Up: ^.iiiiiiiiyiiiiiiiiiiiHi m ^tUjuJZj^ ^«1 e BH K M O CO M >^ S-- O ail «4 '/Ml '<^j. Cornell University Library The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022524106 SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 1868-1918 UNIV. CALIF, SEMICENT. PUBL. [GRINNELL, BRYANT, STORER] l^L, 1 CALIFORNIA QUAIL, MALE THE GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA CONTRIBUTION FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA MUSEUM OF VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY BY JOSEPH GRINNELL HAROLD CHILD BRYANT AND TRACY IRWIN STORER UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY 1918 0RW*"TV4 3^4*70 COPYRIGHT, 1918 BY J. GRINNELL ISSUED DECEMBER 28, 1918 PREFACE In the fall of 1912 it was decided that the staff of the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology should begin to apply a portion of its knowledge of the vertebrate natural history of the state along prac- tical lines, more particularly in an active effort towards conserving the native fauna. In the course of extended field work throughout California we had been forcibly impressed with the rapid depletion everywhere evident among the game birds and mammals, but at the same time we found reason to believe that a careful study of the situation would reveal some effectual means of retarding this down- ward trend. After observing the course of legislation for several months during the season of 1913, and recalling the popular indifference we had encountered in various parts of the state toward existing game laws, we had come to the conclusion that however numerous or stringent the game laws might be, they of themselves could not be expected to furnish adequate protection. The people at large must be apprized of the facts, and shown the need for, as well as the most effective means of, conserving our game resources. About this time our plans became known to a Berkeley gentle- man who was already intensely interested in any and all agencies for the protection of wild life. It was through the financial aid tendered by this man, whose name I am pledged to withhold, that the beginning of our work along economic lines was made possible. The actual task of writing the present book on the status of the game birds of Cali- fornia was begun on June 1, 1913, when Dr. Harold Child Bryant joined the staff of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology under salary provided as above indicated, and, in collaboration with the director of the museum, devoted his time exclusively to this enterprise. Bryant's services formally terminated on August 1, 1914, when he was called to a position as director of education, publicity and research, under the State Fish and Game Commission. He thereby carried the slogan "Game Conservation through Education" into a sphere of application the scope of which he has been able steadily to enlarge and perfect. The work on the game-bird book was immediately taken up where Bryant had left off, by Mr. Tracy Irwin Storer, and the latter, under salary at first supplied from the anonymous source above alluded to, and later by Miss Annie M. Alexander, has, again with the collabora- tion of the director of the museum, faithfully and unremittingly labored on the book until its completion at the end of 1916. [iii] Meanwhile, Bryant's interest in the undertaking has not flagged, and he has" embraced opportunities in connection with his new work under the Fish and Game Commission, to secure information for use in bur general chapters, as well as here and there throughout the accounts of species. It is but just to state here that the whole game-bird book has been brought to a conclusion only through the opportunities afforded under the auspices of the University of California Museum of Verte- brate Zoology; and the maintenance of this museum in all its func- tions has been due to the continued financial support furnished in generous measure by Miss Alexander. The arduous typing and retyping of the manuscript was a neces- sary labor, done faithfully by Miss Margaret W. Wythe, of the museum staff. Corrections in the phrasing were suggested by Mr. Aubrey Boyd, instructor in English in the University of California. Mr. Albert H. Allen, manager of the University Press, evinced personal interest in the enterprise in many ways during the process of compila- tion. The line drawings were done by Miss Frieda Lueddemann, directly from museum specimens. Of the sixteen colored plates, nine were done specially for this book by Louis Agassiz Fuertes; three colored drawings, also by Fuertes, were loaned for our use by the California Fish and Game Commission; and the use of four colored drawings done by Allan Brooks was allowed by their owners, two of them by Miss Annie M. Alexander, one by Mr. A. Bra'zier Howell, and one through Mr. "W. Leon Dawson, the latter from the stock of Brooks drawings owned by the Birds of California Publishing Com- pany, and intended for use ultimately in Dawson's Birds of California. I would like to repeat here a principle in which I fully believe; namely, that the highest plane of scientific output can be accomplished only through cooperative effort. If the present contribution proves to have reached an unusually satisfactory plane in any respect it will be because the attention of several workers rather than of a single indi- vidual has been devoted to it. "Where one author working alone would make mistakes unawares, two or, better, three, are able to check one another's output to advantage. The best results, always granting mutually sympathetic interest, will follow organized cooperative toil. Joseph Grinnell Director of the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Transmitted November 30, 1916. [iv] CONTENTS PAGE Preface iii Table of contents v List of colored plates _ vii List of figures in the text viii List of tables x Introduction _ 1 Beerease of game and its causes 6 The natural enemies of game birds 19 The gun club in California 23 History of attempts to introduce non-native game birds into California 29 The propagation of game birds 45 Legislation relating to game birds in California 55 Glossary of special terms used in this book 62 Method of taking measurements 66 Key to the game birds of California 67 General accounts of the game birds of California 79 American Merganser 79 Eed-breasted Merganser 84 Hooded Merganser 89 Mallard 1 _ 92 Black Duck 101 Gadwall 103 Baldpate 106 European Widgeon _ Ill Green-winged Teal 113 European Teal _ 119 Blue-winged Teal 120 Cinnamon Teal 123 Shoveller 129 Pintail 134 Wood Duck 140 Bedhead 14ff _ Canvasback 150 Greater Scaup Duck 156 Lesser Scaup Duck 159 Eing-necked Duck 164 American Golden-eye _ : 167 Barrow Golden-eye 173 Buffle-head _ 177 Old-squaw 181 Harlequin Duck 186 King Eider _ 192 American Scoter 194 White-winged Scoter 197 Surf Scoter _ 201 [V] PAGE Buddy Duek 205 Lesser Snow Goose . „ 210 Ross Snow Goose 215 American White-fronted Goose 218 Canada Goose 222 Hutchins Goose 230 Cackling Goose ^ 234 Black Sea Brant _ 237 Eastern Sea Brant 241 Emperor Goose 243 Fulvous Tree-duck 246 Black-bellied Tree-duck 251 Trumpeter Swan _ 253 Whistling Swan 256 Roseate Spoonbill 262 Wood Ibis 266 White-faced Glossy Ibis _ 269 Little Brown Crane 273 Sandhill Crane : 279 California Clapper Rail 283 Light-footed Rail 289 Virginia Rail 291 Sora Rail 296 Yellow Rail 301 California Black Rail 304 Florida Gallinule _ ., 309 Mud-hen 313 Red Phalarope _ 320 Northern Phalarope 326 Wilson Phalarope _ 332 Avocet 337 Black-necked Stilt _ _ 344 Wilson Snipe 350 Long-billed Dowitoher _ 358 Knot 363 Pectoral Sandpiper 368 Baird Sandpiper 373 Least Sandpiper 376 Red-backed Sandpiper 381 Western Sandpiper 386 Sanderling _ 391 Marbled Godwit , 396 Greater Yellow-legs 401 Lesser Yellow-legs 408 Western Solitary Sandpiper _ 4ii Western Willet 416 Wandering Tattler _ _ 422 Upland Plover 427 Spotted Sandpiper -. _ 43I Long-billed Curlew 433 Hudsonian Curlew ..............^ 445 [vi] PAGE Black -bellied Plover 452 American Golden Plover 458 Killdeer 463 Semipalmated Plover 469 Snowy Plover 473 "Wilson Plover 479 Mountain Plover 481 Surf-bird 485 Ruddy Turnstone 489 Black Turnstone 493 Black Oyster-catcher 498 Frazar Oyster-catcher 502 Mountain Quail 504 Painted Quail 513 Valley Quail 514 California Quail 537 Catalina Island Quail 537 Desert Quail 538 Sierra Grouse ; 544 Sooty Grouse 552 Oregon Ruffed Grouse 552 Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 558 Sage-hen 564 Ring-necked Pheasant 572 Band-tailed Pigeon 575 Western Mourning Dove 588 White-winged Dove 603 Mexican Ground Dove 606 Literature cited 611 Index 633 Colored Plates 1. California Quail (drawn by Louis Agassiz Fuertes) Frontispiece 2. Mallard, male and female (Fuertes) facing page 94 3. Baldpate, male and female; European Widgeon, male (Fuertes) 110 4. Cinnamon Teal, male and female (Fuertes) 126 5. Canvasback and Lesser Scaup Duck, males and females (Fuertes) 150 6. American White-fronted Goose and Lesser Snow Goose (Fuertes) 214 7. Fulvous Tree-duck (drawn by Allan Brooks) 246 8. White-faced Glossy Ibis (Fuertes) .' 270 9. California Clapper Rail (Fuertes) — ., 286 10. Mud-hen (Brooks) 318 11. Avocet and Black-necked Stilt (Fuertes) 342 12. Snowy Plover (Brooks) 478 13. Surf-bird (Brooks) ; 486 14. Mountain Quail (Fuertes) 310 15. Sierra Grouse, male and female (Fuertes) 550 16. Ring-necked Pheasant (Fuertes) 574 [vii] Text Figures Note. — Numbers in parentheses following titles of figures, and usually aeeom- panying the figures in the text, are those of the specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from which the drawings were made; figures drawn from specimens in private collections have numbers followed by initials of owners (e.g., 209 H.S-8.). All figures natural size except as noted. PAGE 1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas referred to in describing a game bird; X % 62 2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-winged Teal showing names of regions and feathers employed in descriptions (24635); X V2 63 3. Under surface of spread wing of Black-bellied Plover showing axillars and lining of wing (24868) ; X % 64 4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the measure- ments used in this book (6940) ; X % 66 5. American Merganser, side Of bill (21609) 80 6. American Merganser, top of bill (21609) 80 7. Eed-breasted Merganser, side of bill (18814) ^ 86 8. Eed-breasted Merganser, top of bill (18814) 86 9. Mallard, side of bill (21615) 93 10. Mallard, top of bill (21615) 93 11. Mallard, side of tarsus and foot (21615) 94 12. Gadwall, top of bill of female (21643) 104 13. Green-winged Teal, side of bill of female (21699) 116 14. Cinnamon Teal, side of bill of female (21739) 125 15. Cinnamon Teal, top of bill of female (21735) 125 16. Blue-winged Teal, top of bill of female (1647 H.S.S.) 125 17. Shoveller, side of bill (21768) 131 18. Shoveller, bill from below (21768) 131 19. Pintail, top of bill of female (21827) 136 20. Eedhead, side of bill and head (585) 148 21. Canvasback, side of bill and head (10607) 153 22. Canvasback, side of foot and tarsus (10607) .153 23. BufSe-head, head of female (18825); X % 179 24. Old-squaw, head of female (111) ; X % 183 25. Harlequin Duck, head of male; X % 188 26. Harlequin Duck, head of female (74) ; X % 189 27. American Scoter, side of bill of male (4847) 196 28. White-winged Scoter, side of bill and head of male (18826) 199 29. Surf Scoter, side of bill of male (113) 202 30. Lesser Snow Goose, side of bill (5493) 212 31. Eoss Snow Goose, side of bill (21905) 216 32. Canada Goose, side of bill (21949) 224 33. Hutchins Goose, side of bill (22001) 224 34. Cackling Goose, side of bill (22028) 225 35. Canada Goose, side of tarsus and foot (21949) 226 36. Hutchins Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22001) 227 37. Cackling Goose, side of tarsus and foot (22028) 227 38. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of tarsus and foot (21573) 248 39. Fulvous Tree-duck, side of bill (21573) 249 40. Whistling Swan, side of bill and head (21284) 257 [ viii ] PAGE 41. Whistling Swan, side of tarsus and foot (21284) 259 42. Roseate Spoonbill, side of bill (23325) 265 43. Roseate Spoonbill, top of bill (23325) 26p 44. White-faced Glossy Ibis, side of bill (6188) 271 45. Little Brown Crane, side of bill and head (1125); X 1/2 275 46. Sandhill Crane, side of bill and head (X2067 J. & J. W. M.) ; X V2 280 47. California Clapper Rail, side of foot and tarsus (6995) 284 48. California Clapper Rail, side of bill (6995) 285 49. Light-footed Rail, side of bill (3497) 285 50. Virginia Rail, side of bill (4071) 293 51. Sora Rail, side of bill (5486) 298 52. Yellow Rail, side of bill (17250) : 303 53. California Black Rail, side of bill (16701) 306 54. Mud-hen, head showing "shield" (22149) 315 55. Mud-hen, top of foot showing lobes on toes (22148) 316 56. Red Phalarope, tarsus and foot showing webbing and lobes (4804) 322 57. Red Phalarope, side of bill (4804) 322 58. Northern Phalarope, side of bill (18932) 329 59. Wilson Phalarope, side of bill (14018) 334 60. Avocet, side of bill (22169) 340 61. Avocet, top of foot showing webs between bases of, toes (22169) 341 62. Black-necked Stilt, side of bill (22183) 346 63. Black-necked Stilt, top of foot showing practical absence of webs (22183) 347 64. Wilson Snipe, side of bill of female, with sense pits near tip (1068) 352 65. Long-billed Dowitcher, side of bill of female (22232) 361 66. Knot, side of bill (24578) 365 67. Least Sandpiper, side of bill (3482) 378 68. Western Sandpiper, side of bill (165) 378 69. Least Sandpiper, top of foot showing absence of webbing (3482) 379 70. Western Sandpiper, top of foot showing webs between bases of toes (165) 379 71. Red-backed Sandpiper, side of bill (9835) 384 72. Western Willet, outer surface of spread wing showing color patches (24783) 417 73. Long-billed Curlew, side of bill of female (24867) 440 74. Hudsonian Curlew, side of bill of female (3997 J. G.) 447 75. Black-bellied Plover, side of bill (22342) 454 76. Black-bellied Plover, side of tarsus and foot, showing presence of small hind toe (22342) 455 77. Killdeer, side of tarsus and foot, as typical of Plovers (18983) 465 78. Surf-bird, side of bill (9875) 488 79. Black Turnstone, side of bill (107) 495 80. Black Oyster-catcher, side of bill (19016) 499 81. Mountain Quail, head 506 82. Valley Quail, head of male 516 83. Valley Quail, side of tarsus and foot (11955) 517 84. Curve showing by half -month periods the time when Valley Quail begin to lay their eggs 529 85. Sierra Grouse, side of tarsus and foot, showing feathering (14076) 546 86. Band-tailed Pigeon, head (15619) 577 87. Map showing distribution of the Band-tailed Pigeon in California 578 88. Band-tailed Pigeon, lower surface of tail (238 H.S.S.) 589 PAGE 89. Western Mourning Dove, lower surface of tail (209 H.S.S.) 589 90. White-winged Dove, lower surface of tail (239 H.S.S.) 589 91. Western Mourning Dove, head (209 H.S.S.) 591 92. Graph showing nesting season of the Western Mourning Dove in Cali- fornia, according to opinions of deputies of the California Pish and Game Commission 596 93. Graph showing changes in open season for hunting doves in California, 1880-1915 - - 599 94. Graph showing open season for hunting doves in states which allow these birds to be shot (1915) 601 Tables Table 1. Game birds shot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (Elk- horn, Monterey County, California) in four seasons between 1905 and 1913 10 Table 2. Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911 and 1916 13 Table 3. Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San Francisco in the season of 1910-11 13 Table 4. Geese received by the Independent Game Transfer Company, of San Francisco, during the season of 1909-10 13 Table 5. Ducks received by the Hunters Game Transfer Company of San Francisco, during the five seasons, 1906-11 14 Table 6. Ducks sold on the markets of San Francisco by five game transfer companies during the season of 1910-11 14 Table 7. Showing open seasons for hunting game birds in California, 1852- 1915 (opposite) 60 Table 8. Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California 96 Table 9. Data relative to the nesting of the Gadwall in California 105 Table 10. Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California 126 Table 11. Data relative to the nesting of the Buddy Duck in California 207 Table 12. Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Rail in California 294 Table 13. Data relative to the nesting of the Mountain and Painted quails in California 507 Table 14. Crop contents of Mountain Quail 512 Table 15. Data relating to nesting of Valley and California quails in Cali- fornia 522 Table 16. Sets of eggs of Valley Quail examined by C. S. Sharp in the vicinity of Escondido, San Diego County, California, 1896- 1913 , 525 Table 17. Sets of Valley Quail eggs showing more than one type of colora- tion 528 Table 18. Data relative to the nesting of the Band-tailed Pigeon in Cali- fornia 582 Table 19. Data relative to the nesting of the Western Mourning Dove in California 594 [X] INTRODUCTION In preparing the present volume the authors have attempted to meet the requirements of a varied public. The hunter wishes informa- tion concerning the haunts and habits of our game birds ; the naturalist wishes to have the completest possible data regarding their life histories ; the legislator who appreciates the necessity of judicious game laws wishes to have the facts that are relevant to his purpose presented in concise form ; and the conservationist desires that information which will assist him in his efforts to perpetuate our bird life for the ultimate benefit of the greatest number of people. Whether the needs of these various classes have been adequately met in the following pages remains to be proved, but it may at least be stated here that none of them has been overlooked. To each of the four categories of persons above mentioned, this book is offered as a working manual. The authors also have appreciated the fact that the literature relating to California game birds is widely scattered, and not accessible for immediate use by the public ; an exhaustive review and compilation was- necessary to make it easily available. Furthermore, they have realized that many California game birds are rapidly disappearing, and that any postponement of the time of writing the histories of these species might mean losing entirely the opportunity to record much that pertains to them. An effort has been made to organize the material at hand in such a form as to provide a convenient sum- mary of our knowledge of the subject to date. While the book may thus prove of positive value to the active field naturalist, the writers hope that the deficiencies apparent in the data presented will of them- selves furnish an incentive to further research. A more thorough observation of the bird life within our boundaries is urgently needed. In comparison with the Atlantic states California has thus far produced but a small number of careful observers, and many more are needed for the purpose of watching and recording the changes in the population of the birds from year to year, of chronicling their migrations, learning their food habits, and determining their relation both to sport and agriculture. Should the present volume succeed in enlisting even a few intelligent and active recruits in this work, an excellent end will have been served. Many game birds in eastern North America had almost or entirely disappeared before their value was realized or any attempts were made to conserve them. Adequate knowledge and forethought would have prolonged the life of these species and perhaps have saved many [1] 2 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA of them for all time. Here in California the situation has not yet become so serious ; we are in a somewhat earlier stage of development. We have still an opportunity of studying the circumstances, learning the facts, and taking the remedial measures indicated thereby. But the time for action is short ; already one species, the Columbian Sharp- tailed Grouse, is gone, and certain others are threatened. The neces- sity of calling attention to this danger is another reason for the publication of this book now. The authors fully recognize the fact that there are a number of people in this state who by reason of their long experience as hunters possess, in this regard, better qualifications for the authorship of a book on game birds than the present writers. But these persons are as a rule so engrossed in business that they themselves have not sufficient time to put through such a work. Some of them, however, together with certain other interested people, have placed the necessary means at the disposal of the authors, who, realizing their own shortcomings, have utilized their opportunities to the best of their ability. They have attempted to compensate for their lack of direct knowledge in the field of hunting by conversing and corresponding with sportsmen of experience, and they have each visited hunting grounds at the opening of different shooting seasons, with the object of learning something of the viewpoints, methods, and field-lore of Californian gunners. As regards the technical handling of the book the authors feel themselves on much surer ground. They have been able to derive first-hand information for almost all of the technical descriptions from museum specimens or from live or freshly killed birds in the field, and they have reviewed the literature of the subject in an exhaustive and discriminating manner. They are accordingly reasonably confi- dent of the accuracy of their descriptions of birds, nests, and eggs, places of nesting, and of the habits of the several species. But with regard to the sportsman's notions and evaluations of the several species, and his preferred methods of hunting them, they have had to rely chiefly on second-hand information. The authors have been fortunate in having at their disposal a large amount of museum material. The specimens contained in the Cali- fornia Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, and in the private collections of J. and J. W. Mailliard, J. Grinnell, H. S. Swarth, and G. F. Morcom, have provided a basis for almost all assertions, independently of what has been previously published on the subject. When western mate- rial failed to supply needed facts, recourse has been had to eastern collections. Among eastern institutions which have granted the use of specimens or given information are the United States National Museum and Bureau of Biological Survey, in Washington; the INTBODUCTION 3 Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia; the Jonathan Dwight, Jr., collection in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City; and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, Cambridge. To all of these institutions and their officers we express our appreciation of the spirit of cordial cooperation they have shown. In response to our direct request a great many persons have furnished specific information. Wherever such information has been used it has been credited to the individual contributor. Much use has been made of Lyman Belding's manuscript Water Birds of the Pacific District, now on deposit in the Bancroft Library of the University of California. The field observations of the three present co-authors and of "W. P. Taylor and E. H. Beck have been taken from the note books of these persons on file in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. All of these various sources of information are referred to in the text as "MS." The hearty cooperation of the California Fish and Game Commis- sion has been of great assistance in assembling data. Much new material has been obtained by means of circular letters to the com- mission's deputies, as in the eases of the Mourning Dove and Valley Quail. Mr. Ernest Sehaeflfle, former secretary of the commission, assisted us in a multitude of ways both official and personal. Finally, Mr. Harry S. Swarth, curator of birds in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, has read the entire proof of the book, and by reason of his extensive knowledge of western birds has been able to make important corrections and improvements. It was found necessary arbitrarily to set a date beyond which no new information should be incorporated into our manuscript. This date was fixed at June 30, 1916. Work done subsequently, and up to the time of going to press, consisted solely in Tevision. The list of "literature cited" at the end of the book must not be taken as a complete bibliography of the subject ; it contains titles only of those articles or books from which material is actually taken either indirectly or by quotation. Many of our readers will probably disapprove of our frequent use of direct quotations. In' defense of this practice we urge the greater accuracy thereby obtained. Experience has taught us that rewording an account often leads unintentionally to a perversion of the original author's exact meaning, and we believe that scientific accuracy of fact should take precedence over smoothness of diction or an appearance of originality. We also recognize the fact that inter- polation of citations in the text mars its typographical appearance; but their presence makes verification possible, and, together with the list of articles and books under the heading "literature cited," they serve to assist those readers who are interested in following the sub- 4 GAME SIEDS OF CALIFORNIA ject farther. "We believe that placing citations in the text rather than in footnotes results in a smaller percentage of error even though it somewhat interrupts the smoothness of the printed page. The order in vs^hich the species chapters follow one another is essen- tially that used in the American Ornithologists* Union Check-list of North American Birds (1910). The small-type paragraphs at the beginning of each species chapter are intended primarily for reference purposes, as for example in com- paring two or more species, and are consequently reduced to essentials. Many of the points briefly given in these paragraphs are elaborated upon in the general (large-type) account which follows. Bach species chapter is headed by the most generally accepted common name, followed by the current scientific name and its author. Under "other names" are included, as a rule, only those names by which the species has been called in CaUfornia, either colloquially by sportsmen or naturalists, or more formally in published articles. Mere variations in the spelling of names have not been listed. For a few common or widely distributed species, names used in other parts of North America are included, as a convenience in referring to other books. The word "part" indicates that the name which it follows has also been used for one or more other species in California. Under "description" are included only details of plumage (color) and size (measurements). Peculiarities in the structure of feathers, bill and feet are rarely mentioned because if important in diagnosis they are clearly shown in the accompanying illustrations or discussed in the running account. For each plumage a specimen has always been selected showing typically the particular phase to be described. Many species which occur in California, such as certain shore birds, are, in migration time, in a mixed transitional state between the winter and summer plumages. Of course these, and such additional variants as are produced by wear or fading of the feathers, are not ordinarily mentioned in the description. Under "marks for field identification" are mentioned such char- acters as will be of service in long-range observations. In most instances are included characters which will separate a species under discussion from others with which it is likely to be confused. In the running account there will usually be found one or more paragraphs discussing these field characters in greater detail. A number of our game birds differ slightly in color and measure- ments in different parts of the country and naturalists are accustomed to recognize such geographic races as subspecies. In some instances it is known that such races exhibit marked differences in behavior, so that we do not feel justified in citing the habits of eastern races in illustration of the behavior of western birds (e.g., see Oregon Ruffed INTRODUCTION 5 Grouse). However, in the case of certain birds which are represented in California by two or more subspecies, such as the valley and the mountain quails and the "blue" grouses, our knowledge of the birds has led us to believe that there are no important differences in the behavior of the different races, and we have consequently combined the general accounts under that of the more widely distributed race. For example, in the account of the Valley Quail the habits of the California and Catalina Island quails are to be considered as covered. Whenever a bird in hand cannot be identified by the use of the "key" or does not fit any of the descriptions, the specimen should be sent at once to some natural history museum for identification. Such a bird may be a representative of a rare species or of one new to the state, and so of particular value to science. The California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology stands ready at all times to receive and identify such specimens. Joseph Geinnell, Harold C. Bktant, Tkacy I. Stoeer. MtrsETJM OP Vertebrate Zoology, TJniversitt op Campoknia, Berkeley, September 15, 1916. GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA DECREASE OF GAME AND ITS CAUSES It is easy to make statements to the effect that game has either increased or decreased ; but to find reliable figures with which to sub- stantiate such statements is well-nigh impossible. Yet the material gathered under this heading, even though fragmentary, seems not unworthy of consideration. The evidence we have been able to obtain may be grouped under four headings: the judgments of dependable observers; the records of the kills of waterfowl on gun-club grounds; the records of market sales and shipments of game ; and the toll taken by various agencies, natural as well as artificial. The decrease in the numbers of game birds in California began to arouse comment more than thirty-five years ago. In 1880 that pioneer ornithologist. Dr. J. 6. Cooper, stated (1880, p. 243) that game birds had already "very much diminished" locally. In his opinion this reduction was due to "persecution by the gun," and to poisoned grain intended for "vermin" (probably squirrels and gophers). In 1913 letters of inquiry on this subject were sent out from the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology to responsible observers throughout the State. Questions were asked as to the status of ducks and geese, shore birds, quail, and other game birds. Seventy replies were received, representing twenty-seven counties of the State. Many of these reports covered periods of ten to forty years, and one observer stated that he had kept track of game conditions for sixty-one years. A compilation of these reports showed that sixty-eight of the seventy observers had noted a decrease in ducks and geese. The other two reported that these birds were "holding their own." Not one reported an increase! The estimates of the decrease in ducks ranged from twenty-five per cent to ninety-nine per cent, and average close to fifty per cent. The same observers agreed in reporting the greatest decrease in the case of geese; six stated that the birds had entirely disappeared from their accustomed localities, and five said that they were now seldom seen. The percentages of decrease for geese were given as fifty per cent and more, the average being about seventy-five per cent. Forty-one reports on the status of quail showed a considerably smaller decrease. Thirty-six observers reported a decrease, four stated that the birds were "holding their own," and one reported an increase. Of eleven reports relative to the Mourning Dove, seven indi- BECSEASE OF GAME 7 cated a marked decrease, and four no change. The amount of decrease ranged from twenty-five to seventy-five per cent. A few excerpts from the letters received are given here to show the general character of the reports. Mr. Henry Grey, writing of San Diego and vicinity, under date of March 17, 1913, says : Eight and nine years ago I could go down to a pond near my house and shoot six Widgeon in twenty minutes. After shooting what I wanted, ducks would come streaming in from the ocean and the water-hole would soon be so filled with ducks while I stood in full view that they hardly had room to flap their wings. . . . Now all is changed. ... A nearby resident declared that in the season of 1911-12 there was only one duck for over 100 seen in the same place four years before, and this season (1912-13) I failed to see even that proportion. ]Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., under date of March 12, 1913, writes us : In 1876 ducks were very plentiful in all the marshes from Sausalito north to Petaluma, Napa and Vallejo. In those days it was easy for a boy to kill from twenty to thirty ducks in a day's shooting and very much larger bags were obtained by experienced hunters. Today, in the region between Sausalito and Novate, I think it is safe to say there is not one duck in the marsh now where there were a hundred then. Beyond Novate there is still some shooting, but it is mostly confined to baited ponds where the birds are regularly fed. There are still large flocks of Cauvasbaeks and Bluebills on San Pablo Bay, but nothing like as many as in former years. On Oakland Creek where ducks, rail, curlew, and shore birds were formerly plentiful, they are seldom seen today. I have killed as many as forty rail on one tide in Oakland Greek but I doubt if there is a single one there today. The same observer has told us that many Wood Ducks were form- erly killed along Oakland Creek. But none has been seen in this vicinity for ten or fifteen years. Mr. C. I. Clay, under date of March 16, 1913, states that the Canada Goose was not uncommon on Humboldt Bay seven to ten years ago. Duck hunters frequently killed fair-sized bags from their hunting boats. But he has not seen or heard of a Canada Goose being killed on Humboldt Bay within the past five years. Mr. "W. E. Unglish, under date of March 10, 1913, says that geese were once abundant on the plains between Gilroy and HoUister, San Benito County. Now, although the fields are still sown to grain, there are not a dozen geese killed there in a year. Mr. T. M. Lane writes: Twenty years ago wild geese came to the grain fields near Reedley, Fresno County, by the thousands. It would be a safe estimate to say we have seen at least five or six acres of ground covered with them. They were so thick they looked like scattered banks of snow with the ground showing through in black streaks. We have seen them covering a strip over a half mile in length. As the country was settled up and put out to fruit they gradually disappeared, but for several years we would see many flocks flying over; today we scarcely ever see or hear any. 8 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA Mr. A. D. Ferguson, also speaking of the Fresno region, states (November 30, 1912) that flocks of geese may yet he seen in certain sections along the San Joaquin River and in some grain fields many miles from the river. But ten to twenty years ago the whole San Joaquin Valley literally swarmed with wild geese during midwinter. From the windows of a moving train myriads of geese were to be observed, reaching as far as the eye could see on either side of the railroad from Fresno to Stockton — certainly a thousandfold more geese than can be seen today along the same route. Some published statements concerning the decrease of ducks and geese in the central and northern parts of the State may be introduced here. Tyler (19136, p. 7) says: It is with regret that we note a gradually diminishing number of waterfowl returning to us each fall. . . . While it is probably true that gunners are in a large measure responsible for the decrease in numbers of many species, par- ticularly of the ducks and geese, yet a changed environment has been a potent factor in bringing about the present condition. . . . The large grain and stock ranches are being subdivided, reclamation work is steadily reducing the swamp-covered areas, vineyards and orchards are springing up everywhere with a consequent great increase in population. Even the tule ponds that remain are often unsuitable for a nesting place on account of the custom of using them as foraging grounds for bands of hogs. As early as 1890 the decrease in the numbers of geese had begun to attract attention. W. E. Bryant (1890, pp. 291-292) makes the following statements : There has not, so far as I am aware, been a very marked decrease in the number of geese which annually visit California, but the area over which they now feed is considerably less than in 1850. In the fall of that year, my father, while going from San Francisco to San Jose, met with acres of white and gray geese near San Bruno. They were feeding near the roadside, indifferent to the presence of all persons, and in order to see how close he could ajjproach he walked directly towards them. When within five or six yards of the nearest ones they stretched up their necks and walked away like domestic geese; by making demonstration with his arms they were frightened and took wing, flying but a short distance. They seemed to have no idea that they would be harmed, and feared man no more than they did the cattle in the fields. The tameness of the wild geese was more remarkable than of any other birds, but it must be understood that in those days they were but little hunted and probably none had ever heard the report of a gun and few had seen men. This seems the most plausible accounting for the stupid tameness of the geese, forty years ago. What the wild goose is today on the open plains of the large interior valleys of California those who have hunted them know. By 1853 the geese had become wilder and usually flew before one could get within shotgun range, if on foot, but in an open buggy or upon horseback there was no diffi- culty. There was a very marked contrast between the stupidly tame geese after their arrival in the fall and the same more watchful and shy birds before the departure in spring of the years 1852 and 1853. DECBEASE OF GAME 9 H. L. Bryant, an early settler in southern California, has told us of thousands of geese which formerly fed on the open fields of Los Angeles County and describes the snow-like effect produced there by the herds of white geese. Few feed in the same localities at the present time, and comparatively few can be seen flying overhead. Mr. Henry Grey, under date of March 17, 1913, states : There are no geese to be seen in the vicinity of San Diego now. Although fifteen years ago numbers of Black Brant came into San Diego Bay, the numbers are hardly noticeable at the present time. Additional testimony that certain species of ducks have noticeably decreased is to be found in magazines devoted to field sports, where attention is continually being called to the lessening numbers of the more desirable species. For instance, Hinman '(1903, p. 179) speak- ing of marshes in southern California, states that Mallards and ' ' Cans ' ' seem to be getting scarcer every year, and the Redhead is a very rare visitor in that vicinity. P. G. Clark (1905, pp. 110-112) describes the killing of 279 ducks in one morning in a favorable sec- tion of the San Joaquin Valley, 179 of which were Mallards. There are many complaints to the effect that Mallards are now scarce in the same vicinity ; comparatively few of these birds are taken there each year. Mr. W. H. Bastian, keeper of the Santa Barbara Gun Club at Guadalupe, Santa Barbara County, wrote in February, 1914, as follows : I shot here for the market twenty years ago. Then it was no trouble to kill fifty to seventy -five ducks a day, mostly "Cans," and using no decoys. At present, it is a scratch to kill twenty-five birds per day, and when that does happen, half are usually Buddies. The marked decrease in the Band-tailed Pigeon is indicated by the following statements : We have had no pigeons near Gilroy for several years. Formerly we had large flights, and the birds were slaughtered by the thousands (W. E. Unglish, March 10, 1913). The Band-tailed Pigeon is so scarce here in Humboldt County that it is hardly worth one's while to try to get a mess for the table. One can see the numbers diminish almost year by year (C. I. Clay, March 16, 1913). Many other instances of decrease will be found cited under the general accounts of the different game birds, in the chapters follow- ing, notably in the eases of the Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, the Clapper Rails, and the Wood Duck. Present conditions are such that they often lead to exaggerated estimates of the relative numbers of birds existing now and formerly. The ducks and geese which were once distributed throughout the state 10 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA are now crowded into the few ponds and marshes which are not yet reclaimed. It now takes a scientifically managed gun-elub pond with every attraction that can be offered to wild fowl to bring the birds in large numbers. The same numbers of birds that can now be seen on baited ponds were present formerly on every small natural pond in the state. An example of this concentration is to be found in the vicinity of Gridley, Butte County, where geese still congregate annually in immense numbers; but most of the localities in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys which formerly favored the winter- ing of these birds, are completely devoid of them now. Many observers, seeing thousands of ducks on a few sections of overflowed land, fail to realize that the same sort of ground once extended far and wide through the valleys, and that these immense areas were then as well populated as are the smaller areas at the present time. The annually diminishing kills on club grounds also indicate that both waterfowl and upland game birds have decreased in this state. Although the gradual reduction that has been made in the bag limit might be expected to favor the maintenance of an adequate supply of ducks, the increase in the efficiency of firearms and methods of attracting waterfowl has undoubtedly facilitated their capture. The old-timers continue to complain of the decreasing number of birds brought to bag. The following table (no. 1) compiled from the books of the Empire Gun Club, one of the best managed clubs in California, will serve to indicate the changes in abundance of the several species of game birds visiting those grounds. Of course the figures do not take into account the varying number of shooters each year, nor the fewer shooting days from year to year. A noticeable decrease in the Table 1. — Game birds shot on the grounds of the Empire Gun Club (Elkhorn, Monterey County, California) in four seasons between 1905 and 1913 1905-06 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 Mallard 106 18 13 22 Gadwall '. 5 7 1 10 Widgeon 525 537 328 227 Teal 2028 436 780 1198 Spoonies 905 332 881 651 Sprig 449 1839 1660 1645 Canvasback 251 8 87 23 Bluebill 91 125 44 29 Black-jack 28 5 5 Quail 693 776 600 382 Snipe 117 189 95 24 Sundry 96 34 38 16 Totals 5266 4329 4532 4232 DECREASE OF GAME 11 number of large ducks such as Canvasback and Mallard, is, however, indicated. The kill of quail and snipe also shows noticeable decrease. In 1913 and again in 1914 a questionaire was sent out by the writers to different gun clubs asking for reports of the kills on the opening day of the season. Among the questions asked were : Number of hunters on hand; number of hunters securing the limit; number of ducks in each bag examined ; total number of ducks for the day ; kinds represented ; and, how the birds were shot. Most of the reports returned, show a preponderance of small ducks such as teal, and also of the less desirable species such as the Spoonbill. The larger ducks, especially the Mallard, are relatively few in numbers. It also appears from these reports that although about as many limit bags are pro- cured as in former years it takes more hours to secure the full quota of birds, notwithstanding the increased facilities for shooting and the increased efficiency of the firearms used. Sale of game on the open market has been fundamentally the most important factor in reducing California's supply of game birds. So great has been the depletion from this cause in past years that it has been found necessary to prohibit the sale of all kinds except ducks and geese. These, too, should be removed from the sale list. All our neighboring states now prohibit the sale of all game, as do most of the eastern states. Were it not for certain San Francisco cafe and hotel men who reap a rich harvest from the retailing of game, Cali- fornia would have done likewise in 1913, when a "no-sale" bill passed the Legislature, but was nullified by referendum. The high prices offered the market hunter usually tempt him to go beyond the legal limit. So long as a market demand exists men will continue to hunt the birds regardless of any law. Government authorities are right in saying that "the free marketing of wild game leads swiftly to exter- mination." California must prohibit the sale of all game species, if all are to be conserved as natural resources. The type of market hunter, who in former days took the largest toll of wildfowl used an animal blind in approaching his quarry. This "bull hunter," as he was called, proceeded to the hunting-ground leading a trained steer or cow. After a good-sized flock of ducks or geese had been located, he proceeded to "walk a shot." Moving along behind the animal, which was easily guided, he approached the birds by a process of "tacking," each tack bringing him nearer his game. A direct approach would have tended to frighten them, but this indirect method rendered them unsuspecting. Throughout the process of "working the shot," which required an average period of from two to three hours, an attempt was made to bunch or "bank" the birds as much as possible. When the birds were finally in proper position, the hunter whistled, whereupon the birds would raise their 12 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA heads ; then aiming over the back of the animal with his large-bore gun or automatic, and bracing himself for the recoil, he fired the first shot or shots while the birds were sitting, and the second or subsequent shots while they were rising. Formerly a 2-, 4-, or 8-bore gun was used, but most commonly a double-barreled, number 4, muzzle-loader ; in more recent years, a 12-gauge automatic with an extension magazine carrying from seven to nine loads, has been employed. The resulting slaughter was simply enormous. Mr. M. Becker is authority for the statement that he watched Sischo, a famous market hunter of Los Baiios, Merced County, with two assistants kill 400 ducks with six shots from number 4 guns. Two shots were fired from the animal blind while the birds were sitting on the ground, and four while they were rising. Mr. Becker was rewarded with twenty-two ducks for not disturbing the flock before the shot. Mr. Ralph P. Merritt tells us that a single bull hunter in the same vicinity killed 104 ducks with two shots from a number 4, and Mr. J. Walter Scott, president of the Los Banos Gun Club, reports a kill of 108 geese with four shots. Hunting by means of an animal blind was first discouraged by the establishment of a bag limit of twenty-five birds ; but for several years the difficulty of apprehending the violator and the practical impossi- bility of procuring a conviction after his apprehension prevented the elimination of bull hunting. Then, too, the men employing this method of hunting continually threatened the lives of those who attempted to enforce the law. Several shooting frays between game deputies and bull hunters took place near Los Banos, and in 1915 a deputy was- killed there while attempting to make an arrest. After the law pro- hibiting bull hunting for ducks was passed, this sort of hunting was still continued under the guise of hunting for geese. It was not until 1915, when all hunting with animal blinds was prohibited, and the market for birds was largely destroyed by the elimination of the illegally formed game transfer companies in San Francisco, that bull hunting became a thing of the past. The automatic shotgun allowed the market hunter to reap a copious harvest. Hornaday (1913, p. 148) records the killing of 218 geese in one hour with automatic guns in Glenn County, and 450 on the same day, by the two men concerned. The use of the automobile has also reacted against the birds. Some market hunters at Los Banos killed 198 white geese from automobiles in less than an hour in February 1913. The sale of game birds on the market, then, has been a large factor in the general decrease of game. This is well shown by statistics relat- ing to San Francisco. The figures for the following tables, heretofore unpublished, were secured by us direct from the records of the game transfer companies named, and show the magnitude of the business which existed during the period from 1906 to 1912. DECREASE OF GAME 13 Table 2. — Estimates of numbers of ducks sold in the markets, between 1911 and 1916. Data from J. S. Hunter, Assistant Executive Officer, California Eish and Game Coinmission 1911-12 San Francisco markets 250,000 All markets in California.... 350,000 Table 3. — Ducks received by the American Game Transfer Company at San Francisco in the season of 1910-11 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 150,000 82,000 81,000 75,000 200,000 160,000 150,000 125,000 3 ■3 S s 1 > •M9 Si 3 la B 02 1 Eh 1910 Oct. 21 541 14 424 1489 1685 21 235 68 143 4620 28 435 1 260 856 1224 27 169 20 241 3233 Nov. 4 472 3 445 1089 1330 10 137 49 248 3783 11 382 3 693 1485 1097 23 69 35 438 4225 18 1010 3 1135 1359 651 6 163 24 372 4723 25 1027 3 1254 1522 964 9 30 29 620 5458 Dec. 2 452 6 784 944 769 1 27 32 277 3292 9 796 773 1410 568 1 55 118 486 4207 16 672 904 926 468 1 156 77 431 3635 23 700 1 1205 1345 725 1 115 98 244 4434 30 404 884 746 630 2 65 78 324 3133 1911 Jan. 6 456 783 862 613 3 107 45 353 3222 13 436 4 511 905 640 7 100 12 321 2936 20 471 7 736 880 872 2 188 50 404 3610 27 547 840 1242 1500 1 184 25 705 5044 Feb. 3 225 484 664 823 3 62 11 341 2613 10 67 322 481 606 1 31 14 129 1651 17 136 866 639 731 13 13 151 2549 24 300 1322 1396 1262 11 6 280 4577 29 s .... 33 ..9562 45 213 264 274 119 1917 3 807 61 6569 848 Total 14,838 20,504 17,432 71,793 Table 4. — Geese received by the Independent Game Transfer Company of San Francisco during the season of 1909-10 White Gray Honker Brant Totals October 543 2847 1442 4832 November 1002 1673 19 2196 4890 December 529 1256 125 1592 3502 January 667 929 151 1578 3325 February 646 1027 185 1225 3033 March 1-5 82 321 5 116 524 Totals 3469 8053 435 8149 20,106 14 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA SIBJOJ, Ol t- CO lO o O to 1-H T— I 1— I t- CS «D^ 1-H^ t-^ t-T r>r »>^ cc" o" i-i to lO t- lO SIB^OJ, O O -^ Oi rH OS --H tH ■ cT r-T cT ccT lO b- CQ CO > d "^ O CO b- OS aJ s>[onci amri S "^ 3 S SJiotiQ ii^nig O Oi !D CO rH 1/2 iH Oa t-^ Ol^ O^ 00^ "" cq" "^ lO^ oT tH G CD O) 3[0B oioBta 00 o 00 o 1-1 00 T-H ^ <)J bJ3 «D w b- o CO f=i CO o r-i (M T-l jfOuqsBAUBO -* "^ Oi^ so_ oq^ d t-h" r-T r-T CO* nn 5R tH CO ro 00 lO "a p^anpaa 00 l-t 05 m 1 p< ?o s Tiotia poojii 1—1 T-H CO PI C« m ft S CO CD lO r>- ifs OS 00 lO o lO -^ oo V, Si.idS "^^ »^-. °^ '^^ •^^ g • lO CO O O i-l cq r-1 i-i ca iH C3 ho ,1= Sjjdg [Ijqaoods \«ajj CO 00 (M t> CO CO OO CO oq l—l CO O^ ^^ 00 t>- (^r r-T I— ( i-H oq CD CO co OS OO o o (M ■^ o 00 ^ ■* O OO lO r-l OS lO "*-. lO co" o" lO OS 1-H (M nosSpTjW OS "* in OS ■* CO in CO OS o oq CO oq "^ os" -TfT in t>^ c6 C5 M ft F9I, CO 00 -^ in oq CO CD in OO -* in OS CD OO os^ '^ cT ccT otT cfT ■^ iotia ^-B^o Sg ^ S CO S I-H o b- cq OS in CO o b- in '^ " -"^ CO o o o o b- 00 OS O rH O O O iH iH I i I I I ,„^, CO t» 00 OS o i^ai o O O O r-l OS OS OS OS OS 2 3 m n El C3 CO in CO 00 ^ 5[0Tia iniQ I-H ■* o CO CO CO a ce E/2 la OS (M 00 Ttl O CO U3 CO 00 o pjBIPH o oq in 00^ co_^ co~ o~ os" c3 1911-15, for districts see Chronology of Legislation. " Close season on certain species established under Federal Migratory Bird Law in 1913. " Others, Sept. 1-Dec. 1. Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Mar. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 1905 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Closed Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 1907 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Closed Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Sept. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Closed until Sept. 1, 1909 Closed until Sept. 1, 1909 1909 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Closed Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Oct. l-Apr. 1 Oct. 15-Peb. 15 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 1-Feb. 15 Closed until Sept. 1, 1911 Oct. l.-Feb. 1 Closed until Sept. 1, 1911 Closed until Sept. 1, 1911 July 1-Feb. 15 July 1-Feb. 15 July 15-Oct. 15 July 15-Oct. 15 1911^ 2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1 1 and 6 : Oct. 1- Mar.l 1 : Oct. 1-Apr. 1 2-6:Nov.l-Mar.l5 Closed 2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1 1 and 6 : Oct. 1- Mar. 1 Closed until Nov. 1, 1912, then Nov. 1-Dec. 1 Nov. 15-Mar. 30 Nov. 15-Mar. 30 Nov. 15-Mar. 30 2-5 : Oct. 15-Mar. 1 1 and 6 : Oct. 1- Mar. 1 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 1915^ Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed Closed" Closed" Closed" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed" Oct. 15-Feb. 1 Closed" 2, 8, 4, etc.: Oct. 16-Jan. 1" 1-5 :Oet. 15-Feb. 15 Oct. 15-Jan.l 6 : Oct. 15-Nov. 15 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 1 and 3 : July 15- Oct. 1 2 and 5 : Aug. 1— Oct. 15 4 and 6 : Sept. 1- Nov. 1. 2, 3, 4, etc.; Oct. 15-Jan. 1" Oct. 15-Jan. 1 Closed" Sept. 1-Dec. 1 LEGISLATION 61 wood duck, wild [band-tailed] pigeon, shorebirds other than those mentioned above, and sandhill, whooping and little brown cranes. (The above changes were chiefly for the purpose of making the California law conform with the regulations issued under the Fed- eral Migratory Bird Law.) Use of animal blinds entirely pro- hibited. Pish and game districts rearranged and increased in num- ber. Four principal districts: 1. Del Norte, Siskiyou, Modoc, Hum- boldt, Trinity, Shasta, Lassen, Tehama, Butte, Sutter, Plumas, Yuba, Sierra, Nevada, Placer, Sacramento, El Dorado, Amador, Calaveras, Alpine, eastern San Joaquin, eastern Stanislaus, Tuolumne, eastern Merced, Mariposa, Madera, Mono, eastern Fresno, Kings, Tulare, eastern Kern, and Inyo counties. 2. Mendocino, Sonoma, Marin, Glenn, Lake, Colusa, Yolo, Napa, and Solano counties. 3. Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, western San Joaquin, western Stanislaus, western Merced, Monterey, San Benito, western Fresno, San Luis Obispo, and extreme western Kern counties. 4. Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, San Bernardino, Eiverside, and Imperial counties. Also twenty -five minor districts (numbers 5 to 29, inclusive), embracing the coast line, the main interior waters, and certain forest areas. All game protected in minor districts 24 to 29, inclusive, except that waterfowl may be hunted in IHstrict 28. 62 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS USED IN THIS BOOK (See figs. 1-3) Abdomen — See Belly. AxiLLARS— A group of feathers situated beneath the wing in the "arm-pit," at the junction of the wing and side of body; they are usually narrow and often much elongated. Back (of body) — The area on the upper surface included between the neck, wings and rump. Fig. 1. General outline of a Mallard showing names of parts and areas referred to in describing a game bird. One-fourth natural size. See Glossary (pp. 62-65) for definitions of terms used. Bar — A narrow transverse mark of color across an individual feather, or across wing or tail. Base of Bill — Where the bill is joined to the skull; in most birds, where the feathers of the forehead end. Belly — The hinder middle portion of the lower surface of the body, included between the breast, sides and flanks, and vent. Bkeast — An area on the middle of the under surface of the body, between the fore-neck and belly; not capable of exact definition. Cere — The naked skin at the upper base of the bill, through which the nostrils open. GLOSSABT OF SPECIAL TEEMS 63 Cheek — The area on the lower side of the head between the eye and throat. Chest — The upper part of the breast, just below the fore-neck. Chin — The area on the under side of the head included between the branches of the lower mandible or jaw. Claw — The horny sheath on the terminal joint of any toe. Ceest — A more or less lengthened tuft or group of feathers on the top of the head, which is either permanently erected (Hooded Merganser, male), or capable of being elevated at will (Mountain Quail). Crissum — See Lowee Iail Covekts. Ckoss-ridges (on bill) — The horny flutings on the sides of the bill in ducks, geese and swans; these are not to be confused with the sharper "teeth" on the opposed surfaces of the mandibles of mergansers. B'"" ":' •",>,„ Pig. 2. Outer surface of spread wing of Green-winged Teal showing names of regions and feathers employed in descriptions. One-half natural size. Ctjlmen — The upper ridge or profile of the bill. Ear Coverts — See Ear Region. Ear Region — The area over which the feathers (ear-coverts) which cover the external ear opening are distributed. Flanks — The hindermost feathers on the side of the body, included between the rump and belly, and overlapping the thigh. Forehead — The area just above the base of the upper mandible of the bill; situated in front of the "top of head." Fore-neck — The lower throat, between the throat proper and the breast. Forepart or Body — That part of the body nearest the head; in general, the region forward of the bend of the wing. Greater (wing) Coverts — The hindmost row of covering feathers on the outer side of the wing, overlying the bases of the secondaries and tertials; the outer margins of these feathers are exposed. Hind-neck — The middle of the neck behind. 