be partly screened as well as promoted by a specious issue. A con- stant duty of the morale organization is to exert vigilance in respect to such matters to the end that the harmful mental infection shall be excluded, isolated, neutralized or destroyed and the command immunized against it. The greatest dependence can unquestionably be placed on the loyalty, steadfastness and devotion of the American sol- dier and on his ability to think for himself and draw the right conclusions if all facts are fairly presented to him. No question, nor inference of a question, as to the posses- sion of these qualities should ever be raised. Belief therein can be built up by assertion, reiteration, tradition and esprit de corps. Then if the test comes, the individual is proof against it. After forming this background of patriotic loyalty, the next step is the matter of educating and informing the sol- dier as to the fundamental principles of Americanism and its purpose, good government, good citizenship and the basic truths of civics and sociology. In presenting them, the at- titude should be that of showing the error of false doctrines by which he might be confused or misled without proper understanding. This should be done in the simplest Ian- EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 495 guage and clearest logic, so that the less literate may be able to draw their own conclusions. Much disloyal propaganda draws its support from igno- rance, delusions and false ideals. The answer to this is truth, education, information and replacing the false ideal with a true one. Idealism is a definite and strong com- ponent in the make-up of most men. Once imbued with an ideal, men will make any sacrifice and endure any punish- ment for it. It is essential, therefore, that such ideals shall be right. But they cannot be forced on the soldier ; he must be brought to accept them through suggestion, or create them from the raw material of information furnished him and the deductions to be made therefrom. This method should show not only that only one ideal is right but that the opposing ideas are wrong. The methods to be used in the dissemination of anti-dis- loyal ideas include educational talks, inspirational addresses, the " open forum " for discussion, articles in newspapers, the use of constructive books, special attention to human agents of disloyalty within the military purview and other means which will readily suggest themselves. Publicity. Publicity is one of the most valuable agents of morale work, since it relates to the physical dissemination of ideas. It is the basis of the information and education of the masses of human beings, whereby they are brought to a common state of mind resulting in unity of action. It places emphasis on certain facts and purposes, embodying ideas, opinions and ready made phrases which are adopted by their readers without the necessity for inquiry and vari- ous processes of reasoning things out. It plants the desired idea in the individual's mind and, when he encounters the situation to which the idea relates, he unconsciously yields to its influence and the preconceptions it has created. The results, in number and extent, generally correspond to the degree and intensity of the publicity. Thus, through pub- licity during the war, funds were raised in inconceivable 496 MANAGEMENT OF MEN amounts, the dietary habits of a nation were changed, and opinion itself toward the war was largely reversed. Publicity within the military service has usually taken the direct form, such as is expressed in orders, circulars, memo- randa and similar more or less mandatory matter. It has also been restricted in its field, to a very great extent, to the official functioning of the military machine. But the usefulness of publicity extends far beyond such narrow lim- its. It is the mechanical means for the stimulation and satis- faction of human interest and curiosity and, to a less extent, other basic instincts. Information as to what others in the service are accomplishing is necessary to comparison and emulation. It promotes achievement by bringing into play the desire to excel in order to stand well in the estimation of the public, the larger group, or the class as a whole. Un- derstanding of the accomplishments of the great numbers whose energies are being bent to the common task gives encouragement and fortitude. The army as a whole has seemed, in the past, to have a general trend against publicity as being something lowering to dignified ideals. But because it has been, or may be, abused by a few self-seekers is no reason for neglecting its use. Within proper limitation and direction, it is wholly good. Publicity which redounds to dignity, reputation, pub- lic esteem and esprit de corps is a great asset, for it is at the very basis of the regard and respect in which a group or its work is held. Reputation depends, not only on the per- formance of certain acts or the possession of certain quali- ties, but upon the knowledge of them by others. Publicity is thus the natural by-product of good work. A reputation which comes through character and deeds is per- fectly legitimate and desirable; it cannot be bestowed or bought. It stirs the individual or organization on whom it is based to continue to excel, while stimulating others to surpass. If the men do well, they would like their friends and those interested in the same calling to know it. In time EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 497 of peace, publicity is almost the only reward available for exceptional efficiency. Legitimate sources of publicity are two, — special military excellence as part of the general mili- tary plan, and identification with public movements of a military, patriotic, educational or charitable nature. This is especially true in peace with regard to athletic contests, either partly or wholly within the service. The best pub- licity is that which is indirect and due to identification of the organization with great historical deeds, public service, or local military or other enterprise. It is most important to military efficiency that the service should have a background. of good reputation. Legitimate stories of a favorable character should be given out to off- set the effect of any adverse publicity which might appear. This credit account will not be established properly unless due efforts are made to that end, and they will not be made in the face of official indifference or inertia. But they should be made. A military force tends to receive a certain amount of undesirable publicity through the appearance of its members before courts and in other ways. The uniform gives prominence to incidents which, in civilians, would be disregarded or given casual mention. As a result, the whole service suffers from the faults of the few, and men who later don the uniform shoulder the obloquy for faults committed by their predecessors and for which they themselves were in no wise responsible. Only through proper publicity can the public be educated to regard the military offender as an occasional individual and not a generic military type, and the stigma of offense be attached to the individual and not to the service. Judicious publicity creates a friendly and favoring attitude on the part of the general public toward organizations known to be doing good work. Others may do equally good work, but if the community has no special knowledge of it, its attitude is naturally one of indifference. Where a com- munity takes pride in an organization, it places it under 498 MANAGEMENT OF MEN idealistic standards to which it instinctively endeavors to conform. Human nature is such that organizations, like individuals, endeavor to prove themselves worthy of public trust. Practical benefits accrue ; as in recruiting, which tends to come from a larger and better class because the public knows about the organization and its achievements and es- teems it accordingly. A proper use of general publicity, both in publications of the civil community and in soldier papers, is the prompt means of correction of any false im- pressions which may have become current about the camp, desertions, absence without leave, prevalence of sickness, or any other matters of error about physical conditions or mat- ter of administration. Undesirable publicity is that which, through ignorance, misunderstanding or malice, constantly features conditions in the service in an unfair light and creates in the public mind an unfavorable idea of the army as a whole, with cor- respondingly bad effect on morale, recruiting, discipline, so- cial status and a host of lesser items. There is also an un- desirable publicity founded on sham, pretense, assumption, half-truths or falsehood. It is the publicity intended to in- fluence the ignorant or credulous through claiming merit which does not exist and of magnifying mediocrity until it appears as excellence. Such notoriety usually overreaches and defeats itself, for it is ultimately recognized as based on appearance, rather than on substance, and brings about a negative state of mind toward the matter in question by those in position to be more accurately informed concern- ing it. The difference between fame and notoriety should be clearly kept in mind. There is no reason why creditable publicity for honorable endeavor should not be accepted, and; on the other hand, there is every reason why the facts should be known to the public, so that the commendation of the latter may be at least a part of the proper reward of effort. For any state of public mind toward it, the army EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 499 itself is largely responsible. Aloofness and assumed in- difference to public opinion allow allegations to go unrefuted while making little effort to see that virtues and successes are brought to public attention. In many instances, news items are published regarding the military establishment which are in error and at vari- ance with facts. These items are based chiefly on igno- rance, incomplete information, misunderstanding, or hearsay evidence, itself in error. Doubtless in a few instances, also, known facts are intentionally ignored or distorted. How- ever, most persons are disposed to be fair, but if false in- formation is furnished them they naturally come to wrong conclusions. It must be reiterated that a state of mind, whether it be based on false premise or not, tends directly to expression in behavior and act. It is reflected, relative to the service, in social relations or other attitude toward it, and in legis- lation concerning it. As the attitude of the public toward the military service, and its consequent acts, can result from error, it is equally true that the effects of error can be fore- stalled or neutralized through their correction by truth. As a matter of business efficiency, as well as of morale, the military establishment should take steps to protect it- self against the consequences of erroneous statements by promptly correcting them. Such statements appearing in the press, reflecting unjustly on the military establishment, or similarly in the case of industry, should be systematically followed up and offset as soon as possible by statements, in the same community, and preferably in the same publica- tion, of the actual facts in the case. For this purpose of correction of error, and the develop- ment and maintenance of proper publicity, the morale or- ganization is best adapted. In the correction of an errone- ous newspaper statement, due regard should be given to the following : 5 oo MANAGEMENT OF MEN (a) It is obvious that discussion of matters bearing on War Department policies, politics, race, religion, or industry, should not be indulged in. (b) Any appearance of controversy should invariably be avoided. (c) The effectiveness of an effort to secure correction ranks: i. Personal visit; 2. Telephone; 3. Letter. (d) The approach should be made without any evidence of resentment and without complaint, the assumption being that the person responsible for the erroneous item acted in good faith and that undoubtedly he will be pleased to have the correct facts and give them equal publicity. (e) The proper person, that is, the reporter, city editor, managing editor, or other official, should be reached without giving offense by appealing over the heads of those below. (f) It will pay to alternate methods of approach and sometimes to employ more than one. (g) Uniform courtesy and an attitude of helpfulness are the most effective agencies for establishing friendly rela- tions with members of the press. (h) The press officials should understand that the correc- tion of the error is a matter undertaken at the direction of the Commanding Officer. (i) The error should be corrected at the earliest possible moment. Special effort should be made to secure the cor- rection in the newspaper publishing the erroneous statement in order to reach the same readers as far as possible. A newspaper might be unwilling to print a correction, but agreeable to publishing a new article on the same subject in which the facts could be brought out as desired. Similarly, an error in one publication might be offset by a new article in another publication issued in the same locality. (j) The officer making the correction should in no wise let his name appear in print as the giver of the corrective statement or facts. The Commanding Officer should be the EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 501 one and only person to whom the authority of the correc- tion is accredited. (k) Absolute verification of all facts should be obtained before giving them to the press. " Press agenting," guess- ing and exaggerations in either direction should never be indulged in. (1) If written statements are prepared they should be terse, accurate, clear, confined to the bare facts to be pre- sented and shorn of all flowery language and unnecessary verbiage. (m) If effort is made by the press to obtain facts or verify a story before the military authorities are aware of its existence or have had time to investigate, every courtesy and aid should be extended to bona fide newspaper repre- sentatives and no obvious effort made to cover up, obstruct or conceal. It should always be remembered that news- papers have a way of getting a story if they go after it and any obstructive attitude will merely serve to bias reporters and tend to make them suspicious, often leading them to believe that more is being concealed than really is the case. At such times a spirit of frankness and helpfulness will do more to influence reporters in favor of the military estab- lishment and tone down a story than anything else. (n)" The confidence and personal friendship of newspaper reporters is invaluable in publicity work, especially if pos- sessed by the Commanding Officer himself. Despite any- thing that may be said to the contrary, a newspaper man will not violate a trust nor print what is told him in con- fidence, particularly if requested not to print it without the permission of the person disclosing it. Newspaper men do, however, appreciate things told them in confidence as clear- ing up many points in their minds, and consider it a matter of honor not to violate the trust placed in them. In excep- tional cases where a reporter has violated such a confidence he has been promptly ostracized by his colleagues and cut 502 MANAGEMENT OF MEN off from all legitimate sources of obtaining news when the matter became known. The Commanding Officer who is always accesssible to reporters and who invites them into his office and talks to them in a frank, man-to-man way will have no trouble with the press in his locality. Information and news are as much of a factor in war as are munitions. Of this, General Ludendorff's memoirs give ample evidence. Troops are always more or less affected by enemy propaganda. Counter publicity, vigorously exposing the enemy falsehood and fallacy, is necessary. Similarly, suppression of certain information through censorship has an essential place in war, so that the enemy may be kept in doubt as to purposes or results. But suppression of news for the sake of mental control of subordinates relates in its success to racial temperament. It undoubtedly had its place with the German troops, whose psychology seemed to include willingness enough to die in a winning cause, but not for a losing one, and who had been trained to a state of egotistical conceit that cracked under known reverses. On the other hand, the American's tem- perament is such that ignorance or uncertainty is more de- pressant than bad news. He resents undue concealment of facts. Publicity gives him new ideas and opportunity to think and follow appeals along proper lines. Some of the media for publicity are newspapers, maga- zines, bulletins, circulars and other agencies which are dis- cussed elsewhere. In writing, pungent paragraphs are a powerful agent in controlling public opinion. Mentality tests show that a large proportion of readers do not fully comprehend long or unusual words or involved sentences. The idea should be positive, clearly expressed as briefly and simply as possible, and presented forcefully and attractively. It should be presented as an entity in its own paragraph, so as to be emphasized as a whole. The bulletin board is a valuable morale agency for the creation of interest and dissemination of information, which EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 503 is too often overlooked. Bulletin boards should be made attractive by carrying, not only copies of official schedules, orders, circulars and details issued for the direction of troops, but als.o matters of information about the military service and other subjects in which the soldiers would be in- terested and which it would be valuable for them to know. These might include notices of current events, entertainment programs, news items, scores of games, athletic meets, bowl- ing and pool tournaments, jokes, photographs, posters, car- toons, maps, letters, military poetry, clippings, etc. Such bulletin boards might be given a heading like, " The Daily Dope," or similar title, and should be located in a sufficient number of suitable places. They should be posted daily so as to avoid staleness and be so attractive as to cause sys- tematic resort to them by the' men. The Morale Officer should charge himself with systematically furnishing a cer- tain amount of material of a general nature, and with secur- ing from camp, regimental or company headquarters any items of local interest or value. But publicity through the printed word uses only one of several channels. A well recognized medium of advertising publicity is through demonstration of the implements of a trade or calling and their actual use. This valuable agency should not be overlooked in the military service, for the ad- vertising value of a well ordered post or command is very great. The people of the country are always interested in the excellence and use of arms and equipment and welcome an opportunity for information given by military exercises or demonstrations. The very unfamiliarity of it attracts and pleases. This furnishes valid reasons why the attend- ance of troops at civilian fairs, civic celebrations and other functions where people congregate is of practical value to the service. Such attendance always results in wide publicity of personal, official and commercial nature. Visitors at posts are valuable agents for publicity, espe- cially that of a verbal nature. The clean, light, comfort- 50 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN able barracks and buildings with good sanitation, the military shops, schools and utilities, the beauties of the surroundings, the men at drill and recreation — all these furnish innumerable topics for good publicity through con- versation as well as the press. Every person favorably im- pressed praises the organization and thereby increases its morale. While visitors sometimes create minor adminis- trative difficulties, the good that they can do will far out- weigh the disadvantages that their presence as sightseers or guests entails. It is well to note, in this connection, that business firms have found that about seventy per cent, of new customers come to them through personal recommenda- tions of friends. The value of oral publicity should not be overlooked. The printed word expresses the letter of morale work, while oral publicity brings in the spirit as well, and in a personal way. The things which are said about an organization or its, work spread rapidly by word of mouth through divers channels and help largely in creating its reputation and mold- ing public opinion in its favor. Oral publicity to a great extent influences written publicity, for what the people are talking about they are interested in and want to read about. Newspapers are quick to sense this and as a result will be disposed toward printing interesting stories on the popular subject. All sorts of stories about troops, military equipment, de- velopments, achievements and army work in general, form attractive features for the Sunday papers and supplements, especially if well illustrated. Local photographs are easily obtained, within the necessary military restrictions, while the Signal Corps has an almost unlimited supply of pictures from which selection can be made to illustrate practically any story. What is to the command an insignificant matter of common knowledge may often be an item of news interest outside — progress in training, evidence of efficiency, im- provement in health, activities of the men when not on EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 505 duty, are matters of human interest to the people at home. Women writers, anxious for " home folks " copy to reassure mothers and others about camp conditions, can be of great value. With the allocation of regiments to certain districts, close relation with the newspapers published in such districts should be maintained. This should develop into a systema- tized correspondence service, including not only local and personal matter, but stories of general interest and special feature articles on the work and conditions at the camp. Local photographers should be interested in taking the pic- tures which such publicity plans imply. The morale organization acts effectively in serving to dis- seminate information as well as to secure it. Clipping ar- rangements should ensure that articles of compliment or criticism are brought to attention. Stories to meet special conditions should be prepared, or the material furnished to those who will prepare them. " Fillers " of a few lines or a short paragraph in length, of morale value, should be worked up for the camp press. Newspapers of high class contain many matters of pub- licity that the soldier should know about. To this end, sub- scriptions to them should be pushed and facilities for the distribution of copies perfected. This can be best carried out by the Post Exchange, which should maintain news stands and newspaper delivery routes reaching all parts of the command promptly. ' Some of the camps have published attractive little book- lets of information about the camp, its personnel, utilities, educational work, recreational facilities, and civilian sur- roundings. In preparing anything of this kind, the typo- graphical make-up and appearance is a strong factor in its appeal. Such make excellent souvenirs for the men to send home and, in addition, are valuable in recruiting work. Camp Publications. Nothing is more potent in the wide dissemination of ideas and the creation of public opin- 506 MANAGEMENT OF MEN ion than are newspapers. These great agencies for good have been largely overlooked and neglected in the military service. They tend to satisfy the normal instincts of curi- osity, gregariousness and other natural tendencies, and in so doing they mold thought and influence action. The ideas which they can sow broadcast among troops are the seeds of endeavor. Rightly directed, they can be made invaluable in the development of Americanism, patriotism, the mili- tary spirit, high ideals, good conduct, friendly rivalry and efficiency. Even a small civilian community finds its local newspaper a necessity in satisfying its needs and promoting its common interests. Similarly, every large business organization finds its " house organ " a valuable agent for informing its em- ployees in matters of policy, solidarity and unity of purpose. The same applies to every aggregation of troops, which com- bines within itself the elements and social requirements of the civil community and the factors of a great, special busi- ness organization, even though its purpose is protection rather than industry. The average soldier takes great pride in his camp or post paper, if it be a creditable one. No matter how small it may be, or how apparently unimportant some of its news items, it still wields much influence. The idea that " I saw it in the paper, so it must be true " holds good in the major- ity of cases. Accordingly, camp papers should be recognized as military adjuncts of a social and administrative value. Camp and other papers may be made of great use by publishing official bulletins sent out from camp headquarters with explanatory remarks thereon which could not appro- priately be part of the order. They enable commanders to get their ideas indirectly to the command and without the appearance of official compulsion. By published interviews, messages, news items and editorials they furnish a direct channel through which officers may be brought into close EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 507 relation with their men. Problems of discipline diminish in proportion as the men more fully realize the ideals and methods of the military service. The paper is a bond of mutual understanding, through which the Government, of- ficers and men speak to each other. Short and timely articles having, a bearing on morale, through the conveyance of information, ideas or suggestion, have great value, the men being left to draw their own con- clusions from the facts presented. The handling of pub- licity of this sort is, however, a delicate matter, for while the printed word often carries authority beyond its true worth, it is liable to a misconstruction, which is not readily rectified. As with other powerful weapons, there lies dan- ger in its manipulation if handled without due thought and care. Through the personal columns and interesting news items, a hold can be maintained on the readers so that they will read the editorials and heavier articles and uncon- sciously absorb and adopt the principles they express. The personal columns should not be overlooked, but be made as full and as attractive as possible. The men want to know what organizations are doing and what individuals are doing. The columns of the small town paper reflect the intense interest which the average human being has in local happenings and the added importance which anything as- sumes which is a component of local environment. To see his name in the paper, no matter how trifling the context to others, may be a matter of much importance to the individ- ual concerned as a recognition of endeavor or social status. The great success of certain newspapers having a large rural subscription list is stated to be due to their rule of printing the name of each subscriber every few months. This should not be overlooked by those in charge of camp papers. The importance of an item to the community should be further considered in the light of its importance to the individual concerned. The viewpoint of the reader 5 o8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN group should be recognized and catered to in such matters. A good sentiment is created in all concerned if the soldier preserves and sends home the paper giving account of his experiences and doings. In some camps, regular clipping bureaus have been main- tained which clipped items from the camp paper about the men and their surroundings and sent them to the home papers of the men concerned. The men, their relatives and the home papers greatly appreciated this service, and actual knowledge of the facts prevented much of the criticism which tended to arise in the period of emotional unrest fol- lowing the end of the war. Such personal publicity obvi- ously has great recruiting value, especially now that regi- ments are recruited from certain districts. The Morale Officer is the logical military representative of the commander to exercise supervision over these papers and it should not be difficult for him to secure such authority in the degree that appears to him desirable. They should be studied by him to see, first, whether they are sufficiently well written and edited to hold the interest of the men; sec- ond, whether they are too special in their appeal, too re- ligious, frivolous or serious; third, whether items of general morale interest occupy sufficient space in them. It is essen- tial that the papers be interesting, very human, and that their tremendous potentialities for constructive influence should not be wasted. To this end, he should make assist- ing suggestions of morale value to correspondents, writers and cartoonists, so that general conditions and special prob- lems may be satisfactorily handled. No other single agency available to him can be used so effectively to disseminate ideas or to exert a more direct influence on the educational and informative aspects of morale work. Similarly, he should make efforts to provide for as wide a circulation as possible, not so much from a business stand- point as that the influence of the publication may be exerted throughout the command. These imply measures for dis- EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 509 tribution as well as standards of preparation. Where legis- lative restrictions interfere with publications within a camp, arrangements for their printing by civilians outside the camp can usually be made. The business possibilities in a large camp will usually make such an enterprise commercially profitable. Where no camp paper is practicable, the local papers may be utilized for a similar purpose by having special columns set aside for the publicity of camp activities, for which news items will be systematically furnished by the news collecting and preparing organization in the camp. This naturally has a value in promoting close relations with the civil com- munity. Souvenir numbers of camp papers, devoted to special organizations and features, should be issued from time to time. These would naturally contain photographs of of- ficers, organizations, men specially prominent in certain ac- tivities, buildings and facilities, biographies, histories, write- ups, descriptive articles, poems, witticisms, etc. Every effort should be made to have the men send copies to their rela- tives and friends. Camp papers should exchange with each other, not only for comparison, but better to understand general serv- ice sentiment and for republication of interesting matter. Mimeographed bulletins do not ordinarily attract like the printed and illustrated sheet. If used, they must be very carefully and clearly printed and posted most advanta- geously. They do not catch the eye and must be given every advantage in order to be read. The Library. The army library is intended to give the military personnel the same service as is rendered civilian communities by the public library. It provides books, maga- zines and other publications for study, recreational reading, reeducation and vocational training. Its purpose is to be a practical utility and give helpful service, its personnel being trained to that end. 510 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The library hours should include the periods when the command is off duty. Making them correspond with the official schedule is merely for the convenience of the at- tendants, for during the duty hours the average soldier has little time to spend in the library. Open hours on Sundays and holidays should be ensured. The function of a library is so important to the service that sufficient assistance should be provided to make its usefulness a fact rather than a name. Of the books turned over to the army by the American Library Association, about two-thirds were fiction, the re- mainder being for class-room use, study and reference. Foreign language books are so selected as to relate especially to civics, United States history, and English study. School books and those on vocational training are supplied to sup- plement the ones on hand. Books required to carry out ath- letic and recreational programs are also supplied. A proper library is, for morale purposes, far more than a mere collection of books. If well selected and properly handled, it is a powerful agency for the promotion and maintenance of good morale, for anything which contributes to mental state has a corresponding influence on behavior. By suggestion, literature arouses the factors of imitation, emulation and other instincts. Bad literature exerts its influence by arousing mental imagery which incites to unde- sirable action. Similarly, literature of good character makes for beneficent results. Acts result from sentiments, ideals and purposes that books may be largely instrumental in creating. Through books, standards and ideals are presented which are more or less unconsciously adopted by the reader, serving as guides for later conduct. It follows that libraries should not only be available and fully used, but that judicious selec- tion of their literature should be made, so as to upbuild character and direct and stabilize conduct. Books are a powerful morale agency, for there is such a popular EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 511 respect for the printed word as to render the mind especially receptive to the ideas it conveys. To a certain class, seeing a thing in print is a guarantee of correctness, as any adver- tising expert will testify. The old words, " It is written " are the finality in law and religion. Books and reading matter are particularly valuable for morale work in that they not only pass away idle time pleasantly and profitably, but that they especially reach men who, for one reason or another, cannot at the time take advantage of other recreational facilities. The soldier who cannot or does not wish to leave his barracks finds amusement and profit in the books he can use there. The proper distribution of reading matter is thus important, as in hospitals, recruit barracks, guard houses, etc., for even short periods of respite from duty, if frequently repeated, come to have a large aggregate and are well worth con- sideration. Men whose duties require much physical exercise tend to take their amusements and recreation quietly along lines of mental activity. When the soldier is reading, he is beyond the direct influence of his commander and comrades. It is highly proper that the indirect influence exerted through books be guided by facilitating reading along desirable lines. When reading good books men are in no danger of thoughts or acts relating to indiscipline or disorder. Moreover, the lasting ideals conveyed by such books materially help to relieve any apprehension concerning their conduct in the future. The same applies particularly to the sick in hospital, whose infirmities largely curtail participation in physical activities and other pleasures, and whose minds rebel at vacuity and monotony. A good selection of books in meeting such a situation can scarcely be overestimated. Restrictions on the use of good books by prisoners in the guard house should be relaxed as much as possible. The present discipline and future conduct of many prisoners can be benefited by permission to use vocational books and 512 MANAGEMENT OF MEN well selected literature of morale value. The better nature of prisoners can be reached in this way by suggestion, when a direct appeal or approach would be unsuccessful. To all, books open up a new vista of opportunity, thereby bringing into play, as a constructive force for military efficiency, the factor of self-interest, which is one of the mainsprings of individual endeavor. At the same time, they stimulate and satisfy the natural instinct of curiosity, which is at the basis of all human purpose. Books thus bring contentment to the soldier and his friends, since all know that through their use he is being improved for duty within the service or for the life of a citizen after his dis- charge. If left to themselves, soldiers read much the sort of literature that is popular among males of their age and class in civil life. Adventure is a popular subject, espe- cially that expressed in fiction. Certain books pertaining to some of the technical duties of the military environment, such as hygiene, military engineering, etc., are much read. In time of war, much reading is done on war aims if suitable literature is provided and judiciously advertised. During peace, and especially under vocational training, books on agriculture, trades, accounting, business methods, adver- tising, philosophy, etc., are more largely called for. The use of special books, newspaper and magazine articles, which have a value for morale purposes, should be furthered by the Morale Officer. The library should contain books suitable for every man and every mood. This implies a full understanding of the degree of literacy in the army. Under the draft, one man in every four could not pass English literacy tests of an equivalent of the second grade. Probably another fourth had too limited an education to enable them to seek out and benefit by high class reading. It thus followed that about half the soldiers, including all of the ignorant and illiterate and. most of those of alien ideas, could not be reached in EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 513 this way. The tendency of libraries is toward books of high intellectual plane which are valuable only to a rela- tively small proportion of readers, and to overlook the needs of the less literate class which it is particularly important to reach as being the weakest link in the morale and disciplinary chain. In civil life, the tendency of libraries, besides catering chiefly to the educated and student class, is to assume an attitude of dignified helpfulness from which assistance needs to be sought. The reverse should be true. The average soldier cannot be expected to seek out books voluntarily; hence the books must be brought to him, or at least their availability and value brought to his attention. Books should be freely distributed in small libraries in accessible places, in barracks, hospitals, etc., as an extension service, and should be regularly changed at frequent inter- vals. This has been found to double the book demand. There must not be any material restrictions on their avail- ability and use. A few more books will be mishandled or lost, but their far greater use will more than make up for it. A book looks better and does far more good on a man's bunk or locker than on the library shelf. Circulating libraries in camp, and book-carts wheeled through the hospital wards, greatly promote reading by facilitating physical contact between the book and the reader. Proper effort should be made to get overdue books back, not only to prevent wastage, but to prevent cheapening them and their value in the eyes of the soldier. But besides making books available, a systematized and persistent campaign of aggressive publicity should promote their use. The man must be put in a frame of mind where he will seek out and read certain books. The necessary advertising publicity would include sign-boards, special posters, slides at moving picture shows, articles in camp papers, handbills, weekly announcements of new books, addresses to organizations by effective speakers, personal 5 H MANAGEMENT OF MEN visits to libraries by commanders, appeals to officers, publi- cation of special lists of books suitable for reading or study by officers or enlisted men, lists of books pertaining to certain courses of vocational study, straw votes on the most popular books in the library, reviews of new books, perhaps written in the soldier vernacular, placards in the library recommending certain books, selections of certain books on tables near the entrance, the opinion of the command- ing officer on certain books, etc. This advertising plan, as carried out in some camps, doubled the per capita use of books. Posters and Cartoons. All the world loves a picture. Thought expressed in posters and cartoons is of great value in influencing military or industrial morale. It supplements the printed word and, in many cases, substitutes the latter, affording an effective channel through which the object may be reached. If men can be induced by posters to enlist, buy government bonds, and do other things, it is safe to assume that they can be equally influenced by them to other forms of conduct less difficult to inspire, whether in relation to the military service or the administration of a great industrial concern. The written or printed word in our language is not understood at all by the wholly illiterate or the foreigner; to them the alphabetical symbols are mean- ingless in nature, though their form may be distinctly per- ceived. The partially illiterate see them, but are able to interpret their significance and transmute them into ideas only slowly and with difficulty. Posters are particularly valuable in reaching the illiterate, those of sluggish intellect and those relatively unfamiliar with English. The reason is simple. Pictures are the universal language. The first effort of primitive peoples toward a written language was by crude picture writing in the endeavor to record thought, and this can be understood at the present day by individuals of any race or language. The child's picture book, the illustrated primer which EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 515 teaches the child words largely through the accompanying pictures, demonstrates this fact. Also the eye is the most trained of all the organs through its greater use. The savage, the prospector, the mountaineer, the farm hand, and others leading more isolated lives hear relatively little of the spoken language ; the ear is correspondingly untrained, the brain interprets more slowly the significance of the words heard and vocabulary is limited. But the picture carries an idea which is not only under- stood by all, the intellectually high and low, but which is readily grasped. For general purposes, the poster is the best exponent of the picture language, and the most success- ful advertisers more or less unconsciously make use of this fact. A good poster can be so displayed that the individual cannot escape reading it and coming under its influence, even though it were desired to do so, and its effect is thus made cumulative. It should be posted conspicuously, without anything to mar its environment. It should be ■attractive to the attention and pleasing to the eye. If the wording is forceful, witty and epigrammatic, it appeals directly to the intelligence, reason, and perhaps to the sense of humor. Every poster embodies instincts and senti- ments. A poster should be to the eye what the suggestion or com- mand is to the ear. It should make the passerby stop, look and think. It should express practically only one idea, lest it become too involved and its direct application lost. A poster also should present the ideal. The effectiveness of a picture depends upon its appro- priateness to the idea it is desired to convey, its artistic beauty, force, and terse explanatory features. The subject of a poster, then, should be carefully chosen for the needs of the morale problem, its appearance should be timely, and its artistic expression made such as best to bring out the effect desired. The whole story should be conveyed at a glance. It should stimulate and never offend the class to 516 MANAGEMENT OF MEN be reached. The idea should be simple and the words and lettering plain so as to be instantly understood. The phraseology should, if possible, be in epigrammatic form. Colored posters are far more attractive to the eye and impressive to the mentality than black and white. Color- ing is a matter of psychology; red is the color that attracts attention, while blue or green is soothing to the eye. All subjects pertaining to our country or forces should be pleasing and treated in a positive way, with the figures determined or smiling in appearance. Though inarticulate, such pictures often have the power to stimulate to. action equal to battle cries or slogans. The humorous cast capi- talizes the value of an outward or inward smile, but it should never be flippant. The satirical subject should be employed only against the enemy, to ridicule and belittle his efforts and lay bare his faults and weaknesses. The expression of the subject should be such as to bring out the " this means you " idea, but in such a way that the individual will get the impression by suggestion rather than by direct statement. Often an idea will be given personal application through poster suggestion better than by long addresses. The reaction on the group of the individual poster cannot be fully forecasted. None will satisfy all. But if care- fully worked out, experience at camps has shown that they have more influence on the men than any other form of mental approach. The men regarded the " Service Series " posters of the Morale Branch, issued weekly for the past two years, with interest and respect. What has been found valuable in the army will apply similarly to business life. Small posters carry the idea about as well as larger ones. Size is merely an effort toward meeting the requirements of reading distance imposed by environment. Small posters are more apt to be preserved than larger ones, and those for the service are best made of a size suitable for posting on company bulletin boards. EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 517 Posters should not be left on the bulletin board after their appeal to the attention has been outworn. They should, however, be given further effect by posting in company clubs and barracks, so that their result may be cumulative and reach new recruits. All of this applies in a general way to cartoons. The latter, however, find their particular usefulness in enlivening printed publications, and accord- ingly reach a much smaller class and in a less effective way. They serve particularly as a vehicle for humor, ridicule and caricature. Picture postal cards, with military subjects and inscrip- tions of morale value, make useful souvenirs for the men to send home. The descriptive captions should be so phrased as to give the indirect suggestion of high military quality. These cards give the people at home an idea of the soldier's surroundings, and should be sold as cheaply as possible so that their use may be promoted. Photographs of attractive local environment and of the various organiza- tions are valuable for this purpose. For the same reason, the use of cameras by the men, as far as compatible with military restrictions, is desirable. Mail Service, etc. This subject has a very direct rela- tion to morale. It must be remembered that the mails offer the chief and often only contact which soldiers have with their relatives and friends, and that a letter does much to prevent worry and create actual light-heartedness. Con- versely, a poor mail service inevitably creates doubts and worries, and ultimately a profound resentment. A letter means much to the person to whom it is addressed, even though it be a matter of comparative insignificance to others. Every effort should, therefore, be made to facili- tate the forwarding and distribution of mail. It may here be mentioned that the indifference of mail orderlies and some others in charge of the mail, sometimes seems to approach the malicious. It may be withheld, dis- tributed at inappropriate times, or in ways which make it 518 MANAGEMENT OF MEN difficult to get. Another cause of exasperation on the part of officers and men is the delay often involved in the reply to letters by high authority. Sometimes this delay is neces- sary; at other times it seems due to a leisurely official routine which might well be speeded up. The importance of letter writing to the men by their relatives and friends at home was early recognized in morale work. It was also recognized that the tone of such letters should be stimulating, to offset depressions due to rumors, lack of news, or conditions pertaining to the service. As one effort to meet this need, the illustrated advertisement, " Write him cheerful letters," was prepared and widely published. To increase letters from home, the initiative must be- stimulated from within the command. Some camps set aside a special night as " home letter writing night," to pro- mote the writing of letters by the men. At several camps, mimeographed form letters were given to assist the less literate men in writing home, as some of them seem unable to develop their own ideas. The men should be led to write home in a cheerful spirit and encouraged to send home photographs of themselves, their friends, surroundings, copies of camp papers, programs of entertainments, menus of holiday dinners and the like. The provision of adequate writing facilities, with free stationary carrying the organiza- tion heading, should be a part of the equipment of every company recreation room. In recognition of the need for men to communicate with anxious ones at home, men arriving overseas were furnished with a printed post card announcing that they had arrived safely. Some company commanders send a letter to the family of every recruit, explaining a few of the difficulties of adjustment, matter of desertion and absence, urging the writing of cheerful letters from home, and asking that the family communicate freely with the company commander on subjects of interest to the welfare of the soldier. The EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 519 results of this plan more than justify the trouble by produc- ing a greater degree of contentment and good order. Sim- ilar letters have been sent to the families of soldiers about to be discharged, commending faithful service, making note of betterment, and expressing good wishes for the man's future. Here too the results have been excellent. When a soldier is dangerously sick, has met with serious injury, or has died in the service, no act is more appreciated than a letter of sympathy in case of death, or a letter setting forth facts in case of illness or injury, written by the com- pany commander to the soldier's nearest relative. When a man has been killed in action, a similar letter should be sent by the War Department, but it should not be couched in cold, official phraseology, which might block sympathy and so stir resentment. There should be some expression of human interest and regret which will help lighten the mental burden of the bereaved and not add to it. It is perfectly possible to find clerks who can write such letters. One of the great causes of dissatisfaction, which is quickly reflected into the military establishment, is delay in reporting casualties to relatives and friends. This promptly finds expression in bitter criticism, which strikes a responsive chord in the sympathetic mind of the general public. A clearing house for Chrismas mail packages was estab- lished at one great camp, where the morale organization took upon itself the task of prompt delivery through the use of the file cards in the Personnel Office. Experience showed that many Christmas packages lay unclaimed the previous year until long after Christmas on account of poor addresses. A notice system in camps, for men who cannot be reached at the time a telephone call comes in, should be worked out. In large camps, one way of facilitating delivery of tele- grams in the evening is to have the names of addressees flashed on the screen at moving picture entertainments. 520 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Symbols and Slogans. The psychological value of sym- bols is very great. The popular mind does not really grasp the abstract, while symbols give concrete expression to intangible ideals and sentiments. Logical thought in- volves symbols, and hence their value in representing the ideals with which they are associated. The best form of symbols are those* which actually portray the idea to be conveyed. These especially appeal to the illiterate. Thus the symbols of certain guilds, as the boot for shoemakers, the horse-shoe for blacksmiths, the tooth for dentists, etc., has come down from a period when few could read. But in symbolism, anything may symbolize anything else, if only it be agreed upon. In some instances, as society regalia, the only way to find out the meaning of a symbol is to make inquiry on the subject expressing it. Symbols of this sort may mean one thing to one person and something different to another. The flag is a typical symbol which needs no argument. It stands for, represents and symbolizes the nation. That is about all that can be said for it in general, but further than that it stands in each individual's thoughts for what the nation means to him. The idea of the nation, itself a symbol, means one thing to one person and another thing to another. To one, it means protection; to another, com- munity of interests; to another a geographical area; to another, ideals; to another, a military unit, and so on. For each man the flag has a special meaning. Yet it is able to unite all that is held in common, outside these individual concepts. It sways the crowd with practically the same feelings and emotions. It liberates a vast amount of energy that has been bound up and can be released only through the stimulus of the symbol. Officers should recognize the ancient and general human demand for more concrete symbol of any general object or abstract service, institution or principle. Political or EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 521 religious groups cannot exist abstractly; each has its name, motto and symbol. Colleges have seals and colors, socie- ties have badges, states are represented by flags, professions by attire and commodities by their trade marks. A trade mark in business is often worth a tremendous sum. It is an asset, convertible into money. So, too, a trade mark in the military service, as distinctive emblems, insignia, motto, slogan, name, song, or the like have a real value. They are likewise assets convertible into mili- tary efficiency. They not only stand for ideals but create a sense of group unity which is part of the foundation of effective morale. It must be understood that the military trade mark, like the commercial one, stands for excellence and quality. The military organization and each of its members stands behind it, like a guarantee, to make it good. Decorations, badges and insignia are emblems which give outward and visible evidence of the nature and quality of honorable service. As such, they have a strong psycho- logical value, through the prestige, unity and comradeship which they confer. They reach a large class of persons whose heroic or distinguished acts could not be rewarded by promotion, yet to whom the Government desires to demonstrate that it recognizes special achievement and en- tertains gratitude. As such decorations cannot be bought, and represent special service, they have a value beyond all price. Divisional and other insignia are of great value in promoting esprit de corps in an organization and increasing its efficiency. A slogan or catch-phrase embodies an appeal to one or more instincts. Its relative efficiency depends upon the number of instincts stimulated, the strength of the appeal to each and their application to the purpose at hand. The clearer the idea is expressed in the fewest words and the greater the number of suggestions to instincts that it con- veys, the better and more effective the catch-phrase. Such 522 MANAGEMENT OF MEN a phrase is the popular " Let's go " which practically replaced the formal command in many organizations during the war. These little words " let's go," include in laconic form an exceptionally large number of the appeals of good leader- ship. Its analysis is simple. It implies collective action and hence evokes the strong instinct of gregariousness and the sentiment of comradeship. It expresses mutuality of purpose which can only be based on the instinct of sympathy. It admits all to equal partnership and share in the work in hand and develops pride of workmanship through the cre- ative instinct thus stimulated. It is a challenge to action and hence arouses the instinct of self-assertiveness. The idea of movement which is proposed stimulates the migra- tory instinct. The overcoming of possible obstacles which, by inference, may be necessary, creates a spirit of combat against them. Over all there is a provoking of the instinct of curiosity and the sentiment of adventure as to what may be encountered at the journey's end. It breathes decision and confidence. It embodies an invitation which is stronger than compulsion. It gives an appearance of desirable elec- tion to a matter of necessity and coordinates all ranks and grades to a common purpose without weakening authority. It has none of the cold compulsion and individual applica- tion of the command " Forward, march," which drives the soldier forward as an unit. It lacks the implied inferiority of the soldier, with the checking of self-assertion, when the leader commands " follow me." It is without artificiality or pretense. It will succeed where other measures fail because it is an appeal which is scientific, strong, simple, direct, comprehensive and human. Organizations, whether military or industrial, should develop slogans, titles and catch-phrases symbolical of their spirit or that of the service. Catchy epigrams are very useful in developing or fixing decisions. The approach EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING 523 should be varied at intervals to increase the efficiency of attack and response. The designation applied to organizations and duties has a direct influence on the state of mind and the efficiency with which the duties are performed. Mottoes and slogans represent high ideals and stimulate to endeavor. They develop pride in organization. The British make special use of distinctive regimental names in addition to the offi- cial designations of the units; every one has heard, for example, of the " Black Watch " and the " Gordon High- landers." The adoption of special names for divisions has similar value. A divisional motto like " It shall be done " is a military asset which adds materially to efficiency. So, too, the name of " Devil Dogs," assumed by the Marines, or the inspirational slogan of the Tank Corps — " Treat 'em rough." The converse of this was seen in the designation of' " Labor Battalions " which was changed to " Service Bat- talions " as a result of the discontent and indifference with which their members performed duties which seemed to be recognized as drudgery not implying military status, and as leaving little to be proud of as a share in the war. For the same reason, any opprobrious designation or epithet applied by the men to any military duty or those who perform it should be promptly suppressed. When duties are necessary to a common military end, all are equally honorable. Drills, Parades and Ceremonies. Drills and parades are usually considered chiefly from the standpoint of instruc- tion. But they have a great morale value, since they recog- nize, in their mass formations, the gregarious instinct of men. They give the individual a sense of coordination with, and pride in, his organization, and at the same time serve a powerful inspirational purpose. Especially is this true of recruits," and particularly if the exercises are con- 524 MANAGEMENT OF MEN ducted in the presence of spectators. Here the tendency is to strive to demonstrate the high standards of the organ- ization, the ideal and the dramatic. Such formations are particularly valuable for morale purposes with organiza- tions whose technical duties are such that their military drills are few and whose cohesiveness and esprit suffer accordingly. The participation in drills and ceremonies of such organizations as service battalions, certain engineer units and others, during the war, was found to add greatly to their content, discipline- and efficiency. Forms and ceremonials have a strong psychological value, creating respect, inspiration, awe and stimulating community of thought. Guard mounts, retreat, dress parades and reviews should habitually have these psychological factors as their object. Troops should participate in all gala occa- sions and national holidays for the purpose of stimulating their patriotism, loyalty and pride. The success of all parades and ceremonies, from the morale standpoint, consists in having them regarded as desirable by the participants and not considered as irksome tasks. Accordingly, they need to be "sold" to the men. This implies judicious suggestion by high authority and proper publicity. Parades in nearby communities, for purposes of morale, should be carried out from time to time. They serve, not only to stimulate the morale of the men, but increase interest in the troops on the part of the local civilian population. But such participation should not be allowed to an extent which is fatiguing to an unnecessary degree, thereby. neutral- izing the advantage which it is desired to gain. If the sol- dier gets the idea that he is being deprived of his holiday for the diversion of others an undesirable reaction occurs. When troops parade in a town, steps should be taken through the city authorities and civic bodies to secure as much decoration as possible along the route of march. Every regiment should have designated, in accordance EDUCATION, INFORMATION, TRAINING, 525 with War Department orders on the subject, a certain day each year as the regimental memorial day, which should be observed with all dignity and ceremony. There should be formal parades, exercises at which soldiers should receive honor and encomium for any meritorious or distinguished service rendered during the past year, distribution of prizes, addresses on the history of the organization and other fit- ting ceremonials. Former members of the regiment might be invited and, if possible, transportation furnished to those who by special conduct and reward have honored the regi- ment. The presence of death affects the human mind as nothing else can do. Well cared for cemeteries, giving evidence of interest and reverence, do much to improve morale in the living. The occasional military funeral, in time of peace, has a very considerable morale value for those of the command who do not experience the sense of personal loss, as well as to assuage the sorrow of personal friends of the departed. The honor, unity and comradeship of the service toward its members, as expressed in the simple but dignified funeral ceremonial, cannot fail to be appreciated. Military funerals are a depressant to morale when numerous. Par- ticularly is this the case in time of epidemic, when the reac- tion on patients in hospital and well men outside is alike undesirable. In such cases the funerals should be conducted simply and removed from the hearing of the sick. In time of war, the bearing of those killed in action to their last resting place, and the simple military ceremonies at the grave, may add materially to the fighting spirit of their comrades through resentment against the enemy. Panegyrics of those dead in battle exalt patriotism. No greater stimulus to such endeavor was ever framed than Lincoln's Gettysburg address. To be of the heroic dead brings a pride and resignation which combine to remove much of the apprehension of danger. CHAPTER XIV RECREATION The need for recreation; play as outlet for mental tension; value of the play instinct for military purposes; wholesome recreation as a constructive agency; sports and entertainments. Military athletics; physical development through play; character building through play; mass athletics; competitions. Dramatic entertainment. Moving pictures; their selective influence on mind and conduct; " flashes." Music; its value for morale purposes; its influence on the psychologi- cal state; songs; mass singing; musical selections. Dances and so- cials; usefulness in contentment and discipline. Soldier clubs. Trips, hikes and practice marches; their psychological value. Post Exchanges. Entertainment. In recreation, the play instinct is used as a safety valve for the dissipation of energy which, if allowed to discharge itself through the channels of other instincts, might result in harmful acts. Wholesome recrea- tion and play afford relief from mental stress, break monot- ony, stimulate interest and ambition and benefit both mind and body. Through exerting a favorable influence on men- tal state, they make the individual work better and promote efficiency, interest and good conduct. Accordingly they should be officially encouraged, systematized and controlled so that their agencies will be used to best advantage. " Recreation is a military necessity," said General March, " for the production of well-rounded and symmetrically trained officers and enlisted men. It occupies as definite a place in the activities of the army as do such matters as food, clothing, medical attendance, and tactical training. It is a commonly accepted standard of life that the human being should be given an adequate period of time for recrea- tion. The army will conform to this standard in so far as military necessity permits." 526 RECREATION 527 Morale work is not merely entertainment, as has been widely assumed as a result of the emphasis laid on recrea- tion during demobilization for the purpose of maintaining the interest and contentment of the men. But entertain- ment is one of many valuable morale agencies, and has the virtue of being usually available, in one or another form, for the relief of mental tension. Recreation differs from work not in the obstacles sur- mounted nor the energy expended, but in the spirit in which the activity is carried out. A task may thus be converted into pastime if the proper spirit is created, and the wise officer may endow a duty with the qualities of interest and amusement. Recreation is any form of pleasurable mental diversion. Since it implies relief from mental strain, it also allows the nervous system to recuperate and strengthen itself for a new task, just as the periodical winding of a clock is necessary to make it go. Some persons need more recupera- tive recreation than others; young men need more than older ones, but all need some, and the wise officer will see that it is made available in due character and quantity. Most of the work of the enlisted man is physical. Dur- ing his hours off duty his brain is active and his mental atti- tude receptive. If left to his own resources, the average individual tends to fritter away his leisure time, either in useless trifling, or harmful dissipation. This is where wise authority may continue to function, though without seem- ing to do so, by opening new opportunities of interest, recrea- tion and betterment, and by providing alternatives for undesirable means of relaxation. It is the greatest of mis- takes to assume that training stops with required duties. Whether the leisure time of the soldier shall be valuable or dangerous, and whether it is to be turned to making him better or less efficient, it is within the power of commanders largely to decide, through opportunity to instil the mental qualities and build up the sentiments which are the main- 528 MANAGEMENT OF MEN spring of harmony, loyalty and efficiency. The same applies in industry, and group entertainments afford opportunity to bring all grades, with their families, together in the promo- tion of harmonious good feeling. Recreation should embody the qualities of variety and novelty. Amusements involving competition and requiring much preliminary preparation, thus maintaining interest over long periods, are especially to be sought. Prizes , heighten interest and rivalry. That recreation is best in which the participant actively shares, for in time men tire of being passively entertained. That recreation is also best in which large numbers engage, especially if there be eliminative competition. Contests in which but few are active do not supply a full substitute for mass activity. Vigorous outdoor sport, because of its physiological ef- fect, is preferable to indoor amusements whenever there is choice between the two. Until its appeal becomes outworn the " military tournament " appears to be the most effective form of entertainment, since it permits continuous qualifying competition to select the best shots, the best drilled com- pany, battalion or regiment, or the best drilled platoon. An indefinite number of variations, moreover, are possible. For the sake of variety, the bringing in of outside enter- tainers, from time to time, is desirable. In dramatic and musical entertainment given by local entertainers, it is often useful to secure feminine talent from nearby communities. When troops are very close to the attractions of a town, the featuring of local post entertainments is of less import- ance, and the problem becomes more one of creating such close relations with the civic and welfare organizations in the town as will tend to the provision of wholesome recrea- tion for the men while off duty. But the point should not be overlooked that one great advantage of entertainment on the military reservation is that the men prefer to remain at home, and are thus safeguarded against undesirable out- side influences. RECREATION 529 In connection with entertainment, it should be remem- bered that no one program could please all. It must neces- sarily be a compromise. The officer in charge should not be dogmatic in deciding what the soldier wants, but inquiry, study and observation of previous success in a small way furnish the best basis for larger plans. By frequent change of program, something appealing to each one will ultimately be provided. Surprises are always well received, while " fool championships," such as intercompany huckleberry pie-eating contests, burlesque prize fights, etc., can occa- sionally be used to advantage. As elaborate entertain- ments as practicable on Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years, when the thoughts of the men instinctively turn toward those at home, are desirable. A weekly camp calendar should be prepared, showing a complete schedule for each day, giving time and place of all events such as amusements, athletic contests, dances, socials, lectures and special military events. It should be published in the Monday issue of local papers, appear in camp papers and be placed on company bulletin boards. In promoting entertainment, intensive effort to develop local talent will be well repaid. Recruits, on arrival, should be questioned as to their entertaining ability. Every large organization has within itself nearly all the factors neces- sary for its own amusement. Moreover, the men are espe- cially interested in the doings of themselves and their com- rades. The seeking out and training of entertainers in the command is important and gives status to the per- formers as well as credit to their organization. They should be card indexed and organized into entertainment teams with balanced programs. In any matter of entertainment, the policy should be, as far as possible, to let the men themselves plan and handle all details. They take more interest in it if they are allowed to work it out and consider the final result their own. Offi- cial supervision should be of a general nature and more in v 530 MANAGEMENT OF MEN the form of encouragement, interest and promotion. En- tertainment has a desirable state of mind of the men as its purpose, and this is interfered with where a superior imposes his own ideas on the project, whether coincident or not with those of his subordinates. The men are inclined to resent any tendency toward an attitude of superiority and uplift, and too much supervision gives this impression and introduces a factor of negative morale in what would other- wise be wholly valuable. There have been instances where this tendency toward close supervision, in the honest desire to help, has been carried to an extent which the men regarded as meddlesome. The great variety of available pastimes offers wide op- portunity to make suitable selections to meet special needs. Some aid directly in developing the soldier, mentally or physically, so that he becomes better able to perform some military task. Into all of them can be skilfully worked a great amount of suggestion, calculated to put the soldier in a proper frame of mind toward his duties, as well as divert him from his troubles, real or imaginary. It is of course necessary in encouraging various means of entertainment that proper facilities to carry them out should be provided and made available. These run all the way from athletic equipment to well equipped company clubs and post amusement halls for indoor sports, social gatherings, dances, moving pictures and dramatics. The statistics of the welfare societies operating during the war testify to the tremendous popularity of such facilities. Amusements should be in the open air as far as possible. Not only is there novelty and attraction in this, but larger crowds can be handled, they are much more comfortable in warm weather, and there is far less chance of transmission of infection, especially of the respiratory diseases. The only exception to this plan is in the case of troops located in the malarious regions, where attacks by the night-flying, malaria-carrying mosquito must be guarded against. Out- RECREATION 531 door amphitheatres and " air-domes " can usually be arranged almost anywhere with little trouble or expense. If well planned they can accommodate a whole brigade. In many instances, natural slopes of ground can be readily utilized to do away with the need for seats. Some camps or posts have ravines in or near them, which form natural amphitheatres with little or no work of adapting them to the purpose. In all indoor entertainments, the proper capacity of the building should not be exceeded. This should be a matter of official information, and plans for attendance should take this into consideration. 