64 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA HiNDPART OP Body— That part of the body nearest the tail; in general, the region behind the bend of the wing. Lessee (wing) Coverts— The several rows of small covering feathers on the outer surface of the wing, from the bend of the wing to the side of the •body and forward of the middle coverts; like the greater coverts, the outer margins of the lesser coverts are exposed. Lining of Wing— The feathers on the under surface of the wing covering the inner bases of the flight feathers. Lobes (on toes)— A series of thin, membrane-like flaps on the sides of the toes (fig. 55). Lower Tail Coverts— The feathers behind the vent and immediately under- neath the tail. Pig. 3. Under surface of spread wing of Black- bellied Plover showing axillars and lining of wing. One-half natural size. Mandible — Either the upper or the lower half of the bill; the jaw. Margin of Wing — The edge formed by the outermost primary feather and the smaller feathers overlying it, from the bend of the wing backward. Middle (wing) Coverts — The series of covering feathers lying immediately for- ward of the greater wing coverts on the outer surface of the wing; the middle coverts have their inner margins exposed while both the greater and lesser coverts have their ouier margins exposed. Nail (of bill) — In ducks, the smooth, rounded and slightly raised portion on the end of the upper mandible. Nail (of toe) — See Claw. Nape — See Hind-neck. Outer Surface of Closed Wing — All of the several series of covering feathers on the outer surface of the wing, collectively. Plume (on head) — A slender tuft of elongated feathers on the top of the head. Pointed Tail — One in which the central pair of feathers are the longest and the outer ones shorter in regular order so that, when spread, the tail is wedge- shaped as seen from above or below. Primaries — The outermost and longest series of flight feathers of the wing; the wing "quills" attached to the outermost (the "hand") of the three "joints" of the wing. GLOSSARY OF SPECIAL TERMS 65 Pbimary (wing) Coverts— The series of rather stiff covering feathers overlying the bases of the primary flight feathers. EuFP— A bunch of elongated feathers on the sides of the neck, which by reason of their length (and often color) stand out distinctly from the surrounding • feathers. EuMP — That portion of the upper surface of the body lying just forward of the base of the tail between the back and upper tail coverts. EuMP Patch — Any contrasted area of color occurring on the rump, or upper tail coverts, or both. Scales — The small horny plates on the tarsus or "leg" of birds; in the duck and shorebird families the shape of these plates is important in classification. Scapulars — The group of feathers at either side of the back, on the ' ' shoulder, ' ' just above the wing; they often overlie some of the tertial feathers. Secondaries — The next to the outermost series of flight feathers on the wing; they are attached to the middle section of the wing (the "forearm") and form a series continuous with that formed by the primaries. Shaft (or a peathek) — The quill or midrib to which the two webs are attached. Shaft Streak — A line or narrow stripe of contrasting color running lengthwise along the middle of a feather. Side (of body) — The area on either side, between the "arm-pit" and flank, and back and belly. SPECULtTM — A brightly colored area on the terminal portions of the outermost secondary wing feathers of moat ducks. Spur — A horn-covered projection on the back of the tarsus of the male Ring- neck Pheasant and of the male Wild Turkey. Square-ended (tail) — Said of a tail in which the feathers are of such lengths that when lying parallel they end evenly; not wedge-shaped or pointed. Streak 1 QmoTpT, f Mark of contrasted color running lengthwise of a feather. Tarsus — The "leg" of a bird; that portion from the heel joint to the bkse of the toes. Teeth — The sharp horny projections on the opposed surfaces of the two mandi- bles in mergansers. Tertials — The innermost series of flight feathers on the wing, between the secondaries and the body; they are attached to the innermost section of the wing ("upper arm"). Theoat — The area on the lower side of the head, between the chin and fore- neck. Under Surface (op body) — The whole of the body below lines drawn along either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail. Under, of Inner, Surface op Flight Feathers — The surfaces of the flight feathers which are next to the body when the wing is closed. Upper Surface (op body) — The whole of the body above lines drawn along either side from the corner of the mouth to the side of the tail, and, where the tail is of the same color, including the upper surface of it as well. Upper Tail Coverts — The feathers immediately behind the rump, and covering the upper bases of the tail feathers. Vent — The anus. Web (of featheH) — Either half of the vane of a feather, each side of the shaft. Web (between toes) — A membrane-like extension of skin between the front toes in all members of the duck family and in certain other birds. 66 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA METHOD OF TAKING MEASUREMENTS As a rule, only adult birds have been used in securing the measurements given in this book; but in a few eases (which are designated) full-grown immature birds have been included. In every instance the region of capture of the specimens used is indicated. Occasional individuals are likely to be found which do not come within the limits of the measurements here given, and of course specimens with tail or wing feathers badly worn or in process of molt will give total lengths and wing lengths below normal. Wherever measurements were taken by us originally in millimeters, the equivalents in inches and hundredths have been secured by mechanical con- version, double checked; and the converse is true of measurements taken orig- inally in inches, as well as of all those quoted from published literature. Tolal length- Fig. 4. Side view of Hudsonian Curlew showing method of taking the measurements used in this book. One-fourth natural size. Total Length — With the bird laid flat on its back, the head straight out, and the neck not unduly stretched, measure from the tip of the bill to the end of the longest tail feather. Folded Wing — With the wing folded naturally against the side of the bird, measure in a straight line from the bend of the wing ("wrist joint") to the tip of the longest primary flight feather. Bill Along Culmen — Measure in a straight line from the last feathers on the middle of the forehead to the tip of the bill. This is really the "chord of the culmen," and does not take into account any irregularity or curve in the profile of the bill. Taesus — Measure from the notch in the "hock" or "heel" at the upper end of the tarsus to and over the rounded knob on the front of the lower end of the tarsus at the base of the middle toe. Middle Toe (without claw) — With the foot pressed against some flat surface so that the toes are spread out, measure from the angle just below the lower end of the tarsus to the base of the claw. Eggs — Measured with calipers; specimens with holes in their ends are likely to fall short of the measurements given for the longer dimension. KEY TO THE GAME BIRDS OP CALIFORNIA It is believed that the following key will prove sufficient for identi- fying any game bird heretofore found in California. "We would warn our readers, however, not to depend upon it for the determination of species outside of our own state, and to use it only for birds in hand, either freshly killed or stuffed as specimens. The key is ' ' artificial, ' ' in that it makes use of any serviceable character, whether or not that character be important in a natural classification of birds. If informa- tion be desired as to the technicalities of systematic ornithology, then recourse must be had to other works than the present one. The kind of key here employed, except in two places, is that which is called " dichotomous, " that is, it is two-branched, the members of a larger group being separated into two lots according as they possess or lack a certain character or group of characters. In determining to which of two groups a specimen belongs, both headings should be read — that is, read 1 and 1', and 2 and 2', even if from first inspec- tion it is certain to which group the bird belongs. Reference to the figures cited will often assist in deciding doubtful points. If any difficulty be found in identifying a specimen by means of the key, appeal to the descriptions of species will soon settle the question. Measurements have been used in the key only where there were no convenient color or structural features. The methods of taking the measurements used in this key are the same as those employed in the descriptions of species (see page 66 and fig. 4). A concrete example will best show the manner of using the key. Suppose we have in hand a specimen of one of our commonest upland game birds and wish to identify it. In the "Key to the Main Groups" we read: 1. Feet fully webbed between front toes, etc. 1'. Feet without webs (or else only partly webbed) ; bill without cross-ridges or ' ' teeth, ' ' and never ' ' duck-like ' ' in shape. Our specimen has no webs and therefore belongs in group 1'. Proceeding : 2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total length of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base of claw on outer toe. 2'. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total length ; ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe never reaching to base of claw on outer toe. Our bird belongs to group 2', as it has longer feet, etc. Continuing : 3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked. 3'. Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered. [67] 68 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA The specimen in hand has the area between bill and eye fully feathered and therefore belongs in 3'. Next: 4. Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill more than 3.00 (76 mm). 4'. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long. The short wing of our bird places it in group 4'. Then : 5. Bill "chicken-like," never more than one-third as long as head (except in King-necked Pheasant); tip of upper mandible curved abruptly downward, covering, tip of lower mandible. Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses. 5'. Bill never ' ' chicken-like, ' ' always more than one-third as long as head, and tip of lower mandible never covered. The short bill on the bird being identified, places it in group 5. Turning to the key for the Pheasant, Quails and Grouses, we proceed, beginning there with 1 and 1' again : 1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. 1'. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered. Our specimen has a wing less than 6.00 inches long and an un- feathered tarsus and hence goes under 1'. Continuing: 7. Head with a straight, slender, tapering plume more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown broadly barred with black and white; throat brown in males. 7'. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches (38 mm.) long; flanks without black and white barring; throat black in males. Our bird belongs under 7', as it has a short plume and black throat. Then : 9. No scale-like markings on belly, etc. 9'. Forepart of belly scaled with narrow blackish cross-bars, etc. Evidently our bird comes under 9'. Then: 10. Ground color of upper surface and flanks deep olive brown. California Quail, 10'. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown. 11. Smaller: wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. Mainland species. Valley Quail. ir. Larger: wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. On Santa Catalina Island only. Catalina Island Quail. Our bird shows a grayish rather than olive tinge on the back, so we have a Valley Quail. Such characters as the last (under 10 and 11) are often difficult of determination and in the absence of speci- mens of both races for comparison dependence must be placed upon the locality of capture of the bird. After finding a name for any specimen by use of the key, reference should always be made to the full description of the species so as to verify the determination. KEYS KEY TO THE MAIN GROUPS OF CALIFORNIA GAME BIRDS PAGE 1. Feet fully webbed between front toes (fig. 1) ; bill usually broad and flat (figs. 9 and 10), rarely slender (figs. 7 and 8), and always pro- vided either with cross-ridges or ' ' teeth. ' ' Ducks, Geese, and Swans 69 1'. Feet without webs (or else only partly webbed [figs. 5(6 and 61]); bill without cross-ridges or "teeth" and never "duck-like" in shape. 2. Legs and feet short, tarsus (leg) never more than one-tenth total length of bird; ends of claws never reaching beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe reaching to base of claw on outer toe. Pigeons and iJoves 78 2'. Legs and feet longer, tarsus (leg) always more than one-tenth total length; ends of claws reaching to or beyond ends of longest under tail coverts; claw of hind toe never reaching base of claw on outer toe. 3. Area between bill and eye and space around eye naked (figs. 42-44). Ibises and Spoonbill 73 3'. Area between bill and eye and space around eye always feathered (feathers sometimes bristle-like). 4. Wing more than 17.00 inches (430 mm.) long; bill more than 3.00 (76 mm.) (fig. 45). Cranes 74 4'. Wing less than 13.00 inches (328 mm.) long. 5. Bill "chicken-like," never more than one-third as long as head (except in Eing-necked Pheasant) ; tip of upper mandible curved abruptly downward, covering tip of lower mandible (fig. 81). Pheasant, Quails, and Grouses 77 5'. Bill never "chicken-like," always more than one:third as long as head, and tip of lower mandible never covered. 6. Wing less than four times as long as middle toe without claw. Rails, Gallinule, and Mud-hen 74 6'. Wing more than four times as long as middle toe without claw. Shore Birds 74 DUCKS, GEESE, AND SWANS 1. Plumage (including all flight feathers) entirely white; neck as long or longer than body; area between bill and eye naked (flg. 40). 2. Larger; bill entirely black; hind margin of nostril more than 2.50 inches (63.5 mm.) from tip of bill. Trumpeter Swan 253 2'. Smaller; a yellow spot (in adult) on side of bill in front of eye; hind margin of nostril less than 2.35 inches (59.7 mm.) from tip of bill (fig. 40). Whistling Swan 256 1'. Plumage never entirely white; neck shorter than body; area between bill and eye always feathered. 3. Bill at least three times as loiig as height at base; no cross-ridges on sides of lower mandible, but "teeth" present (fig. 5). 4. "Teeth" on bill conspicuous, sharp, and inclined backward at tips; wing more than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; head crest various, but never with white. 70 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOSNIA Key to California Game Birds — {Continued) PAGE 5. Larger; wing of male more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long, of female more than 9.00 (228 mm.) ; no reddish brown band on breast of male; nostril (both sexes) nearer middle of bill than base of bill (figs. 5 and 6). American Merganser 79 5'. Smaller; wing of male less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long, of female less than 9.00 (228 mm.) ; breast of male crossed by a broad reddish brown band; nostril (both sexes) nearer base of bill than middle of bill (figs. 7 and 8). Bed-breasted Merganser 84 4'. "Teeth" blunt and not inclined backward; wing less than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; head of male with a large erect, compressed, black and white crest. Hooded Merganser 89 3'. Bill never as much as three times as long as height at base; the sides of lower mandible cross-ridged or fluted (figs. 9 and 39). 6. Wing more than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus longer than middle toe without claw (shorter in Canada Goose). 7. Plumage chiefly white (grayish in immatures), some- times stained with rusty. 8. Larger; bill more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; the margins of the two mandibles widely separated and a large black area showing between them (fig. 30). Lesser Snow Goose 210 8'. Smaller; bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; margins of the two m'andibles almost meeting, no large black area between them (fig. 31). Boss Snow Goose 215 7'. Plumage various, never predominantly white. 9. Bill and feet never wholly black. 10. Top of head and hind neck never white though area around base of bill usually white; breast usually marked irregularly with black. American White-fronted Goose 218 10'. Top of head and hind neck white; breast bluish ash, with regular dark bars. Emperor Goose 243 9'. Bill and feet entirely black. 11. Broad band across cheeks and throat white (sometimes interrupted on throat). 12. Large; bill 1.88-2.31 inches (47.7-58.6 mm.) long; tarsus usually shorter than middle toe and claw (figs. 32 and 35). Canada Goose 222 12'. Medium; bill 1.37-1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) ; tarsus about as long as middle toe and claw (figs. 33 and 36). Hutchlns Goose 230 12". Small; bill 1.04-1.44 inches (26.4-36.6 mm.); tarsus much longer than middle toe and claw (figs. 34 and 37). Cackling Goose 234 KE¥S 71 Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 11'. Head entirely black; no white on cheeks or throat. 13. A series of white streaks on each side of neck. Eastern Sea Brant 241 13'. A broad white collar around middle of neck, incomplete behind. Black Sea Brant 237 6'. Wing less than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long; tarsus shorter than middle toe without claw. 14. No broad thin lobe on hind toe (compare figs. 11 and 22). 15. Tarsus 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long or more. 16. Belly black. Black-bellied Tree-duck 251 16'. Belly hazel brown like breast, not black (pi. 7). Fulvous Tree-duck 246 15'. Tarsus less than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long. 17. Head crested; speculum deep steel blue. Wood Duck 140 17'. Head not crested; speculum variously colored. 18. Bill spoon-shaped (fig. .18), about twice as broad near tip as at base. Shoveller 129 18'. Bill nearly straight-sided, never greatly ex- panded at tip. 19. Speculum purple or violet. 20. Speculum Dordered with white (pi. 2). MaUard 92 20'. Speculum without white border. Black Duck 101 19'. Speculum not purple or violet. 21. Speculum white. , Gadwall 103 21'. Speculum not white (though there may be white elsewhere on wing). 22. Larger; folded wing 9.00 inches (228 mm.) long or more. 23. A large white patch on fore part of wing; top of head white or cream- color in males; bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long; middle tail feathers never greatly elongated. 24. Head of male cinnamon (pi. 3), of female ochre flecked with blackish. European Widgeon 111 24'. Head not cinnamon, but white flecked with black in both sexes ; a streak of green behind eye in male (pi. 3). Baldpate 100 23'. No Ught patch on fore part of wing or on top of head in male; bill more than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long (fig. 19) ; middle tail feathers of male in winter very long (pi. 3). Pintail 134 72 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA Key to Califoenia Game Birds — (^Continued) PAGE 22'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long. 25. No blue patch on wing. 26. A white bar on side of breast of . male. Green- winged. Teal 113 26'. No white bar on side of breast of male. European Teal 119 25'. A large blue patch on forepart of wing. 27. A crescent-shaped white patch on cheek of male; under surface never cinnamon brown; bill usu- ally less than 1.60 inches (40.5 mm.) long (fig. 16). Blue-winged Teal 120 27'. No crescentic white patch on cheek of male; under surface of male chiefly cinnamon brown (pi. 4); bill usually more than 1.60 inches (40.5 mm.) long (fig. 15). Cinnamon Teal 123 14'. A broad thin lobe on hind toe (fig. 22). 28. Speculum gray. 29. Larger; folded wing more than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) long. 30. Forehead high and prominent (fig. 20) ; bill bluish gray, black at tip; iris yellow. Bedhead 146 30'. Torehead sloping (fig. 21) ; bill uniformly colored (pi. 5) ; iris red. Canvasback 150 29'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long. Bing-necked Duck 164 28'. Speculum various, but never gray. 31. Speculum white. 32. Wing more than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long; head of male dull black, never iridescent. White- winged Scoter 197 32'. Wing less than 9.50 inches (242 mm.) long; head of male more or less iridescent. 33. Bill (viewed from above) broader near tip than towards base. 34. Larger; folded wing more than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long; head of male glossed with green. Greater Scaup Duck 156 34'. Smaller; folded wing less than 8.25 inches (210 mm.) long; head of male glossed with purple (pi. 5). Lesser Scaup Duck 159 33'. Bill (viewed from above) narrower toward tip than at base. KEYS 73 Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 35. No white behind eye; folded wing more than 8.00 inches (203 mm.) long; male with a white patch between bill and eye, female with whole head dull reddish brown. 36. Head of male glossed with green; white spot between bill and eye, rounded. American Golden-eye 107 36'. Head of male glossed with purple; white spot between bill and eye triangular, higher than wide. Barrow Golden-eye 173 35'. A single patch or band of white behind eye (fig. 23); folded wing less than 7.25 inches (184 mm.) long; no white spot in front of bill of male. Buffle^head 177 31'. Speculum never white (but white patches may be present elsewhere on wing). 37. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. Ruddy Duck 205 37'- "Wing more than 6.50 inches (165 mm.) long. 38. Lower tail coverts white. Old-sctuaw 181 38'. Lower tail coverts not white. 39. Wing more than 10.50 inches (266 mm.) long. King Eider 192 39'. Wing less than 10.00 inches (254 mm.) long. 40. Feathering at base of bill never extending as far forward as within 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) from nostril (fig. 27). American Scoter 194 40'. Feathering at base of bill approaching to within 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) of nostril. 41. Wing more than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) long; bill more than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long (fig. 29). Surf Scoter 201 41'. Wing less than 8.50 inches (216 mm.) long; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long. Harlequin Duck 186 IBISES AND SPOONBILL 1. Bill not flattened, rather slender and curved downward toward tip. 2. Plumage chiefly white; larger; bill more than 8.00 inches (203 mm) long; folded wing more than 16.00 inches (406 mm.) long. Wood Ibis 206 2'. Plumage chiefly deep brown; smaller; bill less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long (flg. 44) ; folded wing less than 12.00 inches (305 mm.) long. White-faced Glossy Ibis 269 1'. Bill straight, flat and broad, much expanded at tip (figs. 42 and 43); plumage pinkish. Roseate Spoonbill 262 74 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA Key to Calipornia Game Birds — {Continued) PAGE CRANES 1. Larger; folded wing more than 21.00 inches (533 mm.) long; bill more than 5.00 (127 mm.). Sandhill Crane 279 1'. Smaller; folded wing les3 than 20.50 inches (520 mm.) long; bill less than 4.50 (114 mm.). Little Brown Crane 273 BAILS, GALLINULE, AND MUD-HEN 1. No "shield" on middle of forehead. 2. Bill as long as, or longer than, tarsus. 3. Folded wing more than 5.00 inches (127 mm.) long. 4. Averaging slightly larger; upper surface grayish brown; under surface dull cinnamon brown. California Clapper Rail 283 4'. Averaging slightly smaller; upper surface olive brown; under surface bright cinnamon brown. Light-footed Rail 289 3'. Folded wing less than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long. Virginia Rail 291 2'. Bill not more than three-fourths as long as tarsus. 5. Under surface with little or no black; folded wing more than 3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. 6. Breast gray; no white on wing feathers; folded wing more than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. Sora Rail 296 6'. Breast yellowish brown; patch on secondary wing feathers white; wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. YeUow Rail 301 5'. Under surface of body chiefly blackish; folded wing less than 3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. California Black Bail 304 1'. Middle of forehead covered by a horny, shield-like extension of the bill (fig. 54). 7. Toes slender, without any marginal lobes; bill of adult chiefly red. Florida Gallinule 309 7'. Toes with thin, broad, marginal scallop-like lobes (fig. 55) ; bill whitish. Mud-hen 313 SHOEE BIRDS 1. Tarsus more than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long; bill black, and more than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long, never curved downward; some solid black in body plumage at all times of year. 2. Top of head, neck and back, black; bill almost straight (fig. 62); no hind toe; webs between front toes very small (fig. 63); legs pink. Black-necked Stilt .344 2'. No black on head or neck; bill decidedly curved upward (fig. 60); hind toe present; extensive webs between front toes at bases (fig. 61) ; legs blue. Avocet 337 r. Tarsus less than 3.25 inches (82.5 mm.) long (if more than 3.25 [82.5 mm.] then bill curved downward) ; bill various. 3. Front toes with lobes or webs on margins and webbed at bases; tarsus conspicuously compressed; under surface of body never streaked or barred. 4. Bill blunt (fig. 57); wider than high at base; marginal webs on front toes scalloped (fig. 56) ; under surface of body cinnamon red in spring. Red Phalarope 320 KEYS 75 Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 4'. Bill slender and needle-like (figs. 58, 59). 5. Bill less than 1.00 inch (25.4 mm.) long, not longer than head; a white stripe on wing; middle of rump not white. Northern Phalarope 326 5'. Bill more than 1.00 inch (25.4 mm.) long, longer than head; no white stripe on wing; upper tail coverts chiefly white. Wilson Phaiarope 332 '. Front toes without lobes ou margins (but sometimes with webs be- tween bases); tarsus never conspicuously compressed; under surface of body often streaked or barred. 6. Hind toe present (very small in Black-bellied Plover). 7. Axillar feathers solidly black. 8. Bill less than 1.50 inches (38 mm.) long; hind toe very small (less than .10 inch [2.5 mm.] long). Black-bellied Plover 452 8'. Bill more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long; hind toe more than 0.25 inch (6.3 mm.) long. Western Willet 416 7'- Axillar feathers never solidly black. 9. "Upper tail coverts solidly white, or black and white in solid patches, never barred; bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long. 10. A single patch of solid white on upper tail coverts. Surf-bird 485 10'. Two solid patches of white, separated by black, on rump and upper tail coverts. 11. Throat and breast entirely black. Black Turnstone 493 11'. Throat and breast of mixed pattern. Buddy Turnstone 489 9'. Upper tail coverts never solidly black or white, often barred. 12. Bill curved decidedly downward toward end, and more than 2.50 inches (63 mm.) long. 13. Larger; bill more than 4.50 inches (114 mm.) long; top of head of mixed pattern like back. Long-billed Curlew 438 13'. Smaller; bill less than 4.00 inches (102 mm.) long; top of head blackish brown with middle stripe of lighter color. Hudsonian Curlew 445 12'. Bill straight or slightly curved upward (if curved slightly downward at tip then bill less than 2.00 inches [51 mm.] long). 14. Bill more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long. 15. Bill stout, curved slightly upward, and more than 3.50 inches (89 mm.) long. Marbled Godwit 396 15'. Bill never curved upward, and never more than 3.00 inches (76 mm.) long. 16. Bill tapered from base to tip and smooth; a whitish area on upper tail coverts. Greater YeUow-legs 401 16'. Tip of bill slightly enlarged and pitted (fig. 64) ; upper tail coverts completely barred. 17. Head and back with conspicuous longitudinal streaks of buffy yellow; upper tail coverts barred with buffy yellow. Wilson Snipe 350 76 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA Key to CALiroRNiA Game Birds — {Continued) PAGE 17' Head and back without longitudinal streaks; upper tail coverts barred with white. Iiong-billed Dowitcher 358 14'. Bill less than 1.75 inches (44 mm.) long. 18. Tail feathers barred. 19. Breast white, unstreaked, but marked in summer with rounded black spots. Spotted Sandpiper 431 19'. Breast variously streaked, on buffy or gray ground. 20. Wing more than 5.70 inches (145 mm.) long. 21. No white in tail barring. Upland Plover 427 21'. Tail barring with considerable white. Iiesser Yellow-legs 408 20'. Wing less than 5:60 inches (142 mm.) long. Western Solitary Sandpiper 411 18'. Tail feathers not barred. 22. Whole upper surface from head to tail, uniform grayish brown, without trace of streaking. Wandering Tattler 422 22'. Upper surface of body never colored uniformly. 23. Bill more than 1.30 inches (33 mm.) long. 24. Axillars and upper tail coverts both barred; bill not bent downward near tip (fig. 66). Knot 363 24'. Axillars white; upper tail coverts like back, not barred; bill bent slightly downward near tip (flg. 71). Bed-backed Sandpiper 381 23'. Bill less than 1.30 inches (33 mm.) long. 25. Front toes webbed at bases (fig. 70). Western Sandpiper 386 25'. Front toes not webbed at bases (fig. 69). 26. Wing less than 3.75 inches (95 mm.) long. Least Sandpiper 376 26'. Wing more than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long. 27. Feet greenish; tarsus and bill both more than 0.95 inch (24 mm.) long. Pectoral Sandpiper 368 27'- Feet black; tarsus and bill both less than 0.95 inch (24 mm.) long. Baird Sandpiper 373 6'. Hind toe absent (see note under no. 6). 28. Bill less than 1.25 inches (31.8 mm.) long; never red. 29. Axillar feathers gray; belly black in spring. American Golden Plover 458 29'. Axillar feathers white. 30. Breast crossed by two blackish bands; rump tawny. KiUdeer 463 30'. Breast with one or no black band; rump never tawny. 31. Breast crossed by a single black band. 32. Bill orange at base; forehead black. Semipalmated Plover 469 KEYS 77 Key to California Game Birds — (Continued) PAGE 32'. Bill entirely black; forehead white. Wilson Plover 479 31'. Breast never crossed by a complete black band. 33. Larger; folded wing more than 5.25 inches (133 mm.) long. Mountain Plover 481 33'. Smaller; folded wing less than 5.25 inches (133 mm.) long. 34. Neck encircled behind by a white collar; folded wing less than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long; bill less than 0.75 (19 mm.). Snowy Plover 473 34'. No white collar around hind neck; folded wing more than 4.25 inches (108 mm.) long; bill more than 0.75 (19 mm.). Sauderling 391 28'. Bill red, more than 2.25 inches (57 mm.) long. 35. Whole belly and base of tail white. Frazar Oyster-catcher 502 35'. Whole plumage brown or blackish appearing; no white markings anywhere. Black Oyster-catcher 498 PHEASANT, QUAILS, AND 6E0USES 1. Wing more than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long. 2. Tarsus altogether unfeathered; toes never with horny fringes; male with spur on tarsus. Biug-necked Pheasant 572 2'. Tarsus (at least the upper half) feathered; toes (in winter at least) with horny fringes; no spur on tarsus of male. 3. Middle of belly solidly black; feathers of tail conspicuously pointed; tail longer than wing; wing over 9.75 inches (248 mm.). Sage-hen 564 3'. Middle of belly not black, but of same color as most of under surface; feathers of tail not pointed; tail shorter than wing; folded wing less than 9.75 inches (248 mm.). 4. Tail not square-ended, middle pair of tail feathers longer than thie rest; middle of belly solidly white. Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 558 4'. Tail square-ended; belly not pure white. 5. Each side of neck with a "ruff" of black or copper-colored feathers; lower third of tarsus naked;^ tail crossed by a broad dark band near end; plumage mostly reddish brown in both sexes. Oregon BuSed Grouse 552 5'. Sides of neck without ruflfs; tarsus completely feathered; end of tail crossed by a broad light band; body plumage (of male) chiefly dark bluish gray. 6. Adult male darker colored; less white on chin and throat. Sooty Grouse 552 6'. Adult male lighter; more white on chin and throat. Sierra Grouse 544 r. Wing less than 6.00 inches (152 mm.) long; tarsus never feathered. 7. Head with a straight slender tapering plume more than 2.00 inches (51 mm.) long; flanks rich chestnut brown, broadly barred with black and white; throat brown in both sexes. 8. Darker; back and tail deep olive brown. Painted Quail 513 78 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA Key to Califobnia Game Birds — {Continued) PAGE 8'. Lighter; back and tail grayish brown. Mouutam Quail 504 T. Head with a short, curved, broad-ended plume, less than 1.50 inches (38 mm.) long (fig. 82) ; flanks without black and white barring; throat black in males (pi. 1). 9. No scale-like markings on belly; flanks streaked with cinna- mon and white; males with back of head cinnamon colored, and with a black area on middle of belly. Desert Quail 538 9'. Forepart of belly scaled with narrow blackish cross-bars; no cinnamon streaks on flanks; males with back of head grayish brown, and with a cinnamon colored area on middle of belly. 10. Ground color of upper surface and flanks deep olive brown. Calif omia Quail 537 10'. Ground color of upper surface and flanks grayish brown. 11. Smaller; wing averaging less than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. Mainland species. Valley Quail 514 11'. Larger; wing averaging more than 4.35 inches (110 mm.) long. On Santa Catalina Island only. CataUna Island Quail 537 PIGEONS AND DOVES 1. Tail pointed (fig. 89). Western Mourning Dove 588 1'. Tail square-ended. 2. Tail crossed by a blackish band near middle but not white at end (fig. 88); total length of bird over 13.00 inches (330 mm). Band-tailed. Pigeon 575 2'. Tail white-ended (fig. 90); wing with a large white patch; total length of bird under 13.00 inches (330 mm.). White-winged Dove 603 2". Tail without either dark cross band or white end; total length of bird under 7.00 inches (178 mm.). Mexican Ground Dove G06 GENERAL ACCOUNTS OF THE GAME BIRDS OP CALIFORNIA American Merganser Mergus americanus Cassin Other names — Pish Duek, part; Sawbill, part; Goosander; Sheldrake; Mergus merganser americanus; Merganser americanus. Description — Adult male: A single short crest on top and back of head; head and crest metallic greenish black; chin and throat dull black; bill red, ridge and tip black and provided with backward-projecting, sharp-pointed, tooth-like serrations on opposed surfaces of the two mandibles; nostrils nearer middle of bill than base (figs. 5 and 6); iris carmine; back black; rump, upper tail coverts and tail ashy gray; outer surface of closed wing mostly white, crossed by a single bar of black; flight feathers dull brownish black; speculum white; axillars and lining of wing white; hind neck, and whole lower surface of body, including sides, creamy white to salmon buff; feet deep red. Total length "25.00-27.00" inches (635-685 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 88) ; folded wing 10.15- 10.75 (258-273); bill along eulmen 2.06-2.28 (52.4-58.0); tarsus 1.86-2.09 (47.3- 53.2) (six specimens). Adult female: Slender feathers of head crest, longer than in male; whole head reddish brown except for chin and throat which are white; upper surface of body ashy gray; outer surface of closed wing chiefly gray like back; speculum white, outlined with sooty brown and crossed by a single bar of dusky; flight feathers blackish brown; axillars and lining of wing white; under surface of body creamy white to salmon buff; hind neck, sides, and upper breast indistinctly barred with gray and white; iris and feet red as in male, *but paler. Total length "21.00-24.00" inches (533-609 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 89) ; folded wing 9.22-10.12 (234^257) ; bill along eulmen 1.74- 2.08 (44.3-53.0); tarsus 1.80-1.95 (45.7^9.5) (five specimens); all from Pacific Coast, California to Alaska. Juvenile plumage of male: Similar to that of adult female. Natal plumage: Whole top of head reddish brown; stripe from base of bill to below eye, white; beneath this a deep brown stripe from angle of mouth, .-joining head-color behind eye; this stripe contrasts markedly with the white of chin and throat; the reddish brown of head and hind neck fades into cinnamon where it meets white of throat; upper parts clove brown relieved by four white spots, one at hind border of each wing and one on each side of rump; whole lower surface white. Marks for field identification — The slender, cylindrical, "toothed" bill, with its sharp-edged and hooked tip, distinguishes mergansers from all other ducks. At a distance male mergansers appear black and white and both sexes show white on the wing when in flight. American Merganser is distinguished from Eed-breasted by somewhat larger size, a head crest with but one point, by lack of reddish brown collar on breast (of male), and (in hand) by the nostril being nearer middle than base of bill (see figs. 5 to 8). Voice — Of female: a coarse masculine "quack" (Law, 19126, p. 42). Nest — Usually in hollow trees along wooded streams, less frequently on the ground; made of twigs, grass, lichens, etc., lined with down. [79] 80 GJME BIHDS OF CALIF OMNI A Eggs — 10 to 16, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.50 to 2.80 by 1.70 to 1.80 (in millimeters, 63.5 to 71 by 43.2 to 45.7) ; pale buff in color (Davie, 1900, p. 76 and authors). General distribution — North America. Breeds from southern Alaska, southern Yukon, central Keewatin, southern TJngava and Newfoundland south to central Oregon, southern South Dakota, northern New York and Maine, and in the mountains to central California, central Arizona and northern New Mexico. Winters from Aleutian Islands, British Columbia, northern Colorado, southern Ontario and New Brunswick, south to northern Lower California, northern Mexico and the Gulf states (modified from A. O. XT. Cheek-list, 1910, p. 66). American Merganser 21609 21609 Fig. 6. Top of bill. Both drawings natural size. Note slender outline (length more than three times height at base), sharp "teeth", absence of cross-ridges on sides (compare with figs. 9 and 17), and situation of nostrils rela- tively far from base (compare with figs. 7 and 8). Distribution in California — ^Fairly common winter visitant to interior valleys and the entire coast region; partial to the vicinity of fresh water. Occurs in summer and breeds about lakes and along streams of the Sierra Nevada from the MoCloud River, in Shasta County, south to the upper Kern River in Tulare County; also in the Humboldt Bay district. The American Merganser, sometimes referred to as the hand- somest of swimming birds, is to be looked for during the winter in pairs or small flocks along rivers, in lakes and with less certainty on the ocean or on salt marshes. It is occasionally found summering about lakes and along streams in the high mountains. At no time or place in California can it be said to be actually common as com- pared with other ducks, unless at Lake Tahoe, as described beyond. AMEBICAN MESGANSES 81 The narrow bill with its sharp horny "teeth" and hooked tip, and the crest on the back of the head, help to distinguish the mer- gansers from other kinds of ducks. The American Merganser, about the size of the Mallard, is the largest of the fish ducks or sawbills. It can be distinguished from the Red-breasted Merganser, the only one with which it is likely to be confused, by the position of the nostrils, which are nearer the middle of the bill than the base (see figs. 5 to 8). In the field the male American can be distinguished by the shorter, single crest and the absence of a reddish brown band across the breast. The females and young of the two species are difficult to tell apart at any great distance. The sawbills are excellent swimmers and divers, and are able not only to pursue their prey under water but to remain beneath the surface for considerable periods of time, even as much as one or two minutes. When wounded, they have been known to dive to the bottom and cling to the grass. Eaton (1910, p. 179) states: "On one occasion [in New York] I fired into a flock of Sawbills at close range, bringing down four of the birds, but all of them plunged into the water like so many stones, and only one of them ever so much as gave me a glimpse of himself again." The small mark which the birds present when swimming and their ability in diving makes them hard to shoot, and, like the grebes, they are popularly said to be able to "see the shot coming. ' ' When rising from the water they, like the mud-hens, patter along the surface with their feet for some distance before gaining sufficient impetus to rise in the air. Once well started they are swift fliers. Most of the migrant birds of this species found in California breed in the far north, in British Columbia and Alaska, although some have been found breeding along the larger streams and lakes of the Sierras. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 193) says. "This sheldrake breeds regularly on the lower McCloud [Shasta County] , where it is present the year round. Young birds in the down were obtained on May 21, and several flocks of young were seen on Eagle Lake [Lassen County] , late in June. Fish ducks were not observed elsewhere than on the larger mountain streams and lakes." Sheldon (1907, p. 185) records having seen two or three broods at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, and a young one was collected in June, 1905. Law (19126, p. 42) reports this bird as nesting commonly at Lake Tahoe, A female followed by eighteen or twenty young was noted there on June 24, 1911, and several pairs and a female with six young on June 28. A. K. Fisher (1893a, p. 15) says: "A flock of a dozen or more sheldrakes was seen at Soda Springs (locally known as Kern River Lakes), in the Sierra Nevada the first week in September, and a specimen [was] shot there by Mr. Bailey August 15. . . ." Evidence obtained by a 82 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA field party from the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology indi- cates the breeding of this bird in small numbers in the same general locality, namely, on the upper Kern River, in Tulare County. Ac- cording to Wilder (1916, p. 127), this species is to be found at all seasons on the rivers of Humboldt County. Young as yet unable to fly have been observed there in summer. The courtship of the American Merganser as observed in Massa- chusetts has been carefully described by C. W. Townsend (1916, pp. 10-12). The essential features are as follows: The courtship of the Merganser ... is fairly spectacular and differs widely from that of its red-breasted cousin, M. serrator. ... A group of five or six male Mergansers may be seen swimming energetically back and forth by three or four passive females. Sometimes the drakes swim in a compact mass or in a file for six or seven yards or even farther, and then each turns abruptly and swims back. Again they swim in and out among each other, and every now and then one with swelling breast and slightly raised wings spurts ahead at great speed by himself or in the pursuit of a rival. . . . They frequently strike at each other with their bills, and I have seen two splendid drakes rise up in the water breast to breast, and, amid a great splashing, during which it was impossible to see details, fight like game-cocks. The pursuit is varied by sudden, momentary dives and much splashing of water. The smooth iridescent green heads, the brilliant carmine bills tipped with black nails, the snowy white of flanks and wing patches and the red feet, which flash out in the dive, make a wonderful color effect, contrasting well with the dark water and white ice. The- smaller females with their shaggy brown heads, their neat white throat-bibs, their quaker blue-gray backs and modest wing patches, which are generally hidden, are fitting foils to their mates. The male frequently raises himself up almost on his tail and displays the beautiful salmon yellow tint on the whole under surface of his body. Most of the time he keeps his tail cocked up and spread, so that it shows from behind a white centre and blue border. Every now and then he points his head and closed bill up at an angle of forty-five degrees or to the zenith. Again he bows or bobs his head nervously and often at the same time tilts up the front of his breast from which flashes out the salmon tint. From time to time he emits a quickly repeated purring note, dorr-dorr or Tcrr-Tcrr. The most surprising part of the performance is the spurt of water fully three or four feet long which every now and then is sent backwards into the air by the powerful kick of the drake's foot. . . . During all this time the female swims about unconcernedly, merely keeping out of the way of the ardent and belligerent males, although she sometimes, joins in the dance and bobs in a mild way. At last she succumbs to the captivat- ing display and submerges herself so that only a small part of her body with a bit of the crest appear above the water, and she swims slowly beside or after her mate, sometimes even touching him with her bill. Later she remains motionless, flattens herself still more, the crest disappears and she sinks so that only a line ... is seen. . . . The drake slowly swims around her several times, twitches his head and neck, picks at the water, at his own feathers and at her before he mounts and completely submerges her, holding tightly with his bill to her neck meanwhile. Then she bathes herself, washes the water vigorously through her feathers and flaps her wings; the drake stretches himself and flaps his wings likewise. AMERICAN MEBGANSEE 83 Judging from observations made elsewhere in North America, the nest is usually placed in a hollow tree or stub. Dawson (1909, p. 759) records one as having been found at the top of a stub one hundred feet high and suggests that the young in such cases are carried to the water in their mother 's bill. Other observers state that the young tumble from the nests into the water ten or fifteen feet below without injury to themselves. The ten to sixteen pale buff-colored eggs are protected by a lining of down plucked by the female from her own breast. The young are especially good swimmers and the oarsman who succeeds in catching them must be an expert. Their speed in eluding a pursuer is often greatly increased by flapping along the surface, something which they are able to do when but a few days old. When pursued, the mother is said to allow the more fatigued ones to ride on her back. An instance in point is recorded by Law (1912&, p. 42) as follows: Several times the mother raised almost out of the water and dashed quickly along for fifty feet or so, every chick rising and skipping after her, flapping their little wings and paddling the surface of the water with their little feet. After three of these spurts the youngsters seemed to tire, and one climbed on its mother's back, and soon several had done so, and rode securely there as long as they were in sight. Swarth (1911, pp. 39-40) records an interesting method of obtain- ing food as observed in Alaska, which has also been recorded for the Red-breasted Merganser (C. W. Townsend, 1911, p. 343). The former v^rites : I was concealed in the shrubbery at the water's edge examining a large flock of ducks for possible rarities, when a dozen or more mergansers {M. ameri- canus and M. serrator) began swimming back and forth but a very short dis- tance from my blind. They swam slowly, with neck outstretched, and with ■the bill held just at the surface of the water, and at a slight angle, so that the head was submerged about to the level of the eyes. The water was evidently filtered through the bill, as a alight "gabbling" noise was quite audible, and obviously something was being retained as food, though just what it was I <;ould not tell. As one of its vernacular names (fish duck) signifies, the regular diet of the American Merganser is made up chiefly of fish, which it devours in great quantities. The gullet of an individual killed at Los Banos, Merced County, February 19, 1912, contained five carp about four inches in length. If carp were the only kind of fish eaten this would be considered a useful bird; but the merganser is also knovra to eat salmon and trout fry. Mr. W. H. Shebley, superin- tendent of hatcheries for the California State Fish and Game Commission, (in letter) says: "The sawbill or fish duck is very destructive to trout and other fish. I have killed individuals on our trout ponds gorged with trout so that they were unable to swallow another one. We consider them one of the worst of the fish-eating l>irds." 84 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOSNIA This bird is usually considered poor food, as it is pronounced tough, and at most seasons, has an unpleasant fishy taste. When properly prepared, however, its "gamy" flavor can be appreciated with the aid of a hearty appetite. But the skill needed to bring it to bag, therefore forms its chief claim to being classed as a game bird. American Mergansers have been occasionally seen on the market in San Francisco and Sacramento along with other ducks, and hunters are sometimes seen carrying them. No information regarding their comparative numbers now and formerly has been obtainable. But as the hunter often passes them by, and as they are wary and difficult to shoot, it seems probable that there has been no marked decrease in their numbers. Red-breasted Merganser Mergus ser rotor (Linnaeus) Othek names — Fish Duck, part; Sawbill, part; Eed-breasted Sheldrake; Merganser serrator. Description — Adult male: Head with much elongated, double-pointed crest of very slender feathers; whole head black, dully so on throat and crown, but with strong metallic green wash on sides of head behind eye; a conspicuous white collar completely encircling neck save for black stripe down hind neck, connecting black of head with that of back; bill red, dusky along top, and with tooth-like serrations, sharp pointed, backward projecting and claw-like; iris red; whole back together with flight feathers black; rump, upper tail coverts and tail feathers brownish gray; rump varied with finely broken narrow black bars; outer surface of closed wing white, crossed diagonally by two black bars, and with white feathers of hinder portion of speculum outwardly edged with black; a tuft of broad feathers on sides of breast overhanging bend of closed wing, these feathers being white with wide black borders; sides other- wise finely and irregularly barred with black and white; under surface white except for broad band across chest separated from black of head by white collar; this band is reddish brown mottled with black; feet red; nostril relatively small, located near base of bill (see figs 7 and 8). There is in the adult male in midsummer a brief -lived ' ' eclipse ' ' plumage in which the head becomes dull brown and the breast dull gray (Stone, 1900, pp. 15-16). The total length (both sexes): "20.00-25.00" inches (507-635 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 89). Males: folded wing 8.75-9.55 (222-242); bill along culmen 2.13-2.32 (54-59); tarsus 1.73-1.81 (44-46) (nine specimens from California). Adult female: Sides of head and neck cinnamon brown, grading into whitish on chin and throat, and into dark brown on top of head and crest; bill and iris red (Eaton, 1910, p. 179) ; whole upper surface including rump and tail ashy brown, the feathers having darker centers; flight feathers dull black; closed wing gray like back; speculum white, crossed by one diagonal bar; lower surface white, the brown of head fading gradually over the fore neck through a faintly mottled area; sides and flanks dull grayish brown; feet dull red. Folded wing 8.25-8.80 inches (209-224 mm.); bill along culmen 1.93-2.13 (49-54); tarsus 1.62-1.69 (41-43) (four specimens from California). Juvenile phimage of male: Similar to that of adult female but tuft of black-and-white-marked plumes in SED-BBEASTED MERGANSER 85 evidence on side near bend of wing, and rump and sides showing traces of fine irregular barring. Natal plumage: Top of head clove brown; a white stripe below eye to base of bill; beneath this a cinnamon stripe from angle of mouth to side of neck, where it broadens; chin, throat and breast, white; upper sur- face clove brown relieved by four white spots, one at hind border of each wing, and one on each side of rump. Downy young of the American and Red-breasted Mergansers are indistinguishable save for the. position of the nostril. Makes for field identification — Smaller than American Merganser (for general characters of mergansers see that species). Male: Eeddish brown band across breast, and two black bars across speculum. Female: Cinnamon brown of neck not abruptly ended and back brown-tinged rather than blue- gray. Both sexes have head crest of two points, one behind the other, and nostril nearer base of bill than middle (see figs. 5 to 8). Voice — Of female with young: A low, distinct, but husky hha-lcha-Tcha (Nelson, 1887, p. 67). Nest — On marshy land in the vicinity of salt water, usually under the shelter of a rock, bank, or branch of a tree. A simple structure of leaves and grasses, lined with down from the breast of the female parent. Eggs — 6 to 12, ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.45 to 2.65 by 1.70 to 1.85 (in millimeters, 62.2 to 67.2 by 43.2 to 47.0) ; color cream, buff, or greenish buff (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 118-120; and authors). Gbneeal distribution — Northern portion of Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds from Arctic coast of Alaska, northern Mackenzie, Cumberland Sound, and Greenland (lat. 73° N.), south to southern British Columbia, and extreme northern United States; winters from southern British Columbia and northern United States, south to southern Lower California, Louisiana and Florida, and also in Greenland and the Commander Islands (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 67). Distribution in California — ^Common winter visitant along the entire sea- coast, occurring both on the open ocean about rocky headlands and islands, and on bays and salt lagoons; less numerous interiorly where it occurs at times on the larger bodies of water, as on Lake Tahoe and Owens Lake. In California the Red-breasted Merganser is a bettei* known ' ' fish- duck" than its larger relative, the American Merganser, for it is found plentifully on hunting grounds adjacent to the sea coast and occasionally on the larger bodies of water in the interior. To the north, in southern Alaska, the species is very abundant. At the base of the Alaska Peninsula, Osgood (1904, p. 55) states that this mer- ganser is outnumbered among water birds only by the larger gulls. In California the bird associates in flocks of from a dozen to a hundred individuals. At Monterey the first autumnal appearance of the species in 1896 was on October 9 (Cooke, 1906, p. 21) ; from about that time on, it is common on the larger bays and lagoons and about rocky headlands on the ocean shore. In 1911 birds of this species were present at Monterey until April 10 (Mus. Vert. Zool), and at other points along the coast individuals have been seen in May. At Saint Michaels, Alaska, the species arrives about the middle of May and leaves by 86 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA the first week in October (Nelson, 1887, pp. 66-67) . The birds winter- ing in California probably nest in British Columbia and Alaska ; and the instances recorded of nesting in Washington and Oregon (Dawson, 1909, p. 762; Cooke, 1906, p. 20) may also pertain to mergansers which winter in our state. In addition to a considerable difference in size, there are other characters which enable one to distinguish the American and Eed- breasted mergansers. The most useful of these is the presence in the male Eed-breasted Merganser of a reddish brown breast band streaked with black, and of a double rather than single head crest. Of less utility for field identification is the color of the back and the presence Eed-breasted Merganser Fig. 7. Side of bill. 1881+ 18814 Fig. 8. Top of bill. Natural size. Note slender outline (length more than three times height at base), sharp "teeth", absence of eross-ridges on sides (compare with figs. 9 and 17), and situation of nostrils rela- tively near to base (compare with figs. 5 and 6). of two dark bars in the speculum of the wing. In the hand the nostrils lying closer to the base of the bill than the middle easily identifies either sex of this species (figs. 5 to 8). Although lacking the brighter colors of the American Merganser, the Red-breasted also presents a beautiful appearance. Graceful as a swimmer, it is strikingly adept as a diver. In diving it disappears below the water instantly and almost without rippling the surface. After returning to the surface some distance away the bird often flaps its wings as if to stretch itself, or more probably to shake its plumage free from water and to readjust its feathers. Individuals of. this species have been seen to dive repeatedly through advancing waves during rough weather. On land this merganser is said to progress on its feet more rapidly than the diving ducks. On the SED-BBEASTED MBBGANSEB 87 wing it is swift and unusually silent. When closely pursued while swimming it secures partial concealment by lying low in the water with only its bill and head showing. A wounded bird nearly always uses this ruse. The courtship of the Eed-breasted Merganser as observed on the New England coast has been described by C. W. Townsend (1911, pp. 341-343) as follows: The nuptial performance is always at its best when several drakes are displaying their charms of movement, voice and plumage, before a single duck, and each vies with the other in the ardor of the courtship. The drake begins by stretching up his long neck so that the white ring is much broadened, and the metallic green head, with its long crest and its narrow red bill, makes a conspicuous object. At once the bill is opened wide and the whole bird stiffly bobs or teters as if on a pivot, in such a way that the breast and the lower part of the neck are immersed, while the tail and posterior part of the body swing upward. . . . All of the motions are stiffly executed, and suggest a formal but ungraceful courtesy. The nuptial "song," which is emitted while the bill is open, is a loud, rough and purring, slightly doubled note resembling the syllables da-ah. . . . The female merganser . . . sometimes responds by a bobbing which is similar to that of the male, but of considerably less range. . . . She emits a single note at this time, which is somewhat louder . . . and is of a different quality as it is decidedly rasping. . . . When the female responds in this man- ner she appears to be very excited, and the ardor of the drakes is correspond- ingly increased. . . . Every now and then she darts out her neck and dashes at the ring of suitors. . . . During the courtship actions the tail [of the male] is elevated at an angle of forty-five degrees. . . . This bobbing courtship of the males, although sometimes directed toward the female, is as often directed towards another male or even the empty water. The males not infrequently rush at one another with powerful leg-strokes making the water foam about their elevated breasts. Sometimes they raise their wings slightly or splash along violently using both wings and feet for propulsion. Now and then a male pursues a female, and she, to avoid capture, may dive and is at once followed by the male. In flight the female generally precedes by a short interval the male. The habit of lying flat in the water and of rising up and flapping the wings is indulged in at all times of the year. In Alaska the Red-breasted Merganser breeds from Sitka and Kodiak Island north to Icy Cape and perhaps to Point Barrow (Nel- son, 1887, p. 66). The nests are as a usual thing carefully concealed under dead leaves or in grass, and sheltered by a log or bank. A nest observed by Grinnell (1900, p. 14) on Chamisso Island, Alaska, was situated on an exposed sea wall about fifty feet above the surf and hidden among clumps of tall grass. The nest often consists largely of down, and the eggs are usually covered over by the female when 88 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOKNIA she leaves the nest, provided she is not routed out too suddenly. The eggs number from six to ten in a set and are laid early in June. Downy young are most commonly seen during July. The incubation period is 26 to 28 days (Strong, 1912, p. 482). The male takes no part in the duties of incubation, and it is doubtful whether he assumes any of the care of the young. Concerning the behavior of the females and young, Grinnell (1900, p. 15) says: At Cape Blossom on August 1, 1899, I encountered a brood of six downy young with the female parent. They were out in the middle of a lake, and the juveniles swam in a close bunch. The parent kept diving at short intervals, and whenever she reappeared, which might be at a considerable distance from where she dove, the band of young with one accord scrambled over the water towards her, with fla;pping arms, and almost running on the surface. The fore- most chick, probably always the hungriest of the lot, was apparently the one to obtain the prey which in all cases observed was a small fish. Dawson (1909, p. 762) states that a female when surprised with her brood played dead as a ruse to deceive her pursuers. The food of this duck consists almost entirely of fish. In Alaska, according to Nelson (1887, p. 67), ". . . in the brackish ponds and tide creeks of the marshes they find an abundance of food in the myriads of sticklebacks which swarm in these waters." In the East it is said that the bitds also eat crustaceans and shellfish. Mr. F. A. Shebley, of the Brookdale Hatchery, Monterey County, California, says he has shot fish ducks along the stream so gorged with fish that by holding them up by the feet, the fish would fall from their mouths. He states further that birds of this species stay mostly in the lower courses of the streams, and in the lagoons of his vicinity. Linton (19086, p. 126) saw them frequently feeding in tide pools in the vicinity of Northwest Harbor, Santa Cruz Island. The stomach of a bird taken there December 2, 1907, contained nine "rock bass and one spotted shark," each two to four inches long. This duck cannot be considered an important game bird (a state- ment which applies also to the American Merganser) as the fish taint in its fiesh caused by the fish diet makes it undesirable for food. However, during the season of 1895-96, 217 "sheldrakes" were sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40). Since then, birds of this species have rarely been seen in the markets of San Francisco and Sacramento. As this merganser is shy and hard to approach it is only obtained with difficulty. Con- sequently there seems to be no immediate danger of its extermination. And yet the very fact that it is difficult to shoot gives it a certain value in the eyes of the hunter. The increasing efficiency of firearms, will also have some effect on the numbers of this species. HOODED MEBGANSEE 89 Hooded Merganser Lophodytes cucullatus (Linnaeus) Othek names — Hooded Sheldrake; Oyster Duck (Napa County); Mergus cucullatus. Description — Adult male: Head and neck chiefly black; conspicuous, vertical, compressed crest of hair -like feathers; this crest chiefly white but set in black, giving the effect of a black-bordered -white fan; feathers around base of bill dark brown blended into black of rest of head; bill short, black, with nostrils near base, and with "teeth" short, obliquely set, and not claw-like; iris yellow; fore back, black, continuously so with hind neck; lower back, rump and tail dark brown; forepart of closed wing dark grayish brown and gray; speculum white, margined in front by black bar, and crossed centrally by a similar bar; primary flight feathers dark brown; secondary flight feathers black, each with a sharply defined central white stripe; sides and flanks cinnamon brown flnely barred with black; breast and under surface white; sides in front of wing with two black half -crescents originating from the black of the back and extending diagonally downwards and forwards; legs and feet " yellowish -brown, " webs "dusky" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 406). Total length (both sexes) "17.25-19.25" inches (438 to 489 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 89). Male: folded wing 7.80 (198); bill along culmen 1.54 (39.1); tarsus 1.24 (31.5) (one specimen from California). Adult female: Head, neck, chest and whole upper surface grayish brown; throat paling to whitish on chin; top of head clove brown shading to reddish hair brown on crest ; crest of looser texture than in male and less conspicuous ; bill black with base of lower mandible orange; iris hazel; wings and tail dark brownish; speculum white, with two bars of black as in male; lower surface white, with sides, flanks and under tail coverts clouded with brown; legs and feet dusky. Folded wing 6.85-7.40 inches (174-188 mm.) ; bill along culmen 1.48-1.64 (37.7- 41.6) ; tarsus 1.22-1.31 (31.0-33.2) (five specimens from California and British Columbia). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female but with crest poorly developed and under tail coverts more distinctly brown (Ridgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Top and sides of head brown, paling to cinnamon color on cheeks; chin and throat white; upper mandible blackish, its tip and the whole lower mandible yellow; upper surface of body dark brown; five pairs of small spots on back, rump, and wings, white; band across foreneck, pinkish brown; rest of under surface white. Marks for field identification — Small size (for a duck), slender short bill (shorter than head), narrow, erect, black -bordered white-patched head crest (in the male), and brown sides. Distinguished from other mergansers by much smaller size, and from all other ducks by the size and shape of bill. Voice — "A hoarse croak" (Forbush, 1912, p. 68); "a variety of guttural, chattering notes" (Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 763). jjjjST — In hollows of trees high above ground and near or over water; built of grasses and weeds and lined with down from the breast of the female. Eggs — 5 to 12, nearly globular in shape, measuring in inches, 2.05 to 2.15 by 1.70 to 1.75 (in millimeters, 52.0 to 54.6 by 43.2 to 44.5); in color pure ivory white (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 124; and authors). General distribution — North America. Breeds on the north from central British Columbia, Great Slave Lake, central Keewatin, central ITngava, and Newfoundland, south to southern Oregon, northern New Mexico, southern Louisiana, and central Florida; winters on the north from southern British 90 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA Columbia, Utah, Colorado, Nebraska, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Massa- chusetts, south to Lower California, Mexico and the Gulf States; rare in the northeastern part of its range; casual in Alaska, Bermuda and Europe (A. O. IT. Cheek-list, 1910, p. 67). Distribution in California — Eather rare fall, winter and spring visitant to salt marshes along the seacoast, and on the lakes and slower streams of the interior. The Hooded Merganser is at the present time the rarest of the three mergansers belonging to California. The other two are typically northern species, whereas the Hooded is southern, breeding largely south of the Canadian boundary. It is a notable circumstance that the Hooded Merganser and the Wood Duck appear to frequent the same type of locality. In California during the fall, winter and spring the former species occurs sparsely in the salt marshes along the coast and on the lakes and streams of the interior. In southern California it has been stated to arrive in November and to leave by February (Grinnell, 1898, p. 10). It is evident that museum collectors have rarely encountered the species in the field as but few specimens have been available for study. The following are all the definite records for the state known to the authors: Humboldt Bay, McCloud and Pit rivers (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 193) ; Mark West Creek, Sonoma County (Mail- liard, MS) ; Suisun Marsh and Putah Creek, Solano County (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 104) ; San Fran- cisco Bay (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Marysville, Yuba County (Belding, 1879, p. 447) ; Paicines, San Benito County (J. Mailliard, 19026, p. 46) ; Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89) ; Fillmore, Ventura County (Willett, 1912a, p. 22) ; Del Key, Los Angeles County (Chambers, 1914, p. 92) ; Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 10) ; Westminster, Orange County (Grey, 1915, p. 59) ; vicinity of Los Angeles (Willett, loc. cit.) ; San Diego (Belding, MS). It is impossible to confuse the male of this duck with that of any other species. Aside from the small size of the bird, its vertical, com- pressed, black and white crest, composed of hair-like feathers, serves to immediately distinguish it. This fan-like crest is frequently raised and lowered as if to display the unusually conspicuous ornament. The Hooded Merganser almost equals that handsomest of the ducks, the Wood Duck, in its splendid coloration. It can always be separated from the other mergansers by its bill which is chiefly black in color, and shorter than the head. The female can be recognized by her short bill and dark grayish brown chest. Although no description of an eclipse plumage has been located by us, and no birds in such a plumage are to be found in available collections, yet the following quotation from Widmann (1895, p. 351) suggests that there is such a plumage in this species as is the case SOODED MEBGANSEE 91 with most other ducks: "At this season [June, in southeastern Mis- souri] the beauty of the male's dress and coiffure is entirely gone; both parents resemble each other so much that they are generally mis- taken for female Wood Ducks, which are also very common breeders in these swamps." Little is known of the life history of the Hooded Merganser on the Pacific Coast. It is said to begin nesting in Washington in April (Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 763). The nests are located high in hollow trees over or near water and are composed of weeds and grasses, and lined with down. The eggs are variously reported as numbering from 5 to 12 ; they are ivory white in color, and more nearly globular in form than those of other ducks. The following notes on the nesting habits of this bird are recorded by Spreadborough {in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 77) : "A pair has built in an elm stub for four years, at about thirty feet from the ground, at the mouth of Sharp Creek, Braeebridge, Ontario. The stub is on the bank of a stream. The old bird carries her young from the tree to the water in her bill. At first the young are rather helpless and are very easy to catch, but in a few days they are well able to take care of them- selves. " As is the case with the other mergansers, the male leaves the duties of incubation and the rearing of the young entirely to the female. Flocks of males are generally the first to be seen in the fall migration. Hooded Mergansers are swift fliers and make less noise with their wings than almost any other duck. Bowles (loc. cit.) says: "Its flight is very swift and eccentric, resembling greatly that of the Green- winged Teal, for which the bird is easily mistaken in the faint light of early morning or evening." Instead of frequenting swiftly running streams as is the case with the American Merganser, the Hooded prefers the quieter streams, sloughs and small ponds. In such places it is said to feed upon tad- poles, small flsh and water insects, even taking some vegetable food. The smaller size of the bill of this merganser, as well as its habitat, would seem to indicate that it is not so destructive of valuable fish as the other two mergansers. Its diet also makes it more palatable, and in the middle west wherever it is plentiful, it is used for food. All the evidence at hand points to a great reduction in the numbers of this species during recent years. Henshaw (1876, p. 275) says that at the time of his travels through California in the early seventies the Hooded Merganser occurred "in fall in large numbers as a migrant. ' ' No recent observer has offered a like statement. In former years (1870-1885) this merganser was occasionally seen along the creeks of Marin County and along Mark West Creek, Sonoma County, but it has long since been shot out of this region (J. and J. W. Mail- liard, MS). 92 GAME BISDS OF CALIFOBNIA ' "" ' Mallard Anas platyrhyrwhos Linnaeus Other names — Greenhead; Wild Duck; Gray Mallard (female) ; Anas ioschas. Description — Adult male: Head and neck brilliant metallic green, with purple reflections at certain angles; forehead and crown overlaid with black; green of head succeeded by a narrow white ring around lower neck interrupted behind; bill chiefly greenish yellow; iris brown; middle of back between shoulders brownish gray with paler feather edgings; sides of back silvery white minutely barred with dusky; back, rump and upper tail coverts black, with steely blue reflections; tail feathers mostly white with the two middle feathers black and slightly curled upwards, and the two longest upper tail coverts conspicuously curled up; outer surface of closed wing in general brownish gray; axillars and lining of wing white; speculum metallic violet approaching purple, bordered in front and behind with black and white feathers, a black and white bar being thus formed at both front and hind margins; breast dark chestnut; sides and rest of under surface silvery gray undulated with dusky; under tail coverts black; feet orange red, nails dusky. Total length 23.50-25.25 inches (596-640 mm.) (four specimens); folded wing 10.85-11.55 (276-293); bill along culmen 2.13-2.44 (54^62); tarsus 1.62-1.83 (41-46.5) (seven specimens). Adult female: Head and whole upper surface chiefly deep brown, but variegated with abruptly paler feather edgings; gen- eral tone of head paler, with finer, more streaky pattern than on back; top of head darkest, sides of head lighter with dusky streak through eye; throat very light brownish white scantily or not at all streaked; wings much as in male; ground color of under surface brownish white, deepest in tone on breast, but black feather centers giving a streaked or mottled appearance; sides and chest most heavily marked, belly lightest. Total length 22.25-23.25 inches (565-590 mm.) (two specimens) ; folded wing 9.95-10.80 (252-274) ; bill along culmen 1.89-2.27 (48.0-57.5); tarsus 1.63-1.77 (41.4r-45.0) (ten specimens); all from California. Eclipse plumage of male (assumed in July and August): Closely resembles dress of female but darker; lacks green of head. In full eclipse plumage male and female can be distinguished only with difficulty. In partial eclipse or post eclipse enough old or new feathers are present on wings to identify the male. Juvenile plumage (at least of female) : Similar to that of adult female but dusky mottlings and streaks duller, less clearly defined; those on breast simple shaft streaks instead of horseshoe-shaped figures as in adult female; wing markings same as in adult. Natal plumage: Whole back and top of head dark brownish green fading to lighter color on forehead; side of head light yellowish brown, stripe through eye, and spot on cheek dusky; brown of back relieved by two pairs of yellowish spots, one at hind border of each wing and one on each side of rump; under surface yellow- ish buff; sides shading to gray and invaded by two brown patches of same color as back. Marks tor field identification — The large size (total length over 22 inches [558 mm.]), metallic green head, white ring around neck, and violet-colored speculum identify the male. The violet or purple speculum bordered along both edges with black and white distinguishes both sexes in all plumages (pi. 2), except, of course, the natal. In flight the white under wing coverts show forth. The female can be distinguished from the Black Duck, a near relative, by its much lighter color. MALLABD 93 Voice — Of female: a loud, oft repeated "quack," like that of the domestic duck. Of male: similar but much softer, more wheezy. Nest — Generally on ground near water, hidden in clumps of willows, weeds, tules, but more often in tall grass; crudely made of leaves and grasses but warmly and copiously lined with down; about seven inches in inside diameter. Eggs — 5 to 14, bluntly ovate, measuring in inches, 2.06 to 2.55 by 1.50 to 1.80 (in millimeters, 52.3 to 64.7 by 38.0 to 45.7); in color yellowish drab or pale greenish white (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 499; and one set from Alaska). Eggs of the Mallard resemble those of the Gadwall enough for the two to be confused. Mallard eggs average slightly larger, and have a greenish rather than buffy tone of coloration. Mallard Fig. 9. Side of bill. Fig. 10. Top of bill. Natural size. Note broad outline (height at base more than one-third total length), and presence of cross-ridges on sides of lower mandible as showing near base (compare with figs. 5-8). General distribution — The Northern Hemisphere generally. In North America breeds from western Alaska, east through Canada to Hudson Bay, and in Greenland; thence south through the United States to Lower California, southern Kansas, southern Indiana, and (rarely) Maryland; winters from Alaska (sparingly), and the northern United States, south to Mexico and Panama; casual in Bermuda and Hawaii. In the Old World also migratory, wintering south to northern Africa and India (modified from A. O. U. Check- list, 1910, p. 68). Distribution in California — Common resident in suitable localities through- out the state, but much more abundant in winter than in summer. A typical fresh-water duck, occurring but sparingly on salt water. Most abundant around fresh-water ponds and streams in the interior valleys. Breeding stations numerous and widely distributed. 94 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA The Mallard is the largest and most highly prized of the resident ducks in California, and is widely distributed throughout the state. A typical river duck, it is seldom found on salt water and only sparingly on the marshes along the seacoast. It is most abundant on the rivers, lakes and ponds of the interior, being partial to the freshest water. A large number of Mallards breed within the state, but their numbers are greatly augmented during the winter season by migrants from the north. This is a common breeding bird in Oregon, Washington, British Columbia and southeastern Alaska; in each of these regions the species occurs in varying numbers in winter also, but in northern and western Alaska it appears merely as a summer resident and even then only in limited numbers. It is also one of the commonest ducks of the middle west but is only a straggler in the Fig. 11. Side of tarsus and foot of Mallard. Natural size. Note that tarsus is shorter than middle toe without claw (compare with fig. 37), and that there is no large lobe on hind toe (compare with fig. 22). states of the Atlantic Coast where its place is taken by the Black Duck {Anas rubripes) . For the majority of the people of the state the Greenhead or Mallard is the duck most easily recognized, and it has been domes- ticated to such an extent that it is familiar to many people who have never seen it in the wild. The green head and white ring around the neck easily identifies the male, while the large size together with the violet wing-speculum bordered on both sides by black and white, are sufficient to distinguish either sex of the Mallard from all other ducks (pi. 2). In flight the white under surface of the wing often helps in identification. When fiushed at close range the white of the spread tail in the male shows as a white band. Not only do the plainer body colors of the female easily separate this sex from the male, but its much louder call is by common testimony a noticeable trait. The female Mallard when flushed in the open can be readily distinguished from the female Pintail by its larger size, shorter neck and white under surface of wing. At close range the conspicuous violet speculum MALLARD 95 of the Mallard contrasts markedly with the dull brownish speculum of the Pintail. The Mallard's nearest relative, the Black Duck, is of very rare occurrence in California; it is easily distinguishable from the Mallard by its much darker general color in both sexes and by the lack of the metallic green on the head in the male. As a general rule this duck is monogamous in its native estate, although some authorities contend that polygamy occurs where there is a dearth of males. The courting antics of the wild Mallard in Cali- fornia have never been described ; but they are doubtless of the same type as observed by C. W. Townsend in Massachusetts. According to that author the drake swims restlessly about following or sidling up to a duck. She may lead him a long chase before he is able to press his attentions closely. He then begins a continual bowing to her, bobbing his head up and down in nervous jerks so that the yellow bill dips into the water for a quarter of its length and comes up dripping. He also rears himself up in the water and from time to time displays his breast. The female shows little concern at first, but occasionally turns her head to one side and carelessly dabbles her bill in the water. "... Sooner or later, if all goes well, she begins to bow also, less vigorously at first — not touching the water at all — and to the' empty space in front of her. Suddenly she turns and the pair bow to each other in the same energetic nervous jerks, and, unless a rival appears to spoil the situation, the drake has won his suit" (C. W. Townsend, 1916, p. 13). The Mallard is one of the earliest ducks to breed. "By February nearly all have selected their partners for the nesting season. They still travel in large companies; but watch a flock of them after they have settled down in the open water. At once they separate into pairs, every handsome 'Greenhead' swimming in close attendance wherever his modestly garbed mate shall lead. Should one of the pair be killed, the other will not mate again that season. . ." (Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 767). In California Mallards breed wherever suitable conditions are afforded. There does not seem to be in the lowland districts any difference in the time of nesting which can be correlated with differ- ences in latitude. The earliest record is that by Belding (MS) who found eggs at Gridley, Butte County, March 25, 1890. In Los Angeles County, GrinneU (1898, p. 10) gives the nesting season as extending from the first of April to the end of June, and this probably would apply to other portions of the state as well. The latest report, season- ally, is that by A. K. Fisher (1893a, p. 15) who records doAvny young at Walker Basin, Kern County, July 13, 1891. The data brought together in the accompanying table (no. 8) are all that have been found by the authors as applying to California. 96 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA Table 8. — Data relative to the nesting of the Mallard in California Locality Gridley, Butte Co. Los Angeles Co. Lake Merced, San Francisco Co. San Biego Hueneme, Ventura Co. Near San Jo86, Santa Clara Co. Olancha, Inyo Co. Wheeler Island, Solano Co. Alvarado, Alameda Co. Alvarado, Alameda Co. Stockton, San Joaquin Co. Hayward, Alameda Co. Los Banos, Merced Co. Los Banos, Merced Co. Gridley, Butte Co. San Diego Merced Co. Merced Co. Gridley, Butte Co. Gridley, Butte Co. Gridley, Butte Co. Lake Tahoe Lake "Valley, Lake Tahoe Los Banos, Merced Co. Stow Lake, San Francisco Willow Creek, Lower Klamath Lake Willow Creek, Lower Klamath Lake Lake Tahoe Bear Valley reservoir, San Bernardino Co. Rowlands Marsh, Lake Tahoe Tulare Lake, Kings Co. Kern Valley, Kern Co. Chowchilla, Merced Co. Fresno district Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. Date Eggs oe Young Mar. 25, 1890 Eggs First of 'April Breeding AUTHOKITT Belding, MS. Grinnell, 1898, p. 10 to last of June Apr. 28, 1915 10 eggs (7 on Apr. 22) Squires, 1915, p. 234 Apr. 24, 1862 Female with egg nearly Cooper, 1880, p. 251 matured May 1, 1910 11 eggs, partly incubated Willett, 1912a, p. 22 May 1, 1893 11 eggs May 6-11, Believed to be breeding 1891 May 8, 1914 Four broods about one week old May 9, 1914 11 eggs May 9, 1914 14 eggs May 9, 1878 A brood of young May 11, 1884 Half-grown young seen May 12, 1914 Brood of half-grown young May IS, 1914 10 downy young May 19, Young a month old May 19, 1897 Eggs May 19, 1896 9 eggs, fresh May 19, 1896 8 eggs Barlow, 1893, p. 38 A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 15 Pair, MS. Dirks, MS. Dirks, MS. Belding, 1879, p. 446 Emerson, in Belding, MS. H. C. Bryant, 1914«, p. 219 H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 219 Belding, MS. Reed, 1904, p. 70 Mailliard coll. Mailliard, MS. May 25, 1914 Brood of young 10 inches H. C. Bryant, 1914e, long May 26, 1914 Nest found from which young had hatched May 27, 1914 Brood of young 7 inches long May — , 1901 Nest; eggs hatched later Ray, 1901, p. 116 p. 227 H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 227 H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 227 Bred in this month May — , 1901-02 June 1, 1915 9 eggs, incubation various June 5, 1915 70 young seen with 66 adults June 6, 1914 5 eggs, bird sitting June 7, 1914 9 eggs, incubated June 9, 1911 9 eggs, half incubated June 14, 1886 8 eggs, fresh Ray, 1903, pp. 48-49 Mailliard coll. Squires, 1915, p. 234 H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 231 H. C. Bryant, 1914«, p. 231 Carriger coll. Stephens, MS. June 16, 1903 7 eggs, practically fresh Ray, 1905, p. 367 Goldman, 19086, p. 201 June 18— July Large young 12, 1907 June 22, 1891 Present June 24, 1900 Young 3 days old .Tune 26, 1906 Female with brood June 26, 1905 Half-grown young (or later) Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. June 27, 1884 8 eggs Walker Basin, Kern Co. BakersHeld, Kern Co. Escondido, San Diego Co. Santa Barbara Santa Cruz July 13, 1891 Broods of downy young July 19, 1891 Brood of young nearly grown . 1896 One nest found Breeds on e8tuai*y, 6 miles away Eggs found A. K. Fisher, 1893o, p. 15 Mailliard coll. Tyler, 1913!), pp. 15-16 Sheldon, 1907, p. 186 C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 193 A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 15 A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 15 Sharp, 1907, p. 86 Streator, 1886, p. 90 Skirm, 1884, p. 150 MALLAMD 97 The table suggests that the height of the nesting season is in April, perhaps the latter part of the month. Many of the nests which are found after this time probably represent instances of second laying where the first clutch was destroyed. The Mallard nests with equal freedom in the marsh lands sur- rounding our bays, the rivers and ponds of the great interior valleys, and the mountain lakes of the Sierra Nevada even as high a"s Lake Tahoe, elevation 6,225 feet. A secluded spot, usually not far from • water, is most often selected for the nest site. Advantage is taken of any shelter such as willows, tules, weeds or tall grass in which the structure can be concealed. At Lake Tahoe, Ray (1903, pp. 48-49) found Mallard nests in the wiry grass which grew on sandspits, and about Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County, H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 231) found the species nesting on dry flats covered with sage brush, though not far from water. More rarely nests are located in grain fields and may then be some distance from water. In many instances marsh nests are on such damp ground that the eggs may be stained by contact with the moist nest materials. About Stow Lake, in Golden Crate Park, San Francisco, nests are hidden in the shrubbery which lines the inner shore of the lake. The nest itself is constructed of plant materials of various sorts such as fresh and dried grasses and clover, and to these is added a warm lining of down feathers from the breast of the female. The structure is large; one found by Bar- low (1893, p. 38) near San Jose, Santa Clara County, measured eighteen inches in diameter. The eggs in a complete set number from five to fourteen. The data at hand do not permit of obtaining a satisfactory statistical average, but our impression is that the average number in a set is about nine or ten. The female alone incubates the eggs. She guards them very solicitously, seldom leaving the nest voluntarily except under cover of darkness and then only after carefully covering the eggs with down. When on the nest she will even cover herself with leaves and grasses to assure better concealment, though her own dull mottled plumage would seem alone sufficient for this purpose. Occasionally a female will sit so closely that she will allow herself to be taken on the nest, or the eggs to be removed from beneath her. On being flushed from the nest or when with young, the female nearly always employs the ruse of lameness or of a broken wing to lead the intruder away. The period of incubation is four weeks. During incubation the male can usually be found in the near vicinity of the nest, but he takes no part in the duties of incubation or of rearing the young. It is during this period that he begins the molt into the eclipse plumage. The Mallard returns to the same locality to nest year after year. 98 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA Young Mallards are found in greatest abundance in May. They are led to water by the mother soon after hatching. The mother care- fully tends the young, and aids them in obtaining food so that they soon learn to find their own provender. As far as known under normal circumstances but one brood is raised each year. The broods of young as a rule keep themselves well concealed among the tules and grass. When surprised in open water the ducklings scurry to cover and conceal themselves so artfully that they are very difficult to find. After diving, a young bird either clings motionless to the weeds on the bottom or swims for a long distance under water. When coming to the surface the bill alone is exposed above the water. For this reason a whole brood may disappear as if by magic and the closest search result only in failure. Unlike the adult, the young Mallard is said to obtain much of its food by diving. This habit would be of value also as a means of escape from enemies during the considerable period of time before flight becomes possible. Mallards in California seldom gather in large flocks as do many of the other ducks. As a rule, they are found in pairs or at best in small flocks. Their ability to walk on land is far superior to that of most other ducks. In flight they progress by continuous rapid strokes of the wing, no sailing being evident. The wing beats are accom- panied by a distinct whistling sound. A speed of nearly a hundred miles an hour is said to be attained (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 498). Among most male ducks a remarkable change in plumage takes place during the summer months. Because this plumage overshadows the brighter plumage of the spring months it is known as the "eclipse" plumage. In such a bright colored bird as is the drake Mallard in spring, the change to the eclipse plumage is particularly noticeable. The change is first to be noted in June ; a few birds seen on Lower Klamath Lake, June 5, 1914, were already assuming the eclipse plumage. The old feathers of the head and breast gradually drop out and new ones take their places. By August first the green of the head has been entirely replaced by brownish feathers and the bird looks at a little distance very much like the female, except that it is darker. During August the regular annual molt takes place and the sombre brown of the eclipse plumage in turn gives place to the brighter colors of the plumage worn throughout winter and spring. There are thus two molts during the year, and two plumages, one of which is worn for only a few weeks in the late summer. During the late summer molt, which involves the entire plumage, the Mallard hides away in rank vegetation, concealing itself so well that it is seldom seen. The flight feathers are among the last to be molted. Since the bird loses MALLABD 99 the power of flight by the almost simultaneous molt of the wing feathers, its only means of protection rests in its ability to hide or to escape notice because of its dull coloration. Thus the dull eclipse plumage is supposedly for protective purposes. The following interesting note on the use of protective coloration by the Mallard is recorded from Alaska by Osgood (1904, p. 56) : Expecting the bird to rise at any moment, we paddled on but were begin ning to feel baffled, when just before the canoe touched the bank, we found our game giving a very pretty exhibition of its confidence in .protective coloration. It was a female Mallard, and lay on the brown mud bank, strewn with dead grass and decaying matter, which blended perfectly with the markings of its back. It was not merely crouching, but lay prostrated to the last degree, its wings closely folded, its neck stretched straight out in front of it, with throat and under mandible laid out straight, and even its short tail pressed flatly into the mud. The only sign of lije came from its bright little eyes, which nervously looked at us in a half hopeful, half desperate manner. When a paddle was lifted, with which it could almost be reached, the bird started up and was allowed to escape with its well-earned life. Most of the food of the Mallard is obtained in shallow water, but the bird often forages on shore and even at some distance inland when desirable food is obtainable there. When feeding in shallow water it not only skims the surface of the water but every now and then turns tail up and searches the bottom. The latter mode of food getting is sometimes called "tilting," and the Mallard, like the other river and pond ducks which often feed in this manner, is called a "tip-up"; the adult bird seldom dives, however. It discovers its food by means of touch rather than sight, so that it can feed equally as well at night as by day (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 497). 'The food consists largely of vegetable matter in the form of grass, aquatic plants, weed seeds, and grain. So fond is this bird of grain that in some localities the loss it occasions the grain grower is no small one. Nevertheless, the Mallard can be said to be fairly omnivorous, for it also feeds on larvae of aquatic insects, worms, grasshoppers, small molluscs and crustaceans. A. K. Fisher (1893a, p. 15) records that a juvenile Mallard taken at Walker Basin, Kern County, July 13, 1891, and still in the down, had its stomach dis- tended Avith grasshoppers, insects which were abundant at that time in the neighborhood of the sloughs. W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) reports the following from the stomachs of four specimens secured in the Suisun marshes : "a. Small univalve shells in gullet. 6. Bearded harley and barley heads, c. Small sprouted seeds, d. Half a teacup- ful of barnacles in the gullet." McAtee (19116, pp. 1, 2) states that the Mallard eats a larger percentage (17.13%) of wild rice than any other duck, the Black Duck and Wood Duck ranking next. Wild 100 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA celery was found to make up 2.48% and pond weeds 12.67% of the food for the year, in the 209 stomachs examined from all over the United States. Its large size and delicious flavor make this the most valuable game bird of its kind in the state. While feeding on grain it becomes excessively fat, attaining a weight of over three pounds. Its palata- bility also increases at this time and it then brings the highest price in the market, even the famed Canvasback taking second rank. In the season of 1895-96 there were 47,565 Mallards sold in the markets of San Francisco at twenty-five cents apiece (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). During the season 1911-12 the markets paid an average price of fifty cents apiece for them, and at one time as high as eighty cents. Owing to its habit of foraging far from water the Mallard affords ideal "pass shooting." In addition it is easily decoyed. Thus it has every requisite of a fine game bird and is consequently the favorite of the sportsman. The Mallard breeds readily in captivity and for that reason has been widely domesticated. A pond, seclusion, and plenty of weeds and grass are the chief needs. On the State Game Farm at Hayward, Alameda County, Mallards rear broods each year. Several fanciers have also been successful in raising the bird in this state. There is every indication that this species can be propagated for the market on a large scale. The increasing prices obtainable from year to year point towards this as a profitable industry. In England Mallards have been raised regularly in captivity and made to fiy in a straight line over guns to afford sport. Both in the wild state and in captivity this bird readily hybridizes with other near-related species. A highly esteemed variety of barn- yard duck is a hybrid between the Mallard and Muscovy Duck. Hybrids also occur between the Mallard, and the Pintail, Gadwall, Shoveller, and Black Duck, respectively. In 1889 A. M. Shields (Davie, 1889, p. 62) stated .that, during the summer, the Mallard was, "perhaps, the most common of the ducks in the vicinity of Los Angeles." But of recent years accord- ing to H. J. Lelande (in letter), very few if any breed in Los Angeles County. A brood was known to have been reared in 1904 at Little Elizabeth Lake. Filling-in of swamps and close settlement of the territory has its inevitable effects on birds of this class. In the San Joaquin Valley the Mallard is certainly outnumbered in summer by the Cinnamon Teal. But whereas the latter may be found plentifully about both alkaline and fresh water ponds and marshes, the Mallard shows a decided preference for fresh water. That the numbers of Mallards have been greatly reduced is evident. Anyone conversant with game conditions will name this species as one BLACK DVCK 101 of those which have been most noticeably reduced. As the supply of Mallards in California is probably dependent to a large extent on the birds raised within the state, it is only natural that the annual toll taJien by the hunter has caused a very noticeable decrease. Compared with such ducks as the Redhead and Wood Duck, however, the decrease in the number of Mallards has been slight. Two things, at least, give hope that this duck will continue to exist in large enough numbers to supply the demands of the sportsman, if these demands are reasonable. One is the fact that this duck soon learns to keep out of gunshot and the other the fact that the bird will content itself with a small amount of water and will even nest where the only water is an irrigation ditch some distance away. This latter point suggests that the increase of agriculture, with the attendant development of irrigation, may not have so deleterious an effect on the Mallard as would at first be supposed, especially if the birds are not molested during the breeding season. Although the Mallard is in no immediate danger of extermination in this state, yet the present annual toll taken is too great to be maintained very many years with- out endangering the existence of the species. By reducing the bag limit and shortening the season it should be possible as with other game to adjust the annual toll to the rate of production. Black Duck Anas rubripes Brewster Othee names — Black Mallard; Dusky Duck; Anas obscura. Description — Adults, both sexes : Whole head and upper surface dusky brown, variegated with pale rusty brown feather edgings; top of head darker than sides and throat, the latter narrowly streaked with dusky on a pale brownish gray ground; a dusky stripe back from eye; iris brown; bill yellowish green; outer surface of closed wing like back but with a faint gray tinge; flight feathers blackish; speculum changeably steel blue and violet, framed in black; under surface of wing mostly white; under surface of body like back but paler, due to wider edgings of dusky on feathers; feet orange red, webs darker. Total length "21.00-24.50" inches (533-622 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 91.) Female: folded wing 10.60 (269); bill along culmen 2.02 (51.3); tarsus 1.63 (41.4) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: "Similar to adult, with bill more of a greenish hue and streaked with dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 79). Natal plumage: Whole top of head dark brown, with a yellow cast on forehead; side of head, chin and throat, brownish white; stripe from side of bill through eye to above ear region, brownish black; above this a stripe of pale yellowish brown; rest of upper surface, brown; hind margin of wing yellowish white, as also a pair of spots on back behind wings and another pair on each side of rump; foreneck pale yellowish brown; rest of under surface dull white. 102 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOSNIA Majbks foe field identification — Both sexes resemble female Mallard but are darker in coloration; the general blackish coloration, the white wing lining, and violet speculum framed in black are distinctive. Voice— A loud resonant "quack" like that of the Mallard (Chapman, 1912, p. 193). Nest — On the ground; constructed of weeds, grass, and feathers (authors). Eggs — 8 to 12, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.22 to 2.44 by 1.63 to 1.83 (in millimeters, 56.5 to 62 by 41.5 to 46.5), and averaging 2.36 by 1.69 (60 by 43) (28 eggs in TJ. S. National Museum); in color white or creamy white; the shell having an oily texture. Gbnebal distkibution — Eastern North America. Breeds from central Kee- watin and northern Ungava south to northern Wisconsin, northern Indiana, and southern Maryland; winters from Nova Scotia south to southern Louisiana and Colorado; west in migration to Nebraska and central Kansas; casual in Bermuda, Jamaica and California (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 68). Distribution in California — One instance of occurrence: A single bird, presumably a female, taken at Willows, Glenn County, February 1, 1911 (now no. 17198 Mus. Vert. Zool.). The Black Duck, a near relative of the Mallard, is a species of the eastern and middle western United States, and eastern Canada. In the North Atlantic States it entirely replaces the Mallard as a breeding species. There is but one record of its occurrence in Cali- fornia. A bird, evidently a female, although the sex was not deter- mined by dissection, was taken by a hunter at "Willows, Glenn County, February 1, 1911. This individual was mounted by Vernon Shepherd, a San Francisco taxidermist, and later presented to the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. This bird was evidently a straggler; and the Black Duck cannot be considered of more than accidental occurrence in California. "The Black Duck breeds so early that young have been found at Old Saybrook, Conn., May 5, and eggs at Eehoboth, Mass., April 30" (Cooke, 1906, p. 25). "It is more common in the Atlantic Coast States than inland, and when molested will sometimes pass the day at sea returning at night to feed in the ponds and marshes" (Chapman, 1912, p. 193). "Like the Mallard, the Black, or Dusky Duck, feeds on wild rice, buckwheat, weed seeds and nearly all manner of vegetable substances, also devouring snails, frogs and other aquatic animals with a glut- tonous greed, especially in the springtime" (Eaton, 1910, p. 186). The Black Duck resembles the Mallard in general habits and it is to be looked for in situations frequented by the latter bird. Loveland, Colorado, is the nearest place where this typically eastern species has been previously recorded and it is not probable that any great number of individuals will ever wander so far west as California. Additional instances of occurrence should be reported for their scientific value. GADWALL 103 Gadwall Chmilelasmus streperus (Linnaeus) Other names — Gray Duck; Gadwell; Anas strepera. Description — Adult male: Whole head and neck pale brown finely mottled with black, the brown being darkest on top of head with less distinct spotting; throat very pale brownish gray minutely flecked with dusky; bill bluish black; iris reddish hazel; back and sides with fine undulating, transverse bars of brownish black and white; outer surface of closed wing ashy brown with a chestnut patch on middle wing coverts followed behind by a black bar; speculum pure white; rump dull slate color; upper and lower tail coverts velvety black; tail drab gray faintly edged with whitish; whole breast mottled in intricate pattern with crescentic bars of black and white, with a suffusion of pale brown; rest of under surface pure white, save for faint dusky barring in the region of the vent; sometimes a strong suffusion of rusty over whole lower surface; feet dull orange yellow with dusky webs. Total length "19.25-21.75" inches (489-553 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 95); folded wing 9.75-10.90 (248-277); bill along culmen 1.63-1.78 (41.4^^5.3) ; tarsus 1.53-1.67 (38.8-42.4) (ten specimens). Adult female: Head and neck colored as in male, but otherwise decidedly different; upper surface and sides coarsely and irregularly barred and mottled with dark brown and dull white; wing as in male but with markings less clean and chestnut entirely lacking; rump and upper and under tail coverts brown, the latter mottled with dull white like flanks; breast heavily mottled with black on a rusty brown ground; lower breast and abdomen white often more or less obscured with rusty. Total length "about 18" inches (457 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit) ; folded wing 9.62- 10.12 (244r-257) ; bill along culmen 1.52-1.70 (38.6-43.2) ; tarsus 1.42-1.58 (36.1- 40.2) (nine specimens) ; all from California. Bclipae plumage of male: Top of head brownish black with a greenish tinge; indistinct dark brown streak through eye; rest of head and neck dull brownish white marked with blackish brown as in regular plumage; back, rump and upper tail coverts, blackish brown, each feather margined with rusty red; wings and tail as in regular plumage; breast dull rusty red with central black spot on each feather; flanks dark brown broadly marked and margined with dull rusty brown; rest of under surface dull white with a blackish brown spot in center of each feather (see Sharpe and Dresser, in Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 506). Juvenile plumage (both sexes): Closely resembles that of adult female. Natal plumage: Top of head and line from bill through eye, dull brown; sides of head and neck, dull creamy buff; spot over ear, dusky; upper surface of body dark brown; paired spots on hind margin of wing and sides of rump, light buff; throat and foreneck pale buff; under surface of body buffy white; band aeroas chest buff. Marks for field identification — Slender appearance, long pointed wings, general gray coloration, and pure white speculum (the only river duck so marked). Under tail coverts black in male. Voice — In flight, an oft repeated ' ' quack, ' ' resembling that of the Mallard, though higher pitched and less in volume (Eaton, 1910, p. 189). Nest — In grass on dry ground but usually close to water; composed of grasses and tules and lined with down; resembles that of Mallard. Eggs — 7 to 13, bluntly ovate, or nearly oval, measuring in inches 2.02 to 2.18 by 1.48 to 1.57 (in millimeters, 51.5 to 55.5 by 37.5 to 40.0), and averaging 104 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA 2.11 by 1.53 (53.5 by 39.0) (18 eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color creamy white. General distbibution — Almost throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds from southern British Columbia and central Keewatin south to southern California and east to southern Wisconsin; winters from southern British Columbia and the central-eastern United States south to southern Lower California, central Mexico and Florida; rare in migration on Atlantic Coast, and of casual occurrence in Bermuda, Cuba and Jamaica (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 69). Distribution in California — Fairly common resident in fresh water tule swamps particularly of the great interior valleys. More numerous in winter when the numbers are augmented by migrants from the north. Recorded as breeding, west of the Sierras, from the Sacramento Valley south to San Jacinto Lake, Eiverside County. The G-adwall or Gray Duck is essentially a river or freshwater duck and is to be found in many parts of the interior of California. It exists in greatest numbers about those ponds, lakes and rivers where there are plenty of tules and weeds. It is seldom, if ever, found on salt water or. on alkali ponds and lakes. 21643"^* — _. ,„ _ .,.„.» , Practically all of the Gadwalls sold Fig. 12. Top of bill of female •' Gadwall. Natural size. on the markets have been procured m Note slender outline as com- ^he Sacramento and San Joaquin pared with bill of female Pintail valleys. ^^^- ^^)- This duck, like the Mallard and Cinnamon Teal, breeds regularly within the state. Although there are not many records of its nesting, yet it is commonly understood among hunters that the supply of Gadwalls is largely dependent upon the birds raised in California. The fact that this duck is usually seen in pairs or in small flocks even in winter also lends support to the belief that it breeds in the immediate neighborhood. The species of ducks which breed in the far north usually gather in large flocks during migrations and in the winter. Nevertheless, the considerable increase in the numbers of the Gadwall found here in winter is certainly the result of an influx of birds which breed farther to the north. If the number of these ducks sold in the markets of San Francisco is a criterion, the Gadwall is only one-twentieth as numerous as the Mal- lard. But as the former is less sought after as a table bird, this is not perhaps a fair basis of comparison. In habits the Gadwall resembles the Mallard. But it is distin- guished from the latter by its smaller size and gray coloration, and by its more slender outline when on the wing. In the hand, the Gadwall can be distinguished in all its plumages from all other ducks GADWALL 105 by the pure white of its speculum. The females of the Gadwall and Baldpate resemble each other very closely, but the former is darker on the back and rump and does not show the conspicuous white patches on the wings which mark the Baldpate in flight. The female Gadwall and Pintail are closely similar and may be confused, espe- cially on the wing. The Pintail has a longer neck and is lighter colored beneath ; in hand its green speculum and relatively broad bill (see figs. 12 and 19) make identification easy. Chapman (1912, p. 194) describes the courtship flight of the Gadwall in the East as follows: "The male pursues the female often high in the air and for some time, on a course as erratic as that of a Barn Swallow." Secluded places in fresh- water marshes are usually selected as nesting sites. The nest is placed on the ground, some- times in a depression, and usually in grass in relatively dry situations though close to water. The structure is composed of any available vegetable material such as grass and tules, finely shredded, and is lined with very dark-colored down. The eggs, numbering seven to thirteen in a set, and averaging about ten, are bluntly ovate or almost oval in shape. They are of a pale creamy white tint. Eggs of the Gadwall closely resemble those of the Baldpate. Prom the latter 's eggs those of the Gadwall may usually be distinguished by their shorter length and more oval shape and by their paler, less deeply cream color; but the identification cannot always be made with cer- tainty. As compared with eggs of the Mallard those of the Gadwall are smaller and less ovate in shape. The nest down of the Gadwall is darker than that of the Baldpate. As with the Mallard the female alone cares for the young. The downy young of the Gadwall are stated to be among the palest colored of our river ducks. The accom- panying table (no. 9) gives records of nests which have been reported in California. Table 9. — Data relative to the nesting of the Gadwall in California Locality Date Contents ot Nest Authority Near Los Angeles April 16, 11 eggs, considerably Davie, 1900, p. 79 incubated Los Banos, Merced Co. May 12, 1914 9 eggs H. 0. Bryant, 1914e, p. 222 Los Banos, Merced Co. May 16, 1914 12 eggs, slightly in- H. C. Bryant, 1914e, cubated p. 222 San Jacinto Lake, June 8, 1897 12 eggs, incubation com- IngersoU coll. Riverside Co. menced Chowchilla, Merced Co. June 24, 1901 8 eggs, incubation begun Mailliard coll. San Pedro, July 20 9 eggs Baird, Brewer and Bidg- Los Angeles Co. way, 1884, I, p. 508 The Gadwall is a shy species, hiding away in the tules and weeds during the daytime and even when foraging for food remaining close to cover. Its long pointed wings give it rapid powers of flight ; and 106 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA a whistling sound, not so loud as that made by the Baldpate, is to be heard under favorable conditions. "When flushed it is said to rise into the air almost perpendicularly. Its food is made up largely of the seeds, leaves, buds and roots of water plants. These it obtains along the shores of ponds, lakes and rivers by "standing on its head," or "tilting," and searching the bottom as does the Mallard. McAtee (19116, p. 1) states that an examination of stomachs has shown that the food comprises a lesser number of seeds but a larger per cent of pond weeds than that of other ducks. W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) found small seeds and sand in a stomach which he examined. Although usually considered an excellent bird for the table, Beld- ing (MS) agrees with Bendire that its flesh is at times very inferior. He says: "I have known it to be so oily and have such a fishy taste that I could not eat it [even when] nicely roasted." If this be true the small numbers sold in the market (671 in season 1895-1896) (Calif. Pish Comm., 1896, p. 42) might be attributed to this fact rather than to actual numbers of the species obtainable. The well- nigh exclusive vegetable diet of the Gadwall, on the other hand, would appear to recommend it as a desirable bird for food. Almost as many Gadwalls were sold in the season 1911-1912 by one game transfer company in San Francisco as were sold in all of the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season 1895- 1896. If this be at all indicative, there can not have been a very great diminution in their numbers during the last fifteeen years. The greater decrease in more desirable ducks, however, will in time increase the demand for the Gadwall and so increase the annual kill. Baldpate Mareca americana (Gmelin) Other names — American Widgeon; Widgeon; Anas americana; Mareca pene- lope, part. Description — Adult male: Broad streak from forehead over top of head, white; rest of head and neck thickly speckled with black on a white ground; streak behind each eye metallic green, the two often joining on hind neck; bill light bluish ash, the tip, extreme base, and lower mandible, black; iris hazel; back pale pinkish brown, delicately undulated with black; rump ashy brown, sometimes minutely undulated with white; middle upper tail coverts pale ashy, the basal ones finely undulated with dusky; lateral ones velvety black contrasting conspicuously with white patch at side of base of tail; tail slaty black above, ashy beneath; large area on forepart of wing pure white, edged in front and above with ashy brown ; speculum metallic green, bordered in front by a narrow black bar and shading behind into a broad area of velvety black ; tertials black, narrowly edged with white; rest of flight feathers slaty brown; axillars BALDPATE 107 white; lining of wing pale ashy gray; breast, sides and flanks, pinkish brown, the breast washed with ashy and the sides and flanks irregularly barred with blackish; lower tail coverts velvety black; rest of under surface pure white, sometimes suffused with rusty; legs and feet greenish slate, claws and joints dusky. Males: Total length 19.30-20.44 inches (490-520 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 9.85-10.35 (250-263); bill along culmen 1.36-1.57 (34.7-40.0); tarsus 1.41-1.58 (35.8-40.2) (ten specimens); weight 22.65-23.20 oz. (641-656 gm.) (two specimens). Adult female: Whole upper surface dull grayish brown; barred with yellowish brown; head and neck thickly mottled with blackish on a whitish ground; rump and upper and under tail coverts dark brown, with whitish feather margins and the coverts pervaded with reddish brown; wing as in male but white area chiefly replaced by white-edged ashy brown feathers; speculum dull black, occasionally with a small patch of metallic green; sides and flanks deep reddish brown; breast dull brown, mottled with blackish and tinged with ashy; rest of under surface white, sometimes tinged with rusty. Folded wing 9.00-9.80 inches (228-249 mm.) bill along culmen 1.22-1.55 (31.1- 39.4) ; tarsus 1.37-1.55 (34.8-39.4) (ten specimens) ; all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female but colors more pronounced, and the pattern better defined, especially on the wing (Baird, Brewer and Bidgway, 1884, I, p. 521). Natal plumage: Top of head and stripe down hind neck, dark sepia brown; sides of head and neck cinnamon buff; back light brown; pair of spots at base of tail, white; hind margin of wing pinkish buff; throat creamy buflf; rest of under surface dull creamy buff, suffused with cinnamon buff on chest. Marks foh field identification — Medium size, white axillars, and more or less white on forepart of wing. Males have top of head white, sides of head mixed black and white, a green patch behind eye, green speculum, white flank patch, and black under tail coverts. Both sexes distinguished from European Widgeon by pure white rather than grayish axillars, and male by lack of reddish brown on head (pi. 3). The wings make a whistling noise when the birds are in flight. Voice — Of male: a mewing whistle resembling the syllables whe^v whew; of female: a loud kaow, Icaow, or hue, hue, hue, with a strong accent on the second note (Eaton, 1910, p. 191; Nordhoff, 1902, p. 213). Nest — Usually on high dry ground, and often a considerable distance from water; a slight depression well lined with dry grass and weed stems and abun- dantly supplied with light gray down (Bent, 1901, p. 335). Eggs — 6 to 12, elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.00 to 2.37 by 1.42 to 1.60 (in millimeters, 51.0 to 60.1 by 36.2 to 40.1), and averaging 2.17 by 1.53 (55.1 by 38.8) ; color deep cream to nearly white (Bent, 1901, pp. 335-336; and fifty-four eggs in U. S. National Museum). General distribution — North America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska, northern Mackenzie and central Keewatin south to Oregon, Colorado, Kansas, and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia, southern Illinois, and Maryland south to southern Lower California, the West Indies and Costa Eiea; rare in migration in maritime provinces of Canada, and casual in Hawaii, Bermuda and Europe (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 70). Distribution in. California — Common winter visitant to suitable localities throughout the state, chiefly on fresh water, but occurs occasionally along the coast, especially in the shoal waters of Humboldt, Tomales and San Francisco bays. Recorded as breeding on Davis Creek, Modoc County. 