1 The morale value of recreation, while often great, must nevertheless be considered as of a temporary nature. Its permanent value is the degree in which it develops desirable qualities of character, for the supreme test of morale comes when recreational facilities are of necessity absent. Sim- ilarly, amusements will not serve indefinitely to maintain morale in units which are living under bad physical condi- tions, though they may temporarily render the latter toler- able by drawing attention away from them. Too much recreation, and especially that of the same character, cheapens it and defeats its own object. The men become saturated and lose interest. A just balance between duties and recreation must be maintained. Only that is prized which is not too easy to obtain. Military Athletics. Athletics have the value of promot- ing not only physical excellence and fitness for military task but also desirable mental qualities, and, at the same time, relieving mental stress and affording recreation. The relation between a sound body and a sound mind is pro- verbial, while both exercise a twofold but inseparable influ- ence on morale. Athletics create an interest in a present occupation which causes unwholesome or depressing thoughts to disappear. They develop originality, spon- taneity and self-reliance, at the same time teaching men to be good sportsmen, good team men and good losers as well 532 MANAGEMENT OF MEN as good winners. Recreational exercise is probably the most effective agency in bringing about a physical develop- ment which is turned to direct account in the performance of military exercise. The character of athletic activities is so diverse as to give opportunity for far wider and more vigorous normal move- ments than do formal exercises, drills and marches. They bring about a more vigorous and better balanced function- ing of the organs, especially those of circulation and respira- tion, and they accomplish this with the least expenditure of nervous energy. Athletics greatly stimulate the competitive, assertive and fighting instincts, thus helping to develop soldierly character. This applies particularly to such sports as boxing, wrestling, competitive games and various exercises requiring speed, skill, strength and endurance as well as mental discipline. All games are based on one or more instincts, combined in various ways. Their rules are habits, discovered by acci- dent, selected by intelligence and perpetuated by tradition. They should be played correctly, energetically and in the proper spirit. They should have simple rules and be of such nature as to admit a large number of players. There should not only be opportunity for the men anxious to par- ticipate, but also vacancies to which the sluggish or retiring may be sent. Effective work in athletics can only result through proper organization and supervision. Qualified instructors are necessary, for men do not take readily to new sports or those in which they are awkward. The duty of athletic instructors is a military one and of an importance equal to any other. Adequate gymnasium facilities in every post are necessary, and their care and use are important. In many instances too little advantage has been taken of them, and no attempt made to promote interest by gymnastic exhibitions, contests, etc. The selective use of the various apparatus in remedying physical fault should be understood. RECREATION 533 Every military station should have a sufficiency of pre- pared play fields, athletic grounds, outdoor platforms for boxing and wrestling, and suitable gymnasium facilities for winter use. For summer use an outdoor gymnasium may be provided. The athletic field might well include dia- monds for outdoor and indoor baseball, football fields for soccer and Rugby; volley-ball, cage-ball and basketball courts, tennis courts, cinder track, walls for scaling, trench jump, high jump, broad jump, horizontal bars, parallel bars, vaulting horses, etc. Once provided, they should be systematically used. This implies the constant maintenance of an adequate supply of proper equipment and apparatus. The men themselves will take readily to play if the neces- sary, incentives and facilities are provided. Certain games are especially needed by some men in order to modify indi- vidual defects; by others to enable them to gratify self- assertion by showing special excellence. They should be selected and varied accordingly. The tactful commander will find some plausible explanation for the contests par- ticularly desired. Officers add to incentive by their pres- ence, even though the limitations of age and other factors prevent active participation, thus showing themselves not merely as task-masters but as one with their men in play as well as work. All games should be under direction of an officer, though this should be nominal rather than active, not depriving the game of the sense of spontaneity. Ordinarily, the impression should be given that games, once started, are run by the men themselves. Company officers should care- fully watch the performance of individuals during games, as the best opportunity to size up the real qualities of the man is when he forgets himself at play. Speaking generally, the best military athletics are those which bring the greatest number of men into activity and competition. This requires organization, the training of leaders and a varied program. In mass athletics, large 534 MANAGEMENT OF MEN numbers of men engage, the novice as well as the expert. Little or no equipment is required and no special uniforms are necessary. Large numbers of men can be quickly handled and kept busy; the rules and regulations are simple; the play idea and spirit are predominant; every man's per- formance, no matter how mediocre, counts for his team. Mass games are also of the greatest value in breaking down barriers due to shyness, foreign parentage, class dis- tinction, newness to each other, and the disabilities due to unfamiliarity with the English language. Particularly is this true of recruits, who are undergoing adjustment to their new environment. Mass athletics may include as the participants the entire available personnel of organizations, from the platoon to the regiment. As a means of promot- ing mass athletics, semi-weekly play periods might well be authorized, in which all enlisted men would be expected to participate. In some competitive events, not only indi- vidual success, but the number of men contesting from an organization might receive consideration in determining the winners. Suitable games and contests include boxing, wrestling, volley-ball, baseball, football, soccer, ^Rugby, handball, indoor baseball, basket ball, tennis, la crosse, hockey, cross country runs, swimming and aquatic sports; the various track events such as sprints quarter, half and mile races, relay and hurdle races; field events such as high jumping both standing and running, broad jumping both standing and run- ning, shot putting,- pole vaulting, discus throwing, javelin throwing, hammer throwing, the hop-skip-jump; military events such as wall-scaling, equipment races, litter races, heavy marching order races, squad hikes; and novelty events such as obstacle races, potato races, shuttle, tug of war, leap frog, three-legged races, shoe scramble races. In the cold climates in the winter, coasting, skiing, skating and ice hockey should be encouraged. To all these may and should be added any contests that may seem suitable to any RECREATION 535 organizations. The men prefer the more strenuous ath- letics to mere childish games. Camp baseball leagues are desirable. Inter-company games should be played, and the best material grouped in regimental teams. After competing for the championship of the camp, the best players should be organized as a camp team to play against other camps or civilian teams. The same plan applies 'to football, basketball, or other teams. Soccer football is better than Rugby as a military exercise, as any number can play it and injury is less liable to occur. For winter and indoor recreation, basketball serves a very useful purpose. Teams to represent the several organiza- tions on a competitive basis greatly add to interest. Bowl- ing is another indoor sport in which large numbers can par- ticipate, through the organization of representative teams. Regimental cross country runs are excellent to develop forti- tude and persistency as well as physical hardness. The twenty-five or more men in first might be given passes. Boxing trains muscles used in bayonet fighting. A pre- mium should be put on aggressive tactics. A few tricks of in-fighting may be of great value in personal combat. Aside from technical proficiency, the man versed in such matters acquires a large amount of confidence, aggressiveness and resourcefulness. Boxing " tryouts " should ultimately lead to finals. This also applies to wrestling. Where possible, mass swimming and life-saving should be taught and prac- ticed. All-point company championship contests should be held, with a trophy for the successful company and prizes for the individual winners. The relative popularity of various forms of athletic sports among the men is indicated in a general way by Figure 20. Compulsory exercise, preferably in some specified form of athletics, should be required of all men on sedentary detail, for its effect in improving mental state quite as much as to prevent physical deterioration. There is no reason 536 MANAGEMENT OF MEN why such athletics, in part at least, should not be considered as a duty and taken in Government time. To promote interest in athletics, there should be yearly AVERAGE DAILY NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS Baseball, standard 9000 1 Baseball, indoor 7900 Football, soccer 5400 Track and Field Athletics 5100 Basketball 4900 Volley ball 4300 Mass games 4000 Push ball 1700 Boxing 1400 Tennis 1400 Cage ball 1200 Quoits 1100 Tug of war 900 Football, Intercollege 700 Handball 400 Wrestling 100 Figure 20. Athletics in the S. O. S. — Week Ended March 27, 1919. Participants in athletics under supervision of the Army and the Y. M. C. A. Source of information: Y. M. C. A., Athletic Director for S. O. S. contests in suitable events, with the award of local cham- pionships. All these contests should be conducted on an elimination basis, with finals to decide the championship. Corps area and army contests should then follow to deter- mine the final championshipvin the approved sports. To perpetuate the morale value of such competitions, prizes should be awarded, and these should be symbolic and embody a military sentiment of local interest. The records of such contests should be given the widest publicity, to promote interest and effort and to confer distinction where deserved. Cheering for athletic contests puts purpose and deter- mination in them, and knits the organization behind them closer together. It should be organized and supported. The ideals of good sportsmanship should be inculcated — never to admit defeat until the game is over, and to be cheerful, whether winning or losing. RECREATION 537 Dramatic Entertainment. The drama is one of the highest forms of recreation. It can be made to instruct as well as entertain, and it should be judiciously used in both capacities. Subjects can be selected, ideas put into words and acts, and impressions conveyed to and adopted by the audience through the instincts of sympathy and imita- tion. Much morale material can be given outlet in this way, and in an indirect manner which leaves the impres- sion without the subjects being conscious of it. Clean, wholesome and often inspiring amusement of this sort diverts the men and offsets undesirable attractions outside, .thus preventing the acts of indiscipline which may spring from them. The general principle of having the men provide within themselves the chief means for their diversion here holds good. One of the chief values of dramatic directors is to discover the latent talent in every organization and develop and train it. When a number of garrisons are near enough, and no particular one is large enough to support its own dramatic organization, it may be possible to organize "players clubs," carrying their own orchestra, to tour a post circuit, using local talent to fill in vaudeville and other acts. Competitive " local talent nights " may be tried, in which all units are invited to have their representatives, with abil- ity to entertain, participate. These contests would be open to singers, dancers, instrumentalists, monologists or readers, acrobats, and men doing stunts or novelty acts of any description. Small cash prizes, awarded on the basis of the applause given the act, would be desirable. Play writ- ing among the soldiers should be encouraged whenever any special talent in this direction is discovered. In time of war, special plays should be written and programs prepared for morale purposes. The programs of theatrical and other entertainments may be used as vehicles for lines of morale value. 538 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Preferably the character of dramatic entertainment should be light rather than heavy, and gay rather than serious. Pretty girls and catchy music attract, and assist- ance in this connection can usually be secured through the local welfare organizations. Farces and " take-offs " by the men on the military service, with witty local allusions, are greatly relished. Vaudeville shows, with a mixture of singing, dancing, acrobatics, music, boxing, etc., are always popular. As a change, some more ambitious piece may occasionally be tried. Sometimes a production of a patriotic or historical nature may be desirable. Minstrel shows, although hackneyed, will draw if made bright through the introduction of new jokes and catchy music. But in any case, the program should be so constituted or the lines so cleverly written or rewritten as to bring out by suggestion a good deal of morale value. All material of an injurious nature should be eliminated. The Morale Officer should keep in touch with dramatic plans so that suitable morale suggestions may appear in dialogues and songs. The accumulation of stage materials, costumes, wigs, props, etc., permanently in the camp is desirable. The assistance of local civilian ( organizations can often be secured in promoting dramatic work in procuring costumes, personnel, halls for shows outside the reservation, etc. Photographs of rehearsals, performances and members of the cast, can be used effectively for publicity purposes and as souvenirs. Some camps worked out a very excellent movable stage, which could be transported about on a truck for open air entertainments. It cost about $400.00, which was no more than the profit which might accrue from a single soldier performance in a civilian community. Benefit performances in civilian communities, with the permission of the com- manding officers, furnish desirable means of promoting good relations with such communities. RECREATION 539 Moving Pictures. Motion pictures are a morale agency which should be used to the utmost. They entertain and at the same time educate, conveying, morale qualities in an indirect way which is most effective. Even the most untu- tored mind can grasp the idea conveyed by moving pictures, which, after all, are merely the modernized version of picture writing. Hence moving pictures offer a most ready and effective means of reaching and influencing the illiterate as well as those of high intelligence and good knowledge. The censorship of moving pictures required by law in the various States indicates the recognition of their possible in- fluence on character and conduct. Similarly, the character of moving pictures is of great importance in respect to mo- rale. Too much of the material which has been shown in camps has no morale value and serves no other purpose than pastime. That pictures which depress morale and patri- otism and have other undesirable reactions upon the soldier mind should be excluded is of course obvious. This applies, not only to those frankly addressed to such undesirable object, but perhaps in even greater degree to those in which the suggestion is indirect and subtle, and, though camou- flaged, the effect of which is none the less potent. Selection of films should be as carefully considered as the subjects of lectures or of books to be read. The low stand- ards of certain classes of the general public and of many scenario writers should not be allowed to apply indiscrimi- nately. Every film should be selected and judged accord- ing to its probable effect upon the soldier audience and the mental impression which it is desired to create. During the war, such films as " Hearts of the World," " The Un- believer," " The Cross-bearer," etc., did much to fan the spirit of patriotism, just as " Fit to Fight," " Damaged Goods " and others promoted morality. Moving pictures in which the men see themselves or other soldiers are always interesting to them. Frequently they may acquire historical importance. Good films showing the 540 MANAGEMENT OF MEN regiment or other organization in some formation or func- tion, and especially in battle, should be secured and pre- served among the archives. Their periodic display will always arouse interest and pride, and they become pro- gressively more valuable with the lapse of time. This also applies to the " Living Photos " of great masses of men grouped to represent some military insignia or design, such as have been staged at many camps. These awaken inter- est, local pride and form desirable souvenirs to send home. A very effective means of reaching the soldiers in put- ting across a series of ideas is by " flashes " written on lan- tern slides at the moving picture shows, expressing the idea in epigrammatic or witty form and conveyed with surprise and novelty. Some of the epigrams may well give advice which is timely, and be shown at suitable intervals. Others may touch on some special morale problem which for the time being is giving particular concern. After the Armistice was signed, the men were anxious to get home, and absence without leave and desertion increased. One camp helped to meet this problem with " flashes " such as the following: " Uncle Sam Says: It's not where you soldiered for me, but how you did it." " Uncle Sam Says: You haven't been a soldier long. You won't be one again soon. Be game while you are one." " Uncle Sam Says: Where are my boys to-night? All that are worth havin' are on the job." " Uncle Sam Says: The feller that goes ' over the hill ' ain't a soldier — he's a mistake." Slides for motion picture shows for the Morale Officer to promulgate ideas or to advertise the library or other facilities may be made to deal with an immediate problem as follows: " Use Higgins waterproof ink and #303 Gillett pen. Make a diagram on white cardboard the size of a slide and rule same. Place mica on diagram and print any sizes desired, but keep in bounds. Place printed mica sheet RECREATION 541 face down on thin glass (slide size) and paste slide tape evenly around edges of glass with mica between." Music. Music is one of the potent aids to morale. Of it, General Linevitch said: " Music is one of the most vital ammunitions of the Russian army. Without music, the Rus- sian soldier would be dull, cowardly and inefficient. From music he absorbs a magic power of endurance and forgets the sufferings and mortality." Its importance was realized during the war as never before in our service and it is now more extensively recognized among military measures. It is, of course, developed from the instinct of rhythm, which is a potent force in stimulating or organizing activity. The drumming of the savage produces an exalted mental state, in which one response is cadence of motion. With civilized man, the harmony of the band tends to make the individual fall in step and stimulates to motion and concert of action with others. The very instruments for music determine their use for special purposes through their quality. For arousing strenuous effort, brass instruments and those of percussion are more appropriate than the reed or lute. The ancients charged their foes amid the stimulating blasts of trumpets and horns, as the modern savage is stirred to fight by the clash of gongs or the throbbing of the war drums. Music is the interpreter of the psychological state. The pianist, playing in half revery, unconsciously reveals, bv his choice and expression, the feelings, emotions and attitudes he entertains. The converse of this is true, for, by selec- tion of music, the troops may be swayed from the martial to the sentimental, from thoughts of war to those of home. Expressive and humorous words, appropriate to the music, carry a subconscious lesson. They add to power of re- sistance and ability to brace up exhausted muscles and nerves and to offset anxiety and homesickness. Any theme may be used which serves to stimulate one or more of the basic instincts and direct it to the purpose intended. Popular songs are, in a way, the expression of communal 542 MANAGEMENT OF MEN mental state, both in origin and use. The gradual altera- tion of our national mental state, from the time when the craven " I didn't raise my boy to be a soldier " was the popular song of the music halls, through the intermediate psychological steps that resulted in the stern challenge " Keep your head down, Alleman' ! " and the stirring " Over there," is a curious study in itself. Men instinctively change their selection of music to the environment. Camp j fire songs are in a class by themselves, and are evoked when marching .songs seem out of place. The soldier sings little about patriotism, perhaps because band music in itself is so often patriotic as to surfeit. In the recruit camp he sings of war, but after baptism by fire, the themes have more to do with home, love and humor. In a general way, the subjects tend to run along lines in which there is an existing repression. Songs and music are also interpretative of racial psychology, as for example the work, of German, Russian, Polish and Italian composers, or the native Hawaiian or Negro music. Music, and especially mass singing, promote good fel- lowship and unity and make the hearers and participants forget their difficulties. That " music hath power to soothe the savage beast " is psychologically true, for it is a by- pass through which emotional tension may be relaxed. The use of mass singing of a few appropriate songs, to put an audience on a basis of common sympathy and receptivity to suggestion before the addresses are made, will be found a measure of practical efficiency. With mass singing now recognized as a military measure, periodical exercises will be carried out. Periods should be so arranged that all available men in an organization will be present. Singing should be carried out as a required exercise and hence during working hours, or else it should be voluntary and carried out after hours for the pleasure of the soldier. To force men to attend singing, when some might prefer to be away on pass, is to impair interest and RECREATION 543 participation. Mass singing is best taught by a few simple songs that the men know and enjoy. After the spirit and ability for singing are acquired, more difficult and higher class music may be tried. It is particularly valuable in mak- ing recruits feel at home, and in making foreign speaking soldiers attempt our language. Examples are common in which soldier groups have been roused to such enthusiasm in singing that they applaud the results of their own efforts. Company " sings," of a few minutes duration, in the mess hall after the evening meal, are often popular. Two or three songs will usually be sufficient, so that the singing may not be too drawn Out. The songs thus learned will be use- ful as marching songs on hikes and in camps, as the men will know, not only that they can sing, but what to sing. As a natural outgrowth of the company " sings," the com- pany quartet should be developed. It should perform at company " sings," both in leading the harmony and singing independently. It serves as a nucleus, not only for the furnishing of music but as an example and intiative to which other singers informally respond and gain in confidence and practise. As a directing agent along such lines, every com- pany should have its song leader. Competitive regimental "sings " have been held in some camps, either out of doors or in the Liberty Theaters. They were held daily, a new organization at a time, and it took a week or more to complete the roster. The pauses were used by " Four Minute " speakers on various sub- jects, " how to use the camp library," " vocational train- ing," " what the army has done for you," etc., varying with each completion of the roster. In some instances, buglers were included in the contests, and cups and other prizes given the best singing regiment and regimental buglers. A singing contest which proved very successful as a mo- rale factor had the following program : 1. Each military unit entering the contest was limited to 100 men. 544 MANAGEMENT OF MEN 2. Points for the judges to consider were: volume, qual- ity, rhythm, spirit, harmony, expression, accuracy, enunci- ation (words). 3. Songs to be used: First and last verses of the Star Spangled Banner. Each unit being prepared to render one verse and chorus of one of the following songs : " Old Black Joe," "Old Folks at Home," "Old Kentucky Home." One verse and chorus of its own choosing. Unison songs for all contestants: "America," "Long Trail," "Good- morning, Mr. Zip, Zip, Zip." One original parody by each unit. Each contesting unit to be led by a leader of its own choosing. At this camp, the song leader distributed 17,000 song books in one week. In a camp with high morale, the good spirits of the men dispose them toward singing and the problem is not so much to evoke singing as to direct it. Conversely, when men are depressed and discontented the tendency is to remain silent, and this is particularly the time when they need to be brought out of themselves. This brings up the matter of leadership in singing. Men who are interested in singing are usually willing to take a prominent part in it for the good they can do. Beside a good voice, personality is of basic importance, for one man may sway the crowd in sym- pathetic understanding, while it would remain largely mute under the efforts of another. They must know how to select songs in accordance with the mood of the audience, and gradually carry it to the state of mind desired. They should be quick and deft in repressing songs or parodies which express discontent with the service or create invidious distinction between any classes or groups. Bands are a great aid to morale. Where the official allowance is not sufficient to provide them, the difficulty may usually be surmounted by organizing the available musical talent into volunteer bands and orchestras to play for the recreation of themselves and others. Authority to supply band instruments and music has been given in the case of RECREATION 545 volunteer bands where no organized bands exist, with pro- vision that the instruments shall be> kept in good condition and that there shall be no expense to the Government. Small " jazz " bands or orchestras are very popular with the men, especially the colored troops. They were organ- ized at some camps and were allowed to play outside when their services could be spared. In some instances they were paid for this outside service, as the local civilian musicians offered no objection. Whenever organizations change station, or any Consider- able number of discharged men are to leave in a group, it is very desirable to have the band play them off to the strains of " Auld Lang Syne " or any appropriate air, and thus make them feel that their departure is regretted. In con- nection with this last act, the psychological fact should be recalled that the mental retention, due to " last impression " is usually greater than that produced in any other way. The use of music as a morale measure in industry, by periodic " sings " and the organization of bands and or- chestras, is a valuable aid to contentment and efficiency. Dances and Socials. Dances exert a strong appeal to the men through the instinct of rhythm, and socials through the opportunity to make friends of the opposite sex. As a morale factor, the value of dancing and the social relaxation accompanying it, has been found to be very great in promot- ing contentment. The following quotation from a Morale Officer is typical : " It is my belief that dances have had a more marked effect in raising morale than anything we have attempted. ... I believe special emphasis should be laid on dancing in every camp and, that with adequate supervi- sion, it should be encouraged in every way. Beside being a social asset, dancing helps to remove awkwardness, adds to gracefulness of carriage and increases self-confidence." Dancing by itself is a pleasant and wholesome amusement if properly safeguarded. Unfortunately organized vice generally chooses public dance halls as its liaison with the 546 MANAGEMENT OF MEN soldier. But the remedy for this condition is simple. The low class of dance hall should be discouraged, either through public officials or public sentiment, or by declaring them out of bounds, and places where soldiers will meet the respect due their uniform and become acquainted with the proper kind of girls, under suitable chaperonage, should be encour- aged and advertised in the camp. Periodical dances for the men on the military reservation, held at frequent intervals, should be carried out under ade- quate supervision and with the invitation list safeguarded by a suitable committee. At some camps, dances have been given by the men to which an adequate number of girls, carefully selected and duly chaperoned, have been brought by hostesses designated by the War Camp Community Serv- ice. In one camp, a special train brought some two hun- dred girls to an enlisted men's dance which was held in a building temporarily turned over and decorated for the pur- pose. Dances given by the Red Cross in the Convalescent Houses at hospitals have been made a special feature in many instances, and helped fill a need for entertainment among i the personnel of the hospitals — a need which is perhaps more apparent in hospitals than in many other organizations with more active outdoor duty. Arrangements whereby men can secure dancing lessons, either at a moderate charge or free, have been tried out and were much appreciated, more men responding in some in- stances than could be adequately taken care of at first. Dancing classes and dancing matinees have been success- fully held on Saturday afternoons. Military balls of some pretension afford excellent opportunity for the return of hos- pitality and for the stimulation of interest, morale, and good social relations with the civilian community. Camp dances are often so popular that attendance by the men needs to be limited by passes awarded for good conduct. RECREATION 547 Unit dances are naturally invitation affairs, best held in barracks, mess halls and club rooms. Soldier Clubs. Soldier clubs do much to add to the social life of the soldier and to increase his interest and contentment. There are two kinds, one of a general nature and the other pertaining to company organizations. All club-rooms should naturally be fitted up with the usual equipment of comfortable furniture, games, phonographs, player pianos, pool tables, writing material, reading matter, etc. The men take great pride in their upkeep and decora- tion, which latter may well include photographs, souvenirs, athletic trophies and other articles promotive of morale. Management of these clubs should, under the commander, rest in the hands of a committee of enlisted men. The rules for these clubs should be as few and simple as possible. The men enjoying them are under prolonged mili- tary restraint and repressions and appreciate such liberty of action as may be open to them, in their leisure hours. The men themselves and their elected officials may be relied upon to ensure proper conduct and care of property. One fault that the men found with the welfare huts during the war was that they were too closely supervised. The fitting up of clubs may be provided for from Government property, augmented by company and other funds, through subscrip- tions of the men for certain articles, by donations from out- side persons or organizations and in other ways. " Company Nights," for which the club-rooms are dec- orated, and to include a smoker, supper and musical and other entertainment, are very effective morale agencies in the promotion of contentment, interest and esprit de corps. The cost is inconsiderable, being merely that of a few smokes, extras and mild beverages in addition to the usual supper, served an hour or so later. They should not be held so often as to lose the attraction of novelty. Whether they are held exclusively for the members of the company, 548 MANAGEMENT OF MEN or whether those of one or more other companies are in- vited guests, are matters of local convenience and immediate policy. Such small entertainments possess many advantages over larger ones, where the greater number interferes with real informality and enjoyment. Smaller entertainments are more easily arranged and supervised, are less expensive, and appear to satisfy the men better than larger ones. The men will take great pride in them and their success if the ar- rangements and plans are left to a committee of themselves with such encouragement and suggestions as may assist and facilitate. Trips, Hikes and Practice Marches. Trips, hikes and practice marches offer an opportunity for expression of the normal migratory instinct which is so strong in young men, especially in the late spring and fall when the weather is particularly favorable, the country is most attractive, and the natural tendency of all living things is to move. They afford relief from the monotony of barracks life and stimu- late and satisfy curiosity and other basic instincts. Great distance is not necessary to satisfaction; change of scene and novelty are the desiderata and these may often be found near home to a sufficient extent. An essential point of practice marches is to arouse in- terest and anticipation in them in advance, so that they may .be regarded as pleasurable privileges rather than a mere continuation of tasks which have become onerous. For this reason, they should be preceded by due publicity as to their attractiveness and opportunities to the men participating. Any military functions which may also be contemplated are then regarded by the men as natural incidentals to a more or less recreational purpose. There is no reason why such marches should not be made tactical manoeuvers between camps, but in such cases the interest of the men should be aroused and maintained by having the reasons for the forma- tions and dispositions fully explained to them. RECREATION 549 Accordingly, it is desirable that in seasonal weather the troops be not confined to the post, but be sent frequently on short hikes over the various roads in the vicinity. Longer hikes, with over-night encampments in places having special points of interest, attractive scenery, facilities for swimming, bathing, fishing, etc., should be carried out every few weeks and all proper effort made to inform the men as to facilities and advantages and how to make use of them. It is important that the men should not be overloaded on such marches, especially in warm weather, lest the morale benefits of the trip be impaired by an unnecessary element of drudgery. Recreational camps may often be established with advan- tage and organizations sent. to them in rotation. Hunting and fishing trips should be encouraged for small parties, especially for the week end. In. the old days, the results of such trips materially helped the mess and so were of ad- vantage financially. That an abundance of game no longer exists is no reason why such trips should not be encouraged, but as matters of pleasure rather than profit. Organized week end trips to local points of historic in- terest have been carried out with excellent results. Places figuring in the Revolutionary War, Civil War, etc., may often be visited and their points of interest demonstrated and explained. Such trips are not only interesting and in- structive, but stimulate thought and pride in American tradi- tions and the achievements of the military service in the past. The chaplain might have charge of such sight-seeing parties and secure the cooperation and assistance of civilian au- thorities and organizations. Such trips can be made so in- expensive as to be well within the means of the enlisted men desiring to participate. The diversity of service in our army is such that many opportunities to satisfy the normal instincts of young men in this way are nearly always prac- ticable. Where distances to a desired point are too great to be 550 MANAGEMENT OF MEN readily covered by marching, the men will often gladly pay their own railroad fare for the sake of the trip. One regi- ment, for example, paid its own way to the Yellowstone Park, and then marched through it by easy stages so as fully to see its many attractions. The use of motor and other transport equipment by week-end camping parties is very desirable in reaching attractive points at some distance. The class of men who particularly need such trips are those in the more sedentary staff services, whose duties largely confine them to the military jurisdiction and are chiefly per- formed within doors. Men at stations should be watched for signs of restless- ness and symptoms of discontent, and those in whom such indications are becoming marked should have special trips suggested to them. Chafing under restraint of movement is unquestionably an exciting factor in absence without leave and desertion. Participation in all hikes, trips and hunt- ing expeditions should be made contingent on good conduct and held out as rewards for merit. The practical advantages of such trips should not be over- looked. As a result of them men work better on their re- turn, manifesting new interest and vigor, and the sum total of their output for the year is increased rather than dimin- ished. Commanding officers are really in the position of employers of labor, and the experience of industry is that vacations from an incessant routine are profitable. Divisional and other manoeuvers naturally offer oppor- tunity to satisfy the foregoing requirements. Permanent change of station of course satisfies the requirements set forth, in so far as the bulk of the command is concerned. For those with strong family ties and obligations, special factors of expense and separation occur with change of sta- tion which correspondingly detract from the morale value of the whole. The Post Exchange. The Post Exchange, efficiently conducted, is one of the great aids to contentment and good RECREATION 551 morale among troops. Its analogy in civil life is the co- operative store. As the commercial center of the command, it becomes a common meeting place and a popular resort, possessing some of the social qualities of a club. It renders accessible many of the articles which soldiers want, is a po- tent check against profiteering, and the profits which accrue are of great assistance in procuring valuable means of com- fort and enjoyment for the men. By supplying articles that soldiers need, it becomes a local attraction which keeps the men under discipline and control and away from possible outside influences. The Post Exchange should aim at efficient management combined with the greatest volume of business and a small reasonable profit. Its true object is to serve as a prac- tical utility and save money for its customers. It is an erroneous conception for it to consider its purpose to be primarily to pile up profits and secondarily to serve as a convenience and a kind of a half-way economizer for the garrison. Success in Post Exchange management is not found in securing the greatest dividends in the shortest time. Rather it is represented in a large volume of busi- ness, indicating maximum service; small dividends, showing that its service has been economical to its customers, and in shrewd, careful buying and efficient and economical manage- ment, whereby the greatest benefit to purchasers may accrue. In a general way, profits should come chiefly from the arti- cles classed as luxuries. Staple and necessary articles should be sold near cost, thus affording real economy to the fam- ilies of officers and married enlisted men. Stock lists should cover all articles in reasonable demand, so that officers and men should not be forced to make such purchases outside or go without. Articles once listed should be kept on hand by judicious anticipation of sales and orders in advance. It serves no practical purpose to have them listed if not available for purchase. Deliveries should be made and the good will and satisfaction of customers sought 552 MANAGEMENT OF MEN as in the businesses of civil life. Effort should be made to obtain on special order articles not carried in stock, giving the benefit to the purchaser of the discount of the large com- mercial houses. Various utilities, such as barber, tailor and shoe repair shops, are best operated under the Post Exchange. Simi- larly it is in position to secure special rates for laundry, provide for collective buying and assist financially in other ways. It is important that the Exchange should be so attractive that the men will seek it. Naturally its hours should suit the needs of the men, who have little opportunity to resort to it during the official period of the day. This matter is mentioned because it has so often been disregarded. A well run Exchange is always a matter of interest and pride to the command which it serves. CHAPTER XV THE RECRUIT, RECRUITING, REENLIST- MENT AND DISCHARGE" The special problems of the recruit; mental adjustment and sug- gestibility ; the importance of first impressions; some administrative measures for the recruit period; information of the recruit; early handling of recruits; self-interest; prepared environment for recruits; use of home influences. Recruiting ; a problem of applied psychology; difficulties of the recruiting problem; shortage of personnel and low- ered morale; influence of morale on vacancies; success in recruiting implies actual attractiveness of service; enlistment as an opportunity and not a job; recruiting from a select class; relative success of re- cruiting approaches ; recruiting and esprit de corps; regional recruit- ing. Re\-enlistment ; an index of relative morale; re-enlistments like "repeat orders" in civil life; failure to re-enlist and labor turn- over; some causes for non-reenlistment. Discharge ; importance of last impressions; political and social dangers of demobilization; his- torical examples of post-war disorganization; recognitions for good service; interest, sympathy and suggestions; assistance for future welfare. The Recruit. The component units of an army drawn from a civil population, however willing, are sensitive to the altered conditions encountered in the military service. With the donning of the uniform, the recruit passes into a physical and mental atmosphere quite unlike anything he has previously known. The new appearances, routine, methods, ideas, surroundings, activities, restrictions and comforts are powerful influences in creating impressions. It is a natural, instinctive tendency to assume that the new is unfriendly and unsafe until its harmless quality has been demonstrated — as illustrated, for example, in the familiar phrase concerning the anxiety of " a cat in a strange gar- ret." So, too, the recruit tends to respond to this primitive impulse of caution, especially if the military service was com- 553 554 MANAGEMENT OF MEN pulsory and not sought, or if a previously isolated or pro- tected life causes the individual to be flooded with a volume of new sensations in which there has been no previous ex- perience. Such conditions naturally place the recruit under an exceptionally high degree of mental tension in endeavor- ing to accomplish many new and difficult mental adjust- ments. It will aid efficiency if difficulties be smoothed away when practicable so that adjustment to the military service may be accomplished with the least possible mental stress. But with this increased mental stress, the whole mental make-up is put in a state of flux and heightened receptivity to suggestion. The individual is anxious to accommodate himself to the new conditions in which he is placed, espe- cially if he voluntarily put himself under them by the act of enlistment. Volition enters, and new habits, ideas and points of view are readily and unconsciously adopted, even though at variance with previous ideas and standards. The individual usually responds by losing a sense of individual responsibility but by gaining in self-respect, dignity, ideas of cooperation and in other helpful ways. All this is important not only in respect to novices in the military service but to apprentices and new employees in civil industry. Similarly, what follows has its parallel ap- plicability to the latter classes. In the handling of recruits, the principle of primacy is most important. This means that those experiences which come first in a series of related experiences are especially likely to be remembered. First impressions are persistent. It is especially important, therefore, that they should be correct, and that proper mental as well as physical control over the recruit shall be established. It follows that the latter, from the moment of his entry into the service, should be studied, advised and directed. False impressions and a wrong attitude formed during the recruit stage can be, and doubtless are, ultimately modified by fuller experience under wiser administration, but it is better that they should be THE RECRUIT 555 avoided altogether and that the recruit should start right without the later need for effacing wrong ideas previously created. As an essential to such a start, the recruit should be made to feel that he is welcomed into a service and an organiza- tion, and under officers, that are friendly to him and inter- ested in him as a human being and not merely as a piece of military material, and that later will expect much of him. For the young recruit, the early period of service is par- ticularly likely to be the time of homesickness because of painful emotional strain due to temporary incomplete ad- justment. This is particularly the time when kindly ad- vice and inspiration from his company officers, the chaplain and others is most appreciated and effective. At one camp during the war every recruit, as his first mili- tary exercise, was marched to an information center where a series of talks, later continued, was begun. At this time he was given a printed tag with his name and address on it, ■ ostensibly as an identification tag until he got into uniform. The chief purpose of the tag, however, was to carry the following inspirational message printed on the reverse side: — " You are now a soldier of the United States — a soldier selected by your Country to fight for the freedom of the world. Walk like a soldier — Think like a soldier — Act like a soldier — Be a Soldier! " This is not easy to do at first and there may be many things that you do not understand. Never mind — all good soldiers have learned to do the same thing that you are learning to do. Remember you follow a flag that has never led in an unjust war. Remember that the American Army has never yet been defeated. Do your part now and it never can be. Keep your head up, your eyes open, and Smile!" During this formative peniod the newcomer should be made to understand that the military establishment forms a society having its own codes, and there should be explained 556 MANAGEMENT OF MEN to him the purpose and necessity of the many rules and re- strictions with which he was unfamiliar in previous life and which otherwise might be regarded as arbitrary and irksome. At the same time he must be made to understand that, as a beginner, he cannot expect to understand the reason for everything required of him, and that unquestioning obedi- ence, which is his duty in all cases, is in itself a necessary and reasonable requirement. The recruit also should be informed as to some of the traditions of the service and of the organization which he is entering, so that this knowledge may add to his pride in his initiation and membership. At the very outset he should catch the spirit of the service and some beginnings of an esprit de corps, not only from the officers over him, but from members of the enlisted personnel who represent the service at its best. Finally, he should be clearly informed that the military establishment, in the necessity for military order and disci- pline, distributes reward and punishment, praise and blame' with impartial justice and irresistible power. If this is fully explained at the outset, the necessity of learning to shun dif- ficulty by tedious and painful experience will be largely avoided. During the first fortnight, systematized explanation of military conditions should be given the recruit. Among these may be mentioned personal hygiene and venereal dis- ease, vaccination and inoculation, camp boundaries and im- portant features, military courtesy, rank, personnel and or- ganization, military terms and definitions, Articles of War, orders for sentries, seriousness of desertions and unauthor- ized absences, such details as fatigue and kitchen police, in- formation on pay, insurance, stoppages, fines and effects of misconduct on pay; discipline, passes and furloughs, oppor- tunities for self-improvement t friendly attitude of officers, citizenship and patriotism, traditions and customs of the service, war aims, character of the enemy, etc. THE RECRUIT 557 Physical well being has much to do with morale. It is therefore particularly important that the food and accom- modations of the recruit should be attractive. Men arriv- ing after meal times should be served good hot food, what- ever" the hour, and comfortable sleeping accommodations made available for them. It is desirable to get the recruit into a good fitting uniform as soon as possible. Singing is especially to be promoted among recruits in making them feel at ease and in giving an idea of homogeneity. Entertainment for the recruit should be carefully sys- tematized. There should be something attractive of this sort available during the early period of service when off duty so as to take the man's mind off himself and build up his local interest as rapidly as possible. In this entertain- ment work, the recruit, if he possesses any talent, should be encouraged to take part. If, in this adjustment period, the instruction and develop- ment of the recruit is carried out with interest, kindliness and tact, it is highly probable that he will become an enthusias- tic, valuable soldier, imbued with loyalty to his superiors and comrades and anxious to do his best. On the arrival of recruits, the Morale Officer should look them over and see the kind of material with which he has to deal. The company officer can go much further, and by observation, inquiry and experience gain a fair idea of men- tal make-up. Upon the latter, the problem of rapid adjust- ment to the military environment is based. While the ideals are the same for all, their divergence from previous stand- ard implies divergence in result. Many deep-seated influ- ences for good morale start in the home and reach their highest development there. If the original material be good, the task is relatively easy; if poor, so proportionately greater is the success at- tained. The more unpromising the material, the greater the attention and effort it needs to receive. Military re- quirements demand average standards to which all should 558 MANAGEMENT OF MEN attain. A company marches and fights as a company — and the exceptional excellence of a few does not compensate for the deficiencies of others. The adage that " the strength of a chain is that of its weakest link " applies with certainty to organizations. Time is an important factor in solving the recruit prob- lem. It enables the painful points of contact between the recruit and his environment to be smoothed away, new in- terests to be created, and self-confidence to replace igno- rance and embarrassment. This painful period should be bridged over by a definite program of development and ad- justment, not only in relation to the mechanics of drills and duties, but in respect to the reasons which lie behind them and many matters of less direct application to the military service. All recruits entering the service need to undergo a period of quarantine, for the sake of their own health as well as that of others. During this period much can be accomplished in promoting adjustment, particularly in re- spect to giving information as to duties, rights and contin- gencies to be met. The early handling of recruits, while necessarily largely done by non-commissioned officers, should be very closely supervised by company commanders. The non-commis-. sioned officers in charge should be carefully selected with a view to carrying out the officer's ideas, for they are in a position to mold the mental attitude of the recruit at the most impressionable period of his service. The old ideas which sometimes " break men in making soldiers," or en- deavor to create a subservience to non-commissioned officers based on fear rather than on respect for ability to properly administer authority, should not be tolerated. An over- rough handling of recruits, especially in the mounted serv- ice, means poor morale, bad discipline , and desertions. It is a psychological fact that every human being is in- trinsically most interested in himself and his own personal affairs. It is important to bring this influence into play as THE RECRUIT 559 early as possible upon the recruit with a view to making it one of the controlling factors of conduct, and offsetting other elements of the new environment which are inevitably depressing. At present it is too often allowed to go by default. The recruit should be made to understand fully the good things and opportunities for self-interest and ad- vancement which the service opens to him, in order to keep up his spirit, neutralize depressing influences and develop enthusiasm which will ensure diligence in- duties to come. These advantages may be made the subject of formal talks to the recruit group, or used in the case of individuals who present special problems of discipline and morale. Also an appreciation of benefit may be brought out by inquiry after some experience in the service. It is interesting to note that 89.5 per cent, of men questioned, on the demobilization of a certain division, stated that their army service had benefitted them in one or more ways, and 88 per cent, fa- vored universal military training, although half of the ques- tionnaire blanks were intentionally given to men supposed to be dissatisfied with the service. After making the recruit appreciate the possible advantages which the service offers to his individual interests, the next step is to present them as being indivisibly associated with those of the military group of which he is a part. The secret of good morale among recruits, even more than among older soldiers, is to keep them thoroughly occu- pied with diversified military duties and athletic exercises during the day and afforded systematized entertainment at night. They should not have too much liberty, lest this pro- mote self-reflection and homesickness, or carousing. Both work and play should be carefully supervised as to hours and quality. But the liberty of the recruit should not be unduly restricted to the extent that he is made to feel himself lit- erally a prisoner. If passes are withheld, the reason should be very clearly explained; if it is apprehended that by grant- ing the recruit a pass to go to town he may get into trouble 5 6o MANAGEMENT OF MEN through bad company, it would be far better to permit him to go to town with good soldiers who will start him right than to withhold the privilege. If he feels that his officers have confidence in him, he will then come nearer to doing right so as not to lessen the faith reposed in him. Drills for recruits should not be too long, and there should be plenty of rest in the intervals. Recruits are often soft and readily tired, while military drills require them to use special muscles which are weak and undeveloped from not being ordinarily called upon in the avocations of civil life. It is easy to overdo, and a check should be kept on this matter. Drills missed at a recruit depot should be made up, so that all who leave it shall have reached a com- mon standard. In many instances, recruits have been given an undue share of the hardest and most disagreeable work, being thus dis- criminated against to the advantage of the older soldier. This extra work not only interferes with the training which is so important, but it tends, at this impressionable period, to render the man, who enlisted with the idea of making himself a soldier, discontented and disappointed with the whole service. He is put in a potential frame of mind to join the grumblers and those who, by the passive opposition which they dare not express openly, hamper the efficiency of the organization. Orders may well require that no re- cruit be assigned to kitchen police, extensive fatigue or simi- lar duty until he has had a reasonable period of military training. In recruit depots, the entire work of administra- tion should be performed by members of the general re- cruiting service. Recruits are sent there for instruction and the time is already too short for the full accomplishment of this purpose. The recruit must have confidence in his own competency. During the war, it was common to hear soldiers called " boys " and not " men." This is of course wrong from a physical standpoint, in that soldiers do men's work. It is THE RECRUIT 561 also wrong psychologically, in that the word " boy " carries with it an idea of undevelopment, immaturity, and irre- sponsibility. In the handling of recruits, it is important that they shall be kept away from the influence of older soldiers of an undesirable type who may give them wrong impressions of the service. Later, when their own ideas are better organ- ized, such influences are more effectively resisted. The converse of this is also true and, in the adjustment of the recruit, a direct, official relationship with selected older sol- diers is of advantage. Here the recruit is assigned to an older soldier as the particular charge of the latter to inform, instruct and guide, .and the veteran is told by the company commander that his is the responsibility and credit for the kind of a soldier into which the new man develops. The arrangement is much like the " Big Brother " movement in civil life, and the calculated introduction of contented, en- thusiastic old soldiers into the environment of the new men will stabilize both the recruits and the organization. Mo- rale operatives should pay particular attention to recruits with a view to ascertaining their difficulties and reporting them to higher authority for abatement. The morale of the recruit is affected not only by his army environment but also to a considerable degree and, especially during the first few weeks of service, by home influences. Until military ties have been created which equal or replace those of the home, he is particularly responsive to the senti- ment and opinions of his family, friends, home toWn and neighborhood. It is the part of common sense to use such influences in favor of the military service rather than in in- difference or in criticism toward it. By form letters from commanders to the nearest relatives of recruits announcing the arrival and welfare of recruits, by sending home carnp papers, programs, menus, etc., it is possible to build up and utilize home interests in stabilizing the soldier. One of the first things the recruit should be encouraged to do is to have 562 MANAGEMENT OF MEN his picture taken in his new uniform to send to his home and friends. It is well worth while to have the Post Exchange arrange whereby this can be done economically. Every re- cruit arriving at a new station should be required to write at least one letter home within a week after arrival, and if he is favorably impressed with army life he can readily be led to express this to his correspondents and thereby uncon- sciously but firmly establish his own attitude toward the service. A friendly form letter from the new commander of the recruit to his " home folks " which proved very valuable during the war in creating the right attitude toward the service was along the following lines, and was sent by the recruit as an enclosure in his first letter home : Station Date Salutation — ■ has arrived safely at this camp. He will remain here for some time, getting used to army life, and learning the first simple things that our soldiers must know. The Army supplies him with clothing, shoes, good food, comfort- able quarters and medical attendance. But in another way your help is needed. Give him the support of your confidence and cheer. Write to him often ! Getting mail is a big event in a soldier's day, and getting none is a real disappointment. If pleasant things happen at home write him about them. If you are proud of him, tell him so. Let him know that you are back of him. Don't be worried if your first letters to him are delayed; that is bound to happen sometimes. Keep writing just the same and we will see that he gets all you write, even if it takes a little time. Remember always that you, too, are a part of the American army — you are the army of encouragement and enthusiasm. Write letters filled with these things to your soldier and you will help us to help him. Signature His address is , New troops arriving at a station should, for purposes of reception and first impressions, be regarded as recruits. A THE RECRUIT 563 receiving personnel and band at the station, barracks fully prepared for immediate and comfortable taking over, con- densed information as to the facilities of the station and neighboring community, publicity in the newspapers as to arrival and the military record of the new organization, re- views, smokers, receptions — all help to make the new or- ganization feel at home and to adjust itself to its new sur- roundings. One of the essential factors at recruit depots is the perma- nent party. If the personnel cannot be imbued with the idea of welcome to the recruits and teamwork for the glory of the service, all else done for the recruit direct will be of lit- tle avail. This cannot be accomplished in a day, but in- telligent and enthusiastic work will bring it about. The idea of " Ease them in — don't break them in " might well be kept constantly before every one having to do with the instruction and training of recruits. Recruiting. The matter of keeping an army recruited up under a system of voluntary enlistment is purely a prob- lem of applied psychology. New thoughts and purposes must be instilled into civilian minds where they did not pre- viously exist and others modified or removed in order to culmina-te in the act of enlistment. In its essentials, this problem consists of making the sum of the attractions toward the army greater than the sum of the attractions to remain in civil life. The former should be set forth in all com- pleteness and sufficient detail, but they should not be over- stated lest there be later reaction as a result of promises which are not realized. The seriousness of the recruiting problem is shown by the fact that during the five years of peace, 191 2-19 16, the army was habitually short more than ten per cent, of its au- thorized strength, and in 19 16 it was short more than twenty per cent. Such a shortage of man-power in any commercial enterprise would represent an uneconomical relation between personnel, capital invested, equipment available and output 564 MANAGEMENT OF MEN of product. The same relation holds good in the military service. The efficiency with which the ranks are kept full is a matter which thus concerns every officer. Shortage of personnel not only interferes with the efficiency with which work is carried out but it impairs morale through the ex- cessive proportion of duty which is thus imposed on the in- dividuals in the service. The Adjutant General is charged with the responsibility of keeping the ranks full. But this responsibility is just in part only; for the military service as a whole has a proper function to perform in decreasing leakage back into civil life of the human elements which the recruiting service has, with much difficulty, been able to secure. The problem is not merely one of securing new recruits by persuasion ; it has to do also with the retention of certain individuals already in the service through making it more attractive. If the lat- ter is accomplished, there will be fewer new vacancies to fill. Vacancies in the army are due to (a) discharges without reenlistment, (b) discharges by court-martial, (c) discharges by order, (d) desertions, (e) discharges for disability, (f) retirements, (g) deaths. The last three classes are clearly legitimate sources of deductions. The first four are mat- ters not entirely beyond the reach of morale influences in- directly exerted through administrative measures within the activities of all officers. Losses by sentence of courts-martial very frequently ex- press reaction by the individual against military conditions and requirements. Wise administration will often bring about a state of mind whereby the individual will be inclined to support military authority and requirements rather than clash with them. Discharge by order, in the great majority of cases, is the expression of desire by the individuals concerned to leave the service which is not so unattractive as to produce deser- tion yet is sufficiently so to make the applicant desire to escape completing his tour of enlistment. THE RECRUIT 565 It is of interest to note in this connection the various rea- sons which a number of prospective recruits gave as their excuses for declining to enlist. In all there were twenty- two distinct reasons, which are classifiable into seven main groups, in which objections in detail appear in order of frequency, as follows : — (a) Poor living conditions, thirty per cent. : unattractive quarters, unpopular camps, unattractive neighborhood, too far from large cities. (b) Low pay, twenty per cent. : low pay of enlisted men, low pay of non-commissioned officers, high pay of civilian post employees. (c) Excessive or disagreeable duty, eighteen per cent.: too much fatigue duty, too much guard duty, too much and too intensive drill, too long working hours. (d) Low morale of recruiting parties due to financial difficulties, eleven per cent. : low morale of recruiting officers, low morale of enlisted recruiters. (e) Unpopular uniform, seven per cent.: clothing and shoes ill-fitting; varicolored and salvaged, uniform lowered by ex-soldiers who wear it. (f) Activity of military police, four per cent.: interfer- ence by military police with men off duty; required wearing of uniform inviting inspection by military police. (g) Miscellaneous, four per cent.: fear lest vocational training be compulsory, failure to keep faith with recruits, recruit depot objectionable, recollection of camps in war time conditions. Recruiting, from its nature, is a problem of the individual, like sales in business life. The prospective candidate should accordingly be studied, not only from the standpoint of ap- proach, but with respect to the special appeals, and their presentation, which seem likely to be most effective. Ac- cordingly, officers and men selected for recruiting service should possess qualities of salesmanship. They should be carefully selected, further instructed and held on probation 5 66 MANAGEMENT OF MEN until of proven efficiency in his duty. Only an alert, active and progressive personnel of attractive appearance and pleasing personality has any place in this work, for they are accepted as human standards of the service they represent. It has happened that individuals have been transferred to the recruiting service because of such glaring fault that their organization commanders desired to be rid of them. Success in recruiting means that a sufficient number of individuals must come to the conclusion that the army is more attractive than civil life. This implies: (a) Actually making the service so attractive in fact. (b) Creating a service of publicity sufficient to inform the general public regarding the military service, to the end that it will support rather than oppose enlistments. (c) Developing a recruiting machine that will efficiently reach and influence a sufficient number of potential recruits in civil life. In order to get a man to enlist in the service it is neces- sary to appeal to his judgment and give him cogent reasons for the action desired. What chiefly interests the poten- tial soldier in peace is what the army is going to do for him. If he puts on the uniform, that act does not make him a less rational being nor less concerned in his own welfare. An insuperable obstacle to keeping full any large volun- teer force in this country will exist so long as the military authorities or the public regard military service as a " job," competing for a poor class of unskilled labor. A job which is merely a living, does not fit a man to take a satisfactory place in business or industry, and leads nowhere except to the calling of the professional soldier, will never appeal to any great number of Americans. The old civilian idea that a man enlisted in the army because he could not do anything else, was lazy or derelict, must never be allowed to return. Such conception of the service must inevitably operate to de- THE RECRUIT 567 ter men of high class, which the army wants, from entering it; for no individual of ambition, confidence and self-respect desires to associate himself where contrary sentiments pre- vail. The army must be featured as an opportunity in which small pay is to be more or less compensated for by educa- tion or vocational training which can later be turned to busi- ness or industrial advantage in civil life. Opportunity of this sort at once furnishes an effective appeal to a high type of young men. Whether further appeal should be made particularly through adventure, travel, education, vocational training, promotion or otherwise is purely a matter of the personal equation of the potential recruit. It is true that a certain number of recruits can be obtained as- a result of the lack of detailed knowledge and experience of the service, just as persons will purchase goods which appear attractive but on possession are found unsatisfactory; but no legiti- mate business could succeed if the vast majority of its customers purchased in ignorance and were later dissat- isfied. It is further essential to successful recruiting that a gen- eral service of information exist whose function it would be to systematically disseminate information to the general public relative to the army, its conditions and opportunities. This organization should work from a single center under a definite purpose, systematically, continuously and unobtru- sively. How it should transmit this information is purely a matter of preferential method. On this background of favorable understanding and good will, the special recruit- ing campaign must be developed. The latter calls for ad- vertising talent of the highest order. The comparative efficiency of various agencies in recruit- ing is shown by the following data relating to 1374 appli- cants for enlistment as to the means which induced them to apply for the service : 5 68 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Form of reaching Number of appli- Percentage of the man. cants accepted. total. Soliciting 687 50.00 Recruiting flags and "A" signs 256 18.63 Posters 293 21.32 (At R. R. stations 89) (At post offices 103) (Other places 101) Total 293 Newspaper articles and ad- vertising 115 8.36 Service literature 15 1. 