108 GAME BIBVS OF CALIFORNIA The Baldpate, or American Widgeon, is one of the best known and most numerous of the river ducks in California during the winter season. It begins to arrive in numbers in October, and leaves again for the north in the early part of March; Prom the numbers sold on the market in California, one might judge the species to be most abundant in November. Although preferring the fresh water lakes, ponds, rivers, and sloughs of the interior, the Baldpate is sometimes found in considerable numbers on the shallow water of the bays. Often the latter location is used as a loafing ground, at least during the day. The species is "very common along the coast froin Crescent City southward during October. Widgeons usually [form] . . . the largest part of every duck hunter's bag. They often spend the day in the open ocean and return to the marshes to feed at night" (Ferry, 1908, pp. 38-39). A large area of white on the top of the head of the male has given this duck its common name of Baldpate (pi. 3). This white patch together with a broad metallic green streak behind the eye helps to distinguish this duck from others. The large amount of white on the fore part of the wing, especially in the male, the white axillars, and the conspicuous white under surface of the body also aid in identi- fication. The speculum is peculiar, that of the male being green, bordered in front and behind with velvety black, while that of the female is usually altogether dull black. In most ducks it is the same in both sexes. The lighter color of the lower surface and the white axillars and dark speculum serve to distinguish the female Baldpate from the female Gadwall, our only other duck of comparable size and coloration. Were it not for the gray under surface of the wing in the female Baldpate, visible in flight, she might be mistaken for a female Mallard ; but the latter bird has a pure white under wing lining, and no patch of white on the outer surface of the wing. The Baldpate breeds later than most other ducks, as it apparently does not begin laying until late May or early June in Alaska. Accord- ing to Nelson (1887, p. 68) small ducklings are to be seen there at various times in July, and young only half-grown as late as the middle of August. There is only one record of this duck nesting in Cali- fornia: Dawson (1916, p. 24) says that it was "breeding commonly at Davis Creek in Modoc County, ' ' where he found a set of nine fresh eggs on June 20, 1912, and another of eleven, advanced in incuba- tion, June 24 of the same year. Birds seen by him at Eagleville, Surprise Valley, in the same county, July 12, 1912, were thought to be breeding. Belding (MS) saw a pair of Baldpates at Stockton, San Joaquin County, as late as May 28 (1878), but found no definite evidence that they were breeding there. BALDPATE 109 For its nest the Baldpate usually selects a place on high, dry- ground often some distance from water. Sometimes the nest is placed at the foot of a tree or shrub ; at other times it is situated in weeds, grasses or bushes. In either event there is little or no attempt at concealment. The nest is lined with dry grass and weed stems, and is abundantly supplied with light gray down by the female parent. In Alaska the place selected for nesting is said to be exactly like that chosen by the Pintail. No complete account of the courtship of the Baldpate has yet been published. C. W. Townsend (1916, p. 15) says of the male bird in Massachusetts: In his courting he continually emits gentle but eager whistling notes, and with neck extended and head low, bill wide open and wings elevated behind so that the tips are pointed up at an angle of forty-five degrees, he swims rapidly over the water beside or behind the duck. Occasionally he pecks playfully at the side of her head, and now and then in his excitement jumps clear of the water and flies for two or three yards. Evidently the female alone performs the duties of incubation. The males remain in the vicinity for some time after their mates begin to sit, but when the time of moulting arrives they retire to grassy marshes and edges of lakes for concealment and there for the time being lead solitary lives. If the female be surprised while on the nest she usually rises silently into the air and flies to the nearest water, although sometimes she will alight on the ground only a short distance from the nest. The young, before they are able to fly, seek the shelter of grass- bordered lakes. But as soon as they can fly they repair to river- shores and other open feeding-places, where they obtain aquatic insects, small shells, and seeds and roots of various plants. The broods often separate before leaving for the south in September (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 524). Nelson (1887, p. 68) gives the following facts regarding the behavior of a female Baldpate and her young in Alaska. He came suddenly upon a bird, with her brood of ten or a dozen little duck- lings, in a small pond. As he approached, the parent uttered several low, guttural notes and suddenly fluttered across the water and fell heavily at his feet. Meanwhile the young swam to the opposite side of the pond and hegan to scramble out into the grass. "Wishing to observe the old bird's manoeuvers, he poked at her with his gun as she fluttered about at his feet, but she always managed to elude his strokes and, just as the last of her brood climbed out of the water, she slyly edged off, and suddenly took flight to another pond some distance away. As quickly as possible he ran to the point where the ducklings had left the water ; yet, though but a few moments had 110 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA elapsed, the young had concealed themselves so effectually in the grass which was only three or four inches high that a half hour's search was unavailing. Bowles (m Dawson, 1909, p. 772) says that "their principal call is a lisping, throaty whistle, repeated three times in quick succession. It is surprisingly light in character for the size of the bird and serves to confirm the bird's position on the list next to the Teals. . . . The only other note I have heard them utter is a low, short chattering, somewhat resembling that of the Pintail, but greatly reduced in volume. Their quacks, or squawks, of alarm also express the limit of terror, but are still pathetically inadequate in comparison with those, say, of a hen Mallard." While the Canvasbaek and the Scaups dive and pull up by the roots the vallisneria or eel grass, the Baldpate manages to obtain a large share indirectly through theft, and at times succeeds in rob- bing them of all ,they bring up. In Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, the Baldpate is said to be the constant companion of the Canvasbaek, the latter possessing great superiority in its diving powers (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 524). To what extent they are similarly parasitic in California is not known to us. Here, Baldpates are occasionally found in company with Pintails. "Almost strictly a vegetarian as to diet, their food in fall and winter consists of seeds, water-weeds, soft roots, and an occasional insect, thus making them more desirable as table birds than the average duck. In late January and February, however, they con- fine their feeding largely to the water-soaked fields, digging up the young grass with their bills and eating roots and all" (Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 771). Near Los Baiios, Merced County, Beck (MS) says the Baldpates were feeding in close companies upon green grass near sloughs. Although the grass was less than an inch high,. it was pulled off close to the ground. Feeding is done chiefly at night. Stomach examination by us has shown that the Baldpate eats a larger percentage of grass than any other California duck. "In wing shooting it [the Baldpate] is regarded by the hunters as a great nuisance. It is not only so shy that it avoids the points of land, but by its whistling and confused manner of flight it alarms the other species" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). How- ever, it may be decoyed within gunshot by imitating its notes or with well-placed wooden decoys. Its curiosity as well as its sociability cause it to return again and again to decoy ponds. In California the Baldpate is considered as inferior game in spite of the fact that large numbers have been annually sold on the market. Nevertheless, when in good condition, its flesh is hard to distinguish from that of the Canvasbaek. Over 52,000 Baldpates were sold in the o n Z -^ o EUROPEAN WIDGEON 111 markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles during the season 1895- 1896 (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40). In San Francisco nearly 15,000 were sold by one game transfer company in 1909-1910, while but 9,254 were reported as sold in 1911-1912. The decrease here shown would seem to indicate that there has been a marked decrease in the general abundance of this duck during the two years specified. The species has held its own to a greater degree than some other ducks in spite of the large number killed annually. Nevertheless it needs adequate protection such as would be afforded by a no-sale law, shorter season, and smaller bag limit, to assure its preservation as a game bird. European Widgeon Mareca penelope (Linnaeus) Other names — Red-headed Widgeon; Anas penelope. Description — Adult male: Head and neck bright rufous red, except crown and forehead which are creamy white; lower eyelid white, upper black; numerous minute black or iridescent flecks on sides of head; chin and narrow line down throat dull black; bill " 'light grayish blue, with the tip . . . black' "; iris " 'hazel brown' " (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 518); back undu- lated with fine zig-zag bars of black and white, resulting in a general gray cast; base of rump grayish brown; middle upper tail coverts like back, but lighter; lateral upper and whole under tail coverts black; tail feathers above blackish, beneath ashy; outer surface of closed wing mostly white but edged anteriorly with ashy brown, and the tertials black edged with white; flight feathers plain ashy brown; speculum metallic green bordered both in front and behind with velvety black; under surface of wing shining ashy gray; lower surface largely pure white; broad area on chest extending high on the shoulders pinkish brown; legs and feet " 'light grayish blue' " (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loo. cit.). Total length (both sexes): "18.00-20.00" inches (458-508 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 96); male: folded wing 10.00 (254); bill along culnie]i 1.47 (37.3) ; tarsus 1.62 (41.2) (one specimen in Grinnell coll., in Mus. Vert. Zool.). Adult female: Head and upper neck yellowish red with small greenish black spots most numerous on the upper part of head; upper surface dusky brown, each feather edged with brownish red or whitish, giving a barred appearance; bill and iris as in male; outer surface of closed wing dusky gray, the white feathers of male being replaced by dusky gray ones tipped with white; only an indication of a dark terminal bar on secondary coverts, and black of inner secondaries as found in male replaced by dark gray; tail feathers brownish gray edged with lighter; under tail coverts white barred with brown; sides and fore part of chest obscurely barred with reddish brown and brownish gray; breast and belly white. Folded wing 10.00 inches (254 mm.); bill along culmen 1.50 (38.2); tarsus 1.50 (38.2) (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 518). Juvenile plumage: "Head, neck, jugulum [foreneck], sides and flanks, umber brown, varying to a cinnamon shade, the head and neck thickly streaked with black, and the feathers of the jugulum, sides, etc., centered with dusky. Back and scapulars dusky, the feathers broadly bordered with dull fulvous; crissum [under tail coverts] irregularly streaked and spotted with dusky; rump and upper tail coverts slaty brown, bordered 112 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA with dull whitish. Wing as in the adult, except that the coverts are dull cinereous broadly bordered with white. Lower parts except as described, pure white" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Top of head brownish black; forehead, sides of head, and hind neck, light cinnamon brown; whole back brown, with a spot of straw yellow on each side near base of tail, and one of light tawny on hind border of each wing; lower surface of body dull straw yellow, with an obscure wash of light cinnamon brown across foreneckj Masks foe tibld identification — Similar to those for Baldpate. In hand the male European Widgeon can be identified by the bright rufous red instead of white and black speckled head, by lack of a green patch behind eye, by grayish rather than pinkish brown tone of back, and by entire absence of brown on sides of body (pi. 3). Both sexes possess gray axillar feathers; in the Baldpate these are white. Voice — "The call note of the male is a shrill, whistling whee-you, whence the local names 'Whew-Duok' and 'Whewer'; but the female utters a low purr or croak" (Saunders, 1899, p. 438). Nest — On ground near water; built of grasses and dead plants and well concealed. Eggs — 5 to 10, pointedly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.13 to 2.30 by 1.50 to 1.53 (in millimeters, 54.3 to 58.4 by 38.2 to 38.8); in color bufCy white (authors). General distribution — Northern part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Occurs occasionally in winter and in migration in North America, from Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Greenland south to Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, North Carolina and Florida, and in Alaska, British Columbia and California (A. O. V. Check-list, 1910, pp. 69-70). Distribution in California — A not infrequent winter visitant. Definite records known to the writers, of its occurrence within the state are: Eio Vista, Solano County, two specimens (Belding, MS) ; San Francisco market, several specimens (Cooper, 1868, p. 9; W. E. Bryant, 1886, p. 426; Eidgway, 1880, p. 231); Eureka, Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491); Humboldt Bay, Humboldt County, two specimens (F. J. Smith, MS) ; Bixby, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1904b, pp. 383-384). The European Widgeon is one of the few species which really belong to the Eastern Hemisphere but of which stragglers occasionally reach America. There are no records of its breeding within the United States or anywhere else in North America. Cooke (1906, p. 28) points out that most of the California records are in February, those in British Columbia from December 25 to February 9, and the two Alaska dates October 12 and May 27. Our birds probably come from eastern Siberia. All the California records are from near the coast. Mr. F. J. Smith of Eureka writes us that three Eed-headed Widgeons have been taken on Humboldt Bay. One is an adult male in the collection of birds mounted by Mr. Chas. Fiebig and now in the public library at Eureka. This is doubtless the specimen recorded by C. H. Town- send (1886, p. 491) . A second adult male in faded plumage was taken GSEEN-WINGBD TTSAL 113 about 3905 and is in the collection of Dr. F. H. Ottraer. The third specimen was taken by an expert hunter, Alden Trott, from a flock of Baldpates on Areata Bay, October 20, 1911. Mr. Chase Littlejohn has told us that when his brother was hunting for the market in the eighties, Red-headed "Widgeons were frequently secured on south San Francisco Bay. There is a considerable difference in coloration between the male European Widgeon and our Baldpate, so that there is no need of" confusing the two, at least when in hand. The male European "Widgeon can always be distinguished by the rich brown color of the head and neck, and both sexes by the gray instead of white axillary feathers. In the full plumaged male bird the head and neck are almost uniform rufous red in color, there is no brown on the sides, and the back lacks the pinkish brown tone to be observed in the Baldpate. The top of the head is creamy white, slightly rusty on the forepart. The throat is largely blackish, while minute flecks of black dot the cheeks and loral region. Back of the eye the chestnut ground-color is overlaid by numerous flecks of metallic green. A specimen pro- cured in Los Angeles County was taken for a hybrid between a Red- head and Baldpate by local sportsmen. In all its habits the European "Widgeon is said by competent authorities to resemble closely the American Widgeon, or Baldpate. It has been suggested that probably many instances of occurrence of this species have been overlooked by sportsmen and market hunters, who usually make no attempt to pick out unusual birds unless the difference is very noticeable. Owing to the rarity of its occurrence the European Widgeon can hardly be reckoned upon as one of Cali- fornia's regular game ducks. Green-winged Teal Nettion carolinense (Gmelin) Other names — Green-wing; Common Teal; American Green-winged Teal; Anas caroUnensis ; Querquedula carolinensis. Desckiption — Adult male: Head and upper neck chiefly rich chestnut brown, darkest on forehead; a broad patch of metallic green on each side of head extending from eye to hind neck, shading into black under eye and bordered below by a buffy white line; on back of head the two green patches are separated, by a black patch, the latter involving the hinder part of a short crest which is otherwise chestnut brown in continuation with same color on top of head; chin and upper throat dull black; bill black; iris dark brown; upper surface of body, a narrow collar around foreneck, sides, and flanks, finely and irregularly undulated (cross-barred) with black and white; rump slate brown; upper tail coverts dull black with ashy edgings which have a suggestion of fine black and white undulation; tail slaty brown; outer surface of closed wing (including elongated tertials) slate brown; speculum bright 114 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA metallic green, appearing violet at certain angles, bordered in front by a vertical bar of buffy brown and above and below by horizontal black bars; a conspicuous transverse bar of white on each side of body near bend of wing; breast pinkish brown, distinctly spotted with black; middle under tail coverts and patches at sides of vent, black; lateral under tail coverts creamy white; under surface of tail ashy; rest of under surface dull white often more or less obscured by rusty; legs and feet olive gray, darker at joints; webs brownish black. Total length 14.75-15.75 inches (375-400 mm.) (six specimens); folded •wing 6.90-7.50 (175-190); bill along culmen 1.40-1.48 (35.6-37.6); tarsus 1.11- 1.26 (28.2-32.0) (ten specimens); weight, 12.5 oz. (355.5 gm.) (one specimen). Adult female : Top of head and upper surface dark brown, the feathers edged with pale ashy brown giving a barred or mottled appearance; top of head more nearly uniform brown, the narrow light feather edgings giving an effect of fine streaking; sides of head buffy white closely flecked with dusky; stripe through eye dusky; chin, throat and lower eyelid dull white, more or less speckled with dusky; iris yellow; outer surface of closed wing nearly as in male but slate brown feathers edged with ashy; sides, breast, and flanks similar to back, but of lighter general tone; rest of under surface as in male except that the indistinct spotting of the breast sometimes extends onto belly; under tail coverts like sides and back but still lighter. Total length 14.50- 15.25 inches (368-387 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 6.62-7.00 (168- 178); bill along culmen 1.35-1.49 (34.3-37.8); tarsus 1.07-1.18 (27.2-30.0) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but lower surface lighter, and spotting on belly very faint or absent. Natal plumage: Top of head and hind neck, line from bill through eye, and spot on ear, dark brown; sides of head dull yellow; back brown, with four spots of straw yellow, one on each side at base of tail and one on each side near wing. Marks for field identification — Very small size (for a duck); male, chestnut brown head with green patch back of eye, white bar across side of breast and bright green speculum bordered above and below by black. Dis- tinguished from the rare European Teal by presence of white bar across side of breast, and from Cinnamon and Blue-winged teals by absence of blue on wing. Flanks of female and young Green-wing more heavily marked than in Blue-winged Teal. Voice — Of male: a short mellow whistle; of female: a high pitched and oft repeated "quack" of slight volume (Eaton, 1910, p. 193; Bowles, in Dawson, 1909, p. 774). Nest — On the ground near water; constructed of grass and feathers placed in a thick growth of grass. Eggs — 5 to 12, bluntly ovate in shape, measuring in inches 1.60 to 1.83 by 1.22 to 1.34 (in millimeters, 40.7 to 46.5 by 31.0 to 34.0), and averaging 1.72 by 1.27 (43.7 to 32.2) (fourteen eggs from Arctic America and one set, seven 6ggs, from California, all in TJ. S. National Museum) ; pale olive or greenish buff in color. General distribution — North America. Breeds from northwestern Alaska, central Keewatin, and Newfoundland south to California, northern Nebraska and New Brunswick; winters from the Aleutian Islands, British Columbia, Nevada, northern Indiana and western New York south to southern Lower California, Honduras and the West Indies (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 70-71). GSEEN-WINGED TEAL 115 Distribution in Calipoknia — Abundant winter visitant throughout the state, chiefly on fresh water. Summers in small numbers locally; has been recorded as breeding only in Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89) ; at Tulare Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 1908a, p. 129) ; in Sierra Valley, Plumas County (Belding, MS); and near Alvarado, Alameda County (Dirks, 1916, p. 46). The Green-winged Teal is probably the commonest and most widely distributed duck in western North America, and during the winter season is one of the most abundant species in the southwestern United States. Along the Atlantic Coast it is now exceeded in num- bers by the Blue-winged Teal, but in former years Green-wings were fairly abundant there. The general breeding range of the Green- wing extends from the central United States to Alaska and New- foundland, but it is not common in summer south of the Canadian boundary. Most of the birds nest in west-central Canada, from Mani- toba to Lake Athabasca. The winter range is very extensive, reaching from British Columbia and New York to Mexico and even Central America. As with certain other ducks it is probable that the indi- viduals of this species wintering in California breed in British Columbia and Alaska. The Green-winged Teal is among the earliest migrant ducks to arrive here in the fall and also one of the last to depart in the spring. On August 12, 1905, a flock was flushed at Cushenbury Springs, San Bernardino County (Grinnell, 1908, p. 53), and as early as September 15 it has been noted at Stockton (Belding, MS). On the Pacific slope of southern California it arrives in late September or in October and leaves in March (Willett, 1912a, p. 23). It occurs in greatest abun- dance here during November and December, to judge from the numbers to be seen in the city markets. This teal prefers the smaller bodies of fresh water to the larger lakes and rivers. The Green-wing is the species which so often drops into temporary ponds, irrigation ditches, small evanescent desert pools and the innumerable little lakes that form during wet weather in the hill country, and is the duck most often shot on the small meadow ponds of the interior. In the coastal lowlands, and marshes adjacent to the lower reaches of the large rivers, it is also abundant. As a rule it avoids salt water, but occasionally, during the daytime, it is to be seen rafted with other species on the smooth water of the ocean just outside the surf. Among the smallest of our ducks, and considered by many to be the fastest of them in flight, the Green-winged Teal is still an easy bird to recognize. Its small size, and in the male the chestnut brown head relieved by green patches behind the eyes, the white bar in front of each wing and the bright green speculum together with the absence of a large blue patch on the wing make identification easy. Both the 116 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA Cinnamon and Blue-winged teals, in addition to their green speculums, have large patches of light blue on the wing, while the rare European Teal lacks the white bar across each side of the breast. The small body size, close flock formation, and erratic flight serve as good field marks in separating teal from other ducks. Green-winged Teal are known to nest in small numbers within the state. Goldman (1908a, p. 129) found a nest with seven eggs at Tulare Lake, Kings County, July 7, 1907, and several other birds of this species were also present in the vicinity. There is also a report of two sets of Green-winged Teal eggs secured at Tulare Lake in June, 1910, which were sent to Judge F. W. Henshaw and hatched out on his place at Redwood City. This additional instance strengthens a surmise which Goldman makes that there is a breeding colony in the vicinity of Tulare Lake. Evermann (1886, p. 89) states that a few bred in Ventura County in former years. Belding (MS) states that rig. 13. Side of bill of female Green-winged Teal. Natural size. Compare with bill of Cinnamon Teal (fig. 14). he found a few nesting in Sierra Valley, Plumas County, in June, 1885. This was after a dry winter. Residents told him that in seasons following abundant rainfall many more representatives of the species nested there. In eastern Oregon during the breeding season this teal is said to prefer the smaller mountain streams to the larger bodies of water (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 4). The nests of this duck resemble those of other species. One found by "W. P. Taylor (1912, p. 357) in northwestern Nevada at Quinn River Crossing, Humboldt County, on June 4, 1909, '■. . . was located in a depres- sion on moist ground, and surrounded by the tall grasses of the marSh. The nest was composed of willow twigs and grass stems so loosely felted together that the structure could not be picked up intact. The cavity measured 127 mm. (5 inches) in diameter and 70 mm. {2% inches) deep. Four eggs were found in the nest, and one other on the ground at a distance. . . Strangely enough, no down feathers were noted anywhere in the vicinity." McGregor (1906, p. 119) describes a nest from the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, as being "... on the ground beneath the overhanging trunk of a twisted willow; it was GEEEN-WINGED TEAL 117 thinly furnished with down about the top and the eggs rested on the ground." The inside dimensions of this nest were about 5% by 31/2 inches. Farther north, at the mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska, Nelson (1887, p. 69) says the nests are placed on dry knolls near small ponds, and are composed of grass stems and feathers. The seven eggs referred to above as collected by Goldman at Tulare Lake are bluntly ovate in shape, and decidedly smaller than those of the Cinnamon Teal. In color they are pale olive buff. They measure in inches 1.60 to 1.69 by 1.22 to 1.26 and average 1.65 by 1.24 (set now in U. S. National Museum) . The only description we have of the behavior of the female when with a brood is that by Bent (1902, p. 1) who came upon a parent bird with eight ducklings in a rush-bordered pond in North Dakota. The female made a considerable demonstration, flapping and drag- ging herself about as long as the observer remained. The young meanwhile sought safety in the adjacent rushes. In Alaska, accord- ing to Nelson (loc. cit.), the old and young may be found feeding together by the last of August. They then forage in the mud at the edge of small secluded tide creeks or in the grass-covered margins of pools in the marsh land. The downy young of the Green-winged Teal, as compared with those of related species, exhibit one feature by which they can be distinguished even if color characters cannot be remembered. The bill is notably long and parallel-sided, giving an effect of extreme slenderness. The Green-winged Teal is distinctly a gregarious species and, during the winter season, flocks have been observed, of as many as several hundred individuals. In fact this has been referred to as the most gregarious of ducks. Another striking feature of this bird 's behavior is its extremely high rate of speed on the wing. Bowles {in Dawson, 1909, p. 773) says: Moving at a rate of certainly not leas than one hundred miles au hour, the evolutions of a large flock of these birds are truly startling. They fly in such close order that one would think their wings must interfere, even on a straight course; yet of a sudden the whole flock will turn at a right angle, or wheel and twist as if it were one bird. The looker-on can only wonder what the signal may be which is given and obeyed to such perfection, for the least hesitation or mistake on the part of a single bird would result in death or a broken wing to a score. When flushed from the ground or water these teal usually ascend to a considerable elevation before flying oft'. When not disturbed they like to spend a large share of their time on land and seem to enjoy this "loafing" more than the great majority of wild ducks. The Green-wing is a rapid swimmer, but it seldom dives except when wounded. ns GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA Ordinarily Green-winged Teal feed during the daytime, but if molested they forage chiefly at night. Their favorite feeding ground is along the shore of a pond where they search about the mud (that is, "puddle") for insects and seeds. Like the Mallard and other pond and river ducks, the Green-winged Teal feeds in shallow water, searching the bottom by "standing on its head" and sifting out the seeds and other food materials from the mud and water. While thus "tilting" a bird often kicks the water vigorously to help it in maintaining the desired balance. Occasionally it may be seen wander- ing about on the grass-grown banks searching for insects. In fact the Green- wing is almost as omnivorous a feeder as the Mallard; for it will take aquatic plants, snails, crustaceans and all sorts of insects along with the commonest element of its food — weed seeds. Some persons consider the Green-winged Teal the most desirable duck as far as flavor is concerned. Its tender juicy flesh is certainly of a sort to be relished by anyone. This duck is also very attractive from a sportsman 's standpoint ; indeed many hunters consider it their "best" duck. It is both fast flying and wary and this makes it difficult to hit. A long lead and a quick shot are necessary to bring it to bag. However, it is fond of company and in consequence is easily attracted by the decoys. Even when it has been shot at several times this desire for company will cause the birds to return repeatedly to the same pond. The close formation is maintained both when in the air and on the water, thus affording opportunity for "pot shots." In this state, the numbers of Green-winged Teal shot each year exceed those of any other single species of duck. This is because of its greater abundance and also its desirability as a table bird. In 1909-1910 each of the game transfer companies of San Francisco handled from 5,000 to 20,000 "teal," while in 1895-1896 more than 82,000 were sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40). There were probably some Cinna- mon Teal in these lots, but by far the greater number were Green-wings. In 1886 several species of ducks on the San Francisco market sold for the following prices per dozen : Canvasback, $3.50 per dozen ; Mall- ards, $2.50 and $3.00; Sprigs, $1.50 and $2.00; Widgeon, $1.25; Teal, $1.50 to $1.75; "small ducks," $1.00 (Belding, MS). Thus it will be seen that, taking size into account, teal were greatly preferred. As long as the breeding grounds in the far north are well protected, and the toll taken each year is not too great, we can expect this duck to continue to visit us in numbers. That the toll is now in fact too great is the contention of many hunters in this state, who maintain that the numbers of this bird are steadily decreasing from year to year. EUBOPEAN TEAL 119 European Teal Nettion crecca (Linnaeus) Other najie — Anas crecca. Desceiption — Adult male: "Similar to . . . [the Green-winged Teal] but no white bar on side of breast, black and whitish undulations of sides, etc., much coarser, inner webs of outermost scapulars wholly, and outer webs partly, white, the exposed portion of outer webs mostly black ..." (Ridgway, 1887, p. 94). Total length "about 14.00" inches (356 mm.); folded wing "7.00-7.30" (178-186); bill along culmen "1.45-1.50" (36.8-38.2); tarsus "1.10-1.25" (28.0-31.8) (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 7). Adult female: "Not distinguishable with certainty from that of [Green-winged Teal] N. carolinensis?" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, loc. cit.). "Females and young of this teal can scarcely be determined unless by careful com- parison with authentic specimens, but seem to be browner and less finely variegated than the American bird" (Eaton, 1910, p. 191). Natal plumage: See Green-winged Teal. Makes for nst-D identification — Adult male: as for Green-winged Teal but white bar on side of breast lacking. Female cannot be distinguished from that of Green-winged Teal (Chapman, 1912, p. 195). Voice — ^Like that of Green-winged Teal. Nest — In bogs and marshes in grassy fields; formed of grasses and reeds, warmly lined with feathers (Davie, 1889, p. 64). Eggs — 8 to 10, sometimes 15, oval in shape, measuring in inches 1.75 by 1.30 (in millimeters, 44.5by 33.0); color yellowish white (Davie, loc. cit.). General distribution — Northern part of Eastern Hemisphere. Occasional in North America; recorded from the Aleutian Islands, California, Greenland, Labrador, Nova Scotia, Maine, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Virginia (A. O. U. Cheek-list, 1910, p. 70). Distribution in California — Known chiefly from Cooper's statement (1886, p. 125) that in his time it had been ' ' found not rarely in California. ' ' The European Teal is widely distributed over the Old World, breeding throughout Europe and Asia. The records of its occurrence in North America are very few. Specimens have been taken along the Atlantic Coast from Labrador to the District of Columbia ; several have been found in the markets of New York City. On the Pacific Coast but two records are known, one for the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, and the other for California. The latter record, as far as we are aware, is unfortunately not substantiated by specimens in any collec- tion. The dates of capture elsewhere in America are for every month of the year, except January, August, and October; those from the United States range from November to April (Cooke, 1906, p. 30). This teal is known to be abundant on the eastern coast of Asia as far north as Kamchatka and Bering Island. Although Cooper (1886, p. 125) records the European Teal as having been "found not rarely in California," no other record of its occurrence within the state is known to us. Belding (MS) thought 120 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA that individuals of this species bred in the marshes near Stockton. But since this belief was based on sight determination, it can hardly be given weight as conclusive evidence. This duck certainly cannot be considered as more than an extremely rare straggler within the borders of the state, if it now occurs here at all. In habits the European Teal doubtless so nearly resembles the Green-winged Teal that the account of the latter will serve to give a fair idea of the former. One of the peculiar habits for which the European Teal is especially noted in England may be mentioned however. "When startled it flies up almost perpendicularly to a con- siderable height, then starts off in a straight line, afterwards return- ing at a great height. "When about to alight the birds dive down almost perpendicularly from overhead. Their speed in flight is said to be remarkable, and has been estimated at over a hundred miles an hour. Millais (1902, p. 82) says: "Whilst on the wing the male occasionally utters his low double whistle, but Teal are silent birds at all times, and the female rarely calls unless frightened, such as when the brood is threatened, when she emits a subdued little quack. ' ' Blue-vpinged Teal Querquedula discors (Linnaeus) Other names — White-faced Teal; Anas discors. Desckiption — Adult male: Head and neck dull lead color, slightly glossed with purplish on the sides; top of head from base of bill to hind neck, black; conspicuous crescent on side of head extending from above eye around in front of eye and downwards and backwards past chin, white, bordered with blackish; chin black; bill "bluish-black"; iris "dark hazel" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 291) ; upper surface dark brown, the feathers lighter-edged, and those of back and scapulars variegated with horseshoe-shaped markings of light rusty brown; rump and tail nearly uniform dark brown, but with pale feather edgings; forepart of outer surface of closed wing pale blue; flight feathers dark brown; tertials long and narrow and striped with light rusty brown and black; speculum metallic green, bordered in front by a white bar, above by a blackish stripe, and behind by a very narrow white border; most of lining of wing, and axillars, pure white; under surface of body and sides, reddish brown, spotted with black; under tail coverts brownish black; spot at base of tail on each side, white; under surface of tail feathers, ashy; feet "dull yellow," webs "dusky," claws "brownish black" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes): "14.50-16.00" inches (368-407 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 92). Males: folded wing 7.50 (190) (adult), 7.00 (178) (immature); bill along culmen 1.55 (39.4) (adult), 1.52 (38.6) (immature); tarsus 1.22 (31.0) (adult), 1.17 (29.7) (immature); one specimen of each from California. Adult female: Upper surface dark brown, with dull buff feather edgings; sides of head and neck finely streaked with same color; stripe before and behind eye, dusky; rest of head and neck pale brownish white; chin and throat almost pure white; bill, iris, and outer surface of closed wing as in adult male, but green of speculum much duller and tertials colored like back; under surface of body BLUE-WINGED TEAL 121 dull -white, with grayish brown feather centers, giving a spotted or mottled appearance, coarsest on sides of body and least distinct on belly. Folded wing 6.83-6.88 inches (174^175 mm.); bill along culmen 1.48-1.51 (37.6-38.4); tarsus 1.16-1.24 (29.4-31.5) (two specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female but wing like that of adult male. Natal plumage: "Top of head and upper parts, brown; buff spots in front of wing, across wing, and at side of rump; forehead, line to eye and lower parts, pale buff; sides of head and hind neck, ochraceous buff" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Byke, 1903, p. 99). Adult males at close of breeding season assume an "eclipse" plumage resembling plumage of female. Marks for field identification — Small size. Male has large blue patch on forepart of wing, green speculum, white crescent on cheek and no deep cinnamon color on under surface. Female distinguished with difficulty from female Cinnamon Teal: chin and throat much lighter, no rusty on chest or sides, and head and neck more heavily speckled. Voice — Of male: a whistling "peep," repeated five or six times; of female: similar to "quack" of Green-winged Teal (Eaton, 1910, p. 195). Nest — Usually on dry ground near fresh water, and hidden in tall grass; made of grass or reeds and lined with down. Eggs — 6 to 12, bluntly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.71 to 1.93 by 1.26 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 43.5 to 49.0 by 32.0 to 34.5), and averaging 1.81 by 1.30 (46.0 by 33.0) ; in color pale olive buff (forty-one eggs in U. S. National Museum). General distribution — Western Hemisphere, but most numerous in the eastern portion of North America. Breeds from central British Columbia and Newfoundland south to northern Nevada, southern Indiana and Maine, but most abundantly between the Eocky Mountains and Great Lakes. Winters from southern British Columbia, Arizona, southern Illinois, and Delaware south to central America and northern South America (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 71). Distribution in California — Eare transient and winter visitant, occurring exclusively on fresh water. The following are the only records from Cali- fornia known to the writers: Napa, Napa County (W. E. Bryant, 1891, p. 128); Stockton, San Joaquin County, San Diego, and Agua Caliente [:^=Palm Springs], Eiverside County (Belding, 1891, p. 97) ; Weaverville, Trinity County (Salvadori, 1895, p. 299); Vallejo, Solano County (Kobb6, in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix) ; Little Owens Lake, Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 16) ; Santa Barbara (Torrey, 1909a, pp. 173-174; Dawson, 1916, p. 24); El Monte and Los Angeles, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 11; Swarth, 1910, p. 107); Los Angeles County (Willett, 1911, p. 76) ; Bolsa Beach, Orange County (Grinnell collection); National City, San Diego County (Willett, 1912a, p 23); Colorado Eiver, Eiverside County, opposite Ehrenberg, Arizona (Stephens, 1903, p. 76). The Blue-winged Teal, although a common duek of the east and still more common in the middle west, is a rare species on the Pacific Coast. Its breeding range includes the northern United States and extends northward to central Canada. It is to be found breeding most abundantly in south-central Canada and in the middle western states between the Rocky Moixntains and the Great Lakes. It is rare in British Columbia and has been recorded but once from Alaska. Dur- 122 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA ing the winter it is distributed from the south-central states to north- ern South America. Consequently it must be classed along with the Cinnamon Teal as a southern duck which comes north through the United States for the summer. The Blue-winged Teal has been taken but comparatively few times in California and the majority of the records are from south of Tehachapi. Of twenty individual specimens recorded, three are of January date, one of February, eight are of "spring" dates (March to May, inclusive), the other eight of "fall" dates (August to October, inclusive). From these facts it would appear that the Blue- winged Teal occurs in California as a transient, and casually as a midwinter visitant. The adult male is distinctive among American ducks by reason of the crescent-shaped patches of white on the sides of its head, and this feature gives it the name of White-faced Teal. The large area of light blue on the wing will separate the Blue-winged Teal from all other ducks of similar size except the Cinnamon Teal. The males of these two species are readily distinguished because of the bright cinnamon, almost chestnut color, of the Cinnamon Teal. The females and young, however, are very similar. Those of the Blue-winged Teal have a slenderer bill (compare figs. 15 and 16), constricted at the base, and they lack the slight tinge of chestnut to be noted on the sides of the breast in the Cinnamon Teal. The feathers of the breast of the Cinnamon Teal are commonly marked with horseshoe-shaped markings of pale rufous, whereas those of the Blue-winged Teal are simply edged with ashy. According to Davie (1889, p. 65) the nest is made on the ground, in a thick patch or tussock of grass, usually in meadows, the borders of ponds, or streams, and swampy places. It is composed of soft pieces of grass and weeds and lined with down and feathers from the breast of the bird. The eggs are six to twelve in number, bluntly ovate in shape, and are lighter in tint than those of the Green-winged Teal; they are distinguishable from those of the Cinnamon only by their slightly smaller size. In the middle west this duck is said to nest in thickly settled localities and even on embankments beside railroad tracks. Like the Green-winged Teal, the Blue-wing flies with great speed and in close flocks. On approaching a pond it drops quickly into the water or into the reeds much as do some of the shorebirds. The habits of the Blue-winged Teal are almost identical with those of the Green-winged Teal. Individuals found in California have nearly always been mixed in with flocks of Green-winged Teal and have not been recognized until shot. CINNAMON TEAL 123 Where abundant this duck affords the same sport as does the Green-wing and makes just as difficult a mark. Like the latter bird the Blue-wing readily decoys, and it is just as desirable as the Green- wing for the table. It is not probable that the Blue-winged Teal will ever become common in California. Certainly the. records do not show that it is becoming more abundant at the present time. An increase in the number of records at some future time might result from an increase in the number of people who are able to recognize the species, and from a keener watch being kept for unusual occurrences among the ducks killed in the state. Cinnamon Teal Querquedula cyanoptera (Vieillot) Other names — Eed-breasted Teal; Western Blue-winged Teal; Anas cyanop- tera; Pterocyanea coeruleata; Pterocyanea discors. Description — Adult male: Head rich chestnut, washed with black on crown and chin; iris orange; bill black, margin of upper mandible and whole of lower mandible tinged with pink; back brownish black with U-shaped bars and feather-edgings of chestnut; rump and middle upper tail coverts dark brown edged with lighter brown; lateral upper tail coverts and upper surface of tail brownish black; forepart of outer surface of closed wing and outer webs of scapulars, clear light blue; flight feathers slate brown; speculum metallic green, separated from blue area by a white bar and bordered above by brownish black; tertials striped with buff; axillars white; lining of wing white and dull brown; whole under surface of body rich chestnut, washed with blackish on belly; under tail coverts black; under surface of tail feathers ashy; feet greenish orange, joints, webs and claws dusky. Total length 15.95- 16.20 inches (405-412 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 7.25-8.00 (184- 203); bill along culmen 1.67-1.88 (42.4-47.7); tarsus 1.21-1.32 (30.7-33.5) (ten specimens); weight 10.3-11.3 ounces (290-320 gm.) (three specimens). Adult female: Top of head blackish brown, each feather narrowly edged with brown; rest of head ashy cinnamon, finely streaked with dark brown; chin sometimes unstreaked; whole upper surface blackish brown, with buffy or ashy feather edgings; iris hazel; outer surface of closed wing as in male, but speculum dull black, showing only a trace of green, and white bar reduced or absent; scapulars dark brown streaked and edged with paler brown; lining of wing and axillars as in male; breast buffy, heavily mottled with blackish and more or less suffused with light cinnamon brown; rest of under surface like breast, but less heavily mottled and ground color paler sometimes almost white on middle of belly; feet dull green, webs and claws dusky. Total length 15.75 inches (400 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 6.90-7.45 (175-189); bill along culmen 1.63-1.85 (41.4-47.0) ; tarsus 1.21-1.26 (30.7-32.0) (ten specimens) ; weight 10.8 oz. (305.7 gm.) (one specimen); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but under surface of body less suffused with cinnamon brown, and markings narrower, giving more of a streaked appearance. Juvenile males can be distinguished from females by the green speculum and white wing bar being as in adult males. Females have speculum dull black with faintest trace of green and white bar but brokenly indicated. Natal plumage: Top of 124 GAME BIMDS OF CALIFOBNIA head dark olive; sides of head, chin and throat, yellowish buff; stripe from base of bill near nostril to eye and two streaks back of eye, dark brown; upper surface of body dark olive; spot on each side of back and one on each side at base of tail, yellow; whole under surface yellowish buff. Marks fob field identipication — Small size (but large for a teal), and large blue patch on wing in front of green or blackish speculum. Male dis- tinguished from all other ducks by rich chestnut brown body color (pi. 4). Female and young can only be separated from those of Blue-winged Teal in hand and then only with difficulty; the Cinnamon has head and chin more speckled, and distinct diffusion of light cinnamon brown and U-shaped markings on breast. Voice — Similar to that of other teal; a miniature "quack," given by the female. Nest — Situated in grassy fields or among tules, sometimes above shallow water but more often above damp ground, at times some little distance from water; made of grasses or tules compactly woven together and deeply saucer- shaped. Eggs — 6 to 13, ovate or elongate ovate in shape; measuring in inches 1.73 to 2.09 by 1.18 to 1.38 (in millimeters, 44.0 to 53.0 by 30.0 to 35.0), and averaging 1.87 by 1.36 (47.5 by 34.5) (seventy eggs in TJ. S. National Museum) ; in color creamy white or pale buff. General distribution — North and South America. Breeds in North America from southern British Columbia, southwestern Alberta, southeastern Wyoming, and western Kansas south to northern Lower California, northern Chihuahua, southern New Mexico, and southwestern Texas; winters from southern Cali- fornia, central New Mexico, and southern Texas south to southern Lower California and central Mexico. Occurs in South America from Peru ami Brazil south to the Falkland Islands (modified from A. O. V. Check-list, 1910, p. 71). Distribution in California — Abundant spring, summer and fall visitant throughout the state, breeding throughout its summer range; restricted to the vicinity of fresh water. Scattered individuals winter in the central and southern portions of the state, the following definite instances of occurrence being known: Vallejo, Solano County (Kobbe in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix) ; Los Banos, Merced County, November to February, inclusive, 1911-1912 (twelve specimens in Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Eiverdale, Fresno County, January 10, 1912, a dozen (Tyler, 19136, p. 16) ; Tulare Lake, Kings County (Cooke, 1906, p. 35) ; Newport Slough, Orange County, December and January, 1884 (Belding, MS) ; and near Salton Sea, Imperial County, December 16, 1910, one (Van Eossem, 1911, p. 130). The spring migration begins about the first of March and the southward movement commences in September, the breeding grounds being almost deserted by mid-October (Cooke, loe. cit.). The bright coloration of this duck has attracted much popular attention and has been the basis for its several vernacular names. The chestnut or cinnamon color of the under surface has given rise to its accepted vernacular name, Cinnamon Teal, also a common hunter's name, Red-breasted Teal; while the large patch of blue on the wing is responsible for its being called Blue-winged Teal. Use of the latter name, however, is confusing, as a related bird abundant in eastern North America, and even reaching California, has proper claim to this name (see preceding account). CINNAMON TEAL 125 Fig. 14. 21739 Side of bill of female Cinnamon Teal. Natural size. The chestnut color of the lower surface serves to easily distinguish the male Cinnamon Teal from all other ducks (pi. 4). The females and young closely resemble those of the eastern Blue-winged Teal. The heavier speckling on the head and chin, the strong suffusion of rusty or cinnamon on the breast, and the U-shaped markings of pale rusty brown are never present in the Blue-winged Teal. Close examination of the bills will show that of the Blue-wing to be smal- ler, although relatively broader at the base (figs. 15 and 16). From the Green-winged Teal the Cinnamon Teal may be distinguished in hand by the larger size of the latter, longer bill and neck, darker color, presence of blue on forepart of wing and, in flight, by the last named character and also by the less rapid beating of the wings. The Cinnamon Teal must be considered the commonest breeding duck as regards the whole of Cali- fornia, although the Pintail or Mal- lard may possibly outnumber it in certain Icfcalities. In southern Cali- fornia there is hardly a ranch of any size offering suitable conditions where a pair or more of these birds is not to be observed at the proper season. It is the Cinnamon Teal which is the usual duck found nest- ing in the marshes of the San Joa- quin and Sacramento valleys. The artificial ponds in the form of reservoirs, found so commonly through- out the state, often furnish a home for it. In California the nesting season of the Cinnamon Teal extends from April into July. The bulk of the nesting occurs in May and June, chiefly the former month. There is no difference in time of nesting correlative with latitude, but nesting at high altitudes occurs later than in the lowlands. The accompanying table (no. 10) gives all the data known to the authors relative to the nesting of the species in California. While Cinnamon Teal have been found nesting in such widely 21735 rig. 15. Cinnamon Teal. 1647 HJa Fig. 16. Blue-winged Teal. Tops of bills. Both females, na- tural size. The differences in outline shown will serve to separate the two species when coloration fails. 126 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA Table 10. — Data relative to the nesting of the Cinnamon Teal in California . Nest Contents and Locality Date Condition Authority Stockton, San Joaquin Co. Apr. 13, 1878 Breeding (male taken) Belding, 1879, p. 446 Escondido, San Diego Co. Apr. 18 to May 13 Nests found Sharp, 1907, p. 86 Newport Bay, Orange Co. Apr. 20, 1897 7 eggs, fresh Grinnell, 1898, p. 11 Newport Bay, Orange Co. Apr. 20, 1897 9 eggs, fresh Grinnell, 1898, p. 11 Near College Park, Santa Clara Co. Apr. 29, 1893 8 eggs, fresh Schneider, 1893, p. 21 Near College Park, Santa Clara Co. Apr. 29, 1893 10 eggs Schneider, 1893, pp. 21- 22 Near College Park, Santa Clara Co. Apr. 29, 1893 11 eggs Schneider, 1893, p. 21 Near College Park, Santa Clara Co. Apr. 29, 1893 11 eggs Schneider, 1893, p. 21 Vicinity of Los Angeles First week in May May 7, 1895 9-13 eggs; nesting commonly 12 eggs, fresh Davie, 1889, p. 66 Compton, Los Angeles Co. Grinnell, 1898, p. 11 "Wheeler Island, Solano Co. May 8, 1914 Newly hatched brood Fair, MS Fort Crook (near Pitt- ville), Shasta Co. May 9, 1861 3 eggs (set incomplete?) Set in U. S. National Museum Sierra Valley, Plumas Co. May 9, 1891 3 eggs (set incomplete?) Set in U. S. National Los Bafios, Merced Co. May 10—14, 1915 Los Baiios, Merced Co. May 11-24, 1914 Near College Park, Santa Clara Co. Los Angeles Co. Merced Co. Buena Vista Lake, Kern Co. Lathrop, San Joaquin Co. Dos Pales, Merced Co. Los Bancs, Merced Co. Nigger Slough, Los Angeles Co. Gridley, Butte Co. May 13, 1893 Mid-May May 20, 1896 May 20-30, 1907 May 22, May 22, May 22, May 25, 1911 1912 1914 1911 May 25, 1914 Sugar Hill, Modoc Co. May 28, 1910 Merced, Merced Co. May 30, 1898 Tule [=Ehett] Lake, June 1, 1914 Siskiyou Co. Lower Klamath Lake, June 6, 1914 Siskiyou Co. San Jacinto Lake, June 7, 1897 Riverside Co. Lake Tahoe June 14. 1915 Tulare Lake, Kings Co. June 18, 1907 Museum 1 egg (set incomplete) H. C. Bryant, 1915e, p. 193 23 nests found and 4 H. C. Bryant, 1914e, broods of downy young pp. 222—223 seen 11 eggs, deserted Schneider, 1893, p. 21 Young birds seen by this Willett, 1912a, pp. 23-24 time 9 eggs, fresh Mailliard coll. Fresh eggs and young Linton, 1908c, p. 196 6 eggs H. C. Bryant, MS. 11 eggs, nearly fresh Carriger coll. 11 eggs, fresh Mus. Vert. Zool. 5 eggs (set incomplete) Willett, 1912o, p. 24 9 eggs, fresh H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 227 10 eggs, incubated W, P. Taylor, MS, in Mus. Vert. Zool. Mus. Vert. Zool. H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 230 Brood of 5 or 6 downy H. C. Bryant, 1914e, young p. 231 11 eggs, incubation com- IngersoU coll. menced 11 eggs, incubation com- Carriger coll. menced Nesting completed; many Goldman, 19086, p. 202 broods ; some nearly fiill grown 8 eggs 9 eggs, female sitting Lake Valley, near Lake Tahoe Chowchilla, Merced Co. Chowchilla, Merced Co. San Luis Rey, [San Diego Co.?] Eagle Lake, Lassen Co. Rowlands Marsh, Lake Tahoe Palo Verde, Imperial Co. June 19, 1902 4 eggs (set incomplete?) Ray, 1903, p. 49 June 21, 1901 June 21, 1901 June 22, 1861 June 26, 1905 or later June 30, 1903 July 14, 1916 9 eggs, fresh Mailliard coll. 10 eggs, incubation begun Mailliard coll. Female with matured egg Cooper, 1880, p. 251 7 eggs, 8 eggs, 10 eggs Sheldon, 1907, pp. 186-187 10 eggs, practically fresh Ray, 1905, p. 370 7 eggs, hatched on this Wiley, MS. date Bear Lake, July 30, 1905 San Bernardino Mts. Small young seen Grinnell, 1908, p. 53 r CO CO 3) CINNAMON TEAL 127 separated and diverse localities as Lake Tahoe, the San Joaquin Valley, and the coastal marshes of southern California, the site chosen for the nest is always in the vicinity of fresh water. On salt marshes, fresh water oases are sought out. The immediate site chosen differs markedly in the numerous instances recorded. Sometimes the nest is placed in grass land or a grain field a hundred yards or so from water ; more commonly, it is in a damp situation, as in tules or marsh land, and at the edge of some small pond or stream. The nest itself is usually a compact structure made of grass stems and weeds and, less often, tules; but occasionally it is nothing more than a slight hollow in the ground. After the full complement of six to thirteen eggs is laid, the nest is always well lined with down of a dark gray hue; as a rule, iintil the set is complete, little or no down is to be found in the nest. While sitting, the female is secretive, and only flushes when an intruder is close to the nest. A nest found by H. C. Bryant (MS) near Lathrop, San Joaquin County, May 22, 1911, from which the female had departed before his approach, was found to have the eggs covered and completely concealed by the down. Speaking of the Cinnamon Teal in the nesting season at Los Baiios, Chapman (1908, p. 290) says that "the drake was always within a few feet of the duck, when she was off the nest, and invariably sprang into the air a foot or two behind her when she took wing. We made this habit a subject of special observation without ever seeing the male bird fly first." At Los Banos, Merced County, in May, 1914, H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 222) found no less than twenty-three nests of this species. Of these, eighteen showed evidence of destruction of the eggs by some pre- dacious animal, and from three others the young had already hatched. A nest which when first found contained but a single egg, four days later held five eggs, showing that one egg was laid each day. Con- cerning nests found at this locality the same author says : The incohspicuousness of a nest when covered with its blanket of down was significantly impressed upon us on returning to a, nesting site we had previously marked. Although we went directly to the small islet on which the nest was situated and looked carefully for the nest it took several minutes to descry it, and when found was in exactly the position we had pictured it in our minds. The dusky-hued down of the Cinnamon Teal harmonizes wonder- fully with the damp black earth on which the nest is most often directly placed (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, pp. 222-223). The method most frequently used in locating nests of this and other species of ducks is for two persons to drag a long rope over an area in which nests are to be expected. As the rope, passing over the grass, approaches a sitting bird she will usually flush directly and thus give a clue to the exact location of her nest. 128 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA As is shown by the accompanying table (no. 10) the number of eggs in a complete set ranges from 6 to 13, the average being between 9 and 10. The eggs are ovate or elongate-ovate in shape, and measure in inches 1.73 to 2.08 by 1.18 to 1.38, averaging 1.87 by 1.36. The color is creamy white or pale buff. The eggs of the Green-winged Teal are decidedly smaller, but similar in tone of color. Those of the Pintail, Gadwall and Shoveller are much larger. A. M. Shields {in Schneider, 1893, p. 22) has given the following notes as to the habits of the young : After being hatched, the mother duck (joined by her mate) escorts the young brood to the nearest body of water and manifests the greatest solicitude for the well-fare of the little fellows, giving a signal upon the slightest approach of danger, which is followed by the almost instant disappearance of the entire brood, as if by magic. If on the shore, they disappear in the grass; if in the water, they dive, and that is generally the last seen of them, for the time being at least, as they swim under water for great distances until reaching the edge of the stream or pond, when they imperceptibly secrete themselves among the water moss or grass. I once watched a little fellow as he made his way under the clear water. He went straight for a little bunch of floating moss, and by gazing intently I could just distinguish the least possible little swelling of the moss; a small hump, as it were, about the size of a marble. He had come to the surface (as intended) under the patch of moss, and his head and bill were responsible for the little hump in the moss. Possibly one thing more than anything else helps the little fellows to dis- appear in such marvelously quick time and before you can realize it. The old duck flutters and falls around you just out of your reach and most success- fully imitates a fowl badly winged, hardly able to rise from the ground. Her actions are bound to more or less avert your attention for a moment at least, and it is just that moment that the little fellows disappear, as the mother Duck undoubtedly intended. After a short time, when the little ones are all securely hidden, the mother, feeling no further anxiety, gracefully recovers from her crippled condition, flies off a few hundred yards, and there awaits your departure, when she returns to her family, who soon gather around her one by one till they are all assembled and everything goes on as though nothing had happened — until the next intruder appears, when "presto! change!" and the same actions are repeated. Writing of the Cinnamon Teal at Los Baiios, Merced County, Chapman (1908, p. 290) says that the agility of the "freshly hatched ducklings was remarkable. Almost on emerging from the egg they took to the water, swimming and diving freely. ' ' The Cinnamon Teal is one of the tamest of the ducks and can often be approached to within a few yards. The species often asso- ciates with other ducks, especially with the Green-winged Teal, but without appearing to be as sociable as the latter and never gathering in such large flocks. After nesting time, family parties are the rule, SEOVELLES 129 but upon first arrival in the spring and when leaving in the fall larger flocks are common. It is, however, to be observed that even in flocks the individuals consociate in pairs. The food of the Cinnamon Teal, as well as its method of feeding, is like that of other teals. In the shallow water along the borders of ponds it may be seen "tilting" in its attempt to obtain insects and seeds from the mud on the bottom. It is often seen searching for food in the grass on shore. The Cinnamon Teal is usually rated as inferior to other teal as a table duck. However this may be, this bird was, in the early days, killed in numbers for the market. Its flesh is said to be sweet and full of blood (like a dove's), but its keeping qualities are poor. As the Cinnamon Teal migrates south in September and October, being almost altogether gone before the opening of the shooting season, it receives a much greater degree of protection than in the case of resi- dent or wintering ducks. So long as suitable breeding places are furnished this duck, and so long as conditions in its winter home remain favorable, it will, therefore, continue to be a common species. The great amount of land reclamation which is now being carried on would seemingly tend to reduce the appropriate nesting grounds to a minimum, so that the breeding species of ducks might either be driven elsewhere or might be correspondingly reduced in numbers. On the other hand the construction of irrigation canals and reservoirs, with their overflow seepages, must to a considerable extent counter- balance the above tendency. The Cinnamon Teal can be credited with an esthetic value, because of its natural tameness and beautiful plumage ; and it is to be hoped that its existence as a regular member of our avifauna will never be endangered. Shoveller Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus) Other names — Spoonbill; Spoonie; Bynehaspis clypeata. Desckiption — Adult male: Whole head and neck metallic green with violet reflections at certain angles; top of head, throat and area about base of bill approaching dull black or brown and showing least of metallic lustre; bill almost black, lower mandible paler; iris yellow; middle of back slate brown, each feather edged with white or light brown; rump and upper tail coverts black, with metallic green lustre; tail feathers brown, conspicuously- edged with white; front portion of outer surface of closed wing clear light blue; primaries slate brown; speculum brilliant metallic green bordered in front by white bar which separates speculum from blue area; innermost secon- daries black, tinged with metallic green and each with a streak of white towards tip" scapulars long, and streaked with white and black or brown; under surface of wing and axillars mostly pure white; whole breast pure white, sometimes obscured by a brownish stain and not infrequently showing black spottings; this broad white area almost completely encircling the body as a 130 GAME BISDS OF CALIFOBNIA wide collar; rest of lower surface rich cinnamon; a white spot on each side at base of tail; area behind vent finely barred with black and white, tinged with brownish; under tail coverts black with metallic green lustre; under sur- face of tail white; legs and feet orange red. Total length (both sexes): "17.00- 21.00" inches (432-533 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 97). Males: folded wing 9.56-9.95 (243-252); bill along culmen 2.48-2.69 (63.0-68.4); tarsus 1.46-1.54 (37.2-39.2) (ten specimens). Adult female: Whole head and upper surface of body brown, each feather edged with ashy, and those of back with irregular light bars; bill olive gray, edges of lower mandible orange, its under surface pale gray; tail feathers grayish brown edged with white, sides of head grayish, finely streaked with dusky; chin nearly white; throat minutely streaked with dark brown; outer surface of closed wing as in male but duller colored; speculum with much less metallic green, and bounded behind by a white line; breast, sides and area behind vent grayish brown, each feather with a lighter edging, giving a spotted or mottled appearance; belly less prominently or not at all marked, but usually obscured by a more or less deep suffusion of rusty; under surface of tail ashy white. Folded wing 8.78-9.32 inches (223- 236 mm.); bill along culmen 2.30-2.51 (58.4^63.8); tarsus 1.38-1.47 (35.1-37.4) (ten specimens) ; all from California. Eclipse plumage (of male) : Much like plumage of adult female but enough of wing pattern and patch of white on breast remain to make identification certain. Juvenile plumage — Male: Similar to that of adult female but lighter in tone and breast usually tinged with chestnut. Female: Wing dull slate color instead of blue; speculum dusky, with very little metallic green, and bordered behind by a faint white line. Natal plumage: Top and back of head dark brown; stripe from base of bill over eye, and side of head below eye, pale buffy brown; stripe from bill through eye, brownish black; chin and throat buffy white; rest of upper surface brown; spot on side of back, stripe across hind border of wing, and spot at side of rump, white; under surface of body grayish white; breast tinged with brown. Mahks foe field identification — Broad spoon-shaped bill (figs. 17 and 18), much wider near tip than at base (whence the names "spoonie" and shoveller"), chunky head, short neck and blue patch on wing. Male distinguished by dark green head and cinnamon colored belly bounded in front by a white breast patch. Voice — A feeble quack (Forbush, 1912, p. 100) ; in breeding season note resembles the syllables tooTc, took. Notes of any kind are seldom uttered. Nest — Usually on dry ground, sometimes at a considerable distance from water; constructed of grass and weed stems, and sometimes lined with down. Eggs — 9 to 14, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.00 to 2.28 by 1.38 to 1.50 (in millimeters, 51.0 to 58.0 by 35.0 to 38.0), and averaging 2.18 by 1.46 (55.5 by 37.0) (twenty eggs in TJ. S. National Museum) ; in color pale olive buff or greenish gray. The shells are comparatively thin, with but a slight surface gloss (authors). GENEE.4.L distribution — Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds from northwestern Alaska, northwestern Mackenzie, and southern Keewatin south to southern California, central New Mexico, northern Texas, northern Missouri, and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia, Arizona, New Mexico, southern Missouri, southern Illinois, Maryland, and Delaware south to the West Indies, Colombia, and Hawaii (A. O. TJ. Check- list, 1910, p. 72). DlSTKiBUTioN IN CALIFORNIA— Abundant winter visitant, chiefly on fresh water, throughout the state. In some years the spring migration does not SHOVELLEE 131 begin until late May. Remains through the summer in small numbers locally, and has been found breeding at the following localities: Gorman Station, Los Angeles County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 17); near Los Angeles (Willett, 1912a, p. 24); Tulare Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 19086, p. 202); near Jamison, Fresno County (IngersoU coll.) ; near Chowchilla, Merced County (Mailliard, MS); near Hayward, Alameda County (Emerson, 1901, p. 116); and Wheeler Island, Solano County (Fair, MS). The Shoveller, or Spoonbill Duck, the "Spoonie" of hunters, has the widest distribution of any of the ducks so far treated, for it is found throughout Europe and Asia and parts of Africa as well as ■B^ Fig. 18. Bill from below. Natural size. Note broad, spoon-like end, whence the name ' ' Spoonbill, ' ' and the cross-ridges or "strainers" on sides of mandibles. throughout North America and portions of Central America. In North America the principal breeding home of the Shoveller is in the prairie region of the interior from the northern United States to Saskatchewan. Along the Pacific Coast this duck is an abundant winter visitant from central British Columbia to Panama and parts of Central America. Large numbers also winter in the Hawaiian Islands. The spring migration into the Mackenzie region begins about the second week in May, and October 16 to 18 are some dates for the fall migration into Mexico (Cooke, 1906, p. 3,7). In Cali- fornia it is common from the first of October till late in April, and even until the first part of May, after other species of migratory ducks have all gone north. 132 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOMNIA Shovellers "are usually found in pairs or small flocks, sitting on banks or puddling in shallow water close to shore, skimming flies and larvae from the surface with their spoon-like bills, or with head and neck under water, sifting seeds, moUusks and crustaceans from the muddy bottom" (V. Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 54). The male Shoveller, with its bright green head, pure white breast, deep cinnamon belly and light blue patches on the wings, is, to say the least, a strikingly marked bird. The additional character of a broad, spoon-shaped bill (see figs. 17 and 18), makes it one of the easiest of the ducks to recognize. The female and young, although roughly similar in coloration to the Blue-winged and Cinnamon teals, especially in the possession of blue patches on the wing, are easily separated from the teals by larger size, and still better, by the shape of the bill. On the wing the comparatively huge bill, thick head and short neck, make good field marks. The flight of the Shoveller is something like that of the teal but is less direct, more of a hesitating, hovering sort. In California the nesting season of the Shoveller commences in April. Emerson (1901, p. 116) found two nests near Hayward, Alameda County, one on April 25, 1901, with fourteen eggs, and another (number of eggs not stated) on March 28, 1886. On Wheeler Island, Solano County, Fair (MS) found a nest with eleven eggs on May 8, 1914. In the Ingersoll collection there are two sets, of nine and ten eggs, respectively, with incubation begun in both cases ; both were taken near Jamison, Fresno County, May 21, 1916. Farther south, at Tulare Lake, Kings County, Goldman (19086, p. 202) found small young between June 18 and 24 (1907), at ChowchiUa, Merced County, two downy young were found June 25, 1900 (Mailliard coll.), and near Gorman Station, Los Angeles County, the species has been reported as breeding during the "last of June" (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 17). The nest, constructed of dried grasses and weeds, with an occa- sional lining of down, is usually placed on dry ground, and often at some distance from water. Emerson (loe. eit.) describes the nest found near Hayward, Alameda County, April 25, 1901, as being on the bare ground among salt weed. "It was not over four inches off the ground and . . . was composed of dry stems of the salt-weed, lined with down and a few feathers from the parent bird, and measured fourteen inches across the top with a depth of five inches." Another nest discovered on March 28, 1886, by the same writer and in the same general locality, was placed under a low bush, 150 yards back from the bay shore and was of similar construction to the one just described. SEOVELLEB 1S3 The eggs of the Shoveller are similar in color to those of the Mallard and Pintail, being usually pale olive buff or pale greenish gray, and have thin shells with very little lustre. They are smaller in size, however, and slightly different in shape. They are distin- guishable from the eggs of the Mallard by their paler tint as well as by their smaller size (Bent, 1902, p. 4). The downy young cannot be readily distinguished from other ducks in that stage, for the bill at first shows little indication of the broad spoon-like form which it takes on gradually as the bird ap- proaches full size. The molt into the breeding plumage is slow. Beck (MS) states that as late as January 2, 1911, Shovellers collected at Los Banos, Merced County, were still molting on the head and that but few were in perfect feather. Young males often show curious combinations of the juvenile and adult patterns of coloration. Shovellers are swift fliers and make a noticeable flapping noise with their wings when rising from the water's surface. During certain seasons they are restless and spend much of the time on the wing. Nordhoff (1902, p. 213) states that on Elsinore Lake, Riverside County, Shovellers were much tamer than other species of ducks, sometimes allowing approach to within twenty or thirty yards. They do not gather into large flocks consisting purely of their own kind, but both forage and travel in pairs or small companies, often associat- ing with other species of ducks. As is evidenced by the character of the bill the Shoveller obtains much of its food by skimming the water. The comb-like fringes along the edges of the sensitive upper mandible, sometimes called lamellae, are especially well developed and enable the bird by skimming the surface to strain out plants and animals of very small size. The birds can often be seen swimming with their heads partially submerged, "gabbling" or sifting the water as they go, and seldom raising the head unless some large object is captured. In addition to the insect food obtained on the surface of the water, the Shoveller feeds on aquatic plants, grasses, and seeds which it procures in the mud near shore. At Owens Lake, Inyo County, Nelson {in A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 17) found the Shoveller feeding extensively on the larvae and pupae of a small fly (Ephydra Mans) which abounded at the time in the lake. As a general rule this duck does not acquire much fat. When it does, however, it makes as fine a table bird as exists in the state, and by some is even considered superior to the Mallard. Its food insures a good flavor as a rule, and the birds are usually nice and juicy at least at the beginning of the hunting season. As the season advances it is said to become somewhat poorer in flesh and in flavor. Its small 13i GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA size is one of the things that rates it as a second-class duck on the markets. The Shoveller falls an easy prey to the market hunter, for it comes readily to decoys and is not so wary as most other species. In most parts of the state, it is always to be seen in any good bag and very often is the principal species represented. Two transfer companies in San Francisco which recorded the number of Shovellers sold during the season 1910-1911, disposed of 5,855 of these ducks. Although considerably reduced during the past few years. Shovellers continue to appear in large numbers during the winter season. The toll upon this species taken by the hunter is determined by the supply of more desirable ducks. As the more valuable table ducks become reduced in numbers, the Shoveller tends to rise in popularity. Pintail Dafila acuta (Linnaeus) Other names — Sprig; Sprigtail; Dafila caudacuta. Description — Adult male: Head bister brown, darkest on top, each feather blaelt centrally with pale tip, the whole giving a faintly scaled appearance; a similar but more finely scaled effect on cheeks and throat; feathers of hind neck black, washed with metallic green and separated from brown of head on either side by a conspicuous white stripe which extends upward and. forward from white of breast; feathers on sides of hind neck washed with metallic pink; iris dark brown; bill blackish gray on culmen, nail and lower mandible, lead color at sides; upper surface and side of body with fine irregular, wavy bars of black and white; longer scapulars velvety black edged with ashy white; rump nearly uniform ashy brown; upper tail coverts blackish brown, edged with white, lateral ones having outer webs deep black; tail feathers blackish brown edged with white, the central elongated ones black; outer surface of closed wing clear brownish gray; primary flight feathers darker brownish gray; tertials long and black, broadly edged with ashy gray; speculum iridescent, varying from green to bronzy purple at different angles; speculum edged in front by a bar of pale rusty brown, behind by a bar of black followed by a bar of white, and above by a broad band of black; under sur- face of wing grayish brown; axillars dull white, finely mottled with dusky; under surface of body pure white save for belly which is faintly and dully barred with dusky; lower surface often discolored with rusty; a conspicuous white patch at base of tail on each side; under tail coverts black, the outer- most ones outwardly edged with white; feet olive gray, dusky at joints. Total length "26.00-30.00" inches (660-762 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 97); folded wing 10.30-10.80 (262-274); bill along culmen 1.93-2.16 (49.0-54.8); tarsus 1.59-1.74 (40.3-44.2) (ten specimens). Adult female: Top of head reddish brown, narrowly streaked with black; sides of head and whole neck lighter buffy brown and more finely streaked with black; chin and throat white; rest of upper surface and sides, dark brown, each feather marked with U-shaped bars of light reddish brown and with whitish marks on outer margin; upper tail coverts more broadly edged with white; tail feathers dark brown irregularly barred with light rusty brown; wing as in male except that PINTAIL 135 speculum is dull brown, showing but faint green or purple reflections, and with bars of color adjoining speculum less contrasted; tertials and scapulars dull brown, like flight feathers; under surface of wing and axillars as in male; under surface of body dingy white, often stained with rusty; feathers of fore- neck with U-shaped brown markings and those of rest of under surface with grayish centers, giving a more or less mottled appearance; under tail coverts, white with brownish centers. Total length "21.00-23.50" inches (533-597 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 9.64-10.42 (244-265); bill along culmen 1.83-1.96 (46.5-49.8); tarsus 1.56-1.67 (39.6-42.4) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: "Young male, similar to the female, but mark- ings on upper parts more bar-like, and lower parts sometimes nearly wholly streaked" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 512). Natal plumage: Top of head browii, palest on forehead; stripe over eye, lower part of cheek, and chin, dull white; stripe behind eye running around back of head, and patch on ear region, light brown; neck white save for narrow brown stripe down hind neck; rest of upper surface light brown; streak down side of back, and large patch across end of wing, white; under surface of body white, tinged more or less with brownish. Marks for field identification — Large size (at least as to length), narrow head and long slender neck. The long central tail feathers, dark brown head with white neck stripes, and white under surface easily identify the male. Voice — Of male: a loud gwo, qua, uttered in flight; also a mellow whistle. Of female: a hoarse muffled quack; and several low notes (authors). Nest — ^Usually in tall grass on dry ground but near water; a crude structure of dry grasses lined with down. Eggs — 5 to 12, ordinarily 6 to 8, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.06 to 2.26 by 1.39 to 1.59 (in millimeters, 52.3 to 57.4 by 35.3 to 40.3), and averaging 2.18 by 1.51 (55.4 by 38.3); in color dull grayish olive or pale olive green, often discolored with clay-toned markings (Grinnell, 1900, p. 15; and authors). General distribution — Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds from Arctic Coast of Alaska to Keewatin, and south to southern California, northern Nebraska and northern Illinois; winters from southern British Columbia, Nevada, southern Wisconsin, southern Ohio and Delaware, south to Porto Rico and Panama, and in Hawaii (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 73). Distribution in California — Common winter visitant throughout the state, but more abundant in the southern portion. Migrants from the north begin to arrive in September and usually leave in March. An inhabitant of fresh water and found but rarely in salt water situations. Small numbers remain throughout the summer and breed in suitable localities; the following are the only definite records of nesting known to the writers : Pennington, Sutter County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 223) ; Hayward, Alameda County (Mailliard coll.) ; Los Banos, Merced County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 220; Carriger coll.); Tulare Lake, Kings County (Goldman, 19086, p. 202) ; Buena Vista Lake, Kern County (Linton, 1908a, p. 50); Los Angeles (Davie, 1889, p. 66); Alamitos, Loa Angeles County (Cooke, 1906, p. "38) ; Bear Lake, San Bernardino County (Willett, 1912a, p. 24) ; and San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willett and Jay, 1911, p. 158). The Pintail or Sprig is usually, one of the commonest ducks in the hunter's bag and it is always to be found on the market during 136 GAMB BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA the open season. Even during the severest winter weather this duck is found in numbers on any sizable body of fresh water. Only rarely is it found "rafted" on the bays along the coast. Bailey (1902, p. 55) states that at Point Reyes large flocks of Pintails were seen by J. A. Loring lying out in the bay. As soon as the tide covered the salt grass flats the Pintails would follow in and commence feeding. Pintails in the north begin to move south in August, but they do not appear in great numbers in California until well along in September, and the full quota does not arrive until the latter part of October. By the end of March most of the migrants have left for the north. Whether resting on the water or in flight the Pintail may be recognized by its considerable size and by its slender head and long, graceful neck. If it is disturbed while feeding in the grass its long neck stretched almost straight upward is an easy mark of identifica- tion. The long middle tail feathers, dark brown head, white stripe on neck, pale rusty wing bar and pure white under surface are excellent distinguishing characters in the .=X, male (pi. 3). The female, although ^'^^^ much like the female Mallard, is PiSfil.' NaSl sfze'''' "' ''"''' readily distinguished by her slender ■NT i 1, ji.1. 3 -xi, form, dull brownish speculum, Note breadth as compared with ' . i' ^ " j bill of female Gadwall (fig. 12). more pointed tail, and long neck. (See also figs. 19 and 10.) The mellow whistle of the drake and the hoarse muffled "quack" of the duck are so rarely given that the voice is seldom useful for field identi- fication. According to Brooks (1899a, p. 19) the note of the male, gen- erally heard only in spring, is a soft rolling whistle, exactly like that of the Green-winged Teal, but in a lower key. The same author says that while feeding with Mallards, Widgeon or Teal, the Pintail does not turn tail uppermost as these ducks do, its longer neck ordinarily enabling it to reach the bottom when sitting flat on the water. The eye of this duck is smaller in proportion than that of any other sur- face-feeding duck except the Shoveller. The habit of "slanting in" to a pond with wings set, is a field mark used by almost every hunter. Although the favorite breeding grounds of the Pintail lie far to the north of California, yet some individuals of this species remain and breed within the state. It is one of the earliest of our ducks to breed, for usually it lays its five to twelve eggs in late April or early May. A set of eight eggs, partly incubated, was collected by W. 0. Emerson near Hayward, Alameda County, as early as April PINTAIL 137 18 (1909) (Mailliard coll.), and from a set of eight collected April 21, 1916, on the Alvarado marshes, seven were hatched on April 26 (Dirks, MS). Willett and Jay (1911, p. 158) record having seen a female with young at San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County, on May 28, 1911, and Linton (1908c, p. 197) records a brood as hatching on June 4, 1908, at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County. Goldman (19086, p. 202) found the Pintail the commonest breeding duck in the vicinity of Tulare Lake in 1907. A female shot there June 21 contained an egg ready to be laid. On the same date several adults with young large enough to make short flights were seen. The following description of mating behavior as observed in Alaska is given by Nelson (1887, p. 70) : On May 17, while sitting overlooking a series of small ponds, a pair of Pintails arose and started off, the male in full chase after the female. Back and forth they passed at a marvelously swift rate of speed, with frequent quick turns and evolutions. At one moment they were almost out of view high overhead, and the next saw them skimming along the ground in an involved course very difficult to follow with the eye. Ere long a second male joined in the chase, then a third, and so on until six males vied with each other in the pursuit. The original pursuer appeared to be the only one capable of keeping close to the coy female, and owing to her dextrous turns and curves he was able to draw near only at intervals. Whenever he did succeed he always passed under the female, and kept so close to her that their wings clattered together with a noise like a watchman's rattle, and audible a long distance. The chase lasted half an hour, and after five of the pursuers had dropped off one by one the pair remaining (and I think the male was the same that originated the pursuit) settled in one of the ponds. The nest is nearly always placed on dry ground, more often near the edge of a pond or lake, but occasionally at some distance from water. The nest itself is seldom more than a hollow in the ground scantily lined with a mixture of dry grass and down, and is ordi- narily not so well concealed as the nests of other ducks. In Alaska bodies of water with a broad margin of marsh grass are usually selected as the rendezvous for the future brood. In the Kowak Delta, Pintail's nests were found far out on the bare, mossy tundra, in two cases fully 400 yards from the nearest pond (Grinnell, 1900, p. 14). The first brood of downy young in this locality was noted June 23. The eggs are pale olive green or dull grayish olive in color and vary in shape from ovate to elongate ovate. They measure, in inches, 2.06 to 2.26 by 1.39 to 1.59, and average 2.18 by 1.51. They are similar to the eggs of the Mallard in color but are smaller, more elongated and a little more glossy. Davie (1889, p. 67) states that in the far north as many as twelve eggs are to be found in a single nest, but six or eight seems to be nearer the average number. It is also 138 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA stated that if the eggs are taken, the bird will immediately deposit a second set which is seldom more than five or six in number. "As the young are hatched they are led to the small creeks and rivulets, where the birds remain until the young take wing, after which all pass to the great marshes, where they grow fat feeding upon the roots of the horsetails (Equisetum)" (Nelson, 1887, p. 70). The young take wing early in August, before those of any of the other , species. Grinnell (1900, p. 15) saj'^s of a female with a brood of downy young which he found at the edge of a pond in northern Alaska: "The old bird tumbled away through the grass in frantic efforts to distract my attention, [while] the brood of young with one accord scurried across the water to a small islet, and in a moment were scattered through the short grass and completely hidden from view. ' ' Coues (1874, p. 562) found the males unable to fly during the molt in July in the northern parts of Montana. Many were killed with sticks or captured by hand at this time. Brooks (1899a, p. 19) says that like the Shoveller, the male Pintails seldom get into really per- fect plumage before January, the bulk of the males shot in the fall being in "female" (eclipse) plumage or changing, with the long central tail feathers not yet developed. Old females sometimes acquire tails of considerable length. Their plumage then partakes a good deal of the character of that of the males, the under parts being spotless and the upper surface having a good deal of whitish flecking. Coues (1874, p. 563) says that hybrids of this species with the Mallard are of comparatively frequent occurrence and that in at least one instance such hybrids have proved fertile inter se. There is a stuffed specimen of a hybrid of this origin collected at Los Baiios, Merced County, and now in the Los Baiios Hotel. Pintails fly very fast, at a great height, and usually in V-forma- tion. "When "slanting in" to a pond, the distinct noise made by the wings can be heard at quite a distance. The habit of sailing long distances with wings set and curved downwards is a notable character- istic of the species. The birds gather in flocks of as many as fifty individuals, and when flushed crowd close together thus offering good ' ' pot shots. ' ' They spend much time on shore preening their feathers. On the water they sit high and are graceful swimmers. While the Pintail does not resort to diving as a method of securing food, it vrill when wounded in such a way that the wings are useless, submerge itself readily and travel beneath the surface of the water for a long distance. The food of the Pintail is largely vegetable. Beck (MS) speaks of this duck as feeding on snails and weed and grass seeds at Los PINTAIL 139 Banos, Merced County, during the winter of 1911. Like the Mallard, Pintails glean in the grain fields, and in the middle west they feed largely on wild rice. In Alaska, Grinnell (1900, p. 14) records them as feeding exclusively in the fall on the seeds of a kind of grass which bordered the sloughs and ponds; and Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, I, p. 514) state that they feed on the roots of the horsetail rush. As a table duck the Pintail ranks with the Mallard and Canvas- back, both as regards size and flavor. Consequently it is widely sought after. A wary bird, flying high and with great speed, this species makes an ideal game bird. It is a favorite not only with the hunter who shoots over decoys but with the pass shooter as well. In southern California it is often considered the "best" bird, for very soon after the opening of the season it is in prime condition. This is due to the fact that immediately upon their arrival from the north the birds resort at night to the stubble fields and soon become grain-fattened. A grain and seed eater by choice, the Sprig is uniformly fat and delicious. Certain sportsmen advocate allowing drawn birds to hang for several days before cooking. The concensus of opinion among epicures is that young drakes are superior to young ducks. The former can be selected from the bag by the mottled color of their plumage and because the pin-feathers are just bursting out into the ragged patches of their winter color (Hedderly, 1912a, p. 490). Beld- ing (MS) alone, considers it an inferior table duck. He says that its flesh often has an earthy taste acquired by feeding in muddy ponds. This may be true locally. The numbers of Pintails sold in the market (over 40,000 in San Francisco alone in 1910-1911) suggests that this is one of the species which cannot long exist in numbers if something is not done at once to conserve the breeding stock. Sportsmen have noted a distinct decrease in its numbers during the past ten years. In spite of the fact that most of the Pintails killed breed outside of the state, yet the fact that there is a constant diminution of its numbers from year to year shows that the breeding stock of the north is being seriously depleted. "We believe that the report of relatively large numbers of Pintails from some localities in late years is due to the disproportion- ately greater rate of reduction of one or two other species more popu- lar with the sportsman. Our three best table ducks, the Mallard, Canvasbaek and Pintail, are all regularly diminishing in numbers and their survival as game birds can only be assured by a more rigid pro- tection than they now receive, to the end that the annual toll taken in hunting and the normal rate of reproduction may strike a somewhat closer balance. 140 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA Wood Duck Aix sponsa (Linnaeus) Other name — Summer Duck. Descbiption — Adult male: Top of head and front of crest metallic green; tip of crest metallic violet; cheeks black tinged with violet; region around eye and base of crest metallic reddish purple; chin, throat and foreneok, pure white, from which area two crescentic bars of the same color extend upwards on each side, one onto side of head just behind eye, the other onto hind neck; a narrow white line on each side of forehead extends from base of bill back over eye along each side of crown to tip of crest; a similar stripe begins a short distance behind eye and extends along lower edge of crest to its tip; iris "bright orange red"; eyelids "deep vermillion" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 12); bill pinkish white, lake red at base; ridge, tip and lower mandible, black; upper surface of body sooty brown, lustrous with bronzy green, most vivid on rump and tail; a vertical crescent of enlarged black and w^hite feathers in front of wing; outer surface of closed wing dark brown with more or less steel blue iridescence particularly on greater and middle coverts, these latter also narrowly tipped with black; flight feathers slaty brown with exposed inner webs steel blue and outer webs becoming silvery gray toward tips; feathers of speculum steel blue narrowly tipped with white, bordered above by a broad black band which pertains to the much expanded innermost secondaries and scapulars; lining of wing and g.«llars irregularly barred with brown and white; sides and flanks pale buff, minutely undulated (cross-barred) with black; terminal feathers of flank expanded at tips, and marked with conspicuous bars of black and white; breast rich purplish chestnut, the forepart with a purple gloss, and marked with arrow- points of white; rest of under surface pure white; a patch of metallic pur- ple on each side at base of tail; lateral upper tail coverts marked with narrow central stripes of light brown; under surface of tail and lower tail coverts dark brown, the latter with iridescent green toward tips; legs and feet orange brown, webs olive black, nails black. Total length "19.00-20.50" inches (482-520 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 99); folded wing 8.75-9.40 (222-238); bill along culmen 1.28-1.50 (32.5-38.1); tarsus 1.34-1.44 (34.0-36.5) (three speci- mens from California and Oregon). Folded wing 8.05 (204) ; culmen 1.27 (32.2); tarsus 1.38 (35.0) (immature male no. 3739 Mailliard coll.). Adult female: Top of head and small crest dark gray, glossed with metallic violet; sides of head and whole neck ashy gray; chin and throat white; a white ring around eye, continuous with a white patch behind eye; eyelids yellow; bill "dark lead color," nail "black" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 114); back, rump and upper tail coverts brown, slightly glossed with bronze and reddish purple; tail brown, glossed with greenish bronze; outer surface of closed wing as in male but secondaries more widely tipped with white, and the four upper greater coverts rich metallic reddish purple, more bluish toward the centers, bronzy toward edges, and narrowly tipped with velvety black; fore breast dark brown, each feather with a shaft streak of brownish white; sides and flanks brown; rest of under surface white, the feathers centered coarsely with light brown or whitish; legs and feet "yellowish brown" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loe. cit.). Total length "17.00-19.50" inches (432-495 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 8.35-8.90 (212-226); bill along culmen 1.15-1.30 (29.2-33.0) ; tarsus 1.25-1.52 (31.7-38.6) (three specimens WOOD DUCK 141 from California). Juvenile plumage: Top of head dark brown; stripe over eye, eyelid, and area between bill and eye, dull white; side of head otherwise brown; ehin, throat and foreneck, white; upper surface of body brown; forepart of breast mottled with yellowish brown and dark brown; rest of under surface dull white, mottled with dusky feather centers. Natal plumage: Top of head (from base of bill), hind neck and whole upper surface of body, brown, palest on forehead and wings; bill (dried) blackish, nail horn-color, lower mandible yellow; stripe behind eye, side of head, spots at side of rump and below wing, and whole lower surface of body, dull yellowish white; feet (dried) blackish. f] Marks foe fiblb identification — The most beautiful and brightly marked American duck. Medium size, conspicuously crested head, mottled breast, and pure white under surface of body. Plumage of male variegated, head and crest green, chin and throat white, crescents in front of wing white and black, speculum dark blue. Female duller colored, with conspicuous white eye-ring and stripe behind eye. Voice — Of male: a watch -note hoe-eek, rarely uttered. Of female with brood: a low, soft, prolonged pe-ee, pe-ee. Of downy young: a mellow pee, pee, pee-e, often and rapidly repeated (Audubon m Coues, 1874, pp. 572-573). Nest — In a hollow in a tree usually over or near water, but occasionally some distance from it; composed of twigs, grasses and leaves, and lined with down. Eggs — 8 to 12, or more, short elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 2.01 to 2.19 by 1.50 to 1.61 ( in millimeters, 51.0 to 55.5 by 38.0 to 41.0), and averag- ing 2.05 by 1.58 (52.0 by 40.0) (twenty-nine eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; in color creamy white, with a glossy surface; more globular than those of most other ducks. Genekal distkibution — Temperate North America. Breeds from southern British Columbia, central Saskatchewan, northern Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia south to central California, southern Texas, Florida and Cuba; winters chiefly in the United States, from southern British Columbia, Kansas, Indiana, and New Jersey, south to southern California and the Gulf of Mexico (modified from A. O. IT. Check-list, 1910, p. 73). Distribution in California — Resident in suitable localities throughout the state but chiefly in cential and northern portions. Formerly common and widely distributed west of the Sierras, but now rare anywhere in its range. A few additional migrants appear in the fall (October). Southernmost record station at any season: Eamona, San Diego County (Sharp, 1906, p. 75). The following are all the breeding records known to the writers: Ventura County (Cooke, 1906, p. 40); near Lathrop, San Joaquin County (Wheeler, MS); Forest Lake, San Joaquin County (Sampson, 1901, p. 95); Isleton, Sacramento County (Wheeler in H. E. Taylor, 1897, p. 110) ; Gallinas Creek, Marin County (Mailliard, MS); Lake Tahoe (Bay, 1901, p. 116). It is universally accepted that the "Wood Duck is the handsomest of all the American ducks. Its near relative, the Mandarin Duck of Asia, is its only near competitor for honors, and so far as brilliancy of coloration is concerned even that species must be given second place. The "Wood Duck's habit of making special display of its bright colors but adds to its ever evident beauty and grace when on the water. 142 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA This species is found only in temperate North America and indeed is more nearly restricted to the United States than any other single duck. There is but one instance of its occurrence in Mexico (at Mazatlan). In California the Wood Duck was formerly well dis- tributed throughout the low country west of the Sierras. Now it is a rare local resident of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys and westward to the coast, frequenting the secluded, slow-flowing, timber bordered streams and fresh water sloughs, especially in the oak belt. Although permanently resident within the state the species appears to be to a slight extent migratory, moving toward the north in April and southward in October. It is rare in southern California where conditions favoring its existence are now lacking. The southernmost record station for any season is Ramona, San Diego County. So conspicuously and distinctively colored is the male of this duck that field marks are scarcely necessary, even for the novice. The green crested head relieved by white stripes, the pure white under surface and chin, the chestnut colored breast, and blue speculum, easily identify the male. Although lacking the bright coloration of her mate, the female displays more color than the females of most other species ; in addition she can be recognized by the white eye-ring and streak behind the eye. Wood Ducks seldom stray away from the secluded, wooded streams and sloughs which constitute their habitat. "A mossy log in a pond is a favorite resting place for the ducks, but as you walk through the woods in spring a pair will often fly from a branch overhead, utter- ing their shrill, plaintive cry as they dart through the trees" (Bailey, 1902, pp. 55-56). Writing of his observations in Massachusetts, C. W. Townsend (1916, pp. 15-16) says: The courtship of the Wood Duck (Aix sponsa) is a pretty sight. The gorgeously colored drake swims close to his modest little wife who is dressed in quaker gray and wears large white spectacles. If she swims too fast for him he is apt to touch her head with his bill, and when she stops he jerks his head up and down in an abbreviated bow. At the same time he whistles in a low sweet way as if he were drawing in rather than blowing out his breath. The feathers of his creat and head are at the same time erected. Most ducks nest on the ground, but this species selects hollows in trees which may be either living or dead. Often the nest is situated over water but sometimes is at a considerable distance from it. Occa- sionally the entrance to the nesting cavity is forty or fifty feet above the ground, and the nest itself may be several feet below the entrance to the hollow. Twigs, grass and leaves are used as building materials, with down feathers for lining. The hollow end of a broken-off branch is said to be frequently selected, and occasionally use is made of a WOOD DDCK 143 deserted woodpecker's nest enlarged through decay. Sampson (1901, p. 95) found a Wood Duck's nest located in the deserted home of a Ked-shafted Flicker about twenty-five feet above the ground in a valley oak tree at Forest Lake, San Joaquin County, April 29, 1900. The nest contained twenty-one eggs. A difference in size and colora- tion was noticeable in these eggs, so that it seems probable that the set had been laid by two females. Messrs. Wheeler and Sampson found a set of fifteen eggs of this species in 1896 at a point on the San Joaquin Eiver a short distance above Lathrop, San Joaquin County. The nest was in a hollow tree close to the .overflow from the river, and the tree was infested with ants, which, however, did not appear to have in any degree disturbed the ducks. Wheeler {in H. E. Taylor, 1897, p. 110) has also reported the nesting of a pair of Wood Ducks in a barn on the Sacramento River, near Isleton, Sacramento County. The birds entered the barn through a hole in the boards and built their nest in the hay. The farmer who o-wTied the hay guarded the nest and allowed the eggs to hatch. Mr. Joseph Mailliard tells us of having found in 1872 or 1873 a nest of the Wood Duck in a hole in a dead tree on the bank of Gal- linas Creek, Marin County. One of the parents was frightened from the nesting cavity. The nest contained not less than eight eggs, though no accurate record was kept of the circumstances. This duck returns to the same nesting site year after year. Incu- bation lasts for a period of four weeks. The female alone attends to this duty, the male usually being found standing guard on a near-by limb. Some observers say that the male deserts the female during this period. The young either tumble out of the nest and are led to water, or are carried to the water one by one in the bill of the mother (Sandys, 1902, pp. 166-167; and others). We have no good general account of the habits of the Wood Duck since the days of the famous naturalist-artist, Audubon. Writing of observations made in the southern states he says: No sooner has the female completed her set of eggs than she is abandoned by her mate, who now joins others, which form themselves into considerable flocks, and thus remain apart until the young are able to fly, when old and young of both sexes come together, and so remain until the commencement of the next breeding season. In all the nests I have examined, 1 have been rather surprised to find a quantity of feathers belonging to birds of other species, even those of the domestic fowl, and particularly the Wild Goose and Wild Turkey. On coming upon a nest with eggs when the bird was absent in search of food, I have always found the eggs covered over with feathers and down, although quite out of sight, in the depth of a . . . hole. ... If the nest is placed immediately over the water, the young, the moment they are hatched, scramble to the mouth of the hole, launch into the air with 144 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA their little wings and feet spread out, and drop into their favourite element; but whenever their birth-place is at some distance from it, the mother carries them to it one by one in her bill ... On several occasions, however, when the hole was thirty ... or more yards from . . . water, I observed that the mother suffered the young to fall on the grasses and dried leaves beneath the tree, and afterwards led them directly to the nearest edge of the next pool or creek (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 273). "The "Wood Duck is conspicuous for the swiftness, ease and elegance of its flight. It can pass through woods, and among the branches of trees, with as much facility as the "Wild Pigeon. "While flying it is rarely ever heard to utter any ery" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 14) . This species is to be found in pairs or at most in small flocks. The "Wood Duck does not limit itself to the aquatic insects and plants found along the stream near its regular abode, but often forages about the woods in search of other food. Belding (MS) says that on the Feather River he found it feeding in corn and wheat fields after harvest and also on wild grapes and acorns. J. Mailliard saw quite a number feeding on acorns at Paicines, San Benito County, October 13, 1900. The stomach of a female taken near Laytonville, Mendocino County, in November, 1913, contained a large number of acorns, as also that of one taken near Santa Rosa, Sonoma County. Acorns would appear therefore to form a very general article in its diet. Stomachs of eastern "Wood Ducks examined by the United States Biological Survey (McAtee, 19116, p. 1) showed that over fifteen per cent of the food is made up of wild rice and celery and over six per cent of pondweeds. At the present time the "Wood Duck exists in such small numbers that it should not properly be considered a game bird of the state. Yet, as its flesh is declared to be delicious, and since it has proven itself readily domesticated, there seems no good reason why it cannot be raised in captivity as a commercial proposition and sold on the market. At present there is a brisk demand from breeders and pleasure parks for this, the handsomest of the duck tribe. Early writers report the Wood Duck as common in California. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 194) says that it was observed on the lower McCloud River at various times from October 1 until March 1, often in quite large companies, and was seen in April and May at Red Bluff, where it frequented the sloughs in the timber belts along the Sacramento River. Heermann (1859, p. 68) gives it as "abundant, breeding in the hollow trees bordering the streams of California." J. Mailliard (1911, p. 49) says that as late as twenty-five years ago it was no uncommon thing to see "Wood Ducks scattered in smaU groups along such a stream as the Paper Mill or Lagunitas Creek, WOOD DUCK 145 Marin County, or anywhere along Laguna de Santa Kosa, Sonoma County, even where quite a number of people lived in the vicinity and where there was a good deal of travel along the streams. Often the ducks were found in small tributaries and diminutive ponds along these waterways. The last one killed in this vicinity was taken on October 23, 1898. Mr. A. Jackson reports that a limit of "Wood Ducks could often be obtained fifteen years ago along the Napa River, but that now not a single "Wood Duck is to be seen there. George Neale reports (October 1, 1914) that he used to hunt "Wood Ducks on Elk Slough, Yolo County, where he has bagged thirty or forty in an afternoon. A few are still to be found there. W. "W. Richards states (October 15, 1913) that "Wood Ducks were formerly common on Sherman Island, Sacramento River, where "as many as a hundred" were shot in a single day. The last one killed there was shot about 1908. Streator (1886, p. 90) records the species as rare near Santa Barbara but says that birds were occasionally met with beyond the Santa Ynez Mountains about ten miles from that city. Practically no Wood Ducks are to be found in these old haunts at the present time. An individual is occasionally reported as being seen in the locality above mentioned by Mailliard, and in the vicinity of Gridley, Butte County; but beyond these, and an occasional one reported by a collector or market hunter, the species is now almost unknown. Dr. W. P. Bade reports that he saw numbers of Wood Ducks on the Sacramento River on a trip from Tehama to Chico in 1905. "When the same trip was taken in 1911 not more than six were seen. The more recent records of its occurrence are as follows Ramona, San Diego County, November, 1905 (Sharp, 1906, p. 75) Redlands, San Bernardino County, October 2, 1909 (Willett, 1912a p. 24) ; Banning, Riverside County, April, 1907 (Willett, loc. cit.) Oxnard, Ventura County, November 6, 1905 (Grinnell, 19066, p. 29) Reedley, Fresno County, April, 1910 (Tyler, 19136, p. 17) ; Stani slaus County, fall of 1910 (J. Mailliard, 1911, p. 49) ; Live Oak, Sutter County, November 28, 1914 (specimen in Mus. Vert. Zool.) near Castroville, Monterey County, October 20, 1908 (Silliman, 19156 p. 207) ; near Laytonville, Mendocino County, November, 1913 (F. C Clarke, MS). Mr. J. S. Hunter, Assistant, State Fish and Game Commission, has stated to us that whereas this species came to the market in considerable numbers several years ago, not more than two or three have been seen during the past few years. Four hundred and forty Wood Ducks were recorded as sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season 1895-1896 (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 40) . The records of sale in the markets of San Fran- cisco during the season 1910-1911 show a total of six birds. 