00 Personal letters 8 56 It thus appears that half the applicants were obtained by direct solicitation, that posters and recruiting flags reached two out of every five, and that the printed and written word influenced only one in ten. If the army is made attractive from the standpoint of the soldier, the difficulties of the recruiting problem will be very greatly reduced. Willingness to repeat an experience is the best test of its popularity. It is an axiom in busi- ness that the best advertisement is the satisfied customer. In retail stores it has been found that more than seventy per cent, of new customers come through recommendations of old customers, less than fifteen per cent, come from printed advertising, and the balance just " drop in." There is no reason to doubt the general applicability of these figures to the recruiting problem. If the soldier himself is satisfied with the results of his enlistment contract, he will become a living advertisement of the benefits of the service. Word of mouth, and the personal argument and influence it conveys, has just been shown the most effective of inducements. Satisfied soldiers on pass or furlough will operate to bring in recruits, while discharged soldiers will send the rising generation to get the benefits of a military service that they themselves found pleasant and profitable. The fact that certain excellently managed military organ- izations accumulate a high proportion of old soldiers and THE RECRUIT 569 that men flock to them to reenlist indicates that if the whole army was run on an equally high plane of efficiency, its deficiency in military man-power would be greatly decreased. Morale has a close relation to recruiting and enlistments and, conversely, the latter have a close relation to morale. Under a voluntary system of recruiting, organizations which have a high morale have far less difficulty in securing an abundance of higher class recruits. The best men are attracted by, and desire to identify themselves with, organ- izations of high reputation and recognized efficiency. Once so enlisted, these high types of men instinctively charge themselves with upholding and enhancing the high stand- ards, esprit de corps, reputation and state of mind which originally attracted them. The same principles apply in civil industry in respect to the employment situation and labor turnover. Recruiting men from certain areas for special organiza- tions should be of value as capitalizing home relationships and local interests. Through the newspapers, it affords an excellent opportunity to keep the people at home in touch with the individuals and organizations which represent them in the service. When military posts are in the vicinity of recruiting stations, it is often of advantage to take pros- pective recruits on personally conducted tours through them, so that they may see the life and its advantages for them- selves. The treatment which prospective recruits receive at depots has much to do with their acceptance of enlistment. Some men refuse to enlist at the last moment because of unfavorable presentation of military life as seen at recruit depots. Such men, returning to civil life, become centers of negative influence against the army. Moreover, it is expensive, inasmuch as it is like selling goods and having them refused at the last minute and returned to the vendor. A satisfied and contented permanent personnel at recruit 57o MANAGEMENT OF MEN depots causes favorable first impressions of the service on which the potential recruit makes his final decision. Community cooperation is important. Parents, friends and other civilians should be encouraged to visit the post and acquaint themselves with its facilities, witness its mili- tary functions and participate in appropriate social activi- ties. Recruit detachments about to leave should be addressed by the commander at the time of his inspection and an interest in their future welfare displayed. The departing recruits should be encouraged to write back to their friends in the post and at home about their experiences in the service. When men have been physically rejected for enlistment, a brief talk expressing regret at their inability to join the army, and indirectly bringing out some of its advantages, will in the vast majority of cases send the men away in a kindly frame of mind rather than as critics of the army. In some instances, men so rejected have been given cards by the recruiting officer as possible aids in securing employ- ment and so promoting their good feeling toward the serv- ice. Men sent away in such a frame of mind will very often send desirable men as applicants for enlistment in their places. Reenlistments. The proportion of reenlistments in any military organization, or in the army as a whole, is an excellent index of the state of morale. In a company, for example, it is an expression of the efficiency of its com- mander. That great variation exists in such respects is common knowledge ; men may refuse to reenlist in their own organization while another in the same post may have a waiting list. Such a state of affairs, other conditions being equal, is evidence of something wrong — clearly the soldier is not a booster for his former organization. Army sta- tistics invariably show an inverse relation between deser- tions and reenlistments — where one is high the other is THE RECRUIT 571 low. Reenlistment in another organization is usually evi- dence that, while the military service itself is attractive, the former organization is unattractive. Such preferences indicate that men unconsciously shift from where morale is poor to where it is good. Reenlistments in the army correspond to " repeat orders " in business life. Both are expressions of satisfac- tion with commodities or conditions. No business of a legitimate nature could hope for success if customers, after making one purchase, refused to make more. When men leave the service on discharge it is apparent that the army has, for one reason or another, been demonstrated to them as less desirable than civil life. Failure to reenlist is also like labor " turnover " in civil life, which is recognized as one of the greater causes of industrial inefficiency. Labor turnover means the loss of a skilled workman, whose expertness and industrial value have been gained at financial expense, and replacing him by the unskilled laborer, whose industrial adjustment to machinery and environment means a lower output of pro- duct at a time when expense from the ignorant handling of machinery, liability to injury, etc., is at its highest. Labor turnover also interferes with team work by change in units which have become adjusted in their relation to others. The above particularly applies to the military service, where even a higher degree of coordination is necessary. It is of course true that the reenlistment of all soldiers would be undesirable, as tending to create a small class of professionals instead of serving as a training school to many soldiers of fair qualifications. This does not alter the fact that far fewer experienced soldiers remain in the service than is desirable for both numerical strength and adminis- trative efficiency. A further point of importance is that the unduly high proportion of men who, on completing their first enlistment, find they " have had enough of the army," 572 MANAGEMENT OF MEN is an unflattering comment on the ability of the army to hold those whom it has had under its direct influence. The data in Figure 21 are of interest in this connection. DEPARTMENTS Total East- ern Ho. East. em So, East- ern Cen- tral South- ern West- ern Tlrsd of Army Want civil employment Army pay too small Unpleasant conditions Dependent relatives All others 137 177 15 147 7 22 23 24 36 7 19 138 46 5 36 6 100 33 54 2 3 12 71 81 64 19 5 .5 25 110 25 3 9 2 494 471 199 178 79 47 i^Mk^bVHBi 12 tmrnmn ■■■12 E 5 Total 505 109 231 204 245 174 1468 Figure 21. It appears from this that by far the more important causes interfering with reenlistment relate to the army itself — as " tired of army," " pay too small," " unpleasant condi- tions " — and are in themselves expulsive. In " want civil employment " the army suffers by comparison. Obviously some of these factors are preventable or remediable. The pressure outward which they exert is largely susceptible to control by commanders. Discharge. Last impressions tend to be vivid and per- manent. For that reason, the opportunity to have the dis- charged soldier leave the service with feelings of kindliness and interest toward it should not be overlooked. To him, separation from the service is one^bf the events of his life. Whether he goes out as a supporter or as a captious critic has an important bearing on recruiting and the degree of esteem in which all soldiers are held by the civilian commun- ity so far as his individual influence is concerned. Men dis- charged from the army should be regarded in the same light as colleges regard their alumni. If this is done, their sentiments will be reciprocal and the army will build up for itself a powerful support in civil life which will aid military betterment. When a single soldier, or a relatively small group of soldiers, is discharged, little direct effect may be had upon THE RECRUIT 573 the life of the community to which they return. But where large numbers are discharged together, in the state of mind induced by military service, great danger is present. Men cannot be safely turned loose to shift for themselves after becoming accustomed to a life of tension, restraint and reliance on others to produce the necessities of life. Demobilization must be accompanied, not only by military and economic considerations, but psychologic considerations as well. The folly of abrupt and wholesale discharge is shown by history. Carthage lost all she had gained in the first Punic War and opened the door to her destruction in this way, for the swarms of mercenaries which had fought Car- thage's battles found themselves with no place to go, arms in their hands and nothing to do but start another war. Most of the pirates that infested the seas in the 18th Century were old privateersmen of the Wars of the Austrian Succession, who, after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, found themselves out of jobs and without inclination to return to the unprofitable and unexciting life of traders. The bandits who haunted parts of Italy, France and Spain during the last two generations were developed from old guerilla bands that had fought on one side or the other during the Napoleonic Wars. Men accustomed to excitement are loath to return to the placid routines of peace, particularly when continued excitement offers opportunities of richer reward. So all great wars are followed by periods of disorganiza- tion and readjustment to new conditions. At such time, lawlessness raises its head and greed seizes its opportunity. The mosaic of society has been disrupted and its integral units present unadjusted points of painful contact to each other. Former relations and balances are permanently lost. The older generation sees its standards modified or permanently set aside. With the interference with produc- tion and the inflation of currency, commodities rise in cost and certain industries and classes profit disproportionately 574 MANAGEMENT OF MEN at the expense of others. Personal discomforts develop personal discontents. The disloyal, lawless and predatory see opportunity. Out of all tends to come mass discontents with things as they are. Men tend to go back to first prin- ciples in their thoughts, with inquiry into the soundness of all institutions and traditions — political, religious, social, domestic and economic. Industry and its share of products is always a subject for contention and revision. Of the truth of this, the chaotic social conditions which have devel- oped in countries whose political and industrial balance was overturned during the recent war furnish abundant evidence. Demobilization, then, is both a military and political prob- lem. Like all such problems, it begins with the individual and due consideration of the interests of the individual is important. The fact that our demobilization of nearly four million soldiers at the end of the recent war was accomplished with- out disorder, and that they were rapidly and smoothly absorbed into civil life, was not mere accident. In no other army in the world was demobilization free from disorder, riot, mutiny and bloodshed, in many instances of a very serious nature. In the desirable results of our own service, the morale organization, which worked intelligently, com- prehensively and ceaselessly from the day of the Armistice, using every possible agency which might contribute to the desired end, can lay just claim to a large share in bringing about this peaceful reabsorption. For men about to be discharged there should be some sort of official recognition. For the average individual a friendly farewell by the company commander, with good wishes and advice, would be sufficient. For men of excep- tionally long and faithful service, or in the case of sufficient groups, the procedure should be given the dignity of a cere- mony. Such men may fairly be assumed to have merited a last " Retreat," a few words of appreciation and advice as to future obligations of citizenship from a reasonably high THE RECRUIT 575 officer, and perhaps the receipt of the honorable discharge presented like a diploma as evidence of work well done. The reviews of the command sometimes given old non- commissioned officers about to be retired for long and honorable service are greatly to be commended as morale agencies. After the Armistice, men about to be discharged were given the following address at their last retreat: "Men:— "You have been gathered here to-day in the presence of your com- rades to pay your last formal tribute to the Flag, before your final separation from the service. " This is the Flag for which you have sacrificed so much. This is the Flag which has been glorified and sanctified by your sacrifices and the blood of your fallen comrades ' Over There.' Behold your Flag, the emblem of a just and glorious victory. " As you return to civil life remember the ideals of liberty, of good government, of law and order, for all of which this Flag stands and ever will stand, and to all of which it has been dedicated by you. " At all times pay it the honor and reverence which you, as soldiers, pay it now." Parade Rest. When men are being discharged, a smoker or other enter- tainment given them on the night before is evidence that they are leaving a service that has esteemed their comrade- ship. The matter should not be handled from the stand- point of a celebration of return to civil life, and conse- quently in the nature of release from an irksome task under military restraint, but as a recognition due to honorable military service. Before a man is discharged he should be called into the company office, his future inquired into in a sympathetic manner and an offer tendered of such assistance as his company commander may give. Any difficulties pertaining to his service or future may be frankly discussed and smoothed out and the man sent away with the idea that his superiors are and have been interested in his welfare. War Department Circular No. 167, Dec. 23, 19 18, directs that the Commanding Officer of the camp, post or station 576 MANAGEMENT OF MEN at which men are to be discharged " will require each group to be assembled and addressed by an officer, preferably by the trained representative of the Morale Section, if one be present, to invite their attention to the privilege thus granted them by Congress to wear the uniform of their country and to appeal to them as men to wear it with honor, as they did as soldiers, and to be particular about their conduct, appearance, association and habits." . . . Some commanders have prepared a brief memorandum of good wishes and advice, attractively printed, which is handed to all soldiers on discharge. Besides a formal dis- charge certificate, a special letter of appreciation from his immediate commander should be given a man leaving the service after duty well performed. Of much value also,- in enhancing the army in the eyes of the public, is a letter sent by the company commander to the nearest relative of the man shortly before his honorable discharge. This let- ter should contain such commendation and good wishes as may be appropriate and such information as will ensure understanding that the Government had performed its full part at the time of discharge. Following is a suggested form for such a letter: My dear Mr. (or Mrs.) In a few days your soldier will receive his honorable discharge and start for home. He is bringing back many fine qualities of body and mind which he has acquired or developed in the military service. The army has done everything it could do to make him strong, fine, self- reliant, yet self-controlled. It returns him to you a better man. You have been an important member of that great army of encouragement and enthusiasm which helped to make him and us all better soldiers. You can now be a great help in keeping alive the good qualities he is bringing back from the army, in making him as good a citizen as he has been a good soldier. Funds for his fare and necessarv expenses to his home will be paid by the Government. He will receive all pay due him. The Government will also allow him to keep up his insurance at a very low rate, for the benefit of his family. His return to civil life will bring new problems for you both THE RECRUIT 577 to solve. The qualities he brings back will help you now as your encouragement helped him while he was away and in your hands and his rests the future of our country. As his Commanding Officer I am proud of him. He has done his duty well. I, and his comrades, will bid him good-bye with deep regret, and wish him every success after he returns home. Sincerely yours, When possible, men on discharge should be furnished transportation to the railroad station for themselves and their effects, so that their final impression of the service will be one of interest and cooperation. In the case of a soldier shortly to be discharged, the Chap- lain might well send a notice to the Y. M. C. A. or similar organization of the town to which he-is going, giving the name, address and former organization of the man and suggesting that he be extended such fellowship and privileges as may be practicable. It is desirable to confer upon the discharged soldier as much opportunity and status in his home community as possible. When numbers of men are being discharged, male and female harpies will tend to flock to the vicinity to take advantage of the new found liberty of the soldier and re- lieve him of his money. At these times, police surveillance over such parasites tends to relax, and suitable representa- tions by the local commander to the local civil authorities are often of value. The demobilization of a great military force is linked up with the placing of its individual units back into civil life under conditions in which they can be rapidly and effectively absorbed by business and industry. This is necessary, not only in the interests of the men, but to promote their morale and tractability during the trying demobilization periods and to quicken their appreciation and loyalty to the Gov- ernment thus taking practical measures for their welfare. The Morale Branch appreciated the great importance of this matter and immediately after the Armistice took steps to bring together all agencies, governmental and civilian, 578 MANAGEMENT OF MEN which might be used for this purpose. A very elaborate and efficient organization was at first formed under the Department of Labor, but this was subsequently taken over by the War Department. The latter, therefore, has the germ from which similar activities may spring as a routine measure in time of peace. The guaranteeing of a job in civil life after an honorable discharge would do much to promote interest in and appre- ciation of the military service. The same reasons which apply to the desirability of finding employment for dis- charged soldiers after war apply equally in peace. The problem, in the aggregate, may be smaller and less disturb- ing to the public, but so far as the individual is concerned it is an one hundred per cent, problem in each instance. CHAPTER XVI SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL Substandard men; their disabilities for service; standards of in- telligence; their relation to inefficiency and delinquency. Mental defectives; low mentality; relation of mental state to military offense; special handling of dullards. Army mental tests; their value and limitations; relation of mentality to morale. Mental misfits; their classification; selective assignments ; individual adaptability ; occupa- tional needs and specifications ; trade tests. The non-English speak- ing soldier; a special American problem; its magnitude and im- portance; difficulties relating to the barrier of language; mental isola- tion; measures for solving the problem. Americanization. Illiteracy; high proportion of illiterates; the military value of education; regional distribution of illiteracy; relative racial illiteracy; illiteracy and ir- responsibility. Naturalization of non-citizens ; psychological value of rights of citizenship; induction as citizens. The development bat- talion; its use and disadvantages. The colored soldier; hu special morale problems; some special mental qualities; administrative meth- ods. The "conscientious objector"; difficulty of problem; classifi- cation of objectors; reactions of objectors; sincere and spurious ob- jectors; methods of handling objectors; special measures for altera- tion of mental state; the prepared environment; compulsion through suggestion; social pressure. Substandard Men. The word substandard is used here in relation to mental capacity and not physical deficiency. Present extent of knowledge may often depend upon past environment and may bear no relation to innate ability to conduct correct mental processes. Differences in mentality between soldiers due to education and opportunity are true only in part. Some have had little chance to learn, others refuse to learn and still others cannot learn. It is this last class which is considered here. It is not capable of logical thought or involved consideration and may perhaps be con- sidered to be made up of mental dwarfs who never can be made to attain normal mental stature. 579 S8o MANAGEMENT OF MEN Unless this substandard class is deliberately searched out and excluded from the service at the time of enlistment, its number will be large enough in any considerable military group, even in as small an organization as a company, to create special problems of discipline and morale. To demonstrate this point it is only necessary to call attention to the charts of desertion, absence without leave and other offenses in which character appears as an always large and often dominating factor. The psychologists have classified the average intelligence in the so-called better classes of the United States on the basis of an approximate mentality of sixteen years. Army draft figures show that, for the military class taken in cross section from the community, the age of sixteen is too high, and that a standard of about thirteen to fourteen years is correct. If this be the average, then there must be as many below this mean as there are above it. The latter class offers no difficulties from the standpoint of intelligence, but the mentally substandard group proves, as might be expected, to be an undue source of trouble and disorder. Some of these men, on investigation, were found to be as mentally deficient as a six year old child. Those from eight to twelve years of mental equivalent fall under the moron group, and those below a mental standard of twelve years are really not competent to run their own affairs with fair judgment. Probably for military purposes it would be better to consider the mentally substandard men not as in a" way equal to children, but actually as children. If an eight year old child shows irresponsibility in leaving a task, poorly performing a duty, or being late at school, the incident, while annoying, is condoned by the idea that the offender is " only a child." But the same rule applies to the substand- ard soldier whose adult body shelters only a child's intelli- gence. If such a man quits guard, sleeps on post or goes absent without leave, these acts may depend upon mental SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 581 immaturity in the offender, who while perhaps twenty-five years developed in body, has attained only a third of that development in mind and discretion. All of these substandard men are naturally inefficient and operate to interfere with the smooth running of the military machine. Some of them, without ambition, are satisfied to drudge and are content with little for themselves or com- pany. Others not only slow down efficiency but increase military offenses through inability to comprehend orders or appreciate or accept responsibility. Often they are ready tools for evil in the hands of brighter men. Others, of nervous and sanguine temperament, instead of drudging, will steal or commit other crime to satisfy their desires, with- out understanding of moral standards of conduct or active realization of consequences. Such men are thus not only a drag but a menace. The further fact that a low mentality does not readily adapt itself to environment is an argument for discharge when the material is so poor that an efficient, reliable soldier cannot be made from it. As showing how relatively unimpressionable this class is to environment, it may be stated that war experience indi- cated that where men of high intelligence were under pro- longed fire, their recollections became blurred and indis- tinct, while the less sensitive mentality of the stupid, stolid man did not so readily yield to the influence of high explo- sives and could give a very coherent account of happenings. Recruits coming from the floating class of unskilled labor present a much more than average proportion of substand- ardism and should be examined and investigated with par- ticular care. It may be mentioned that scientific measurements do not bear out the theory of Lombroso that physical conforma-i tion and stigmata reveal criminal tendencies that can be diagnosed by pure observation. They do show, however, that the criminal man is largely a defective man both physically and mentally. Nature and nurture both enter. 582 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The average criminal ranks markedly below the average of the general population in stature, body weight and physical development. More can be foretold of a recruit's probable efficiency by a general scouting of his appearance than by any physical details, with a psychological examina- tion as to his mental capacity to check up the conclusions drawn through conversation. All the above applies, along its proper parallels, to industry as well as to the army. Low grade men are less efficient as workers and more liable to accident. Mental Defectives. The army psychological tests have shown that of a typical company, twenty per cent, of the men are incapable of rapid learning and ten per cent, have about the mental age of a ten-year-old school boy. These facts have an obviously most important relation to training, performance of duty, responsibility, breaches of discipline, and other matters. Low mentality may have a " dormant " phase. Certain men lear'n slowly. Here patience will bear fruit, for many such men will in time become good soldiers. Mental slug- gishness may also be due to physical condition, such as hookworm infection. Here a course of medical treatment will greatly increase mental alertness and power. Certain qualities of brain cells must exist as an essential to the efficient performance of duty. There is truth in the homely adage, " You cannot make a silk purse out of a sow's ear." Even after the preliminary elimination by the draft boards, the army medical officers rejected one recruit in every hundred for mental defect. The relation of military offenses to intelligence is import- ant. Men of low psychological ratings are prevented by their limitations of intelligence from fully profiting by training and information, and from having such restraining sense of judgment and responsibility as is possessed by men of higher mentality. They tend to commit offenses of irresponsibility rather than of moral turpitude. The sub- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 583 standard man is proportionately more liable to commit petty misdemeanors and become a guard house case, where the man of higher mentality is less apt to commit fault, but if the latter does so it is of more serious nature and more frequently brings him before a general court. In one camp, out of 479 white offenders, twenty-one per cent, were classified as D-minus or E, being in the lowest decile of the army so far as intelligence is concerned. Thirty-seven per cent, of the deserters were also of that lowest mental grade. Also of the deserters, eighty-seven per cent, were of less than average intelligence. In an- other camp, 92.4 per cent, of all prisoners in the stockade were of less than average intelligence. It is obvious that for such men the rapid reading of the Articles of War, orders or addresses, as ordinarily carried out, is ineffective. Their minds move too slowly to keep pace with the rapidly spoken word, and do not grasp the meaning of what is said. These disabilities are accentuated if there are distractions by sound, sight or bodily fatigue. Ignorance, misunderstanding and faulty action are the result, while duty is poorly performed. With them, infractions of discipline often occur from mental incapacity rather than from intent. Such instructions should accordingly be given at a time when there are no distractions, so that there may be full mental concentration on the subject in hand. Speak- ing needs to be slow and distinct and if necessary important points should be repeated. More than that, so as not to hold back and annoy the company, the men who are dull should be specially taught by themselves under conditions suitable for reaching their sluggish understanding. In mental defectives, it is not so much their own concepts that give rise to delinquency as that, through their lack of judgment and balancing power, influences and suggestions, coming either from within or from the external world, lead to impulses and mental pictures which determine the mis- deed. They are not so much deliberate offenders as they 584 MANAGEMENT OF MEN are individuals swayed by impulse springing usually from persons or things outside. Often they are the tools of stronger personalities. It has been shown that one out of every seven " unem- ployed " men applying for charitable relief in a certain inquiry made during the winter had an intelligence coeffi- cient of seventy per cent., or less — that is, they were defi- nitely feeble minded. This is important for recruiting offi- cers to remember, for it is just this class which would seek enlistment for the shelter and care it would bring in cold weather. It is also the class which, when warm weather comes, would tend to vagabondage and desertion through vague impulses and irresponsibility. It is a class with which employers of labor are confronted. Army Mental Tests. Army mental tests are intended to aid in the discovery of low grade men whose lack of intelligence is such that they should be eliminated from the service, and of others whose mental inferiority requires special assignment or training. They permit of the early recognition of men who are mentally slow and whose unde- sirable acts are not necessarily stubborn and disobedient. They also indicate men whose superior intelligence marks them as worthy of consideration for advancement or special assignment to duty requiring high mental capacity. A psychological rating furnishes a fairly reliable index of the ability of the man to learn, to think quickly and accurately, to analyze a situation, to maintain mental alert- ness and to comprehend and follow instructions. The rating is relatively little influenced by schooling. Ratings among drafted men were as follows: Class A. — Very superior intelligence. About four to five per cent, of total. Officer material if endowed with other qualities necessary to leadership. Class B. — Superior intelligence. About eight to ten per cent, of total. Mentally qualified as officer or non-com- missioned officer material. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 585 Class C-plus. — High average intelligence. About fifteen to eighteen per cent, of total. Includes material for non- commissioned officers. Class C. — Average intelligence. About twenty-five per cent, of total. Excellent material for privates and lower non-commissioned officers. Enlisted Men ( 13792 ) -Relatively Illiterate — — Enlisted Men (82936) - Literate Corporals ( 4023 ) == Sergeant! ( 3393) O.T. C (9240) / — — Officers (8819) / .7 0- D C- C C+ B A Figure 22. Distribution of Intelligence in Army Groups. Class C-minus. — Low average intelligence. About fif- teen to eighteen per cent, of total. These men make good privates in routine work. Class D. — Inferior intelligence. About fifteen per cent, of total. Make fair privates, but are without initiative and require much supervision. Many are illiterate or foreign. Classes D and D-minus. — This group is divided into Class D which, while of deficient intelligence, may be re- tained for certain kinds of service ; and Class D-minus, which requires rejection, discharge or special handling. This group includes about ten per cent, of the total. The majority of men in this group are below ten years in " mental age " and approximate the grade of moron or feeble minded. The mental contrast between these several grades is shown by the fact that while class A can excel in college or university, the Class D men can scarcely go beyond the third or fourth grade in grammar school, no matter how 586 MANAGEMENT OF MEN D.D-.E C+.C.O A and B Commissioned Officers 8819 IZZD O.T. S. Students 0240 I I 1 Sergeants 3303 i I I Corporals 4093 | I I IBWIIlMlllllillll 'Ten Best Privates 60S IIIBIflllillH White Recruits 77299 IL Disciplinary Cases 491 Camp Dix "Men of Low Military Value" 147 Camp Custer I I D "Unteachable Men 11 265 Camp Hancock Figure 23. Proportions of Low, Average and High Grade Men in Typical Army Groups. long they attend, while Class C men are rarely capable of completing a high school course. The accompanying charts (Figures 22, 23, 24, 25 and 26) very clearly indicate the diversity of mental capacity and conditions associated there- with. It is not always easy to translate the psychological rating of an individual into exact terms of equivalent mental age. But this may be done approximately and with sufficient ac- curacy for practical results. In making psychological rat- ings, the maximum age limit is placed at eighteen years, since dependable data have not been secured beyond this age. There is, of course, mental growth beyond this period, but figures for it are not sufficiently accurate for practical pur- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 587 poses. The accepted classification for mental age is as follows : Class A.= 1 Class B.= J Class C-plus= Class C.= Class C-minus= Class D.=: Class D-minus or E= 18 years 16 years 13-14 years 11-12 years 9-10 years 8 years, or less. In interpreting the tests, if a nineteen-year-old recruit makes a record such as the average ten-year-old boy makes, his mental age is ten. " It is by no means uncommon to find seven-year-olds who can do intellectual work at which one in twenty seventeen-year-olds would fail. And it is still less uncommon to find a twenty-five-year-old person with the mental age of a boy of twelve." For psychological purposes, mental age rather than chronological age is what counts. A B C+ C C- Per Cent Succbm 1375 — Men Per Cent Failure Uring 0- Figure 24. Intelligence Rating of Figure 25. Intelligence Ratings and Men of Poor Military Value as Success at Officers Training Camps. Compared with Complete Draft for a Certain Camp. A per Cent Success E C + < c - c p Per Cent Failure 1458 Men Figure 26. Intelligence Ratings and Success in Non-commissioned Officers Schools. 588 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The value of psychological tests, especially of low grade men, is very great in respect to morale. They give at once an insight into the quality of mental material which is the subject of morale work, and point out the individuals whose low mentality is indicative not only of sluggish mind and defective information, but also of an accompanying irre- sponsibility apt to express itself in lapse of duty and heed- less breach of discipline. It indicates at once a presump- tion that such a substandard individual not only will never make a non-commissioned officer, but that he represents a weak unit in the organization which will need special de- velopment and watchful oversight. The converse, however, is not true, for it does not neces- sarily follow that men with high mental rating will be good administrators. The " very superior intelligence " mani- fested by a class A rating does not preclude possession of other personal traits which would seriously interfere with the efficient handling of men. It merely means that the man has a very alert, agile and accurate mind, giving no information as to other qualities. A man may, for example, be bright and at the same time lack courage or tact. The mental test gives no measure of loyalty, power of command or other traits that fit a man to carry on. But in the long run, these qualities are more apt to be found in the man of superior intelligence than in those who are intellectually in- ferior. Next to physical fitness, intelligence is probably the most important single factor in soldier efficiency. A class B man, with intelligence rated as " superior," has a mind which works more slowly than that of a class A man, but he can have certain qualities of disposition and energy which render administrative success assured. On the other hand, his decisions will be less rapid than the higher rated man and not so often accurate, for, contrary to the popular idea, both mental tests and educational experience show that speed and accuracy go together. Mental tests thus demonstrate the weaker elements and permit of the prompt elimination from the service of the SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 589 unfit, and also permit of intelligent assignment to duty within the capacity of the individual to accomplish success. It is interesting to note here the number of soldiers found to have a paucity of mental interests. Of themselves, they do not read to any extent nor enter into wholesome games and sports. They have no special point of mental focus nor pastime. With many this mental inertia is pernicious. Higher authority should not permit inactivity to this type, either mental or physical. " The empty mind is the devil's workshop " means that mental vacuity permits the develop- ment of pernicious imagery. Mental Misfits. The selective assignment of personnel to appropriate duties has close relationship to morale. There will be found in every organization individuals who offer special difficulties in its upbuilding. Some of these difficulties may be due to individual maladjustments because of slowness in learning or trend to indiscipline. Such men should be given a psychological examination. Others have special eccentricities or other qualities that give rise to sus- picion of mental disease and these should be examined by a psychiatrist. Still others are merely misfits in their assign- ments to duty and the difficulties of these are readily cor- rected hy giving the man the work for which he is best adapted. The less marked cases of all these present prob- lems for the company commander to solve. It not infre- quently happens that men whose performance of duty in one company has been unsatisfactory, do very well if transferred to another organization and come, under different manage- ment and conditions. Not every kind of work can be done equally well by any individual. Hence, without special attention to this mat- ter, misfits will occur in any occupation. The constructive instinct is strong in human beings, and in each individual it seeks its expression through certain preferential channels. There is a just pride in satisfactory workmanship. With- out fitting the man to the job or the job to the man is to invite the discontent which accompanies misfits. Incom- 59Q MANAGEMENT OF MEN petents may be placed in positions of responsibility, and competents faced with tasks for which they have neither aptitude nor liking. Beside inefficiency and friction, the re- sult may include punishment for unsatisfactory service or the commission of such military offense as desertion for lack of local interest. But a modern army, like a great business concern, offers such a multiplicity of duties that the special adaptibility of each individual to a particular function is not hard to sat- isfy. Few regard an infantry division as much more than a group of some 28,000 fighting men, yet for its proper func- tioning 10,895 trade specialists are required. In an average company, about thirty per cent, must have special occupa- tional ability. The point here is that the trained man can be given an assignment which he is best fitted to do and the duties of which are more or less familiar and probably con- genial to him. The result is not only one of the higher administrative efficiency but of morale. A certain number of technical positions in an army have to be filled. If there is any virtue in training and any value in saving time in getting troops to the front, it is the part of wisdom to fill such technical positions with men already qualified, in whole or part, to carry out their func- tions. It has been objected that the selection of highly trained men for special technical work tends to lower the general standard of first line troops. This is regrettable, but the problem is one of relative values for the army as a whole and it may be accepted that the military machine will function more smoothly and powerfully if its component parts are operating at maximum efficiency. However, the results are relatively compensatory in that organizations which may lose in class standards gain in satisfaction of their needs for individual technicians. Temporary smooth running of a company should not be put ahead of future efficiency, for the ultimate results, under discriminating assignments, will be more valuable. For the same reason, the assignment of the men to duties within or- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 591 ganizations should not be left to non-commissioned officers, but the company commander himself should study his men with a view to making assignments that in the end will get the most effective service out of them. As to the results of selective assignments, it is stated that, whereas nine months were required to fit the early divisions for overseas work, only three months were required to simi- larly fit the divisions last formed, largely because the per- sonnel was distributed among tasks for which each indi- vidual was specially fitted by experience, education and in- clination. Every authorized unit in the army has a table of organ- ization. The same is equally necessary for proper organ- ization of any great industry. The occupational ability re- quired of each man authorized must be known if its needs are effectively to be supplied. Further, only by this means can the special occupational needs of an organization at a given time be forecasted. The tables of occupational needs for each organization together with the qualification cards of soldiers or employees form a clearing house whereby the requirements of work and fitness may be promptly satisfied. The military qualification cards cover the following facts : — occupation, trade skill, previous experience, former em- ployer, nativity, citizenship, schooling, linguistic ability, mental ability, physical ability, leadership ability, military experience, kind of service preferred. From this, a very clear idea of the qualifications and abilities of the soldier may be gained. Claims of special ability are checked up by practical trade tests to ascertain the actual amount of skill possessed. At the time of the Armistice, seventy per cent, of soldiers claim- ing trade ability had been trade tested. The results showed that of such claimants, only six per cent, could be graded as experts, twenty-four per cent, as journeymen, forty per cent, as apprentices and thirty per cent, as inexperienced. These facts should be highly suggestive to those having to do with employment in industry. To fill deficiencies in many trades, 592 MANAGEMENT OF MEN soldiers with natural talent in a certain direction were sent to trade schools for appropriate training. The present educational and vocational training opportunities in the army make it no difficult task to find out what a man is in- terested in and his capacity for it, and to give him a chance to perfect himself along his chosen lines of vocational ex- pression. The Non-English Speaking Soldier. The problem of the foreign speaking soldier is one which is essentially American. No other army in the world is beset with such a Babel of tongues. European nations, with the exception of Austria, were relatively homogeneous and their troops were composed very largely of men speaking the common language of their country. The reason for the difficulty in this country has been that the civil communities neglected the problem of Americanizing the immigrant. The inter- change of thought and establishment of common ideals through a common tongue, which the United States had realized was necessary, for example, to the reconstruction of the Philippines, had received no adequate official attention in respect to human beings at home, though every other ad- vanced nation had handled it as a matter of the highest political, industrial and economic importance. The magnitude of the problem of the non-English speak- ing soldier in relation to the army of the United States, especially in time of w'ar, is shown by the fact that in the census reports for 1910 more than fifty countries were rep- resented. These reports further showed that there were at that time more than 13,000,000 foreign born whites in this country, with more than 20,000,000 more who were American born of one or both parents born in foreign coun- tries. Up to the time of the war, immigration was occur- ring at the rate of about 1,000,000 per year, which would make the present foreign born population aggregate about 16,000,000, or nearly one in every six of the entire popula- tion. Fifty per cent, of foreign born males were of voting SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 593 age. Of foreign born above ten years of age, 3,000,000 could not speak English and 1,650,000 could not read or write in any language. These figures are suggestive of the language problems to be met under a draft act which, in 1917, called out aliens in the proportion of 14.85 per cent, of the total, and of which 7.23 per cent, were accepted. In one draft taken from New York City, out of 2,338 men taken at random, 1,619 were found to be native born and 719 foreign born. Of the latter, 48, or 6.6 per cent., or about 2.2 per cent, of the number taken, could riot speak English Well enough to tell their name and occupation, ex- cept through an interpreter. This 16,000,000 foreign population forms the bulk of the laboring class of this country, a fact which indicates the tremendous importance of their problems to industry. In many places they have colonized, living apart from the American world and having little knowledge nor interest in the welfare of the country as a whole or in its ideals and policies. Their ideas were largely molded by some 1,500 foreign language newspapers, with a total circulation of about 10,000,000 within the United States. The existence of this great body of potential recruits speaking no English, and the need for Americanization, has brought about authority for their enlistment. With the double purpose of filling the ranks and making good citi- zens, a considerable amount of recruiting energy is being spent in enlisting them, and the problems which they present may be regarded as permanently continuing in the service on a relatively large scale in time of peace. The practical military difficulties created by lack of under- standing of the English language are evident from the fact that during the war there were at one camp 2,190 men of twenty-seven nationalities who could not understand com- mands, while at another camp there were some 4,000 of such men, representing forty-one different nationalities. It is true that many of these men were intelligent and literate 594 MANAGEMENT OF MEN in their own language; yet for military purposes they pre- sented mental problems as difficult as if imbecility were in- volved, in that mental relations could not be established nor ideas imparted. Inability to understand begot curt treat- ment. Inevitably the alien fell behind in drill and every- thing else, and when his regiment "went abroad he was left behind to pass through the same experience in another regi- ment. Ultimately great numbers of these men, whom no- body wanted, accumulated in all large camps and finally found their way to Development Battalions, with appar- ently nothing that they could do for the country except perform fatigue duty. Similar conditions exist in industry. During the six months, June-November, 191 8, the Devel- opment Battalions handled about 28,000 illiterates and non- English speaking soldiers. Many such men had been sent to the colors without being able to understand why America had joined in the world conflict, though well able to appreciate why the countries of their birth were at war with Germany. Nor was this information systematically furnished them for many months. They were not well informed as to allot- ments, compensation and insurance, and hence each was particularly apt to think that neither his dependents nor future was being considered by the Government. Deduc- tions for the aforementioned purposes were not understood, while many believed themselves discriminated against and required to do laborers' work for a mere pittance. The barrier of language shut out such men from partici- pation in the life, ideals and purposes of the military serv- ice, while at the same time it made them an easy prey for agitators speaking their own tongue and exposed them to doubts, misunderstandings and suspicions which only for- eign language speakers could sweep aside. They felt that they were looked upon as inferiors by the English speaking groups, and this was heightened by offensive " nicknames " of the thoughtless and asperities by non-commissioned of- ficers irritated by their inability to learn. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 595 The result was the physical, social and mental isolation of such men. A gulf existed between them and their supe- riors and their English speaking comrades which prevented understanding and consideration of their needs and difficul- ties. To this, food problems, based on national, religious or other customs, added complications. They felt that they were discriminated against; and this was probably a fact, though not through desires but by reason of the language difficulties involved. The problem was of such importance and magnitude that the Morale Branch worked out a very successful plan for dealing with such soldiers, known as the " Camp Gordon Plan," which was put into wide operation. This was fol- lowed some nine months later by the establishment under the recruiting system of permanent Recruit Educational Centers, in which illiterates and non-English speaking soldiers are taught to speak, read and write the English language as part of their elementary recruit training and to an extent to permit them to profit fully by the latter. The results have been extremely successful, and the " All American " detach- ments which have toured the country have shown the grati- fying results of a few months systematized training. At the time of this writing, the Recruit Educational Center at Camp Upton contains some 1,800 foreign speaking recruits, representing forty-eight nationalities. In carrying out the instruction, several methods have been tried. In all, military instruction and language in- struction were correlated. In some, there was no grouping of the men along racial lines except for the first few weeks of adjustment and while they mastered the simple elements of English. In another, they were organized from the start without regard to language or race distinction. Both had the purpose of recognizing them only as Americans from the start and reducing the intensity of the soldier's environ- ment in respect to his previous racial language, customs and ideals. By making up mixed squads and platoons, it became 596 MANAGEMENT OF MEN necessary for the men to develop English as a common means of communication. Self-consciousness and racial con- sciousness were replaced by group unity. Only English was permitted in the mess halls, at military formations and gen- eral gatherings of the men. Even instruction, except in elementary classes, was given in English. In drill, the men were required to give their own commands, creating unison of mind and body. The officers and non-commissioned of- ficers were selected for special qualities of leadership rather than linguistic ability. However, a corps of teachers and interpreters, most of them non-commissioned officers, was available in overcoming difficulties. It is stated that, under this general plan, men who could speak little or no English became in three months' time sufficiently proficient to fulfill the functions of soldiers both in organizations and on separate missions. The troops de- veloped good discipline and proficiency, while the spirit of Americanism became so marked that, almost without excep- tion, all aliens took out citizenship papers. It may be men- tioned here that the law authorizes citizenship in a minimum period of one year to aliens enlisting in the military service instead of the five years required by civil channels. The results indicate that, whatever the method employed, any problem of this sort can be satisfactorily solved by an efficient commander who will give it the interest and atten- tion which its importance deserves and sees that the neces- sary machinery is in sufficient quantity and functions effec- tively. Illiteracy. In the sense used in this discussion, illiteracy means the lack of sufficient knowledge, or the inability to express and apply it, for military purposes. Its causes re- late to inferior intelligence whereby there is inability to learn, to lack of educational facilities or failure to use them, which opportunity and volition control, and finally to for- eign parentage in which the man may not be ignorant but in which he is uneducated in the accepted linguistic chan- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 597 nel of the English language, through which his knowledge would be used. There is no record of the number of illiterate men in the army during the war. The census figures for 19 10 gave a percentage of 5.5 for whites and 25.5 for colored races, or an average of 7.6 for all males of ages from twenty to forty-four years. However, these census ratings can scarcely be considered as scientific for they probably relate to complete illiteracy and are very likely underestimates of fact since they represent the aggregate of statements of in- terested individuals not subjected to test. Much more accurate data were secured on this subject through the psychological examinations which were given to 1,552,256 men during the war. These tests are of two kinds, one for literates and one for illiterates. The usual basis of differentiation was " ability to read and understand newspapers and write letters home." This test was in English. Men able to conform to such requirements were given the so-called " Alpha test " and those not able to conform to this were given the " Beta test " for illiterates. It is interesting to note that in an early total for the army it was found necessary to use the tests for illiterates in 24.9 per cent, of all recruits, and that in a later group of 94,000 whites this rose to 29.7 per cent. Tests made of 112,895 men indicated that the percentage of colored soldier illiterates is 2.35 times that of the whites. Combining these figures leads to the conclusion that the men who served in the army should be classified as shown in Figure 27; the term "relatively illiterate" meaning some ability to read and write English, but not well enough to understand a newspaper and write a letter. This extent of illiteracy in the material of which soldiers are made is striking and indicates the extent to which educa- tion is desirable in the service. The extent of illiteracy in a group is often dependent upon the number of negroes in it; also upon the part of the country from which the re- 59 8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Whole Army Wholly illiterate 311,000 712,000 1,023,000 3,067,000 4,090,000 198,000 577,000 775,000 2,825,000 3,600,000 125,000 123,000 248,000 242,000 490,000 PER CENT OF TOTAL ARMY Relatively illiterate WBMmtSU 1 7.4 Total illiterate class 111 I ~~ 750 1 | Total Army White Wholly illiterate PER CENT OF TOTAL WHITE Relatively illiterate ^^^^16.0 Total illiterate class ■K?W$W- S 70 5 Literate class 1 ■ " 1 Total White Colored Wholly illiterate Relatively illiterate PER CENT OF TOTAL COLORED Total illiterate class Mi^M^Kesw.™*! hn.fi Literate class 1 .... . ,4a - 4 Total Colored Figure 27. Proportion of Literacy in the Draft Army. cruits were derived. Hence the widely varying degrees of illiteracy at various camps are not properly comparable. The lowest percentage at any camp, in respect to the neces- sity for the Beta examination for illiterates, was 13.5 per cent, at a western camp, while the highest was 37.8 per cent, at a southern camp. " At Camp 44 per cent, of northern negroes and 72 per cent, of southern negroes were given the Beta examination. Of the latter group, 30 per cent, had already been eliminated by the physical examiners." Schooling of Recruits White native-born Foreign born Negroes 4 States Southern S States Northern Did not reach grades as follows: (60,250) (9,498) (9,I92) (4.938) (4-254) % % % % % Grade 2 12 13 19 7 1st 4 16 21 30 9 2nd 6 21 29 41 14 3rd 10 30 40 5") 23 4th "" 17 41 55 70 36 5th 27 51 67 81 50 6th 37 (■3 76 88 60 7th 5i 74 83 93 70 8th SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 599 The proportionate degree of literacy among males of the military age in this country is shown by the foregoing fig- ures, which were based on a large number of psychological rating cards made on three drafts and intended to include all sections of the country. The groups were large enough and representative enough to avoid statistical error. Native born white and negroes represent actual illiteracy. Foreign born illiteracy represents illiteracy so far as the English language is concerned, though doubtless a number were-literate in their own language. From psychological tests, it appears that under present methods of recruiting, in which educational and vocational training opportunities are featured, the volunteer recruits are, in each case, much above the men of the draft in intel- ligence and thus represent a materially higher degree of mental capacity than the general civilian class from which they come. This absolutely controverts the too popular civilian idea that enlistments in the army are drawn chiefly from a class of comparatively less mental capacity and com- petency. Not only is a larger proportion of high-class men coming in but a considerably greater proportion of mental dullards is being excluded. This should help morale, facili- tate training and promote efficiency in many ways. In respect to the number of illiterates from European countries, the following figures are of interest. They show the percentage of foreign born given Beta examination at Camps Devens and Custer. Country Camp Devens Camp Custer England 7.4 Scotland f .1 Ireland 39-2 Canada 57-° Norway 48 . 6 61.6 Sweden 41.7 58.0 Denmark 27.3 62.5 Holland 17 -o Belgium 73 -O Germany 12.7 600 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Country Camp Devens Camp Custer Austria 48.8 39-0 Portugal 83 .6 Italy 81.7 77.8 Poland 84.0 66.7 Lithuania 89 . 5 Finland 60.^9 41 .0 Russia 73.6 62.8 Greece 75-6 53 -O Turkey 81.3 83.4 Armenia 72 .9 Syria 74-2 The following figures for illiteracy by localities in this country are given for Camp Wadsworth : Locality Date Number Number Per cent of y Examined Rejected Illiteracy A Northern State May 25, 1918.... 8,965 1,484 16.6 A South-eastern State. .July 5, 19 18.... 981 487 49.5 A North-central State.. July 24, 1918 4,692 670 14.2 " These figures are significant in the fact that the drafted men from (a Northern State) included many foreigners. In spite of that fact the percentage of illiteracy (16.6 per cent.) seems to be very small when compared with the per- centage of illiteracy found among the men reporting from (a South-eastern State). In fact the percentage for the latter group was found to be so high as to make us doubt the accuracy of the data. A check was therefore made as follows : — The records of all of the (South-eastern State) men in one company were analyzed with the result that of the 177 men in the company, 109, or 61.6 per cent, were illiterate. It seems from this check that the percentage of illiteracy (49.5 per cent.) for the whole group from (the South-eastern State) is probably correct." It is apparent that the factor of illiteracy has a very definite relation to the degree of responsibility which should attach to an individual. A printed order, for example, could carry with it no sense of responsibility to a man who cannot read, because it conveyed to such an individual no SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 601 information or obligation. Further, illiteracy checks the transmission of ideas and the dissemination of information by the printed or written word and thus closes a channel of the greatest assistance in training and the accurate per- formance of duty in the carrying out of orders. Illiterates with a knowledge of spoken English only can be reached only through word of mouth or example, thereby mate- rially adding to the burdens of superiors. Moreover, their knowledge is not only limited but poorly organized, by rea- son of the fact that the vast fund of general information which is available to those who can read is denied to them. Finally, illiterates with no knowledge of the English tongue have only the channel of example open to them, and this may be productive of inefficiency and error if it cannot be accompanied and checked up by explanation. Further- more, with all illiterates, there is inability to comprehend instructions and advice with an increased proportion of of- fenses committed through ignorance or misunderstanding. It needs no argument, therefore, to demonstrate the vital interest which superiors have in the educational qualifica- tions of their men. A certain degree of knowledge, an effective ability to use all the usual methods for the exchange of thought, and a reasonably orderly procedure of mental processes are necessary prerequisites to developing a satis- factory soldier or worker along anything more than simple lines. Where these do not exist, education and training should go hand in hand. During the war, schools for illiterates were planned by the Morale Branch and put into local operation in many places. Usually they were held in welfare huts, and teach- ers came from the educational staff of the welfare organ- izations, from the morale organization and from civilian volunteers. Books were supplied by the American Library Association and it is interesting to note that one divisional camp had 4,000 first and second readers in use and had re- ported that 5,000 more were needed at the time of the 602 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Armistice. Subsequently the work was taken over by the Education and Recreation Branch of the General Staff and was thoroughly systematized. Naturalization of Non-Citizens. At the present time, •men are accepted for military service who have taken out their first papers in citizenship. In time of war, the draft will bring in many men of foreign birth who have not be- come declarants. It is obviously important that such men should be given every opportunity and encouragement to acquire citizenship, thereby securing joint title in the coun- try and Government which they are called upon to defend. No man can be expected to fight his best for a country and institutions which are not his own. A proper function of the Morale Officer would be to se- cure full information as to non-citizens, recommend as to a course of informative instruction to prepare them for citi- zenship, and make arrangements to carry out the ceremony. A course of short lectures, covering the subject of Ameri- canization, in lieu of drill periods, should be carried out. These should cover briefly the reasons for service; the American form of government and election of officials; the ideals of the United States with reading and explaining ex- cerpts from the Constitution ; the geography, magnitude and resources of the United States; the protection afforded by citizenship and the fact that it is no bar to temporary resi- dence abroad and that confiscation of property or penaliza- tion of relatives could not come from it. Opportunity for citizenship should be presented as a privilege, without ap- pearance of proselyting. In reaching foreigners, use should be made of foreign language speakers and of the loyal foreign language news- papers. Mention should be specifically made by name of the nationals of their own country who participated with dis- tinction in the upbuilding of the nation. The ceremonies of naturalization should be made as impressive as possible, with flags, music, mass singing and short, stirring addresses SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 603 by the Commanding Officer and others. The declarants, being usually emotional and temperamental, are affected by pomp and ceremony. Other soldiers should be in attend- ance, so that those already Americans may aid by applaud- ing and welcoming their new fellow-citizens. All this ap- plies in appropriate importance to civil industry. The Development Battalion. The Development Bat- talion idea was an effort to meet the many practical dif- ficulties which occurred during the war, with respect to the handling of personnel which, while capable of salvage for some character of military duty, was at the time unfit for incorporation in organizations preparing to go overseas. While the satisfactory handling and reconstruction of such cases was beyond the power of the organization commander, it was obvious that their aggregation would enable the tak- ing of suitable measures in behalf of groups and individuals, as well as relieve organizations of the incubus of their pres- ence. Corrective measures could be carried out under spe cialists, more satisfactory training accomplished and better esprit de corps developed. On the other hand, some of the disadvantages of the De- velopment Battalion are obvious. The very name carried the idea of subnormality and was resented by many. An- other lay in the fact that all unfit for service, from any cause other than active illness, were grouped together. Thus the high class college man eager for service but whose flat feet needed strengthening, the illiterate, uncouth alien learning English and of no great loyalty, the stupid moron perhaps of low personal habits, and the coarse-fibered in- dividual recovering from venereal infection were here brought under the same classification and into close physical contact. The morale of Development Battalions was accordingly a serious problem, composed as they were of elements of the most dissimilar character and occupying a position savor- ing not only of the ignominious but the ridiculous. It is 6o 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN perfectly possible, however, to preserve the good qualities of the Development Battalion and at the same time remove its obvious faults by replacing it with separate smaller or- ganizations, each having to do with certain defects only. This has already been done, for example, in the case of the non-English speaking soldiers, by establishing Recruit Edu- cational Centers to give the benefits required along such lines. The Colored Soldier. The colored soldier presents mo- rale problems of a special nature, in addition to about all those which confront the white soldier and his officers. A wide variation in educational qualifications contributes to complexities. The temperament, character and psycholog- ical processes of mind differ in various races, and the white officer, by nature, finds it relatively difficult to understand the workings of the negro soldier's mind. This is reason for special effort to do so, for the officer who gets the highest efficiency out of the colored soldier is the one who best understands his character and mental make-up. Methods that have proven successful with white troops maj be more or less failures with colored soldiers. Military service tends to represent physical and social benefits for the colored soldier, resulting in reenlistments and the leavening influence of a high proportion of old sol- diers. With this goes a high degree of pride in the uniform and personal appearance. Drill is liked and increases self- respect. All combine in the furtherance of good conduct. The colored soldier naturally respects higher authority. He is accordingly particularly swayed in his ideas and acts by what he thinks is the attitude of his superiors toward him. No class of soldiers is more observant of its officers nor more strongly influenced by the outward appearance of the latter. By reason of their reliance on superiors, it is par- ticularly necessary that they be well led. The colored soldier needs to be met in a spirit of fair- ness, firmness and especially of sympathetic personal inter- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 605 est. He is particularly appreciative of such interest in how he is cared for and the provisions made for him to spend his leisure time, and responds quickly in the better performance of duties which at once seem to him to be less irksome and monotonous. But if colored troops get the impression that their superiors are not interested in them and do not under- stand the elements of their racial characteristics, a falling off in effort on their part occurs and disintegration of dis- cipline is apt to follow. One evidence of the respect in which higher authority is held is the bringing to it of difficulties and complaints which, in white troops, might be withheld. These may seem trivial and at times childish, but they need to be listened to particu- larly, for they are very real to the complainants. The mere ability to bring such difficulties before higher authority goes far to allay perplexity, irritation or depression. Usually they represent chiefly a craving for reassurance and mental support, though sometimes real faults requiring rectification are found. Colored troops are particularly receptive to ideas of dis- crimination. As they are by nature relatively emotional and impulsive, ideas of this kind should be looked for and allayed in the prevention of indisciplinary act. Among the less literate, the most exaggerated stories may gain credence unless offset by truth, while this condition is favored by the fact that they secure their information less by reading than by word of mouth. The mixture of white and colored troops at the same station creates potential difficulties which at all times require the particular attention of the Morale Officer in preventing their development. Conditions particularly favorable to misunderstanding and trouble happen when such contact oc- curs between white and colored soldiers drawn from dis- tricts crossing the geographical distribution of the civilian population. In connection with the handling of the colored soldier, 606 MANAGEMENT OF MEN one of the things of first importance is to make him phys- ically comfortable. He needs to be warmly housed and clad, and his appetite for good wholesome food should be satisfied. The latter is relatively easy to do because of an often high culinary aptitude. He will work faithfully and well if properly handled, but resents what he may consider as being overdriven. Account should be taken of the fact that he is pleasure loving and particularly appreciative of opportunities for enjoyment. Accordingly it is especially desirable that suitable facilities for the latter be provided. The love of the colored race for rhythm and harmony, especially mass singing, should be fully utilized. Parades are of special value in dramatizing the military matters in which colored soldiers play a part, while their anticipation and remembrance both go far to replace undesirable factors in their state of mind. Colored troops respond readily to suggestion, advice and appeal to pride, and these should be fully used by the officers over them. As they may be swayed by glib talkers to their disadvantage and the impairment of the service and disci- pline, so they respond even more strongly to information and advice from superiors in whom they have confidence. Ad- dresses to them by representative men of their own race will often be useful and appreciated. The " Conscientious Objector." By reason of the ex- tremely great administrative difficulties which this class de- velops — perhaps more perplexing to commanders than those which arise from any other cause — and the type- example which it may afford for scientific psychological han- dling, this subject will be discussed more in detail than would otherwise be the case. The so-called " conscientious objectors " are a serious problem in morale, arousing resentment, if they are able to escape service, among those who accept the obligations of conflict; serving as examples of successful evasion to those who would welcome opportunity to cloak cowardice or dis- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 607 loyalty in the false front of alleged conscience; creating sympathy and posing as martyrs if handled by force. Not a few, by inclination, tact and adroitness, are insidious prop- agandists of peace, even though it be a peace of defeat and dishonor. The problem is one which naturally cannot develop in an army recruited by voluntary enlistment, but every drafted army will have to face it. The proportion of such objectors in our army was not large, aggregating only about 6,000 in the two drafts, but the problems they presented possessed difficulties out of all proportion to their numerical strength. Of these, some 1,800 persistently refused to accept non- combatant service, and 527 were sent to the, U. S. Discipli- nary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth. While with troops, and later at Fort Leavenworth, these men were a constant source of difficulty and disorder. Re- sistance to authority was the common expression of state of mind. Sometimes this was active, but usually it was of a passive nature. There might or might not be refusal to obey an order. Usually the objectors simply failed to obey it. The refusal to serve took many forms. They would not drill, salute, work, or sometimes even cook their own food. If left in bed, some lay in their own excreta rather than get up, or refused to bathe. A common means of dis- playing opposition was by " hunger strikes." As a class, they were vociferous in verbal complaints and profuse in written ones. Their charges of ill-treatment were repeatedly found to be false, but were reiterated with all the exaggeration characteristic of individuals with an ex- alted ego. Complaints and allegations of injustice were necessary to their assumed role of martyrs, and in this they received the constant support of outside sympathizers. They were of course objects of bitter dislike by troops, and much of the alleged brutality of which they complained was really hazing at the hands of men who wanted to be sol- diers, were ready for any hardship or sacrifice and had no 608 MANAGEMENT OF MEN sympathy for men who, while apparently willing to share in the benefits of a victorious peace, would do nothing to help bring it about. The so-called " conscientious objectors " were really di- visible into two classes ; those who objected to military serv- ice from religious convictions and those who opposed it through political belief. Under the law, consideration was required only for those whose objections rested on religious grounds. Its extension to political objectors was through executive interpretation. Further, exemption from service did not include all duty, but only from combatant service. In the Presidential Order of March 21, 191 8, the following was declared non-combatant service: Any service in the Medical Department; in the Quartermaster Corps in the United States and in various of its organizations of the serv- ice of the rear abroad. So far as feasible, assignments were to be made to the Medical Department except on request of the man for assignment to some other service. There were degrees of conscientious objection, ranging from refusal to accept combatant service only to a point of refusal to do work of any sort in the military service. This was particularly true of certain religious objectors, whose tenets of faith sometimes ran counter to army requirements in curious ways. Thus certain sects forbid the use of cloth- ing with buttons. Some do not shave or cut their hair. Some believe that if they eat animal fat they violate the teachings of the Holy Writ. Some sects are wholly vege- tarians. Some do not bathe. Some limit their members to the occupations of farming and husbandry. Some will not use telephones, railroad trains or any device or thing not known in Biblical times. Some believe that no life of any kind, even that of an insect or worm, may be taken delib- erately. Ideas of this sort, early implanted, deliberately fostered and honestly believed in, are not easy to alter or eradicate. They also illustrate the profound influence of ideas on con- SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 609 duct. The moral to be drawn is that methods of mental control, demonstratedly so effective in such cases in opposing military purposes, may also be employed in bringing about a mental state favorable toward the latter. As to type, the list of those sent to Leavenworth included the following: religious objectors 294; non-religious objectors 103; non- citizens 130. The last class includes those of German or Austrian parentage or descent who refused to fight against their kin, and those who alleged enemy citizenship but could not prove it. The religious objectors at Leavenworth were classified as follows : Mennonites, General Conference 92 Mennonites, Amish 16 Dunkards 21 International Bible Students (Russellites) 1 8 Church of God, Apostolic 17 Holiness Churches -. 12 Seventh Day Adventists 12 Church of Christ (Campbellites) 12 Baptists 11 Quakera 9 Church of God 6 Molaken 5 Roman Catholic 4 House of David (Israelite) 4 Lutheran 3 Free Methodist 3 Free Missionary Association 2 Methodist 2 Greek Catholic 2 True Life 2 Huttrien Brethren, Disciples of Christ, United Peoples, Plymouth Brethren, Assembly of God, Mission Church Association, Episcopalian and Jew, each one, or total 8 Independent and miscellaneous Christian 33 Officially, the non-religious objectors were classified as: Socialist, I. W. W., radical 69 Humanitarian, Agnostic, etc 34 The last group is not listed as politicals simply because 610 MANAGEMENT OF MEN they did not identify themselves with such radical groups, though they exhibited the same scruples as the declared politicals. In most of the practical difficulties which occurred, it was the political element which, opposed at heart to the Govern- ment, carried on the agitation. This radical class had much to say about religious objectors, but no religious organiza- tion took, up the matter except in occasional individual cases. The very creeds of religious objectors make them the most peaceful and inoffensive of men. But political recalcitrants found support in various societies, whose high-sounding names were intended to camouflage the disloyal or sinister purposes of their members. One society had an apparent purpose of defending the objector in each and every respect when the purposes of the individual and the laws of the coun- try came into conflict. While most of the conscientious objectors were not men of high mental caliber, there were a few of bright, if ill- balanced intellect. These men acted as leaders and crys- tallized about themselves the support of their mental in- feriors. Some of these were college men and one or two were ordained ministers. That some conscientious objectors are honest in their be- liefs may be conceded, however irrational these may seem to others. Yet most of them can probably be won over by judicious handling. On the other hand, faulty handling of this class is almost certain merely to strengthen their con- victions and to arouse self-assertion to a point where the in- dividual is willing, if necessary, to die for his ideas. Some apparently seek the role of martyr for the publicity and notoriety attached. It must be remembered that constant compulsive effort against an idea, if it does not break will, so strengthens the latter that the idea in question may become an obsession. The honest objector is especially an evader of responsibility. He refuses to accept obligation and transfers it to a higher power. If a divine providence will SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 611 not keep away the enemy and his evil works it is not worth while for him to attempt to do it. He is committed to a sophistical logic and distorted psychology. But for 'every conscientious objector whose scruples are sincere, there are many whose convictions are superficial and born of cowardice or personal motive. The latter fact, however, does not lessen the difficulties of handling such cases. One of the first steps with such is tactfully to strip away pretense, so that the individual may not have the benefit of sympathy of his associates — for one of the first appeals of the conscientious objector is for pity and respect. It is apparent, for example, that men who refuse service in the Medical Department at the front, or possibly in mine- sweeping, are open to the charge of cowardice rather than the imputation of humanitarianism. The rapid accumulation of conscientious objectors in camps, with the serious difficulties which they created and which apparently were not being solved by the average com- mander, evoked the following Presidential Order: " all such persons not accepting assignment to non-combatant service shall be segregated as far as practicable and placed under command of a specially qualified officer of tact and judg- ment, who will be instructed to impose no punitive hard- ships of any kind upon them but not to allow their objections to be made the basis of any favor or consideration, beyond exemption from military service, which is not extended to any otjier soldier in the service of the United States." Later, instructions were issued for " courts-martial to try and punish all found insincere, defiant, or active in attempt- ing to convert others to their belief." The fact that these men were " segregated " is open to serious psychological objection. Outwardly facilitating ad- ministrative control, it really tremendously increased the problem and its difficulties. When conscientious objectors went to camp, they were thereby cut off from the support of their former associates. It was psychologically unde- 6l2 MANAGEMENT OF MEN sirable to restore support of such nature by creating new groups in which they received the accustomed stimulus of sympathy and example. When the more incorrigible were gathered together for further examination and consideration, that very circum- stance stiffened resistance by making possible group action instead of individual action. The stronger wills dominated and fortified those of weaker quality, strengthened the de- termination of those who might have yielded if alone and unsupported, and brought about the appeals for outside as- sistance which resulted in the political agitation that con- tinued many months. Physically, segregation withdrew these men from contact with outside ideas to a large extent. By grouping them by themselves it stimulated gregarious- ness, class consciousness, assertion and interreliance. They Were in a way cross-braced in their psychological support of each other. Psychologically, it raised a barrier through which outside influences could not readily pass and which was none the less effective because intangible and invisible. This idea is graphically represented in Figure 28. Outside influences failing of access to subjects Figure 28. Shows Psychological Insulation and Internal Interrelation of Group. SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 613 It further substituted group resistance for individual re- sistance. A homely analogy might be drawn from an in- dividual fence post which might be pushed over with rela- tively little effort and the greatly increased force necessary to push over the same post if strongly propped on all sides. See Figure 29. Another illustration might be given of a number of posts Individual Resistance Reinforced Resistance of Group Figure 29. set in the ground, each of which individually might be pushed over with no great effort, but which if cross-braced, and especially if further put under physical conditions whereby full outside force could not be exerted, would to- gether withstand herculean effort. See Figure 28. The morale organization undertook the solution of this problem in the fall of 19 18 and, as judged by practical re- sults in various camps, had arrived at very satisfactory methods at the time of the Armistice, the great* majority of newly registered or declared objectors accepting service. There were many young radicals who came into the army and who after a period of complaint and protest changed their minds and became soldiers. Public opinion brought this about. These men, translated into a place of broader outlook and purer mental atmosphere, found themselves to be social misfits. There is an instinctive tendency of human beings to dislike to be different from associates in important matters of conduct, and social pressure, even when unorgan- Missing Page Missing Page 616 MANAGEMENT OF MEN exist, it will be gladly accorded with the change of viewpoint which good sense and better knowledge will bring about. Argument, in the hands of selected men, is a very efficient tool for mental change, but its use should be restricted to appropriate times and it should not be allowed to develop into a mental clash. It should be good humored but never acrimonious. It must invariably be impersonal and relate wholly to the abstract issues involved, lest the individual link his individuality to the matter under discussion through stimulation of self-assertion. Occasional humorous allu- sion, not approaching caustic satire, is valuable. Its pur- pose should be to convey the suggestion that the subject, toward whom his squad entertains a friendly feeling as an individual, is making himself regrettably ridiculous to his associates through the ideas which he entertains. This general anti-" red " environment should be specific- ally strengthened by the inclusion in the prepared environ- ment of one or more men, say of the lawyer type, whose fluency will be more than a match for the subject in respect to argument and discussion, whose facts and logic overwhelm one whose knowledge is less complete and well organized, who by discussion can induce curiosity, reflection and new points of view, who can evoke wholesome sentiment, and who can point the whole with kindly wit and humor. This class should demonstrate a psychological superiority in such a way as to make the subject of their influence distrust the accuracy of his own original premises. A second element might include one or more men of the same race and religion, of the ministerial type, whose chief approach to the subject would be through the sympathetic channels of common birth and belief and who would be able to draw upon racial customs, ideas and scriptures to support their corrective ideas. A third group would be represented by young men of the successful business man type, whose appeal would be made to acquisitiveness and suggest an expression of self-assertion SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONNEL 617 to that end. The idea that the subject is a man of such ability that, if his talents were better directed, he might easily have a good business, a family and an enviable status, would be particularly promoted by this group. Another group, representing the side of comradeship, would stimulate gregariousness and the natural desire of the subject to be at one with his fellows. It would arouse the play instinct along his preferential channels, making his lim- ited self-repression along the unpopular lines the price to be paid for satisfaction through comradeship and play. The general nature and mode of approach is graphically shown in Figure 30. In time of war, any great camp will accumulate drafted men of such diverse qualifications as to furnish suitable personnel to meet any psychological problem. The results of such psychological treatment are cumulative, and a few days more or less are of no importance if the final purpose of removing a discordant element from the organization and at the same time saving the individual to himself and the service be accomplished. The social pressure of such an environment is far more powerful than any counter influence that the individual can exert against it. It is incessant and shifting in its nature and emphasis, constantly finding the subject off guard against a new, unexpected and scarcely realized approach. It lulls and undermines resolution instead of arousing it by combat. If deemed necessary, the subject may be tempo- rarily exposed to the influence of one or more other pre- pared groups, until individual self-assertion yields to what appears to the subject to be complete mental isolation. CHAPTER XVII HEALTH IN RELATION TO MENTAL STATE Health and morale; psychology in relation to physiology ; influence of bodily state on emotions; sick rates as indices of morale. War psychoses and neuroses; the upsetting of mental equilibrium; the psy- chology of " shell-shock " ; mental conflicts and hysterias; prevention of war neuroses and psychoses; their type variation between officers and men; malingering; suicide. Drug addictions. Sex immorality. Quarantines; their relation to morale; special requirements for the quarantined. Hospital morale; mental attitude in relation to re- covery; hospital morale and administrative methods; the mental at- titude in sickness; various measures to promote hospital morale. The morale of attendants on the sick; their special problems; suggestibility of patients; special measures to promote good mental state. Health and Morale. Psychology cannot be considered apart from physiology. Psychological issues are always projected against a physiological background in the state of health of the individual. Bodily state exerts a profound influence .on mental state. The body is the tenement of the soul, and represents the immediate environment of the latter. To abnormal bodily changes the mental mechanism is sensitive. Physical depression is thus a strong factor in preparing the way for mental depression and demoraliza- tion. Anguish may drive out all other emotions. Only when the body processes function so frictionlessly as not to draw attention to their existence can emotion, apart from the body, exert full sway. Sickness impels consciousness of the bodily self and an introspective and brooding habit of mind. It obstructs activity, hampers expression, and makes for hesitation, irritability and depression. This is particu- larly the case in digestive troubles and those of the ab- dominal viscera, as well as in the disturbed metabolism of internal secretions. If these are protracted, they may carry 618 °% *"(/ Figure 30. The prepared environment, specially reinforced, with its converging lines of suggestive influence modifying the mental color of the subject. HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 619 on to a permanent condition of peevishness and invalidism, even after the original cause has been removed. The converse is also true. Any high degree of mental excitement, whether anger, terror, pain, anxiety, joy, grief or deep disgust may disturb the functions of the sympathetic nervous system and the functions of all the organs of the body which it innervates. Health is an essential to the active temperament in deriv- ing joy of living, and implies a reserve of physical and men- tal vigor. In general terms, condition of body is reflected in condition of mind — " Mens sana in corpore sano." It is true that men may be healthy without morale, also that, at times, the steadfast purpose of a strong character may dominate the shattered body. But in groups, never. A sick army neither has the physical ability nor the will to fight. Its initiative and fortitude are lost. Slight reverses have serious results and disintegration accelerates. Health rates thus form one of the very best indices of morale. High rates usually express the results of poor discipline and control, personal carelessness and lack of con- sideration for the rights of others. The man who has sani- tary regard for others may be counted on to watch out for himself. A good soldier is a good soldier everywhere and at all times, and not on the drill ground alone. This is the field where it becomes the function of the Medical Department to enter with precept and advice, but it is the organization commander who must give force to such hygienic counsel and transmute its tenets into good health and spirits through proper behavior. Conversely, an army of high morale will respond to sound sanitary advice and avoid the lapses into indifference or carelessness which are characteristic of troops in whom discipline and spirits are low and which entail the inevitable consequences of dis- ease. Even an apparently minor and temporary cause of phys- ical depression reacts on mental state in the individual. 620 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Such a cause, for example, may be found in simple consti- pation, in which pessimism and bad temper may be an ex- pression of the toxic load which a clogged intestinal canal imposes, often with headache or malaise. Every mother knows that when a child is nervous, irritable and depressed or wayward, the simple household panacea of castor oil often promptly works wonders in altering state of mind and conduct. Some of the serious diseases often profoundly af- fecting disposition have already been mentioned. Often a physical ailment on the part, say, of either foreman or worker may be the cause of loss of equilibrium in their per- sonal relations. Experiments with children have scientifically demon- strated, for example, that hookworm infection affects men- tal development. This merely confirms the experience of officers who have had to do with the sluggish, apathetic recruits or workers from hookworm districts. Here effec- tive medical treatment must pave the way before mental improvement can be expected. Such a vast proportion of these recruits are so infected, sometimes as high as sixty per cent., that any dullard from hookworm regions should be sent to the medical officer with the suggestion of the possibility of his being the host of this parasite. Rest and sleep are great aids to morale. Spirits break under their deprivation. A tired army is far more liable to panic, while fear is more readily stimulated after exhaus- tion. Sleep not alone permits of physical renewal but acts as a safety valve for mental strain. Through it, body and mind readjust themselves after stress, recollections are blunted and emotions subside. War Psychoses and Neuroses. Besides physical health, mental normality has close relation to the morale of the individual, especially in war. The part that actual in- sanity must play in mental disturbance and resulting anti- social conduct is obvious, but it is only recently that en- tirely satisfactory measures have been taken to exclude from HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 621 our service men coming from this poorly developed class. These include psychopathic cases, men who have at one time been insane, and constitutional defectives. Such ex- clusion is important, for military requirements are such that individuals of unstable mentality are more apt to break down in the army than they would have under the far lesser stresses of civil life. Border-line individuals, with their morbid, overwhelming compulsions and impulsions, are also well recognized as hav- ing a mental equipment prone to delinquency. There are several types of border-line psychoses, the victims of which are morally responsible for their acts only in part. There is no definite wall of division between the normal and the abnormal, but nearly all border line cases will under suffi- cient stress demonstrate characteristics of abnormality. While company commanders cannot be psychiatrists, they can at least bring to the attention of medical officers any cases of marked eccentricity and peculiarity of thought and conduct. War psychoses have lately received much attention, but are not new or peculiar to the recent war. Accounts of the interludes of the Punic Wars give evidence of whole- sale insanity. After the Thirty Years War, it is said that nearly a fifth of the population left in Germany was tempo- rarily or permanently deranged. Much has been heard lately of the neurosis of war — popularly known as " shell-shock." They are usually con- sidered to come from an antecedent nervous instability or from strain or shock. The former class should and can be excluded from the service, while the latter causes can be minimized as to effect by appropriate measures for mental hardening. Under conditions of civilization, the instinct of fear is blocked, but as conditions are also created in which there is no great reason for fear to arise, little harm results. But war rouses the fear instinct based on self-preservation 622 MANAGEMENT OF MEN only to find its expression opposed by ethical standards of self-respect and conduct. This mental conflict tends to re- sult in war neuroses with functional incapacity as a result of clash between instinct and duty. In war it is necessary to repress emotion consequent to danger. In some this is accomplished with little or no conflict as a result of schooling in self-control. In others the mental conflict produced may have outward evidence in hysteria and unsoldierly conduct. In our service, neurotic cases of this sort have aggregated during the war about two per cent, of the total number under treatment overseas. The mental conflict begins as soon as the soldier enters the service. The instability of some is shown in the first few weeks at camp. Though physically fit, they manifest nervous weakness which makes them unfit as fighting mate- rial and they are weeded out. Others hold out until the time of embarkation, when their weakness manifests itself in one way or another. In some, their weakness does not develop until they come under artillery fire. But others, who do not actually break down, suffer from the strain. Few soldiers can go through a long period of fighting without being nervously affected by it. Unsus- pected and undeveloped weaknesses are detected. They become " sick of it." Sometimes the sense of duty is totally lost in the desire to get away from the war and its dangers and hardships; soldiers may even deliberately wound them- selves to make sure of getting back to a hospital. It is also a potent cause of malingering. In some instances there is an involuntary exaggeration of symptoms which creates a state of real self-deceit. In a later stage, cupidity, as ex- pressed in a desire to secure a pension or other governmental help, may enter as a factor to hold some cases under medi- cal care until a disability status is well established. Here a desire for self-interest through protection becomes a desire for self-interest through material gain. There would seem to be a close resemblance between HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 623 psychopathic individuals with criminal tendencies and the war hysterias manifested by " shell-shock " and malingering. That is, many patients with a war neurosis are morally deficient, and their presence in hospital for such neuroses is analogous to the presence in jails and reformatories of similar individuals as a result of petty crimes. Very likely many cases are consigned to the medical profession which really represent problems in psychology and criminology. It is interesting to note that war neuroses practically do not occur in certain regiments under certain line or medical officers, wise in their understanding of human nature, nor in the seriously wounded or sick, nor in prisoners of war, nor in all soldiers exposed to shell explosions. Further, they do occur in men who have not been in action or even overseas. In preventing such conditions among enlisted men, suit- able rests and changes in occupation are desirable. It is also important that they should be informed in advance of some of the difficulties and horrors awaiting them. This information should be given, not in a way to arouse appre- hension, but apparently incidentally and so as to familiarize them with possible conditions so that methods of meeting the latter may be explained. They should be accustomed in imagination to the experiences which may come later. When men appear discontented and discouraged, it has been found of advantage to have their officers talk things over with them and get at the cause of their mental stress, which may thus be allayed. Such personal relations diminish the weight of responsibility, while the assurances encourage independence and initiative along military lines, lessen suggestibility to the depressants of war, and by so much reduce liability to neuroses. This quality of suggest- ibility is naturally heightened in the private soldier as com- pared with the officer, due to more continuous and complete subjection to the commands of others. Self-repression is especially to be cultivated in the officer 624 MANAGEMENT OF MEN in controlling expression of emotion, so that the men may be set a good example in this respect and that those who show signs of giving way in an emergency may be encour- aged. In the midst of danger, the officer must appear calm and unconcerned. Hysterias seem particularly apt to affect the private soldier, while anxiety neuroses especially affect officers. Officers break under the strain of heavy responsi- bility rather than under the personal hazard that tends to produce the neurosis of the enlisted man. Accordingly, much may be accomplished by superiors by carefully watch- ing the junior officer and sending him away for any necessary rest, change of station or occupation. Malingering is obviously due to the state of mind. In it, the instinct of self-assertion and the sense of self-respect are over-ridden by other motives. Under such conditions, it is often difficult to find the appeal which will bring the man out of his mental state. The motives are highly varied, though, in the face of the enemy, fear probably pre- dominates. A volume might be written about them. How- ever, the best remedy is prevention — the removal of the motive by wise handling in advance of the act. If it occurs, the best procedure is to demonstrate to the malingerer and his associates the falsity of his pretensions, and change him from a possible object of sympathy to one of contempt. Suicide, or its attempt, is an act resulting from mental state. It sometimes stands at the border-line of criminal- ism as the culminating act of other criminalistic tendencies or deeds. At other times it correlates with various per- sonal peculiarities, mental diseases or external influences. Sometimes it results from the influence of alcohol or drugs. Obviously there are an infinite number of motives for the act, representing the extremes of resentment and despair over the blocking of certain instinctive tendencies and, for the time at least, dominating the mentality. During active operations, suicide is uncommon. The motives which operate for self-destruction are largely dis- HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 625 placed by other emotions relating to war and which press for attention. But after a campaign of war the rate rises as the individual finds himself suddenly confronted with per- sonal problems which had been in abeyance and to the solu- tion of which he feels unequal. The rate in peace has prob- ably been unduly high. Many of the impelling motives could have been removed by higher authority or dissipated by sympathy and friendly advice from superiors if the men- tal strain had been realized. The mere fact that nearly all suicides are accomplished while alone shows the value of the sympathy of others as an outlet for mental tension and diversion from thoughts of introspection, exaggeration and despair. Under such conditions, only slight influence is needed to tip the scales against self-destruction. Drug Addictions. The use of certain drugs, including alcohol, exerts a powerful influence upon mental state. Some drugs are directly stimulative and others are sedative. Some which stimulate when taken in small doses become sedative in large doses; alcohol, which at first may arouse both increased physical and mental activity, may, in large doses, produce physical helplessness and mental hebetude or coma. Much might be written concerning the influence of such drugs on mood and character. The continued use of many of them completely alters mental outlook, bringing depravity of all ethical standards of thought and conduct. Drug addicts who are unable to secure their accustomed stimulant will resort to any dishonorable expedient to satisfy their craving. In view of the relative ease with which drug habits are started, the tendency of habitues to share their vice, and the catering to them by an unscrupulous class for profit, officers should be constantly on the watch for any evidence of drug habit among the men. Of all drugs, alcohol is the most important in this respect because of its more general use. One effect of alcohol is that it tends to impair judgment and volition. Conse- 626 MANAGEMENT OF MEN quently it directly predisposes to lowered morale, disorder and delinquency by lowering the standards of behavior. There is a certain inferior class in which the influence of alcohol just turns the balance against their maintaining themselves as non-delinquents. As soon as they drink they begin to create trouble for others and themselves, though their acts may be devoid of ill-intent or even be purposeless. As shown in relation to the components of military delin- quency, the liquor problem has probably been the greatest single factor in producing disorder and lowered morale in troops. Fortunately it has been largely settled by the adop- tion of national prohibition, and it has become the part of all officers to take a firm stand in support of the forces of law and order. Morale work includes the prevention of undesirable habits, including that of drinking. The beginning of the drink habit depends on association and susceptibility to suggestion, for very few novices like the taste of liquor at the outset. The beginner swallows his first drink, not from enjoyment, but to be in mental accord with the social re- quirements of his group. Many a man of inferior person- ality " stands treat " in order to gratify his sense of self- assertion, since, while he occupies the position of host, he thereby buys the privilege of commanding respectful atten- tion. Sex Immorality. Sex immorality is one of the great factors affecting morale. That the diseases which result from it depress their victims not only physically but psycho- logically, and incapacitate them for service, is well known. That the absence from the ranks of men suffering from them is a factor for negative morale in their comrades, who must perform their duties, is obvious. That this factor of deple- tion and depression is great and constant is borne out and measured by the mathematics of the sick report. More- over, prostitution is an enemy to morale through the many HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 627 influences which low women exert to sap the self-respect and other high qualities of men associating with them. It is therefore the duty of every officer to encourage and assist the Medical Department, and the efforts of other agencies for social betterment, in every way, and particu- larly by the creation of a wholesome sentiment against those practices which inevitably bring disease in their wake. The official measures prescribed for combating venereal disease and immorality are so fully laid down in orders as to require no repetition here. Suffice it to say that all the agencies for promoting morale combine to furnish the best antidote for such sexual indulgence by affording con- genial outlet for thought and energy along wholesome chan- nels through other instincts. The mind and body kept fully engaged in' duties, athletics, recreation and education have small time, opportunity or inclination to consort with prostitutes. To this must be added the strengthening of the mental and moral fiber of the man himself.- If of sound moral character, he will endeavor to avoid or withdraw from an immoral environment. In building up character, he must be furnished with ideals to help overcome instinct. Youth is strongly idealistic, and young men often have a passion for the noble and beautiful. This offers a means of controlling the sex instinct by idealizing its object and inculcating the spirit of chivalry, courtesy and honor toward women. Quarantines. Quarantines are always profoundly de- pressant to thpse subjected to sanitary restriction, whether an individual or group. So many instinctive tendencies are checked as inevitably to engender profound discontents. Recruits are necessarily isolated by reason of the con- tagious diseases which they may be harboring and introduce. Similarly, men exposed to infectious diseases must be iso- lated during the incubation period of such infection. Such 628 MANAGEMENT OF MEN men are, for the time at least, in good health in so far as they themselves are concerned, and there is not only dis- content at the isolation and restrictions necessary, but fre- quently, among the ignorant, failure to be informed or inability to understand why this is required. For recruits, the environment of quarantine is strange and unfamiliar, while over all is the depressing influence of feeling them- selves under the shadow of a disease of undetermined sever- ity and danger. The other class held in general quarantine is composed of those who actually suffer from transmissible infections, usually those of a venereal nature. They realize that the irksome restraint imposed on them is largely for the pro- tection of others rather than for their own individual bene- fit, and so it is often regarded in the nature of punishment, deserved or not. In other diseases the period of conval- escence, after the actual sickness is over, is trying. Fortu- nately we know now that, except in special " carrier " cases, infectivity usually ceases when the disease itself is thrown off. The environment of a quarantine camp is usually less attractive and comfortable than other parts of the camp; further, the quarantined group exaggerates its grievances and resentment through the fact that its individual units constantly react on each other to develop and intensify such a state of mind. Hence acts of indiscipline and breaches of restraint are liable to occur. When quaran- tines have been prolonged as a result of successive crops of disease development, the mental tension is proportionately worse. Men who are in quarantine should be given special atten- tion in regard to amusement and instruction, so that their minds may be occupied. Here the results of morale work are immediate and positive. Full information as to the reasons for quarantine must go with provision of appro- priate occupation and suitable and sufficient recreation HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 629 Light drills, athletic sports and hikes for men who have not yet developed any active stage are often possible, for modern quarantine recognizes that in most infections the very slight physical separation necessary to avoid personal contact and the danger of infecting mediate agencies are all that is required. The selection of individuals capable of taking such exercise and the character and amount of the exer- cise to be allowed are medical problems. Hospital Morale. There is much more to running a hospital than in merely ensuring good professional treat- ment and physical care. Mental attitude is important, for the value of morale of patients in promoting recovery is well recognized. Cheerfulness and optimism are therapeu- tic agents of great value. Every physician knows this — just as he knows, that his bedside manner and special atti- tude toward the case are measures for raising or lowering morale. Sympathy enters, as when the mother kisses the hurt of the child to make it well. Sometimes inert medica- ments are prescribed solely for their morale value, while many a tossing patient has been given mental relief and physical rest by the hypodermatic injection of water under the belief that it was morphine. Christian Science capital- izes this by treating imaginary ills with an imaginary rem- edy. Deft, sym pathetic nur ses are a greal^niirre of help. Probably visits from the families and friends of patients affect their morale more than any other agent. It must not be forgotten that many persons have a morbid, even though illogical, dread of hospital life. In every military hospital, the physical surroundings of the sick are well equipped and comfortable. Its problems in morale are thus largely dependent on the manner in which its administrative methods are carried out. This has relation to the human factors of the medical officers, nurses, enlisted detachment, other patients and outside family or friends. All of these correlate in their effect upon morale. Morale problems in hospital largely fall under the following 630 MANAGEMENT OF MEN heads: 1. First impressions on entrance. 2. Attention and care during illness. 3. Interests during convalescence. 4. Mental attitude on discharge. Every consideration of the morale of patients in hospital must take into account the natural tendency of the patient to become critical and despondent with little to occupy his mind but his own troubles. Those in charge of hospital administration are naturally inclined to resent complaints and criticisms which are often so freely given and usually have little if any foundation in fact. But they should re- member that it is a natural tendency to the ailing to dispar- age surroundings rather than to appreciate that the fault may lie in an abnormal self. Often the sick man, whose system repels food, is unaware of this fact and blames his lack of appetite to an alleged unattractiveness of the diet as to selection, preparation or serving. Many patients are psycho-neurotics, prone to imagine fault or exaggerate defect. It is clear that such a situation calls for patience and forbearance. If the facts are not as alleged, little may be gained by a disciplinary action which may be the starting point for group sympathy and reaction. But care- ful study of the individual as being psychologically abnormal will often indicate measures which will alter his outlook, perspective and attitude. The chief purpose of hospital morale should be to keep the patient's mind off self and to direct his thoughts through cheerful channels. Interests outside himself and his per- sonal problems should be created and maintained. These interests should be carefully selected to meet the needs of the individual patient. Many of them are naturally of a recreational nature, in which the individual is the passive observer or beneficiary of the efforts of others. But as far as possible, the patient himself should have something which he himself can do, thereby creating interest through the constructive instinct. In some large hospitals, a letter of greeting is sent by the Commanding Officer to each patient HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 631 on admission. This displays interest, giving good advice and information and tends to allay misgiving, create cheer- fulness and promote cooperation. It is important that the sick be kept in proper touch with their families and friends outside. If they cannot write themselves, letters should be written for them. In serious cases, bulletins of conditions should be sent to the relatives by the hospital authorities. When convalescent, photo- graphs have been taken and sent home to show the state of recovery. Home folks are often kept in touch by send- ing bulletins on picture postals of the hospital, and by put- ting parents temporarily on the mailing list of the hospital publication, if there be one. Families deserve to know about the hospital facilities in which their relatives are treated. The Medical Department has nothing to hide here; the more publicity its well equipped establishments receive, the more it is to its advantage. Visitations by suitable representatives of women's organi- zations outside the post are desirable within proper limits. Such organizations and individuals can do much to lighten the lot of the sick and aid the recovery of convalescents. By the news of the outside which they bring, and by the rides and entertainments which they offer, they materially reduce the problems of ennui and discontent. Little per- sonal services are appreciated. Thus free mending and darning for patients have a morale value in addition to any material benefits involved. But such visitors should main- tain an attitude of helpfulness toward the hospital and its management and not one of unfair criticism. It is of much value to have hospital wards adopted by various organizations of local communities. The latter furnish music, entertainers, flowers and reading material and have a special interest in the welfare of their wards. They are also of use in allaying local criticism if charges reflecting on the management of the ward are unfounded. When convalescents are members of fraternal organizations 632 MANAGEMENT OF MEN the hospital authorities should, if desired, make the fact known to the local lodge. If there are church affiliations, the chaplain will see that the desired relations are promptly established. In military hqspitals, visitation of the patients by officers' wives and others should be encouraged. The patients should feel that their own associates in the garrison are even more interested in them than outsiders. In the past, the captain's wife might visit ailing members of her hus- band's company, but such action was purely individual. Something organized along general lines is desirable. If the women of the garrison would form themselves into an organization charged with the periodic visitation in hospital of all those needing cheering up, bring a few flowers, read- ing matter and simple gifts, it would do much to promote cheerfulness, optimism and contentment. Military hospi- tals are places in which a high order of medical and surgical skill are provided, but it is perhaps true that the nature of the military service is such that this tends to be rendered in a relatively impersonal way and that the element of human sympathy, which is so valuable and so much appre- ciated, is proportionately lacking. Some company commanders make it a practice to visit their men while sick in hospital. Most, unfortunately, do not, and completely fall out of touch with those who are sick enough to need hospital care. Sick men long remember and cherish the interest of their company commander in them in their hour of need, as will all of the men in the organization, for the latter will certainly hear of it and take it as a proof of what the captain would do for them under similar circumstances. The general problem of hospital entertainment should be approached systematically and comprehensively. As far as possible, what the men want should be furnished. In pur- suance of such a plan, the entire personnel of patients and attendants at one hospital was card-indexed as to .needs of HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 633 the individual and his abilities to contribute to entertain- ment or instruction. In other words, the positive qualities of the garrison were sought out with the specific purpose of using them to remedy or neutralize the negative qualities thus disclosed. The Red Cross assumes the responsibility for remedying outside needs which concern the home. Music has an almost therapeutic value with some patients. The use of the phonograph, under proper restrictions, is a convenient agency to this end. Phonograph record ex- changes will give great variety by rotating the use of records through different wards. Glee clubs, quartets, nurse choruses, and organizations for instrumental music can visit the wards. Band concerts should be a frequent event. Impersonations, monologues and vaudeville acts can often be carried out. One act plays have been success- fully produced in wards with portable burlap scenery painted by vocational classes. More ambitious entertainment can be staged in the hos- pital club-room, amusement center, or out of doors. If the plays and programs can be worked up by the patients, with the hospital personnel in the parts, it will create greater interest through self-activity and local application. Wheel- chair contests, with prizes donated by local institutions, have awakened much interest. Playing for the hospital cham- pionship in checkers, cards, chess and other games arouses interest and rivalry. The hospital should, if possible, have its baseball and' other athletic teams, not only for the physical value to participants, but for the interest of con- valescent spectators. The entertainment of bed-ridden patients is a special problem by itself due to the physical limitations imposed. A series of bedside games has been worked out at some hospitals. Any recreational equipment, games, supplies, musical instruments, writing materials, smokes, etc., for the patients can be obtained from the Red Cross. A well selected library should be in every hospital, with 634 MANAGEMENT OF MEN its books properly shelved, classified and catalogued. Further, since many patients cannot themselves come for books, the books should be taken to them by means of book- carts wheeled daily through the wards. The librarian should also visit each patient at least twice a week to ascer- tain what special books are wanted and perhaps suggest some in which individuals might be interested. Now that regiments are allocated to geographical districts for recruit- ing, it is possible and desirable to secure representative papers from the districts concerned for circulation among the patients. Local hospital papers are a great aid to morale. Where they do not exist, a special place in the camp or local civilian paper for hospital news is desirable. The news not only arouses interest and satisfies curiosity but opens an opportunity for the men to be encouraged in literary work and the writing up of personal doings and experiences. Ward papers have at times been carried on in mimeographed form. Patients who are physically able to exercise should be required to do so, under proper limitations, for its mental as well as physical value. If possible, it should be taken in some form as will make it pleasurable and not appear as duty. Croquet, golf putting and quoits are examples of mild exercise. Automobile rides, trips and visits to civilian families and points of interest should be encouraged for men physically able to participate in them. The judicious use of passes for this purpose is a great promoter of hos- pital morale. When men are in hospital for considerable periods of convalescence, they should be taught some light occupation, such as basket making, wood carving, etc., for the purpose of bringing the constructive instinct into play and diminishing monotony. As soon as patients are able to perform them, they should be given light tasks about the hospital, of a character not to be regarded as drudgery. Tactful presentation will usually result in the man putting HEALTH AND MENTAL STATE 635 himself in the position of volunteering for the opportunity. The care of the hospital flowers, vines and shrubs, for exam- ple, is a duty -congenial to most men. Morale of Attendants on the Sick. Psychological up- lift, encouragement and human sympathy cannot be evoked by official order — they must express a state of mind which springs from environment and are a part of general esprit. The patient in hospital will receive that degree of inter- ested attention and type of care which represents the morale of those caring for him. Physically, this is expressed in a thousand little things and methods, the sum total of which materially affects comfort and peace of mind. Patients are in a highly suggestible state of mind and react promptly and often in extreme degree to the mental atmosphere around them. In their own distress and doubt, they need to draw heavily upon the strength and confidence of those about them. If attendants are discouraged, de- pressed and dissatisfied, the sick in their care rapidly fall into the same mental state. Bed-ridden patients are con- fined to an environment from which there is no escape, hence the special importance of eliminating depressing fac- tors from its components. It is essential to hospital morale that the patient believes himself in good hands and that he is contented and confident under the condition to which he must resign himself. He must feel that those upon whom his very existence may depend are not only professionally competent but are per- sonally interested in his case and recovery. He looks espe- cially to the nurses to supply that quality of feminine sympa- thy which is so craved and appreciated. Some of the more popular nurses can often be made to act as ex-officio assist- ants of the Morale Officer. This helps to stimulate their own interest, while information secured by them and meas- ures taken with their assistance can be of great value. It is apparent that the morale of army nurses and attend- ants on the sick doubly needs attention, not only as personal 636 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and group problems, but for the close relation which it necessarily bears to the morale and welfare of patients. This is a matter too often overlooked, as it is natural for interest and sympathy to particularly center on the sick, with little reference to the indirect influences which react on the patients from those who have them in charge. For male attendants in hospitals, it must be borne in mind that the relatively housed existence required of them by their special technical duties is unnatural for sturdy young men and may become repugnant to many unless due outlet is afforded for the instincts thus checked. Outdoor sports, exercises and amusements should therefore be particularly promoted in their case, so that their thoughts when off duty may be turned into entirely new channels. Their recreation rooms should be entirely apart from facilities for the sick. As a result they bring back to their patients news of outside activities in which the latter are interested. The members of the Army Nurse Corps, like anyone else, need systematized exercise to maintain good physical condition. This is not afforded by routine duties and can- not be depended upon as a matter of individual choice! Suitable daily setting-up exercise and periodic walks, rides, tennis or other exercise should be required. With the female sex, entertainments and the social amenities of life count for much. Nurses with personal and socially attractive graces usually meet with no lack in such matters, but there may be others of sterling worth whose similar recreative needs should be given special consideration. Besides entertainments and recreation with- in the post, acquaintance in the near-by communities is use- ful. During the war, week-end invitations to private homes were found very valuable in relieving the mental strain of nurses after arduous duty. CHAPTER XVIII SOME FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Physical comfort in relation to morale; classification of environ- mental factors of morale; depressions of environment; military control of environment ; reaction of climate and weather on mental state; sunshine, temperature, humidity and morale; modifying administra- tive measures; housing conditions, warmth, ventilation and attractive- ness; sanitary cleanliness ; decoration and improvement; fatigue work; personal appearance in relation to morale; clothing; food and messing; administrative defects. Physical Environment. The physical comfort of men is essential to their peace- of mind. Comfort depends on degree of adaptation to environment. In their reaction upon mental state, physical and psychological environments cannot always be separated. Frequently the influences of the two overlap, but in the military service it is probably easier to differentiate them than in civil life. The subject is more fully discussed in connection with industrial morale. Necessary discomfort, if its inevitability is recognized, will be borne with little reaction, but discomfort believed to be unnecessary is a breeder of discontent and disorder. It is well to emphasize here that human nature is so constituted that even a minor experience, if painful, will provoke a pres- ent reaction and complaint even though the situation as a whole be preponderantly satisfactory. Environmental causes are really to be divided into two factors, the predisposing and the exciting. The former are like inflammable material to which the latter sets fire. If either of these factors is absent, no conflagration results. Bad physical environment is productive of bad conduct only through an intermediate mental state. It must first produce 637 638 MANAGEMENT OF MEN discontent, suggestions and bad habits of mind. Each camp and post thus has its own morale problem depending on the physical environment which it affords. The latter exerts an influence which is more or less stable. The troops which come and go are a variable factor. Any physical factor entering into environment has its effect upon morale. Any object may become such a factor, and the possible combinations of such objects approximate infinity. Their enumeration in any detail is thus impossible. Some of the major physical factors are discussed in this chapter and others are mentioned elsewhere. Morale tends to be low in organizations whose habita- tions and surroundings are unpleasant or uninviting and fur- nish constant depressants to the state- of mind. This is clearly seen in the relative undesirability in the public mind of houses near a cemetery or near dirty, disorderly or noisy places. In the devastated area in France, especially after the Armistice, it was reported that the physical environment under which the troops had to live was so depressing as to inevitably react on their mental state. In the army, the 1 physical environment of the soldier has been largely taken out of his control. Higher authority determines it for him, and acceptance is a necessity. The more reason, then, that higher authority should not fail in its implied obligations. The phrase, " You're in the army now," so often used to put the recruit in a state of mind acquiescent to conditions as he finds them, should not serve for purposes of evasion of responsibility, for duty not per- formed, and for failure to secure for the men, individually and collectively, the reasonable comforts to which they are entitled. The stations of the old army usually created a desirable and attractive physical environment, as a result of the cumu- lative expenditure of time, effort and money. In the new army, destined for some time to occupy structures erected to meet the temporary needs of the war, the reverse is true. FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 639 Such camps- and buildings are largely lacking in both comfort and sightliness. Their basic faults are not always remedi- able, but in most instances they can be made far more sightly and attractive with no great effort. It is true that military training tends to teach men how to adjust themselves to their environment, but it is equally true that attention paid to modifying such environment for the better will make the task of adjustment easier. There are certain general factors pertaining to the physi- cal environment which have a marked influence' on mental state and conduct, and the modification of which is beyond human power. Among these may be mentioned climate and weather, and, for troops on foreign service, there are special racial correlations. The continued heat of the tropics, and the daily downpour and great humidity of the rainy season, are intense menfal depressants to American troops. They produce both physical and mental inertia and curtail activity. They favor homesickness and inclination to break monotony by entering into dissipation and excess. At home stations, weather conditions influence mental attitude and the physi- cal response thereto. Prolonged confinement indoors al- ways creates nervous tension and irritation. Thus teachers in academies look especially for mischief among their boys during the irksome period when winter is about over but spring is not established. The bright, warm days of spring, bringing invitation to outside a-ctivity, come as a relief to inhabitants of cold countries. Thus the Armistice, with its abolition of the common purpose, came at a bad seasonal time for American troops. The long, cold, wet, dreary days of winter were at hand and the uncomfortable housing and depressing surroundings added to the mental gloom. Within reasonable limits, the amount of sunshine influ- ences mental state. The depressing psychological effect of the long night of the Arctic is well known. Similarly, the peoples of countries and districts having much rain, snow and fog tend to be gloomy, introspective and austere in 640 MANAGEMENT OF MEN their outlook, while inhabitants of countries and regions where there is much sunshine exhibit greater optimism, light-heartedness and sociability. That the diverse climates of Italy and Sweden, France and Russia have laid their impress on national characteristics can scarcely be doubted. The same is probably true of the north and south in this country. The difference in the degree of sunshine between Colorado and New England undoubtedly reacts on respec- tive mental state and the conduct depending on it. Per- sons going from the latter to the former experience a marked sensation of exhilaration and buoyancy. A climate of relatively little sunshine acts as a nervous sedative; while in the brilliant sunlight of the Rocky Mountain plateau the tendency is to overdo, and neurasthenia, due to over-stimula- tion, is relatively common. Differences in climate, in relation to efficiency, largely depend on temperature and humidity. In the white race, their rise beyond certain points interferes with comfort and efficient function by reason of racial inability to rapidly dissi- pate body heat. Colored races, on the contrary, have a skin proportionately more rich in sweat glands, and thus, by perspiring more freely, are able to throw off heat pro- duced by physical exertion. If temperature and humidity are too high, heat dissipation, through evaporation of perspiration, is interfered with and physical and mental distress are produced. It is accordingly of relatively lesser value to attempt to teach men in a close, humid atmosphere. For the same reason, drills on hot, muggy days are not as beneficial to training as those held in cool, dry weather. Under the first conditions, the men's thoughts tend to center on their own discomfort rather than on what they are doing, though avoidance of over-strenuous effort and permission for frequent rests are of material help under such conditions. Dry cold, unless it be excessive, is a stimulant to activity in persons native to the temperate zone. Clear, bright, crisp days exhilarate to action. Experiments on industrial FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 641 productivity in this country show that the maximum output is obtained when there are more or less marked changes in temperature, as in spring and fall, — such temperature changes operating to stimulate the white race. This ex- plains why opening barrack, windows several times a day during winter, requiring them to be kept open at night while the men are sleeping, and taking the men out for snappy exercise instead of letting them loll in hot, stuffy barracks, has - such a value in altering mental state and efficiency for the better. But while outside weather conditions cannot themselves be modified, conditions may be altered by which men may be able to better adapt themselves to such fixed environ- ment. Drill hours may be changed to avoid the heat of the day, and carefully planned exercises worked out suitable for periods of storm or sunshine. The unfavorable effect of weather may be largely neutralized by taking the men's minds off it through the introduction of special psychological factors embodied in work or recreation. If a strong inter- est or purpose be stimulated within the environment, the attention is withdrawn from its depressing factors and they correspondingly cease to influence. It is well known that calling attention to the heat of the day at once arouses the impression of great discomfort in the person addressed. It is of course apparent that troops long in the tropics, or those housed for the winter in inclement climates, should have special attention paid to the psychological problems which they may be expected to develop. Artificial weather conditions indoors are created by heat and ventilation. These are of course controllable. Poorly ventilated rooms are close and humid and may produce such uncomfortable physical environment that the men cannot concentrate their minds on learning nor carry out their tasks. Inattention at lectures, for instance, may not be so much the fault of the instructor as the result of closed windows. 642 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The housing conditions of barracks exert a strong effect on the mental attitude of their occupants. This effect is exerted not only directly upon each individual, but, since privacy is impossible, the close physical relationship implied brings all into communistic relations under which escape from the words or acts of others is impossible. The best that can be done under the latter conditions is to carefully select the men in groups, the various individual units of which will exert a beneficial psychological effect on each other rather than a depressant or antagonistic one. Lack of attention to this point may throw men together who are uncongenial or antagonistic or place men of weaker natures within the direct and constant influence of men of stronger personality but undesirable predilections. In either case, an antisocial combination is created which might just as readily be avoided. For its psychologic effect upon the soldier the environ- ment of his barracks should be inviting. The living quar- ters of the soldier are his home and should be cheerful and attractive. The same instincts which operate to make the home in civil life attractive come into play in the army. This does not mean heterogeneous ornamentation which serves no purpose other than to catch dust. It does mean scrupulous cleanliness, faultless neatness, order, sufficient sunlight, abundant fresh air with suitable warmth or cool- ness, and all that fresh paint, soap, water, personal thought and effort can give. Dark colored paints should be avoided. Like dismal, cloudy days, they produce a mental as well as a physical gloom. A refinement of the punishment inflicted in penal institutions is to paint in black the walls of the solitary confinement cells. Nothing darker than a light cream should be used to color walls and woodwork. In one instance, a company amusement room was painted with a high black wainscoting and walls above in a dark green " so as not to show the dirt." The men unconsciously avoided FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 643 such depressing surroundings. As soon as it was repainted in a light color, its popularity as a place of resort returned and the spirits of the men visibly improved. The great practical value of well equipped company and amusement rooms in maintaining morale and good conduct is discussed in another chapter. While the decorating of squad rooms and mess halls is usually undesirable, the company amusement room should present an entirely different appearance and should be orna- mented with well chosen decorations. These should be selected with a view to developing military spirit, ideals and the esprit de corps of the organization. As the local " hall of fame," it should contain trophies, flags, pennants, photo- graphs, posters and other matter helpful in the unconscious development of high standards of conduct. The decoration of barracks for special occasions, especially mess halls, is desirable. Flags, evergreens or palms, and other material for adornment are usually available, and in any organiza- tion of proper spirit the men will gladly give from their spare time for this purpose. The housing conditions of married officers and men are matters in which superiors should take direct concern. Cleanliness and neatness of the person, barracks and camp can scarcely be overestimated as a morale agent, though their importance is usually stressed as a measure of health preservation. A very accurate estimate of the disci- pline and esprit de corps of an organization may be gained from the appearance and efficiency of the policing of build- ings and their surroundings. The effect of outside condi- tions will be reflected on conditions within the habitations in making them more attractive. It also has its effect on per- sonal smartness and conduct, on the principle that every man tends to respond and live up to the standard of his environ- ment. The best decoration which any military premises can have is scrupulous order and spotless cleanliness, but after this 644 MANAGEMENT OF MEN is accomplished there is still something lacking to full attractiveness. A bare, bleak and forbidding exterior is undesirable and shows that the occupants have little com- munity of interest. Hence smoothing and improving the company street, putting in walks, planting and caring for trees, vine, shrubs, flowers and grass where desirable on the company premises should be encouraged as a morale factor of no small value. If properly encouraged by officers, there are always men to be found who will look upon the care of such vegetation as a pleasure and not as an additional burden. If put on a competitive basis, the organization will take a direct interest in it .and a large amount of volunteer effort will be bestowed by its members while off duty. The same thing applies to general post beautification, though -here it is quite possible to go too far and to an extent interfering with military purpose. Excessive general fatigue necessary to keep up some of the large park-like posts in our service is a productive source of discontent, thereby offsetting the element of pride which such beautifica- tion was intended to create. Many men enter the service with the idea that they will largely be free from manual labor. Too much of it will usually result in ill-will, grum- bling and lack of subordination. No more general improve- ment should therefore be attempted than there is reason to believe can be carried out without a too heavy demand for labor. The military tone of a command is infinitely more important than the physical appearance of its surroundings. But fatigue work which has a military bearing and purpose is 'not objected to, as it is then regarded in the light of military exercise. Similarly, when labor is performed with the obvious purpose of providing for the requirements of hygiene and sanitation essential to a well ordered camp, it will be performed with great cheerfulnes and alacrity. Company areas in post gardens or separate company gardens are valuable aids to morale, not only because of the greater physical contentment derived from the fresh FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 645 vegetables, but also from the personal interest and pride which all persons feel in the foodstuffs they have created. In many instances, the men gladly volunteer to help out with such gardens, as it gives them pleasant light occupa- tion for the long summer evenings. Personal appearance is one of the expressions of mental state. In civil life, clothing is a very usefulindex of per- sonal character. The selection of its articles, the way they are worn, their neatness and the degree of care expended upon them all indicate the kind of man the wearer may be. The same applies in the army except that uniformity requires a common garb and similar general methods of wearing. As the uniform renders the wearer conspicuous, it is important that the civilian observation to which he is subjected should result to his own credit and that of the service. In his relations the soldier should not only be prompt and courteous, but neat and smart. The military uniform should be a trade mark that guarantees the limit of excellence in these qualities. Personal appearance and good fitting and snappy looking uniforms are powerful factors, not only in expressing morale but in maintaining it and in influencing conduct. The child dressed up for a party finds an influence laid upon it for cleanliness and good behavior. With the " Sunday clothes" of the civilian go appropriate actions — public opinion expects something different in respect to standards of conduct and to these the individual unconsciously accedes. If inappropriately dressed, the child or adult may be morti- fied, resentful, shy or bashful and their whole conduct express these feelings. Within certain limits, " clothes make the man." They represent a bodily environment which not only serves for warmth and protection but has i<-s marked influence on mood, character and conduct. Another factor is the relative esteem in which the uniform is held by the civil population. If it be .high, the honor pertaining to it is shared by the wearer, who instinctively 646 MANAGEMENT OF MEN reacts in an effort to deserve well of public opinion. If it be" low, and regarded by the public as a badge of inferiority, the spirits and standards of conduct in the soldier are cor- respondingly lowered. In order to have a pride in the uniform, the uniform itself must be something in which the soldier can be proud. It must give him the sensation of being well, becomingly and smartly dressed. Much more attention has been given this matter in other armies than in our own, and comparison in this respect has been to the disadvantage of our own service. In the past, our uniform has not been cut with a proper understanding of the relative proportions of the soldiers it was intended to cover. The men resented this, and in a questionnaire replied to by nearly 1,400 men one soldier in every seven offered criticism on this point. The question of supply also enters into the uniform problem. No matter how well cut the clothing, if proper sizes are lacking the men cannot be fitted. This implies the necessity for maintaining a full stock of all sizes at stations, and such supervision as will ensure that this is accomplished. The third step necessary, after an adequate supply of well cut uniforms has been assured, is for company commanders to see that the men selected an actual fit. The use of renovated clothing, which is shabby, shrunken or ill-fitting, is very undesirable from the standpoint of morale. The men feel humiliated at wearing it, not only because of the poor appearance made, but in resentment at wearing the cast-off clothing of others, which no amount of cleaning can ever free from suspicion as the results of uncleanly habits or disease by former wearers. Spoiling good clothes by requiring the performance of uncleanly tasks in them or allowing too little time to prepare for drills and guard are not infrequently causes of complaint. Facilities for the sponging and pressing of uniforms in the company will do much to aid smartness and self-respect. Some camp commanders require one uniform to be freshly FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 647 pressed at all times. The washing of cotton uniforms at Government expense should materially aid in smartness. Lockers to keep the clothes in are indispensible. Many companies have had their carpenters construct shoe-trees on which the men can place their shoes to clean and shine them. Every man on pass whose appearance is not creditable should have his pass examined by any officer, his name taken together with that of the non-commissioned officer who inspected him before leaving camp and the facts in the case reported to the organization commander concerned. In connection with appearance, officers must remember the great psychological force of example. Officers set the standard for imitation. For the officer himself to be care- less in dress and act is to encourage slovenliness in his sub- ordinates. Personal cleanliness and neatness add to morale through self respect as well as to healthfulness. The British acted on this idea when they required their men in the trenches to shave daily — not that they were physically better able to fight for doing so but because they were psychologically benefited. The importance of the basic instinct of hunger in affecting mental state and conduct has already been briefly touched upon. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that good food, in sufficient quantity and variety, appetizingly pre- pared and well served, is indispensable to good morale. Wherever any of these factors do not exist, discontent will be present, for thoughts of food occupy a large place in the mind of the soldier. Conversely, a well fed company is usually a reasonably contented company. That there is wide diversity between organizations in these respects cannot be gainsaid. That not enough of them achieve satisfactory standards is equally true. As reinforcing common knowledge on this subject, it may be said that of 1,400 men discharged from a certain division 648 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and asked in a questionnaire to specify conditions which in their opinion needed improvement, seventeen per cent, com- plained of the preparation of their food, while nineteen per cent, wanted more diversity of diet. Clearly any such difficulties as nearly one man' in five specifically criticised are readily remediable by more careful attention and super- vision. This is not the place to go into the multifarious details of the subsistence of troops, but inasmuch as his diet is beyond the control of the soldier, it follows that the administration of the kitchen and mess demands unremitting vigilance, determination and ingenuity on the part of the company commander. In order to accomplish the full purpose of Army Regulations, he must have daily conferences with the first sergeant, mess sergeant and cook, and personally pass upon the menu for each meal, the distribution of sav- ings and the variations of diet desirable. He must be sure that the company receives all that it is entitled to, that the food is in good condition as procured and prepared, that there is no wastage and that service is satisfactory. Faults of cleanliness or service merely require attention in order to be corrected at once. Mess funds should not be allowed to accumulate beyond reason. After a comfortable sum has been saved to meet emergency, the rest should be spent on the men who have contributed to its accumulation. If this is not done, the men know it, and discontent at being econ- omized upon for the sake of others in the future is inevit- able. Waste or dishonesty in respect to the mess results in the men faring poorly, for the ration leaves no surplus to be absorbed in this respect. When this occurs, dissatisfac- tion and complaint are sure to be present. Young soldiers have healthy appetites and are prone to eat outside the barracks, not only for quantity but for variety. But when this is done to abnormal extent, the character of the mess should fall under suspicion. During the war, one camp had its post exchanges and hostess house FACTORS OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 649 inspected frequently at breakfast time and note taken of the organizations from which the men eating there had come, on the principle that while there may be many reasons for men eating away from their companies at dinner or supper, it is probable that the food is poor if they do so at breakfast. There are many possible defects of administrative method which are unnecessarily irksome to the soldier and operate to reduce morale and impair confidence not only in the interest but in the efficiency of the commander. In industry, there are diverse difficulties and frictions which are unneces- sary, and their importance in effect upon the worker only needs to be realized to cause their abatement. Unneces- sary delays, mechanical difficulties in securing an obviously desirable result and which might be obviated, taking from the soldier his time for rest or that required to prepare for retreat or other calls, making the men stand in sun or rain unnecessarily* — these and a thousand other vexations due to ignorance, indifference or want of discrimination, operate as depressant factors, the aggregate effect of which may be very great. The seasoned soldier may bear with them with a certain degree of equanimity and resignation, but with recruits such small things breed dissatisfaction, may create disgust, and operate to impair enthusiasm. No little thing which is adding to the discomfort of his men is beneath the attention of the officer. The sum total of many little things may be great. If he sees that even minor things are remedied when possible, he will find that his men will accept with fortitude and patience the great deprivations, suffering and sacrifices that are recognized as inevitable in war. CHAPTER XIX REWARD, PUNISHMENT AND DELINQUENCY The incentive of reward; efficiency through pride, loyalty and am- bition; the bestowal of credit and commendation; the great value of intangible rewards; approval and disapproval; the expression of ap- preciation; letters of commendation; honors; promotion. Punish- ment; control through fear; tendency to over-rate control through fear; punishment the early recourse of poor commanders; morale purpose to avert punishment by preventing occurrence of the fault; considerations of punishment; the quality of intent; purpose of pun- ishment; character of punishment; disciplinary procedures ; inflexibil- ity of penological standards ; imposition of punishment ; inequalities of punishment; the deterrent action of punishment; methods in imposing penalty; reliance on courts-martial. The guard-house ; restriction of ks use; certain dangers in its use; an agency of last resort; young offenders and guard-house sentences. Delinquency; classification of delinquents; discontents and delinquencies; influence of war on delinquency ; the recidivist or repeated offender; unsound mentality and crime; levels of intelligence and military offense; environment as a cause of delinquency ; military offenses as differentiated from crimes of moral turpitude; classification of crimes and offenses; rela- tive proportion of criminality in the army and civil life; analysis of court-martial proceedings ; measures to prevent delinquency. Deser- tion; its relation to morale; magnitude of the problem; necessity for its scientific study; problem one of relative attractions; causes and motives of desertion; measures for preventing desertion. Absence without leave; its effect on efficiency; its relation to desertion; causes of absence without leave; measures for its control; civilian ignorance of gravity of offense; responsibility of superiors. Offenses against constituted authority. Offenses by sentinels and guards. Miscel- laneous military offenses. Offenses with violence involved. Offenses of dishonesty. Offenses against decency. Miscellaneous civil of- fenses. Reward. Morale work Is based largely upon the fact that most men will give their best efforts if their endeavors flow from desire rather than compulsion — also that they 650 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 651 will behave if it is borne in upon them that it pays them to behave and that good conduct is a matter of self-interest. This implies the discarding as far as possible of the motives springing from compulsion, fear and punishment, and the substitution therefor of such factors as cooperation, pro- fessional pride, loyalty, initiative and ambition. By the latter incentives the American can through self-assertion, rivalry, acquisitiveness, and other instincts, be readily led where he could not be compelled through fear. But in order to evoke these desirable qualities to full advantage, it is necessary for the men to feel that their work is noted and appreciated by higher authority. The consciousness of duty well performed, as its only reward, fully satisfies but few. It is not easy for men to continue in a cheerful, cooperative and ambitious state of mind if their hard labor and sacrifice seemingly go without due material or spiritual return. Credit for accomplishment stimulates that, which, in civil life, is known as pride of workmanship, while it incites, as well, to further effort. Such a course also serves to encourage suggestions and new ideas on the part of the men. In any organization, many valuable ideas originate below, though only those at the top may have the power to get them applied. Original ideas are property. If they are parted with for the benefit of others, it is only just that an effort be made to give some return for value received. To take an idea over without thanks or credit on the part of a superior may wither ambi- tion and loyalty. In the military service the reward of money,' which chiefly stimulates to excellence in civil life, cannot be offered. But reward can be given in honor, reputation and esteem of comrades as well as superiors and subordinates. Such reward is often in the power of superiors to bestow and, after all, it is the intangible rewards which money cannot buy that count for the most. The simple laurel wreath given the victor was, the greatest reward in ancient Greece, 652 MANAGEMENT OF MEN not for its intrinsic value, but for what it signified in public esteem. Approval and disapproval, as expressed in public opinion, are master controls of conduct. Without praise and blame, the individual would merely tend to avoid acts which bring punishment. Human beings have an innate tend- ency to seek and prize the esteem of associates. Desire for approval and aversion to disapproval fur- nish the motive for adherence to styles and fash- ions. They modify manners and customs — as where " tipping," bred of ostentation, is yielded to by those who cannot afford it and strongly resent it, rather than incur the possible criticism of a few menials and onlookers. . They are at the basis of seeking for social success, irrespective of any personal satisfaction of physical needs. They are a powerful cause of action for the welfare of others; the millionaire donor to a charity and the private doing some- thing more than duty for his company or captain are not uninfluenced by this motive. The strength of desire for public esteem and dislike of disapproval extends even to posthumous fame. A good reputation is a legacy to hand down to posterity. Approval may be manifested by words, acts, behavior, admission to companionship, and the like. This intangible reward is powerful in promoting wholesome rivalry. It may be made tangible for the military service in the form of orders, notices, honors, titles, badges, graphic charts, banners, privileges or any simple device which facilitates or establishes military or social status. Where tangible re- wards are given for military excellence, they should be given distinctive military character and appropriateness. Thus, at one camp during demobilization, a bronze medal was given to every soldier of the regiment making the best show- ing in a tournament, to take back with him into civil life as a souvenir. Commendation is a valued regard which is always at the REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 653 disposal of superiors to bestow. The value of appreciation comes in knowledge of its existence through an expression of approval. The return is prompt and far reaching. Prob- ably the two words in the English language which serve greatest to promote initiative, loyalty and efficiency are " thank you." The value of commendation depends not only on its source but the extent of its publicity. Citations and medals awarded for especially meritorious service em- body such publicity. Its value also depends on promptness of award, lest delay give rise to the idea that merit has been overlooked. When possible, commendation should be so given as not only to convey appreciation of an act as per- sonal, but as one which adds to the credit of the organiza- tion to which the recipient belongs. In every case which warrants it, superiors should write letters of commendation to officers and men whose per- formance of duty has been exceptional. Not only are such letters highly prized by those who receive them, but they stimulate both the recipients and their friends to better effort and give all a sense of watchfulness and appreciation on the part of those over them. Such letters should be personal and relate to individual service. To give them out in set form belittles the value of the service rendered and largely impairs their value. At the end of the war, the morale organization took measures to stop the issuing at a number of camps of letters of commendation in multi- graphed form to officers being discharged from the service. While praise for meritorious acts is a recognition of service and a valuable stimulus for further endeavor, it should not be extravagant but should bear a proper relation to merit. Those who overpraise are usually so superficial in their examination of the work as not to know how really good it may be. Like commendation, it is within the power of commanders to give passes and special privileges as out- ward recognition of appreciation of good service or special excellence. 