146 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA From the foregoing evidence it can be seen that the Wood Duck, although existing in California in considerable numbers in the early days, is now nearly extinct. A number of the eastern states have found it necessary to give it complete and permanent protection in order to save it. California's only hope of saving this species is to do likewise. Although the Wood Duck is migratory in most states, it remains with us throughout the year and so gives us an added respon- sibility. The federal regulations regarding migratory birds which went into effect in the fall of 1913 placed a closed season of five years on the Wood Duck. At the end of this period a renewal of total pro- tection will be necessary. Redhead Marila americana (Eyton) Othee names — Eed-headed Duck; Pochard; Aythya americana; Aythya erythrocephala ; Nyroca americana; Nyroca ferina; Nyroca erytJirocephala ; Fuligula- ferina americana. Description — Adult male: Whole head and upper neck rich reddish chestnut, glossed with reddish purple; bill bluish gray, nail black; iris lemon yellow; lower neck and forepart of upper surface of body, black; rest of back and rump ashy brown; middle of back finely cross-barred with dull white; upper tail coverts and tail dull black, fading into dull white at tip of tail; outer surface of closed wing lead gray; scapulars vermiculated with irregular white and black bars, those of black widest; flight feathers slate gray; speculum pale bluish gray, bordered behind narrowly with white, the three upper feathers edged with black on outer webs; axillars pure white; rest of under surface of wing gray; lower neck and breast blackish, with ashy feather- edgings giving a mottled appearance; forepart of belly pure white; sides, flanks and hinder portion of belly, dusky, with white vermiculations as on scapulars; under tail coverts blackish brown; legs and feet bluish gray, darker at joints; webs blackish. Total length 19.87-21.00 inches (506-533 mm.) (three speci- mens) ; folded wing 8.50-9.33 (216-237) ; bill along culmen 1.89-2.05 (48.0-52.0) ; tarsus 1.61-1.66 (40.8-42.2) (four specimens). Adult female: Top of head and whole upper surface, brown, darkest on crown; sides of head and area at base of bill, much lighter in tone; chin white; bill lead color, tip black; upper tail coverts dusky brown; terminal portion of tail dull white; wing as in male; scapulars like back, lacking vermiculations, but each feather broadly tipped with ashy; breast much as in male but of lighter tone, the feathers being more extensively tipped with reddish brown and ashy. Total length (both sexes): "17.00-21.00" inches (432-533 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 101); folded wing 9.00 (228); bill along culmen 1.77 (44.9); tarsus 1.57 (39.8) (one speci- men); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage: Whole upper surface olive brown; spot back of base of each wing, one on hind border of each wing, and one on each side of rump, yellow; side of head and whole lower surface deep buff yellow, paler and less yellow behind; no distinct streaks on side of head although a buffy line above and below eye is to be noted on close inspection; bill and feet (dried), light brown. REDHEAD 147 Marks for field identification — Large size, abruptly elevated forehead and, in the male, reddish head. Distinguished from Canvasback by high instead of sloping forehead (see figs. 20 and 21), darker coloration, smaller general size, and yellow iris. Female Redhead can be separated from female Canvasback by the high forehead, smaller bill (about one-third shorter), and absence of barring on feathers of back; from female Scaup by gray on speculum and smaller amount of white around bill; from female Eing-necked Duck by larger size (wing 8.50 inches, 216 mm., or more in Bedhead) ; from female Golden-eye by absence of white patch on wing. Voice — Of male: in spring (and rarely in fall) a peculiar qud-quaa. Of female a quack of distinctive tone and quality (Eaton, 1910, p. 203). Nest — On ground among thick weeds or grass, or in rushes and over water; constructed of weeds, grasses or rushes. Eggs — 10 to 16, oval to elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.30 to 2.58 by 1.67 to 1.73 (in millimeters, 58.5 to 65.5 by 42.5 to 44.0), and averaging 2.40 by 1.71 (61.0 by 43.5) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color greenish drab or light buff. General distribution — North America. Breeds from southern British Columbia, central Alberta, central Saskatchewan and southwestern Keewatin south to southern California, southern South Dakota and southern Wisconsin ; winters from southern British Columbia, Utah, Kansas, Illinois, and Delaware south to central Mexico and Plorida (A. O. TJ. Checklist, 1910, p. 74). Distribution in California — Fairly common resident in suitable localities throughout the state; more numerous in winter than in summer and formerly more abundant than at present. Inhabits both salt and fresh water. Breed- ing stations known to the writers are as follows: Lower Klamath and Tule lakes, on Oregon line (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, pp. 229, 231) ; Sacramento Valley (Heermann, 1859, p. 70) ; Sacramento (Cooper and Eidgway, 1886, p. 403) ; Alvarado, Alameda County (H. C. Bryant, MS) ; Buena Vista Lake, Kern County (Linton, 1908c, p. 197) ; Ventura County (Evermann, 1886, p. 89) ; Los Angeles (Davie, 1889, p. 68) ; Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County (Willett, 1912a, p. 24); San Jacinto Lake, Eiverside County (Willet and Jay, 1911, p. 158; IngersoU coll.). The Eedhead, although classed as a typical sea duck, because of the large lobe or flap on the hind toe (the presence of which dis- tinguishes the sea ducks from the fresh water ducks), differs from the others of its relatives in that it is chiefly an inhabitant of fresh water. It is, however, found also in considerable numbers on salt water along the sea coa-st. In early spring numerous Redheads can be seen mixed in with the great numbers of Canvasbacks which dot the shallow waters of San Francisco and San Pablo bays. In the interior it prefers the deeper bodies of fresh water. Although most abundant here during the winter months, this is nevertheless a resident species, for a certain proportion remain during the summer and breed in suitable localities throughout the state. Like the Cinnamon Teal, the Redhead is essentially southern in its distribution. The only record of its occurrence on the Pacific Coast north of Vancouver Island is of a stray taken in 1896 on Kodiak Island, 148 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA Alaska. The greater number of Redheads summer in a restricted area in west-central Canada. It is less common on the Pacific slope locally from Lac la Haehe, British Columbia, south to southern California (Ventura and Los Angeles counties) and east to Ruby Lake, Nevada, and Rush Lake, Utah. The principal winter home of the Redhead extends from Texas, along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts to Chesapeake Bay ; a few winter on Long Island, while in the west it winters north to New Mexico, Arizona, Utah (rarely), Nevada, and southern British Columbia, which is almost as far north as it breeds. The Redhead is not uncommon in winter in the Valley of Mexico, but is quite rare on the west coast of Mexico where it has been found south to Manzanillo and southern Lower California (Cooke, 1906, p. 42). Fig. 20. Side of bill and liead of Bedhead. Natural size. Note high forehead. Compare with sloping forehead of Canvasback (fig. 21, p. 153). The Redhead is very similar in structure and appearance to the famed Canvasback. The most dependable method of distinguishing the two species is by the profile of the forehead. The Canvasback 's forehead is low and slopes backward in line with the top of its bill, while the forehead of the Redhead is high and meets the bill at a considerable angle (see figs. 20 and 21). Other characters of the Redhead are the smaller size, yellow instead of red eye, darker color, and higher extension of black on the neck. The female Redhead and the Ring-necked Duck are rather easy to confuse, but may be dis- tinguished by the difference in wing length, the Redhead having a folded wing more than 8.50 inches long while that of the Ring-neck is 8.25 or less in length ; also by the former having a relatively broader bill, darker throat, and lighter back. The only other sea ducks with reddish heads are the male Canvasback and the female golden-eyes. BEDEEAD 149 The female Bedhead resembles a female Scaup Duck but has less white on the face and about the bill. The Bedhead breeds in fresh-water marshes, often in company with Mallards and Canvasbacks. In fact it is well known that elsewhere than in California eggs of the latter have been taken in nests of Bedheads. The nest is built either on the ground in thick grass or weeds, or in tules or grass above water, and is lined with white down taken from the breast of the female bird. In the former case it is composed of weeds and grasses, whereas in the latter case it is often built of tules and looks something like a Mud-hen's nest. Bowles (in Dawson, 1909, p. 791) describes the Bedhead's nest as being a deep basket of rushes, placed in the thickest sort of growth, either upon a small muddy island left by the receding water, or built up among the flags upon the matted dead stems which cover the surface of the water in favorable places. Ten to sixteen greenish drab or light buff eggs are laid. "The eggs of the Bedhead can generally be distinguished from those of any other species, as they are usually quite different in color, size and texture. The shell is extremely hard and flinty, with a smooth, slightly glossy surface, and quite thick; ... In shape they vary from a somewhat rounded to a considerably elongated elliptical ovate, sometimes nearly oval. . . . The eggs are entirely different in color from those of the Canvasback, which builds a somewhat similar nest and in similar situations, but lines it with gray down" (Bent, 1902, p. 9). "Willett and Jay (1911, p. 158) found the Bedhead breeding very commonly at San Jacinto Lake, Eiverside County, on May 28, 1911. Four nests found contained respectively, fifteen, seventeen, eighteen and twenty-seven eggs. The last set was undoubtedly the product of two females, as there were seventeen eggs of one type and ten of another. At the same place A. M. IngersoU took a set of twenty-one eggs advanced in incubation on June 7, 1897. Shields (1899, p. 9) found a nest in central California on June 25, 1898, containing twelve Bedhead eggs and three of the Fulvous Tree-duck. A Bedhead 's nest was found by H. C. Bryant (MS) in some tules at the end of a pond near Alvarado, Alameda County, April 23, 1915. Tall tules had blown over a fence making a dark sheltered nook beneath, and here the nest was placed. Twelve well-incubated eggs and a little whitish down were contained in the nest. The eggs were hatched out at the State Game Farm four days later, and the appearance of the downy young made the identification complete. The Bedhead is so similar to the Canvasback both in coloration and habits that it is often mistaken for it. "Its flight is hurried, the bird rising from the water in a confused manner, but being able 150 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA to continue long on the wing" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 39) . It travels in V-shaped flocks like geese and flies with great rapidity. A loud whistling or roaring noise is produced by the wings in flight. The Redhead is an expert at diving and gains most of its food in this manner. It is naturally a deep water species, rarely found along the margins of ponds or streams ; yet individuals may occasionally be seen dabbling, about in the mud of the shallower pools. This duck is said to subsist largely on vegetable food such as the various kinds of aquatic plants; small moUusks, crustaceans, fish, frogs, and water newts are also taken. "Where available it feeds extensively on wild celery, eating the blades of the plant when the roots are not obtainable. As a game duck the Redhead ranks with the Ganvasback. Since it has similar food preferences, there is very little choice between the birds for table use. On the markets Redheads when separately specified, are listed as cheaper than "Cans"; but they are commonly sold under the name of the more desirable bird and then, of course, bring the same price. Redheads have been greatly reduced in numbers during the past ten years. H. J. Lelande (MS) says of this duck in southern Cali- fornia: "The Redhead, once fairly common during the breeding season, is now seldom seen at any time of the year." Judging from the progressively smaller numbers sold on the market, as well as from direct observation, we are justified in stating that this duck next to the Wood Duck demands absolute protection to save it from the fate of total extermination. The great decrease in its numbers can be partly accounted for by the ease with which it is killed. It is sometimes called "Fool Duck" by sportsmen because of its fearless- ness or apparent indifference to their approach. As with the Mallard, we have here a resident duck much hunted for the market. The num- ber of migrants coming in during the winter is small and the annual kill has depleted the local breeding stock. Hence the Redhead is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and the critical point as regards its survival has already been reached. Canvasback Marila valisineria (Wilson) Other names — Can; Aythya vallisneria; Nyroca vaUsneria; FuUgula vallis- neria. Description — Adult male: Whole head and neck dark reddish chestnut, shading to almost black around base of bill and on top of head; bill black, tinged with green; iris bright carmine; base of neck completely encircled by broad black collar; back and scapulars white, with fine, irregular, dusky bar- rings; rump black; upper tail coverts and tail blackish slate; outer surface < > z o m 3) CANVASBACK 151 of closed wing gray, with minute white dots or vermiculatious; flight feathers slaty brown; speculum pale bluish gray bordered behind by a bar of white, and uppermost two or three feathers narrowly edged with black; axillars white; lining of wing pale gray; sides, flanks and belly like back but more nearly white; under surface otherwise pure white or with faint suggestion of dusky vermiculation ; under tail coverts blackish; feet " greyish -blue " tinged with "yellow" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 309). Total length (both sexes): "20.00-23.50" inches (507-596 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 102). Males: Folded wing 8.98-9.50 (228-241); bill along culmen 2.36-2.47 (59.9-62.7); tarsus 1.70- 1.81 (43.2-46.1) (four specimens from California). Adult female: Head, neck and breast dull reddish brown, darker on top of head, and lighter, almost white, on chin and throat; an indistinct whitish spot behind eye; back and scapulars slaty brown, with traces of white vermioulations; rump blackish; upper tail coverts and tail dusky brown; outer surface of closed wing uniform slate gray without vermieulations; flight feathers, speculum and under surface of wing as in male; whole under surface of body dull white, mottled with grayish brown; sides with meagre white aind dusky vermieulations. Folded wing 8.50 (216); bill along culmen 2.36 (59.9); tarsus 1.64 (41.6) (one speci- men from California). Juvenile plumage: Like that of adult female. Natal plumage: Top of head, stripe down hind neck, and most of back, greenish brown; side of head deep straw yellow, washed T\-ith dusky; paired spots on back at base of tail, behind wing, and on hinder margin of wing, bright straw yellow; whole lower surface deep yellow. Marks for field identification — Large size, reddish brown head and neck, canvas-colored back and low forehead sloping down to long slender bill (see pi. 5 and figs. 20 and 21). Distinguished from Bedhead by larger size, espe- cially of head, blackish coloration around base of bill, red iris, and sloping forehead and bill (which meet without evident angle between the two). Voice — Of male: "a peeping or growling note." Of females: a loud quack and, when startled, a screaming curr-row (Eaton, 1910, p. 205). Nest — In a clump of reeds or tules in a shallow pond or slough but gen- erally near a larger body of water; a large structure of reeds or tules well lined with gray down (Bent, 1902, pp. 11-12). Eggs — 6 to 10, ovate to elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.36 to 2.57 by 1.68 to 1.80 (in millimeters, 59.9 to 65.3 by 42.6 to 45.7), and averaging 2.48 by 1.75 (62.8 by 44.4); color rich grayish olive or greenish drab (Bent, loc. cit.). General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, Fort Yukon, Great Slave Lake and southwestern Keewatin south to Oregon, northern Nevada, Colorado (rarely), Nebraska and southern Minnesota; winters from southern British Columbia, Nevada, Colorado, Illinois, Pennsyl- vania and western New York, south to central Mexico and the Gulf coast (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 74). Distribution in California — Common winter visitant (October to March) both interiorly and along the seacoast. Most numerous about salt water bays and coastal sloughs and marshes, seeming to prefer the deeper waters to the muddy margins. The marshes about San Francisco and San Pablo bays con- stitute a feeding ground for great numbers of this species. No definite breed- ing records are known for California. The Canvasback, the far-famed ' ' Can ' ' of the hunter, is probably the best known of all American ducks, not excepting even the Mallard. 152 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA This reputation has largely been built up in eastern North America where, by reason of its vegetable diet and the consequent fine flavor of its flesh, it is very highly prized as a table bird. In California the Canvasback is strictly a migrant, arriving during October and usually departing by the end of March. The earliest fall record is from Stock- ton, San Joaquin County, October 6, 1881 (Belding, MS) ; southern California is usually reached about October 20 (Cooke, 1906, p. 44). Observations made by E. W. Gifford (MS) over a term of years on the arrival and departure of ducks about San Francisco Bay yielded the following dates for Canvasbacks : 1903-1904, last seen April 4 ; 1904r- 1905, first seen December 8, last seen May 6; 1906-1907, first seen December 26, last seen April 14; 1907-1908, first seen January 18, last seen April 22 ; 1908-1909, first seen November 11, last seen April 3 ; 1909-1910, first seen, October 27, last seen, February 28. Most of the Canvasbacks to be found in California are on the bays and coastal marshes, from which places the bulk of the market supply, which is at a maximum during November and December, is secured. The close similarity between the Canvasback and the Redhead sometimes leads to confusion in distinguishing these two ducks. No better worded diagnosis is known to us than that of Coues (1874, pp. 575-576) : Some persons experience difficulty in discriminating between the Canvas- back and Eed-head, but there is no occasion for this, at least in the case of males. In the Eed-head, the whole head is clear chestnut red, with coppery or bronzy reflections, and the bill is clear pale grayish blue, with a dark tip. In the Canvas-back, nearly all the head is obscured with blackish-brown, and the bill is dusky throughout. There is also a marked difference in the shape of the head and bill; in the Eed-head, the head is puffy and globose, sloping abruptly down to the base of the bill; in the Canvas-back, the head is longer and narrower, and slopes gradually down to the bill, which rises high on the forehead [pi. 5 and figs. 20 and 21]. These distinctions of form hold with the females, though less evident in that sex. In the Canvasback, moreover, the back has much more light than dark color, instead of an equal amount, or less, the fine black lines being very narrow and mostly broken up into minute dots. Although reported as breeding rarely in Oregon and Nevada (Cooke, 1906, p. 43), there is no record of the nesting of this duck within our own state. Brooks (1903, p. 278) records it as breeding commonly in British Columbia. He describes the nests as being bulky platforms of reeds, similar to those of Coots, and to be found gen- erally on small swampy ponds, away from the larger lakes where the males associate in flocks. Bent (1902, pp. 11-12), in North Dakota, found the nests of Canvasbacks almost invariably located in isolated clumps of reeds surrounded by water in large, deep sloughs. He describes one nest as being built upon a bulky mass of wet dead reeds, measuring eighteen by twenty inches in outside diameter, the rim CANVASBACK 153 being built up six inches above the water, and the inner cavity being about eight inches across by four deep. It can be seen, therefore, that the Canvasback is unlike the Mallard, Teal, and other fresh water ducks, in that it chooses growths of reeds rather than grass as locations for nests. Gray down is used to line the nest. 10607 Fig. 21. Side of bill and head of Canvasback. Natural size. Note low, sloping forehead. Compare with high forehead of Bedhead (fig. 20). Kg. 22. Side of foot and tarsus of Canvas- back. Natural size. Note presence of broad lobe on hind toe (com- pare with figs. 11 and 38), and that tarsus is shorter than middle toe without claw (compare with fig. 37). The finding of the eggs of other ducks in the nests of the Canvas- back appears to be of common experience. Bent (loc. cit.) found one or more eggs of the Ruddy Duck or of the Redhead in every Canvas- back nest examined by him, but did not find the eggs of the Canvas- 154 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA back in the nest of any other species. The eggs number six to ten. They are grayish olive or greenish drab in color, of a darker shade than the eggs of other species of ducks, and measure in inches, 2.36 to 2.57 by 1.68 to 1.80 and average 2.48 by 1.75. The Canvasback is an excellent diver, often descending to a depth of twenty or thirty feet to obtain its food, and is said to use its wings for propulsion when beneath the water. This species gathers in large flocks on the bays where it sleeps during the day on open water, mov- ing nearer the shore when wishing to feed. The Canvasback is a strong, swift flier and makes a loud noise with its wings which is clearly noticeable when a flock passes immediately overhead. The esti- mated speed of the Canvasback is greater than that of any other duck— 130 to 150 feet per second (Askins, 1911, pp. 556-560). When coming to decoys in a pond the birds arrive with a rush of sound like that made by the wind and they settle into the water with great splashing. Canvasbacks decoy very readily. On the open water they are usually wary and hard to approach. On the decoy pond, however, they are said to be more easily obtained than teal or Mallard. By carefully choosing the last one to dive each time, a whole flock can sometimes be brought to bag. This duck is often hunted not only from blinds on the marshes but also from brush blinds built up over the shallow waters of the bays, and from brush-covered boats sculled near the birds when they are at rest on the open water. In the east the Canvasback feeds almost exclusively on a plant known as Vallisneria, often called wild celery or eel grass, hence the specific name of the bird — -valisineria. Stomach examination has shown that over twenty-three per cent of its food is made up of the roots, leaves and seeds of this plant (McAtee, 1911&, p. 1). A much larger per cent of pondweeds is also taken by this species than by any other duck. It is also said to feed on fish, tadpoles, leeches, moUusks, and insects, when these are available. In California the Canvasback partakes of more animal food, for wild celery does not grow in this state. On the shallow waters of the tidelands and marshes, it feeds extensively on crustaceans and shellfish, thereby acquiring a "fishy" taste and thus becoming undesirable as a table bird. The stomachs of some Canvasbacks collected on San Pablo Bay contained clams {Mya arenaria), and snails {Odostomia sp.) ; one stomach from Tia Juana Slough, near San Diego, contained periwinkles (Cerithidea calif ar- nica), and another from the same place contained grass-blades, stems and roots. A stomach from Guadalupe, San Luis Obispo County, was filled with barley, there being twenty-two whole kernels and many hulls ; but there is a possibility that this was bait put out by hunters. CANVASBACK 155 In the east the Canvasback is the most highly prized of all the ducks ; for its habit of feeding on wild celery makes it of prime flavor. Largely because of its eastern reputation it is also considered the best of the game ducks almost everywhere in the west. The hunter with a bag of Canvasbacks is always the hero of the day. As a matter of fact the west coast Canvasback does not ordinarily surpass the Mallard, and is sometimes less desirable. A few days' diet on shellfish makes an inferior table bird of either duck. "When killed in the interior or on mountain lakes, however, the Canvasback is invariably reported to be of fine flavor. Its large size coupled with its aristocratic reputation makes it bring the highest price on the market. In early days many were netted by Italian fishermen and the drowned ducks were sold in the markets for twenty-five cents a pair. In the season of 1910-1911 the price paid by market men of San Francisco for this duck ranged from four to nine dollars a dozen, averaging about six dollars. The Mallard brought about the same price. Heermann (1859, p. 70) reports having seen a single Canvasback sold for twelve dollars in the "boom" times of 1849. The Canvasback is a much hunted duck throughout its winter range. On Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, where it used to congregate in vast numbers it has been decimated by excessive shooting. Now it seldom appears in any quantity on this body of water. In California, also, the numbers on our waters have conspicuously dwindled of late years. In times past ' ' Cans ' ' were killed in very large numbers on the Sonoma marshes. There is one record of two hundred and sixty- eight drake Canvasbacks to a double-barreled gun in one day (Beitch, 1912, p. 13). Occasionally, at the present time, one will hear of a limit (25) killed at the rate of a bird a minute, such being reported as recently as 1912. This is the exception, however, though the rarity of the occurrence gives the report such wide circulation that people are led to believe it common. The numbers appearing in the state vary greatly from year to year, as this is a bird which shifts its movements according to the abundance of food supply. A common saying among sportsmen is to the effect that every fourth year is a good "Can" year. A typical migrant, passing through two states before reaching California, and hunted everywhere it goes, the Canvasback is subjected to a con- siderable depletion in its ranks before returning to its northern breed- ing grounds. The danger of great depletion in the numbers of this species lies in its popularity as a table bird, and in its consequent high market value. Where there is sale of game the rate of destruction for any game species is largely determined by the market demand for it. 156 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA Greater Scaup Duck Marila marila (Linnaeus) Other names — Scaup; Big Black-head; Greater Black-head; Big Blue-bill; Broad-bill; ShufSer; Black-jack, part; Baft Ruck; Aythya marila; Aythya marila nearctica; Fuligula marila; Fulixc marila. Description — Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast, and fore part of back black; sides of head and neck with metallic green reflections; iris lemon yellow; bill pale bluish gray, nail black; back and scapular region white with zig-zag barrings of black; rump, upper tail coverts and tail dull black; outer surface of closed wing slate brown mottled sparsely with fine white dots; flight feathers slate brown; speculum pure white; sides and long feathers of flanks pure white, in some specimens showing faint dusky undulations; hind part of belly, black; rest of under surface white, faintly undulated with dusky behind; legs and feet "plumbeous" (lead gray) (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 134). Total length 18.50-20.00 inches (470-508 mm.) (Eaton, 1910, p. 206); folded wing 8.35-8.95 (212-227); bill along culmen 1.70-1.90 (43.2-48.3); tarsus 1.50-1.57 (38.1-39.8) (nine specimens from Alaska and California). Adult female: Whole of head, neck, breast and fore portion of back dusky reddish brown; a dull white area about base of bill; outer scapulars show faint traces of whitish undulations; back, rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, blackish brown; outer surface of closed wing plain slate brown; flight feathers dusky brown; speculum pure white; sides, flanks, and under tail coverts coarsely mottled with light and dark reddish brown; rest of under surface pure white shading behind into color of under tail coverts. Total length 17.00-18.12 inches (432-460 mm.) (Eaton, loc. cit., and two speci- mens from California); folded wing 8.27-8.53 (210-217); bill along culmen 1.64-1.82 (41.6-46.2); tarsus 1.47-1.53 (37.3-38.8) (six specimens from Alaska and California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female, but wing of young male like that of adult male and with head darker than the female. Natal plumage: " 'Crown, nape [=hind neck], and upper parts uniform dark olive-brown; throat, sides of the head, and fore part of the neck, yellowish white; a dull grayish band crosses the lower neck, rest of the under parts dull yellowish, the flanks grayish yellow' (Dresser)." (Ridgway, 1900, p. 102). Marks for field identification — Medium size, stout build, dark-colored head and neck, broad "blue" bill, conspicuous white speculum, and white under surface. Male Greater Scaup distinguished from male Lesser Scaup in hand by larger size, greenish instead of purplish gloss on head, and by tendency to white on outer webs of innermost primaries. Female Greater Scaup separable from all other ducks (save Lesser Scaup and "Eing-neck) by conspicuous white area encircling base of bill. Female Greater Scaup distinguished from female Lesser Scaup only in hand, by larger size and by tendency to white on outer webs of innermost primaries; from Eing-neck by greater size and by gray instead of white speculum. Voice — A soft purring whistle; also, when excited, a loud discordant scaup (Eaton, 1910, p. 206). Nest — ^In tall grass on dry ground, usually not far from water; made of grass and weeds, and well lined with down. Eggs — 6 to 11, elongate ovate or elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 2.26 to 2.70 by 1.69 to 1.73 (in millimeters, 57.5 to 68.5 by 43.0 to 44.0), and averag- ing 2.46 by 1.72 (62.5 by 43.5) (twenty-seven eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; in color olive buff (authors). GBEATES SCAUP DUCK 157 General distribution — Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds from northwestern Alaska, Great Slave Lake, and central Keewatin south to southern British Columbia and northern North Dakota; ■winters from Maine to Florida and from the Aleutian Islands, Nevada and Colorado south to southern California and southern Texas (modified from A. O. TJ. Check-list, 1910, p. 75). Distribution in California — Fairly common winter visitant locally and irregularly on salt and brackish water along the sea coast. Recorded south to the vicinity of San Diego (Willett, 1912a, p. 25). Rare inland, as at Stockton, San Joaquin County, and northward in central California (Belding, 1879, p. 446; and Belding, MS). The Scaup Ducks, or Blue-bills, are among the commonest of the sea ducks. The Greater Scaup, however, is not so plentiful in most parts of the United States as is the Lesser Scaup Duck, for the former has a more northerly winter range. This statement holds for Cali- fornia, for whereas the Greater Scaup is but occasionally met with, the Lesser Scaup is found abundantly in winter on all of the coastal bays and marshes, and often in the interior. Doubtless the Greater Scaup is a commoner bird than is indicated by the comparatively few records ; its habit of congregating with the smaller species, from which it differs very slightly except for size, makes it easy to confuse with the latter species. Records of the Greater Scaup in California, are limited to the midwinter season save for a single bird taken at Stockton, San Joaquin County, April 1, 1878 (Belding, 1879, p. 446), though there are general statements to the effect that it occurs from October until April. The black head with a slaty blue bill, the white belly and mantle, and pure white speculum, conspicuous in flight, enable one to dis- tinguish the male Greater Scaup from all other ducks except the Lesser Scaup. In addition to a considerable difference in size, the Greater Scaup can be separated from the Lesser by the metallic green reflections on the sides of the head instead of the purplish ones to be found in the Lesser Scaup Duck. The white mask formed by patches of white about the base of the bill in the female separates her from all other ducks except the female Lesser Scaup and Ring-necked. Greater size alone is usually sufficient to separate her from either of these two near-related species. In common with the male, her con- trastedly dark head, and white belly and speculum, distinguish her from most other ducks. The following description of the nesting site and nest of the Greater Scaup in Alaska is given by Nelson (1887, p. 71). The nesting sites chosen are such as the Pintail and most other ducks choose — a dry, grassy tussock or knoll close to some pond — the only difference being that the present species appears to desire a position nearer water, . . . and the nest is frequently at the point of some small jutting cape and so near the water that the parent can swim to and from the nest. The nest is com- 158 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA posed of gi-ass stems, gathered close at hand, and a large fluffy bed of down plucked from the parent's breast. Three nests found in the delta of the Kowak River, Alaska, are thus described by Grinnell (1900, p. 15) : The nest was on a high dry hummook, about ten yards from the edge of a lake. It was almost hidden from view by tall, dead grass of the previous year's growth. The eggs rested on a bed of finely broken grass stems, while the rim of the nest was indicated by a narrow margin of down. This nest contained eleven fresh eggs. A second set of ten fresh eggs was taken on the same day (June 14, 1899). The nest was similar in construction, but was out on the tundra between two lakes, and fully a, quarter of a mile from either. A set of seven fresh eggs taken on the 15th was quite differently situated. The nest was almost without feathers or down, and consisted of a neat saucer of matted dry grass-blades, supported among standing marsh grass and about four inches above the water. It was in a broad marshy swale about thirty feet from a small pond of open water. The following paragraph provides facts as to the summer habits of the Greater Scaup in the Norton Sound region of Alaska : The first days of June is the time usually chosen for depositing the first eggs, and some are not laid until nearly a month later. On August 16, 1878, several broods of young, from one-half to two-thirds grown, were seen, and on August 30, half-grown young were found in company with the female, whose primaries and secondaries were just starting after her summer moult. In the north as in the south these birds show a predilection for the larger bodies of water, and at once after the young are hatched they are marshalled off to the largest pond in the vicinity, so that it is a common occurrence to find a pond with six or eight broods of these ducks united in a large flock, whereas the other fresh water ducks keep in smaller pools and more than a single brood in a pond is the exception (Nelson, 1887, p. 71). The eggs of the Greater Scaup Duck, in common with those of its lesser relative, can be easily identified in comparison with those of other ducks, by their darker and richer color which may be described as rich olive buff (Bent, 1902, p. 165). Sets taken in northern Alaska by the senior author are uniform deep olive buff. Twenty-one eggs average in size 2.46 by 1.73 inches. In flying the Greater Scaup Duck rarely utters any note, but when swimming leisurely about in calm weather it is said to give utterance to a quick rattling or rolling sound (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 21). Eaton (1910, p. 206) says that ducks of this species utter a soft purring whistle when excited or when calling to their mates, and rarely the discordant scaup, which when given is screamed out in an exceptionally harsh, coarse voice. He adds : " On two or three occasions I have heard a flock of scaups giving utterance to these notes and the effect was the loudest and most discordant chorus of bird notes to which I ever listened, coming as it did from scores of voices over the silent water." LESSEE SCAUP BUCK 159 Due to its habit of "rafting," or resting on the water in close flocks during the daytime, this duck has sometimes been termed ' ' Raft Duck." It is a good diver and obtains practically all of its food in this way. "When wounded it seeks safety in diving or skulking under overhanging rocks or banks. "When a flock is flushed the birds imme- diately scatter so that a "pot-shot" is seldom possible. Greater Scaup Ducks are said to feed almost exclusively at night. Crustaceans, shellfish and the like form the principal part of their food, but pondweeds are not altogether neglected. In the east these ducks, like many of the other species which dive, feed to a large extent on wild celery the roots of which can be torn loose only by the more expert divers among the ducks. Three stomachs of Greater Scaup Ducks shot by Sam Hubbard on San Pablo Bay, December 5, 1913, contained many shells, mostly broken, of a small clam (My a arenaria). A stomach obtained by "W. Toms on Tia Juana Slough, below San Diego, December 7, 1913, contained over 450 seeds of ditch-grass (Ruppia maritima). The Scaups are among the less desirable ducks for table use, as their flesh is usually tainted by their shell-fish diet. On the market both the Greater and Lesser Scaup Ducks are known as "Blue-bills" and are sometimes classified mth certain other inferior species, as "small ducks," and sold wholesale for $1.00 to $2.00 a dozen. The Lesser, being abxmdant on the bays and marshes near San Francisco, can always be found on the market, and the Greater has been at times recognized among them. The rare appearance of the Greater Scaup on the market, as compared with the Lesser, is probably due to the fact that it affects more open and inaccessible waters. But it ranks equally with the Lesser Scaup from the sportsman 's point of view. The Greater Scaup Duck is, with us, preeminently a maritime species. It is a bird which evidently winters chiefly north of us. Hence its preservation is not a particularly urgent problem to Cali- fornians. It will probably never be an important game bird in this state for two reasons : first, it appears in but small numbers, irregu- larly and in inaccessible places ; and second, it is not in great demand as a table duck, but is used merely as a makeshift when other more desirable species are not procurable. ^ Lesser Scaup Duck Marila affinis (Eyton) Other names — Bluebill; Little Black-head; Black-jack, part; Broad-bill; Aythya affinis; Fulix affinis; Fuligula affinis; Fuligula mariloides. Description — Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast and fore part of back black (some specimens show a dull brownish ring around the lower neck, but not of the chestnut color seen in the Eing-neoked Duck) ; sides of head 160 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA and neck with purplish reflections predominating; iris yellow; bill clear bluish gray, nail black; back and scapular region white with coarse zig-zag barrings of black; rump, upper tail-coverts and tail dull black; outer surface of closed wing slaty brown, mottled sparsely with fine white dots; flight feathers slaty brown; speculum pure white; sides and long feathers of flanks white, the latter finely vermiculated with dusky; hind part of belly blackish brown, finely barred with whitish; under tail coverts black; rest of under surface pure white, this sharply contrasting with the black on breast; legs and feet (dried) slaty black. Total length 16.50-18.00 inches (418-457 mm.) (Eaton, 1910, p. 207), and two specimens from California; folded wing 7.60- 8.20 (193-208); bill along culmen 1.55-1.73 (39.4-43.9); tarsus 1.35-1.40 (34.3- 35.6) (seven specimens). Adult female: Whole head, neck, breast, and fore back, dusky reddish brown; a conspicuous area (sometimes called a mask) around base of bill, white; lower back, rump and tail dark brown; scapulars finely peppered with white dots, this taking the place of the zig-zag barrings in the male; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers plain slate brown; speculum pure white; sides, flanks, lower belly and under tail coverts more or less deeply brownish, with here and there traces of whitish vermiculation; rest of under surface white, not so abruptly marked off from brown of breast as in male. Total length "16.00-16.75" inches (406-425 mm.) (Eaton, loc. cit.); folded wing 7.42-8.00 (188-203); bill along culmen 1.56-1.65 (39.6-41.8); tarsus 1.27-1.40 (32.3-35.6) (nine specimens) ; all from Alaska and California. Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage: "Upper parts, dark brown, with buff spots on side of back and rump; lower parts, buff; forehead and side of head, brownish buff; narrow brown ring across neck in front connecting with -brown of upper parts" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, pp. 137-138). Makes fob field iDENTiriCATloN — Not distinguishable from Greater Scaup at gunshot range. In hand, or within a few yards, the smaller size, purplish instead of greenish gloss on the head, somewhat coarser or more distinct black undulations on back and flanks, and lack of whitish on outer webs of innermost primaries identify the male Lesser Scaup (pi. 5). Females can be definitely dis- tinguished only by size differences. The Lesser Scaup averages nearly two inches shorter than the Greater Scaup and is proportionally smaller throughout. Voice — Same as that of Greater Scaup Duck. Nest — Concealed in grass near water; composed of dry grass stems and lined with down. Eggs — 6 to 11, elongate ovate or elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 1.97 to 2.38 by 1.40 to 1.62 (in millimeters, 50.0 to 60.5 by 35.5 to 41.0), and averag- ing 2.22 by 1.56 (56.5 by 39.5) (fifty -two eggs in XJ. S. National Museum); color plain olive buff. General distribution — North America. Breeds, chiefly in the interior, from the Yukon Valley, Alaska, and Fort Anderson, Mackenzie, south to central British Columbia, southern Montana, and northern Indiana; winters from southern British Columbia, Colorado, Lake Erie and New Jersey south to Panama, but chiefly within the United States. Non-breeding birds summer far south of the breeding range (modified froip A. O. U. Check -list, 1910, p. 75). Distribution in California — Common transient and winter visitant prac- tically throughout the state wherever favorable conditions obtain. The coastwise records are largely in the fall and winter and the interior ones in spring. A few non-breeders summer along the sea coast, as at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 19106, p. 204) ; has bred on lakes of San Francisco County (Squires, 1915, p. 234; J. Mailliard, 1915, p. 235). LESSES SCAUP DUCK 161 The Lesser Scaup Duck or Little Blue-bill is the commonest duck found on the salt water bays and marshes along the coast during the winter season. Kafts of Lesser Scaups are always to be found on San Francisco and San Pablo bays from October to April, and this is the duck most commonly seen resting on the water near the ferry moles or diving for mussels about the piling. Non-breeders are occa- sionally seen in California during the summer. They have been noted in June at Santa Barbara (Torrey, 1910?), p. 204). Even as far south as San Diego large flocks have been known to remain until the first of May and individuals were seen there as late as May 7, 1885 (Belding, MS). In 1881 Lesser Scaups were seen in the markets of Stockton as early as October 6. On San Francisco Bay E. W. Gifford (MS) has record of "Blue-bills" as follows: 1904-1905: first seen, November 23 ; last seen. May 13 ; 1906-1907 : first seen, November 29 ; last seen, April 14 ; 1907-1908 : last seen, May 20 ; 1908-1909 : first seen, December 25 ; last seen, March 21 ; 1909-1910 : first seen, November 7 ; last seen, February 28. They apparently foUow the coast more gen- erally in their southward migration, and the interior in their northward migration; practically all of the records from the interior are in the spring. Inland this duck is found chiefly on the larger bodies of water. The breeding range of the Lesser Scaup is a little more southerly than that of the Greater Scaup, as Nelson and others have not found it in northern Alaska. The southern limit of its summer range is certainly far south of that of the Greater Scaup. The great interior plains region, from northern North Dakota and northern Montana to the edge of the timber near the Arctic coast in the Anderson and Mackenzie river regions, contains the principal breeding grounds. The migration carries most of these breeders southeast to the south Atlantic states and even to the Bahamas and Mexico. The birds found along the Pacific coast are thought to breed mostly in the interior of British Columbia, Alaska, and Yukon territory. As has been noted in the discussion of the Greater Scaup Duck the Lesser Scaup is practically indistinguishable from it at a distance of more than a few yards in spite of the fact that some observers claim to have noticed differences in habits. A Scaup is readily recognized from other ducks by the combination of black head, blue bill, white or light mantle and white speculum and belly (pi. 5). On close examination the male Lesser Scaup can be identified and separated from the Greater Scaup by the presence of a purplish instead of greenish gloss on the head, by lack of whitish on outer webs of inner- most primaries, and by heavier markings on the scapulars and fianks. But size is the main distinguishing feature, and females can nearly always be separated by this character if by no other. The Lesser Scaup averages nearly two inches less in total length and the folded wing is about an inch shorter. 162 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA On the Pacific slope, save for the instance noted below, this duck has not been found breeding south of British Columbia. In the latter place Brooks (1903, pp. 278-279) found it breeding much later than the Canvasback or Ring-neck. The nests were usually placed in coarse grass, with a path to water, generally a muskrat's runway, connecting with the nearest open water. The first eggs were taken on June 21 and the clutches varied from seven to eleven in number. A nest with ten eggs found by Chase Littlejohn at Glacier Bay, Alaska, July 16, 1907, was placed within a heavy growth of grass about a foot from the water's edge and consisted of grass stems lined with a little down from the parent's breast (Grinnell, 1909&, p. 195). Nests found in North Dakota by Bent (1902, p. 165) were "all placed on dry ground but never more than fifty yards from the water. They were gen- erally rather poorly concealed in the prairie grass, but in some cases, where the grass grew thick and high, they were fairly well hidden. The nest consisted of a hollow scooped in the ground, profusely lined with very dark colored, almost black, down, mingled with a little dry grass and occasionally a white feather from the breast of the bird." Evidence was obtained that the Lesser Scaup sometimes lays eggs in the nests of other ducks. On Lake Merced, San Francisco County, Squires (1915, p. 234) observed a pair of Lesser Scaups in July, 1915, with three young not yet able to fly, and J. Mailliard (1915, p. 235) reports that two or three families of "scaups" with young only a few days old had been seen on Stow Lake in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, in the same month. So far as could be learned these broods were not reared to maturity. There is likelihood that these breeding birds had been crippled or pinioned and were thus prevented from undertaking the usual migration. Eggs taken in southeastern Alaska are plain olive buff and average 2.34 by 1.58. Twenty-six eggs from North Dakota averaged 2.26 by 1.59. "The lightest types approach somewhat the darkest types of the Mallard 's eggs, and the darkest types are rich dark buff or coffee- colored" (Bent, 1902, p. 165). The male Blue-bills flock together during the nesting season as is the habit in many other species of ducks. In habits the Lesser Scaup is almost identical with the Greater Scaup except that the former appears to be a little less restricted to salt water. It is nearly always found in large flocks and resorts to the larger bodies of open water. "Rafts" (large dense flocks) of these ducks can often be seen during the day on the surface of open water, with their heads tucked under their wings, sleeping. In spite of their seeming obliviousness to their surroundings they are difficult to ap- proach, and only a boat well concealed by brush or tules will enable LESSEE SCAUP DUCK 163 the hunter to approach within gunshot. On San Francisco Bay Blue- bills are often seen feeding about the moles and wharves where they obtain a fair living by diving for mussels which are attached to the piles. On Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park, and on Lake Merritt, Oak- land, Blue-bills become very tame and one can often approach to within a few feet of them. "When flying over the larger bodies of water they usually move close to the surface. On San Pablo Bay Scaups and Canvasbaeks are commonly observed associating together on their feeding grounds in February and March. The food of the Lesser Scaup, like that of its larger cousin, is made up almost entirely of shellfish, crustaceans, aquatic insects, and pondweeds, obtained by diving. Blue-bills can stay under water for some time and often remain above the surface for a few seconds only, before diving again for some other delectable morsel which they have previously sighted. Bight stomachs of this duck, from birds taken by W. Toms on Tia Juana Slough, near San Diego, contained quantities of the seeds of ditch-grass (Ruppia maritima) ; two of these stomachs also held parts of moUusk shells, and one contained over two hundred small water bugs ( Notonectidae ) . The shellfish diet obtained along the coast often makes this duck undesirable for food. One man has described a scaup as tasting after a few weeks of shellfish diet like a pint of crude oil! When feeding on the lakes of the interior where fresh -water food is available it is said to make a more acceptable addition to the bill of fare. ■In spite of its inferiority this is a common duck on the market, where it is sold as "small duck." The average wholesale price on the markets of San Francisco during the season 1911-1912 was $1.00 to $2.00 per dozen. Because of its numbers it affords more sport than any other bay duck. It comes readily to decoys and is shot in great numbers from blinds built in the shoal Waters of the bays along the coast. "When taking flight the flock immediately scatters so that ' ' pot- shots" are difficult. A diminution in the numbers of this less-sought-f or duck has not been particularly noted on the west coast as has been the case on the east coast. Nevertheless hunters with years of experience say that the numbers now appearing in California do not compare with the thousands which flocked to our shores formerly. There is no better example of the results to be expected from pro- tection than is afforded by a visit to Lake Merritt, Oakland, where ducks, including great numbers of Blue-bills, congregate by the thou- sands even though the lake is situated near the heart of a great city. The species is also found in some numbers on Stow Lake, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, showing that by protection and the use of a few pinioned ducks a small reservoir can be made to teem with water- fowl even though it be in the midst of civilization. 164 GAME BIEBS OF CALIFORNIA Ring-necked Duck Marila collaris (Donovan) Otheb names — Eing-bill; Blaek-jaek, part; Blaek-head; Aythya collaris; Fulix collaris; Fuligula collaris. Descbiption — Adult male: Whole of head, neck, breast and upper surface black, except for a triangular patch of pure white on the chin and a more or less distinct half-collar of chestnut brown around fore part of lower neck; sides of head faintly glossed with violet; low crest on head shiny black with faint greenish iridescence; iris yellow; bill lead color, with a narrow basal and broad subterminal band of bluish white, the end black; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers slaty brown; speculum pearl gray, bordered above by blackish feathers with slight greenish reflections, and behind by a narrow margin of white; axillars and most of lining of wing pure white; tail slate brown; sides and flanks white, delicately undulated with dusky; under surface, including crescent-shaped extension upwards on each side in front of wing, satiny white changing behind through an undulated area like the sides and flanks to the black of the under tail coverts; legs and feet "greyish-blue," webs "brownish-black" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 323). Total length 17.20-17.37 inches (437-441 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 7.75-8.15 (197-207); bill along culmen 1.75-1.86 (44.4r-47.2); tarsus 1.36-1.42 (34.5-36.0) (six specimens). Adult female: Top of head dark brown; sides of head lighter brown more or less mottled with whitish; an area at base of bill, chin, and throat dull white; bill usually, showing evidence of a light cross-bar; hind neck and whole of back dark reddish brown shading into the black of rump; outer surface of closed wing exactly as in male; breast, sides and flanks reddish brown, each feather edged with lighter brown giving a somewhat mottled appearance; lower surface otherwise white, shading into brown on the • lower belly and under tail coverts; longest under tail coverts whitish. Total length 16.75 inches (425 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 7.26-7.62 (184^193); bill along culmen 1.73-1.90 (43.8-48.2); tarsus 1.27-1.40 (32.3-35.6) (eight specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Male: Similar to that of adult female (authors). Natal plumage: Forehead straw yellow; top and back of head and most of upper surface of body, warm brown; sides of head and neck, and throat, straw yellow, palest below; chin yellowish white; iris hazel; bill lead- colored above, flesh-colored below; short narrow streak in middle of back and large patches on sides of back and rump, pale straw yellow; under surface of body, pale straw yellow, darkening on flanks and lower belly where some grayish brown down shows through; feet lead colored, toes tinged with yellowish. Marks fob field identification — Resembles Lesser Scaup but speculum bluish gray instead of white. Back of male black instead of whitish, and white of under surface extending upwards on each side to form a crescent-shaped mark in front of wing. At close range the combination of narrower dark bill with light cross-band near end, the light (chestnut) collar, and triangular white spot on chin is diagnostic. Female has white around base of bill less sharply defined than in Lesser Scaup, chin and throat continuously whitish, but lower surface of body darker, and speculum bluish gray instead of white. Female Ring-neck distinguished from female Redhead by smaller size, shorter wing, narrower bill, whiter throat, and darker back. Voice— Said to resemble that of Greater Scaup Duck. BING-NECKED DUCK 165 Nest — In grass of marsh laud, over or near water; made of grass stems and sparingly lined with down. Eggs — 6 to 12, elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 2.25 to 2.30 by 1.60 to 1.65 (in millimeters, 57.2 to 58.3 by 40.6 to 41.8) (Davie, 1889, p. 70); color varying from greenish or grayish white to buff. General distribution — North America. Breeds from North Dakota and Minnesota north to Athabasca Lake, and less abundantly west of the Rockies from Lassen County, California, to southern British Columbia. Winters from southern British Columbia, northern Texas and New Jersey south to Porto Eico and Guatemala (modified from A. O. XT. Check-list, 1910, p. 75). Distribution in California — Eather rare winter visitant, mainly in the west- central and southern parts of the state, and chiefly on fresh water. Southernmost record station: San Diego (Belding, MS). One breeding record: Eagle Lake, Lassen County (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187). The Ring-necked or Ring-bill Duck is the rarest of the Redhead- Canvasbaek-Seaup group occurring in California. Because of this fact ornithologists have taken especial interest in reporting instances of its occurrence, with the result that there are now more than fifteen definite records. It has been taken at least four times on San Fran- cisco Bay and there are other records from west-central California. It has been found at Eagle Lake, Lassen County, and at Lake Tahoe and also at several places in southern California, even as far south as San Diego. Belding (MS) states that in his experience the Ring- necked Duck was a winter visitor "in unknown quantity" south to San Diego and that it was a fairly common species in central Cali- fornia where he shot specimens repeatedly and saw it in the markets. As an instance of unusual occurrence, "W. K. Fisher (1904, p. 25) secured a specimen from the ridge back of Black Mountain, nine miles west of Stanford University, on November 26, 1903. The species seems to prefer the vicinity of fresh water, in this state at least. Its principal winter home is the Gulf Coast from Texas to Florida where it is said to be the most abundant duck present (Cooke, 1906, p. 48). In general appearance the Ring-necked Duck resembles the Scaups. However, the speculum is bluish gray rather than white, and in the male the back is black and the white of the under surface extends upwards on each side to form a crescent-shaped bar in front of the wing. At close range, or in hand, the male may be known by the narrower bill, dark in color and vsdth a light cross band near the end, by the light chestnut-colored collar, and the triangular spot of white on the chin. Females have white around the base of the bill as does the same sex in the Scaups; but the Ring-neck has this white less sharply restricted, the chin and throat are continuously whitish, the back is darker, the brown sides and flanks lack undulated markings, and the lower surface of the body is less whitish. The female Ring- neck can be distinguished from the female Redhead by smaller size, darker body color, whiter throat and narrower bill. 166 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA The summer home of the Ring-neeked Duck seems to comprise two general areas on opposite sides of the Rocky Mountains. The majority of the birds breed in the interior plains region from North Dakota and Minnesota north to Athabasca Lake and the western side of Lake Winnipeg. West of the Rockies the species nests from Eagle Lake, Lassen County, California, north to the Cariboo district of British. Columbia (Cooke, loc. cit.). At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, Sheldon records (1907, p. 187) that he found many Ring-necked Ducks in pairs, or old with young. This observation suggests that the species must nest locally about other large lakes in the northeastern part of the state. It is known to have nested in the vicinity of Fort Klamath, Oregon (Merrill, 1888, p. 142), and Brooks (1903, p. 279) has found it breeding in British Columbia. The latter author says : "I was able to take only one set of eggs, evidently a second laying as there was no down. This was on the 27th of June. The nest was in a tussock of grass, in eight inches of water ; it was composed of coarse green grass and arched over with the drooping blades of the tussock. The nine eggs contained small embryos. Young broods of this species were observed before the Lesser Scaup (A. affinis) had started to lay. The young in down are very light colored, resembling the young of the Canvasback and Redhead, and quite different from the dusky, unspotted young of the Lesser Scaup." Roberts (1880, p. 61) describes a nest of the Ring-necked Duck found on June 1, 1876, in southeastern Minnesota, as follows: The situation chosen for the nest was a narrow strip of marsh bordering a large shallow pond or slough. About half way between the shore and the edge of the open water was a mass of sunken debris, probably the remnants of an old muskrat house, which reached nearly or quite to the surface of the water, here about eight inches deep. On this foundation was the nest, a rather compact, bulky structure built mainly of fine grass with a little moss intermingled. Outside the grass is long and circularly disposed, while the bottom, inside, is composed of short broken pieces, and the inside rim of fine grass bent and loosely tangled together with considerable down among it. Measurements were not taken before removing the nest, but in its present condition the walls and base are two and a half inches thick, the diameter inside six inches, and the depth of the cavity three inches. The clutch was nine eggs which contained small embryos. The eggs were perfectly smooth, and of a light greenish-white color, wholly unmarked. Seven of the eggs out of the set just described measured 2.19 to 2.27 by 1.58 to 1.62 and averaged 2.23 by 1.60 inches. According to Baird, Brewer and Ridgway (1884, II, p. 28) the eggs of this species are grayish ivory white, but sometimes the gray tinge is replaced by buff. AMERICAN GOLDEN-ETE 167 At Eagle Lake, Lassen County, California, Sheldon (loc. cit.) found Eing-neeked Ducks less shy than other ducks. They were always close to shore, usually where dead trees lay in the water, and often perched on limbs of dead pines which rose above water. As a rule birds of this species are seen singly or in pairs, and they do not resort to open water as much as their relatives, the Scaup Ducks. Brooks (1899&, p. 350) says: The Ring-neck "generally fre- quents smaller ponds and more rushy localities than the scaups, but I have seen both species of Scaups, Ringbills, Redheads and Canvas- backs (all five species of the genus Aythya found in America) in one enormous flock. Like the [other] members of this genus the Ringbill is a swift flyer. In fact I should class it as the fastest flying duck in America. ' ' The swift motion of the wings produces a whistling sound as the birds pass overhead. In flight, too, the general behavior is like that of Scaups, in that the members of a band of Ring-necks spread out and do not afford opportunities for "pot-shots." The feeding habits of the Ring-neck are similar to those of its nearest of kin. It dives easily and is able to stay under water for a considerable period of time. It eats snails, aquatic insects, and seeds. Belding (MS) says that the Ring-neck takes low rank among food ducks. It is too rare a duck to be of importance as a game bird. If it could be readily distinguished in the field it would be well to afford it special protection along with the Wood Duck and Redhead ; but its similarity to the Scaup Duck precludes such a course. Better pro- tection in the states lying to the north, where it is found more abun- dantly, will favor its persistence within our own state. American Golden-eye Clangula clangula americana Bonaparte Other names — Whistler; Whistle-wing; Copperhead (female only); Buce- phala americana; Clang-iila americana; Bucephala clangula; Clangula glaucion americana; Glaucionetta clangula americana; Bucephala clangula var. americana. Description — Adult male: Whole head, including moderately developed crest, and upper part of neck, black, glossed (except on throat) with dark metallic green changeable to violet at certain angles; a nearly circular spot of white (measuring about five-eighths by one inch) at base of bill on each side; iris "bright yellow" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 367); bill deep black; pure white of breast and lower surface continuous clear around neck, contrasting abruptly with black of head; inner scapulars black, outer ones white with black edges; back, rump and tail, solidly black; outer surface of closed wing black and white; bend and edge of wing blackish, secondaries, greater and middle coverts (including speculum), pure white; primaries and tail blackish slate; sides pure white; elongated flank feathers, white, edged sharply with black; under tail coverts white; under side of tail ashy brown; feet "orange," webs "dusky,'' claws "black'' (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length "18.50- 168 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA 23.00" inches (470-584 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 105); folded wing 9.12 (232); bill along culmen 1.45 (36.8); tarsus 1.58 (40.2) (one specimen from Alaska). Adult female: Whole head, including moderately developed crest, and hind neck continuously light brown (no circular white spot at base of bill) ; bill with parallel edges, symmetrically rounded at tip, and ' ' dusky, " " dull yellow- ish orange" toward ends of both mandibles (Audubon, loc. cit.) ; broad collar around fore neck, white, incomplete behind; upper surface of body ashy brown, the feathers with blackish centers; rump black; tail ashy brown both above and below; outer surface of closed wing including flight feathers slaty black, many of the lesser and middle coverts with white tippings; secondaries and broad ends of greater coverts (including speculum) pure white; under surface of wing and axillars blackish brown; band across breast ashy gray, conspicuously outlined above by a white collar, and behind by the white of rest of under surface; sides and elongated flank feathers slate brown, nar- rowly tipped with white. Total length "about 16.50" inches (418 mm.) (Ridgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 8.12 (206); bill along culmen 1.28 (32.5); tarsus 1.37 (34.8) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Male: Like that of adult female but has white spot before eye more or less indicated, while gray band across chest is less conspicuous (authors). Natal plumage: "Whole top of head to level of bill, and hind neck, very dark brown; throat white; back and sides dark brown, with paired spots of grayish white as follows: on hind margin of wing, behind wing, on flank, and at base of tail; whole lower surface of body white; band across foreneck light brown; iris brownish; bill blackish, tip of lower mandible flesh-color; feet olive ochre. Marks for field identification — Medium size, stocky build, yellow eye, fluffy head, and notable whistling sound produced by