654 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Sufficient opportunities for reward by promotion for both officers and men constitute an important, factor in the fur- therance of morale. Except in time of war, this is practi- cally denied to officers. The profound discontent and resentment at the temporary stoppage of promotion among officers overseas after the Armistice is well known. But for enlisted men, there is always the possibility of promo- tion for work well done and manifestation of ability. One of the great incentives of his soldiers was Napoleon's state- ment that " every soldier carries a Marshal's baton in his knapsack." The men, as recruits, should be given clearly to under- stand that each of them is a potential non-commissioned or commissioned officer, and that such promotion only awaits demonstration of fitness. If no vacancies for promotion exist in the company, worthy men should be allowed to transfer out. The loss of a few extra good men in this way is more than compensated for by the greater effort of the many who are stimulated to higher efficiency as the result of encouragement and opportunity. It should be under- stood that promotions are based on efficiency and that, where other things are fairly equal, they will go first to those who think less of self than of their associates and organization. The material reward of promotion usually acts as a spur to further endeavor. But there are cases in which it oper- ates as a narcotic to those of limited ambition. The latter have no place in the service. Reward by commendation has no such possible drawbacks and serves constantly as an incentive to further endeavor. In civil industry, ability to reward — and not alone by money — is one of the greatest forces for efficiency. Punishment. In punishment, the negative instinct of fear is stimulated. It relates to physical expressions only, for there can be no punishment for mental opposition so long as there exists conformance to requirements in act. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 655 Thoughts are refractory toward force. In its operation, punishment arouses a feeling of fear toward and retraction from an unsocial or disorderly act. Future disagreeable consequences are made to weigh more than earlier pleasure. Temptation loses some of its urgency. All this implies that the individual must thoroughly understand what may be done and what is forbidden, if there is to be reaction against the latter. The better ideas, in respect to punishment, tend toward the theory of " natural punishments " advanced by Herbert Spencer. That is, that the individual will so react to environment that he will acquire acts that are right and valuable and avoid those which are wrong. This is cor- rect as far as it goes, but, in its simpler form, is the wasteful and often painful process of " trial by error," known as experience. Morale work goes further and creates an arti- ficial environment of the character and quality required to affect behavior as a result of a clear understanding of the problem to be solved. Thus there naturally follows the obligation on the part of officers to establish and foster such conditions in their organizations as will operate for right conduct and not for promoting misbehavior. The use of the fear instinct and dislike for the unpleasant and disagreeable as agencies for control is, within proper limits, wholly rational for children, since they have neither social standards, powers of reasoning nor experience to guide them in their conduct. The same applies to a certain small class of adults of poor mentality and sense of responsi- bility. But with the average soldier the case is different, and the influencing of behavior through fear is less successful than through incentives of the positive and pleasant. In an army, organized as it is as the direct exponent of force, the tendency is to over-rate the value of force and punishment in producing desired results. Men who are driven to do a thing, or compelled not to do it,' rarely give such complete results as would follow a wise choice and a 656 MANAGEMENT OF MEN desire to give loyal service to an able leader in a just cause. Punishment is the instinctive recourse in correction of fault which is resorted to by commanders of little experience or poor understanding of men. In some instances, the infliction of punishment has been due to misunderstanding or mismanagement on the part of higher authority and be- cause the relations between psychological cause and physical act were not clearly realized. One reason for punishment is that it is not always easy to find naturally or instinctively pleasant objects with which to associate necessary activities, themselves unpleasant. Attempts to rule by punishment after a fault has occurred avoid the higher purposes of preventing the fault before it developed. Relatively few men are incorrigible, and admonition, advice and character development will often do away with any need for the infliction of punishment later. The use of fear should be reserved as a last resort and not be lightly invoked. Positive plans for keeping up the good spirits of organizations, intelligently conceived and well carried out, accomplish far more for efficiency and good conduct than the irregular effects of punishment. While courts-martial and other disciplinary agencies deal with the final penological results of wrongful act, the purpose of morale work is to the end that many of these acts shall never be committed and trial and punishment therefore not occur. The handling of military offenses is a double problem. First, — is the soldier guilty; second, — if so, what shall be done with him? There is far less liability to error in the first function, for it is merely a matter of the weighing of evidence ; while the second implies a broad understanding of men, human psychology and military environment. After the award of the punishment, the man should be watched while serving it out and such influences as may be practicable in bringing about the state of contrition and purpose of reform be brought to bear. Whenever this seems to have REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 657 been accomplished, the effect of the punishment, so far as its subject is concerned, has been achieved, and remission, parole or reinstatement would stimulate to good behavior. It is often as important to understand when to exercise such clemency as when to impose punishment. Intent has a profound relation to degree of punishment. It may.happen that military requirements are violated with- out intent of their contravention. Intention is a wish or desire to perform a certain act and accept such consequences as normally flow from it. Officers should study, accord- ingly, not only the circumstances of the offense, but the per- sonality of the offender. Stupidity implies mental deficiency and want of understanding, which are not within the power of the individual to control. Ignorance of the law or of military orders is not ordinarily accepted as a valid excuse for failure to conform to their requirements. Yet the re-' quired reading of the Articles of War to recruits and to troops, under conditions or in a manner interfering wath their understanding, or to men of sluggish mentality, illit- eracy or lacking in competent knowledge of the English lan- guage, may not fully remove such ignorance. In these cases, ignorance should at least be considered as an extenuation, though it needs be honest and innocent and not the result of carelessness or fault. It follows that obligation rests upon all officers that all basic military requirements as to conduct are not only read to the men but so explained that they have a thoroughly clear understanding of the standards to which they are required to conform. Common knowledge and court-martial records demonstrate that this has not always been done. The purpose of punishment is not one of remedy, for the antisocial act has been committed and probably cannot be remedied. It is not revenge, for such motive has no place in any scheme of justice. The purpose is not so much to hurt or degrade the man as to reform him. Its object is to 658 MANAGEMENT OF MEN protect society from a repetition of the offense, either by the offender or others, and further to function in molding character. Obviously it is the part of wisdom and justice not to in- flict punishment of greater severity than will serve the afore- mentioned purposes. If the commander understands his men, he will know when a simple reproof may serve all the purposes, of a court-martial in the modification of future conduct. If he goes further than necessary for the attain- ing of the proper object, he is allowing the factors of re- sentment or revenge to enter and his hold on his subordi- nates is weakened through the recognition of this fact. Excessive severity by superiors may, instead of acting as a repressant, directly arouse such reaction of resentment as to express itself in antagonistic conduct. This may, and usually does, express itself in passive opposition represented by an inertia of a degree just short of punishable. In the young, unformed recruit, too severe punishment, particularly if it be associated with the stigma of confinement, may de- stroy hope, blast reform and turn the individual into a reckless offender. The general policy in the handling of men should be one of suggestion, helpfulness and encouragement. If a man commits a fault, the first thought should not necessarily be one of punishment. Some men require punishment, but others do best if made to see their error and then allowed to take a fresh start. How to decide on the proper action in such cases is purely a matter of personality and character. It is easier and better to take some pains to instruct and get the confidence of a backward and suspicious man than to be punishing him later and trying to counteract his influence in the company. In the maintenance of discipline, there are two modes of action. One is to treat all men alike under all conditions. This is the essence of impartiality. The other is the ac- curate treatment of men according to their separate individ- REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 659 ualities. This, to the outsider, may seem unjust, but it will be far more effective so far as the offender himself is con- cerned. The mechanics of discipline — justice, punishment and reward — are simple. But the problem of discipline is largely a psychological one, including the factor of the officer's personality, the factor of the offender's personality and the factor of the offense. Military justice must be equitable. This does not mean an inflexible system under which the same offense should be punished alike in all offenders. Motives and circumstances should be given due consideration in the action taken. The recruit, whose first offense was perhaps the emotional result of ignorance, youth and lack of previous discipline at home more than of calculated intent, should not be treated like the repeated and perhaps incorrigible offender. But while inflexible standards of punishment should be avoided, it should be done in such a way as to arouse no idea either of partiality or discrimination. Here is one of the greatest practical tests of efficiency in the handling of men. Leniency, reprimand, -mild punishment and severe penalty may all be used for the same dereliction in such way that both the offender and his co'mrades recognize their abso- lute justice. Where leniency is practised, steps should be taken to let the men appreciate the reasons behind it. Some offenses have, by their frequency, acquired a stand- ardized penalty, as set forth in the Manual of Courts- Martial. Offenders who should know better and in whose cases there are no extenuating circumstances are usually best handled on an impersonal basis. The man transgresses, pays the well known penalty, receives no sympathy in his company therefor, and usually expects none. There are obvious inequities in any legal procedure, how- ever, which imposes sentences merely according to the degree of the accomplished offense. Of this, the safeguards which the law attempts to throw about property rights are an example. Thqs a man who is convicted of stealing five dol- 660 MANAGEMENT OF MEN lars would very likely have stolen five hundred dollars if that sum had been within reach at the time of the theft. Not motive, but physical limitation of opportunity here governs the legal magnitude of the offense if the risk of de- tection and consequences remained the same. However, there are occasional cases in which only enough is stolen to meet a single immediate and pressing need which, in the mind of the offender, overrides all other considerations. Punishment, like reward, if merited, should be imposed promptly. It is important, for the sake of its effect on others, that retribution should be closely associated in the public mind with the offense which it follows. There should be no appearance of the offense having been overlooked, since repetition tends to be encouraged as long as punitive consequences are not apparent. As for the offender him- self, it is his right to be spared any unnecessary mental un- certainty and anxiety, since psychological depression of this sort is in itself a form of punishment, and has often been used by despotic forms- of government to aggravate the effect of physical penological measures. It is best to have the matter brought promptly to a head, get the punishment over with, and enable the soldier to start again with a clean slate so far as his future is concerned. For the same rea- son, it is probably better to have the punishment short and relatively severe than comparatively mild and long drawn out. It is sometimes useful, in awarding punishment imply- ing fatigue work, to give it in the form of a task to be well accomplished rather than fixed hours of work. This calls constructiveness into play, allows the man such spare time as his efforts secure him, speeds up results and improves mental state. Much has been said about the inequality of punishment imposed for the same offense in the military service. This is true and an effort is made here to show that there are sound reasons for it. The same condition exists in civil communities in which such critics of the army are included — REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 66 1 judges and juries do not punish alike and different penalties are prescribed .by law for the same offense in different states. Civil law is in far worse state than military law, which at least has a single code for its government. But the general tendency of courts-martial is to over- punish — that is, to give a greater penalty than is necessary either to reform the offender or to act as sufficient deterrent to his associates. This is especially the case in war, when courts-martial composed of inexperienced officers tend to extreme severity in the effort to strike fear into offenders. This excessive severity is shown by the special clemency board of the Judge Advocate General's Department, which in passing upon 6040 cases in confinement, awarded clemency in eighty-five per cent, and denied it in but fifteen per cent. Of the sentences reduced, the average of seven years and three months was reduced to one year and eleven months. The board completely remitted the unexecuted sentences of confinement in 1794, or nearly one-third of the number com- mitted, authorized the application for restoration to duty of 386, and recommended the discharge, without designa- tion as to honorable or dishonorable, of 495. The efficiency of punishment as a deterrent varies with the psychological reaction toward it. Sympathy with the offender, or self-sympathy on his part, endows him with some of the qualities of a martyr and the effect of the pun- ishment may be impaired or lost. Accordingly, it is im- portant that all should understand that a wrong has been done and that the penalty imposed is fair and merited. The deterrent in such cases is not so much the unpleasant experiences pertaining to punishment as the desire, enter- tained by nearly all, to do what public opinion considers right. Where punishment is offered as the only deterrent of offense, the offender may assume a sporting attitude toward discipline which, in turn, may be conceived by the men to be the attitude of discipline toward them. A game of pen- 662 MANAGEMENT OF MEN alties is played — a gambling chance is taken on the avoid- ing of specified results. In such instances, morale work is of great value in making discreditable the matching of wits for such purpose. A display of temper in connection with imposing punish- ment is always regrettable. It arouses the resentment of the offender and lowers his respect for his officer. A calm, dispassionate attitude must be held, no matter what the provocation. The force of the punishment is increased if the officer, while awarding it, expresses frank regret at its necessity and a hope and expectation that the necessity will not occur again, both for the sake of the offender and the standards of the organization; also that once he has served out the penalty in the proper spirit the slate is clean and it is his own fault if it does not remain so. If an individual is given the idea that he has completely forfeited his future, discouragement and impairment of effort result. In connection with punishments, it is sometimes advisable to bring up tactfully to the men certain instances of the punishment of their comrades, the offenses, the penalties awarded and the reasons therefor. The value of punishing offenders to protect the interests of their comrades should be fully emphasized. It may sometimes be of advantage, instead of reprimand- ing for relative inefficiency, to bring the individual concerned into competition with another of high efficiency in the sub- jects or matters in which he is below standard. This will let the individual demonstrate his own failings to himself and rouse him to greater effort through appeal to his self- respect. If the offender is intellectually deficient, the corrective or protective measures necessary must be adapted to his own defect. Severe punishment, solitary confinement, hard labor, moral suasion or educational effort will none of them avail to change mental status and irresponsibility in the organically defective. Nor can they change the moral qual- REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 663 ity of his act except in so far as they limit opportunity. It has already been stated that man, through the instincts of sympathy and self-assertion, has a craving for expressed admiration or objective evidences of it. On this depends the reward found in commendation. Conversely, objective criticism, reproof, scorn or ridicule are painful or intoler- able. Under their influence, persons frequently react by antisocial acts of violence against others, or even by their own suicide. Reproof is thus a powerful agent for the con- trol of conduct, varying in force and effect not only with the esteem in which the source is held but with the tempera- ment and character of the recipient. Words may have the painful effect of any other punishment and drive to action more than physical force. In many cases, a stinging reproof is a most effective and sufficient punishment. Reproof, then, •should be reserved as a disciplinary force ; and trifling fault, while invariably to be pointed out, should not habitually be made the subject of captious criticism. Courts-martial are the highest agencies for military jus- tice. No case should be sent before them unless there is conviction that the interests of justice and correction cannot otherwise be served. They should be reserved for the ex- ceptional cases. This is particularly the case with first of- fenders, in whom the possession of a clear, untarnished record is of high morale value and a great aid to the com- mander. But when a court-martial is necessary, the issue should be squarely met. Any weakness of commanders in the desire to avoid an unpleasant duty will weaken the dis- cipline and control. The excessive invoking of the aid of courts-martial in maintaining discipline is the refuge of the weak officer and poor administrator, who thereby admits incapacity to handle the internal affairs of his own organization. When courts- martial in a company are exceptionally common, it is fair to inquire if the commander himself is not largely at fault in his methods and success of control. If a company has an 664 MANAGEMENT OF MEN undue proportion of men in the guard house, an inference may suggest itself that some of them would rather be there than serving in the company. In civil industry punishment for behavior usually takes the form of discharge from the job. But such discharge hurts the industry itself if it thereby loses the services of a trained worker. If such dis- charges are high, it might be well to investigate conditions to see if factors are present which — aside from individual benefits — it might be more economical to remove rather than allow their continuance as agents for labor turnover. The Guard House. The guard house and all that goes with it in the way of restriction, discomfort and deprivation, through the blocking of various instincts, represents an en- vironment which is deliberately created for corrective pur- poses. In a general way, it should represent sharp, short and disagreeable punishment. It is unquestionably a neces- sary agency for the handling of certain offenders, but it should not be forgotten that its function should be cor- rective more than penological. The real purpose of justice is to diminish delinquency. The processes of military law, such as guard house sentences, are not necessarily deterrents to the future commission of acts of military disorder by the present offender. If they were, there would not be the too common example of the soldier who repeatedly appears for trial for a succession of similar offenses. Stronger than any repressive physical force is the positive moral force of public opinion and in- dividual influence. A certain proportion of guard house prisoners are there because they are innately deficient in appreciation of moral standards or in mental qualities. Some are men who have proved refractory to measures of justice and kindness. Yet it is equally true that it frequently contains individuals who are there because they instinctively responded, by acts con- trary to good order, to factors of negative morale beyond their own control, but for the existence of which their su- REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 665 periors were responsible and which it was humanly possible to have prevented or corrected. This statement is borne out by the fact of the well known wide variation in the relative number of military offenders in confinement from otherwise identical organizations, re- cruited from the same service, fed and clad from a common stock and perhaps living under the same roof of a double barracks under identical physical environments. It is borne out further by the fact that some officers are followed through their military career by a train of discontent, deser- tions and crowded guard houses, while with other officers the reverse is habitually true. In other words, the need and use of guard houses vary with the quality of leadership of commanders, and the guard house roster is an excellent mirror of the character and quality of such leadership. The guard house represents an agency of last resort, the use of which should be minimized as far as the limits of discipline will permit. It is too often the ready recourse of poor commanders. Many of its cases might better have been handled by company discipline in the interest both of the individual and the service. Particularly is it true that the officer who puts a young soldier in the guard house for the first time has taken a serious responsibility upon himself. It should not be done unless the offense be grave, or other corrective measures have been tried and failed. It inevi- tably brings a feeling of discouragement - and degradation to- gether with loss of pride arid self-respect which may result in turning a man into a reckless offender, when wiser han- dling might have converted him into a good soldier. When self-respect is lost there is little left to build upon. Moreover, the mixing of offenders in guard houses is bad for future discipline and conduct. Here the immature recruit, who has committed some military offense without moral turpitude, already humiliated and depressed, and whose character is perhaps not sufficiently formed to resist strong impulse and to exercise self-control, may be brought 666 MANAGEMENT OF MEN into close and prolonged contact with men who are vicious, depraved and hardened criminals. The evil influence of the latter may more than offset any effect for good to be derived from the punishment. "One purpose of incarceration of criminals is to remove or limit their evil influence on society; and it is scarcely logical to expose weak individuals to such evil influences under intensive conditions that make increased response to these influences practically inevitable. The need for the separation of the novice in crime from the hardened offender is recognized in civil life in the re- formatories for youths and the separation of lesser offend- ers from the confirmed criminals. This is even more neces- sary in the army, where military justice takes cognizance not only of criminals but transgressors against a military code built upon the special requirements of a military cosmos. Penal institutions may readily become schools for criminals instead of corrective agencies, while outlet for interests and emotions may develop along undesirable lines in the natural trend to offset the rigid repression brought about by the law. Evil thoughts find fertile soil and ideals deteriorate. under such conditions. Unnatural sex practices and drug addic- tions are the bane of large institutions. Not a few orig- inally casual offenders graduate as confirmed enemies of so- ciety and moral derelicts. On a lesser scale, the guard house harbors these and other possibilities. They should be guarded against as much as possible by keeping the slight offenders separate from the more serious cases and especially from those who have committed acts of depravity. The rules of the guard house should be strict and en- forced to the letter. On the other hand, the parole should be freely offered as a reward for good behavior, so that in minor cases the man himself may have it in his power to modify his own discomforts and restrictions. The guard house should be devoid of all but the bare necessities, but these should be scrupulously neat and sanitary. The nature of environment operates to produce like states of mind. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 667 Dirty, vermin infested bedding and slack police do not con- duce to personal cleanliness or higher ideals of 'thought. A small amount of suitable reading matter should be available. Light fiction and trashy magazines which merely serve to pass time should be eliminated, but a carefully selected set of standard books, calculated to improve the prisoner's mind and attitude toward society, would be of value. Suitable appeals should be made to the manliness and personal interests of the offenders, along the lines of the spirit of the service, playing the game according to the rules, the foolishness of getting into the guard house, good citizenship and other practical matters. These might well be given systematically to prisoners and preferably in the evening when all would be in attendance. With men in the state of mind of the average prisoner, it is obvious that not only what is said but the manner of saying it and the spirit behind it all will determine success or failure. Above all, the spirit should emphasize the idea that though " a man may be down, he is never out," and that punishment is chiefly to sting the offender into a better sense of obligation to himself and society in general. When a man reports back for duty on discharge from the guard house, he should stop at the company command- er's office before rejoining his squad, to be perhaps more or less a subject of its ridicule and sarcasm. If the company commander uses this psychological moment to express ap- preciation that the punishment is over, state that the man will start clean and be given an even chance, that the lesson has probably done him good and that now all expect more from him, it should be of much morale value. Delinquency. Delinquency implies not only the com- mission of offense but also fault or dereliction, as where there is neglect, failure or omission of duty. The subject is one so vitally important to military administration that much more might be said about it than there is space for 668 MANAGEMENT OF MEN here. All officers have to face delinquency as a practical problem, though those of wiser administrative capacity need to do so in proportionately less degree as they prevent de- linquent states from arising. Many confirmed delinquents are men of criminal or anti- social tendencies, whose inherent instinctive propensities, im- pulses and reactions are more or less vicious or refractory. Such men are apt to present permanent disciplinary prob- lems as long as they remain in the service because of this fundamental psychological make-up. They furnish much more than their share of serious offenses in proportion to their own numbers, and especially is this the case in respect to crimes of moral turpitude. There is another class of delinquents in which a weak character renders them easily swayed to fault by harmful associations. They are the tools of stronger personalities. They have but poor concepts of right and wrong and are weak in a sense of responsibility or appreciation of con- sequence. If placed in an environment for good, they be- come worthy soldiers. A third class is composed of men whose normal tendency is to do right, but who may be highly emotional and thereby react antisocially to occasional severe strain. They rarely commit crimes of moral turpitude, but their very strength of character may lead them to infractions of military au- thority, particularly if they believe that there has been in- fringement of their self-respect or rights. Morale work is of special value in minimizing offenses of this class, for their natural standards are high and they are particularly open to appeal and logic. They respond readily to correction of the environmental factors which stimulated them to depart from their accustomed mental state and physical behavior. If these factors cannot be corrected, an understanding of the reasons which prevent it will largely promote a better state of mind and conduct. But all delinquents are individuals who fail to function in REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 669 harmony with other members of the society of which they are a part, in accordance with the accepted rules of behavior. They are discordant units in an organization and as such tend to disturb the common purpose and prevent mutual accomplishment. Every man under punishment is receiving it because of his failure to adjust himself to his environ- ment. Irrespective of a lowering effect on the efficiency of others, the time and service lost to the Government through delinquencies is of great economic and administrative impor- tance through its vastness in the aggregate. The discontents which tend to spring up in the routine and monotony of peace seem to be potent breeders of de- linquency. The excitements and emotions of war, on the other hand, give such relief to mental stress along such other channels as to prevent much misbehavior. Abroad, courts- martial were said to have doubled within two months follow- ing the Armistice. On this subject, General Pershing, in his report, says : " Prior to the signing of the Armistice, seri- ous breaches of discipline were rare, considering the number of the troops. This was due to the high sense of duty of the soldiers and their appreciation of the seriousness of the situation. In the period of relaxation following the cessa- tion of hostilities, infractions of discipline were usually more numerous." The influence of war on military offenses is further shown by the fact that while in 19 17, before the war, there was one general court-martial trial for every twenty-one men, in 19 1 8 there was but one case to every 138 men. This was due to a combination of factors in which harder training, intensive instruction, higher ideals and a lively appreciation of need for military instruction in self-preservation and that of the country predominated. The class of men was per- haps higher on the whole, for it included a superior grade of men who up to that time would never have entered the service except under the stimulus or compulsion of war. To men who were about to risk their lives in the grim- 670 MANAGEMENT OF MEN mest of warfare, the ordinary offenses of soldiers seemed tame affairs. The nearer the fighting, also, the lower the rate of offenses. Those in Europe were less in number than Were committed by the same number of men at home. In ten months at the front one overseas division had only twenty-five general court-martial cases, while in the same period of time another division at home, being drilled in Mississippi, had 369, or nearly fifteen times more. It is in peace, then, that the commander must expect to face a great number of disciplinary problems, and needs, therefore, to pay special attention to measures of prevention. The repeated offender, or recidivist, is the one who espe- cially jeopardizes the military society. He might be de- fined as an individual, who, in spite of warnings, reprimands, probation or punishment proceeds to commit further anti- social acts. Investigation of such cases discloses that a large proportion of such offenders have inherent defects of character which existed prior to entering the service. As illustrating the importance of previous history in the case of repeated offenders, a study of 566 prisoners at the U. S. Naval Prison at Portsmouth showed that 236 of them had a record of at least one residence in a penal institution or hospital for the insane prior to enlistment, and that in eleven such cases the offender had been committed to both institutions before enlistment. Commitments were shown as follows : Times committed to penal institutions Number 1 102 2 31 3 16 4 10 5 6 More. than 5 55 Times committed to insane institutions Number 1 10 2 2 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 671 Times committed to insane institutions Number 3 2 More than 3 2 No previous residence in penal or insane institutions, 113. No record of above, or record unconfirmed, 228. It appears from the foregoing that in cases in which accurate data were obtainable, two-thirds of them had ex- perienced life in a penal or insane institution before they enlisted. In a study made of 1871 ex-soldiers confined in the U. S. Disciplinary Barracks, Fort Leavenworth, the above results CUSS OF OFFENSE Personal dishonesty Drink Unauthorized absence Violence Sex offense Against constituted authority Other PEB CENT HAVING PREVIOUS CRIMINAL RECORD ■■■§^■■■■■■■■■■■150 149 ■ 44 I 41 1 32 I"? 1 33 All classes Figure 31. Nature of Military Offense and Civil Criminal Record. were largely corroborated. Of the above number, forty- four per cent, had a known previous criminal record, while doubtless some of the other fifty-six per cent, had previous court records which they had succeeded in concealing. On the other hand, it is doubtless true that a certain per cent, of men who have made good soldiers and are not found in military prisons have been civilly punished for disobedience of law. This class is probably made up chiefly of emotional and not constitutional offenders. The distribution by char- acter of offense in relation to previous criminal record in these convicts is shown in Figure 31. A further inquiry into the above group of 1871 prisoners showed that sixty-seven per cent, were reported as having had a bad character in civil life. How such offenders, with 672 MANAGEMENT OF MEN alleged bad civil life records were distributed among the various classes of military offenses is shown in Figure 32. CUSS OF OFFENSE PER CENT HAVING PREVIOUS BAD CHARACTER Drink Against constituted authority ■■■■■■■■■■■160 Other All classes WMM//MMMM///MMM/MM%1 Figure 32. Nature of Military Offense in Relation to Bad Character in Civil Life. Further analysis shows that in the distribution of bad civilian characteristics, out of each 1000 of the men studied, 312 had a record of excessive use of intoxicants, twenty- eight were drug addicts, 165 are recorded as mentally de- fective, and 167 as having generally bad records. It is pos- sible that a considerably greater number than reported were really mental cases, as it does not appear that psychological examinations were given to all. The analysis in respect to civil offense is given in Figure 33. CUSS OF OFFENSE Against constituted authority Personal dishonesty Unauthorized absence Violence Sex offenses Drink Other NUMBER PER THOUSAND Mental None Drink fien'l bad 1 0- njq All classes Figure 33. Distribution of Bad Civilian Characteristics, with Reference to Military Offenses. Of the men showing disrespect and disobedience, thirty- three per cent, had previous civil court records; of men convicted of absence without leave or desertion, twenty per REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 673 cent, also had such previous court records. It is apparent, therefore, that one of the greatest possibilities for reducing serious delinquency in the service lies in the exclusion by the recruiting officers of men whose defects, have already shown their inability to adjust to their, environment. Such men tend to become a burden to the Government, not only through the difficulties they create in the impairment of general efficiency, but through loss of their own personal services, while, in addition, they become a charge upon it for maintenance and care. In civil life, much study has been given to the relation between unsound mentality and crime. A beginning only of such a study has been made in the army, and this should be extended as part of a general inquiry into the causation of military offenses as a whole. The inherent defects of men- tality and character so frequently found in military offenders include an excessively egocentric personality, as seen in men who are individualistic, opinionated, self-willed, or vain to an extreme degree ; an extreme emotional instability, and an inadequate intelligence or judgment. It is worthy of note that insanity is usually egomania in some form. In a study of prisoners in the Disciplinary Barracks, Fort Leaven- worth, the proportions in which such defects existed were as follows : Emotional instability 1. Very low intelligence 3. Egocentrism 9. While recruiting methods will exclude those who are obviously insane at the time of enlistment, they are not able to detect in advance men who later become insane or who, in greater or less degree, verge on the border of an unsound mentality of varying type and who may later commit mili- tary offense by reason of irrational impulse and irrespon- sibility. The detection and handling of such cases is a med- ical problem, the factors in which need not be considered 674 MANAGEMENT OF MEN here. It is essential for line officers to bear their impor- tance in mind and bring to the attention of the Surgeon cases in which abnormal conduct or ideas would seem to warrant such a course. The level of intelligence is an important matter in the occurrence of military offenses and the matter of mental capacity should enter into their consideration. The sense of responsibility is based on mental competence to distin- guish between right and wrong and to appreciate the con- sequences of act. If this constitutional competence is poor, the individual has a tendency toward becoming an habitual offender. Whether a man should be tried for the commis- sion of an act, or eliminated from the service as mentally incompetent, depends upon the existence of motive and sufficient appreciation of responsibility. One salient feature in delinquency, especially in delin- quencies involving offenses of turpitude, is the fact that no small proportion of delinquents are mentally defective. This proportion is sufficiently great so that the commission of serious offense, or a series of minor offenses, should be reason for inquiry into the mental capacity and state of the offender, including a psychological examination and rating if this has not already been done. In civil life, considerable inquiry has been made relative to delinquents whose faulty acts are due more to inherent defects than faulty environment. Studies of British civilian criminals indicate that defectives commit 29 times their allowance of crimes, the unintelligent 1.7 times their allow- ance, and the intelligent and fairly intelligent only 0.6 of their allowance. It has further been found that civilian defectives are 60 times more apt to commit sex offenses and 100 times more apt to commit offenses when crime involves property than are normals. When both mental capacity and environment are bad, some common cause may exist for the poor surroundings and moral failure. These might be feeble-mindedness, epilepsy, REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 675 alcoholism, etc. But in the army, most examples of such innate causes for delinquency ought to be excluded through careful investigation by recruiting officers, draft boards and examining boards. In the army, investigation of intelligence and mental capacity in relation to delinquency has not been carried out to any great extent, but what has been done is indicative of its practical value. Thus, of 479 white soldiers convicted by summary and special courts-martial at Camp Dix in 19 18, psychological tests showed that twenty-one per cent, of these offenders had an intelligence rating of " E." This means that these men were in the lowest decile of the army so far as intelligence was concerned, and belonged to a class which psychologists would recommend for discharge from the serv- ice or for assignment to labor or development battalions, or other duty requiring less than ordinary mentality. The above group included 66.4 per cent, of men below the average intelligence expressed by a " C " rating, only 10.4 per cent, above it, and 23.2 per cent, of average mentality. Since in the psychological findings for the white draft as a whole, only seven per cent, were rated " E," and but 47.9 per cent, were found below average mentality, the above fig- ures show that mental low grades commit about three times their quota of offenses such as are handled by summary and special courts, and are from four to six times as liable to get into trouble as are men of markedly superior ability. At Camp Cody, of 250 men discharged for mental de- ficiency, the president of the disability board stated that " nearly all of them were discharged because they could not keep out of the guard house for more than a week at a time." It was further stated that had these men been re- tained in the service and confined, they would have com- posed about thirty per cent, of the convictions of the entire camp. Further, of sixty-five offenders confined in the stock- ade at Camp McClellan, nearly forty-two per cent, were rated " E," and 92.3 per cent, were below average. While 676 MANAGEMENT OF MEN the number examined is relatively small, the conclusions seem unmistakeable. It may also be stated that in the 644 prisoners at the Disciplinary Barracks, Fort Leavenworth, whose mental state was considered by a special clemency board, a rough classification was as shown in Figure 34. NUMBER OF USES FED CENT OF ALL MENTAL CASES Subnormal mentally * Alcohol and druo addicts Insanity Nervous disorders Miscellaneous 399 123 52 47 23 i^k^MB19 ■ii iM7 ^Includes 7 boi h subnormal mentally and alcohol or Figure 34. drug addicts. Men giving a mental test of " E " are often not fully responsible, the frequency with which they get into trouble and their failure to profit by discipline being largely due to mental limitations. Such a conclusion is supported by the nature of their offenses, which are for the most part of a minor sort conditioned more upon lack of judgment and irresponsibility than upon malicious intent. This checks with studies made on Fort Leavenworth prisoners convicted of serious offenses as compared with men convicted in camps on minor charges. Low intelligence is a marked factor in less serious delinquencies. In industry, it probably accounts for many annoying difficulties and infractions of local admin- istrative requirements. The information gained by psychological inquiry should show not only the sum of those within the army group who tend to irresponsibility and offense, but the psychological ratings of a company should point out to its commander the actual mentally subnormal individuals who will presumably present an unduly high proportion of infractions of discipline unless given the benefit of preventive supervision and special attention. As to education, analysis of the records of 3041 prisoners at Fort Leavenworth showed that the average had reached the seventh grade. There were 81.7 per cent, who did not REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 677 get beyond the common school, 14.6 per cent, who had some high school work, and 3.7 per cent, who got into college. The group included some religious and political conscien- tious objectors who were far better educated than the average. Environment, past and present, may be considered the controlling factor in nearly all offenses committed by men of normal mentality. This applies particularly to the minor offenses which spring from emotional states, often tempo- rary, and due to causes which, in many instances, are remov- able or preventable by wise administration. It applies especially to acts against military authority which, because CUSS OF OFFENSE PER CENT OF TOTAL Unauthorized absence Personal dishonesty ■■20 Against constituted authority ■I 1 ' Violence ■ 3 Drink » ■ 2 Sex offense l< Other ■' Figure 35. Proportionate Classification of Military Offenses. they have no analogy in civil life, carry, to many at least, no sense of moral turpitude. In industry, the special restric- tions of the new job, not experienced in past employment, provoke reaction in the recently employed. There further enters the factor at the age of young soldiers, whose mental immaturity is reflected in lack of discretion and sense of re- sponsibility as judged by the more mature standards which, as a whole, govern any community. The great importance of environment in controlling act is fully emphasized else- where. The nature and proportions of the serious offenses for which 1 87 1 ex-soldiers were confined in the Disciplinary Barracks, Fort Leavenworth, are well shown in Figure 35. Further detail in these matters is given in the following table: — 678 MANAGEMENT OF MEN HATURE OF CHARACTER III CIVIL LIFE OF CASES PREVIOUS CRIMINAL RECORD Kind of record Nature of bad record CUSS OF OFFENSE k a J|l || £5E >■ 1 s X E C | * ts = ■D C 2 a is - B 5*3° Unauthorized absence 1141 636 505 139 324 42 375 766 329 35 190 212 Personal dishonesty 366 183 183 51 118 14 123 243 117 5 66 55 Against constituted authority 120 88 32 12 20 48 72 42 3 6 21 Violence 54 32 22 6 16 13 41 28 2 6 5 Drink 39 20 19 5 14 4 35 29 2 2 2 Sex offense 22 15 7 4 3 5 17 5 2 8 2 Other 129 82 47 15 30 2 47 82 34 3 26 19 Total 1871 1056 815 232 525 58 615 1256 584 52 304 316 It is interesting to note that unauthorized absence, which is not a crime in civil life, accounted for sixty-one per cent, of all the foregoing cases. Offenses against constituted authority accounted for six per cent. more. It thus appears that two-thirds of these severely punished men were incar- cerated for no civil crime of moral turpitude, but for offenses developing in and from the special military environment. As compared with civil life, some of the motives for cer- tain crime existing therein are wanting in the army, for there is no destitution, starvation nor worry for the future. Con- ditions are such that opportunities for theft are practically limited to petty larceny. Hence there is lacking in military life the great volume of crime which in civil life depends upon want or opportunity for great and rapid financial gains. On the other hand, military life creates requirements and standards which are peculiarly its own and which have no counterpart in civil life. Their enforcement creates a spe- cial code of military offenses and punishments for derelic- tion against military authority. A considerable per cent, of soldiers transgresses against this code to the extent of re- ceiving formal punishment. That there should be any such large number of offenders shows the necessity of thoroughly training the recruit in the matter of his military obligations in which conditions in civil life have afforded neither object lesson nor experience. In the report of the Judge Advocate REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 679 General for 19 18, the following figures show the extent and classification of formal punitive action : Convicted Acquitted Total Trials by summary court of enlisted men... 202,085 9732 228,839 Trials by summary court of general prisoners 88 8 96 Trials by summary court, all others 10 o 59 Trials by special court, enlisted men 13,275 1440 14,7 15 Trials by special court, general prisoners... 19 o 19 Trials by special court, all others 35 1 36 Trials by general court martial 10,873 H 8 4 iZAH Total offenses for which tried 226,385 12,665 256,121 Analysis of 16,342 convictions of enlisted men by general courts-martial, as given in the report of the Judge Advocate General for 19 18, shows the following general classification and proportions of the offenses for which punishment was imposed : OFFENSES OF UNAUTHORIZED ABSENCE Offense Number of convictions. Absence without leave 2870 Breach of arrest 268 Breach of restriction or quarantine 190 Desert, attempting to 26 Desertion 1 743 Desertion, advising 15 Desertion, assisting 2 Draft, attempting to evade 2 Escape from confinement 603 Escape, attempting to 49 Escape, conspiring, etc., 4 Failure to repair to appointed place for duty, etc 127 Leaving without permission, place 24 Prisoner, general, violation of parole by 28 5951 OFFENSES AGAINST CONSTITUTED AUTHORITY Offense Number of convictions. Disobedience, order of arrest 13 Disobedience of standing orders 168 Disorderly in command 18 Duty, failure to perform 55 Failing to report for prophylactic treatment 9 680 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Offense Number of convictions. Mutiny, attempting to create 5 Mutiny, beginning, joining in 37 Mutiny, causing or exciting I Mutiny, failure to make known 2 Non-commissioned officer, assaulting 171 Non-commissioned officer, disobeying 385 Non-commissioned officer, failing to obey order of 52 Non-commissioned officer, using threatening language toward 3 1 7 Refusing to submit to medical or dental treatment 18 Refusing to submit to surgical operation 126 Refusing to serve as a soldier no Sedition 7 Sentinel, behaving disrespectfully to 16 Sentinel, disobeying order of 34 Sentinel, failure to obey order of 8 Sentinel, attempting to strike 5 Sentinel, assaulting 31 Sentinel, threatening 6 Sentinel, using insulting language to 4 Superior officer,' assaulting 39 Superior officer, disobeying 694 Superior officer, disrespect to 391 Superior officer, failure to obey 1 75 Superior officer, failure to salute 2 Superior officer, offering violence to 27 Threatening, drawing weapon on, etc., officer in quelling . fray 5 Using contemptuous words: toward President and others . . 36 2967 OFFENSES BY SENTINELS AND GUARDS Giving parole or countersign 1 Prisoner, allowing to receive liquor, etc 4 Prisoner, conspiracy to release 2 Prisoner, failing to work 1 Prisoner, suffering to escape '. 60 Property, military, allowing to be lost 29 Sentinel, allowing prisoner to receive liquor, etc 1 Sentinel, drunk on post 123 Sentinel, leaving post 329 Sentinel, loitering, sitting on post 52 Sentinel offenses by, miscellaneous, etc 28 Sentinel, sleeping on post 773 Abandoning guard 67 Total 1470 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 68 1 MISCELLANEOUS OFFENSES (Solely Military) Offense Number of convictions. Appearing in civilian clothes 1 73 Appearing in unclean uniform, improper uniform 30 Casting away arms or ammunition I Disorderly conduct, discreditable to service 529 Duty, sleeping on 7 Enemy, giving aid, harboring I Fraudulent enlistment 175 Impersonating officer, sentinel, etc., 37 Laying a duty or imposition upon bringing victuals 1 Malingering 18 Muster, making false 1 Non-commissioned officer, abuse of authority by 11 Shamefully abandoning command 5 Spy, being a i Straggling 3 Unclean accouterments, equipment, etc 5 Occasioning false alarm 3 Total iooi OFFENSES CONNECTED WITH GOVERNMENT PROPERTY . Offense Number of convictions. Abusing public animals 3 Concealing, destroying, public records 2 Property, advising sale of 2 Property, conspiracy to destroy 4 Property, destroying public 2 Property, attempting to pawn 3 Property, losing or spoiling clothing or accouterments ... 147 Property, losing or spoiling other than the above 23 Property, military, trying to sell, etc., 6 Property, misappropriation of, military 347 Property purchasing or receiving in pledge, military, etc., 1 Property, receiving stolen 24 Property, selling accouterments, clothes 263 Property, selling, disposing of, except accouterments 36 Property, military, allowing to be lost 29 Property destroying ; 18 Property, wilfully injuring, military, etc 41 Property, wrong appropriation of, captured military 2 Total 953 682 MANAGEMENT OF MEN OFFENSES CONNECTED WITH DRINK OR DRUGS Offense Number of convictions. Drug, introducing habit forming 19 Drug, narcotic, use or possession of 30 Drunk, bringing discredit, etc., 65 Drunk, and disorderly 263 Drunk, etc., arrest by civil police 2 Drunk in command 132 Drunk on duty 122 Liquor, bringing in command, etc., 87 Selling intoxicating liquor 20 Total 740 OFFENSES WITH VIOLENCE INVOLVED Offense Number of convictions. Assault, (simple) 18 Assault and battery 62 Assault with dangerous weapon, etc., 24 Assault with intent, felony, etc., 11 Assault with intent to commit manslaughter 2 Assault with intent to commit murder 34 Assault with intent to commit robbery 21 Assault with intent to do bodily harm 167 Committing depredation or riot 4 Discharging fire arm 50 Fighting 3 Manslaughter 33 Mayhem 32 Murder 21 Threatening to kill or injure 23 Total 505 OFFENSES AGAINST HONESTY Offense Number of convictions. Bribe soliciting 2 Bribery 4 Burglary 42 Burglary, attempting to commit 5 Claim, false or fraudulent, making 30 Claim, false, advising 9 Fraud, conspiracy 2 Embezzlement 164 Failure to pay just debts 16 False statement to deceive 204 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 683 Offense Number of convictions. False swearing 15 Falsifying account 3 Forged instrument, uttering 113 Forged instrument, having in possession , 2 Forgery 221 Larceny 121 7 Larceny, intent to commit 39 Obtaining money, etc., false pretence 192 Perjury 20 Robbery 113 Subornation of perjury 1 Using U. S. mail to defraud 2 Total 2416 OFFENSES AGAINST DECENCY Offense Number of convictions. Adultery 3 Assault with intent to commit rape 14 Assault with intent to commit sodomy 15 Buccal coitus 55 Fornication 5 Illicit cohabitation 8 Indecent exposure 7 Lewdness 7 Obscene letter, sending 11 Prostitute, attempting to induce woman to become 5 Rape 5 Seduction 1 Sodomy 39 Total 175 MISCELLANEOUS OFFENSES (Solely Civil) Offense Number of convictions. Arson 3 Bigamy 16 Carrying concealed weapon 66 Committing a nuisance 7 Committing waste or spoil 2 Gambling 9 Loaning money, usurious rates 1 Trespass or loitering around private residence or house ... 13 Using provoking words, speeches 37 Total 154 684 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The foregoing figures show that out of 16,342 convic- tions, offenses of unauthorized absence, those against con- stituted authority, those by sentinels and guards, and certain miscellaneous military offenses, aggregate 11,391, or about seventy per cent, of the total. These relate exclusively to the military environment, represent reaction against it, and only in a few instances are analogous to offenses punishable under the civil code. In the minds of the general public, not only does there exist a lack of realization of criminality in them, but a certain degree of sympathy for such offenders probably obtains. The figures also show certain offenses which could not be positively classified as relating wholly to the military en- vironment, since it was not clear in all cases how far they represented breaches of military conduct as well as civil law. This class includes offenses connected with government property and those relating to drink or drugs. They aggre- gate 17 13, or ten per cent, of the total. The third group of the study includes offenses with vio- lence involved, those of dishonesty, sex offenses against morals and decency, and miscellaneous others. These 3238 offenses are all crimes according to the civil code, and are infractions of law as well as of military requirements. They represent only twenty per cent, of all of the general court-martial cases of all soldiers, although all cases of moral turpitude were probably disposed of by general courts-martial. Lesser courts and company punishment handle the many additional offenses having no criminality equivalent in civil life, but which are merely- infractions of military requirements. The report of the Adjutant General for 19 18 gives the total strength of the army on June 30, 1918, as 2,219,685. As the army was gradually increased during the year from a small number, the strength by months gives an average strength of 1,213,071 for the purpose of comparison with offenses. As the convictions for all offenses by all courts REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 685 were 226,385, it appears that while approximately one sol- dier in each 5.4 was a military offender, only about one in each 378 committed what could positively be classified as crime under civil law, and only one in every 270 committed what might or might not be construed as offense under the civil code. But it is recognized that military offenses are always lowest in time of war and hence war ratios are not properly applicable to peace conditions. The Judge Advocate Gen- eral's report for June 30th, 19 16, gives figures for such a peace year when the regular army was not materially af- fected by increments of the National Guard, which at the time was employed to some extent on the Mexican border. In that year the average strength was 107,000 and there were 4,743 convictions by general courts-martial, and 40,070 convictions by inferior courts. This gives an average of one offense to about each 2.4 men. Analyzing these causes, and excluding " drunk and disorderly in post or quarters," there remain 2,982 offenses commonly punishable under the civil code, or a ratio of one such offense to each 36 soldiers. It has been stated by civilian writers that in England about six per cent, of the population commit offenses punish- able under the civil code. If this is the case, it would ap- pear that the popular idea that soldiers present an exces- sively high proportion of criminality is not supported by facts. It is true that many habitual criminals and defec- tives are prevented from entering the army through the standards of selection, and thereby remain in civil life to swell the total of its delinquencies. But, on the other hand, civil life includes a major proportion of women, children and mature or elderly men in whom the incidence of crime is relatively low, and this should far more than offset any in- crease in crime due to retention of a high proportion of its established criminals and derelicts. The conclusion seems fair that military life, and especially conditions of war or active service, far from promoting what 686 MANAGEMENT OF MEN is regarded in civil life as criminality, greatly decreases it through its high ideals, wholesome restraints and restricted opportunity to transgress along certain lines. This despite the fact that young men of military age form an age class in which a high proportion of infractions of law is known to occur. Unfortunately no data for the comparison of sol- diers with the same age group of males in civil life are available, for it would appear that the legal profession in civil life has paid far more attention to the handling of the offender after the act than to inquiry into and analysis of the factors from which the offense developed. Present sys- tematized effort at character building and inculcation of high standards of conduct in the army should be reflected in result in lower rates of its criminal delinquency. In the consideration of delinquency, it is not possible to go into the detail of each possible individual cause, but there are certain important problems which naturally fall into groups, and here it is simple and profitable to consider not only the nature of the causes but the relative extent to which they operate. Identification not only of motive but the class of the men becoming offenders should usually lead to the recognition, either directly or by deduction, of the cause responsible, and its elimination as far as possible as a dis- turbing influence in other cases. It is now required that the Morale Branch be furnished in all general court-martial cases resulting in conviction with statements as to probable motive from the trial judge advocate, the reviewing judge advocate, and, if the case goes to the Disciplinary Barracks, from the psychologist there. These are being studied with a view to informing the army as to results. At the request of the Morale Branch, it was furnished by the board of officers reviewing records in the Judge Advo- cate General's Office with cards showing the finding as to the probable motive of the offense as revealed by reading the general court-martial records in clemency cases. In all, 6,8 1 1 cards were received, of which 3,363 bore notation of REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 687 an ascertainable cause from which the offense apparently sprung, while the remaining 3,448 cards noted the fact that the cause was not revealed in the record. Analysis and classification of the first class of cards gave the following results : — TABULATION OF CAUSES OF ALL OFFENSES I. Connected With Character. Criminal instinct 69 Degeneracy 8 Drug addiction 29 Drink 1 164 Established criminal 20 Ignorance 161 Illness . . . . 113 Irresponsibility 20 Mental Weakness 100 Unstable 205 Wanderlust 16 Weakness of character 85 Youth 25 Total 2015 II. Connected With Service. Belief of unjust treatment 46 Conditions at place of confinement 7 Conditions out of control of offender 4 Dissatisfaction with organization 25 Discontent with station 9 Dissatisfaction with medical treatment 11 Disappointment in not being restored 5 Fatigue, cause unknown 9 Fatigue from excessive duty 19 Failure to appreciate seriousness of offense 64 Failure to obtain transfer 6 Failure to obtain discharge 3 Failure to understand reasons for military disci- pline 92 Failure to appreciate responsibility of duty 25 Fear of punishment for other offense 25 Friction with N. C. O's 17 General dislike of service 20 Growing out of gambling 29 Influenced by associates 42 688 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Lack of discipline 80 Lack of funds to return to station 3 Lack of proper instruction in guard duty 9 Lax accounting methods 7 Manner of order 9 Military causes provocation 3 Misunderstanding 22 Mistake 14 Nature of order 12 Need of money due to delayed pay 32 Non-carrying out of enlistment promises 2 Personal need of money 17 Physical weakness 12 Poor handling by officers 21 Racial difficulty 19 Relationship with other prisoners 5 Refusal of furlough unreasonably 23 Temporary state of mind fertile to offense 13 To gather crops 3 Unpopular with associates 4 Total 768 III. Connected With Family Matters. Expected birth of child 1 1 Home difficulties caused by allotment non-pay- ment 10 Homesickness 68 Illness of near relative 143 Miscellaneous domestic troubles 73 Poverty of dependents 64 Total 369 III. Connected With Family Matters. Desire to marry 34 Entanglement with women 46 Opportunity to earn more 6 Total 86 V. Peculiar To War Conditions. Conscientious objections 10 Cowardice .40 Desire for active service 8 Ignorant of draft provisions 7 Lack of loyalty 59 Total 124 Grand Total 3362 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 689 Proportions of general court-martial convictions are pre- sented in Figure 36. Analysis of the foregoing data may well cause serious reflection as to whether all is being done that should be done Offenses against decency, 72 Miscellaneous, cjvili in nature, 1 5 Figure 36. Distribution of Offenses by Group Cause, as Revealed by Records of General Courts-Martial. to facilitate the adjustment of soldiers to their military en- vironment and surroundings. In the causes relating to character, it is apparent that there were many of inherent mental and moral deficiency, who should never have been admitted to the service. Men reported as having criminal instincts, mental weakness, ir- responsibility, degeneracy, and men who were drug addicts, established criminals, unstable and susceptible to wander- lust aggregated 467. These defects were probably largely impossible to overcome by even the most skilful handling. It is interesting to note that the use of liquor was the apparent cause of 1,164 cases, or about one-sixth of all cases reported, and one-third of all those in which cause could be ascertained were due to drink. This is a most eloquent statistical argument in favor of prohibition, and bears out common knowledge that liquor is the greatest enemy to mili- tary good order. Obviously it is largely under military con- 690 MANAGEMENT OF MEN trol and, with national prohibition, the exercise of this con- trol should not be difficult. Similarly, the causes classed as " ignorance, illness, weakness of character and youth," ag- gregating 384, seem controllable by wise and sympathetic handling. But it is in relation with causes stated to be connected with the service that preventive measures might be par- ticularly effective. These causes developed from temporary states of mind which in many cases might readily have been prevented or allayed before the act. Such conditions as " belief of unjust treatment, dissatisfaction with medical treatment, failure to understand seriousness of military offense, failure to understand reasons for military discipline, failure to appreciate responsibility of duty, lack of discipline, lack of proper instruction in guard duty, manner of order, misunderstanding, nature of order and poor handling by officers," aggregate 391 cases in which a fair share of re- sponsibility for the ultimate offense cannot be evaded by superiors who seem not to have performed their full duty. Industry may well inquire if parallel faults do not exist in its own administrative methods. Similarly, the evil results of bad physical relationships and surroundings are apparently in large part due to omissions and failures of officers to live up to their proper respon- sibilities toward their subordinates and reflect their own efficiency through better conduct on the part of the latter. Man is, to a large extent, his " brother's keeper," and to none does this apply with greater truth and force than to su- periors, whether in the army or civil life. The class of " home difficulties " above mentioned could probably have been materially reduced by invoking the aid of the Red Cross, and by giving the sympathetic advice so efficacious in removing homesickness. Similar advice in connection with relationships with women would also have been helpful. The final class "peculiar to war conditions" represents REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 691 purely mental ideals. Some one talked these offenders against authority into their antisocial state of mind. It was not impossible, in many cases at least, to have seen that they were talked out of it. " Cowardice " may be an innate state of defectiveness which, if not removed by strengthen- ing character, means that the individual is physically un- able to withstand the stress of conflict and danger. Close examination of the component elements entering into the above classifications will reveal to the able officer causative conditions for which he will have no great dif- ficulty in formulating appropriate remedy. For that rea- son, the facts are presented here in a suggestive form with- out further discussion. It may be mentioned, however, that one factor in preventing delinquency is that every one should understand that he has the right of appeal to higher au- thority, with the assurance of patient hearing and the cor- rection of the grievance" discovered to be well founded. Very likely many of these difficulties developed because com- manders were not in close enough touch with their men to realize their existence and utilize the simple measures of correction at their disposal. Most individuals in our army, no matter where or how raised, have fundamental concep- tions of right and wrong. An appeal to a man's conscience is often the best way to get him t'o conform naturally and regularly to a proper mode of life. If the officer has not properly warned and advised him, he is frequently partly responsible for results. Another factor is found in the fact that most men like to be appealed to for assistance in a worthy cause. In one instance, for example, the new commander of a disorganized command had personal interviews with the two best and the two worst men in each company, during which conditions were talked over. The ring-leaders in mischief were told that the commander would far prefer to have them as ser- geants than as guard house prisoners, as they had demon- strated qualities of natural leadership in the following they 692 MANAGEMENT OF MEN had. All were appealed to to make the post a better place to live in, and the results abundantly justified the wisdom of the course taken. Trouble stops if the trouble-makers are won over to the side of discipline. Crime, or military offense, is often the manifestation of the abnormal or the subnormal in the individual resulting from abnormal or subnormal conditions in the environment of the individual. Not all who commit crime have devia- tion from the normal mental standards, though that the pro- portion is high there can be no question. Some offenses are committed by men who are normally all right at heart, but who are psychologically badly adjusted to the conditions of military life. They represent the well recognized type of " a good man gone wrong." The remedy here lies not so much in the penalizing of the man himself as in the removal of any unnecessary points of painful contact and social fric- tion, or in supplying any elements of moral support which may be lacking. When a man is troublesome or unruly, the first thing to do is to ascertain and remedy any local influence which might account for such conduct, even if it does not justify it. When mischief-makers are found who do not readily re- spond to facts, reason or kindness, they should, as a first step, be removed from conditions in which they can make much trouble and their power for harm thus minimized. Sometimes this simple procedure, available to local author- ity, is all that is necessary to check the pernicious influences of men working so subtly and indirectly as to prevent a case against them resulting in conviction by a court. Whenever higher authority decides that the perverted mental make-up of a repeated offender is such as to make him truly worthless, he should be removed from the service without delay. The analogy here is that a bad soldier, con- firmed in his antisocial attitude, has an effect upon the com- mand similar to a case of infectious disease among more or less susceptible individuals. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 693 It not infrequently happens that wide variations in such expressions of poor morale as are found in desertions and courts-martial are observed in different organizations at the same post. Under such conditions, the conclusion is legiti- mate that the exceptionally high proportion of such offenses in any single organization must be attributed to factors and conditions peculiar to that organization and do not arise from anything appertaining to the post or its physical en- vironment. Wherever any such differences exist, it is the duty of higher authority to make a careful and complete in- vestigation with a view to determining the causes and apply- ing the appropriate remedy. The time has gone by when the commander whose men unduly desert or fill the guard house may excuse the discreditable results by claiming that his men are a criminal, unruly lot. Public opinion will rec- ognize the fact that such acts of indiscipline and disorder largely reflect discontent born of an inefficient and unin- telligent leadership. Desertion. Desertion of course means physical deple- tion as to numbers with resulting curtailment of ability to fight. It also represents an important element in what might be regarded as a military " labor turnover," whereby the loss of men who are trained or partly trained results in inefficiency and lessened coordination within the military group through the necessity of putting inexperienced men in the places thus vacated. Reference should be had to the discussion of this matter in the chapter on industrial morale. Desertion throws an added burden on the recruiting serv- ice and adds to its difficulties in filling the ranks. This bur- den of outgo tends to fall heaviest at such times and under such conditions when the increment of new men dwindles. It has been abundantly demonstrated that one cause of lowered morale is an insufficient number of men for the performance of required duty. Every desertion adds to this difficulty by leaving a share in the common task which must be performed by some one else. It has a further 694 MANAGEMENT OF MEN effect of reducing fighting force in a way not shown by fig- ures, but expressing lowered willingness to perform duty, which may be more or less general among others who do not go so far as to effect their illegitimate separation from the service. Where desertion is high, there is a honey- combing of the fighting spirit. Finally, it discloses the existence of certain conditions within the military environment which are so oppressive to many men that they create an impelling motive to escape 25,000 S.C 2500 D." 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Figure 37. Desertions Compared with Convictions by Summary Court-Mar- tial. (Scale 10 Summary Courts to 1 Desertion.) from it. It is important to study such conditions and causes to determine their nature and outline corrective measures to such as appear unnecessary and remediable. At the outset, it may be stated that morale is the con- trolling factor in the case of desertions. In a general way, desertions are high when morale is low and vice versa. That they are merely one expression of an indisciplinary state is well shown in Figure 37, in which the curve for de- sertion follows an almost exact parallel of that for lesser offenses. The influence of mind on military behavior is expressed in no more striking manner than in respect to de- sertions. The ultimate act which concretely expresses a high degree of dissatisfaction with the service is found in REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 695 illegal separation from it. Conversely, if the soldier has a strong liking for his environment, he will wish to remain in it and will reenlist at the expiration of his term of service. That the problem to be met is one of much magnitude and practical importance is common knowledge. The exact extent of this canker of the military body is less well known, but is clearly shown by the following figures. In the five peace years before the United States entered the World War, 1912— 1916, a total of 169,554 men enlisted or re- enlisted in the service. In the same period, 20,035 men deserted. It is thus apparent 'that about one soldier in every eight found the army environment so repellant or so lacking in attractiveness during this period that he was willing to become a criminal and a fugitive to get out of it. A study of desertions for thirteen peace years, 1904— 1916, showed that the average annual desertion rate for that period was sixty-one per thousand. This means that out of every 1,000 men enlisting for three years, 183 — or nearly one in five — might be expected to desert, and that every commander would have only about four men out of every five that should be present. Clearly an evil of this magnitude cannot be treated symptomatically, but can only be struck at effectively through the agents which cause it. The incidence of desertion by years, over a considerable period, is shown in Figure 38. It will be noted that the desertion curve is characterized by violent oscillations above and below a certain general average. This curve will be analyzed more in detail later. The proportion of desertion varies greatly between organizations. Thus one report of 1906 showed that as high as thirty per cent, of men had deserted from certain uni'ts in a single year, or nearly five times more than the average for, the army; while in 1907, of two batteries at the same post, one lost twenty-three by desertion, while but two deserted from the other in the same period. It is 696 MANAGEMENT OF MEN 1890 1900 1910 1920 Figure 38. Desertions per 1000 Strength by Years. very clear that desertions from organizations thus having excessively high rates must depend on causes especially per- taining to those organizations. As there is a fair standard- ization of physical factors affecting the military service, it would appear that opportunity for difference rested chiefly in the matter of administration. This would seem borne out by the following officially reported examples. In one REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 697 company in which thirteen out of sixty-five men deserted, the cause in every case was attributed by the' 1 inspector to harsh and profane handling of the men by the company com- mander and the first sergeant. There were found but five men in this company in their second enlistment, indicating that matters had been going wrong for a long time. In one company of fifty-one men, five desertions within a fortnight were directly charged to the harsh and severe methods of its commander, who shortly after left the service. In a recent inquiry by the Navy Department, it was found that of two like ships in the same port, desertions from one ship were three times that of the other. The only differ- ence that could be found was that the commander of one ship had been able to select his officers on a basis of known experience and ability, while the officers on the ship with high desertion rate had been sent there hap-hazard from the officer group as a whole. Investigation of labor turnover in civil industry would doubtless disclose many parallel examples. The problem of desertion calls for constant study in each command. Between posts, between commands, and between organizations in each command there should be constant comparison. Wherever an unduly high propor- tion of desertions has occurred, a special investigation as to cause and remedy should follow. Human nature is more or less the same; any factors of common application that have resulted in the desertion of one man may, if continued, ' result in the desertion of others. A large proportion of desertions, perhaps twenty-five per cent., occur in men who are known by their non-commis- sioned officers and associates in advance of the act to be dissatisfied with the service and apparently making up their minds to leave it -at an early opportunity. In such cases, the tendency has been to consider that the man, being dis- satisfied, was of no use to the organization, that his influ- ence over other men was not beneficial and that his desertion 6g8 MANAGEMENT OF MEN meant a good riddance. This attitude is of course wrong. If the morale operatives look for and report such cases to higher authority, steps can usually be taken to remove the offending cause, change the man's mind, alter his influ- ence to one for good and save him to the service. When soldiers have been absent without leave for several days, letters or telegrams to their nearest relatives, urging return, will often secure return and prevent such absence from developing into desertion. Desertion as a whole is the result of a complex of causes, some within and some without the power of the military service to control. The same generally applies to labor turnover. So many observers have been led astray by fragmentary information and limited observation, failing in their endeavors to apply the particular instance to the general rule, that the evil of desertion has come by default to be largely regarded as necessary and inevitable. The latter, however, is not the case. It is true that any single remedial measure in a complex case will necessarily give unsatisfactory results. But much may be expected of gen- eral measures calculated to include all individual basic causes, and with the degree of success with which these measures cover the field and are intelligently and effectively applied. With soldiers of normal mentality, the problem of deser- tion, in its simplest analysis, is merely a problem of relative attractions. To persons of innate mental or moral defec- tiveness, the laws of psychology do not so well apply and there is no forecasting of the reactions of the insane or pervert. But if the motives impelling the normal soldier out of the service and the motives attracting him into civil life, in their sum total, are of greater potency than the sum total of all interests retentive within the service and the motives attracting toward it, the man will repudiate his military obligations and separate himself from the service. If these motives for desertion do not permanently continue REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 699 as a governing factor in conduct, after a variable period of absence without leave, he will return and place himself again under military authority. But if they do so continue, or if new and sufficiently strong motives to the same end develop to replace or reinforce them, he will remain absent permanently and become a deserter from the army. Exactly the same principles apply in industry to labor absenteeism or turnovers. Causes and motives which are expulsive of the soldier are inherent in the military service itself. They develop from military conditions and methods and as such are largely amenable to official military control. They may cause desertion by individuals or groups. Where many men desert from a single organization, a common local cause should be suspected. Extrinsic causes which attract men away from the army are the product of civil conditions. Over these, military authority has no direct control, though it can frequently modify or offset their influence by indirect methods. Outside of general economic attractions, such as high wages, these extrinsic causes operate ordinarily in respect to individuals alone, for their nature is highly diverse and their application is usually personal. This general principle is shown graphically in Figure 39. The factor of Attractive Causes /^^- ^C\ Expulsive Causes inherent In the +-7/ \^A — " inherent in the Military Environment /T^ X\ \ Military Environment Impulsive Causes "*""\ \. -/ /~**~ Attractive Causes pertaining to Civil Life N. / pertaining to Civil Lite Figure 39. The Problem of Desertion and Absence Without Leave. allurement toward civil life is less frequent. A reaction against military conditions serving as a direct expulsive force is much more common. A third group represents a combination of these two causes. The solution of the potential problem of desertion thus 700 MANAGEMENT OF MEN consists in reducing, neutralizing or removing the causes which impel or invite the man to leave the army, or to increase the power of motives attracting and holding him in the service. As a matter of practice, all these methods usually would be combined to securing the end desired. It is obvious that attractions in civil life which tend to induce desertion apply more or less equally to the military service as a whole and to the various branches and individuals which compose it. Accordingly, any material difference between the desertion rates of different arms or commands must express the relative extent of expulsive causes within the service itself. It is thus of interest to note that the percentage of desertions by arm of the service, for the thirteen years of peace, 1 904-1 91 6, was: Field Artillery 5.73 Coast Artillery 4.76 Cavalry 4.47 Engineers 4.43 Hospital Corps, Medical Dept 3.98 Infantry '. 3.63 Army at large 4.33 It is apparent that certain differential factors must per- tain to the above arms, in which, for every three men that desert from the infantry, four desert from the cavalry and coast artillery and five from the field artillery. The fact that more old soldiers reenlist in the infantry than do in the cavalry, coast artillery and field artillery further corroborates the above. For the ten year period 1906- 19 1 5 there were 4 desertions to 20 reenlistments in the infantry, while in the same period there were 13 desertions to each 20 reenlistments in the field artillery. See Figure 40. It is well worthy of the attention of the officers of these branches of high desertion and low reenlistment rates to seek out and remove so far as possible their causes of rela- tive unpopularity. The environment due to season has a marked effect on REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 701 Coast Artillery Desertions per 1000 men Desertions fleenlisiments per 1000 men mm^mf^^^^^m^ t?s Cavalry I 1143.6 my/////M^mmmy///y//^m^ 1 ? 7 Field Artillery Engineers v/// m w//WM MM / m mfym Infantry 34.8 162 ■' // /////// A Figure 40. Comparison of Rates of Desertions and Reenlistrnents, by Services. desertion. Obviously it is a common factor which affects alike all troops within like climatic conditions. Figures show that for the army at large, proportionately about twice as many desertions occur during the six warm months of the year as compared with the six cold weather months. This comparison is graphically illustrated in Figure 41. 2.35 2.43 JMMMiiai^ 3.27 14.55 ^ffi»ef^MM^^M 2.94 wmmmmmmm 2.65 Figure 41. The Average Rate of Desertion for the Thirteen Peace Year Period 1904 to 1916 Inclusive Is 45 Per Thousand Enlisted Contracts in Force Per Year. The 45 Desertions Are Distributed Monthly as Above. It is a well known fact that cold and lack of sunshine tend to inhibit the activity of living organisms. Many of 702 MANAGEMENT OF MEN them pass into a dormant, hibernating or resting stage. With warm weather they regain activity. Human beings, as a class, are no exception to this rule. With warm weather the migratory instinct is stimulated and soldiers have more out of door opportunities for an easy vagabond- age appealing to the irresponsible. It is of interest to note that, by months, the ratio of desertions closely follows the curve of labor turnover in civil life. Most men desert from the army at the seasonal period that labor in civil life tends most to change its job and to strike. Most men desert the army during the months that there is the least movement toward it through enlistment. Figure 42 shows Desertions Average 23J48 Enlistments Avenge 14.455 ^1470^»J HUl'503 ra^ii9 fHp2772 ^13044 iM!li3133 iH|i3176 ^ffl3096 :r 1^^2971 HH2488 r MJ2052 r Hlt760 H ^///////Mmm^tttfv& \&/MmmwwmsAw0& April tmm^^fe^iaBDS^ May i mmmmmsaix&A June July August ! (S44K^K444^ife^^ 1 mm///////////////^m^A October \ wmmmm/*//A®ww& Novembe t^M^^%^^4^:«86^ Decembe ■mmmmmmmmsmsm Figure 42. Monthly Desertions Compared with Monthly Enlistments. Period 1906 to 1915, Excluding 1909 and 1910. that in January there is approximately 1 desertion to 13 enlistments, while in June there is 1 desertion to 4 enlist- ments. Some common factor in human nature seems impli- cated here. The so-called " snowbird," who enlists in the army in the fall only to desert it in the spring, has his coun- terpart in the itinerant, floating labor class — or " journey- man " in the early sense of the term. For the service, not only the lure from outside, but the season of unrest and greater opportunities for unskilled REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 703 labor in the fields, combine with the harder drills and work of the military establishment to influence soldiers to leave it. Commanders should recognize the special difficulties pertaining to this season and take measures to offset them. Short hikes, trips and easy marches to attractive points give outlet to the migratory instinct. Sports and recreation in the open air should be stimulated. The men should be watched for signs of unrest and individuals manifesting them given special attention. Desertions tend to rise during the periods of prosperity when the attractive wages and opportunities of civil life give stronger temptation. Conversely, they fall during the years of economic stress and panic to the extent to which the latter interfere with self-support in civil life and render correspondingly more attractive the security which an army living affords. The exactness with which the curves of business prosperity and army desertions are complementary to each other is surprising. These external economic con- ditions are of course beyond the direct control of military authority. But a knowledge of their close relation to desertion and recruiting is valuable as indicating the special conditions to be met. The relative success of recruiting the new army after the Armistice against the economic obstacle of exceptionally great business prosperity is the best possible evidence of the efficiency of the methods involved. The class of men enlisted naturally has a close relation to desertion. This, in the past, has had direct relation to material prosperity, when the incentives were stronger for high-class men to remain in civil life. Thus of the 15,996 men who enlisted in the prosperous year of 1906, no less than twenty-four per cent, deserted in the next three years. An important fact in relation to the influence of the recruit stage on desertions is that of the total desertions occurring in 1906, no less than forty-three per cent, were men who had enlisted in 1906. In 1907, another prosperous year, twenty-eight per cent, of the men enlisting during that year 7o 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN deserted within three years. But in the national panic year of 1908, there were 29,307 original enlistments, of which but fifteen per cent, deserted in the next three years. As compared with the experience of 1906, enlistments nearly doubled and desertions were almost halved. Desertions tend to be greater among recruits than older soldiers. This is a parallel to labor turnover in civil life, in which voluntary separations by older employes is rela- tively low. In not a few instances, desertion in recruits, and especially in those of low mentality, is due to ignorance, lack of understanding of its seriousness as an offense, or looking on it much like " getting through " with a job in civil life. A more important factor is the lack of proper adjustment of the recruit to his new environment. Com- pany officers should look to the adjustment of recruits as helpful in tiding over the critical period of early service. The ratio of desertions rises to its maximum in peace and prosperity and falls to its minimum in the alarms and dangers of war. Here powerful motives are developed to hold the man in the service. Public opinion scorns the slacker and idealizes the soldier when the country is imperiled. In 19 18 there were only 1553 convictions for desertion as against 3640 in 191 5 and 4682 in 1909, though the army had in the meantime increased more than ten fold. Moreover, the nearer the man was to the enemy, the less likely he was to desert. The divisions fighting or pre- paring to fight had the smallest proportion of desertions, while the divisions that apparently had no chance to get across show the largest proportion. The inference is logical that while desertions occurred from many motives, that of fear was relatively insignificant. The reasons of enlisted men given for not reenlisting should ultimately throw considerable side light on the sub- ject of desertion, for both are due to similar motives. Analysis of the probable specific group causes and motives producing desertion in 663 cases, as revealed by the read- REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 705 ing of their general court-martial proceedings by officers of the Judge Advocate General's office, gives the following data, which are also summarized in Fig. 43 : DESERTIONS Connected With Character of Deserter. Degeneracy 6 Drug Addiction 12 Drink 37 Ignorance 86 Illness 17 Irresponsibility 8 Mental weakness 30 Wanderlust 7 Youth 9 Weakness of character 40 252 Connected With Service. Belief of unjust treatment 8 Discontent with station 5 Dissatisfaction with organization 19 Dissatisfaction with medical treatment 4 Failure to appreciate seriousness of offense 11 Failure to obtain discharge 2 Failure to obtain transfer 2 Failure to understand reasons for military discipline . .24 Fear of punishment for other offense 1 8 Friction with non-commissioned officers 3 General dislike of service 14 Poor handling by officers 9 Influenced by associates 9 Non-carrying out of enlistment promises 2 Refusal of furlough 7 Unpopularity with associates 4 141 Connected With Family Matters. Expected birth of child 5 Home difficulties caused by allotment non-payments .... 4 Homesickness 21 Illness or death of near relative 49 Miscellaneous domestic troubles 15 Poverty of dependents . - 37 131 7 o6 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Connected With Outside Matters. Desire to marry ' 14 Entanglement with women 20 Opportunity to earn more 5 39 Peculiar to War Conditions. Conscientious objections 9 Cowardice 35 Desire for active service 8 Ignorance of draft provisions 7 Lack of loyalty 41 100 Figure 43. Analysis as to Cause of 663 Desertions, as Revealed by Court Martial Records. Of the foregoing causes, it is apparent that 252, or nearly two out of every five desertions, spring from defects of character. This is supported by psychological findings at one camp during the war, in which eighty-two per cent, of the white deserters examined were of less than average mentality. Obviously many of these defectives should have been kept out of the service. On the other hand, that such factors as " ignorance," " youth " and perhaps " weakness of character " were invariably beyond control can scarcely be claimed with justice. Had company com- manders recognized these conditions as fruitful of deser- tion, much might have been done to avoid it. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 707 Of " causes connected with the service," analysis shows that relatively few of them seem specifically to relate to physical surroundings. Most of the states of mind from which the act developed were due to administrative hand- ling, and express the result not only of faulty method of doing, but also of omission to do. Errors of handling men thus reverted to both positive and negative causes. Some were perhaps due to inertia, some to indifference, but most to failure to appreciate the full responsibilities of command. It may be mentioned here that one cause of desertion seems to exist in too frequent changes of company officers, whereby the latter are unable to get the best results through study of their enlisted men. It has happened in the past that non-commissioned offi- cers have apparently acted on a declared purpose to " run out of the company " men obnoxious to them. Any such tendency is of course to be looked for and repressed. Sometimes when public opinion in a whole organization is against a man, as one suspected of unnatural practices or other offense difficult of proof, a social boycott of the pre- sumptive offender has been effective in getting him out of the service. Of " causes connected with family matters," 131 in num- ber, many seem traceable back to failure .by officers to know and understand the personal problems of their men. " Homesickness " merely means a relative lack of personal sympathy and interest, the deficiency in which any good com- mander might have remedied by a few tactful words or simple measures. " Birth of child " and " illness or death of near relative " are such epochal events in human life that some consideration as to furlough might well be shown, instead of the alternative at a most trying time of necessi- tating either the absence of the soldier from a loved one or unlawful separation from the service. " Poverty " and " home difficulties " might have their effect minimized through recourse to civilian welfare agencies, or if extreme 708 MANAGEMENT OF MEN and permanent, might be reasonable grounds for considera- tion of discharge. Causes " connected with outside matters " chiefly relate to marriage and women. The influence here is strong. Probably a frank mutual understanding, assistance to mar- riage when feasible, good advice where delay seems neces- sary, or admonition where undesirable relations are con- cerned, would have been materially helpful. " Causes peculiar to war conditions " would seem to offer a fruitful field for explanation, reasoning and logic. Not a few men of perverse mental state may be won over. It should not be forgotten that the man who ultimately proved the great- est individual hero of the war entered the service as a con- scientious objector and was won over by his commander. From such data as are given in the foregoing, and espe- cially when amplified by further research, it would seem that every officer is in an excellent position to attack the problem of desertion at its source with every prospect of material success. Similar data on the motives behind labor turnover would point the way to a better solution of this most serious industrial problem. Absence Without Leave. In many instances, absence without leave represents a certain mental condition the extremes of which are expressed in failure to reenlist on the one hand and in desertion on the other. It is a reaction against a military environment which, for the while at least, has become repellant or which has lost its attraction. Fav- orable response can usually be obtained by arousing sober, second thought relative to the causes of the act and its seriousness if persisted in. The aggregate loss in military service and efficiency from absence without leave is very great. It accounts for a large proportion of military misdemeanors and work unper- formed. Being largely handled by inferior courts and sum- mary punishments, it does not appear in statistical reports with the importance which is warranted by the lowering on TtTTo"- Connected w ; th Military Servjs ^3: Connected Zb". Wilh litory Sen I Connected wilh "Family Matters 20% Connected With Character 38% m War I Conditions Connected x^^CJ / 15% \ 'With Home ^-— . __ \\ Si Farm\y Matters \oufcidA \\. 30 % \ w$> "T^cuTiar 1o War Conditions (Owleyaft Conscientious Objecfen Figure 44. Comparison of general causes underlying desertion and absence without leave. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 709 collective efficiency of such widely spread absenteeism. The factors having to do with desertions are largely those which lie behind the more serious cases of absence without leave such as come before general courts-martial. How closely this is true is shown by Figure 44, in which the elementary group-causes of these two offenses are compared. Such a condition is only to be expected, inasmuch as they represent different degrees of what is practically the same offense. It will be noted in this comparison of absence without leave and desertion that intrinsic character defects play practically the same part in both. In respect to war condi- tions such as disloyalty, conscientious objectors, etc., the motive is so strong that the man who reacts against the service desires to separate himself entirely from it when he leaves and entertains little thought of returning to it. The same applies in less degree to outside influences, as women, etc., which induce a higher proportion of men to remain away permanently than desire to return. In home and family matters, however, the condition is reversed. Here homesickness and anxiety induce men to leave, but when these apprehensions and motives are allayed many of the men return. Probably not a few of these cases never intended to remain away permanently but ex- pected to return after they had investigated disturbing con- ditions and made such corrections as seemed practicable. More cases go absent without leave than desert as a result of causes classified as connected with the military service. Here the men secure temporary respite from conditions which have become for the time intolerable to them. This is like absenteeism from work in civil industry. Those who leave through emotional reaction or pique have opportunity for sober reflection and discover that conditions were not as bad after all as were thought at first. Out of 1652 cases of court-martial tried by general court for the offense of absence without leave, as evidenced to the officers of the Judge Advocate General's office, the causes 710 MANAGEMENT OF MEN could not be determined from a reading of the records in 1027 cases. This does not mean that no cause existed, but merely that the evidence did not happen to bring it out. Some potent cause and motive of course did exist in suffi- cient plausibility to the man to cause the action. The causes and motives appearing in the 625 cases of absence without leave tried by general court-martial, and revealed Figure 45. Analysis by Group Cause of 625 Cases of Absence Without Leave Convicted by General Courts-Martial. by the evidence appearing in the records, are graphically shown by groups in Figure 45, and in greater detail were as follows : Connected with character of offender Degeneracy 2 Drug addiction 6 Drink 120 Ignorance 35 Illness 28 Irresponsibility 12 Mental weakness 13 Wanderlust 9 Youth 6 Weakness of character 16 Total 247 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 711 If these are compared with the desertions from the same causes, it will be seen that drink is three times as strong a factor in absence without leave as in desertion, and that weakness of character is about two and one-half times as strong. On the other hand, ignorance is a factor two and one-half times stronger in desertion. Degeneracy and drug addictions are also stronger in producing desertions. As with desertion, so certain low standard men who should never have been admitted to the service and certain ignorant or easily swayed men are responsible for much absence without leave. The factor due to drink is naturally higher in absence without leave than in desertion due to the transi- tory nature of its influence. It should be largely eliminated by prohibition. Causes connected with the service Belief of unjust treatment 5 Discontent with station 4 Dissatisfaction with organization 3 Dissatisfaction with medical treatment 7 Failure to appreciate seriousness of offense 10 Failure to obtain discharge i Failure to obtain transfer 4 Failure to understand reasons for military discipline 68 Fear of punishment for other offense 6 Friction with non-commissioned officers i General dislike of service 5 Poor handling by officers 6 Influenced by associates 4 Refusal of furlough 1 6 Mistake 14 To gather crops 3 Lack of funds to return to station . . .' 3 Total 160 The obvious suggestiveness of this list is such that readers may well draw their own conclusions as to suitable means of prevention, especially in such matters as " failure to appreciate seriousness of offense," " failure to under- stand reasons for military discipline," " belief of unjust treatment " and " poor handling by officers." 7 i2 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Causes connected with family matters Expected birth of a child 6 Home difficulties caused by non-payment of allotments 6 Homesickness 47 Illness or death of near relative 93 Miscellaneous domestic troubles 7 Poverty of dependents 27 186 It will be noted that these were not merely the allegations of the men themselves, but, according to the reviewing offi- cers of the Judge Advocate General's office, were sufficiently- demonstrated in the court-martial records. The inquiry would seem warranted as to what effect better knowledge of the personal problems of the men by superiors with a little sympathetic advice and encouragement and a more wise bestowal of furloughs, would have had in cutting down such offenses as appear in this group. In not a few specific cases, what appear to be reasons of proper validity for a furlough were advanced to higher authority and yet the absence was refused. For example " death of mother," " illness of parents and wife," " illness and great tragedy in family," " death of father, illness of sister," " mother not expected to live," " consumptive wife about to be con- fined, with failure to receive allotment checks,'.' etc. In absence without leave as a whole, the general court- martial records indicate that about a third of them could be traced to legitimate need of furlough. While this does not relieve the offender from fault, it indicates that some- where there is poor functioning if men go absent without leave when a furlough would have been justified by the facts in the case. Connected with outside matters Desire to marry 16 Entanglement with women 7 Opportunity to earn more 1 Total 24 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 713 Advice, suggestions, and perhaps more generous giving of furloughs in special cases would seem indicated here. Peculiar to war conditions Conscientious objectors , 1 Cowardice 5 Lack of loyalty 2 Total 8 As with desertions, cowardice resulting in absence without leave is very often a fear of the unknown, which informa- tion, explanation and encouragement will frequently dispel. Similarly disloyalty and conscientious objections may often be removed by explanation of patriotic ideals. Under the heading of " escape " appear the following: Causes due to character Drink 28 Mental weakness . ., 3 Illness 2 Unstable 26 Total 59 Connected with the service Belief of unjust treatment 6 Conditions at place of confinement 7 Disappointment at not being restored 5 Lack of discipline 1 1 Relationship with other prisoners 5 Total 34 Connected with family matters Home conditions 29 , These groups causes are summarized in Figure 46. The chief point to note here is the high proportion of cases caused by home troubles in comparison with absence without leave and desertion. 7H MANAGEMENT OF MEN Figure 46. Analysis of Group Causes of 122 General Court-Martial Convic- tions for Escape. Minor cases of absence without leave are usually handled by inferior courts-martial or company punishment. The motives here are so various as hardly to permit of being classified in any detail. Not a few of them are due to the irresponsibility of the mentally immature. Some represent reaction and temporary release from repressions and irrita- tions which had become galling. Some are due to lack of full appreciation that an act, which in civil life means merely the staying away from work and is perfectly legitimate, becomes a serious offense under the military code. The importunities of friends may persuade to absenteeism. In the past, liquor has been a powerful factor by deadening judgment and responsibility. In the young especially, the migratory instinct may enter. Finally, there may be a deliberate weighing of present pleasure against future pun- ishment, with choice of the former as being worth the price to be paid for it. It is worthy of note in this connection that causes imply- ing moral degeneration, other than those springing from drink or drug addiction, or from dishonesty, do not appear as factors of desertion, absence without leave, escape, offenses against constituted authority, offenses by sentinels and guards and miscellaneous offenses. The foregoing REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 715 analysis shows that such offenders may be mental defectives or irresponsibles, they may be uninformed, they may be immature youths, they may be self-assertive, emotional, etc., but they are not deliberate offenders against the standards of law and morals established by the criminal code in civil life. As one means of reducing absence without leave, the dis- criminating extension of pass privileges has often proven successful. At one camp, brigade, regimental and separate unit commanders were authorized to grant passes from noon on Saturday to midnight on Sunday. At another camp, furloughs of two days per month, or five days every two months, were granted, provided that no absence without leave had existed in the company for ten days before appli- cation was made, and under this plan the offense promptly decreased to less than half its previous rate. Indirect re- minders to soldiers on A. W. O. L. were printed on the backs of passes, urging that it be avoided. Calendars, pro- grams, dance and theatre tickets issued by the War Camp Community Service have often carried a message on the subject. The same organization gave special rates at its hotels to men showing their passes. The date of expiration of pass was written opposite each man's name and an hour was stated at which he should be notified that it was time to get back to his station. Similar arrangements were in vogue at many other hotels and sleeping quarters. One of the greatest factors in absence without leave, ■ especially in time of war, is civilian ignorance of its gravity as an offense. The very spirit of patriotism, during the recent war, contributed to it by thoughtlessly urging further hospitality upon military guests, thereby inducing them to overstay their periods of authorized absence. To such an extent did this apply at the Port of Embarkation, New York, that the Governor of New York issued a proclamation to the people of the State in the matter. A systematized campaign of advertising and newspaper publicity was also 716 MANAGEMENT OF MEN carried out to the same end. Advertising sign boards were put up and posters and placards on the subject were issued. Window displays were used in prominent stores and at- tracted much attention. Animated cartoons on A. W. O. L. were prepared, together with slides and other " fillers " for moving picture shows, not only for impressing soldiers but for informing civilians who were more or less unconsciously contributing to breaches of discipline. Leaflets were sup- plied through the War Camp Community Service, which also took charge of posting cards in street cars, busses, rail- road stations, etc. Merchants associations and various civic clubs and church organizations were lined up in the matter and, as a final step, the " Four Minute Men " agreed to talk on A. W. O. L. with a view to its curtailment. The tendency to write despondent letters from home, making the soldier homesick and discontented, was discouraged. Absentees usually get into early touch with their friends and family and favorably respond to home influences for their good. The Morale Branch accordingly sent out the following form letter to the service as suggestive of the line of approach which might be used by commanders for this purpose*:' Dear Mr. (or Mrs.) : The company commander of • has just reported to me that he is absent from his organization without proper permission. As you are the person whom he requested should be notified in case of emergency, I am writing to you as probably being one most interested in his welfare and good reputation. The officers and men of the regiment and of the company to which belongs are interested in the good name of these organiza- tions and the success of each other. For this reason I am writing to you in the belief that you would not approve such an act as the one of which he is now guilty. Absence from duty without permission is a military offense, and is not like throwing up a job in civil life. A soldier takes oath to serve his country for a definite period, and the Government requires him to live up to his word. Desertion is a military crime, which may be punished by heavy penalties, including imprisonment and loss of civil rights as a citizen. Disgrace rests on a deserter as long as REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 717 he lives, not only in the eyes of his comrades, but with the people in civil life. It is of the very greatest interest to that he complete his military career with honor and credit. An honorable discharge from the army is one of the greatest credentials a man can have in securing employment in civil life. The United States Government by law gives many advantages to honorably discharged soldiers in respect to preference as to employment, securing public lands and other matters. Various communities also give preference to honor- ably discharged soldiers along similar lines. An honorable discharge also confers upon the soldier the esteem and respect of his associates in any civil community. It is a card of admission to the great and powerful patriotic societies which must grow out of the war. It gives social status. I am sure that you would not wish him to lose such advantages or injure his record by any foolish act at this time. If he does not return, I shall have to proceed according to the requirements of army regulations and ask the United States authori- ties to compel his return. I trust, however, that this may not be necessary, and that you will speak to him or communicate with him without delay. Very truly, Signature Rank. These form letters proved very helpful in causing the return .of absentees by evoking the cooperation of their friends. Periods of absence were shortened, and others that would doubtless have developed into desertion were kept from lengthening to that extent. Some men who thought they could explain or excuse their return to their friends did not relish being shown up at home in the implied light of shirkers. A reinforcement of this letter has been successfully tried. In this, if, after five days from the send- ing of the foregoing letter, the man had not returned, the company commander notified the Red Cross, which wired its home service representative to take up the matter per- sonally with the soldier's relatives. Offenses Against Military Authority. Offenses against military, authority as discussed here relate to disrespect to superior officers and disobedience of orders of higher author- ity, but without violence being involved. While it is con- 718 MANAGEMENT OF MEN ceivable that a draft may bring into the service men whose state of mind is such that they serve with resentment, this is a rare and exceptional state. In the vast majority of recruits the mental state is the reverse. Certainly in voluntary enlistments the men enter the service in a state of mind which is not only willing but also anticipatory and eager. As this latter class makes up the army in time of peace, it is not only of interest but of practical importance to endeavor to seek out and remove the main causes which later inspire so many of them to anti- social reactions against authority and in reversal of their previous lofty ideas and purposes. There were 422 offenses against constituted authority in which the cause seemed apparent from the series of general court-martial records already mentioned. The group causes are shown in Figure 47. These were further classifiable as follows: Disrespect to Disobedience Nature of cause Superior officers of orders Total Connected with character: Drink 115 63 178 Illness 5 15 20 Ignorance 6 11 17 Unstable 19 40 59 Totals 145 129 274 Connected with Service: Belief of unjust treatment 7 14 21 Lack of discipline 7 23 30 Manner of order 4 5 • 9 Misunderstanding 5 17 22 Nature of order 1 11 12 Poor handling by officers 1 5 6 Poor handling by N. C. Os 13 13 Racial difficulty 1 5 6 Temporary state of mind fertile to offense 3 IO 13 Totals 29 103 132, Peculiar to war conditions: Disloyalty 3 13 16 REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 719 These figures show the great importance of alcohol as a factor in promoting indiscipline and disorder through the altered mental state and lack of judgment which it develops. Doubtless many of these offenders would not have reacted against authority had they been sober. When liquor enters a company, good order tends to go out of it. Peculiar to — war conditions 16 Figure 47. Analysis of 422 Cases of Offense Against Constituted Authority, as Revealed by General Court-Martial Records. Another important factor revealed by these figures relates to the administrative errors and omissions of superiors. When " illness, ignorance, belief of unjust treatment, lack of discipline, manner of order, misunderstanding, nature of order, poor handling by officers, poor handling by N. C. O's., and racial difficulty " are found to be the attributable causes of thirty-seven per cent, of infractions of discipline of this nature, it would seem as if superior authority could not evade a considerable share of responsibility for their devel- opment. A qualifying factor in this case, however, doubt- less exists in the fact that many of the officers concerned were themselves probably serving under temporary commis- sions and were proportionately inexperienced in the handling of men. In civil life, reactions against administrative authority are 720 MANAGEMENT OF MEN usually expressed by " quitting the job." Faulty business administration and poor handling of the human element in personnel are unquestionably responsible for a large pro- portion of " labor turnover " and strikes. Here mental relief is afforded through physical separation. Conditions in the army are somewhat different, since from military authority, however exercised, there is little opportunity for legitimate escape. But behind the difficulties of both the civilian and the soldier lie the same basic laws of human nature. Customs, standards and ideals of the political group also Figure 48. Group Causes in 164 Cases of Offense by Sentinels and Guards. enter. In any nation of free men, in which equality under the law, universal suffrage and other political ideals flourish, a greater restiveness against control is inevitable. America cultivates and exalts an individualism which encourages an idea of personal competency as to self-decision, protection and control. To this are added the self-reliant ideas and individualistic standards developed by the hardy pioneers who conquered its wildernesses. These standards still remain, though the conditions which developed them may have largely disappeared. Further, it should not be over- looked that immigrants from abroad have been impelled to these shores by motives, as individuals, of reaction against REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 721 Old World authority or conditions regarded as intolerable or undesirable. It follows, then, that methods of control which might be acquiesced in abroad might be reacted against here. Offenses by Sentinels and Guards These were classed under " sleeping on post " and " other offenses." Their group causes are shown in Figure 48. Their detailed causes in 164 cases were as follows: Sleeping Other Cause on Post Offenses Total Connected with Service Conditions out of control of offender 1 3 4 Failure to appreciate seriousness of offense ... 5 13 18 Fatigue, cause unknown 9 o 9 Fatigue from excessive duty ....17 2 19 Lack of discipline 2 5 7 Lack of proper instruction in guard duty 2 7 9 Physical weakness 5 7 12 Totals 41 37 78 Connected with Character of Offender Drink 10 14 24 Ignorance o 10 10 Illness 34 9 43 Mental weakness : 1 2 3 Weakness of character 1 1 2 Youth 2 2 4 Totals. 48 38 86 It will be noted that more than half of these offenses are for sleeping on post. This of course is a most serious offense by reason of its possible consequences to the com- mand. But it is an offense which develops in the absence of motive to do wrong and is due to the reaction of physical condition on mental state. It will be accepted that few, if any, sentinels go on post with the deliberate intention of going to sleep. They succumb to a systemic craving in 722 MANAGEMENT OF MEN which will power is reduced at a time when the craving is reinforced by opportunity. This demand of the physical body for physiological rest may be so insistent that even the best of intent may not be able to resist it. The good deacon who falls asleep during the sermon and scandalizes his family certainly had no intent to do so, while the out- ward evidences of his losing internal struggle of mind against body are often as amusing as interesting. So, too, with the soldier, and especially the young recruit of an age when immaturity demands a greater amount of rest and whose mind and body may be exhausted and relaxed from mental and physical strain. Statistics show that it is espe- cially the young soldier who sleeps on post. Only a highly disciplined will power can successfully withstand the soporific influence of physical fatigue; such will power is probably never fully attained in some and in any case is developed fully only through age and mental training. If to the factor of fatigue is added one of sickness, control over will power is further lessened. As stated, the gravity of the offense cannot be minimized be- cause of its effect upon others, but at the same time a heavy responsibility rests upon superiors that men shall not be posted as sentinels when there is reason to believe that they may, through no desire or intent on their own part, succumb to — and be punished as a result of — conditions due to military service and beyond their control. These remarks do not apply to other offenses of guards and sentinels in which volition is concerned, such as quitting of post, for example. Here the problem largely relates to ignorance and corresponding failure to attach due import- ance to the obligation. About half of the foregoing cases of " other offenses " seem to revert to this cause. The .removal of ignorance and inculcation of responsibility is a matter of training, and it seems illogical to penalize a man for being imperfectly instructed. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 723 Miscellaneous Military Offenses These include fraudulent enlistment, false official state- ment and similar matters. Classification of ninety-two such Figure 49. Analysis by Cause of 92 Miscellaneous Offenses Solely Military in Nature. cases is summarized in Figure 49, and also gives the fol- lowing : Connected with character Carelessness 3 Character of offender 11 Drink 22 Ignorance ' . . . 2 Mental 2 Illness 3 Total 43 Connected with service Belief of unjust treatment . . . . 1' .Failure to appreciate responsibility to duty ... 25 Failure to appreciate seriousness of offense ... 6 Fear of punishment 1 General dislike of service I To secure honorable discharge through fraudu- lent enlistment 6 Total 40 724 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Connected with family matters Miscellaneous domestic troubles 4 Connected wit'h outside matters To marry , I Entanglement with women 4 Total 5 It will be noted that causes unquestionably within the control of commanders related to a third of all these cases. There were also 212 cases of miscellaneous military offense which were peculiar to overseas conditions in the American Expeditionary Force, but which are not included in the above. Offenses with Violence Involved These are shown by groups in Figure 50, and are analyzed as follows in 451 general court-martial cases: Connected with character of offender Drink 268 Established criminal 20 Mental weakness 8 Unstable '. . . 87 Connected with outside matters Total 383 Figure 50. Analysis by Cause of 451 Convictions by General Courts-Martial for Offenses with Violence Involved. REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 725 The important point here is that drink, with the irrespon- sible mental condition which it produces, is by far the most important element in such offenses. Connected with the service Growing out of gambling 22 Military causes provocation 3 Racial prejudice 16 Lack of discipline 15 Total 56 Connected, with outside matters Entanglement with women 12 Offenses of Dishonesty In 417 general court-martial cases the grouping is shown in Figure 51. In greater detail it was as follows: Connected with outside matters 6 Figure 51. Shows Group Causes in 417 Convictions for Dishonesty by Gen- eral Courts-Martial. Connected with character of offender Criminal instinct 69 Drink 149 Drug addiction 8 726 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Ignorance 9 Mental weakness 8 Weakness of character 25 Youth 6 Total 274 The importance of drink as a factor in dishonesty should be noted. Connected with the service Dissatisfaction with organization 3 Failure to appreciate seriousness of offense ... 19 Gambling 7 Influenced by associates 25 Lack of discipline 2 Lax accounting methods 7 Need of money due to delayed pay 32 Personal need of money 17 Belief of unjust treatment 5 Total 117 It can be understood how delayed pay, though no excuse for dishonesty, may be a predisposing cause for it. " Influ- enced by associates " may relate to character. Connected with outside matters Entanglement with women 3 To marry 3 Total 6 Connected with family matters Home needs 20 In the latter cases, the Red Cross is usually in a position to render financial assistance where justified and thus re- move incentive. Offenses Against Decency These relate to sex crimes and perversions of all sorts. In seventy-two court-martial cases, shown by groups in Fig- ure 52, the classification was as follows: REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 727 Connected with character of offender Drink 21 Mental weakness 13 Unstable 33 Total 67 Connected with the service Influenced by associates 5 As might be expected, these crimes of shame seem to spring from defects of character, with drink often tipping the balance of judgment in men who would otherwise, in many cases, probably not have been offenders. Men com- ing under suspicion of such inclinations should be watched for; if they cannot at once be got rid of they can at least be put under environmental conditions where their influence on weaker associates can be minimized and a restraining influence exerted on them through surrounding them with strong, wholesome personalities. Miscellaneous Civil Offenses There were only fifteen of these in which causative rela- tionships could be classified, a number too small to give _ Connected with service I ' Ilka. Figure 52. Group C victed by General Courts-Martial. Against Decency, Con- 728 MANAGEMENT OF MEN satisfactory conclusions. They are shown in Figure 53. Connected with character of ' offender Drink 8 Ignorance 2 Weakness of character 2 Total 12 Connected with family matters Miscellaneous domestic troubles 3 Figure 53. Group Causes in 15 Cases of Miscellaneous Offenses, Civil in Nature. Drink or Drugs Constituting Principal Offense Beside the instances already given under various group heads, there were 369 cases in which drink was the cause of the trial and eleven cases were based on the use of drugs. It may be repeated here that in 3,363 cases of general court- martial analyzed, drink was shown by the evidence to have played a causative part in 1,164, an d drug addictions in twenty-nine. These figures suggest the important part which prohibition may be expected to play in promoting military efficiency. While many of the foregoing causes have no exact par- REWARD, PUNISHMENT, DELINQUENCY 729 allels in civil life, they reveal many influences and trends of human character which should throw a valuable side light on various administrative and disciplinary problems pertaining to the personnel of industry. CHAPTER XX INDUSTRIAL MORALE Relation of morale to industrial, economic and political problems; apparent faults of the management of the human element in industry; principles here evolved for military morale applicable to industry; complexity of the general industrial morale problem does not prevent reasonable solution; need for study of special morale problems of industry; all trace back to basic elements of human nature as prob- lems of applied psychology. Comparison of compulsion with effort which is voluntary; relations between superiors and subordinates ; the psychological side of industry; incompleteness and unscientific charac- ter of administrative measures in use. Mental factors of produc- tivity; efficiency of labor; productiveness of the individual ; standards of productivity ; causes of deficiency in output; depressed mental state has effect of decreased man-power. Absenteeism in industry and its diminution. Labor turnover; its cost to all concerned ; magnitude of the problem; the analogy of industrial resignation to military desertion; some causes of voluntary separation; ratio in industry far greater than in the military service; classes of workers with high labor turnover; the migrant worker. The importance of leader- ship in industry; efficiency over machines and efficiency over men quite different qualifications ; results of poor industrial handling of the human element. Mental attitude of the worker class; the phy- sical environment of the ivorker and some of its common faults; the psychological environment; industrial psychology. Fitness for the job; records of the worker; the working period, mental state and productivity. Self-interest in the worker; acquisitiveness; self-es- teem; sympathetic understanding; community of experience; expres- sion of personality; choice of occupation; analysis of the job; op- portunity for promotion; permanency of employment; powers of discharge; pride of workmanship; vocational training; rivalry; class consciousness ; the square deal; courtesy and consideration; recrea- tional activities; home influences; educational opportunity ; system- atized information; appropriate publicity; the human elements of leadership; complaints and faults; the guide to conduct. Industrial Morale. The General Order establishing the Morale Branch of the General Staff charged it with the stimulation of morale — that is, industrial productivity — 730 INDUSTRIAL MORALE 731 among the producers of munitions. This opened up almost the entire field of industrial morale, for not only were arsenals and government plants included but also plants functioning for any government production purposes what- ever. A large part of the manufacturing facilities of the country was at the time employed on government contracts and it would have been difficult to find many of the major industries of the country which were not concerned either directly or indirectly. At the time of the organization of the Morale Branch, the stimulation of the production of munitions was one of the most important and pressing problems presented to it. Coincident with the recruiting, training and dispatching of organizations was the need of equipment. Production, in many instances, was not keeping pace with requirements. The signing of the Armistice suddenly did away with this problem. Production along military lines was stopped as rapidly as practicable and every effort made to turn indus- trial effort into normal civilian channels as soon as possible. In the meantime, however, the morale organization had accumulated a considerable and varied experience, and gratifying response was already being manifested to the stimulating measures which had been introduced. All will agree that many industrial difficulties and reac- tions are in urgent need of being solved. Coercion is im- possible, and only mental change offers a prospect of solu- tion, whereby there may be a tendency to convergence rather than divergence. The writer is convinced that the suitable adaptation of scientific morale principles to industrial prob- lems affords by far the most promising approach to the removal of many industrial difficulties interfering with pro- duction, and through this to the abatement of many of the economic, social and political difficulties and dangers that confront the national life. Someone has spoken of corporations as being organiza- tions " without a soul." In a general way, this probably 732 MANAGEMENT OF MEN applies, though a certain number of examples indicate that great business establishments need not necessarily be soul- less, and that cold-blooded methods, or on the other hand those in which the element of human interests and relations appear, are merely matters of election and of the manage- ment of affairs to the end chosen. Experience further demonstrates that the latter method is more successful in that, while adding to the sum total of human happiness, it pays economically. The reasons for this seem to be imper- fectly understood, even by the organizations which have made effort to use it. But what has gone before in this book sets forth such reasons very clearly as founded on the laws of human nature. In exactly the proportion in which such laws are employed to the desired purpose, and are not contravened, industrial difficulties are avoided, unnecessary wastage of potential man power is reduced, productivity is increased and economic results are successful. It is not only a case of dollars and cents, but of dollars and sense. Suc- cessful business does not overlook the human agencies con- tributing to business success. -"'Certain results of applied industrial morale work are illuminating. In 191 8, the production of motors for air- planes was falling behind needs. An allotment of 3,000 motors was made to five firms for the month of August and but 2,297 were delivered. For September, the same allot- ment was made to the same concerns and but 2,362 were produced. In October, a whirlwind campaign to promote industrial morale in these very same plants was carried out by the military morale organization, and their output dur- ing the month ran up to 3,878 motors, with a value of about ten million dollars for the increased production. Similarly, a less comprehensive campaign in another plant and indus- try was followed by an increased production of twenty-nine per cent., and by a reduced labor turnover of twenty-six per cent., while the man who came late or laid off became an object of suspicion. Such gratifying results were of INDUSTRIAL MORALE 733 course brought- about under war conditions when the senti- ment of patriotism could be appealed to and when sugges- tion was further reinforced by the powerful pressure of an active public opinion. The main theme here was to link up the munitions maker with the soldier and to feature industry as the second line of defense behind the line of combat. A very great variety of methods and approaches for stimulation to this end were used. While the supreme stimulus of war is lacking in time of peace, there is no question but that lesser stimuli, available at any time and in any place, would have proportionately successful effect upon output, if of appropriate nature and intelligently applied. The principles on which their use is based have been tested in the military service too many times on parallel, if different, problems to leave any apprehension of failure. It is true that the complexity of the general industrial morale problem is very great, including as it does the hundreds of possible varieties of men and women, races and creeds, skill and awkwardness, trades and professions, classes and diversity of environmental conditions, many of which do not enter into the problem of military morale. Large organizations have proportionately greater industrial difficulties because of the greater number and diversity of their elements. As the aggregation of men in masses in- creases liability to epidemic of infectious disease, so it in- creases the problems brought about by infectious thought. Nevertheless, it is believed possible to demonstrate that the problem of industrial morale is practically solvable to an extent far greater than is usually appreciated. It will be admitted at the outset that any discussion of industrial morale confined to the possible limits of a chapter of this general nature must necessarily give the impression of imperfection and superficiality. But these faults are not as great as they may seem if the general principles of applied psychology and stimulation of morale which have been 734 MANAGEMENT OF MEN previously discussed 'in this book are duly considered in connection with this special subject. For, after all, the difficulties come back to the fundamental elements of human quality. Accordingly, it seems perfectly feasible to reduce considerably many of the points of unnecessary friction be- tween the employer and employed to their mutual advantage and profit. Many repressions of perfectly natural human traits can be done away with by wise management, and the reactions which spring from them, such as lowered produc- tion, increased labor turnover, strikes and lockouts, be avoided. It has already been shown that the morale problems in an army are restricted in variety as compared with those of civil life, by reason of unity of purpose, limitations of class through sex, age and selection, more or less standardization of environment, and a single code for the government of conduct. This, however, does not mean that the morale problems of industrial life, by reason of their greater diversity and complexity, will not be similarly responsive to intelligent methods of control. The task is great, but as in the military service, it is greatly simplified by the fact that many of its problems fall within general groups which may be handled on general principles. It is necessary, however, that the special morale problems of industry shall be recognized, dispassionately studied, evaluated as to importance, and the remedy which is scien- tifically indicated be applied effectively. Any such condi- tions as are left unremedied will continue to serve as irri- tants and result in corresponding loss in efficiency — that is, luctivity. One difficulty in respect to industrial morale problems is f that economic considerations are basic. Commercial life is competitive, and therefore the lowest standards of cost tend to compel all to descend to their levels. Low cost of pro- duction may permit of price cutting, which tends to force INDUSTRIAL MORALE 735 down the standards of competitors who desire to hold their business. Such financial considerations have no application to military morale, in which efficiency is stimulated, not by the lowest, but by the highest standards. Industrial labor laws, however, serve to create minimum standards along certain lines, below which efforts to lower costs may not go. As might be expected, the broad problems of industrial morale bear a general relation to those relating to military efficiency. Better knowledge as to the efficient management of men in the military service has revealed very clearly many facts applicable, with little or no modification, to the indus- trial problems of civil life. Many of these points have already been brought out in the foregoing pages and need not be repeated here. The instincts, for example, are common human qualities. While their present discussion has been primarily from the military aspect, business inter- ests will have no difficulty in suggesting to themselves a multiplicity of analogous applications of instinctive trends to industrial conditions in civil life. Next, to life itself, the most important thing in the world for each individual is his associations with other human beings. Even the most casual conversation embodies the subject of human relations. To disregard the factor of human relations is to disregard the mainspring of human behavior. Every individual industry has its own special problems, which subdivide into those of various classes of workers cooperating to the common end. Also around each is its special environment, including physical, economic, social and other factors which leave their impress upon conduct. Every individual industrial problem can thus be fully solved only by proceeding from an understanding of its special individual premises. Nevertheless, much can be done by applying to all common sense methods based on general principles of human nature — for the term " human na- ture " is merely inclusive of certain basic emotions, desires 736 MANAGEMENT OF MEN or instincts which are common to all human individuals and control their acts, whether they wear the garb of the artisan or the soldier. Thus, as with the military service, the problem of applied psychology in relation to the worker class necessitates knowledge of the laws entering into the general human equation. From this, it is a logical step to its intelligent application to the problems of the individual, just as the mathematician applies certain general mathematical laws to a diversity of problems. Imagination and guess-work can have no place where rational, scientific measures can be sub- stituted, and the efficiency of the latter should be checked up bv seeing their actual results on men at work. Not in- flexible methods formulated in advance, but a series of ex- periments are indicated; the factors in any problem of indus- trial morale are changing and measures to control them must change accordingly in nature or in emphasis. As in the military service, morale work increases effi- ciency in industry, but it does so not through measures of compulsion but through voluntary action of the individuals concerned. Interest replaces listlessness, desire supplants indifference, and loyalty, enthusiasm, contentment and esprit reinforce each other. Any manager of men, whether officer or civilian, knows the influence these intangible qualities have upon the concrete result. If it be granted that applied psychology may be used to practical advantage, then it must be conceded that the rela- tions between the employer and the worker are often too materialistic. The usual procedure is chiefly confined to the paying and receiving of a money reward for an output of energy of an approximate money value. There is no scien- tifically systematized attempt to turn the psychological side of industry to the promotion of productivity. Yet the mind of the worker is no less important to the final output and value than is the machine. In every factory, a certain optimum steam pressure is necessary in the boilers if the INDUSTRIAL MORALE 737 machinery is to be run to best efficiency. Similarly, no industry can succeed which apparently proceeds on the unsound idea that the human qualities which are the energiz- ing factors of the human agents may be safely disregarded, if such industry comes into competition with others adminis- tered under more rational principles. It is probably true, therefore, that few would deny in theory the value of the psychological urge in promoting the interests of an industry. But in practice k would seem that relatively little effort is made to develop and sustain it, and that what efforts have been and are made seem empirical rather than scientific, are always incomplete and frequently misapplied. The very wide difference in such applicatory measures as are used in various concerns give justifiable reason for doubt as to whether causes, conditions and pur- poses have been well worked out and understood — just as in medicine a diversity of drugs and methods of treatment recommended for a certain disease may be accepted as evi- dence of lack of exact knowledge by the medical profession as to its origination and progress. Nor is it necessarily true in either case that because the administration of a supposed remedy is followed by improvement that a panacea for all the symptoms in question has been discovered.' Such may be due to coincidence and not based on any rela- tion between cause and effect. It is well understood that certain progressive business interests have already taken steps along appropriate lines. But in no known instance is the subject approached with the thorough scientific accuracy essential to best results. There are good managers of men in civil life just as there are good leaders in the military service — men who by natural ability and experience possess a high degree of leadership. But the proportion is relatively small; probably much smaller in civil life than in the military service, where one of the essential qualifications of officers is the ability to exercise a fair degree of human control. The value of state of mind 738 MANAGEMENT OF MEN as affecting output and achieving results is also appreciated, even if relatively vaguely, by the workers themselves. Ordinarily the intangibles receive little attention and con- sideration, but if these are aroused in them their reaction is much like that expressed by the foreman whose champion gang at the Hog Island ship yard set a new record for rivet- ing, " According to my way of figuring, this thing called morale is blamed important." All business men realize that production is not a smooth and orderly process at all times and that with exactly the same physical equipment of plant, machinery, material and capital invested, and with the same number of workers, elements of morale affecting the latter will enter to force output up or down. This may be so variable as to run the gamut between profit and loss. There is thus an oscillation of industrial efficiency just as it has been shown that there is an oscillation of military efficiency. If the curve shown in Fig. i is used for analogy, its levels might be compared as follows: Military Morale Civilian Productivity Maximum of possible accomplishment. Maximum productiveness. Faith in commanders. Trust in superiors. Team work. Cooperation. High spirits. Enthusiasm for the job. Contentment. Interest in the work. Level of average morale. Level of average efficiency. Dissatisfaction. Listlessness at work. Criticism and complaint. " Conscious withdrawal of efficiency." Desertion; disorder. Labor turnover; sabotage. Unwillingness to obey orders. Strikes. Mutiny. Riots. It is clear that any industry which does not attain a cer- tain degree of productiveness cannot economically survive any more than the military organization which has not reached reasonable standards of efficiency can hope for INDUSTRIAL MORALE 739 success. In both, act results from a sufficient motive. A basic factor of the industrial problem is thus in seeing that motives, suitable and adequate for the purposes and results intended, are provided. The efficiency of labor is probably the greatest factor that influences productivity and profit. This is evidenced by the unceasing efforts to produce new " labor saving " devices, not only to lower costs but to reduce the various difficulties attaching to human agencies. Labor probably enters into costs more than capital invested in machinery and plants, and as a far more variable and perplexing fac- tor. It is curious that the importance of this element has not been more fully realized and that more intelligent effort has not been made to solve the problem of increasing pro- ductivity through the man as well as the machine. Inas- much as the purpose of an industry is to produce, an essen- tial quality to consider in an employee is his comparative productiveness. Where differences in productivity exist between individuals of the same group of workers producing the same thing under the same conditions and encouraged to develop their output to the full capacity, it is apparent that these relate to diversity of qualities within the indi- vidual workers themselves. It is economically important to determine where and to what extent such differences exist and their causes, for the worker who does more is worth more, having due consideration not only to quantity but to quality. .Civilian industry can create standards and determine de- grees of efficiency in the worker far more readily and exactly than the military establishment can do with the soldier. In the former, it may be mathematically expressed in units, yards or pounds of product having a definite commercial value. With the soldier, his degree of efficiency must be sensed since it often cannot be mathematically proven. The causes of deficiency in workers may be physical, in which appropriate physical measures of correction are 740 MANAGEMENT OF MEN necessary, such as correction of poor eye-sight, change to a task to which the worker is more adapted, training in tech- nics, and in other ways. Habits enter,- as where attendance or sobriety materially affect output over a period of time. Mental state enters, in that workers of enthusiasm and loyalty will show it in producing more than those not prompted by these influences, often in great degree of dif- ference. Conversely, such negative factors as impatience, indifference and lack of interest reveal themselves with mathematical accuracy in the amount of product created. Morale depression thus has the same effect on the individual's productivity as physical defect. In the industrial group, it has the same effect on output as decreased numbers of work- ers and man-power, but without any corresponding diminu- tion in labor costs. Fortunately such mental and moral depressions are, in practice, largely preventable. Since they are preventable, it is a fair question for any employer to ask as to whether they are being adequately prevented. Absenteeism is one of the important causes of industrial inefficiency, variable with the character of employment and the industrial concern. It is for industry what absence without leave is to the military service. Motives are di- verse. Matters of necessity of course enter, but probably not to the considerable extent alleged. The delinquents, if followed up, are apt to give excuses rather than reasons. In a general Way, the chief cause seems to be that the job, for the time at least, is less attractive than something else. The average amount of absenteeism among workers seems to run from ten to twelve per cent. Some industrial con- cerns run as high as twenty per cent. This means that one or two workers in every ten must be green hands, or a cor- responding proportion of the plant lies idle. That any such proportion is probably unduly high is shown by the fact that the absentee ratio in many similar industrial establishments has been held well below it. As absence without leave seems to be a precursor of desertion, so absenteeism in industry is INDUSTRIAL MORALE 741 often preliminary to quitting the job. There is relative lack of satisfaction with the position and want of interest in it. Bonuses for attendance, rather than docking for absence, seem to have produced the best results in combating ab- senteeism. This result runs true to the general findings of morale work that stimulation is a more effective agent than repression. An excellent way to follow up cases of absence is through visiting nurses. Much good may be done in this way, not only in showing interest and sympathy and in help- ing to alleviate actual suffering, but in checking up absence from other causes. Labor turnover is one of the most disturbing factors of industry. It gives a staggering blow to the prosperity of both parties concerned, for the shifting from one job to another is alike detrimental to the employer and the em- ployee. As the latter loses the benefit of the wages which might have been earned in the idle periods, so the former loses in the lessened productivity inevitable during the periods of absence and new adjustment. No military force could be efficient if it had to depend largely on wanderers from one organization or branch of the service to another, with little or no training and little or no cohesion by at- traction. The economic loss in labor turnover relates not only to the clerical cost of replacement, but enters into training, waste and breakage due to inexperience, idleness of ma- chinery during replacement, lowered productiveness and greater liability to accident. What this amounts to in any plant is a local question well worth careful inquiry. It will probably be found one of the chief sources of leakage and waste. Studies of labor turnover show that three out of every four separations are due to the desire of the workers to quit, the remaining separations being about equally di- vided between " lay-offs " and discharge. Eliminating " lay-offs," which do not properly enter into turnover, it is found that only eighteen per cent, of separations are due to 742 MANAGEMENT OF MEN discharge. When ten out of every thirteen workers sep- arated thus leave their jobs voluntarily, it is clear that the causes operating to produce such separation are of great industrial importance and well worth inquiry and efforts at remedy. The problem of labor turnover by resignation is, in its essentials, the same as that of desertion, — viz. the sum total of the separating motives is greater than the sum total of the attracting motives. When the impulse away is greater than the impulse toward, the worker quits. These impulses should be analyzed as to cause and relative strength. It is as important to know why the worker goes as why he comes. In many instances some of the expulsive causes of loss need only to be understood in order to be remedied, and it is also quite possible to strengthen the pull of some of the attracting forces. Doubtless a certain proportion of sep- arations depend upon a multiplicity of personal reasons which cannot well be determined and therefore neutralized. But it is surprising what a large proportion of difficulties may be readily reached and dissipated if there is honest pur- pose and intelligent effort to do so. Often there may be general dissatisfaction due to an accumulation of grievances not referred to a single definite factor. In a general way, only about one-fourth to one-third of all cases of voluntary separation are referred to wages. The other factors seem variable with establishments and in- dustries, and sufficient data have not been secured for their accurate determination and analysis. On the whole, how- ever, they seem chiefly to relate to human relations. As to the general problem of turnover, it is stated that of one industrial district " 2000 hirings in a year for 1000 perma- nent positions was not an exaggerated index of labor's mo- bility." In not a few instances, the turnover was much higher than this. If such extreme conditions obtained in the military service, it would mean the impossible task of enlisting twice the strength of the army every year. INDUSTRIAL MORALE 743 Figures on labor turnover in industry in comparison with desertion from the army are very interesting. Government labor statistics covering 100,000 employees in Chicago, Cin- cinnati, Cleveland, Detroit and San Francisco, for the years 1918-1919, were compared with army desertions for the thirteen-year peace period, 1903-19 16. These figures showed that an average of 513 workers out of every thou- sand would voluntarily quit their jobs yearly, leaving but 487, while in the army an average of but 45 soldiers per thousand deserted annually. This comparison indicates that the rate of " quitting the job " is eleven times greater than that of quitting the army. Even allowing that army re- cruiting methods prevent the enlistment of a certain pro- portion of men of the " floater " class, the conclusion seems warranted either that army administrative conditions are comparatively good or that the corresponding methods of civilian industry are very poor. These figures are especially illuminating in view of fre- quent newspaper articles holding up the army to criticism for its desertions, which the civilian mind is led to believe resulted from such military harshness as foiiced men to es- cape from it. If the military service suffered any such loss of men as civilian life accepts as normal for industry throughout the country, where one employee in every three leaves his job annually, the belief in such alleged strictures might seem better justified. A comparison of 1000 civilians who quit their work with 1000 enlisted men who desert, shows the following: Service at time of Civilian Enlisted quitting or deserting. employees. men. Less than three months 668 1 74 Three to six months 116 170 Six months to one year 89 218 One year to two years 58 175 Two years to three years 21 65 Over three years 48 198 1000 1000 744 MANAGEMENT OF MEN This comparison shows that only one-fourth as many recruits desert during their first three months of service as civilian workers quit their jobs during the same period of employment. It would seem that recruits find the army much more attractive, despite its unfamiliar conditions and firm government, than civilian workers find the much- heralded opportunities of civil industry. While no statis- tics on the subject are available, it is believed that less than one in ten enlisted men are married. Among civilian workers, labor statistics indicate that six out of every ten are married. In other words, the military service has a much higher proportion of men who have no marital and local ties and thus belong to a relatively unstable class, socially and economically. The above figures indicate that not only has the army thus to contend with the factor of an unduly high proportion of men who have a tendency above average toward shifting occupation and residence but it is handling the matter relatively successfully. Within the same industry and within the same communi- ties, there is often great variation in labor turnover between separate industrial concerns. Under such conditions, it is evident that any great difference relates to causes within the establishments themselves and has directly to do with an often grave problem of industrial waste. For any undue waste of this sort some persons or methods can be held re- sponsible. It is theoretically possible to make the poorest record in such respects approximate that of the best. Rota- tion of labor never occurs in equal degree throughout an organization. Certain classes of work, especially those em- ploying much casual labor, have much more rapid rotation than others. In certain industries where both sexes are em- ployed, about twice as many women as men quit their jobs in the same period, probably due to marriage and the fact that men are more stabilized by having families to support. Some foremen hold workers where others lose them. Men, f methods or conditions may be at fault. Therefore, special INDUSTRIAL MORALE 745 attention should first be focussed upon these weak industrial points with a view to determining the factors of such special weakness. The first step in morale work in any commercial concern should be its survey with reference to its human factor. Labor turnover is far higher in unskilled and semi-skilled groups, and is especially high in workers of short service. In some such extreme instances, the turnover may amount to from five hundred to one thousand per cent, per annum. There are instances recorded where more than ten thousand men were hired during a year in the effort to fill one thou- sand jobs. In this connection it may be said that there is in this country a very large proportion of the unskilled labor class which may be designated as " migrant." How large this class may be it is impossible to state. It varies with industrial prosperity, reaching its minimum at times when business activity and demand open up the largest number of well-paid, fixed positions. It attains its maximum when in- dustrial depression causes establishments to curtail their pay rolls either as to employees or wages, thereby breaking an increased number of individuals from their moorings to be- come " floaters " in search of a job. According to Parker, " there were in 19 10 in the United States some 10,400,000 unskilled male workers. Of these, some 3,500,000 moved, by discharge or quitting, so regu- larly from one work town to another that they could be called migratory labor. . . . The (California) census shows the existence in the state of some 175,000 workers in the casual-using occupations." The very geographical . magnitude of the United States, its diversity of climate and the succession of crops depending thereon favors the de- velopment of " floating labor." Great numbers of persons are needed in certain places at certain times, but for brief periods only. Thus the ripening of the wheat crop moves itinerant labor from Texas to Manitoba, to help with a har- vesting far beyond the capacity of permanent local labor in 746 MANAGEMENT OF MEN the wheat states to accomplish. But this local need lasts but a few weeks, after which the demand for labor suc- cesssively follows in hop and apple picking in the northwest, later in citrus fruit gathering in California, and still later in the winter industries of lumbering, ice cutting, etc., in the north. The simplicity of certain industrial operations also op- erates to produce instability. Some jobs may be learned in a day or a week, after which the creative instinct is sub- merged under automatism and the individual has little to occupy him mentally except interests outside his work. These interests tend to do with personal disabilities, and whether real or imagined, they flourish under culture. The ultimate result favors a shifting to what is believed to be a more favorable environment. This floating class finds its expression in various radical tendencies. It is a class with- out permanent residence and is therefore without local ties, voteless and without voice or personal interest in the Gov- ernment. It is a womanless class, and therefore without the stabilizing and stimulating influence of family and home. It is without a permanent job, and its relatively high wages of employment are dissipated in unavoidable periods of idleness. It is thus a class without property, and all re- straints to conduct which flow from property possession are absent. It should not be confused with the general worker type, merely because it engages along similar general lines, of work, for it represents a separate and distinct social group. To this floating class naturally gravitate not only men of a naturally vagrant temperament, in whom the urge to move is exceptionally strong, but those lacking in mental strength to formulate a definite purpose and ambition and adhere to it. The irresponsible of the moron type, the sickly and dis- eased and those refractory to the pressure of social code recruit it. Some reinforce it as a result of economic condi- tions which, once overwhelming them, continue to submerge INDUSTRIAL MORALE 747 them. All manifest certain qualities, or the lack of others, which render them unfit to cope with the average type of human beings in the competitive stresses of industrial life. It is impossible to go into any detailed discussion of the industrial floater, the ramifications of which would lead into sociology, political economy, psychiatry, the domain of medicine and other things. It can only be said that the condition of being a floater is symptomatic of other causes, and that the difficulties flowing from floating labor can only be attacked successfully through the causes which gave the latter birth. As it is recognized as true .of an army, so it will be ad- mitted in industry that the efficiency of workers, both as to output and in respect to labor turnover, is largely a mat- ter of handling. Some administrative officials and their methods gain good results where others fail. Thus it ap- pears that the efficiency of workers is a matter of industrial leadership, and that the same general principles of human nature which govern effective leadership in an army apply also in industry. There are the same general human trends, cravings and reactions to be met in both cases, though in in- dustry certain particular problems become more prominent. It is believed that this quality of industrial leadership is too often overlooked. Superintendents may be drivers rather than leaders and may apply force where it is not only unnecessary but harmful. Feelings may be hurt, and natu- ral channels of sympathetic interest and understanding dammed and blocked. The driving power of industry is in community of interest and friendly relations. It hap- pens also that workers are doubtless not infrequently pro- moted to foremen and other supervisory and controlling positions because of knowledge of the mechanics of the task and with little consideration of other qualities. But because an individual knows the mechanical processes of a certain job is no indication that he understands human nature and possesses the qualities necessary to the wise control of men. 748 MANAGEMENT OF MEN Delegated authority to control, and personal ability to con- trol, may be as far apart as the poles. Efficiency at the machine and efficiency over men require very different quali- fications, and the overlooking of this fact will bring about many unnecessary frictions and difficulties. The close con- tact between the workers and their immediate supervisors makes this matter of special importance. On the other hand, unsympathetic policies handed down from above as to the handling of men will be carried out by loyal subordinates even if they are in conflict with the ideas of the latter. One result of the poor handling of the human element is the impairment of interest and initiative and a resulting slowing down in productivity. There may be direct re- action against repression, or a lack of stimulus for the ex- penditure of a fair degree of energy. Either cause affects result. There is slacking, carelessness, wastefulness and perhaps the conscious withdrawal of efficiency. All these are practical difficulties which are hard to meet. It may be stated here that while the noun " soldier " implies a most honorable status, the verb " to soldier " may have quite a different quality of interpretation. One of the definitions of the latter is " to make a pretense of working, while doing only enough to escape punishment or discharge." This misuse of the word is a slur on the military profession, whose every ideal is opposed to the slowing down of effi- ciency. It is true that there are some men with a natural tendency to take it easy, whether in the army or in civil life. But in the army more incentives are at work to off- set this tendency than exist in industry — with one of its chief interests centered in the pay envelope. Where such workers do not see sufficient reward available to compensate for effort, the effort is not made. One reaction of industrial dissatisfaction is, therefore, to do as little as possible and still hold employment. But neither pay nor willingness to limit output, lest it destroy their own job, are influences af- fecting soldiers. INDUSTRIAL MORALE 749 The mental attitude of the worker class at any and all times is most important. In order to remedy any difficulty, whether mental or physical, its existence, nature and extent must be known. The viewpoint of the group must be un- derstood. Just as a great number of individuals have to be considered in any mass problem, so there is diversity in points of view. No one of these is typical of the whole; they tend to fall into classes expressive of mental state and rriay be largely handled as such. It is the type widely aberrant from the statistical average which is particularly in rreed of special individual handling. Accordingly, the viewpoint of the individual must also be sought out and understood. Often it has sprung from false or incomplete premises or conditions which only await appreciation to be torrected. The worker is no inanimate bit of mechanism in the- fabric of industry. H.e has sensibilities. These are often wounded; frequently unnecessarily, though at times there is apparently undue sensitiveness. But it must be em- phasized that it is. upon his own ideas, however acquired, and not upon other ideas which may be entertained by his su- periors, that he governs his conduct. A service of information to keep in touch with his ideas is thus necessary. Such services have at times been estab- lished, but perhaps more for the purpose of determining the actually discontented individuals than for inquiring into and endeavoring to remedy their causes of discontent. But the function should be larger and broader — just as a fire de- partment; does not limit itself to extinguishing conflagrations, but busies itself also with investigations and corrections whereby fires shall not occur. This service of information should head up centrally so that effective action may be taken in the problems concerned. Its purpose should be stimu- lative and positive rather than repressive and negative. Its representatives should be present in every group, and should be more active in finding out the difficulties of the well- disposed than in determining the disaffected. As with mo- 750 MANAGEMENT OF MEN rale operatives in the military service, wise selection is neces- sary, based on the human attributes which they possess. If their work is well done, and is justly supported from above, the class of disaffected will dwindle to a quantity almost negligible in industrial result and its problems cease to vex because they will largely fail to develop. An effective organization for morale work in the mili- tary service has already been described. It is a simple mat- ter to transpose the military status of these agents to the corresponding administrative grades of industry. So modi- fied, the general plan, if it reaches into every part of the organization and not only exists in name but functions in fact, will be effective. In the matter of physical environment, it is easier to con- trol this in the military service than in industry. The sol- dier is part of an aggregation under continuous control throughout the twenty-four hours of the calendar day; the worker is usually under control but one-third of such period. Outside of working hours, the industrial employee is merged back into a special environment of his own, in which " a man's house is his castle," and the influences which react upon him in this period are chiefly to be reached indirectly ^through the public opinion of his community. Identifica- —• tion of the interests of the industry and the community is thus important. Since the influence of public opinion in ultimate results of productivity can not be averted, it should not be disregarded. It can often be capitalized in indus- trial morale. Thus during the war, one effective bit of a general advertising plan which increased the output of a concern thirty-nine per cent, was the window display of artillery harness with the words, " In war, this harness must stand the supreme test. It will, because it was made here in .'" But while the influence of environment on the worker is less complete and continuous than on the soldier, because he is under less complete control at all times, it still exerts a INDUSTRIAL MORALE 751 powerful influence on conduct. The special problem under consideration relates to industrial task, — and the environ- mental conditions pertaining to it, whether pleasant or un- pleasant, are mentally associated with the task itself. Many industrial difficulties have developed from no special fault of the work required, but from apparently remediable con- ditions of its physical environment, such as lack of sanitary necessities, reasonable comfort and even need for such im- provements as better light or more air, which tended directly to the advantage of productivity of the industrial concern as a whole. It is probable that in many instances the desired improvements are considered primarily from the standpoint of personal interests. This, however, as repeatedly em- phasized, is a normal human trait. Whether self-interest be desirable in others than ourselves, is not the subject of present consideration. The point to note here is that, since it cannot be eliminated as a factor, careful consideration must be had in every instance as to whether it is worth while to repress or block it, from an economical standpoint at least. It may happen that such matters of physical environment fall within the control of superiors who may not be quali- fied by education or technical knowledge to pass upon them, or who may look more to personal advantage through a showing of present economies than to the ultimate interests of the concern represented. Not all have projective vision whereby the influence of present, conditions in relation to future results can be forecasted. Yet sometimes a modest outlay to relieve an obvious irritant in the industrial en- vironment which interferes with interest, loyalty and en- deavor will pay tremendous financial returns upon the invest- ment. Exactly what, the physical improvements should be is a local problem. There are, however, certain general standards of sanitation and comfort which are accepted by public opinion as right and proper. No mistake will be made if these general standards are made to govern. Some 752 MANAGEMENT OF MEN general points to which attention is always required are mentioned later in this discussion. To these should be added whatever measures the local conditions may render desirable and practicable. The relief of physical difficulty is thus transmitted into state of mind and thence into the release of energy promotive of industrial conduct. In any case, good working conditions are indispensable. Good light, proper temperature, sufficient fresh air, freedom from dust, suitable toilets, wash-rooms and shower-baths, rest- rooms, cafeterias run at cost, good drinking water and other factors are necessary to the industrial environment. These are not concessions to employees but are matters of eco- nomic advantage. They are based upon the common sense idea that the mental and physical strain resulting from efforts to offset unnecessary physical disadvantage might bet- ter be used in increased productiveness. Where workers get sick, it means substituting a trained worker adjusted to the whole by a less trained one, or going without. Allied to this problem of working environment are such efforts as an industrial concern may make to better the lot of its workers outside-of industrial hours. Here again the inherent qualities of human nature determine the degree of success in respect to effect on interrelations. The build- ing of model towns and modern houses may lack of desired results of appreciation if the atmosphere of industrial con- trol extends unduly over them. There are so many repres- sions from above necessary to the conducting of any modern industry that human nature does not relish having them, even in part, carried over into periods of outlet for expres- sion. Human beings are more interested in what they do for themselves than in what is done for them. Value at- taches to the cost of acquirement and individuality is prized. The worker who lives in a house like a thousand others will, if permanency of residence is assured, seek to give it the elements of a home, and take more personal pride and in- terest in a well-kept lawn or a beautiful rose-bush which he INDUSTRIAL MORALE 753 has planted than in the general conveniences which others have installed. Encouragement and assistance in building and owning one's own home, however humble, does more for morale than the opportunity to hire a standardized dwelling, however convenient. Some one once expressed this idea by saying that while a man would fight for his home, none would do it for his boarding house. With this also goes the manner of provision and main- tenance of housing and other improvements by higher au- thority. To give the impression of claiming credit is to impair the sense of appreciation. Effort for " uplift " is really successful only when the uplifter works from beneath. Few relish charity. Anything given in an attitude of cater- ing to the self-esteem of the giver loses the quality of sym- pathy. If the average man is helped, he wants to be helped in such a way as to enable him better to help himself. He values the right and ability to provide for himself as he sees fit and as public opinion determines. The same principles apply to the psychological environ- ment. To leave the worker a prey to doubts, misapprehen- sions and discontents developed from erroneous concepts, mentally conveyed to him from indiscriminate sources by irresponsible or perverted individuals, i$ to invite physical difficulty therefrom as a consequence. Education, informa- tion and publicity, by any and all agencies, broad and ac- curate, furnish the antidote. Nor should their functions be limited to the meeting of existing mental difficulties. On the contrary, their chief purpose should be that of antici- pating and dissipating potential mental difficulties otherwise liable to future development. Healthy thoughts are as im- portant to industrial efficiency as healthy bodies. Much the same general principles govern the bringing about of the one as the other. It has already been brought out that men differ, and dif- fer widely, in any trait or combination of traits. Civilians as well as soldiers differ in their fitness for certain studies, 754 MANAGEMENT OF MEN games or classes of work. This difference of quality, real or potential, is shown by common experience to apply within any large industrial group. It follows that if a number of men apply for a certain job and the mos"t fit man rather than the least fit gets the place, both the employer and the em- ployee profit — the former in terms of immediate economic advantage and the latter through present satisfaction in con- genial work, which will be an incentive to develop to such higher positions of pay and opportunity as the natural capac- ity of the man may warrant. Industry gains in proportion as such double fits are approximated. One important function of industrial morale work is thus to fit the man to the most appropriate job. This is not done by industry with the generality and thoroughness deserved. Little relative progress has been made along these lines, while the division of workers according to quality and capacity is still much as it was half a century ago. The old way of testing was to give the man a direct trial at the job itself, but usually all or even a major fraction could not be so tried. The net result merely demonstrated whether the individual could or could not come up to required standards ; not his relative efficiency as compared with that of the other units of the applicant group from which he had been chosen. Similarly, much thought was given and progress attained in selection and development of machines to carry out some special line of work more efficiently ; yet from the standpoint of man as a machine, this was not done in the human in- stance. Modern industrial science carefully analyzes and tests physical material as to its suitability for special pur- pose, while the certainly no less important human material is not so tested with a view to special utility. Such a sit- uation is illogical. As some few men have a high quality of leadership abil- ity, so, proportionately, there are others with exceptional ability to select the right man for a certain place. But these INDUSTRIAL MORALE 755 are few. Often several persons do the hiring, and how- ever good may be their intentions, their standards and methods vary and their results are correspondingly different. Moreover, in any industry, such individual selectors change, and with the change come new standards for employment in the concern in question. Within the same person, moods vary and alter standards, just as between individuals matters of class, nationality, religion and other affiliations uncon- sciously operate to warp judgment. More progressive employers endeavor to exercise some principles of selection to reduce the number of candidates in advance of actual trial. In many instances, these are relatively crude, imperfect and unsatisfactory. Usually they consist of looking over the men and accepting those who " look good." This, of course, is better than no selec- tion at all, for a certain degree of information is given by outward appearance. But more precise methods of selec- tion, based on the science of psychology, offer much promise in respect to economies of time, labor and expense. Psy- chology has a constructive part to play in promoting the welfare of industry. Mere guesses are in large part to be replaced by facts in the special problem of employment. The army mental and trade tests, already mentioned, are more or less applicable to determining the relative fitness and functions of industrial workers. Suitably modified, they furnish permanent and comparable standards for any time and place. They permit the filling of requirements for human agents under definite specifications, just as requisi- tions for machinery would be so filled. To facilitate the fitting of the man to the job, an indi- vidual record card should be kept giving all important facts about every worker. The data secured would practically become the specifications of the man whereby he could be best fitted to the task. This would require a certain amount of extra clerical help. But since one of the main results of 756 MANAGEMENT OF MEN morale work would be to. reduce labor turnover, the ulti- mate result should be a material reduction in new cards and clerical work. Informative data as to industry might include facts rela- tive to attendance, work done, industry, intelligence, re- liability, speed, initiative, tact, executive ability, orderliness and habits. Such headings might be entered on printed form cards with " good," " average " and " poor " under each one. The estimate would be made by simply checking and would be repeated at suitable successive intervals. Mo- rale data regarding the man would include age, race or na- tionality, mental state, apparent literacy, church and social affiliations, special interests if any, morale difficulties and how remedied and such other matter relative to personality and bearing on human relations as might be desirable. If such report cards are checked over by the next higher au- thority it would correct error, restrain exaggeration and sub- ject original judgment to further appraisal. If prejudices cannot be avoided, they may thus be neutralized. The maintenance of such data can be so systematized as not to be such an extensive matter as might be anticipated at first thought. The army has long maintained an effec- tive system of individual card records of soldiers and has found no particular difficulty in doing so. Its experience is that very satisfactory records may be kept in simple form and few words. What the army finds valuable and can ac- complish in such respects, civilian industry should give fair trial. The ideal condition in industry would be to have the right man in the right place. This implies not only proper selection but retention, and the methods both of employing and discharging are too often haphazard. Many more su- periors have the right to discharge than have the power to hire. Personal motive may often enter. Even such com- mittees as some business organizations have to advise them in cases of discharge cannot be free from such influence. INDUSTRIAL MORALE 757 This matter needs safe-guarding, for permanence of the job is a prized quality. The man should have the right to present his side of the case to authority above that of an immediate superior. Sometimes retention or transfer is a matter not only of justice but productivity. The number of hours in the working day should not be too large. In many instances it is prescribed by law or is the result of industrial agreement. In so far as productivity is concerned, the actual number, within certain limits, is not necessarily significant. It has already been shown that hu- man beings tend to exert themselves far below their actual limits of physical capacity and that an increased output of energy can only be aroused by special stimuli possessing the quality of personal interest. Productivity then is not only a matter of length of physical opportunity to produce but has to do with the use which is actually made of such oppor- tunity. With a reasonable period for productiveness, psy- chological factors become controlling. By this is meant that the sum total of output of ten hours work performed in a half-hearted way may be no greater or even materially less than that of eight hours work carried out in a spirit of higher efficiency. Also there is no question but that the longer hours and their greater cumulative effect in respect to repressions tend to depletion of psychological energy. This may be manifested not only in relatively smaller output for the same period but in a mental state of irritability in which any agents of irritation assume an exaggerated importance, and what was intended to increase productivity through physical agencies may defeat its own object by bringing about the sapping of the mental qualities by which these physical agencies are energized and kept in motion. There may be a conscious or an unconscious withdrawal of effi- ciency. Labor which has the quality of being forced is always relatively inefficient, and that in which economic necessity is made to drive and in which other incentives are not made to invite is, in a way, forced labor. 758 MANAGEMENT OF MEN The question of shorter hours in relation to productivity therefore comes back to the state of mind in which the worker receives such consideration. If industrial antago- nism exists, shorter hours may lower output. On the other hand, if there be a spirit of friendliness and cooperation be- tween the organization and the worker, there will be tacit acceptance of the idea that reduction in period should in all fairness be at least compensated for by such proportionate increase of intensity as the human organism is capable of giving without detriment to its own physiological interests. Based on what has already been brought out in the fore- going pages, a summary review of some of the human rea- sons apparently underlying industrial difficulty, though nec- essarily brief, imperfect and superficial, may have some value. It proposes constructive action through psycholog- ical influences scientifically directed and not left to chance. Reasons for the specific suggestions are not given here, as it is' believed that they will be apparent from the general principles already elucidated in this book. It may be stated at the outset that the determining factor of the point of view of any worker is self-interest, which is a natural quality in self-preservation. Any prospective employee is an applicant for a job by reason of desire to improve his status, economically or socially, and such in- centives do not cease to operate after he has secured em- ployment. Even though the interests of employer and employee may conflict in some respects, where the former can identify the interests of the worker with his own pro- gram, the best advantage to. all is attained. No man is in the right place unless his own interests, as well as those of the employer, are being furthered to the extent that mutual adjustment will permit. An important element of this self-interest is expressed through acquisitiveness. This is one expression of self-pro- tection, in so far as wages relate to cost of living under local standards. But while the question of remuneration fre- INDUSTRIAL MORALE 759 quently presses, it is a fact too often disregarded that all the sources of industrial dynamics and difficulties are not found in the pay envelope. Not infrequently there is rea- sonable contentment with the financial returns and the de- sires are chiefly for consideration along other lines. In civil life, as in the army, recompense is not always expressed in terms of money. Nevertheless, many differences do spring from the question of relative financial return, and this will be the case so long as the relations between employer and worker are competitive in such respects. Striving by one element for greater advantage, at the expense of the other, and especially if the presumed disadvantages be con- sidered inequitable, always tends to create refractory re- action. Profit sharing does much to induce mental har- mony in such matters and to replace competition by co- operation. Sick-benefit associations, insurance, loan and housing funds have an obvious value, not only through acquisitiveness but in relief of apprehension. Company, — and especially cooperative — stores, operated as facili- ties for effecting savings and controlling local prices are of much value in this connection. The enjoyment of a right or privilege is always accompanied by reciprocal sense of increased responsibility. A fundamental characteristic of all individuals is self- esteem. This quality must be reckoned with, in industry as the pivot about which many actions and attitude revolve. As with the soldier, the best work and results cannot be obtained from a civilian worker who is convinced that his employer regards him in the light of a mechanical fixture and does not consult his interests other than in respect to such wage scale as will attract sufficient labor to meet the demands. The urge for the recognition of personality is strong. As example, consider the pride with which the subordinate recounts his petty triumphs over the " boss," especially perhaps in matters of difference in ideas of method. In a general way, the higher the type of worker, 760 MANAGEMENT OF MEN the greater the personal estimate placed on one's individual worth. Unnecessary repression along this channel is prob- ably as common as it is a serious administrative fault. Ex- cept with the spiritless, its exercise will produce reaction in discontent, inefficiency or worse. The matter is one which, being largely unnecessary, offers much opportunity for mini- mization and improvement. It is not sound economics to permit general interests to suffer because of the mental clash between subordinates. A craving for sympathetic understanding is strong in the human being. Not to be " understood " breeds discontent and complaint. Conflict, whether it be military or indus- trial, is always preceded by a misunderstanding or disregard- ing of the feelings of one party by another. Severance of mental relations is always preliminary to strife, destruction and bloodshed. Difficulties which interfere with the trans- mission of ideas between individuals and groups are obstacles to mental harmony and physical cooperation. Such matters are fully appreciated by the sales department of any con- t cern, which realizes that the extent of its success must lie in ability to influence human nature to the performance of a special act — in this case, the signing of an order blank. The company agents must sell the company wares to an outsider. But it is not so well understood generally that the same thing applies with equal force to the producing end of in- dustry. Here the company representative must sell the idea of the company itself to those composing its organiza- tion. There must be sympathy and understanding in order to induce the desired state of mind. Real sympathy and friendship depend, not upon the number of times of physical contact, but upon the sharing of mental experience. The greater the common experiences and the more intense the feelings, the stronger is the mutual bond. Troops which have faced destruction together, and communities or fami- INDUSTRIAL MORALE 761 lies which, as a unit, have met a great crisis, manifest a high degree of mutual support. The same applies to those who have shared their pleasurable experiences, though the effect is not as powerful as in the case of those who have under- gone an " ordeal as by fire." This factor of community of experience is a matter too often overlooked in respect to industrial efficiency. The joys and sorrows of the in- dividual worker are not merely to be considered as his prob- lems alone, but as opportunities for the superior and the concern as a whole to reach an understanding and extend genuine sympathy, whether this take the form of congratu- lations, condolences or physical help. The organization that gets close to its employee, in what is to him the great hour of trial or triumph, gets far closer in spirit than could ever be possible through years of formal relations. Gregariousness unites here with sympathy to add a value to the act, not only because it was done, but because it was done together. To the man above, the gratification or resentment experi- enced by a subordinate from what was to the former a minor act may seem disproportionate. But again it must be emphasized that the ideas and outlook of the individual concerned govern his action — not those entertained by the bystander. In any case the expression of mutuality of in- terest and sympathy, if real, can do nothing but good. The moment of hiring, the promotion, the new baby at home, the death in the family, the holiday — all these should be looked upon, not as merely pertaining to the affairs of the individual, but as affording opportunity to the organization to demonstrate an interest and establish close, friendly rela- tions that will go far toward being permanent. And such sympathetic interest is in itself endowment of status and gratification of yearning to be recognized as an individual among men. It expresses a desire to be of helpfulness which, according to the law governing the excitation of the 762 MANAGEMENT OF MEN instincts, tends to stimulate in the subject the same character ot emotion toward the agent by which it was originally mani- fested. The self-respect which makes the individual want certain things for himself will, if properly linked up through sym- pathy and gregariousness with his organization, make him hesitate to accept these things unless they represent the best interests of the organization as well as himself. This ap- plies whether the organization be of a military or civil nature. The price of maximum productivity is the development of maximum personality for every human producer. Some repressions and checks are necessary to accepted conduct, but these should be no more than human and industrial re- lationships require. On the other hand, outlet should be provided for the natural and proper expressions of the per- sonality of the producer. This can only be brought about industrially by the establishment of right relationships and associations, instituted from the top down and thereby evok- ing a complementary reaction from the bottom up. It is important that the desires of the individual as to choice of task should be helped as far as possible and not thwarted. It has already been stated that what human beings want to do they usually do well, and they do it well because they want to do it. This, of course has a direct bearing on productivity. It is short-sighted economic policy to attempt to meet a special need at the expense of the sacrifice of interest and the checking of the energy flowing from constructiveness. Recommendations not only as to character but capacity should be required from former em- ployers and followed up where practicable; similarly, ref- erences should be given where justified. But there must be fitness for the task proposed. Strong desires usually imply mental competence. But physical ability to perform a task is an obvious essential. This implies adequate physical ex- amination which may often disclose physical defect which, INDUSTRIAL MORALE 763 pending remedy, will bar the way to certain duties. De- fective eye-sight, for example, need not be very great to in- terfere materially with efficiency in work requiring close visual attention. A hernia interferes with heavy lifting, and persons with fallen arches cannot effectively perform tasks requiring them to be much on their feet. Determina- tion of these or other defects, and the opening of other channels of opportunity, is clearly to the advantage of the worker and his productiveness. Medical supervision thus has a great value not only in meeting accidents and emergencies but in physically examin- ing workers and remedying minor ailments without cost. It should have oversight of work in respect to duration and intensity in relation to fatigue and output, and to occupa- tional hazards and diseases. It has to do with ability to place the injured to best advantage. It should see that suit- able and sufficient first-aid kits are distributed and their use understood. It should ensure that the individual is reason- ably well informed in matters of personal hygiene and self- care. Besides analysis of the worker, the job itself should be an- alyzed in respect to its specifications and requirements. It is not possible to fit the worker to the job to best advantage unless it is known what kind of qualifications in the worker are specially required. Apparently few, if any, industrial establishments standardize job requirements in the practical way in which this was carried out in the army in promoting its efficiency. In this connection it may be stated that since the word " efficiency " has come to have an undesirable sig- nificance in some respects, its use should be avoided. But practical ways and means of simplifying work and eliminat- ing unnecessary hardships or duplication of effort will always be welcomed. The job should offer opportunity for promotion; this is an essential to good work and decrease in labor turnover. It is the rare individual who does not react by greater effi- 764 MANAGEMENT OF MEN ciency to real opportunity for personal betterment. Also a comprehensive system of promotion from the ranks pro- vides qualified understudies for emergencies or expansion. There should thus be no jobs which are recognized as indus- trial blind alleys leading nowhere. If such exist, pathways should be opened from them giving access to higher place. Subordinates desirous of promoting efficiency in their own departments of work may tend to discourage separations from it with a view to retaining men of known technical or other ability for the job, not realizing that whether such technical ability is exerted to the fullest extent or not de- pends on state of mind. Any idea of the worker that he has " no chance " for betterment will tend to make any man of ambition and force slow down in effort, or swell the ranks of labor turnover in an endeavor to seek a better chance elsewhere. This latter quality is not limited to American born, and because men may not speak good English is no reason for assuming that they are unintelligent and without ambition. Not only should opportunities for advancement from any task be provided, but workers should be encour- aged to strive for them. They should be plainly pointed out to the individual, so that if he does not take advantage of them there is only himself to blame. Even if promo- tion be slow, the incentive to better effort is there. The worker should not have the idea that others than himself set limits to his advancement. Bonuses for length of service are desirable. The mili- tary service has found that beside the necessarily indefinite incentive of promotion a definite percentage increase of pay for length of service helps to hold interest and promote efficiency. It is a stimulus which remains even after the worker has apparently reached the limit of promotion war- ranted by his capabilities. It might be of advantage to pay such bonuses as Christmas gifts. In this connection should come the stimulus of personal ambition. Those who are doing good work in any task, no matter how humble, INDUSTRIAL MORALE 765 should be called out and told of it and suggestion made as to the best means to take in securing the next step in ad- vancement. Similarly, citing the good work of one group not only gratifies that group but stimulates others to emu- late or surpass the standard. One great element in the problem of the worker is the permanency of the job. Those in positions which give as- surance of long retention are considered fortunate by their associates. With little if any savings to fall back upon in case of non-employment, the worker is necessarily beset by worry and apprehension as to the continuance of conditions enabling him to make a living. Such apprehensions should be allayed as far as possible. Retention of the position should be assured during convalescence from accident or illness. Planning in advance will often enable the holding of worthy individuals during slack periods. It is of course impossible, under business and economic conditions, to assure every individual of permanency of position, nor is this expected by the worker. But it should be well under- stood that the best men will be longest retained. It some- times happens that a department is reduced or discontinued and the whole or the greater part of the employees therein set adrift. This not only arouses profound discontent among those discharged, but creates a feeling of uncertainty and inefficiency among those retained, in the idea of the latter that their turn may come at any time and that nothing in the way of service toward higher authority will weigh against temporary business convenience. Provision for transfers within the organization will offset this feeling. If men cannot be so transferred, then efforts might be made by the employers to see that they are placed with some other industrial concern. Old age pensions are a further expres- sion of the purpose of the company to look out for the workers' interests. The power of discharge should be curtailed in respect to foremen and subordinates. The recommendations of these 766 MANAGEMENT OF MEN should be acted upon by a- small number of competent offi- cials, among whom members of the worker group might well have representation. In reducing loss of productivity through absence, special effort to smooth out any difficulties of transportation in getting to and from work will be of value. A continued and progressive study of causes of absence should be maintained, so that they may be mini- mized as far as possible by removing or modifying such causes. For many years, the mechanical processes of production have undergone great progress. One marked result of this has been the division of laborers into classes of specialists, each performing some minor part in the general plan. Me- chanically, this is doubtless desirable, but it is not an un- alloyed advantage through new difficulties which have de- veloped in its wake. Among these it has repressed " pride of workmanship " and thereby impaired interest in the product, while " speeding up " has largely done away with attention and interest through the development of habit. What was an absorbing vocation to the master workman ai a generation ago has now become a task to his successors, each performing a minor part in which there is no great out- ward evidence of constructive and utilitarian result in the elaboration of the whole. This unquestionably tends to slow down productiveness, and efforts should be made to off- set it through stimulation of energy in other ways. Reward is not to be expressed in money alone; the incentive from this agency is only one of many. Where there is recogni- tion of work well done, in respect, praise, and in knowledge of higher efficiency, there is no limit to the incentive. One aid to giving " pride in the job " is to link up the worker with the finished article, just as the famous Spanish sword- maker hammered his personality as well as his name into the " Toledo blade." The letter of this may not now be practicable, but it is still possible to give the worker a mental concept of the finished product, the part he plays in its pro- INDUSTRIAL MORALE 767 duction and his share in the final result of its use. De- scriptive articles, group photographs of the finished product and representatives of the departments that entered into its construction, moving pictures showing the manufacture and use — all are valuable. Machine gun production during the war was speeded up by posters showing the workman making them and the soldier using them, thus visually link- ing industry with the military and patriotic spirit. These ideas and many others may be brought to bear from diverse angles. There must of course be an adequacy of good tools, material and equipment. These must be inspected regularly and kept in perfect condition so that the worker may feel that he has all the accessories to high class produc- tion necessary to do justice to his qualifications. With unskilled workers, " pride of workmanship " natu- rally plays a relatively smaller part. Here labor is usually regarded as essentially unpleasant and undesirable and is performed only under the greater stimulus of some special end, as comforts or pleasure. If these be attained, the work is tolerated; if it curtails them, listlessness and dissatisfac- tion result. It is apparent that to hold this class of workers they must be put in positions that will give them fairly sat- isfactory earning capacity at an early date, together with incentive and opportunity to move upward into the ranks of skilled workers. But it is also important that no class of work, however humble or dirty, should be allowed to carry with it any sense of social or industrial degradation in its performance. The idea should be that the necessity for the performance of any duty dignifies and ennobles it and that any position which is essential to the whole is important. The work of unskilled labor should, accordingly, be re- garded merely as a first step in the upward course to be ex- pected and encouraged. Any tendency to keep men down may be easier for the foreman but is, in the long run, costly for the employer. It should be offset by the so-called " vestibule school " for the training of workers, which af- 768 MANAGEMENT OF MEN fords opportunity for advancement, gives the elation of rela- tive success, stimulates ambition and lessens labor turnover. Incidentally, such schools offer facilities for observation of qualities and correction of fault, standardization of methods, more intelligent assignment of tasks and permission to the individual of a certain choice in his work. As already mentioned, wholesome rivalry is a strong in- centive to productiveness which should be used appropri- ately. Department against department, group against group and individual against individual — these can be brought up for comparison in diverse ways. Proper pub- licity should accompany rivalry. Reward in such cases is found in the gratification of recognized ability and success as well as in any increased share in monetary return. Rec- ord cards are thus a great aid to efficiency, not only in dem- onstrating comparative merits, but in helping to assure the competent worker of the greater permanence of his em- ployment. To allow group distinctions to arise is inevitably to create ideas of class consciousness with resulting mass reactions. The instinct of gregariousness concerned should be stimu- lated in relation to group rivalry to the common end, but repressed in respect to rivalries toward different ends. All are engaged in a common employ in which diversity of grade merely expresses a necessity of organization and in which all work with each other and not some under others. Ameri- canization lies at the basis of allayment of group distinction. It should be promoted so that all should stand on the com- mon ground of patriotic citizenship. The right of suffrage sobers and stabilizes. Esprit de corps is essential to indus- trial as well as military success. The worker must be made to feel that he is an integral part of the organization. A slogan or motto for the organization, with special insignia, exploited by publicity, posters, buttons and in other ways will be of value. Any activity which links the individual INDUSTRIAL MORALE 769 up with his fellows, and the whole with the greater organ- ization, will be useful. One of the obvious qualities of the worker, common to human nature generally, is the desire for what he considers a " square deal." He wants an even break and equal op- portunity; what he thinks savors of injustice is not soon for- gotten. To it, general discontents, each perhaps trivial but in the mass potential, may attach themselves. The result slows down production. Resentment against an individual or condition may be expressed in the poor performance of a task with which the idea of either may be associated. Foremen and workers, being human beings, inevitably form likes and dislikes which have their relation to labor turnover. An old adage says that " kissing goes by favor " ; similarly promotions and increases of pay are often one of the mysteries of industry. The establishment of a merit system, with effective supervision for its impartial adminis- tration, is essential. Human nature wants judgment on its merits and tends to escape from any conditions under which it is believed not to be forthcoming. Courtesy, always important, is particularly valuable in the human relations of industry, in which the worker's continu- ance in employment is, on his part, a matter of adequate satisfaction and volition. Consideration in manner as well as act is always appreciated, while discourtesy is a blow to self-esteem and as such is resented. Reasonable regard for the feelings of others is one of the methods of promoting productiveness ; it is as inexpensive as it is effective. Recreational activities, athletics, amusements, clubs, bands, socials, etc., have the same value in relieving re- pressions in industrial life that they have in the military service. They should be selected and utilized with a view to giving appropriate self-expression to the several groups concerned, and to help to create and intensify a strong organizational spirit. Baseball, bowling and other teams 77Q MANAGEMENT OF MEN should be developed and arrangements made for games and prizes. Clubs for music, choral singing, and dramatics should be encouraged to give entertainments. Provision for Saturday night dances, summer picnics, country clubs or camps for week-end outings and vacations is valuable along this line. Athletic and social clubs should be tactfully sug- gested and discreetly supported, leaving it to the workers themselves to organize and administer them without appear- ance of their being welfare affairs or under other control than the worker's own. The interest and encouragement given by feminine workers in these and other matters will largely determine the general attitude of the group as a whole. For sedentary occupations and for the higher officials who get no great amount of exercise, gymnasia and gymnastic work should be provided. The relation of a vigorous body in promoting sound mental state and reducing irritability and pessimism has already been mentioned. Some of the indoor factors necessary to industrial com- fort, sanitation and well-being — that is, efficiency — have already been mentioned. In addition, reasonable beauti- fication of the plant and its surroundings should be carried out. These have a marked if unconscious influence on the state of mind, pride of organization and resulting conduct. The appearance of the plant should invite and not repel, and the relatively little money necessary for cleanliness, neatness, verdure and outward attractiveness is well in- vested. The state of mind in which the worker reports for work daily is materially affected by home influence. The housing and living conditions of the worker in the hours when not employed should, accordingly, receive attention. They should be made as pleasant as possible, gardens encouraged, seeds and advice as to planting given, and prizes awarded for the best results. Courses in domestic science, the can- ning of foods, dress-making, home hygiene and the care of INDUSTRIAL MORALE 771 children should be promoted for the benefit of workers and their families. Securing suitable boarding places, especially for women, is desirable. Reaching workers through their children and the parental instinct is a valuable approach in human relations. The record of every man should show whether he is married and the number and age of his chil- dren, and their welfare should be inquired about occasion- ally. Formal, periodic expression of interest might be made through a Christmas tree, with a gift for every young child of an employee. This, for example, would pay many times the cost of the presents through betterment of state of mind and the resulting future efficiency of the parents. Education helps the Worker as it does the soldier, by giv- ing him a broader outlook, more accurate information, a more harmonious mental attuning, and by implanting better ideas of responsibility. In civilian industry, it has been found that the higher the education, the proportionately less the labor turnover. At the same time, the specialization of industry has made education less necessary in the day's work, and has tended to develop a class with limited and poorly organized ideas, furnishing receptive subjects readily swayed by outside influence. The particular use of education is not only to qualify the worker better for a present position but to fit him for something higher. Accordingly, employees should be encouraged to take night or correspondence school courses. If night courses are practicable at the plant they should be conducted. It is especially important that Eng- lish be understood by aliens. This promotes productivity directly by enabling ideas and instructions to be better under- stood, and indirectly by opening to the individual the door of opportunity. The tendency of some foremen to keep their foreign-born subordinates ignorant of English and illiterate, for their own purposes, should be combated. Delinquency falls as standards of literacy rise. As in the military service, much industrial discontent is due to rumors and false or imperfect ideas. A sufficient 772 MANAGEMENT OF MEN service of information, including a " house organ " for local publicity, is necessary . to meet such situations and offset errors developed through word of mouth. Bulletin boards should be used freely as a means of getting information rap- idly and officially to the men and also to create incentive thought and constructive ideas. But they must also con- tain items to amuse and interest in order to attract readers and serve their purpose. The morale organization also Serves as an effective agency for verbal information where necessary. As with the army recruit, -the new employee comes into an industrial environment which is strange and unfamiliar, and is often painful because of such strangeness. Brief but kindly explanations of work, wages, hours of labor, shop rules and other matters of interest would go far in pro- moting adjustment. Rules for safety should not only be posted but explained. That safety devices should be under- stood and used is in the interest of all concerned. Short, snappy, informal shop talks, on the principle of the " Four Minute Men," should be given frequently at the noon hour. These, among other things, should cover what the larger organization is to attain, the purpose of the work of in- dividual groups, the relationship of the whole to national endeavor, and what is being accomplished as a result of the work. Through all should run the threads of coordination, cooperation and enthusiasm. Evening lectures and community gatherings are valuable, at which matters relating to industry are interestingly inter- spersed with matters of hygiene, self-interest, domestic problems, current problems of interest, music, moving pic- tures, etc., and followed by dancing and general sociability. The families and friends of workers should be invited to attend. Libraries and reading rooms for employees, with newspapers, magazines, good fiction and educational books, should be established and systematically brought to atten- tion so that their use may be promoted. INDUSTRIAL MORALE 773 Much valuable publicity of local events and happenings, linking up the industrial concern and its personnel with the community at large, could be secured through a local news representative if it were understood by the press that these items were for news and not advertising purposes. It is human nature that the more humble the individual, the greater he appreciates the enhanced status given by favor- able publicity concerning him. If such items are not secured and furnished the press, the natural tendency of industrial publicity is to relate to the sensational in the chronicling of difficulty. But newspaper publicity has its use constructively quite as much as from the standpoint of spreading depress- ing criticism. The cost of the physical aids to industrial morale work is so small as to be negligible in comparison with the results to be obtained. The expense attached to any break in in- dustrial relations, as a strike or lockout, would probably pay for the maintenance of a morale system in any given con- cern for a period of more than the span of human life. A cent per man per day would probably finance it on a large scale. But aside from preventing such overt acts with the accompanying cost, industrial morale work will yield daily and heavy returns in increasing current output and in benefit to all concerned. The fact that this will be accomplished, not at the cost of contentment, but through its promotion, is in its further favor. The basic importance of wise industrial leadership has already been mentioned. It cannot be over-emphasized. In its furtherance, frequent conferences between minor chiefs, like foremen, are important for closer relationship and understanding, coordination and mutual helpfulness and suggestion. Methods of handling men especially should be discussed with a view to standardization along the best lines and avoiding unnecessary difficulties. It is indispensible that interrelations shall be harmonious. The most impor- tant factor in the success of any industry is the efficiency of 77 4 MANAGEMENT OF MEN its individual man-power. Where women or children are employed, special problems will of course arise which will require special methods for handling and solution. In every organization there are men who are inclined to withdraw from association with other men and from par- ticipating in organization affairs. This attitude may be due to shyness, unfamiliarity with the language or customs, or from nursing a grievance. Such men are particularly sus- ceptible to all sorts of suggestions. It is better to extend encouragement, sympathy and assistance and transform them into active and cheerful supporters than to have them come under the influence of malcontents. The way to do this is to give them special attention from above and to in- troduce a strong preponderance of high class men into their immediate industrial and social environment. Much labor turnover could doubtless be avoided by bet- ter facilities for the hearing, investigating and remedying of complaints. The relief of mental tension through the channel of sympathy tends to decrease the importance of the grievance, which, unless so relieved, might result in the physical reaction of slowing down work or through quitting the job. There should be a readily accessible and sympa- thetic agency to serve as a clearing house for troubles. Membership of employees on committees for investigation is valuable not only in promoting interest and confidence, but in dissipating false impressions among their fellows. As in the military service, first offenses should be rela- tively lightly treated. Often they are due to ignorance and not intent. In such cases, the management and not the in- dividual is really to blame. There may be a tendency to cover up omission from above in severe penalization of the act flowing from it, as if the latter alone were at fault. Finally, as with soldiers, success in management consists in not only understanding the point of view of the workers but in giving an attentive ear and ready sympathy to their troubles. Encouragement succeeds where driving fails. INDUSTRIAL MORALE 775 Appreciation rouses a sense of creative pride which brings not only the hands but the personality to the work. What is needed is a spirit of service — not of servitude. In in- dustrial relations, the " Golden Rule " is a safe psycho- logical guide to establishing and maintaining such mental state as will express itself in the desired conduct, coopera- tion and productivity. INDEX Absence, classification of offenses of, 679 Absence of morale, 28 Absence, unauthorized, as offense, 678 Absence without leave and family matters, 712 Absence without leave and fur- loughs, 712 Absence without leave and moral degeneracy, 714 Absence without leave and outside matters, 712 Absence without leave and service causes, 711 Absence without leave and war con- ditions, 713 Absence without leave, letter to re- latives on, 716 Absence without leave, loss of ef- ficiency from, 708 Absence without leave, measures for reducing, 713, 714 Absence without leave, mental con- dition back of, 708 Absence without leave, motives for, 710, 714 Absence without leave, use of Red Cross in, 717 Absenteeism in industry, 740 Absenteeism, measures against, 741 Absorption of demobilized men, 577 Acquisitiveness and profit, 177 Acquisitiveness and reward, 177 Acquisitiveness and rivalry, 177 Acquisitiveness, blocking of, 182 Acquisitiveness, examples of, 176 Acquisitiveness, instinct of, 176 Act and antecedent motive, 267 Act, factors in, 271 Act resulting from false premises, 294 Act, sequence of antecedents In, 292, 293 Acts, interpretation of, 267 Acts, involuntary, 271 Acts, subconscious, 271 Action, control of, through imita- tion, 173 Action, prediction of, 455 Activity and self expression, 190 Acts, words as precursors of, 62 Address at the " last retreat," 575 Address, on discharge of men, 576 Addresses, by superiors, 305, 311 777 Adjustment to environment, 274 Administrative fault and desertion, 707 Administrative methods and morale, 649 Adolescence, delinquencies of, 90 Adolescence, mental characteristics of, 90 Adolescents, control of, 91 Adventure, qualities of, 155 Affirmation, effectiveness of, 244 Affirmation, repetition and advertis- ing, 244 Affirmative, stimulus of the, 290 Affirmation, use of, 244 Age and habits, 223 Age and imitation, 172 Age and rivalry, 147 Age and temperament, 216 Agencies for morale, 54, 55 Agencies for suggestion, 237 Alcohol and delinquency, 626 Alcohol, influence on absence with- out leave, 711 Alcohol, effect of, on judgement and volition, 626 Alcohol, relation of, to delinquency, 626, 672, 689, 724, 725 Alcohol, relation of, to mental cases, 676 Alcoholic habit, origination of the, 626 Altruism and morale, 30 American, curiosity of the, 152 American Red Cross, its nature, 368 American Red Cross, functions of, 368, 369 Americans, morale, difficulties with, 16 Americans, tendency of, to criticize, 447 Analysis of conduct, 273 Anger, 255 Anger and pugnacity, 127 Antisocial groups, 80 Appeal and admonition, 286 ■. Appeal, right of, to superiors, 691 Application of morale work, 43 Approach, changing channels of, 291 Approach, qualities of the proper, Approach, the direct, 284 Approach, the indirect, 288, 289 Approach, the, in recruiting, 568 Approach, the psychological, 282 778 INDEX Approach, the religious, 335 Approval and disapproval in con- trolling conduct, 652 Approval, manifestations of, 652 Argument and direct approach, 286 Arming of the mind, 10 Army mental tests, 584 Army rewards, 650 Army trade tests, results of. 591 Articles of War, as a repressive code, 438 Assertion and aggressiveness, 129 Associates, sympathetic, 164 Athletic sports, relative popularity of, 536 Athletic sports for character train- ing, 534 Athletics and character develop- ment, 532 Athletics and competition, 535 Athletics, mass, mental value of, 534 Athletics, military, 531 Athletics, morale value of, 531 Athletics, need of sedentary men for, 550 Athletics, provision for, 532 Attendants On the sick, morale of, 635 Attention, active and passive, 228 Attention and interest, 228 Attention and interest, stimulation of 228 Attention, influencing of, 229 Attention, mental and physical at- titude of, 229, 230 Attention, need for, in training, 467 Attitude of the superior, 301 Austerity, 171 Authority, delegation of, 139 Authority, offenses against, classi- fication of, 679 Authority, offenses against military, 717 B Bad adjustment and offenses, 692 Bad character, exclusion of men of, 689 Bad companions, influence of, 175 Bands, morale value of, 544. 