wings in flight. Male: Black and white plumage, and conspicuous rounded white spot on side of head at base of bill. Female: Combination of general characters given above together with white speculum, abruptly and solidly brown head, and white collar, separate her from other ducks except the Barrow Golden-eye. From the female of the latter she differs slightly by paler head, shallower and broader bill at tip, lack of yellowish band across bill near tip, light band across chest, and lack of blackish bar across white of wing. Voice — Of male: In courting, a short flat vibrant paaap (Brewster, 1911, p. 25). Of female: When startled or lost a sharp cur-r-rew ; in nesting season (at least) a low pitched quack (Eaton, 1910, pp. 209-210; and authors). Nest — In cavities in trees over water; a lining of down on the residual rotten wood or other debris. Eggs — 5 to 15, or more, rounded-oval in shape, measuring in inches 2.30 to 2.55 by 1.70 to 1.78 (in millimeters, 58.4 to 64.7 by 43.2 to 45.2); color ashy green; thin-shelled with a glossy surface (measurements from Davie, 1889, p. 71). General distribution — North America. Breeds from southern British Columbia, southern Montana, northern North Dakota and northern New England north to central Alaska, central Keewatin and Newfoundland; winters chiefly in the United States from Utah, Nebraska, Minnesota and Maine south to southern California, central Mexico and Florida (modified from A. O. U. Cheek-list, 1910, p. 76). Distribution in California — Fairly common winter visitant, chiefly in the northern half of the state; most numerous on coastal bays and salt marshes, occasionally straggling to the interior. Several instances of occurrence in southern California (Willett, 1912a, p. 25), the southernmost being at San AMERICAN GOLDEN-E¥E 169 Diego (Belding, MS). Some inland record stations are: near Daggett, San Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34) ; Lone Pine, Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893o, p. 18); and lower McCloud River, Shasta County (C. H. Town- send, 1887, p. 195). Other inland records nearer the coast. The American Golden-eye or Whistler is to be numbered among the less common ducks in California. Several early writers give it as a common winter visitant, but recent records especially in southern California have been few. Little John (1912, p. 41) says that it is often plentiful during the fall migration on the salt marshes of San Francisco Bay near Eedwood City. From Oregon northward this duck is reported as regularly common in winter. It is with us found almost exclusively on salt water along the coast, but there have been several records of its occurrence interiorly, for example, "central California in winter, but rare" (Belding, MS). The numbers decrease rapidly south of Monterey Bay. The medium size, stocky build, strongly contrasted black and white coloration, and large-appearing head of the male Golden-eye make him easily distinguishable from other drakes in the field, either when flying or at rest on the water. At close range or in the hand, the roundish white spot at the base of the bill on each side and the bright yellow eyes make identification certain. The extraordinary whistling sound made by the wings marks this bird in flight. Our other black and white ducks with which it is sometimes confused by the inex- perienced observer are the sawbills and the Bufflehead ; but the longer body and slender beak of the mergansers give them an entirely dif- ferent appearance, while the Bufflehead is a much smaller bird and the head, though fluffy, has a large white patch behind the eye. The female Golden-ej'es are more difficult to recognize than the males, as the head is brown instead of black, the upper surface is gray in color and there is no white spot at the base of the bill on each side. The stocky build, bright yellow eye, and whistling noise in flight still remain, however, and together with the white speculum, abruptly and solidly brown head, and white collar, combine to distinguish them from other -female ducks. Males of the American Golden-eye can be separated from those of the Barrow Golden-eye by the roundish white spot at the base of the bill instead of the narrowly triangular patch found in the same place in the latter species. Females and young of these two species are so similar in appearance that they are difficult to distinguish even in the hand. The decided reduction in the width of the bill near its tip in the Barrow Golden-eye is the most dependable character avail- able for discrimination. Other diagnostic characters of the American are the paler head, paler band across chest, lack of yellowish band across bill near tip, and lack of blackish bar across the white area on the wing. 170 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA The Golden-eye has not been found breeding in California. Being a distinctly cold-loving species, in summer as well as in winter, it nests almost entirely in the far north. As it requires hollow trees for nesting sites, its breeding range is of course limited to those areas where trees are found. It breeds commonly in the interior of Alaska, but is very rarely seen along the coast. The Golden-eye has been found breeding in southern British Columbia so close to the American line that it probably will be found to breed in northern Washington (Cooke, 1906, p. 49). Brooks (1903, p. 279) states that in the Cariboo district, British Columbia, it is seen during migrations but has not been found to nest there. The principal breeding grounds are in central Canada, but it has also been found nesting in the extreme north-central and northeastern United States, as far south as northern New York. More has been written on the life-history of the Golden-eye than on that of many of the commoner ducks. Unfortunately, however, little or none of this information pertains to the Pacific Coast. "We can only infer a general similarity in behavior on the part of our birds. The Whistler is noted for its extraordinary mating antics. C. W. Townsend (1910, pp. 177-178) describes the typical courtship of this duck, as seen in Massachusetts, as follows: One or more males swim restlessly back and forth and around a female. The feathers of the cheeks and crest of the male are so erected that the head looks large and round, the neck correspondingly small. As he swims along the head is thrust out in front close to the water, occasionally dabbing at it. Suddenly he springs forward, elevating his breast, and at the same time he enters on the most typical and essential part of the performance. The neck is stretched straight up, and the bill, pointing to the zenith, is opened to emit a harsh, rasping double-note, zzee-at, vibratory and searching in character. The head is then quickly snapped back until the occiput touches the rump, whence it is brought forward again with a jerk to the normal position. As the head is returned to its place the bird often springs forward kicking the water in a spurt out behind, and displaying like a flash of flame the orange-colored legs. Brewster (1911y pp. 22-30) has noted no less than six typical poses which are successively assumed while the males are displaying themselves before the females. The love note is described as a short, flat, vibrant paaap, accompanied by an upward kick of the feet which sends up a slender shower of water behind. There were often as many as nine males courting one female and yet the usual jealousy to be noted among males of other species of ducks appeared to be wholly lacking. Brewster has made an extensive study of the nesting habits of the Golden-eye at Lake Umbagog, Maine. In the course of his admir- able account, he states (1900, pp. 208-209) : AMEEICAN GOLDEN-EYE 171 All the Whistlers' nests which 1 have examined [in Maine] have been placed over water at heights varying from six or eight to fifty or sixty feet and in cavities in the trunks of large hardwood trees such as elms, maples, and yellow or canoe birches. As the supply of such cavities is limited, even where dead or decaying trees abound, and as the birds have no means of enlarging or otherwise improving them they are not fastidious in their choice, but readily make use of any opening which can be made to serve their purpose. Thus it happens that the nest is sometimes placed at the bottom of a hollow trunk, six, ten, or even fifteen feet below the hole at which the bird enters, at others on a level with and scarce a foot back from the entrance, which is usually rounded, and from six to fifteen inches in diameter, but occasionally is so small and irregular that the Whistler must have difficulty in forcing its bulky body through. . . . The eggs are laid on the rotten wood or whatever other debris there may be at the bottom of the cavity. When the set is complete (never before, so far as I have observed) the bird places under, around, and even over the eggs, down plucked from her breast. The quantity of down varies greatly in different nests. The down is very light gray, each down feather having a slightly paler center. The number of eggs in a completed set varies greatly. Occasionally there are but five or six, oftener from eight to ten, not infrequently as many as twelve or fifteen, while I once found nineteen, all of which almost certainly belonged to one bird. . . . The whole bottom of the nesting cavity, be it large or small, is usually covered with eggs, and they are often piled in two layers or set on end, and packed so closely that it is as difficult to remove the first as to take a book from a tightly filled shelf. An occupied nesting cavity can usually be located by the presence of white down on the edges of the aperture or on near-by limbs. Bent (1902, p. 170) describes the eggs as different from other ducks' eggs in that they vary from a clear pale malachite green in the lighter specimens to a more olivaceous or pale chromium green in the darker specimens. Seventeen eggs from North Dakota measure in inches 2.37 to 2.58 by 1.66 to 1.77, and average 2.46 by 1.71. The ducklings are easily separated from those of other species. "The downy young have the upper parts, as well as a band across the breast and the sides and thighs, dark sooty brown, marked with several white spots ; chin, throat, and cheeks pure white ; belly grayish white" (Eaton, 1910, p. 210). Unlike the Wood Duck, the young apparently often tumble from the nest instead of being carried to water in the bill of the parent, for Brewster ( loc. cit.) tells of seeing the young tumble out of a nest into the water after being called by their mother. All used their tiny wings freely, beating them con- tinuously as they descended so that they struck the water with very little force. On the other hand George A. Boardman (in Forbush, 1912, p. 131 ) states that in Maine he saw a female Whistler pick up two of her ducklings and carry them, one at a time, across a lake, and he was told by his companion that the mother birds often took their 172 GAME BJBDS OF CALIFORNIA young from one lake to another when they thought the little ones were in danger. Boardman 's companion also told him that the young were usually carried from the nest to the water in the bill of the parent, but to go any distance the feet were used in carrying them. Bailey (1916a, p. 55) says that at Stump Lake, North Dakota, parent ducks have been seen to fly down from nest holes with young birds on their backs, the ducklings steadying themselves by holding onto the mother 's feathers by their bills. Golden-eyes are generally found in small flocks on large bays, lakes or rivers. In flight this duck makes more of a noise with its wings than does any other duck. This peculiarity has given it the common name of "Whistler." It seems to be otherwise perfectly silent in California during the winter, making no noise, except that produced by the whistling of the wings in flight. In a scattered company mixed with other species this duck is usually one of the first to give the alarm, for it is nearly always shy and difficult to approach ; but on occasion, apparently trusting to its dexterity in diving, it will allow a near approach. Both when swimming and in flight it is a very active bird. The male "Whistler floats lightly on the water. The female, how- ever, sits much lower in the water. Brewster (1911, p. 29) states that in diving the wings of this species are kept tightly closed whereas the tail is usually spread to the utmost width possible. As a rule the downward plunge is made without much apparent efl'ort, the bird simply immersing its head and then vanishing with surprising if not mysterious quickness. Occasionally it springs upward and forward in the manner of a grebe or merganser, sometimes showing not only the entire outline of the lower parts of the body above the surface but also the whole of the. legs and feet. This species dives so very quickly (at the flash of the powder) that, according to testimony, it could not be shot with the old-fashioned flintlock gun. The flight of the Whistler is powerful, rapid, and protracted. On rising from the water it proceeds at first very low, and does not ascend to its usual height until it has gone a considerable distance. Lamb (1912, p. 34) has recorded the following notes on a pair seen November 17, 1910, feeding in a small pond on the Mohave Desert. "At this place the water was about four feet deep. They would dive and stay under the water possibly forty-five seconds, and when coming up I could hear them breathe so plainly, it sounded to me as loud as a full grown man after a hard run. The birds remained on the surface, apparently to recover their breath, about half again as long as they stayed under water." Bailey {1916a, p. 55) observed a female diving and feeding in Stump Lake, North Dakota. As the bird rose above the surface with a morsel of food she would throw her head up as she swallowed it. BABBOW GOLDEN -BYE 173 The food is made up largely of mussels and other shellfish obtained by diving. The stomach of a bird taken on San Pablo Bay, December 5, 1913, by Samuel Hubbard, Jr., contained only broken clam shells {Mya arenaria). Some authors state that the Golden-eye also feeds on small fish. In the interior it is said to feed on aqtiatic insects and even such vegetable matter as grasses and roots. Like others of the rarer ducks the Golden-eye cannot be considered an important game bird. From the sportsman's point of view it is almost negligible, for it seldom comes well to decoys. It has rarely been seen on the markets of San Francisco. As a table bird it is inferior, taking rank below even the Blue-bill. The young, however, are said to be fairly tender and well flavored. This lover of the far north will probably always be more or less of a rare duck in California. The size of the contingent reaching us will always be dependent on conditions obtaining farther to the north. Thus the numbers to be expected each year are variable. During mild winters in the north, the continued presence of open water makes it unnecessary for the birds to travel farther south. Barrow Golden-eye Clangula islandica (Gmelin) Other names — Rocky Mountain Golden-eye; Rocky Mountain Garrot; Whistler ; Bucephala islandica ; Glaucionetta islandica. Description — Adult male: Head, including well developed crest extending to hind neck, and upper half of neck, black, strongly glossed, except on fore- head and throat, with steely blue showing violet reflections at certain angles; extreme point of chin flecked with white; an approximately wedge-shaped patch of white on each side of head between eye and bill, bordering whole lateral base of bill; upper part of this white patch forms an acute angle on each side of the forehead, the lower part broadest and rounded; bill goose-like, color "black"; iris "yellow" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 147); upper surface of body velvety black, with a faint steely gloss on scapulars; outer row of scapulars on each side white, with outer edge of outer web of each feather black and produced into an abruptly elongated spike; the mass effect of this scapular white is of a longitudinal series of roundish or oblong spots; outer surface of closed wing chiefly black; middle wing coverts white, together producing a broad white bar; exposed terminal half of greater coverts, and whole of exposed portion of five or six inner secondaries, white, forming a large patch, which includes speculum; black bases of greater coverts form a diagonal black bar separating the two above designated patches of white on wing; axillars and under surface of wing blackish brown; sides and flanks chiefly white, continuous with same color on lower surface, but upper feather edges widely bordered with deep black, and flank feathers also broadly termin- ated with black; thighs and marginal under tail coverts blackish brown; lower half of neck all around, and entire lower surface of body, except as above, pure satiny white; legs and feet "pale .orange" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. eit). Total length "21.00-23.00" inches (533-584 mm.) (Eidg- 174 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA way, 1900, p. 105); folded wing 8.95 (227); bill along culmen 1.37 (34.8); tarsus 1.62 (41.2) (one specimen, in Mailliard collection, from California). Adult female: Whole of head, including moderately developed crest, and upper neck, continuously dark brown; collar around neck white, interrupted behind by light brown, continuous with color of back; bill conspicuously high at base, narrow at tip, with large black nail, and mostly black with usually a yellow patch across each mandible near tip; upper surface of body ashy brown, with blackish feather centers; scapulars darker; rump dull black; tail ashy brown both above and below; outer surface of closed wing including flight feathers, slaty black; speculum pure white, bordered in front by a blackish bar formed by the tips of the greater coverts which are otherwise white on their exposed portions; many of lesser coverts also mottled with white; lining of wing and axillars, blackish brown; broad band across breast ashy brown, conspicuously outlined by the white collar above, and behind by the white on rest of lower surface; sides and elongated flank feathers slaty brown, tipped with ashy; under tail coverts pure white. Folded wing 8.25-8.65 inches (210-220 mm.) ; bill along culmen 1.27-1.50 (32.2-38.1); tarsus 1.43-1.60 (36.3^0.6) (two specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Not known to us. Natal plumage: Whole top of head, sides of head to level of bill, and hind neck, uniform very dark brown; throat white; iris brownish; bill blackish, tip of lower mandible flesh color; upper surface of body and sides, dark brown, with paired white spots as follows: on hind margin of wing, on flanks, behind wing, and at base of tail; whole lower surface white, with band across fore- neck light brown; feet olive ochre. Marks for weld iDENTiricATiON — Similar to those for American Golden-eye from which not readily distinguishable except at close range or in hand. Male Barrow Golden-eye has white patch on cheek sharply triangular instead of rounded, head glossed with steel-blue instead of green, scapulars spotted instead of striped, black band across white wing patch, and bill deeper and narrower. Female Barrow Golden-eye, as compared with the American, has head darker brown, bill more goose-like and with yellowish band near tip, chest band darker, white collar narrower, and white wing patch usually crossed by a dusky bar. Voice — No description found by us. Nest — In hollows in trees; built of grass, sticks and other debris, and usually lined with white down. Eggs — 6 to 10, rounded oval in shape, measuring in inches, 2.40 to 2.60 by 1.60 to 1.85 (in millimeters, 61.0 to 66.0 by 40.6 to 47.0), and averaging 2.48 by 1.71 (63.0 by 43.4) (fifteen eggs); in color "grayish pea-green" or "bright sea- green" (Brewer, 1879, pp. 151, 152). General distribution— Northern North America. Breeds from south-central Alaska and northwestern Mackenzie south to southern Oregon and southern Colorado; also from northern Uugava to central Quebec. Winters from south- eastern Alaska, central Montana, the Great Lakes and Gulf of St. Lawrence south to central California, southern Colorado, Nebraska and New England (A. O. U. Check -list, 1910, p. 76). Distribution in CALiroRNiA— Bare winter visitant to northern half of the state. The following definite instances of occurrence are known: Gridley, Butte County (Belding, MS); at or near (?) Nicasio, Marin County (Belding, MS); Boss Landing and Point San Pedro, Marin County shore of San Fran-. Cisco Bay (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15) ; Stege, Contra Costa County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); San Francisco markets (Henshaw, 1876, p. 274); San Francisco Bay (Kobbe, in Bailey, 1902, p. xlix); San Francisco Bay near Redwood City, San Mateo County (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41). BABBOW GOLDEN-EYE 175 Previous to 1876 the Barrow GroldSn-eye was supposed to have a general far northern distribution. In that year the nest and eggs of this species were first found in the mountains of Colorado. Since that time it has been found breeding on a number of the sequestered mountain lakes of the Rockies from southern Colorado almost to the Arctic Coast although breeding records north of the United States are rare. On the northwest the breeding range extends to the base of the Alaska Peninsula and to Iceland on the east. The species also breeds about the mountain lakes of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The cold of the winter season forces it but little south of its summer range. By frequenting water that is too deep or too rapid to freeze it is able to remain all the j'ear as far north as Minnesota and the Great Lakes. Along the Pacific Coast the Barrow Golden-eye is to be found during the winter season from Alaska south to central California. In California it has never been taken south of San Francisco Bay and even to the north of this place it is a relatively rare bird. In all, less than a dozen specimens have been recorded from the state, all but one being from the vicinity of San Francisco Bay. This one, recorded by Belding (MS), was captured far from the seacoast — at Gridley, Butte County, February 26, 1895, where it accompanied two or three others in a flock of American Golden-eyes. This species apparently frequents salt water during its migrations and is to be found, at least sometimes, in company with the more common Ameri- can Golden-eye. In Washington it is said to keep to the open lakes and rivers. The most recent specimens taken within the state were secured by Little John (1912, p. 41) under the following circumstances: "After examining hundreds of specimens of Golden-eyes for many years past, I at last succeeded in securing a young male in immature plumage on November 19, 1908, and a female on November 28, 1910 ; all others were of the common, or American Golden-eye, which are quite plentiful during the fall migration on the Redwood City salt marshes." The white patch in front of the eye is sufficient for telling the males of either species of Golden-eye from other ducks; but to sepa- rate the Barrow from the American Golden-eye is somewhat more difficult, especially in the open. In flight the two are practically indis- tinguishable and when on the water a close view must be afforded in order that the shape of the white patch in front of the eye be made of use as a distinguishing character. By examination of specimens in the hand the male Barrow Golden-eye can be recognized by the following points: the vertical, upward pointing, wedge-shaped patch in front of the eye ; the color of the head, on which the reflections are chiefly steely blue, the better developed crest, the more goose-like bill. 176 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA the spotted instead of striped scapulars, and the black wing bar. Females are even more difficult to distinguish, as the general color- ation of the two species is the same. The Barrow Golden-eye, how- ever, has the white wing patch crossed by a blackish band formed by the dark tips of the greater wing coverts, the head is darker brown, the white collar narrower, the gray band across breast darker, and the bill usually shows a yellowish bar near the tip. The bill is rela- tively shorter and higher at the base and distinctly narrower towards the tip; the "nail" is larger and more hooked at tip. Although never found nesting in California, the Barrow Golden- eye has been found to breed at Pauline and Diamond lakes, Crook and Douglas counties, Oregon (Cooke, 1906, p. 51). It is possible, therefore, that this species may breed about the higher mountain lakes of northern California. Carter {in Brewer, 1879, p. 150), who first discovered a nest of this species in Colorado, states that this, like the American Golden-eye, nests in hollow trees and that it is surpris- ing to see to what small cavities, in some instances, they can accom- modate themselves. Brewer (1879, pp. 151-152) states that in Iceland the nest of the Barrow Golden-eye cannot be mistaken for that of any other duck, because of the pure white down with which the nest is lined. The female sits so closely that she can usually be captured upon the nest. The eggs, from nine to twelve in number, resemble those of the American Golden-eye but are slightly larger. Brooks (1903, p. 279) has found this a rather scarce breeding duck in British Columbia in the neighborhood of 158-Mile House, but more common in La Hache Valley. "One set of eggs was taken from a hole in a dead Douglas fir, fifty feet from the ground, probably the deserted nest of a fiying squirrel. The tree stood about four hundred yards from the nearest water. The eggs (seven) at this date (17th June) contained large embryos." Prom another nesting hole which Brooks was unable to reach, a female brought out fourteen young. HolboU {in. Brewer, 1879, p. 151) says that the Barrow Golden- eye is the most wary of all water-fowl and that it is with the greatest difficulty that one can approach even within gunshot of it. Collectors have had to station themselves in places where this bird feeds on moonlight nights in order to obtain specimens. In general habits it resembles the American Golden-eye but is said to be a less expert diver. As a game duck the Barrow Golden-eye must be considered along with the American Golden-eye ; its extreme rarity in California makes it of even less importance. The one or two records of its occurrence in the markets of San Francisco are so exceptional as to have merited particular comment. In fact, its classification in California as a game species is hardly more than technical. BUFFLE-HEAD 177 Buffle-head Charitonetta albeola (Linnaeus) Other names — Butterball; King Butterball (male); Spirit Duck; Clangula albeola; Bucephala aJbeola. Description — Adult male: Plumage of head copious and fluffy forming a distinct ci-est of even outline; head and upper neck, black, glossed vividly with metallic green, violet-purple, and an intermediate greenish bronze, the green being most apparent about face and on hind neck, the violet-purple on crown and sides of head and neck; a large patch of white extends backward from immediately beneath eye and meets its fellow on back of head; iris "dark brown"; bill "slate," nail "black" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 150) ; back and rump black, separated from dark color of head and upper neck by a broad white collar; upper tail coverts and tail light gray; forepart of outer surface of closed wing chiefly white; flight feathers and inner scapulars black; outer scapulars white edged narrowly on outer margins with black; axillars and lining of wing mottled dusky and white; breast, sides, under tail coverts and expanded flank feathers pure white, the last narrowly bordered along upper edges with black; belly plain pale ashy gray, blending into white of breast; white of breast runs up on foreneek into an A-shaped invasion upon the dark head; legs and feet "flesh color" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. cit.)- Total length "14.25-15.25" inches (362-387 mm.) (Eidg- way, 1900, p. 106); folded wing 6.50-6.97 (165-177); bill along culmen 1.06- 1.17 (26.9-29.7); tarsus 1.27-1.36 (32.2-34.5) (nine specimens from California and Alaska). Adult female: Head (less puffy than in male), neck, and whole upper surface of body, dark grayish brown, approaching black on crown, middle of back, and rump; throat and whole neck lightest in tone; a white patch on each side of head behind and below level of eye (these patches much smaller and less sharply defined than in male, and not meeting on hind neck) ; iris dark brown; bill bluish gray; tail above and below grayish brown; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers, slaty black; small, sharply con- trasted area on wing, including speculum, pure white, crossed by a black bar; breast, sides, flanks, under tail coverts and hinder part of belly, grayish, blending with the dull white of rest of under surface; legs and feet "slate"; webs "dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, loc. cit.). Total length "12.25-13.50" inches (311-343 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 5.95- 6.50 (151-165) ; bill along culmen 0.96-1.08 (24.4-27.4) ; tarsus 1.11-1.27 (28.2- 32.2) (seven specimens from California and Alaska). Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known to us. Marks for field identification — Small size, chunky build, relatively large head, short bill, black (or dark) and white coloration, white patch on side of head, and white speculum, separate either sex from other ducks. Female slightly smaller than male, with much of black replaced by blackish brown; distinguished by white patch on side of head behind eye, and white wing patch crossed by a black bar. Voice — Resembles quack of Golden-eye but feebler; on the wing a deep guttural note (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, pp. 50, 51). jfBST — In hollow stump or tree, near water; lined with down. YjGas — 2 to 9, averaging 8, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches 1.75 to 2.11 by 1.32 to 1.50 (in millimeters, 44.5 to 53.5 by 33.5 to 38.0), and averag- ing 1.99 by 1.44 (50.5 by 36.5) ; color creamy white or old ivory (measurements 178 GAME BIRDS OF C^LIFOBNIJ from eighteen eggs in U. S. National Museum, description from various authors). General distribution — North America. Breeds from Upper Yukon Valley, Alaska, Great Slave Lake and central Keewatin south to British Columbia, northern Montana, and central Ontario. Winters from Aleutian Islands, British Columbia, Colorado, Missouri, southern Michigan, western New York and New Brunswick, south to northern Lower California, central Mexico and Florida (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 77). Distribution in CALiroRNiA — Common winter visitant along entire seacoast; less numerous away from salt or brackish water. Interior records pertain chiefly to lakes and sloughs at low altitudes. Some record stations away from the seacoast are: Salton Sea, Imperial County (Van Rossem, 1911, p. 134) ; near Daggett, San Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34) ; Lone Pine, Inyo County (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 18); Los Baflos, Merced County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Stockton, San Joaquin County, and Marysville, Yuba County (Belding, 1879, p. 447) ; and Fort Crook, Shasta County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 195). Arrives in October and remains as late as April 20 (San Diego: Cooper m Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 49). Not known to nest within the state. The Buffle-head, or Butterball as it is usually called, is one of the handsomest of the ducks to be found in California. It is commonly to be seen in pairs or small flocks on salt water bays and brackish sloughs, less frequently on fresh water in the interior valleys. Its stay in California is limited to the winter months from October to April. During the nesting season the Buffle-head is confined almost entirely to Canada and the extreme northern United States. It is a common breeder from Manitoba westward to British Columbia, thence north to the limit of trees. Most of the California birds probably breed in the western portion of this region, although some may breed farther south as for instance about the mountain lakes of Oregon and Washington. The small size, big head, conspicuous black and white plumage, with white patches on the sides of the head and body make the male Buffle-head easy to distinguish from all other ducks. The long brightly glossed feathers of the head form a sort of enveloping hood and con- trast strongly with the short white feathering of the lower neck. The female is slightly smaller and browner than the male, and lacks entirely the glossy sheen on the head ; the white patch on her wing is smaller and is crossed by a black bar. The Hooded Merganser is the only duck with which the Buffle-head is likely to be confused. The male Hooded Merganser has a somewhat similar white patch on the head when the crest is raised, but the Buffle-head can be distinguished by the short, stubby bill and by the lower neck which is conspicuously pure white all the way around. The female Buffle-head can be dis- tinguished from the female Ruddy Duck, the only species which it at all closely resembles, by the white spot on the side of the head behind the eye, the white speculum, and the very much smaller bill. BUFFLE-HEAD 179 The courting behavior of the BufHe-head in California has been only imperfectly described, but C. W. Townsend (1916, pp. 16-17) from observations in Massachusetts, writes of it in detail as follows : A group of thirty -five or forty of these birds with sexes about ' equally divided may have been actively feeding, swimming together in a compact flock all pointing the same way. They dive within a few seconds of each other and stay under water 14 to 20 seconds and repeat the diving at frequent intervals. Suddenly a male swims vigorously at another with flapping wings, making the water boil, and soon each male is ardently courting. He spreads and cocks his tail, puffs out the feathers of his head and cheeks, extends his bill straight out in front close to the water and every now and then throws it back with a bob in a sort of reversed bow. All the time he swims rapidly, and, whereas in feeding the group were all swimming the same way in an orderly manner, the drakes are now nervously swimming back and forth and in and out through the crowd. Every now and then there is a commotion in the water as one or more drakes dive with a splashing of water only to come up again in pursuit or retreat. As the excitement grows a drake flaps his wings frequently and then jumps from the water and flies low with outstretched neck to- wards a duck who has listlessly strayed from the group. He alights beside her precipitately, sliding along on his tail, his breast and head elevated to Fig. 23. Head of female BufBe-head. their utmost extent and held One-half natural size, erect. He bobs nervously. And Note single white patch below and be- so it goes. hind eye (compare with figs. 24 and 26). Swarth (1911, p. 43) says that in southeastern Alaska during April and May the preponderance of males was very noticeable. He further states : ' ' The drakes were constantly exhibiting their plumage and competing for the favor of the females; sometimes when several were fighting together furiously the single female of the flock would quietly fly away and leave them, to be presently followed by the whole gathering as soon as her defection was discovered. ' ' Brooks (1903, p. 279), who had excellent opportunity to study the nesting habits of this species in British Columbia, says that : Almost every lake has one or more pairs of these charming little ducks. The nests, unlike those of Barrow's Golden-eye, were always in trees close to or but a short distance away from water. These nests were invariably the deserted nesting sites of flickers, and in most instances had been used several years in succession by the ducks. The holes were in aspen trees from five to twenty feet from 'the ground, and the entrance [in each case] was not more than three and a quarter inches in diameter. The number of eggs ranged 180 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA from two to nine, eight being the average; in color they resemble old ivory, without any tinge of green. I have several times seen the eggs of this duek described as "dusky green," but these have evidently been the eggs of some species of teal. The female Buffle-head is a very close sitter, never leaving the nest until the hole was sawed out, and in most cases 1 had to lift the bird and throw her up in the air, when she would make a bee-line for the nearest lake, where her mate would be slowly swimming up and down unconscious of the violation of his home. In many cases the eggs had fine cracks, evidently made by the compression of the bird's body when entering the small aperture. It is said that some nests have no other lining than down feathers from the female parent. The Buffle-head flies with notable speed, vibrating its wings with great rapidity, and usually travels close to the water. When alighting on the water it does so with a big splash, considering the size of the bird, and ploughs through the water for some little distance before its momentum is Completely arrested. It associates in pairs or flocks of small size. Flocks do not fly in regular formation as is the habit with some ducks, but the individual members bunch closely together each disregarding the position of its companion. A deep guttural note is sometimes given when on the wing, but more often the birds fly without uttering any sound whatsoever. Next to its fatness, whence the name Butterball, the Buffle-head is famed for its expertness in diving. It is said to dive at the flash of the gun and consequently is difficult to hit when resting on the water. Although usually shy and not easily aproached it sometimes depends for its safety entirely upon its agility in diving and will then permit close approach. When wounded or pursued it swims great distances under water and upon rising to the surface will immediately dive again if danger is still near. So expert a diver is the Buffle-head that it can catch small fish easily, and this sort of food is said to be taken regularly. Like many other sea ducks, the Buffle-head varies its food with locality. Along the seacoast, it feeds upon small fish, shrimps and other crustaceans, and shellfish ; in fresh water, crawfish, leeches and snails, and grasses and other water plants, are taken (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 51). Despite its fatness the Buffle-head is not considered a very desirable table bird because its flesh is usually ill-flavored. Birds taken in the interior have been reported as palatable, and young birds taken along the coast are relished by people who know how to cook them. But as a general rule Buffle-heads taken along the sea coast have been sub- sisting on a shellfish diet so long that it has made their flesh taste "fishy." This species is only incidentally sought for by the gunner, its small size, poor flavor, and its usual inaccessibility giving it low rank OLD-SQUAW 181 as a game bird. But for the bird student or camera hunter, no more interesting or handsome duck can be found. Little need here be said as to the probable future status of this duck in California. It must simply be numbered with other migratory salt-water species which have shown some decrease in numbers. On the Atlantic coast, according to Forbush (1912, p. 138), the diminu- tion has been deplorably rapid. That there has not been a greater decrease here is due to its slight demand for table use, and also to its elusive habits. Nevertheless, the market hunter has sent regular quotas of these birds to the market each year. During the season 1895-96, 328 Buf&e-heads were sold on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). In more recent seasons this species has been classified along with other species as "small ducks," so that the exact number sold on the markets is not known. Old-squaw Harelda hyemalis (Linnaeus) Other names — Long-tailed Duck; South Southerly; Clangula hyemalis; Harelda i/lacialis. Description — Adult male in winter: Head and neck mostly white; cheeks ashy; a blackish brown patch on side of head and neck, and a blackish stripe from ridge of bill up over crown of head; eyelids white; iris "bright car- mine"; bill relatively small, narrowed towards tip, with well-developed nail, basal half "black," "orange yellow" near end, nail "bluish-grey" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 383); upper part of breast and back, white, continuous with white of head; rest of upper surface sooty brown; outer surface of closed wing blackish brown, the speculum a little more warmly brown; lining of wing and axillars dusky; elongated and pointed scapulars pearl gray, some with dusky centers; breast and forepart of belly solidly blackish brown; sides, flanks, rest of belly and under tail coverts, white; middle tail feathers greatly narrowed and elongated (8.50 to 10.00 inches, 216 to 254 mm., long) and blackish brown in color, others white with dusky centers; legs and feet "pale slate," webs "dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 153). Adult male in summer: Patch on side of head from bill to behind ear, encircling eye, ashy; area immediately around and behind eye more purely white; bill as in winter; rest of head and neck blackish brown except for patches of white on back of head (made up of long feathers probably remnants of winter plumage) ; back blackish brown, save for transverse area of reddish brown dark-centered feathers across shoulders, and for elongated scapulars which are reddish brown with blackish centers; outer surface of closed wing sooty brown; speculum more brownish and not well defined; lining of wing and axillars dusky; breast and forepart of belly solidly sooty brown continuous with same color on head; sides flanks, lower part of belly and under tail coverts, white; elongated tail feathers as in adult winter plumage. Total length "20.75-23.00" inches (527-584 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 106); folded wing 8.53-9.40 (217-238); bill along culmen 1.04-1.14 (26.4-28.9); tarsus 1.35-1.48 (34.3-37.6) (seven specimens from Alaska). Adult female in winter: Most of head and neck 182 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA white, but crown and sides of head and neck usually sooty brown; iris "yellow"; bill "dusky-green" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 384); entire upper sur- face of body dusky brown, many of the feathers with broad pale edgings; outer surface of closed wing dusky brown; some of wing coverts and scapulars with broad ashy endings, these wearing oS towards summer; lining of wing and axillars, dusky; tail ashy brown; tail feathers pointed but not elongated; fore breast dull grayish brown; entire under surface white, tinged on forepart with gray; feet "dusky-green" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Adult female m summer: Head and neck dark grayish brown; large area containing eye, and another on side of neck, grayish white, the latter with extensions forward to each side of chin; upper surface as in winter plumage, but forepart of back and scapulars variegated with light brown. Total length ' ' 15.00-16.00 ' ' inches (381-406 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 7.90-8.35 (200-212); bill along culmen 0.92-1.04 (23.4-26.4); tarsus 1.22-1.38 (31.0-35.0) (four specimens from Alaska). Juvenile plumage (both sexes); Somewhat siniilar to that of summer female, but nearly uniform above; head and neck light brownish gray, darkest on crown, and more or less indistinctly whitish between bill and eye, behind eye, and on side of neck; bill wholly dusky; back and outer surface of closed wing, blackish brown; scapulars and speculum slightly more brownish; tail, lining of wing and axillars dusky; tail blunt-ended; lower sur- face including under tail coverts, white; fore breast and sides light grayish brown. Natal plumage: Top and sides of head, hind neck and whole back, blackish brown, with many lighter hair-like yellowish brown lines; band around foreneck light brown; small spots above and below eye, lower cheek, chin, throat and rest of lower surface (except band on foreneck), white, clearest on chin and dullest on belly. Marks for field identification — Stocky build (about size of Shoveller, but with small bill), no white or bright markings on wing, and in winter much white on head, neck, and under surface. Adult male with two middle tail feathers greatly elongated (8.50-9.50 inches, 216-241 mm.) and with scapulars conspicuously pearly white, strongly contrasting with blackish brown of back. Adult female and all immatures in winter strikingly similar to female Harle- quin Duck but with under surface including flanks and under tail coverts extensively white instead of deep brown, and white patches on side of head less conspicuous (see figs. 23 and 26). Voice — Resembles the syllables south south southerly or old south southerly (Elliot m Eorbush, 1912, p. 140); or d-leedle-d, d-le'edle-d, frequently repeated in deep reed-like tones (Nelson, 1887, p. 73). Mellow call-note of male is aptly imitated by the native name Ar-hl'-look (Grinnell, 1900, p. 16). Nest — On ground near water, built of grass and lined with dark-colored down. Eggs — 6 to 10, nearly elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 1.93 to 2.36 by 1.42 to 1.54 (in millimeters, 49.0 to 60.0 by 36.0 to 39.0), and averaging 2.09 by 1.46 (53.0 by 37.0) (139 eggs in TJ. S. National Museum); color dull grayish pea-green to dull light olive buff (Davie, 1889, p. 72). General distribution — Northern Hemisphere. In North America breeds from islands of Bering Sea and Arctic coast of Alaska to northern Greenland, south to Aleutian Islands, east-central Mackenzie, northern Hudson Bay and southeastern TJngava. Winters from the Aleutian Islands south regularly to Washington, rarely to southern California, and from Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Great Lakes and North Carolina; rarely farther south (modified from A. O. TJ. Check-list, 1910, p. 77). OLD-SQUAW 183 Distribution in California — Rare mid-winter visitant on bays along the coast as far south as San Diego. The known record stations are: Humboldt Bay, Humboldt County (T. S. Palmer, 1889, p. 88); Suisun Marshes, Solano County (J. W. Mailliard, 1916, p. 85); Point Reyes, Marin County (W. E. Bryant, 18936, p. 363) ; Marin County (J. Mailliard, 19026, p. 46) ; San Francisco (New- berry, 1857,«p. 104; Loomis, 1901, p. 105); San Francisco Bay near Redwood City, San Mateo County (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41); Monterey Bay, Monterey County (Beck, 1907, p. 58); Santa Barbara (Henshaw, 1876, p. 274); Los Angeles County (Willett, 1912o, p. 26); Newport, Orange County (Daggett, 1901, p. 15); San Diego Bay (Belding, MS; Anthony, 1896, p. 172). The Old-squaw has an exceptionally wide general distribution. It is found throughout the Arctic regions of the Old World as well as the new. In North America it breeds most commonly along the Arctic coast from Hudson Bay to extreme western Alaska and the ^^^^^ ■-•s??;'- .0*:?-, -VA- ■-■'■">i' > ■ : 'jv Fig. 24. Head of female Old-squaw. One-half natural size. Note white area behind eye and another on side of neck (compare with figs. 23 and 26). nearby islands. Along the coast of Alaska from the Aleutian Islands to Point Barrow this is one of the commonest ducks in summer. The Old-squaw is a hardy species, wintering from the Aleutian Islands southeast along the coast of southern Alaska to British Columbia and Washington. It is less frequent farther south on the Pacific coast, and the southernmost record station is San Diego Bay. Of the dozen or so records from California all except one (probably of a disabled bird) are of late fall and midwinter dates and all are from along or near the sea-coast. Newberry (1857, p. 104) offers the suggestion that the Old-squaws appearing on our coast are driven this far south by bad weather, for he says that they are only found on San Francisco Bay during the "severest weather." Certain it is that they are not regularly observed within the state, some years furnishing no record whatever. It is possible that they occur more regularly on the open sea and reach the inner bays only during severe storms. 184 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOENIA The male Old-squaw may be known from all other ducks by its stocky build, white and blackish coloration, extremely long and nar- row middle tail feathers, and the orange-colored band across its bill. In both sexes the bill is small and narrowed towards the tip, there are no white or bright color markings on the wings, and, during the winter, the head is more or less white. The female is quite similar to the female Harlequin Duck, but has a much more extensively white under surface, though less conspicuously contrasted white patches on the sides of its head (figs. 24 and 26). Its peculiar, organ-like call- notes are specially gpod field characters, for the Old-squaw even in winter is a noisy duck. The plumage changes of this duck seem to be different from those of many other species, for no eclipse plumage is acquired during the late summer molt of the flight feathers (Stone, 1900, p. 20). On the other hand there is every imaginable gradation between the winter and summer plumage, with frequent so-called "arrested" stages. The courting antics of tliis species in southern Alaska are thus commented upon by Dixon (mi Grinnell, 1909&, p. 196) : They [the males] were all intonating ' ' auck-quan-dee ' ' to their utmost capacity and the one that holloed the loudest seemed to stand the best chance, so there was considerable competition. There seemed always to be about three males to one female. Nelson (1887, p. 73) gives the following description: The male is often seen swimming rapidly about the female, his long tail- feathers raised to an angle of about 75 degrees and vibrating rapidly from side to side as he passes before the female, uttering the love note at short intervals. If he becomes too pressing in his suit, the female suddenly dives and is instantly followed by her partner, and then a moment later they appear and take wing, and a playful chase ensues, the two diving at full speed and flying above or below in rapid succession until they are tired. It is common for two or three males to join in this follow-the-leader kind of game after the female, and in the end the latter usually flies to some secluded pool with her choice, while the discomfited suitors move off in search of some easier prize. In western Alaska nesting begins early in June and young are to be seen by the end of the same month. W. Palmer (1899, p. 378) found nests on the Pribilof Islands placed almost anywhere on the flat ground near ponds, but usually on some small rise. They were built of grass and lined with blackish down. From the Yukon delta along the coast in each direction their nests are almost invariably placed, in close proximity to a pond or tide creek — the slop- ing grassy bank of the ponds being a favorable location. The parents always keep in the immediate neighborhood and swim anxiously about in the nearest pond when the nest is approached. An unusual amount of dry grass stems and down plucked from the parent's breast composes the nest, and if the eggs are left they are carefully hidden in the loose material. OLD-SQUAW 185 The young are found the middle of August about the ponds and marshy lakes, some only a week or so from the shell and others already trying their wings. As fall approaches young and old are most common along the shores of the inner bays and among the tide-creeks (Nelson, 1887, p. 73). The Old-squaw seems well adapted to its northern home, in which, winter and summer, it is exposed to extremes of rigorous weather. In its main winter habitat far to the north of us, it is most often found in good-sized flocks and sometimes bands together in very large flocks, especially when there is little open water. Flocks may often be seen resting on cakes of ice. It is an extremely noisy duck, for besides the musical notes it keeps up a constant "gabbling," especially at night. Arctic explorers welcome the Old-squaw, for, with the approach of summer, its notes are among the first to break the monotony of the northern solitudes. In flight the Old-squaw moves its wings with short, rapid strokes. Individuals of this species often circle high in the air, apparently in play, a habit which is called ' ' towering. ' ' So erratic is their flight on such occasions that birds have been shot in the back when flying overhead ! "As spring approaches, whole flocks of Old-squaws may be seen to leave the water and ' tower ' to the regions of the upper air, swinging in wide circles, surmounting height after height, until almost lost to view, when they turn and plunge downward, hurtling through the air in arrowy flight, sometimes straight downward, some- times zig-zagging wildly, until they rest again on the surface of the sea" (Forbush, 1912, p. 143). The manner of alighting on the water by suddenly dropping in with a great splash is very characteristic of the species. Not only is the Old-squaw noted for its swift flight, but also for its diving ability. So quickly does it dive at the flash of the gun that it is considered one of the most difficult of ducks to kill on the water. Its diving propensities are further evidenced by the fact that it has been taken in gill nets set in deep water eighteen and twenty fathoms below the surface. At Erie, Pennsylvania, eight hun- dred of these ducks are said to have been netted in a single haul (Bacon, 1892, p. 45). As is the case with other ducks, the food of the Old-squaw varies with the feeding grounds. ' ' In shallow water near the coast it collects mollusca, Crustacea, fish, and marine insects. In a few instances the remains of the common mussel and shrimp are found. In the sum- mer its stomach is usually filled with fresh- water insects" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 61). In the interior (Akron, Ohio), angleworms and insect larvae have been found in stomachs (Haynes, 1900, pp. 12-13). Certain marine plants are also taken as food. The flesh of the Old-squaw is tough and of very poor flavor. Yet in the eastern states, because of its abundance and the sport afforded 186 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA in bagging the bird, it is locally considered a good game species. Its flesh is so dark and rank that shooters sometimes do not trouble them- selves to pick up the dead birds. Its down is said to be of excellent quality, but little inferior to that of the eider. Even if the Old-squaw were more numerous in California it would not be considered a desirable game bird because of its almost total unfitness for table use. This is especially true in this state, where many more desirable species yet remain. As it is, the status of this duck within the state has probably remained unaffected, for, as far as we know, it has never occurred in large enough numbers to attract the particular attention of the hunter. Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus) Other names — Sistrionicus torquatus; Sistrionicus minutus; Cosmonetta histrionica. Description — Adult male: Head and neck, dark slate blue, relieved by various conspicuous markings; stripe from base of bill over middle of crown to back of head, black, forming a low ridge on top of head; stripe on each side from above eye to back of head, reddish brown, the two almost meeting to form a V-shaped border about hinder portion of central black stripe; large triangular patch at side of bill in front of eye, straight-bordered behind, and narrow stripe from upper corner of triangular patch to above eye, both white; rounded spot below and behind eye, and oblique stripe on side of neck, white; all white markings black-bordered; throat sooty black; iris "hazel"; bill "bluish-black," tip "bluish horn-color" (Nelson, 1887, p. 74); collar arouud lower neck, divided on breast and hind neck, white, bordered above by broad band of black with steel blue sheen and below by narrow band of dull black; rump black with steel blue sheen; tail rather long, conspicuously pointed and blackish slate in color; outer surface of closed wing deep slate; flight feathers blackish brown; two small roundish white spots on wing in front of speculum, one on greater and one on middle coverts, the latter often concealed; speculum dark metallic blue with violet reflections, bordered above by feathers haying their expanded outer webs white, outwardly edged with black; axillars and under surface of wing dusky brown; feathers of scapular area centrally white, together forming a white stripe on either side of back; conspicuous transverse white bar on each side just in front of bend of wing, bordered in front and behind with paralleling black bands; sides behind bend of wing, and flanks, rich reddish brown; whole lower surface slaty brown, becoming dusky on belly, and clearer slaty blue on breast; under tail coverts black with steely reflections and with a small roundish white spot on each side near base of tail; legs and feet "dark olivaceous brown," webs "black" (Nelson, loc. cit.). Eclipse plumage: Conspicuous head markings absent or replaced by duller colors. Similar to adult female; but general color of head darker; cheeks and crown approaching slaty black; whole back, rump and scapulars, dark brownish slate; wing, however, as in summer plumage, but ragged from wear and molt; new flight feathers almost black; whole lower surface slaty brown; white transverse bar across side of chest in front of wing and chestnut-colored area EABLEQUIN DUCK 187 on side each represented by few feathers. Total length 17.75 inches (451 mm.") (one specimen from Alaska); folded wing 7.62-8.27 (193.5-210.0); bill along culmen 1.04-1.18 (26.4-3.0.0); tarsus 1.45-1.52 (36.8-38.6) (ten specimens from Alaska). Adult female: Extremely somber-hued: Head and neck chiefly olive brown, darkest on crown, lightest on chin and throat; spot above and in front of eye, another below and behind eye, and broad area on cheek between base of bill and eye, dull white, more or less flecked with brown; whole of upper surface, wings, tail, sides, chest, and under tail coverts almost uniform olive brown; lower surface grayish brown, whitish towards mid-line, and usually with a mottled pattern due to broad white feather ends. Total length 15.50 inches (394 mm.) (two specimens from Alaska); folded wing 7.00-7.55 (178- 192) ; bill along culmen 0.95-1.04 (24.1-26.4) ; tarsus 1.34-1.38 (34.0-35.0) (five specimens from Alaska). Juvenile plumage: Male: Similar to that of adult male but with markings less distinct, white not well defined and blue-black absent; speculum dull gray without gloss; under surface grayish white, each feather marked with a transverse spot of grayish brown; sides and flanks grayish brown, without chestnut color; collar around lower neck imperfect. Female: Similar to that of adult female but upper surface darker and lower surface more brown-tinged (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 157). Natal plumage: "Top of head and upper parts, blackish brown; face and neck, white; under parts and a spot on each wing and thigh, white" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 158). Marks foe field identification — Size medium (about that of a Scaup), bill very small, tail short and pointed, general coloration very dark, below as well as above. Male has several conspicuous white patches on sides of head (fig. 25) and body, as also a white collar around hind neck, a white bar across side of chest, and a white patch on wing. Female dull brown with dull white spots on head, the most conspicuous one below and behind eye; no white on wing. Females of both Bufile-head and Old-squaw have white streak directly behind eye (compare figs. 23, 24 and 26). Voice — Seldom heard; in flocks: "a confusion of low gabbling and chatter- ing notes" (Nelson, 1887, p. 74). Nest — On ground under logs, driftwood or rocks, sometimes in stump near water, and lined with down. Eggs — 5 to 10, rounded oval in shape, and averaging in inches 2.30 by 1.62 (in millimeters, 58.5 by 41.1) ; color yellowish buff or greenish yellow (Davie, 1889, p. 73; and authors). General distribution — Northern North America and eastern Asia. In North America breeds from the Kowak and Yukon rivers, Alaska, the Arctic coast, and Greenland, south to southwestern British Columbia, central Mackenzie, northern Ungava and Newfoundland, and, in the mountains, south to central California and southwestern Colorado. Summers in flocks near Aleutian Islands and along coast of Washington. Winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands to central California, in the interior to Colorado, and on Atlantic coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence to Maine, rarely farther south (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 77-78). Distribxition in Calis'ornia — Irregular winter visitant coastwise in northern and central portions of the state. Known instances of occurrence are: Hum- boldt Bay (F. J. Smith, MS) ; Bodega Bay (Belding, 1891, p. 98) ; Tomales Bay, abundant in fall (Mailliard, MS); Point Eeyes, Marin County, flocks in June (J. Mailliard, 1904, p. 15); Monterey (Loomis, 1895, p. 222; 1900, 'p. 362); Point Carmel, Monterey County (Beck, 1910, p. 69). Breeds sparingly along 188 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA secluded streams of the Sierra Nevada in central California: on Stanislaus and Tuolumne rivers (Belding, 1891, p. 97); Griswold Creek, tributary to Stanislaus Biver, Tuolumne County (Belding, MS); S.outh Fork of Tuolumne Eiver, near Orockers, 20 miles northwest of Yosemite Valley (Belding, 1891, p. 97). Reported to have bred in Yosemite Valley (C. C. Bull, MS). No other duck has such an odd dress and few have such an extra- ordinary mode of life as the Harlequin Duck. Its rarity emphasizes its uniqueness to such an extent that it is a bird much sought after by the collector of game trophies. The breeding range of the Harlequin Duck is usually given in general terms as northern North America and eastern Asia ; yet it is notably discontinuous. Records of breeding are known from such widely separated points as the Kowak and Yukon rivers, Alaska, Greenland and Iceland, south- western British Columbia, cen- tral Mackenzie, northern Un- gava, and Newfoundland, and the mountains of central Califor- nia and southwestern Colorado. Birds believed to be non-breeders have been reported during the summer season from the Pribilof and Aleutian islands, the Sitkan district of Alaska, and the coasts of "Washington and California. This duck winters along the Atlantic coast chiefly from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Maine, and in the interior in Colorado and Missouri, and on Lake Michigan. On the Pacific coast it winters from the Aleutian Islands to Monterey Bay, California. Along the Asiatic coast it is to be found as far south as Japan, but it is of only accidental occurrence in Europe. The Harlequin is apparently a resident species in California. Dur- ing the winter season it occurs only along the seacoast, about rocky headlands as far south as Monterey Bay, and a few birds, probably non-breeders, are seen in these same haunts in summer. Many of our winter contingent of Harlequins probably migrate north of the Canadian boundary to breed, but a certain number repair for the summer to the swift-flowing mountain streams in the Sierra Nevada in the vicinity of which they nest. So distinctive is the male Harlequin in its coloration that after once being identified it is one of the easiest of our ducks to recognize, even at a distance. The general dark coloration, wholly blackish slate above and slaty brown beneath, with irregular and conspicuous lines and patches of white on the head, wings, and side of body, imme- ""•"•"S!