545 Barracks, cheerfulness of. 642 Barracks, conditions of, and morale, 642 Barracks, decoration of, and morale, 643 Barriers of language, results of, 594 " Bawling out," 421 Beautiflcation of surroundings, and morale, 644 Behavior, as effect of cause, 265 Behavior and environment, relation between, 274 Behavior and physical state, 272 Behavior and thought, relation be- tween, 270 Behavior, complexity of, 266 Behavior, definition of, 2fj5L efforts to modify, 263 ideals as standards of, Behavior Behavior, 251 Behavior, influence of sentiments on, 250^, Behavior, laws controlling, 266 Behavior, mechanics of, 292 Behavior, relation of motive to, 262 Behavior, relation of, to cause, 63 Beliefs of ".conscientious objec- tors," 608 " Big Brother " movement, 240 " Big Brother " movement. 561 Blame and disapproval, results of, 144 Blocking curiosity, and rumors, 153 Blocking of self-assertion, 139 Bodily function and mental excite- ment, 618 Bolshevism and underfeeding, 104 Bonuses in industry, 764 Books and morale methods, 40 Books as companions, 511 Books as creators of Ideals. 510, 511 Books, distribution of, 513 Books, selection of, and literacy, 512 " Buddy " friendships. 165. 241 Bulletin boards, for publicity, 503 " Camp Gordon Plan " for foreign- speaking soldiers, 595 Camp publications, need for, 506 Camp publications, use for, 506 Camps, morale organization in, 386, 387, 388, 389 Cartoons and posters, 514 Cause in relation to behavior, 63 Causes of poor morale, 53 Censorship, 316 Censorship, in morale work. 354, 355 Censorship, value of, for morale, 353 Ceremonials and forms, appeal of, 524 Change of scene, value of, 192 Changes of station, 162 Chaplains and delinquents, 333 Chaplains and morale work. 331 Chaplains and recruits, 334 Chaplains and religious enthusiasm, 204 Chaplains and the sick. 333 Chaplains, handling of problems by, 333 Chaplains, relationship of, to the men, 332 Chaplains, some functions of, 336 Chaplains, some qualities of, 334, 335, 336 Character building through play, 185, 186 INDEX 779 Character, definition of, 218 Character development and ath- letics, 532 Character, development of, in sub- ordinates, 306 Character formation, duty of of- ficers toward, 220 Character, influence of drugs on, 625 Character, influence of environment on, 219 Character, men of weak, 262 Character, offenses connected with. 687 Character, sources of, 219 Character, the " sizing up " of, 220, 221 Character, weaknesses of, in su- periors, 303 Characteristics of the soldier class, 71 Cheerfulness in officers, 304 Cheerfulness, quality of, 423 Child, reaction of the, to environ- ment, 281 Childish minds in adults, 580 Circular 37, War Dept, 1918, 337 Circular 256, War Dept., 1919, 384 Citations in orders, 488 Citizenship, ideals of, 481 Civil life, social relations in, 457 Civilian communities, profiteering by, 364, 365 Civilian environment of troops, control of, 358 Civilian factors affecting morale, 356 Civilian morale, 48 Civilian morale, relation to mili- tary, 47 Civilian opinion and morale, 356 Civilian organizations, use of, in morale work, 360. 361, 362 Civilian relations, 356 Civilian relations and the Com- manding Officer, 312 Civilians, influence of, on conduct, 360 Civilians, reciprocal hospitality to, 362, 363 Clashes, mental, 141 Class consciousness in industry, 768 Cleanliness and morale, 643 Clemenceau's prophecy, 8 Clipping bureaus, for camp public- ity, 508 Clothing and morale, 645 Clubs, soldier, value of, 547 Code, precision of the military, 270 Codes of conduct, 268 Collectivism and the individual, 160 Color of paints, and morale, 642 Colored soldier, the, 604 Colored soldier, mental attributes of the, 604 Colored soldiers, morale problems of, 605 Comic, appeals through the, 207, 208 Comic, instinct of the, 207 Command, limitations of a, 297 Commander, personal equation of the, 321 Commanders, personality of, 308 Commanding officer and civilian relations, 312 Commanding officer, contact by, 310 Commanding officer, cooperation in morale work by, 311 Commanding officer, presence at gatherings by, 311 Commanding officer, relation of the, to morale, 308 Commanding officer, responsibility of, for morale, 308, 310, 311, 321 " Commanding " officers, 260 Commanding officers and morale, 308 Commendation and promotion, 178 Commendation as reward, 653 Commendatory letters, 653 Common action, common purpose in, 16 Common language, difficulties due to lack of, 593, 594 Common purpose necessary to com- mon action, 16 Common purpose, need for, 252 Common sense, psychology as an agent of, 19 Community, effect of abrupt dis- charges on the, 573 Compensation for self-submission, 141 Community Service, nature of the, 365, 366 Community Service, use of, in mo- rale work, 366, 367 Company commander, advice of, to prisoners, 667 Company commander and morale work, 338 Company commanders and personal problems of men, 342 Company commanders, impression made by, 341 Company commanders, information of, 340 Company commanders, meetings of, 343 Company commanders, morale func- tions of, 338, 339. 343, 344 Company commanders, reports to, 343 Company morale operatives, func- tions of, 350, 351, 352 Company morale operatives, need for, 352 Company morale operatives, quali- ties of, 350 " Company nights," 547 Company *' sings," 543 780 INDEX Competitive "sings," 543 Complaint and criticism, nature of, 446 Complaint as a vent for emotion, 449 Complaint due to delay, 451 Complaint, impulse back of, 63 Complaint, investigation of, 450 Complaints in industry, 774 Complaints, need of listening to, 605 Compulsion as to education, 474 Compulsive methods, 298 Comradeship, bonds of, 436 Concentration through volition, 259 Conduct, analysis of, 273 Conduct and mental state, 273 Conduct, codes of, 268 Conduct and public opinion, 268 Conduct, control of, by approval or disapproval, 652 Conduct, excesses of, and repres- sions, 133 Conduct, facts in controlling, 466 Conduct, forecasting of, 69 Conduct, importance of, 272 Conduct, norms of, 68 Conduct of the " conscientious ob- jector," 607 Conduct, standards of, and tradi- tion, 480 Confldence, lack of self, 465 Conscience and religion, 201 " Conscientious objectors," beliefs of. 608 " Conscientious objectors," classes of, 608 " Conscientious objectors," classifi- cation of religions, 609 " Conscientious objectors," conduct of the, 607 " Conscientious objectors." effect of orders on handling, 612 " Conscientious objectors," extent of problem of the, 607 " Conscientious objectors," methods of handling, 611, 613-617 " Conscientious objectors," politi- cal, 610 " Conscientious objectors," Presi- dential order on, 611 " Conscientious objectors," prob- lems of the, 606 " Conscientious objectors," solution of a type problem for handling, 614, 615, 616, 617 " Conscientious objectors," state of mind of, 610 Conscious mind, the, 226 Consciousness, 225 Consciousness and environment, 227, 228 Consciousness and training, 227 Constructive criticism, 448 Constructive instinct, the, 187 Constructiveness and purpose, 188 Constructiveness and self-expres- sion, 189 Constructiveness as motive in work, 188 Constructiveness, blocking of, 190 Constructiveness in the group task, 190 Constructiveness, qualities of, 187, 188 Contact by commanding officers, 310 Contagion, agencies for, 242 Contagiousness of thoughts, 243 Contentment and conduct, 273 Contentment and morale work, 21 Continued instruction, chafing from, 469 Contra-suggestion, 238 Control of adolescents, 91 Control of crowds, 82. 83 Control of fear. 114, 115, 116 Control of instincts, 98. 99. 100 Control of morale factors, 51, 52 Control through sympathy, 167 Conviction and morale, 11, 12 Cooperation and gregariousness, 160 Correction by fear, 109 Correspondence, promoting, with the home, 518. 519 Cost of industrial morale work, 773 Cost of living, 363 Cost of living, and Post Exchange, 551 Courage, 105 Courtesy, in industry, 769 Courtesy, the salute as a. 424, 425 Courtesy, value of, 424 Courts martial and over-punish- ments, 661 Courts martial, losses by, 564 Courts martial, punishment by, 663 Credit for accomplishment. 651 Credulousness of crowds, 81 Crime and mentality, relation be- tween. 673 Crime and military life, 685. 686 Crime and the abnormal individual, 692 Crimes of moral turpitude and mili- tary offenses, 684 Criminal defectives, exclusion of. 673 Criminal type, defectiveness of the, 582 Criticism and complaint, nature of, 446 Criticism, Army Regulations on, 448 Criticism as affecting morale, 447 Criticism, development of, after wars, 447 Criticism, disproportionate, of minor faults, 447 Criticism, by Americans, 447 Criticism in training, 470 Criticism, value of constructive, 448 Crowd, credulousness of the. 81 Crowd, gregariousness of the, 81 Crowd impulses, 79 INDEX 781 Crowd mind, 76, 77 Crowd mind and financial panic, 266 Crowd mind, leaders and the, 78 Crowds, control of, 82, 83 Crowds, homogeneous and hetero- geneous, 84 Crowds, mental guidance of, 85 Crowds, reactions of, 83, 84 Crowds, suggestibility of, 81 Cumulative differences in morale, 26 Curiosity, and prestige of superiors, 155 Curiosity and progress, 151 Curiosity and training, 155 Curiosity in recruits, 152 Curiosity, In training, stimulation of, 469 Curiosity, instinct of, 151 Curiosity of Americans, 152 Curiosity, qualities of, 151 Curiosity, repressions of, 153 . Curiosity, satisfaction of, 154, 155 Curves of morale, 24, 25 Custom, 25 Dances and socials, 545 Dancing, as morale factor, 545 Dancing lessons, 548 Dancing, supervision of, 548 Day, the soldier's, 135 Death, psychological influence of, 525 Decency, offenses against, classifica- tion of, 683 Declination to enlist, reasons for, 565 Decorations and insignia, 521 Defeat and self-submission. 142 Defeat, the measuring of, 8 Defective morale, problems of, 52 Defectives, criminal, exclusion of, 673 Defectives, 'mental, 582 Defectives, physical, in industry, 762 Deficiency in workers, causes of, 739 Definition of delinquency, 667 Definition of discipline, 429 Definition of emotion, 247 Definition of morale, 2, 3 Definition of motive, 262 Definition of sentiments,. 249 Definition of sympathy, 163 Degrees of morale, 26 Delay, complaint due to, 451 Delinquencies and war, 669 Delinquencies of adolescence, 90 Delinquency and alcohol, 626, 672, 689, 724, 725 Delinquency and discontent, 669 Delinquency and mental defective- ness, 674, 675, 676 Delinquency, causes of, 691 Delinquency connected with the service, 690 Delinquency, definition of, 667 Delinquency, motive cards in, 686 Delinquency, psychological ratings in preventing, 676 Delinquency, punishment and re- ward, 650 Delinquency, relation of, to discon- tent, 442 Delinquents and chaplains, 333 Delinquents and emotional stress, 668 Delinquents as inefficlents, 669 Delinquents, confirmed, 668 Delinquents, handling of, 692 Delinquents of weak character, 668 Demobilization and disorders, 574 Demoralization and morale, 2 Department morale officers, duties of, 384, 385, 386 Desertion, advance knowledge of in- tended, 698 Desertion and absence without leave, 709 Desertion and change of officers, 707 Desertion and character, 706 Desertion and labor turnover, 702 Desertion and length of service, 704 Desertion and profanity, 421 Desertion and season, 701 Desertion as a problem in attrac- tions, 698, 699 Desertion, causes of, 698 Desertion connected with family matters, 705 Desertion connected with outside affairs; 706 Desertion, differences in rates for, 697 Desertion, expulsive causes in, 699 Desertion in reducing man power, 693 Desertion, magnitude of the prob- lem of, 695 Desertion, need for study of prob- lem of, 697 Desertion peculiar to war condi- tions, 706 Desertion, prevention of, 698 Desertion, ratios of, by service, 700 Desertions and ' causes connected with service, 705 Desertions and character, 705 Desertions and enlistments, by months, 702 Desertions and prosperity, 703 Desertions and type of recruits, 703 Desertions in peace and war, 704 Desertions in relation to other of- fenses, 694 Desertions, methods. for .combating, 700, 702, 703, 704, 706. 707, 708 Desertions only one expression of indiscipline, 694 782 INDEX Desertions, proportion of, 695, 696 •' Desk-officers," 309 Development Battalion, 594, 603 Development Battalion, defects of the, 603 Development Battalion, morale problems of the, 603 Development of leaderst 40 Development of pugnacity, 126 Differences in psychological make- up, 69, 70 Differences, racial, of psychology, 70 Difficulties, personal, adjustment of, 330 Direct approach and argument, 280 Direct approach, methods of using the, 287 Direct approach, the, 281 Directions, clearness of, to sub- ordinates, 306 Disaffection, nature of. 441 Disagreements, correction of, 450 Discharge, effect on community of, 573 Discharge, last impressions on, 572 Discharge, recognition of service on, 574 Discharged men, absorption of. 578 Discharged men, letter to families of, 576 Discharges by order, causes of. r>(>4 Disciplinary Barracks, classification of offenses in, 671, 672 Disciplinary relations, views of en- listed men on, 459, 460 Discipline, agents for, 430 Discipline and individualism, 420 Discipline and morale, 28 Discipline and self-assertion. 430 Discipline, application of, 427 Discipline, definition of, 429 Discipline, enforcement of. by pub- lic opinion, 427 Discipline, factors of, 428 Discipline of fear, 109, 110 Discipline, methods of, 428 Discipline, the mechanics of, 658, 659 Discipline through force and fear, 428 Discipline through public opinion 162 Discipline, volitional. 429 Discomfort, unnecessary, 637 Discontent and delinquency, 669 Discontent and inefficiency, 443 Discontent, causes of, 445 Discontent, combating, 446 Discontent, imaginary causes of, 446 Discontent due to blocking of in- stincts, 440 Discontent in the military com- munity, 445 Discontent, progress of, 441 Discontent, psychology of, 440 Discontent, ringleaders in, 451 Discontent, sources of, 440 Discontent, stages of, 440 Discontent, positive qualities of, 444 Discontent, relation of to delin- quency, 442 Discontent, solving problems of, 444 Discontent, transmission of, by sympathy, 444 Discontents, nuclei of, 445 Discrimination. Ideas of, 605 Disease and morale, 314 Dishonesty, offenses of, classifica- tion of, 682 Disloyal propaganda, combatting, 494, 485 Disorder, averting, 409 Disorders and demobilization. 574 Dissatisfaction and disaffection, in- dications of, 442 Dissatisfaction, nature of, 441 Distinctive names, morale value of, 523 Distraction of interest. 230 Drafted men, incentives of. 9 Dramatic entertainment. 537 Dramatic entertainment, character of, 538 Dramatic entertainment, morale value of, 537, 538 Drills for recruits. 560 Drills, parades and ceremonies, mo- rale value of, 524 Drink or drugs, offenses of, classi- fication of. 682 Drug addictions and mental state, 625 Diugs, Influence of, on mood and character. 625 Dry cold, mental stimulus of. 641 Duty, as an ideal rather than obli- gation. 432 Duty, assignments to, 456 Duty, nature of, 431 Duty, sense of, 431 Dynamic center, each individual a, 75 E Early handling of recruits. 558 Eating out of barracks. 648 Economic considerations in indus- try, 734 Economics of learning. 474 Education and recreation officer and morale, 319 Education and training, principles of, 461 Education and vocational training, 474 Education, compulsion as to. 474 Education, information and train- ing, 461 Education in the A. E. F., 477. 47S Education of industrial workers. 771 Education, training and habit, 223 Educational factors in morale, 60 INDEX 783 Educational qualifications of pris- oners, 676 Effective strength and morale, 6 Efficiency and ideals, 8, 9 Efficiency and numbers, 38 Efficiency and spirit, relation of, 6 Efficiency, personal interests and, 15 Efficiency systems in industry, 39 Efficiency, value of good will in, 14, 15 Electricity, compared with psycho- logical force, 67 Elements of leadership, some, 411 Emotion, complaint as a vent for, 449 Emotion, definition of, 247 Emotion, expression of, 249 Emotion, humor as outlet for, 207 Emotion, nature of, 248 Emotion, stimulation of, 248 Emotional state and rhythm, 205 Emotional stress and delinquents, 668 Emotions, control of, 409 Emotions, sharing of, 301 Enemy propaganda, combatting. 502 Enemy propaganda, rumors and, 490 Energy, human reservoirs of, 99 Energy, latent, stimulation of, 37, 38 Energy, waste of, in training, 471 Engineering, human, 36 Enlist, reasons for declining to, 565 Enlisted men, views of, on disci- plinary relations, 459, 460 Enlistment as a " job," 566 Enlistment, men rejected for, 570 Enlistments and desertions, by months, 702 Entertainment as a safety valve for energy, 526 Entertainment, dramatic, 537 Entertainment, hospital, 632, 633 Entertainment, programs for, 529 Entertainment to be managed by the men, 530 Enthusiasm, nature and results of, 424 Environment, adjustment to, 274 Environment and behavior, relation of, 274 Environment and consciousness, 227, 228 Environment and habit, 224 Environment and training, 462 Environment, building up the, 280 Environment, effect of the military, 220 Environment, factors of physical, 637 Environment, faults of, 279 Environment, fortuitous, and mo- tive, 263 Environment, human factors in the. 279 Environment in industry, 770 Environment, influence of, on char- acter, 219 Environment, irritants in the in- dustrial, 751 Environment, maladjustment to, 274 Environment, need of change of, 193 Environment, new factors in, 282 Environment of industrial task, 751 Environment, pleasant and unpleas- ant, 276 Environment, reaction of the child to, 281 Environment, reaction to. 278 Environment, relation of, to of- fenses, 677 Environment, the prepared, in mo- rale work, 614, 615, 616, 617 Environmental factors, classifica- tion of, 637 Envy, 256 Equality of opportunity, 151 Equal members and fighting ef- ficiency, 7 Erroneous newspaper statements, correction of, suggestions for, 500, 501 Erroneous statements, effect on morale, 493 Errors in training, 463, 464 Escape, causes of, 713 Esprit de corps, 161 Esprit de corps, aids to, 438 Esprit de corps and comradeship, 436 Esprit de corps and team work, 439 Esprit de corps and transfers of officers, 438 Esprit de corps, definition of, 435 Esprit de corps, development of, 435 Exaggeration and sympathy, 167 Exaggeration, by the soldier, 76 Example and imitation, 174 Example and leadership, 41 Example, appeals to set a good, 175 Example of superiors, 309 Excessive amusement, faults of, 531 Excessive punishment, reaction against, 658 Exchange officer and morale, 318 Excitation of instincts, 95, 96 Exclusion of substandard men, 580 Expectation and realization, 443 Experience and morale work, 34 Experience in handling men, 41 Experience, value of, 467 Experience versus speculations, 379 Explanation and orders, 285 Explanation of difficulties, value of, 484, 485 784 INDEX Explanation, value In satisfying curiosity, 483 Facility conferred by training, 463 Factors affecting military morale, 51 Factors in suggestion, 242 Facts in controlling conduct, 466 Failure to re-enlist like " labor turnover," 571 Faith and figures, 10 Faith, a state of, In morale, 5 False premises, act resulting from, 294 False premises and act, 499 Fame and notoriety, 498 Family Influences on the recruit, 561 Family matters, offenses connected with, 688, 690 Family relations and morale, 49 Fatalism, 203 Fatigue, nature of, 470, 471 Fatigue work, excessive, 644 Fault-finding and irritability in su- periors, 303 Faults of environment, removal of, 282 Fear, as a factor in punishment, 654 Fear, cause of, 105 Fear, control of, 108, 114, 115, 116 Fear, correction by, 109 Fear, discipline through, 109, 110 Fear, excitants of, 110, 111, 112 Fear, function of, 108 Fear, Infectiousness of, 105 Fear, instinct of, 105 Fear, instinct, in war, 621 Fear Instinct, use of, with children and poor mentality, 655 Fear, repression of, 105 Fear, symptoms of, 112 Fear, yielding to, 107, 108 Fighting efficiency and equal num- bers, 7 Figures and faith, 10 Financial panic and crowd mind, 266 First sergeant, the, and morale, 345 Fitting the man to the job, 590 Fixed beliefs, 248 Flag, the, as a symbol, 520 " Flashes " with moving pictures, 540 Foeh, statement on morale, 1 " Follow up " work and morale methods, 59 Food, preparation and serving of food, 648 Force, the discipline of, 428 Force, use of, In armies, 284 Forced labor, 757 Foreign language problem essen- tially American, 592 Foreign language problem, magni- tude of the, 592, 593 Foreign language problems In war and Industry, 593 Foreign language soldiers, methods of training, 595, 596 Foreign service, 164 Forgetting, rapidity of, 473 Fraternizing, danger of, 127 French Drill Regulations on mo- rale, 1 Friendliness as an asset, 166, 439 Friendship of " buddies." 165 Funerals, . military, psychological appeal of, 525 Gambling, 179 General Orders 94, War Dept., 1918, 375, 376 Germans and gregarlousness, 157, 158, 160 " Golden Rule " in Industry, 775 Good and bad regiments, spirit the difference between, 7 " Good conduct card," 195 Good morale, definition of, 27, 28 Good will, value of, 14, 15 Gratitude, 254 Gregarlousness and co-operation, 160 Gregarlousness and Germans, 157, 158, 160 Gregarlousness and race, 158 Gregarlousness and self-preserva- tion, 156 Gregarlousness and social forms, 159 Gregarlousness and the uniform, 157 Gregarlousness, blocking of, 161 Gregarlousness in armies and in- dustry, 160 Gregarlousness. Instinct of. 155 Gregarlousness of crowd. 81 Gregarlousness, pleasure in, 161 Gregarlousness, qualities of. 156 Gregarlousness, tendencies of. 155 Grievances, involvement of officers in personal, 450 Group problems, prevention of, 342 Group psychology, 76 Group solidarity, 157 Groups, antisocial, 80 Guard house, mixing of offenders in the, 666 Guard bouse prisoners, appeals to, 667 Guard house, purpose of the. 664 Guard house, reading matter in the, 667 Guard house, rules of the, 666 Habit and environment, 224 Habit and " old fogyism," 222 Habit, definition of. 222 Habit, education and training of, 224 INDEX 785 Habit, forming of a, 224 Habit, pleasure of, 222 Habit, slaves of, 222 Habits and age, 223 Habits and instincts, 222 Habits, bad, 223 Habits, bad, breaking of, 225 Habits, new, 223 " Hammering " versus " molding " into shape, 288 Handling men, experience in, 41 Handling men, place of punishment In, 658 Hasty action by superiors, 302 Hatred, 255, 256 Health and temperament, 216 Health in relation to mental state, 618 Health rates as indices of morale, 619 Hesitation, cause of, 235 Hikes to points of interest, 549 Hikes, trips and practice marches, 548 Holiday furloughs, 195 Home letters, value of, 518 " Homesickness," 707 Honesty of purpose by superiors, 417 Hookworm infection and morale, 620 Hospital entertainment, 632, 633 Hospital morale, 629 Hospital morale, methods for de- veloping, 630-632 Hospital morale, problems of, 630 Hospital morale, purpose of, 630 Hospital patients, morale of, 630 Hospital personnel, morale meas- ures for, 636 Hospital personnel, morale of, 629 Hospitals and vocational training, 478 " House organs " and local public- ity, 772 " Houston riot," averting a, 409 Human agents of morale control, 295 Human element, quality of, in war, 6 Human engineering and morale work, 36 Human progress and rivalry, 147 Human relations, importance of, 735 Human reservoirs of power, 37 Humor as outlet for emotion, 207 Humor, Ideas of war, 209 Humor, repression of, 209 Hunger, influence of, on morale, 647 Hunger, Instinct of, 102, 103. 104 Ideal standards for rivalry, 148 Idealistic morale, 13 Ideals and efliciency, 8, 9 Ideals as embodied in symbols, 520 Ideals as standards of behavior, 251 Ideals, books as creators of, 510 Ideals of citizenship, 481 Ideals of the imagination, 258 Ideas and ideals, 248 Ideas as property, 651 Ideas, imparting of, to men of low intelligence, 583 Ideas, prestige of, 246 Ideas, selling of, as morale work, 57 Ideas, selling of, In morale work, 372 Ideas, sources of, 463 Ideas, the control of unwholesome, 243, 244 Identity of men, recognizing the, 453 Illiteracy and industry, 771 Illiteracy, by localities. 600 Illiteracy, definition of, 596 Illiteracy in the military service, 597 Illiteracy, limitations doe to, 601 Illiteracy, percentage of, among negro soldiers, 598 Illiteracy, percentage of, in the army, 597 Illiterate, reaching the, by pic- tures, 515 Illiterates, foreign born, percen- tages of, 599, 600 Illiterates, schools for, 601 Imaginary ideals, 258 Imagination and race, 258 Imagination, control of, 258 Imagination, creative, 257 Imagination, nature of, 257 Imagination, reproductive, 257 Imitation and age, 172 Imitation and example, 174 Imitation and tradition, 173 Imitation, conscious and uncon- scious, 173 Imitation, examples of, 172 Imitation in controlling action, 173 Imitation, instinct of, 171 Imitation, law of stimulus for, 172 Imitation, in training, 175 Impression, nature of, 236 Impressions, lasting qualities of pleasant. 470 Impressions left by stimuli. 235 Impressions, mental, conveyance of, 291 Impulses of crowds, 79 Impulsiveness, 232 Incentive of property possession, 182 Incentives with drafted men, 9 Incentives for play, 533 Incentives for unskilled labor, 767 Incubation period, 243 Indian Mutiny and rumors, 491 Indirect approach and suggestion, 289 Indirect approach, basis of the, 288 786 INDEX Indirect approach, methods of the, 289 Indiscipline, desertions as one ex- pression of, 694 Indiscipline, results of, 427 Individual qualities of men, knowl- edge of, 453 Individualism and offenses against authority, 720 Industrial difficulties and morale measures, 731 Industrial efficiency and laws of human nature, 732 Industrial environment, irritants in the, 751 Industrial " floaters," nature of, 746, 747 Industrial groups and infectious thought, 733 Industrial incentive, reaction to lack of, 748 Industrial inefficiency, causes of, 739 Industrial leaders and morale, 737, 738 Industrial leadership, importance of, 747, 773 Industrial management, diversity in, 737 Industrial management, imperfec- tions of, 737 Industrial morale, 730 Industrial morale and human man- agement, 734 Industrial morale, in war, 47 Industrial morale like military ef- ficiency, 735 Industrial morale work, cost of, 773 Industrial morale work, results of, 732 Industrial operations, simplicity of some, 746 Industrial organizations, methods of, 732 Industrial output, increase of, 732 Industrial periods and mental Irri- tability, 757 Industrial productiveness, 739 Industrial productiveness and busi- ness survival, 738 Industrial productiveness and un- necessary strain, 752 Industrial productivity and mili- tary morale, 738 Industrial supervisors, errors in se- lection of, 748 Industrial task, environment ot the, 751 Industrial task, fitness for, 762 Industrial worker, personality of the, 762 Industrial worker, recognition of personality of, 761 Industrial workers and informa- tion, 772 Industrial workers, maintenance of records of, 755, 756 Industrial workers, mental and trade tests for, 755 Industrial workers, special handling of certain, 749 Industry, absenteeism In, 740 Industry and army, attractiveness of, 744 Industry and recreation, 769. 770 Industry, bonuses for service in, 764 Industry, capitalization of sympa- thy in, 170 Industry, capitalizing public opin- ion In, 750 Industry, class consciousness in, 768 Industry, clearing house for com- plaints In. 774 Industry, community of experience in, 761 Industry, courtesy In, 769 Industry, discharge of workers in, 765 Industry, education of workers In, 771 Industry, efficiency in, stimulation of. 736 Industry, efficiency systems in, 39 Industry, environment in, 770 Industry, expression of personality in, 753 Industry, factor of self-esteem in, 759 Industry, first offenses in. 774 Industry, gregariousness In. 160 Industry, home conditions in, 770 Industry, incentives in, 766 Industry, linking the individual to his, 768 Industry, mechanical processes in, and personality, 766 Industry, merit system in, 769 Industry, misSts in, 754 Industry, morale as a factor, in, 2 Industry, morale organization in, 749, 750 Industry, morale problems in, 734 Industry, motive in, 739 Industry, new employees in, 772 Industry, personal interests in. 751 Industry, outlets for acquisitive- ness in, 759 Industry, permanence of the job in, 765 Industry, physical defectives in, 762 Industry, physical environment In, 750 Industry, power of discharge In, 756 Industry, pride of workmanship in, 766 Industry, promotion in, and jobs, 764 Industry, psychological environ- ment in. 753 Industry, publicity in, 772 INDEX 787 Industry, punishment In, by dis- charge, 664 Industry, rivalry as Incentive in 768 Industry, selling of ideas to work- ers in, 760 Industry, special problems of, 735 Industry, standards of efficiency in, 739 Industry, stimuli in, 733 Industry, sympathetic understand- ing in, 760 Industry, testing human agents in, 754 Industry, the " Golden Rule " in, 775 Industry, the " square deal " in, 769 Industry, training the unskilled in, 767 Industry, value of healthy thoughts to, 753 Inefficiency and misfits, 590 Inefficiency, delinquents as causes of, 669 Inefficiency due to illiteracy, 601 Inefficiency of substandard men, 581 Inequities of legal procedures, 660 Influence, interreactions of. 75 Influence of bad companions, 175 Influence of individuals over others, 174 Influence of older soldiers on re- cruits, 561 Influencing of morale, 25 Information and morale, 61 Information, education and train- ing, 461 Information, nature of, as to mo- rale, 65 Information necessary to mental harmony, 70 Information, need for, 482 Information,, need of, In morale work, 61, 62, 63 Information of the recruit, 556 Information, sources of, as to mo- rale, 64 Information, value of, 483 Inhibition and repression, 231 Inhibition, nature of, 231, 232 Initiative and morale, 29 Injustice and sympathy, 165 Insignia and decorations, 521 Inspectors General and morale work, 312, 313 Inspiration and morale, 61 Inspirational battle order, example of. 486 ti „_ Inspirational fag for recruits, 555 Instinct, migratory, satisfaction of the, 548 Instinct of acquisitiveness, 176 Instinct of construction, 187 Instinct of curiosity, 151 Instinct of fear, 105 Instinct of gregariousness, 155 Instinct of hunger, 102, 103, 104 Instinct of imitation, 171 Instinct of migration, 191 Instinct of play, 183 Instinct of pugnacity, 120 Instinct of religion, 201 Instinct of reproduction, 196 Instinct of repulsion, 117 Instinct of rhythm, 205 Instinct of rivalry, 146 Instinct of self-assertion, 128 Instinct of self-submission, 140 Instinct of sympathy, 163 Instinct of the comic, 207 Instinct of the parental, 199 Instinct of thirst. 102 Instincts and habits, 222 Instincts, blocking of, 97 Instincts, blocking of, and discon- tent, 440 Instincts, control of, 98, 99, 100 Instincts, excitation of, 95, 96 Instincts in general, 93 Instincts, qualities of, 94, 95 Instincts, reciprocal stimulation of, 97 Instincts, significance of, 94 Instincts, the basic, 93, 146 Instruction, planning o', 465 Insurance, 178 Insurance officer and morale work, 318 Intangible rewards, 651 Intelligence among volunteers and drafted men, relative, 599 Intelligence, level of, and offenses, 674 Intelligence, low, and high delin- quency rates, 583 Intelligence, low, imparting ideas to men of, 583 Intelligence Officer and morale work, 316 Intelligence ratings, value of, 588 Intelligence, relation of, to military offenses, 582 Intelligence, standards of, 580 Intelligence tests on the " unem- ployed," 584 Intent in relation to punishment, 657 Intent of humor, 208 Interest and attention, 228 Interest, attention and purpose, 230 Interest, distraction of, 230 Interest essential in training, 468 Interest in industrial task, 762 Interest, personal, of officers, 304 Interest, qualities of, 230 Interest, stimulation of, 231 Interests of employer and em- ployee, 758 Interests, satisfaction of, 305 International -law and pugnacity, 125 Inter-reactlons of influence, 75 788 INDEX Isolation of foreign-speaking men, 595 J Jervis, Admiral, on criticism by of- ficers, 448 Jesting, 208 Job, analysis of the, 763 Job, enlistment as a. 566 Job, permanency of the, in indus- try, 765 Job, permanence of the, 757 Job requirements, standardization of, 763 Jobs and promotion, 764 Jobs for discharged soldiers, 577 Judge Advocates General and mo- rale, 315 Judgements, hasty, 426 Jusserand, Ambassador, on Ameri- can military tradition, 438 Justice, 254 Justice and leadership, 426 Justice, equitable, 659 Justice, the nature of, 426 K " Key men " and groups, 80 " Key men " and morale problems, 326 King George, letter from, to our soldiers. 437 Kipling, on the non-commissioned officer, 348 Kinship in mental make-up, 452 Knowledge concerning the men, 452, 453 Knowledge of morale machine, 373 Labor efficiency a matter of han- dling, 747 Labor efficiency, factor of. 739 Labor turnover and desertion, 702, 742 Labor turnover and desertion, com- parison of, 743 Labor turnover and economic loss, 741 Labor turnover and faulty admin- istration, 720 Labor turnover and lowered pro- ductivity, 741 Labor turnover and motives, 742 Labor turnover and sympathy, 169 Labor turnover, causes of, 741 Labor turnover, like failure to re- enlist. 571 Labor turnover, statistics on, 742, 743 Labor, variation in rotation of, 744 Laboratory, the army as a hu- man, 42 Lack of sympathy, results of, 169 Language, need for a common, 592 Language, profane, 420 Language, relation to leadership, 419 Language, selection of, 419 Language, simplicity of, 420 Language, use of, in orders, 419- 420 " Last impression," 241 " Last impression," value of, 60 " Last retreat," address at the, 575 Latent energy, stimulation of, 37, 38 Laws of mental Impression, 466 Leaders and crowd mind, 78 Leaders, development of, 40 Leadership and electricity, 412 Leadership and knowledge of hu- man nature. 454-455 Leadership and personality, 411, 412. 413, 414 Leadership and success, 413 Leadership, basis of, 415 Leadership, elements of, 411 Leadership, example in, 41 Leadership, industrial, importance of, 773 Leadership, language in relation to, 419 Leadership, manner in relation to, 418-419 Leadership, need for training in, 460 Leadership, relation of, to military offense, 665 Leadership, scientific development of, 296 Leadership, variation of officers In, 415 Learning, economics of, 474 Learning new things, procedure in, 472 Learning, processes of, 466 Learning, psychological limit to, 472 Learning, value of, 462 Lecture service, value of the, 481 Leisure time, use of, for morale purposes, 527 " Let's go," analysis of the slogan, 522 Letter, form, regarding the re- cruit, 562 Letter, from King George, to our soldiers, 437 Letter to families of discharged- men, 576 Letter to relations, In absence without leave, 716 Letters, commendatory, 653 Letters and morale, 50 Letters, for sick in hospital, 631 Library, the, as a morale agency, 510, 511 Library, need of advertising the, 513 Library, the station, 509 " Like attracts like," 156 INDEX 789 Little things, Importance of, 277 Loose talkers, 243 Looting and pillage, 182 Low intelligence and lack of judge- ment, 583 Low mentality, 582 Loyalty, 254 Loyalty and team work, 439 Ludendorff, General, on civilian morale, 47 Ludendorff, General, on offensive propaganda, 48 Ludendorff, General, -on under- standing men, 452 M Mail service, morale value of, 517 Major premises, false, combating, 275 Maladjustment to environment, 274 Malingering, nature and prevention of, 624 Man a social animal, 159 Man, study of the, 453, 454, 455 Manner, control of, 418 Manner, relation of, to leadership, 418-419 Man-power, desertion as reducing, 693 Man-power in industry, 774 March, General, on recreation, 526 Mass action and rivalry, 149 Mass athletics, mental value of, 534 N Mass singing, value of, 542, 543 Mass suggestion, 241 Mastery and submission, 141 Materialistic morale, 13 Measures to promote morale, 44, 45, 46 Measuring of defeat, 8 Mechanics of behavior, 292 Mechanics of discipline, 658, 659 Mechanics of morale, 371 Medical care and mental state, 629 Medical officers and morale, 313 Medium of morale work, 42 Memory, 473 Men being discharged, talk with, 575 Men rejected for enlistment, 570 Men, knowledge concerning the, 452 Men, methods of handling, 414, 415 Men, recognizing the identity of, 453 Men, study of, 299, 300 Men who cannot learn, 579 Mental age and psychological rat- ings, 585 Mental age, classification for, 587 Mental characteristics of adoles- cence, 90 Mental clashes, 141, 142 Mental " condition " and morale, 4 Mental conflicts in war, 622 Mental defectives, 582 Mental defectiveness and delin- quency, 674, 675, 676 Mental depression and decreased man power, 740 Mental depression and physical in- efficiency, 443 Mental exaltation in morale, 17 Mental excitement and bodily func- tion, 619 Mental factors in muscular power, 272 Mental guidance of crowds, 85 Mental harmony in sympathy, 164 Mental harmony, need for, 70, 71 Mental impression, lasting quali- ties of, 473 Mental impression, laws of, 466 Mental inertia, perniciousness of, 589 Mental instability and delinquency, 621 Mental instability, degrees of, 622 Mental misfits, 589 Mental readjustments following wars, 573 Mental segregation, 162 Mental state and conduct, 273 Mental state and drug addictions, 625 Mental stage and hookworm infec- tion, 620 Mental state and medical care, 629 Mental state and suicide, 624 Mental state and sunshine, 639 Mental state as influencing result, 218 Mental state, crystallization of, 270 Mental state In relation to health, 618 Mental state of " conscientious ob- jectors," 610 Mental tension in recruits, 554 Mental tests, army, 584 Mental tests as indicating ability, 584 Mental tests, interpretation of, 587 Mentality and crime, relation be- tween, 673 Mentally substandard men, 579 Merit system in industry, 769 Meterological factor in morale, 639 Methods of morale work, 57 Migrant workers, 745 Migration and season, 191 Migration, motives for, 192 Migratory instinct, blocking of, 193 Migratory instinct, outlets for the, 196 Migratory instinct, satisfaction of, 193, 194, 195, 548 Migratory instinct, the, 191 Military athletics, 531 Military code, precision of the, 269 Military life and crime, 686 Military literature and morale, 480 Military offenses and crimes of moral turpitude, 684 790 INDEX Military offenses, classification of, .677, 678, 681 Military offenses, component fac- tors of, 689 Military offenses, relation of, to intelligence, 582 Military offenses, relation of leader- ship to, 665 Military relationship, 142 Military service, educational dis- abilities of. 475 Mind, arming of the, 10 Mind, the crowd, 76, 77 Miscellaneous military offenses, causes of, 723 Miscellaneous offenses, classification of, 683 Misfit individuals, 465 Misfits and assignments to duty, 589 Misfits and inefficiency, 589 Misfits in industry, 754 Misfits, mental, 589 Misfits, physical, in industry, 762 Monotony in training, 469 Mood as barometer of act, 217, 218 Mood, definition of, 217 Mood, development of, 217 Mood, Influence of drugs on, 625 Mood, influence of Illness on, 625 Mood, modification of, 218 Moral defectives and war neurotics, 623 Moral judgement and sentiment, 250 Morale, absence of, 28 Morale agencies, 54, 55 Morale agencies, posters as, 516, 517 Morale agency, camp publications as a, 506 Morale agency, dancing as a, 545 Morale, agency, moving pictures as a, 539 Morale agency, music as a, 541 Morale agency, recreation as a, 526 Morale agency, the library as a, 510 Morale agency, the Post Exchange as a, 551 Morale and altruism, 30 Morale and cleanliness, 643 Morale and commanding officers, 308 Morale and confidence, 5 Morale and conviction, 11, 12 Morale and discipline, 28, 428 Morale and disease, 314 Morale and drug additions. 625 Morale and effective strength, 6 Morale and family relations, 49 Morale and health, 618 Morale and information, 61 Morale and initiative, 29 Morale and inspiration. 61 Morale and " methods of doing," 412 Morale and moralizing, 3 Morale and morals, 3 Morale and non-commissioned of- ficers, 345 Morale and negative forces, 27 Morale and officers, 295 Morale and optimism. 24 Morale and patriotism, 31 Morale and persistency, 29 Morale and personal appearance, 645 Morale and physical betterment, 60 Morale and physical welfare, 14 Morale and j>oli tics, 50 Morale and recreation. 61 Morale and Russian collapse, 10 Morale and self-control, 29 Morale and staying power. 5, 8 Morale and team work. 13. 14 Morale and the " will to win," 4 Morale and vision, 30 Morale and war period. 53 Morale and weather conditions, 639 Morale, army mental tests in rela- tion to, 587 Morale as a factor in industry, 2 Morale as affected by criticism, 447 Morale as an equivalent of mem- bers, 39 Morale as mental " condition," 4 Morale a state of faith. 5 Morale and branch of service. 56 Morale Branch and enemy propa- ganda and conditions. 382 Morale Branch and industrial mo- rale, Morale Branch, functions of, 377, 378. 379, 380 Morale Branch, methods of, 381 Morale Branch, organization of the, 375, 376 Morale Branch, relations of. 377 Morale Branch, work of, in educa- tion, 477 Morale circulars, nature and use of, 383, 384 Morale, civilian, 48 Morale, civilian, relation to mili- tary, 47 Morale, color of rooms and, 642 Morale control, human agents of, 295 Morale control, requirements of, 58, 59 Morale councils, 329 Morale, cumulative, 26 Morale, curves of, 24, 25 Morale, defects of administration and, 649 Morale, definition of. 2, 3 Morale, degrees of, 26 Morale difficulties with Americans, 16 Morale, educational factors in, 60 Morale, effect of erroneous state- ments on, 493 Morale, factors affecting military, 51 INDEX 791 Morale factors, control of, 51, 52 Morale, French Drill Regulations on, 1 Morale, General Pershing's report on, 29 Morale, good, definition of, 27, 28 Morale, hospital, 629 Morale, hospital, methods for de- veloping, 630-632 Morale, hospital, purpose of, 630 Morale, idealistic, 13 Morale in relation to clothing, 645 Morale in relation to enlistments, 569 Morale, industrial, 730 Morale, influence of letters on, 50 Morale, influence of women on, 50 Morale, influencing of, 25 Morale, materialistic, 13 Morale, mental exaltation in, 17 Morale measures for attendants on the sick, 636 Morale measures for combatting sex immorality, 627 Morale, measures to promote, 44, 45, 46 Morale, mechanics of, 371 Morale mechanism, essentials of the, 374 Morale mechanism, its use for spe- cial purposes, 374 Morale mechanism, need of knowl- edge of, 373 Morale methods and hooks. 40 Morale methods and " follow up " work, 59 Morale methods and reward, 651 Morale methods and scientific man- agement, 35, 39, 40 Morale methods, application of, 372 Morale methods, general purpose of, 375 Morale, methods of, work, 57 Morale methods, study of, 18, 19 Morale methods, success of, 373 Morale methods with " conscien- tious objectors," 611, 613-617 Morale, nature of information as to, 65 Morale of attendants on the sick, 635 Morale of recruits, 559 Morale Offlcer T efliciency of, 326, 327 Morale Officer, functions of, 320, 321 Morale Officer, functions of, 324, 325 Morale Officer, problems of, 326 Morale Officer, purposes of, 320 Morale Officer, qualities of the, 322, 323 324 Morale Officer, staff relationship of the, 322 Morale officers and civilian rela- tions, 331 Morale operatives, 63 Morale organization, chart of, 390 Morale organization, functioning of, 391 Morale organization in camps, 386, 387, 388, 389 Morale organization in industry, 749, 750 Morale organization, nature of, 372 Morale organization, need for, 371 Morale, physical factors in, 638 Morale, poor, definition of, 27, 28 Morale, poor, symptoms of, 5.6 Morale, positive and negative, 23 Morale problem of the " conscien- tious objector," 606 Morale problem, " conscientious ob- jector," solution of, 614, 615, 616, 617 Morale problems and " key men," 326 Morale problems in industry, 734, 735 Morale, problems of defective, 52 Morale problems, solution of, 389 Morale, qualities of, 26 Morale, standards of, 17 Morale, temporary, 16 Morale, the driving force of physi- cal agents, 9 Morale, varying problems of, 18 Morale, Sherman's statement" on, 1 Morale, sources of information as to, 64 Morale, special problems of, 34 Morale, re-enlistments as an index of, 570 Morale, statement of Foch on, 1 Morale, statement of Napoleon on, 1 Morale, study of, neglected, 7 Morale value of distinctive names, 523 Morale value of dramatic entertain- ment, 537, 538 Morale value of drills, parades and ceremonies, 524 Morale, value of, in war, 1 Morale, variations in, 693 Morale versus demoralization, 2 Morale versus numbers, 8 Morale work and experience, 34 Morale work and human engineer- ing, 36 Morale work and knowledge of psy- chology, 68 Morale work and training, 474 Morale work a two-edged tool. 17 Morale work and chaplains. 331 Morale work and contentment, 21 Morale work and reforming offend- ers, 22 Morale work and staff officers, 312 Morale work, application of. 43 Morale work, as a science, 35, 36 Morale work, chaplains and, 331 Morale work, company commander and, 338 Morale work, facilities for, 328 792 INDEX Morale work in averting delin- quency, 655 Morale work inspires the best, 20 Morale work in war, 88 Morale work, knowledge of condi- tions essential in, 327 Morale work like selling ideas, 372 Morale work, medium of, 42 Morale work, methods of, 274 Morale work, need of information in, 61, 62, 63 Morale work, need of system in, 328 Morale work non-critical, 21 Morale work, open character of our, 43 Morale work preventive, 22 Morale work, preventive aspect of, 343 Morale work, purpose of, 19, 20 Morale work, selling of ideas in, 57 Morale work, standardization of, 32, 33, 34 Morale work, suggestion in, 236 Morale work, sympathy in, 171 Morale work, the prepared environ- ment in, 614-617 Morale work, unobtrusiveness of, 353 Morale work, use of civilian organ- izations in, 360. 361. 362 Morale work, use of Community Service in, 366, 367 Morale work, use of Red Cross In, 368, 369, 370 Morale work, use of Social Hygiene Board in, 367 Morale work, value of. 23 Moralizing and morale, 3 Morals and morale, 3 Motive and act, relation between, 267 Motive and chance environment, 263 Motive and intent, 263 Motive cards in delinquency, 686 Motive, definition of. 262 Motive, exterior influences as, 279 Motive in industry. 739 Motive, inspiring with, 264 Motive, relation to conduct, 262 Motive, volition as a force in, 259 Motives for migration. 192 Motives for military offenses. 678 Motives, need of studying, 265 Motives of absence without leave, 710 Motives of group and Individual, 264 Motives of play, 184 Motto for esprit de corps, 437 Moving pictures, morale value of, 539 Moving pictures, subjects of. 539 Moving pictures, use of " flashes " with, 540 Munitions, stimulation of produc- tion of, 731 Muscular power, mental factors ir, 272 Music and mass singing, 542 Music and the psychological state, 541 Music, as an aid to morale. 541 Music, band, value of, 544 Music, change of, to environment, 542 Music balls, songs of the, and na- tional mental state, 542 Music, song leaders for, 544 Music, value of, 205, 206 N Napoleon, statement of, on morale, 1 Naturalization of non-citizens, 602 Negative forces and morale. 27 Negative qualities in soldiers, 74 Nervous and muscular correlation, 471 Neuroses and psychoses, war. 620 Neurotic soldiers and morale. 314 News items, erroneous, 499 News, suppression of, 502 Non-cltlzens, naturalization of, 602 Non-commissioned officers and mo- rale, 345 Non-commissioned officers and self- submission, 143 Non-commissioned officers, pessi- ism in. 347 Non-commissioned officers, promo- tion of, 655 Non-commissioned officers, qualities of. 346 Non-commissioned officers, relations of, with privates. 346. 347. 348 Non-commissioned officers, selection of, 345 Non-commissioned officers, selection of, 340 Non-commissioned officers, support of, 348 Non-English-speaking soldier. 592 Non-English-speaking soldiers, diffi- culties of. 594 Numbers and efficiency. 38 Numbers, morale as equivalent to, 39 Numbers without morale. 8 Obstinacy and self-assertion, 138 Offender, the repeated, 670 Offenders, civilian characteristics Of, 672 Offenders, criminal record of. 670, 671 Offenders, mixing of, in guard houses, 665 Offenders, reforming by morale work, 22 Offense, mental state precursor of, 316 INDEX 793 Offenses against authority, 717 Offenses against authority, and in- dividualism, 720 Offenses against authority, and poor administration, 719 Offenses against authority, and voluntary enlistment, 718 Offenses against authority, causes of, 718 Offenses against authority, classifi- cation of, 679 Offenses against decency, 726 Offenses against decency, classifica- tion of, 683 Offenses against Government prop- erty, classification of, 681 Offenses and bad adjustment, 692 Offenses and level of intelligence, 674 Offenses by sentinels and guards, 721 Offenses by sentinels, classification of, 680 Offenses, civil, miscellaneous, 728 Offenses, classification of, in Dis- ciplinary Barracks, 671, 672 Offenses connected with character, 687 Offenses connected with family matters, 688, 690 Offenses connected with outside matters, 688 Offenses connected with service, 687 Offenses, first, in industry, 774 Offenses, military, classification of, 677, 678, 681 Offenses, military, factors in, 315 Offenses, military, in peace, 685 Offenses, military, reduction of, 315 Offenses, miscellaneous, classifica- tion of, 683 Offenses, miscellaneous military, causes of, 723 Offenses, motives for military, 678 Offenses, nature of, in 1918, 679- 683 Offenses of absence, classification of, 679 Offenses of dishonesty. 725 Offenses of dishonesty, classifica- tion of, 682 Offenses of drink or drugs, classifi- cation of, 682 Offenses of violence, classification of, 682 Offenses peculiar to war conditions, 688 Offenses, relation of alcohol to, 672 Offenses, relation of environment to, 677 Offenses with violence involved, causes of, 724 Officers, " commanding," 260 Officer, knowledge of his men by, 453, 454 Officer, responsibilities of the, for his men, 457 Officers and hasty action, 302 Officers and morale, 295 Officers and men, relation between, 456 Officers deficient in leadership, 417 Officers, duty of, in character formation, 220 Officers, best methods of practice of, 41 Officers, criticism by, 448 Officers' inability to command thought, 260 Officers, mental qualities of, 300 Officers, involvement of, in griev- ances, 450 Officers, obligations of, 299 Officers of average leadership, 416 Officers of high leadership, 416 Officers, personal equation of, 296, 297 Officers, personal interest by, 304 Officers, qualities of good, 301 Officers, recourse of, to punish- ments, 656 Officers, relations of, to men, 341 Officers, variation of, in leadership, 415 Officers, vision by, 303 Omens, religious, 202 Operatives, morale, 63 Odium, public, force of, 162 Opportunity, equality of, 151 Opportunity, the army as an, 567 Opportunity, the duty as an, 189 Optimism, pessimism and morale, 24 Order, inspirational battle, 486 Orders, citations in, 488 Orders, explanation of, 285 Orders, general nature of, 487, 488 Orders, nature of, 485 Orders, need of clearness of, 488 Orders, penalizing by general, 310 Organization commanders and mo- rale work. 337 Organization commanders, morale functions of, 338 Ostracism. 161 Outdoor amphitheaters, 530 Outlets for energy, 133 Outside matters, offenses connected with, 688 Over-punishment, 661 Panic, 242 Panic, factors in, 113 Parental instinct and pets, 200 Parental instinct, blocking of the, 200 Parental instinct, qualities of, 199 Parental instinct, the, 199 Pass, appearance of men on, 647 Pass privileges, 194 Passion, a ruling. 261 Patients, appropriate exercise for, 634 Patriotism and gregariousness, 161 794 INDEX Patriotism and morale, 31 Patriotism and esprit de corps, 433 Patriotism of Americans, 434 Patriotism, common elements of, 434. 435 Patriotism, concepts of, 432 Peace and war, psychology of, 86, 87, 88 Peace, military offenses in, 685 Pershing, General, on war aims, 479 Pershing, General, report, on mo- rale 29 Pershing, General, on war delin- quencies, 669 Persistency and morale, 29 Persistency, in leaders, 304 Personal appearance and morale, 645 Personal Interests and efficiency, 15 Personalities as typifying condi- tions, 413 Personality and leadership. 411 Personality, expression of in lead- ers, 414 Personality, expressions of, in in- dustry, 752 Personality, importance of study of, 283 Personality In Industry, 759, 766 Personality of commanders, 308 Personnel Adjutant and morale, 317 Personnel, qualities of, 317 Personnel, some special problems of. 579 Pets and parental instinct, 200 Physical agents, morale the driving force behind, 9 Physical betterment and morale. 60 Physical comfort and morale. 557 Physical comfort and peace of mind. 637 Physical depression and mental de- pression, 620 Physical discomforts and morale, 318 Physical environment in industry, 750 Physical environment In the army, 638 Physical environment, some factors of. 637 Physical factors in morale, 638 Physical Inefficiency and mental de- pression, 443 Physical state and behavior, 272 Physical welfare and morale, 14 Pictures in reaching the illiterate, 515 Pictures, the common language, 514 " Pin pricks." Irritation of, 303 " Plateaus of learning," 472 Play and character building, 184 Play and military training, 185 Play and state of mind, 186 Play and work contrasted, 187 Play as an outlet for energy, 186 Play, blocking of the Instinct of, 186 Play, expressions of, 183 Play, Incentives for, 533 Play instinct and age. 183 Play, instinct of. 183 Play, motives of, 184 Play, use of, 183 Pleasant impressions, lasting quali- ties of, 470 Pleasure In gregariousness, 161 Politics and morale, 50 Poor morale, causes of, 53 Poor morale, definition of, 27. 28 Popularization of ceremonials, 524 Positive and negative morale, 23 Post Exchange, as a morale agency, 550, 551 Posters and cartoons. 514 Posters, as morale agencies, 516. 517 Posters, qualities of good, 515, 516 Posters, treatment of subjects for morale, 516 Power, human reservoirs of. 37 Practice marches and military ma- neuvers, 548 Practice marches, trips and hikes, 548 Practice of others, observation of, 298 Praise, use of, 654 Prediction of act, 455 Presidential Order on " conscien- tious objectors," 611 Press, relations with the, 331 Prestige, definition of, 245 Prestige of ideas, 246 Prestige, qualities of, 245 Prestige, sources of, 245, 246 Prevention by morale work, 22 Prevention of war neuroses. 623 Preventive aspect of morale work, 343 Pride and self-respect, difference between, 131 Pride of workmanship in industry, 766 Pride, qualities of. 130, 131 Primacy, principle of, with re- cruits, 554 Principles, general psychological, 66 Principles of education and train- ing, 461 Prisoners, advice of company com- mander to, 667 Prisoners, educational qualifications of. 676 Prisoners, guard house, appeals to, 667 Prisoners, guard house, character of, 664 Problems of personnel, some spe- cial, 579 INDEX 795 Production not an orderly process, 738 Profanity and desertion, 421 Profanity and " side-tracking," 133 Profanity, use of, 420 Profiteering by civilian communi- ties, 364, 365 Programs for entertainments, 529 Progress and curiosity, 151 Prohibitory orders, evasion of, 284 Promotion, opportunity for, in in- dustry, 764 Promotion, opportunities of reward by, 654 Promptness of punishment, 660 Propaganda, combatting disloyal, 494, 495 Propaganda, General Ludendorff on offensive, 48 Property, offenses against Govern- ment, classification of, 681 Propinquity and discontent, 445 Proportion of desertions, 695, 696 Prosperity and desertions, 703, 704 Psychological appeal of slogans, 521 Psychological approach, the, 282 Psychological classification of sol- diers, 584, 585 Psychological differences, 283 Psychological differences in make- up, 69, 70 Psychological differences of race, 70 Psychological forces, use of, 33 Psychological limit to learning, 472 " Psychological moment," the, 288, 329, 330 Psychological principles, general, 66 Psychological problems of soldiers, 72 Psychological promises, need for accuracy of, 69 Psychological qualities, relations and methods, 211, 247 Psychological ratings and mental age, 585 Psychological ratings in preventing delinquency, 676 Psychological state and music, 541 Psychological stimulation of the worker, 736, 737 Psychological tests and mental de- fectives, 582 Psychological tests in relation to morale, 587 Psychological value of athletics, 531 Psychology, as a force, 67 Psychology as an agent of common sense, 19 Psychology, comparison with elec- tricity, 67 Psychology, group, 76 Psychology, in general, 66 Psychology, knowledge of, and mo- rale work, 68 Psychology of peace and war, 86, 87, 88 Psychology of pubescence, 89, 90, 91 Psychology of the soldier, 71, 72 Psychoses and neuroses, war, 620 Pubescence, psychology of, 89, 90, 91 Public opinion and conduct, 268 Public opinion and religion, 201 Public opinion and social adjust- ment, 275 Public opinion as deterrant of of- fense, 664 Public opinion, force of, 162 Public opinion in Industry, 750 Public opinion, non-progressiveness of, 268 Publications, camp, as morale agency, 506 Publications, camp, material for, 507 Publications, camp, need for, 506 Publications, camp, supervision of, 508 Publications, camp, use for, 506 Publicity as a morale agent. 495 Publicity, clipping bureaus for, 508 Publicity, direction of proper, 496 Publicity in industry, 772 Publicity, legitimate, 496, 497 Publicity, local, agencies for, 505 Publicity, material for, 504 Publicity, media for, 502 Publicity, oral, 504 Publicity, personal, in industry, 773 Publicity, practical demonstrations as valuable, 503 Publicity, presentation of ideas for, 502, 503 Publicity, results of, 495 Publicity service in recruiting, 567 Publicity through visitors, 504 Publicity, undesirable, 497, 498 Publicity, usefulness of military, 496 Pugnacity and excess vitality, 122 Pugnacity and international law, 124 Pugnacity and personal rights, 121 Pugnacity and physical exhaustion, 127 Pugnacity and race, 121 Pugnacity, appearance of, 121 Pugnacity, constructiveness of, 128 Pugnacity, development of, 126 Pugnacity, excitation of, 120. 125 Pugnacity, exhaustion of, 125 Pugnacity, instinct of, 120 Pugnacity, outlets for, 123, 126 Punishment, and quality of com- mander, 656 Punishment, application of, 656 Punishment by courts martial, 663 Punishment by general orders, 310 Punishment, civil and military, 660 796 INDEX Punishment, delinquency and re- ward, 650 Punishment, effectiveness of, 661 Punishment in industry through discharge, 664 Punishment, inflexible standards of, 659 Punishment, manner in imposing, 662 Punishment, natural, 655 Punishment of the intellectually defective, 662 Punishment, operation of, 655 Punishment, purpose of, 657 Punishment, place of, in handling men, 658 Punishment, promptness of, 660 Punishment, relation of intent to, 657 Punishment, social, 162 Punishment, severity of, 658 Punishment, standards of, 659 Punishment, the, of reproof, 663 Punishment through fear, 654 Purpose a necessary motive, 484 Purpose and constructlveness, 188 Purpose, common, need for, 252 Purpose of morale work, 19, 20 Purpose of punishment, 657 Q Qualification cards of soldiers, 591 Qualities of curiosity, 151 Qualities of gregarlousness, 156 Qualities of morale, 26 Qualities of morale and tangible result, 736 Qualities of recruits, 557 Qualities of the American soldier, 73, 74 Quarantine and recruits, 627 Quarantine camp, depressing con- ditions of, 628 Quarantine, morale measures for men In, 628 Quarantine of recruits, 558 Quarantines, effect on morale of, 627 Questions, value of, in training, 464 R Race and gregariousness, 158 Race and imagination, 258 Race and pugnacity, 121 Race and rhythm, 206 Race and ridicule, 207 Race and temperament, 213 Race riots, 164 Rank and human nature, 307 Reaction to environment, 278 Reactions of crowds, 83, 84 Reasons for failure to re-enlist, 572 Rebukes to subordinates, 348 Reciprocity of sympathy, 164 Recognition of service on discharge, 574 Recreation and Industry, 769, 770 Recreation and morale, 61 Recreation as a morale agency, 526 Recreation in civilian communities, 358 Recreation, nature of, 527 Recreation, qualities of, 528 Recreation, value of, 527 Recruit and family influences, 561 Recruit, commuuity cooperation and the. 570 Recruit, curiosity In the, 152 Recruit depots and the permanent personnel, 563 Recruit depots, treatment of re- cruits at, 569 Recruit, early handling of the, 558 Recruit, " easing him in," 563 Recruit Educational Centers. 595 Recruit, form letter regarding the, 562 Recruit, homesickness in the, 555 Recruit, information of the, 556 Recruit, inspirational tag for. 555 Recruit, mental tension in the, 554 Recruit, new environment of the, 553 Recruit, recruiting, re-enlistment and discharge, 553 Recruit, self-interest of the, 558, 559 Recruit, time in adjusting the, 558 Recruiting and shortage of man- power, 563 Recruiting and the " satisfied cus- tomer," 568 Recruiting as a sales problem. 565 Recruiting, need of special appeal in, 475 Recruiting, problem of, 563 Recruiting problem, seriousness of the, 563 Recruiting, publicity service in, 567 Recruiting, success in, 566 Recruiting, the approach in, 568 Recruits and chaplains, 334 Recruits and fatigue work, 560 Recruits and influence of older sol- diers, 561 Recruits and quarantine, 628 Recruits, drills for, 560 Recruits, handling of, 554, 555 Recruits, morale of, 559 Recruits, qualities of. 557 Recruits, quarantine of. 558 Recruits, type of, and desertions, 703. 704 Red Cross, use of. 50 Red Cross, use of, in absence with- out leave. 717 Re-enllstment. reasons for non, 572 Re-enllstments an index of morale, 570 INDEX 797 Re-enlistments like " repeat or- ders," 571 Reflexes, 234 Regimental days, 525 Relations between officers and men, 341, 456 Relations with civil communities, 360 Relations with enlisted men, 458, 459 Relationship, military, 142 Religion and conscience, 201 Religion and public opinion, 201 Religion, as a factor in war, 202 Religious addresses, 336 Religious approach, the, 203, 236 Religions Committees, 337 Religious " conscientious objectors," 609 Religious enthusiasm and chaplains, 204 Religious instinct, blocking of, 204 Religious instinct, manifestations of, 203 Religious instinct, the, 201 Religions omens, 202 " Repeat orders " like re-enlist- ments, 571 Reports to Company Commanders, 343 Repression and inhibition, 231 Repression and morale, 233 Repression, nature of, 232 Repression of sentiments, 233 Repressions and compensatory ex- cess, 133 Repressions, and excesses of con- duct, 133 Repressions of curiosity, 153 Reproach, 257 Reproductive instinct, blocking of, 197 Reproductive instinct, excitation of, 198 Reproductive instinct, methods for controlling, 199 Reproduction instinct, repressions of, 197, 198, 199 Reproductive instinct, the, 196 Reproof as punishment, 663 Repulsion, blocking of, 119 Repulsion, instinct of, 117 Repulsion, value of instinct of, 118 Requirements for morale control, 58, 59 Resentment, 255 Respect, 254 Responsibilities of the officer for his men, 457 Rest and sleep, mental value of, 620 Restlessness and need for change, 550 Result, as influenced by mental state, 218 Revenge, 256 Reward and acquisitiveness, 177, 180 Reward, bestowal of, 180 Reward, intangible, 651 Reward, punishment and delin- quency, 650 Reward, the stimulus of, 650 Rewards, value of intangible, 180 Rhythm and emotional state, 205 Rhythm and race, 206 Rhythm, instinct of, 205 Rhythm, stimulation through, 205 Rivalry and age, 147 Rivalry and human progress, 147 Rivalry and mass action, 149 Rivalry as incentive • in athletics, 535 Rivalry, as stimulus in industry, 768 Rivalry, ideal standards for, 148 Rivalry, stimulation of, 149, 150, 151 Rivalry, stimulus from, 148 Rivalry, the instinct of, 146 Ruling passion, a, 261 Rumor, causes of, 489 Rumors, absurdity of certain, 491 Rumors and enemy propaganda, 490 Rumors and the Indian Mutiny, 491 Rumors and war hysterias, 490 Rumors, bulletin boards in com- bating, 492 Rumors, combating, 330 Rumors, development of, 489 Rumors, due to blocking curiosity, 153 Rumors, methods of combating, 491, 492 Russian collapse and morale, 10 Sarcasm, 422 Satisfaction through sympathy, 168 Saving and thrift, 178 Scene, change of, 548 Schools for illiterates, 601 Science, in morale work, 36 Sedentary men and athletics, 550 Segregation, mental, 162 Segregation, reaction caused by, 162 Scientific management and morale methods, 35, 39, 40 Scorn, 257 Season and desertion, 701 Season and migration, 191 Selection of recreation to meet spe- cial needs, 530 Selective assignments to duty, re- sults of, 591 Self-analysis by superiors. 307 Self-assertion and age, 129 Self-assertion and discipline, 430 Self-assertion and example, 137 Self-assertion and obstinacy, 138 Self-assertion and pride, 130 Self-assertion and " treating," 626 798 INDEX Self-assertion, blocking of, 139 Self-assertion, instinct of, 128 Self-assertion, need for developing, 134 Self-assertion, stimulation of, 135, 138 Self-assertion, use of, 132 Self-assertiveness and success, 137 Self-control and morale, 29 Self-control and volition, 260, 261 Self-esteem in industry, 759 Self-expression and constructive- ness, 189 Self-expression, providing for, 134 Self-interest and the recruit, 558, 559 Self-interest and training, 227 Self-preservation and gregarious- ness, 156 Self-regarding sentiment, 261 Self-respect and pride, contrasted, 132 Self-respect in industry. 761, 762 Self-submission and breaking spirit, 143 Self-submission and defeat. 142 Self-submission, compensation for, 141 Self-submission, instinct of, 140 Self-submission, methods to coun- teract, 145 Self-submission, qualities of, 140 Self-submission, suggestion against, 144 Sensation and behavior, 233 Sensation and stimuli. 233 Sensation, nature of, 233 " Sentimental " persons, 250 Sentiments, analysis of certain, 253, 254, 255, 256 Sentiments and moral judgement, 250 Sentiments, definition of, 249 Sentiments, development of, 251 Sentiments, Influence of, on con- duct, 250 Sentiments, repression of, 233 Sentinels, offenses by, 721 Sentinels, offenses by, classification of. 680 Service, branch of, and morale, 56 Service, military, benefits of, 559 Service, offenses connected with, 687 Service, ratio of desertions by, 700 Severity of punishment, 658 Sex immorality and morale, 626 Sex immorality, morale measures for combating, 627 Sex temptation, 197 Shame, 257 " Shell-shock," 621 Sherman, statement on morale, 1 Sick, communication between, and home folks, 631 Sick, suggestibility of the, 635 Sick, visitation of, 631, 632 Sickness, influence of, on mental state, 618 " Side-tracking " and profanity, 133 Side-tracking and sublimation, 209 Side-tracking, explanation of, 210 Situation, appraisal of the, 285 " Sizing up " character, 220, 221 " Sizing up " men, 456 Sleeping on post, 721, 722 Slogan " Let's go," analysis of, 522 Slogan, the, as a psychological ap- peal, 521 Slogans and symbols, 520 Social animal, man as a. 159 Social forms and gregariousness, 159 Social Hygiene Board, nature and use of, 367 Social pressure, use of, in morale work, 617 Social relations in civil life, 457 Social status and conduct of sol- diers, 359 Social status of troops. 356, 357 Socials and dances, 545 Soldier class, characteristics of the. 71 Soldier clubs, administration of, 547 Soldier Clubs, value of, 547 Soldier, colored, mental attributes of the, 604 Soldier, exaggeration by the, 76 Soldier, psychological problems of the, 72 Soldier, psychology of the, 71, 72 Soldier, qualities of the American, 73, 74 Soldier, the, as the unit of action, 342 Soldier, the colored, 604 Soldier, the non-English-speaking, 592 Soldier, the, standards of, 73 Soldiers and uncertainty, 154 Soldiers, as sentient buman beings, 154 Soldiers, conduct of, in civil com- munities, 359 Soldier's day, the, 135 Soldiers, educational qualifications for, 475 Soldiers, percentage of illiteracy among, 597 Solidarity of the group, 157 Solution of type problem of the class group, 394-396 Solution of type problem of the company group, 396-398 Solution of type problem of the in- dividual, 392-394 Solution of type problem of the regimental group, 398-410 Song leaders, value of good. 544 Sources of rumor, 489 Souvenirs, 181 Special occupational ability, 590 Special problems of morale, 34 INDEX 799 " Speeding up," 471 Spencer, Herbert, on punishment, 655 Spirit and efficiency, relation of, 6 Spirit between good and bad regi- ments, 7 Squad, antagonistic elements in tbe, 642 Squad systems for morale, 349 " Square deal " in industry, 769 Staff officers and morale, 312 Stage properties, 538 Stages of discontent, 440 Standardization of morale work, 32, 33, 34 Standards of morale, 17 Standards of punishment, 659 Staying power, and morale, 5, 8 Stimulation, limits of, 233 Stimulation of rivalry, 149, 150, 151 Stimulation of self-assertion, 135, 138 Stimuli and sensation, 233 Stimuli, impressions left by, 235 Stimuli, nature of, 234 Stimuli, unnoticed, 235 Stimuli, reaction to, 264 Stimulus of the affirmative, 290 Strength of imitation in military service, 174 Study of men, 299, 300 Study of morale methods, 18, 19 Study of morale neglected, 7 Study of the man, 453, 454, 455 Subconscious mind, 226 Subconscious mind, nature of the, 473 Sublimation and side-tracking, 209 Sublimation, examples of, 209, 210 Submission and mastery, 141 Subordinates, clearness of direc- tions to, 306 Subordinates, the handling of, 301 Substandard men, 579 Substandard men, exclusion of, 580 Substandard men, inefficiency due to, 581 Success and progress of training, 465 Success and self-assertiveness, 137 Success in recruiting, 566 Suggestibility, degrees of, 238, 239, 240 Suggestibility, factors of, 238 Suggestibility of crowds, 81 Suggestibility of soldiers, 241 Suggestibility of the sick, 635 Suggestibility, stimulation of, 240 Suggestibility, utilization of, 239 Suggestion against self-submission, 144 Suggestion, acceptance of, 236, 237 Suggestion, agencies for, 237 Suggestion and the indirect ap- proach, 289 Suggestion, definition of, 235 Suggestion, factors in, 242 Suggestion, formulation of, 237 Suggestion in morale work, 236 Suggestion, mass, 241 Suggestion, reaction to, 236 Suicide and mental state, 624 Suicide and personal problems, 625 Sunshine and mental state, 639 Superior, attitude of the, 301 Superiors, adjustment by, 309 Superiors, example of, 309 Superiors, fault-finding and irrita- bility in, 303 Superiors, self-analysis of, 307 Supervision of dancing, 548 Supply Officer and morale work, 318 Surveys of human factor in indus- try, 745 Symbols and slogans, 520 Symbols as expressing ideals, 520 Sympathetic relations, 166 Sympathy, active, 166 Sympathy, altruistic element in, 169 Sympathy and exaggeration, 167 Sympathy and " labor turnover," 169 Sympathy and mental harmony, 164 Sympathy and suggestion, 290 Sympathy as a mental cement, 165 Sympathy as an agent of control, 167 Sympathy, capitalization of, 170 Sympathy, definition of, 163 Sympathy, expression of, 170 Sympathy in associates, 164 Sympathy in injustice, 165 Sympathy in morale work, 171 Sympathy, instinct of, 163 Sympathy, lack of racial, 213 Sympathy, need of sick for, 635 Sympathy, reciprocity of, 164 Sympathy, results of lack of, 169 Sympathy, special objects of, 168 Sympathy, the satisfaction in, 166 Sympathy, the seeking of, 164 Sympathy, value of, 168 Symptoms of poor morale, 56 Tables of organization, 591 Tact, nature of, 422 Tact, value of, 422 Tactlessness, 423 Tangible rewards, 652 Task as opportunity, 189 Team work and esprit de corps, 439 Team work and morale, 13, 14 " Temper " in men, 4 Temperament and age, 216 Temperament and forecasting be- havior, 214 Temperament and mental harmony, 214 800 INDEX Temperament and health, 216 Temperament and proficiency, 216 Temperament and inclinations, 215 Temperament and instinctive bias, 212 Temperament and race, 213 Temperament, differences of, 212 Temperament, modification of, 212, 215 Temperament, nature of, 211 Temperament, traits of, 214 Temperaments, utilization of di- verse, 214 Temperature and humidity, and morale, 640 Temporary morale, 16 " Thank you," value of words, 652 Thirst, instinct of, 102 Thought and behavior, relation be- tween, 270 Thoughts, contagiousness of, 243 Thoughts, inability to command, by officers, 260 Thrift and saving, 178, 179 Time and the recruit problem, 558 Time factor, disregard of the, 451 Tolstoy on war mentality, 53 Trademarks, civil and military, 521 Trade tests, army, results of, 591 Training and adjustment to en- vironment, 462 Training and character building, 218 Training and discipline, 428 Tradition and imitation, 173 Tradition and standards of con- duct, 480 Tradition as a factor in esprit de corps, 438 Training and consciousness, 227 Training and curiosity, 155 Training and environment, 462 Training and morale work, 474 Training, criticism in, 470 Training, errors in, 463, 464 Training for desired response, 462 Training for special function, 472 Training, information and educa- tion, 461 Training, interest an essential in, 468 Training, monotony in, 469 Training, need for attention in, 467 Training, results of, 472 Training, stimulation of curiosity in, 469 Training, success in relation to progress of, 465 Training, use of imitation in, 175 Training, value of questions in, 464 Training, waste of energy in, 471 Transfers of officers and esprit de corps, 438 Transmission of ideas in industry, 760 Transportation and pass privileges, 195 " Trial and error," methods by, 41 Trials, distribution of, in 1918, 679 Trials, number of, in 1918, 679 Trips, hikes and practice marches, 548 Troops, civilian environment of, control of, 358 Troops, social status of, 356, 357 Troubles, fancied and real, 21 Truth, telling of, in relation to morale, 252, 253 Type problems of morale. The class group, 394-396 Type problems of morale. The company group, 396-398 Type problems of morale. The individual, 392, 393, 394 Type problems of morale. The regimental group, 398-410 Uncertainty and mental suspense, 489 Uncertainty, and the soldier, 154 Uncertainty as a morale depressant, 489 Underfeeding and Bolshevism, 104 Uniform and gregariousness, 157 Uniform, criticisms of the, 646 Uniform, esteem of the, 645 Uniform methods of handling men, 264 Uniform, pride in the, 646 Uniforms, renovated, 646 Unskilled labor and substandard mentality, 581 Unskilled labor, incentives for, 767 Use of play, 183 Use of psychological forces, 33 Utilities Officer and morale, 318 Vacancies in the army, causes of, 564 Value of morale work, 23 Value of repulsion Instinct, 118 Value of sympathy, 168 Varying problems in morale, 18 Verb " to soldier," definition of, ' 748 Violence, offenses of, classification of, 682 Vision and morale, 30 Vision, by officers, 303 Visitation of sick, 631, 632 Visitors at posts, value of, for pub- licity, 504 Vocational training and education, 474 Vocational training and opportuni- ties, 476 Vocational training at hospitals, 478 INDEX 801 Vocational training, nature of course, 478 Volition and judgement, effect of alcohol on, 625 Volition and self-consciousness, 226 Volition as motive force, 259 Volition, concentration through, 259 Volition, degrees of, 259 Volition, nature of, 259 Voluntary discipline, 429 Voluntary enlistment and offenses against authority, 718 W Wages as factor in self-interest, 759 War a contest of wills, 10 War aims, need for clarifying, 479, 480 War aims, result of course in, 479 War aims, teaching of, 251 War and delinquencies, 669 War conditions, offenses peculiar to, 688 War, fear Instinct in, 621 War humor, 209 War hysterias and rumor, 490 War, mental conflicts in, 622 War, morale work in, 88 War neuroses, prevention of, 623 War neurotics and moral defectives, 623 War period and morale, 53 War psychoses and neuroses, 620 War, quality of human element in, 6 War, religion as a factor in, 202 War, value of morale in, 1 Wars followed by disorganization, 573 Week-end trips, 549 Will power and reform, 225 Will power, development of, 260 Will to win, 20 " Will to win," the, and morale, 4 Wills, war a contest of, 10 Win, the will to, 20 Women, "Influence of, on morale, 50 Words as precursors of acts, 62 Work, constructiveness as motive in, 188 Work, use of instincts to increase, 470 Worker, analysis of the, 755, 756 Worker, mental attitude of, and efficiency, 749 Worker, psychological stimulation of the, 736, 737 Worker, record card for the, 755, 756 Worker, self-interest in the, 758 Workers, discharge of, 756 Workers, discharge of, in industry, 765 Workers, " floater," number of, 745 Workers, selection of, 754, 755 Working day, length of the pro- ductive, 757 Working period and state of mind, 758