** Fig. 25. Head of male Harlequin Duck. One-half natural size. EABLEQUIN DUCK 189 diately separate this from all other ducks. The small bill, sharply- pointed tail, and bright hazel brown sides, are also characteristic. The female and young are inconspicuous birds of plain coloration. The very small and short bill, pointed tail, lack of any sort of white markings on wing, and the two whitish spots on each side of head, are the only definite markings which distinguish the female. As com- pared with the Scoters the Harlequin when swimming is much more buoyant, its body appearing to sit higher out of the water. The seeker of rare birds eggs might well bend his endeavors to the discovery of a nest of the Harlequin Duck; up to the present time no one has found the eggs within this state, and indeed, sets taken anywhere are rare in collections. Belding (MS) says of the Harle- quin in California: I have noticed many of these ducks on the principal streams of Calaveras and Stanislaus counties in sum- mer in each of the past six or seven years and sent a juvenile to the Smithsonian [Institution] which I shot here in 1879 or 1880. I find young broods from about 4,000 feet upward, the earli- est apparently hatched about the first of June or earlier, and have often surprised the mother ducks with their broods when hidden in Saxifrage (S. peltata) which grows profusely in parts of the mountain streams, sometimes approaching within a few feet of the brood ere I alarmed it, when all would hurriedly swim from* me, vigorously using both feet and wings to propel themselves against or with the rapid currents, not hesitating to tumble over a moderate sized cataract when anxious to escape from danger, or, even, when following the streams withoiit such impetus. Dr. Huse saw a female Harlequin with a brood of ducklings on Griswold Creek [Tuolumne County] in 1881 or 1882, and J. Clarence Sperry and Horace Pillsbury caught a juvenile from a flock of the same, which could not fly, on the same creek, in the summer of 1889. The most southern point where it has been captured in California is the south fork of the Tuolomne River, where I got ... a male and female — May 15, 1891 (Belding, 1891, p. 98). Belding (MS) thinks the California birds breed among the rocks. Kaedina states that he knew of two pairs of Harlequin ducks nesting in 1896 in Tuolumne County at an altitude of 4,600 feet. The nest site for the previous year was found but he was unable to locate the site of the 1896 nest. Later he found that at least one of these pairs had brought off a brood. On a mountain journey of a hundred miles ,■?->' j^ Fig. 26. Head of female Harlequin Duck. One-half natural size. Note white between bill and eye and white patch in region of ear. 190 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA - the same year only three pairs were seen and these at widely separated localities. They frequent the icy, turbulent mountain streams, seem- ing to share with the Ouzels a love for the noisiest parts of the rivers. During the breeding season they are very shy and retiring, being seldom seen in pairs, the male and female remaining separated and frequenting different parts of the stream (Kaeding, 1898&, p. 77). Raine {in Maeoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 106) describes a nest found on the Mackenzie River as being "... built on a high bank near some ice-floes, under sticks piled up by the overflow water in the spring." The eggs are described as being similar to those of the Gadwall and Baldpate, but are of a deeper buff tint and average larger. All accounts seem to agree that this duck nests as a rule on the ground near swiftly-running streams; yet in Newfoundland nests have been found in hollow trees. The Harlequin Duck is rare enough in the United States to excite keen interest, especially when found on its breeding grounds. A little flock of the richly barred and spotted beauties fishing in a foaming mountain stream, diving, bobbing on the rough surface, drifting or darting down over the rapids, and then gathering in a bunch below to fly back up stream for another descent, suggests a lot of schoolboys on a coasting party rather than a flock of birds engaged in the serious business of getting breakfast. They seem to enjoy the icy water and their power to dare and buffet its torrents (V. Bailey in Bailey, 1902, p. 62). Belding (1891, p. 98) describes his first sight of this rare duck in California, discovered while hunting with a companion in the Sierras in 1879, as follows: "While we were separated, a strange duck which he had probably frightened, but did not see, flew down the canyon and alighted within twenty yards of me, bent its neck forward close to the water, lifted its wings and uttered a scream I had never heard." Belding states further that he has often seen this duck since that time on the Stanislaus River, and has occasionally seen it on other neighboring streams but that of late years it has become rare owing to its destruction by fishermen, who shoot the birds on sight. V Mailliard (MS) states that in the fall of 1913 hundreds of young Harlequin Ducks were to be seen in scattered fioeks on Tomales Bay, Marin County. At the same time adult males were noted on the open ocean off Tomales Point. In June, 1880, many were seen on the water just outside the surf at Point Reyes. A further idea of their habits when found along the seacoast can be had from the following quotations, which apply to Alaska: "At Coronation Island many were seen feeding among the rocks at the water's edge, and were very tame and easily approached. ... At HARLEQUIN DUCK J 91 this time, June 9 to 14, they were all in pairs, but usually two or three pairs seemed to stay together" (Swarth, 1911, p. 44). "They spend much time out on the open water with other species of ducks, but frequently leave their company to visit the mouths of small streams or to ascend them for considerable distances. When slightly startled on a stream they do not fly, but keep at a safe distance from danger by allowing the current to carry them down stream, uncon- cernedly passing through riffles and rapids and deftly avoiding, with- out apparent eifort, the rocks and whirlpools" (Osgood, 1904, p. 58). "Mr. Elliott found them common on and around the shores of the Fur Seal Islands. There they were in the habit of 'idly floating amid the siirf in flocks of fifty or sixty, or basking and preening on the beaches and outlying rocks' " (Nelson, 1887, pp. 74^75). The Harlequin Duck is an expert swimmer and diver. It is even said to dive from the wing into the water and to emerge flying. Most observers testify to its being a playful duck, its every action betoken- ing the greatest enjoyment. Harlequins are more buoyant than many of the other ducks and consequently sit higher in the water. Belding (MS) states that when inland the food consists chiefly of aquatic insects, to judge from the few stomachs he examined. He does not believe Harlequins eat many trout, if they consume these fish at all. Along the coast this duck feeds largely on mussels and other shellfish obtained by diving. But other marine animals are appar- ently obtained in the surf. Grinnell (19096, p. 196) says that at Chichagof Island, Alaska, this species was found to feed extensively on isopod crustaceans which were gathered at high tide from under stones on the beach. Young Harlequin .Ducks taken in the high mountains are said to be very palatable. Adults are rarely so because of their marine fare through the winter months. Neither is the species considered seriously as game — but this is because of its rarity here. The bird's chief claim for interest lies in its striking coloration, and, with nature lovers and naturalists, in the peculiarities of its distribution in the state. The testimony of Belding, who knows most about this duck as a breeding bird of California, is to the effect that it has been greatly reduced in numbers. Present conditions favor stiU greater reduction so that the early extinction of the native contingent within the state seems almost a certainty. It is probable that a part, at least, of the coastwise representatives are migrants from the north, and these are more likely to hold their own. An absolute close season for a term of years might aid the Harlequin in recouping its numbers. Certainly no huntsman would have his sport greatly restricted by the establish- ment of such a season for this species. 192 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA King Eider Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) Description — Adult male: Top of head uniform pearl gray, slightly deeper toned on hind neek; border along swollen base of upper mandible glossy black; iris "bright yellow"; bill "flesh-coloured," sides of upper mandible and swell- ings on each side of forehead "bright yellow" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 348); cheeks pale sea-green; eyelid, small spot under eye, and V-shaped forward- pointing mark on throat, black; rest of head, neck, upper back and fore breast creamy white, the last named area tinged with buff; lower back, scapulars, and sides and under surface of body black; large patch on each side of rump white; wings and tail blackish brown; large patch on forepart of outer sur- face of closed wing white; feet "dull orange," webs "dusky," claws "brown- ish-black" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 22.25-24.00 inches (565-609 mm.) (ten specimens in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia); folded wing 11.15 (283); bill along culmen 1.40 (35.6); tarsus 1.77 (44.9) (one specimen from Alaska). Adult female: Whole head and neck, cinnamon buff, finely streaked with black, most thickly on top of head; iris "dull yellow"; bill "pale gi-eenish-grey " (Audubon, loc. cit.); back brownish black, with conspicuous feather edgings and tippings of oehraceous tawny and cinnamon buff; rump, cinnamon buff with U-shaped markings of black; outer surface of closed wing brownish black, with conspicuous feather edgings and tippings of oehraceous tawny and cinna- mon buff; flight feathers and speculum blackish brown, the latter outlined in front and behind with bars of white; tertials broadly edged on outer margins with cinnamon; axillars and part of lining of wing, white; rest of under sur- face of wing, brown; breast and sides and under tail coverts, cinnamon buff, with U-shaped markings of black; belly, sepia brown; feet "dull ochre" (Audubon, loc. cit.). Total length 20.75-22.25 inches (527-565 mm.) (six specimens); wing 10.75 (273); culmen 1.25 (31.7); tarsus 1.75 (44.4) (one specimen); all in Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, from Alaska. Juvenile plumage: Somewhat like that of adult female, but with head and neck pale gray dully streaked, axillars and area on lining of wing grayish white, and rump and whole lower surface obscurely barred with blackish brown and dull buff, the pattern finest on belly. Natal plumage: Whole upper surface, leaden brown; lower surface, a paler tone of same color, lightest (almost white) on lower breast and belly. Marks foe field identification — Large stout body (resembling Scoters) ; male with chiefly whitish foreparts, the rest of body black, with white areas on wing and side of rump. Female with no white whatever, brown-toned, finely streaked on head and barred elsewhere. Voice— (?) Nest — On ground among rocks or shrubs, usually close to salt water; com- posed wholly of down. Eggs — 6 to 10, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2.77 to 3.08 by 1.88 to 2.07 (in millimeters, 70.3 to 78. 3 by 47.7 to 52.5), and averaging 2.94 by 1.95 (74.6 by 49.6) ; color light olive gray to grayish green (one set, six eggs, in Mus. Vert. Zool.). General distribution — Northern part of Northern Hemisphere. In North America, breeds along Arctic coast from Icy Cape east to Melville Island, Wellington Channel, northern Greenland, northwestern Hudson Bay, and north- ern Ungava. Winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands to Kodiak Island, KING EIDEB 193 in the interior rarely to the Great Lakes; and on Atlantic coast from southern Greenland and Gulf of St. Lawrence south regularly to Long Island, rarely to Georgia. Accidental in California and Iowa (modified from A. 0. U. Check- list, 1910, p. 80). Distribution in CALiroKNiA — Very rare winter visitant coastwise. Two definite records: One taken off Black Point, San Francisco, in winter of 1879-80 (Henshaw, 1880a, p. 189) ; and female taken on Suisun Marshes, Solano County, between October 15, 1902, and February 1, 1903 (Loomis, MS) . The King Eider is of but extremely rare occurrence in California, appearing here only as a straggler from the far north. Its breeding grounds are in the Arctic regions and south into Bering Sea. It winters abundantly among the Aleutian Islands south to the Shumagin Islands and Kodiak Island, and in smaller numbers to southeastern Alaska. There are but two definite records of the King Eider for Cali- fornia, the first of a specimen taken by D. S. Bryant, off Black Point, San Francisco, in the winter of 1879-80 (Henshaw, 1880a, p. 189). The second and more recent instance, is of a female said to have been brought in from the Suisun marshes, Solano County, in the winter of 1902-03. The bird was mounted and was on exhibition in Golcher Brothers' store, San Francisco, until the fire of 1906 (Loomis, MS). A further rumor is at hand of an Eider of some species having been secured in January or February, 1910, off the heads west of Sausalito, Marin County. This was a male, and was mounted and reported to have been deposited in the Grolden Gate Park Museum. Eiders are large, heavily built ducks, recalling the Scoters. The male King Eider has the fore part of the body (head, neck, upper back and breast) wholly white appearing, and there is a large white area on each wing and on each side of the rump. The rest of the plumage is black. The female and young are without conspicuous markings, and have a finely streaked pattern on the head and a barred pattern else- where. In hand, the King Eider in any plumage may be distinguished from other eiders by the extension of feathers on the eulmen as far forward as the nostrils, while on the sides of the bill the feathering goes only about half way to the nostrils. The following description of the peculiar head of the male is given by Forbush (1912, p. 152): "The raised frontal processes at the base of the bill, which adorn the head, develop immensely in the breeding season, bulging high above the rest of the bill. These pro- cesses are soft, and are supported upon a mass of fatty substance. They shrink and become more depressed in winter, when the general formation of the beak is not much different from that of other eiders." MacFarlane (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 87-88) found the King Eider nesting near the beach in the neighborhood of 194 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA Franklin Bay on the Arctic coast. The nest was a mere depression in the ground fifty yards from the beach and composed entirely of down. It [the King Eider] is a deep water duck and feeds mostly on mussels which it is able to procure, it is said, in water upward of 150 feet in depth, and occasionally is caught like the Old-squaw in the deep water gill nets of the lake fishermen. In the breeding season the males go into the "eclipse" plumage and flock together on the open sea. The female lines her nest with down as do the other species of eider, thus furnishing the famous eider down of commerce, which is gathered by the natives of Iceland, Greenland and Norway. This is taken chiefly from the Greenland and European eiders, each nest yielding about five ounces of down in a season (Eaton, 1910, p. 220). The King Eider even in the far north is of little value as a game bird, so its extreme rarity within our state is of small consequence to hunters. Occurrences as far south as California are of interest chiefly because they are out of the ordinary. No economic importance can be ascribed to a bird of such rarity. American Scoter Oidemia americana Swainson Other name — ^Black Scoter. Description — Adult male: Entire plumage glossy black; wing and tail feathers becoming sooty brown with wear; swollen base of upper mandible to front of nostrils "bright orange," rest of bill black; iris "brown" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 345); legs and feet dull black. Total length (both sexes) "17.00- 21.50" inches (432-545 mm.) (Bidgway, 1900, p. Ill); folded wing 9.20 (233); bill along culmen 1.65 (41.8); tarsus 1.77 (44.9) (one specimen from Alaska). AduU female: Top and back of head, hind neck, and upper surface of body, dark brown, darkest on top of head and on tips of primary wing feathers; bill black; sides of head and neck and whole lower surface of body, mottled light brown and grayish white, lightest on head and neck and darkest on chest and under tail coverts, this pattern produced by feathers being brown at base with tips broadly dull white. Total length 18.75 inches (476 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 8.30-8.87 (211-225); bill along culmen 1.60-1.62 (40.6-41.2); tarsus 1.64-1.68 (41.7-42.7) (two specimens, one from California). Juvenile plumage: "Upper parts, jugulum [=foreneck], sides, and flanks, uniform dark grayish brown; sides of head and neck, chin and throat, dirty whitish, tinged with brownish gray, quite abruptly defined against the dark brown of the pileum and nape [^=top of head and back of neck] ; abdomen whitish, each feather marked with a dusky grayish brown bar just beneath the surface, some of these bars exposed; anal region and orissum [=under tail coverts] grayish brown, the feathers tipped with white. Bill and feet black" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 89). Natal plumage: "Upper parts and breast dark brown; lower parts, lighter brown; throat, white" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 175). Marks for tield lUENTiriCATiON — For Scoters in general: Large size and black or very dark coloration. For American Scoter: Male wholly black, and bill black with orange-colored base; female very dark brown above, without AMERICAN SCOTER 195 white on wing or side of head, and under surface of body (including cheeks and chin) continuously pale colored, not broken into patches. Voice — "A musical whistle of one prolonged note" (Mackay, 18916, p. 284). Nest — On ground, sometimes hidden in clifEs or in hollows of steep banks; made of dry leaves, grass, feathers and down. Eggs — 6 to 10, ovate to elliptical ovate, measuring in inches 2.42 to 2.68 by 1.79 to 1.81 (in millimeters, 61.5 to 68.0 by 45.5 to 46.0), and averaging 2.55 by 1.80 (64.9 by 45.7) (five eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color pale ivory yellow; surface smooth but not glossy. General distribution — Northern North America and eastern Asia. In North America breeds from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, south to the Aleutian Islands and also on west shore of Hudson Bay, in XJngava and Newfoundland, but unknown in the district from Yukon Territory to Hudson Bay. Winters on the Pacific coast from Bering Sea south to southern California; in the interior sparingly on the Great Lakes and casually south to Louisiana; and on the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Florida. Non-breeding birds may remain during the summer as far south as Ehode Island and central California (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 81; Cooke, 1906, pp. 59-60). Distribution in California — Eare winter visitant coastwise. Eestricted to salt water. The following instances of occurrence are known: Areata Bay, Humboldt County, February, 1914 (F. J. Smith, MS) and December 24, 1915 (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 104) ; San Francisco Bay near Eedwood City, San Mateo County, January 17, 1909 (Littlejohn, 1912, p. 41) ; off Point Pinos, Monterey County, November 1 and 4, 1909 (Beck, 1910, p. 69) and October 27, 1910 (Beck, MS); Morro Bay, San Luis Obispo County ( A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 18) ; San Luis Obispo, spring, 1866 (Richmond, 1916, p. 83); Santa Barbara (Cooper, 1887, p. 87); coast of Los Angeles County and Santa Catalina Island (Grinnell, 1898, p. 12). The American Scoter is a bird of the subarctic sea coasts and even in those regions is abundant only locally. On the Pacific coast it breeds from the Aleutian Islands north to Kotzebue Sound and north- eastern Alaska. The American Scoter is the least common of the three species found in early spring in southeastern Alaska (Swarth, 1911, p. 44) . During the winter it migrates southward in small num- bers as far as California. Non-breeding birds are occasionally recorded from the winter range during the summer. First spring arrivals have been noted at St. Michael, Alaska, on May 16, and at Kotzebue Sound on June 3. On the coast of California records are too infrequent to warrant statements as to times of migration. There are no interior records for this state. Scoters really deserve the name of "black ducks" for they are cer- tainly the blackest of their tribe. Prom their habits they are often called "Scooters." Typical sea ducks, they are to be found almost entirely on salt vs^ater. All three species associate together more or less, and are of about the same size and general behavior, so that they would be difficult to distinguish were it not for certain prominent field marks that make identification of the males fairly easy. The male 196 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA American Scoter is the only one which lacks any sort of white patch on its uniformly black plumage. The female and young of this species can be separated from those of the "White-winged Scoter by the lack of white on the wing, and from the Surf Scoter by their dingy cheeks and throat instead of the whitish-patched ones found in the latter species. With specimens in hand, of any age, the squarely restricted feathering at the base of the bill is a good distinguishing feature of this species. In western Alaska ... a nesting site [is] chosen on the border of some pond. The spot is artfully hidden in the standing grass, and the eggs, if left by the parent, are carefully covered with grass and moss. As the set of eggs is completed, the male gradually loses interest in the female, and soon deserts her to join great flocks of his kind along the seashore, usually keeping in the vicinity of a bay, inlet, or the mouth of some large stream. These flocks are ^6 -17 Fig. 27. Side of bill of male American Scoter. Natural size. formed early in June and continue to grow larger until the fall migration occurs. ... At the Yukon mouth Dall found a nest of this species on June 17. The nest contained two white and rather large eggs, and was in a bunch of willows on a small island, and was well lined with dry grass, leaves, moss and feathers (Nelson, 1887, p. 80). At St. Michael, Alaska, a set of fresh eggs was taken on August 3, and a brood of downy young was obtained on September 9. Until the young are about half grown the female usually keeps them in some large pond near the nesting place, but as August passes they gradually work their way to the coast and are found, like the eiders of the same age, along the reefs and about the shores of the inner bays until able to fly (Nelson, 1887, p. 81). Scoters feed almost entirely on mussels, and fishermen are said sometimes to locate beds of shellfish by searching out places where Scoters congregate. The birds are excellent divers and can forage in water forty feet in depth. "When wounded and closely pursued, WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 197 they will frequently dive to the bottom (always using their wings as well as feet at such times in swimming under water) and retain hold of the roek-weed with the bill until drowned. ... I have also seen all three species [of Scoters] when wounded dive from the air, entering the water without any splash" (Mackay, 18916, pp. 282- 283). Scoters may be readily decoyed, and were it not for their oily, strongly flavored flesh, they might be considered desirable game. But their unfitness for use as a table bird makes them of ordinary interest only in so far as they afford a mark for the gunner. As the American Scoter does not appear in any numbers on the California coast, it is negligible here from an economic standpoint. White-winged Scoter Oidemia deglandi Bonaparte Other xames — White-winged Coot; Black Surf Duck; Velvet Duck; Klon- dike Mallard; Oidemia fusca; Melanetta velvetina. Description — Adult male: Uniformly black, tinged witli brown on sides and belly; wings black, speculum abruptly pure white; crescentie spot immediately below and behind eye, pure white; iris "bright yellow"; sides of upper man- dible feathered almost to nostrils; prominent knob at base of culmen, and margins of both mandibles, black; sides of upper mandible red, shading to orange on culmen and base; nail "flesh-colour"; lower mandible black; feet "orange-red," webs "greyish -black" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 336). Total length (both sexes) "19.75-23.00" inches (501-583 mm.) (Bidgway, 1900, p. 112). Males: folded wing 10.75-11.10 (273-282); bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 1.54^1.66 (39.1-42.2); tarsus 1.96-2.05 (49.8-52.2) (five specimens). Adult female: Head brownish black without any conspicuous white spots; rest of plumage dusky brown, lighter on lower surface; speculum pure white; bill dull black; iris "dark"; legs and feet "brownish red"; webs "dusky" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 178). Folded wing 10.40- 10.75 inches (264-273 mm.) ; bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 1.41- 1.58 (35.8-40.2); tarsus 1.78-1.81 (45.2-45.9) (three specimens); all from Cali- fornia. Juvenile plumage: Dark sooty brown, becoming black on top of head and back, and lightest on central part of lower surface due to narrow feather- edgings of dull white there; iris brown; speculum white as in adults; legs and feet (dried) dull black. Natal plumage: Black, chin white (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 96). Note. — By wear, juveniles become ashy white on lower surface of body and also locally on sides of head. At post-juvenal molt males assume only a partially black plumage, some of the old, worn, pale- colored, plumage persisting in irregular patches on lower surface of body. The bill gradually acquires adult form during the first year. Year-old birds in incomplete adult plumage are the ones most often found in California during the summer season. Makes fob field identification — Large size, thick body, short stout head and neck, black or black-appearing coloration, white patches on wings, and absence of white on back of head. Sits very low when resting on water. 19S GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOJRMA Voice — Xoue. so far as definitely known; said to utter a low quack (Maokav, ISOlb. p. 2S4). Xest — On ground concealed by shrubs, and usually near fresli water; con- structed of "rubbish" and down (Bent, 190-, p. 171), Eggs — 6 to 14. ovate in shape, measuring in inches 2,60 to 2. SO by 1.69 to l.So (in millimeteis, 66.0 to 72.5 by 43.0 to 47. 0"), and averaging 2.72 by l.Sl (69.0 by 46.0) (twenty-one eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color pale salmon buff or flesh-color (Bent, loc. cit.). General distribution — North America and eastern Asia. Breeds from northeastern Siberia along Arctic coast of America to northern X'ngava, and south to central British Columbia, northern North Dakota and southern Quebec; winters on shores of raoilic Ocean from Aleutiaji Islands south to China and to southern Lower California, in the interior on Great Lakes, and on Atlantic coast from Gulf of St. Lawrence south to Florida (rarely). Non-breeding birds summer as far south as Rhode Island and southern California (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. SI). Distribution in California — Common winter visitant alone entire seacoast. Restricted to salt water. Arrives in September and October and leaves in latter part of April. Non-breeders often remain here throughout the summer months, and have been recorded as far south as San iliguol Island (^Willott, 1910, p. 173) and Santa Barbara (Torrey, 19106, p. 204). The "White-winged Scoter or Velvet Duek is an abundant winter visitant along the whole coast of California. It has a wide general winter range on the Pacific coast as it is found from the Aleutian Islands south to Lower California. In California it occurs in greatest nuAibers on San Francisco and Monterej^ baj-s and on the waters about the Santa Barbara Islands, but small numbers are to be found in almost everj' little coastal bay. While called winter visitants these birds arrive here as early as the last of August and renxain until the end of April, and some individuals even remain throughout the sum- mer. These latter are non-breeders and most of them are thoujiht to be immatures, less than two years old. The birds which winter in California probably come from two breeding centers, in Alaska and in central Canada. In the latter case the migration, which is thought to take place at night, must have a decidedly westward trend and extend over land for a considerable distance. Among the big sea ducks the White-winged Scoter is the oi\l\- one exhibiting a white speculum. This distinctive character shows well in flight or when the birds are at rest on the water and is ]H\sscssed by all ages and both sexes. In the adult male the otherwise wholly black plumage, relieved only by a small white patch below the eye, is an additional character. At close range the bill is seen to be swollen at the upper base and the feathers extend forward on the sides of the upper mandible almost to the nostrils. While th(> White-winged Scoter is a salt water species during the WBITE-WINGED 8C0TEB 199 winter months, it seeks fresh water situations for nesting. Near Fort Anderson and on the Barren Grounds of Arctic Canada, MacFarlane found this Scoter breeding in numbers, in both open and wooded situations. The nests were always near fresh water. They were placed in depressions in the ground at the bases of small trees and contained no other lining than feathers and down. Five to eight eggs constituted a set in the nests examined. Nests with eggs were found on various dates between June 14 and July 3 (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, pp. 96-97). Bent (1902, p. 171) and Job (1899, pp. 163-164) have both found White-winged Scoters nesting in North Dakota. The nests were placed on small islands and were admirably concealed, usually under 16826 Fig. 28. Si'le of bill and head of male White-winged Scoter. Natural size. Location of white spot behind eye is indicated. small bushes. The nests were lined with dry leaves, sticks, soil, and other available material, but on the whole were the poorest in con- struction of any duck nests which they examined. No down seemed to be added until the sets were complete. Eight nests found by Job {loc. cit.) on June 27 (1898) contained 14, 1.3, 10, 10, 7, 6, 1, and eggs, respectively, and all the eggs were fresh, which shows that the breeding season of this species is about the latest of all the ducks. There is an earlier record of downy young found near Fort Yukon, Alaska, on June 23 (1866) (Cooke, 1906, p. 61). In California the White-winged Scoter is exclusively a salt water duck. It frequents the open bays and waters adjacent to the outer beaches, but we know of no instance of its appearing on fresh water here, even on ponds but a short distance from the beach. All species of scoters are probably most active at night, for during the day they often lie floating out in the center of a bay and remain asleep there for hours. At such times they may be closely approached, but usually 200' GAME BIEBS OF CALIFORNIA they are vigilant, soon putting themselves out of gunshot range by flight or by diving repeatedly and swimming rapidly away under water. Even by this second method they can easily outdistance a row-boat. The White-winged Scoter appears to be.a perfectly silent bird, save for the flapping or whizzing sound produced by its Avings as it rises heavily from the water. This species usually flies low over the water, but during migrations it. attains considerable heights. It often exhibits curiosity and may be attracted within gunshot by the hunter waving some object in the air or even by firing off his gun. Baird, Brewer and Eidgway (1884, II, p. 94) say that "Hunters often resort to the expedient of shooting, in order to alarm the flock. This often has the desired effect; the foolish birds, alarmed at the unusual noise, make a sudden plunge in the direction of the water,- as if that element alone could give them safety, and in their descent present the opportunity desired by the hunter." This habit is peculiar to the "White- winged Scoter. On Monterey Bay, August 29, 1910, Beck (MS) saw a number of White- winged Scoters in molt. The birds had lost their wing quills and were unable to fly. The food of the White-winged Scoter consists of small fish, mol- lusks, crabs, and the like (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, II, p. 96). On San Francisco Bay the birds are often to be seen around the wharves diving for the mussels which cling to the piles. Many of the people who daily cross the bay note these flocks of worthless scoters near the ferry moles, and some of them make covetous remarks about the availability of "roast duck." A little close observation would show these people that the scoters are foraging for a diet which is not conducive to a delicate flavor. A stomach from Monterey con- tained only the shells of univalve moUusks ; one of the shells contained a hermit crab. The mollusks represented were 1 Olivella biplicata, 4 Olivella iniorta, 1 Nassa perpinguis and 1 Mangilia variegata. An- other stomach contained several small "sand-dollars" (Echinoidea). Stomachs of this duck from Massachusetts examined by the United States Biological Survey contained 44 per cent mussels, 22 per cent quahogs (a kind of clam), 19 per cent periwinkles, 9 per cent hermit crabs, and smaller percentages of algae and other vegetable matter (Forbush, 1912, p. 162). The Indians of the far north relish this scoter as an article of food, along with practically all other kinds of sea fowl. But to the white man it has the strongest and most disagreeable taste of any of the ducks. Some hunters have told us that by skinning the birds before they are cooked much of this disagreeable flavor can be elim- inated. Even a poor shot can hit this clumsy duck and as the birds decoy easily the "sport" afforded in shooting the White-winged Scoter SUSP SCOTER 201 attracts a few amateur gunners in places where the species is abundant, or where more desirable birds are lacking. The comparative present and past status of the White-winged Scoter in Califojrnia is not known. Apparently it is maintaining its numbers. As it usually remains on open water and is there dilficult to approach, and as it is a very poor offering for the table, this scoter is not greatly sought after by the hunter, and so at the present time its persistence seems assured. Also, its food-supply is not being reduced by encroaching civilization as in the case with the fresh-water ducks. Surf Scoter Oidemia perspiciUata (Linnaeus) Othee names — Surf Duck; Sea Coot; OEdemia perspiciUata var. trowhridgei; Pelionetta perspiciUata; Pelionetta trowbridgei. Description — Adult male: Whole plumage deep black above and brownish black beneath, except for two triangular white patches, one across forehead in front of eyes, the other on back of head; top of bill feathered forward to nostrils; large squarish or rounded spot on swollen side of upper mandible near base, black, bounded behind by ' ' orange, ' ' top of bill to above nostrils ' ' deep reddish-orange, ' ' nail ' ' dingy greyish-yellow, ' ' bill otherwise ' ' bluish-white, yellow" or "flesh-coloured"; iris "yellowish-white"; legs and feet "orange- red," webs and joints "dusky," claws "black" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 341). Total length "about 20.00-22.00" inches (508-558 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 112); folded wing 9.25-9.60 (235-244); bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 1.32-1.55 (33.5-39.3); tarsus 1.66-1.81 (42.2-45.9) (eight specimens from Alaska and California). Adult female: Top of head black; rest of plumage blackish brown, except for indistinct light areas on chin and between bill and eye, and two small white patches below and behind eye and on back of head; iris "brown"; bill "black, with greenish or brownish tinge"; legs and feet "brown," webs "black" (Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 182). Total length "about 18.00-19.00" inches (457-483 mm.) (Eidgway, loc. cit.); folded wing 9.00-9.08 t228-231); bill from tip to limit of feathers on culmen 1.49-1.63 (37.8-41.3); tarsus 1.61-1.71 (40.8-43.4) (three specimens from Cali- fornia). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female,^ but lighter in tone, approaching dull white on middle of lower surface of body; whole plumage of softer texture. Natal plumage: Not known to us. Marks for field identieication — ^Large size, stout build, short head and neck, black or black appearing coloration, presence of white patch on back of head in male (whence the name "skunk-head"), and absence of white patch on wing. In hand the presence of feathers on top of bill (culmen) extending forward to nostrils easily identifies all ages of both sexes. Voice — "A low guttural croak like the clucking of a hen" (Mackay, 18916, p. 284); in mating season a clear whistle (Nelson, 1887, p. 82). Nest — On ground near water, well concealed, usually built of grasses and lined with dark-colored down. Eggs — 5 to 8, ovate to elliptical ovate, measuring in inches, 2.25 to 2.30 by 1.60 (in millimeters, 57.0 to 58.4 by 40.6); color ivory white to pale buff (authors). 202 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOMNIA General disteibution — North America. Breeds from Sitka to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, and from Great Slave Lake and northern Quebec north to the Arctic coast; winters on Pacific coast from Aleutian Islands south to Lower California, interiorly on the Great Lakes, and on Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to North Carolina, rarely to Florida. Non-breeders occur in summer far south of the breeding range (modified from A. O. XJ. Check-list, 1910, p. 82). Distribution in Califoknia — Abundant winter visitant along entire sea- coast, exclusively on salt water. Migrants arrive in numbers during October and November and leave in March and April. Some non-breeders remain here during the summer months. The Surf Scoter is the most abundant of the three species of black sea ducks which visit California during the winter season. Prom October until April it is found in considerable numbers on all of our Fig. 29. Side of bill of male Surf Scoter. Natural size. bays and also on the adjacent ocean either inside or outside the surf. In the summer most of the birds of this species repair to their breed- ing ground in the far north in the northern portions of Alaska and Canada ; but some non-breeding individuals, which are believed to be birds less than two years old, remain here throughout the season. During its sojourn here the Surf Scoter is restricted to salt water and has not been reported from any fresh water situation within the state. The general black plumage relieved by patches of pure white on the forehead and back of the head easily identify the male even at a distance. The white iris and the swollen black-and-orange-marked bill, which can be seen at moderate range, both add to its striking appearance. The female is less conspicuously marked and to her general brownish black coloration there are added only a few whitish patches on the head and chin. Her feet and bill are both black, and lack the brilliant colors displayed in her mate. In any plumage the absence of a white patch on the wing easily separates this species SUBF SCOTES 203 from the White-winged Scoter. In hand the presence of feathers on top of the bill extending nearly to the nostrils is the best character for positive identification. "The neck patch of the male makes a striking field character, as do the two white spots at the side of the head in the young; while the female, lacking the ear patch, can be told by elimination" (Bailey, 1916b, p. 108). For the nesting season this scoter seeks the vicinity of fresh water as does its white-winged relative. A nest of this species found by Mac- Farlane in the neighborhood of Fott Anderson, Canada, was situated on a ridge of ground at the foot of a dry stunted pine, where it was entirely hidden by the lower branches of the tree. It was constructed of dark-colored down. The nest is said to be indistinguishable from that of the White-winged Scoter (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, II, p. 102). ' ■- ' The Surf Scoter is appropriately named as it appears to be thoroughly at home in the roughest surf of our ocean shore. For rest or sleep the birds resort to the smoother water outside the surf, and sometimes they come inside onto the beach, where they stand and preen their feathers. During the day time these birds are often to be seen sleeping on the quiet waters of San Francisco Bay in company with White-winged Scoters. When taking flight they rise heavily from the water, with apparent difficulty, running or kicking along the surface for some distance before gaining sufficient impetus to enable them to rise clear of the water. Once in flight they are able to travel with considerable speed. ' During an extended visit to the beaches of southern California Florence Merriam Bailey studied the habits of the Surf Scoter in some detail. The following paragraphs are excerpted from her account. One of the big sea birds . . . did actually go through the breaking surf prow on, but . . . none of his fellows ever did. ... It was a pretty sight when, under a gray sky, the beautiful long green rolls of surf rose and combed over and the Surf Scoters came in from the green swells behind to feed in front of the surf and do skillful diving stunts to escape being pounded by the white water-falls. As the green wall ridged up over their heads they would sit unmoved, but just as the white line of foam began to appear along the crest they would dive, staying under till the surf had broken and the water was level again. . . . A flock of about twenty-five Surf Scoters . . . swimming Indian file, on reaching a certain point disappeared one after the other, doubtless going down to a streamer of kelp under the surface. They were past masters in timing the breaking of the rollers, again and again riding over one the instant before the crest broke into foam. When feeding far out from the shore a few of the sea birds would sometimes get widely separated from the rest of the flock and after rising up to look over the water would swim or, if too far, fly across to rejoin their companions. 204 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA One drizzly morning . . . the Scoters were in near shore. . . . The snri was rolling in, sea after sea, and the great birds rode the green rollers. . . . When a squad were down in front of the surf line and the foaming water-fall came, it was laughable to see the row of tails disappear below. . . . When diving through the green rollers near shore the black bodies of the Scoters, paddling feet and all, showed as plainly as beetles in yellow amber (Bailey, 19166, pp. 109-110). According to Cooper {in Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loe. eit.) this species is but little hunted, and has but few natural enemies. Many individuals escape the usual dangers that beset birds, and, lingering along our southern coast finally die solely from old age. The long rainy seasons are said to be fatal to some decrepit individuals, as at such times the birds seem to be peculiarly subject to unfavorable influences. At the time of assuming their spring plumage, many become very thin, and even blind, and swim, unconscious of danger, near the wharves and shores, or after storms are found weak and dying along the beaches. "When feeding. Surf Scoters dive so constantly that but few of the members of a flock are to be seen at the surface at any one time, They keep popping up and disappearing so that the observer some- times finds it impossible to count them. Swarth (1911, p. 45) found this species at Kuiu Island, southeastern Alaska, feeding close to the shore, in the shallow water. The drakes were constantly on the move, flying for a few yards and then sliding for eight or ten feet upon the surface of the water, with the wings held stiffly extended above the body. The food of the Surf Scoter is made up almost entirely of shell- fish obtained by diving. Stomachs examined by the United States Biological Survey contained 79.6 per cent of mussels, 13.8 per cent of periwinkles, and 6.6 per cent of algae and eel-grass (Forbush, 1912, p. 165). This species is also said to eat fish. The gullet of one shot near the edge of a California marsh, was so filled with small crabs that they fell from its mouth when the bird was picked up. In this state, small crabs and mussels form a considerable portion of the food of this species (W. E. Bryant, 1893a, p. 55). The Surf Scoter is seldom shot for food as its flesh has a strong, fishy flavor that to most people is very disagreeable. It is said to be readily decoyed within gunshot by imitating its call-note from a blind, so that it is sometimes killed for sport. The surf-riding propensities of this duck, which ordinarily keep it out of reach, and its poor food value render it of slight importance as a game bird, and in conse- quence its numbers are likely to remain unchanged by human influence. BUDDY DUCK 205 Ruddy Duck Erismatura jamaicensis (Gmelin) Other names — Wiretail; Sprig-tail; Pin-tail, part; Dipper Duck; Spatterer; Spatter; Erismatura rubida; Erismatura dominicensis. Description — Adult male in spring and early summer: Top and side of head to below eye, and hind neck, glossy black, abruptly outlined; large conspicuous patch on each side of head from base of bill to behind ear, pure white, the two patches joined by narrow band of white across chin; iris "hazel" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 327); bill slaty blue; whole neck, sides of breast, back and upper tail coverts rich reddish chestnut; rump dusky brown; upper tail coverts very short, leaving the narrow tail feathers exposed nearly to their bases; tail blackish brown; outer surface of closed wing dull dark brown, the coverts finely "peppered" with light brown; flight feathers blackish brown; lining of wing and axillars white, marked with grayish brown; under surface of flight feathers pale brown; sides of body (beneath wings), and flanks, deep chestnut; under surface of body grayish brown with broad feather tippings of silvery white, the whole giving an effect of light silvery gray; breast often tinged with pale rusty brown; under tail coverts pure white; feet "dull greyish-blue," webs "dusky" (Audubon, loc. cit.)- Adult male in winter: Top and side of head to below eye, and hind neck, blackish brown, minutely flecked with ashy brown; patch on side of head white, as in summer; whole upper surface of body dark brown, minutely peppered with ashy gray and chestnut; tail and wings and lower surface as in summer; throat and broad collar around neck, ashy brown. In any plumage wings and tail may be pale ashy due to wear and fading. Total length (both sexes) "about 13.50-16.00" inches (343-406 mm.) (Ridgway, 1900, p. 113); folded wing 5.65-5.92 (143.5-150.0); bill along culmen 1.48-1.68 (37.6-42.7); tarsus 1.27-1.36 (32.2-34.5) (ten specimens). Adult female at all seasons: Top and side of head to below eye, blackish brown, narrowly barred with reddish brown; rest of head grayish white except for dusky stripe from corner of mouth to hind neck, paralleling margin of dark area on top of head; bill slaty black; chin white; upper surface of body brownish black, finely variegated with ashy or buffy brown; tail brownish black; outer surface of closed wing dark brown; lining of wing and axillars as in male; foreneck grayish brown; breast indistinctly barred with dull black and yellowish brown, sometimes appearing rusty; feathers of lower surface ashy brown at bases, tipped with silvery white, the former color sometimes showing through and giving a barred effect; middle of belly lightest; under tail coverts white. Folded wing 5.50-5.75 inches (139.5-146 mm.) ; bill along culmen 1.57-1.68 (39.8-42.7); tarsus 1.20-1.31 (30.4-33.2) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult female. Natal plumage: Top and sides of head, whole upper surface of body, sides, flanks, foreneck, and upper breast blackish brown, darkest on top of head and lightest on fore- neck; stripe from side of bill below eye to ear region, lower part of cheeks, and chin, dull white; patch on side of back behind wing dull white; belly grayish white; bill and feet (dried) black. Marks for field identification — Small size (slightly larger than a teal), stout chunky build, flat head, short neck, broad flat bill, conspicuously white cheek patches, short, exposed, "wire-like" tail, carried almost perpendicularly to ijack, and absence of contrasted patch of white or color on wing. Voice — None (?) 206 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA Nest — Always close to water, above or sometimes floating upon it, and usually concealed in tules; constructed of dry tules and lined with dull whitish down. Eggs — 5 to 11, more in exceptional cases, short or elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.44 to 2.62 by 1.75 to 1.89 (in millimeters, 62.0 to 66.5 by 44.4 to 48.0), and averaging 2.52 by 1.82 (64.0 by 46.2); color grayish white, surface rough (twenty eggs from California). General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, southern Keewatin and northern TJngava, south to northern Lower California, northern New Mexico, southern Minnesota and Maine, rarely south to Guate- mala and Cuba; Winters from southern British Columbia, Arizona, southern Illinois and Maine south to Lesser Antilles and Central Amei;ica (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 82). Distribution in California — Common resident throughout the state, chiefly on fresh water. Occurs on San Francisco and Tomales bays in winter. Breeds from San Francisco (Squires, 1915, pp. 234-235), south to Mission Valley, San Diego County (Belding, MS), but most abundantly in southern California and in the San Joaquin Valley; breeds also about Tule [=Rhett] Lake, Modoc County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 230). The Ruddy Duck is strictly a North American species and has not been taken, even as a straggler, in the Old "World. East of the Alleghany Mountains it is a comparatively rare bird, but in the west and southwest it is locally abundant. The main breeding range is in the north-central United States and central Canada, but there are many isolated colonies far south of this area. In the western part of the Mississippi Valley it is found breeding in southern Minnesota and northwestern Nebraska. From here the southern boundary of the nesting range extends southwestwardly through the mountains of Colorado and northern New Mexico, to central Arizona and northern Lower California. Indeed there are records of nesting birds from localities as far south as the Valley of Mexico, Guatemala and Cuba. As a species, this duck does not perform any very extensive migration, the center of the breeding range lying but slightly north of the center of abundance' in winter. The Ruddy Duck, the "Wire-tail" or "Spatterer" of the hunter, is one of the most widely distributed of our California ducks. In any one place it is never found in large numbers, as are some other species, but each little body of fresh water is apt to have from one to a dozen pairs of the birds. In general the Ruddy Duck is an inhabitant of fresh water. It may in winter occasionally be found on salt water in company with such species as the Canvasback and Scaups, but this is not a common thing. When resting on the water the Ruddy Duck may be recognized by its moderate size, "squat" appearance, short thick head and neck, erect tail, and in the male, by the white area on each cheek. The wings lack contrasted markings of any sort. On close examination a num- BUDDY DUCK 207 ber of other distinctive characters can be seen. The upper tail coverts are extremely short and leave the eighteen stiff, narr6w-webbed and pointed tail feathers almost without covering. The bill is broad and slightly turned upward toward tip and bears a conspicuous "nail." It is not longer than the head. In spring and early summer the males have the whole neck and back a uniform chestnut or reddish brown, a distinctive feature. The brightly plumaged males in spring carry on various complex courting antics, in which the spread tail figures conspicuously. Brooks (1903, p. 280) records that while watching the curious antics of the male, through a binocular at very close range, he was struck with the peculiar formation of the head, there being distinct elevations over each eye resembling those on a frog's head. These were evidently caused by inflation from inside the skin. The breeding season of the Ruddy Duck extends from the first of May to the end of July or even later (see table 11). Table 11.- -Data relative to the nesting of the Buddy Duck in California LOCAI.ITY Date Nest Contents and Condition AUTHOBITY Nigger Slough, May 1, 1910 7 eggs, half-incubated Willett, 1912o, p. 26 Los Angeles, Co. Niles, Alameda Co. May 8, 1904 8 eggs, fresh Mailliard coll. Mission Valley, May 20, Brood of young Belding, MS. San Diego Co. Los Bancs, Merced Co. May 22, 1914 4 eggs Bryant, 1914e, p. 224 Orange, Orange Co. May 28, 12 eggs, considerably in- cubated (Jrinnell, 1898, p. 12 San Jacinto Lake, May 28, 1911 Many nests Willett and Jay, 1911, Riverside Co. p. 158 Near Los Angeles Last of May, 5-11 eggs Davie, 1889, p. 77 Bear Valley lakes. June, 1886 Breeding Morcom, 1887, p. 38 San Bernardino Co. Santa Cruz About June 1, 5 eggs Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 1883 Tule [=Rhett] Lake, June 1-3 , 1914 Nesting Bryant, 1914e, p. 230 Modoc Co. Nigger Slough, June 2, 1910 17 eggs, slightly incubated Willett, 1912a,' p. 26 Los Angeles Co. Santa Cruz June 3, 1896 14 eggs, incubated Mailliard coll. San Pasqual. June 5, 1906 6 eggs, nearly hatched Sharp, 1907, p. 86 San Diego Co. (in Coot's nest) San Jacinto Lake, June 7, 1897 18 eggs, incubation Ingersoll coll. Riverside Co. commenced Wilmington, June 10, 1900 3 eggs (incomplete set) Willett, 1912((, p. 26 Los Angeles Co. Tulare Lake, Kings Co. June 18- 1907 -24, Several broods Goldman, 1908!), p. 202 Near Los Angeles June 25, Fresh eggs Davie, 1889, p. 77 Santa Cruz June 26, 1883 19 eggs Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 Santa Cruz June 26, 1883 19 eggs Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 Tulare Lake, Kings Co. July 7, 1907 Several broods Goldman, 19086, p. 202 Santa Cruz July 24, 1883 10 eggs (second laying; incubation well ad- vanced) Ingersoll, 1884, p. 15 Point Finos, Aug. 9, 1914 B young unable to fly Squires, MS. Monterey Co. Seaside, Monterey Co. Aug. 19, 1914 3 young a few days old Squires, MS. 208 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOBNIA The nest, which in California is usually composed of tules, is placed near the water's edge or, more often, directly above the water of some deep, sluggish stream, lake or pond. Shields {in Davie, 1889, pp. 77-78) says there is evidence that this duck prefers the abandoned nests of Coots for nesting purposes, to those constructed by itself. In several instances he took eggs of this species from what appeared to be rehabilitated Coots' nests. In one case seven eggs of the Ruddy Duck were found in a Coot's nest from which, a few weeks pre- viously, a set of eggs of the Coot had been obtained. Sharp (1907, p. 86) found six nearly hatched eggs of the Ruddy Duck in a Coot's nest near Eseondido, San Diego County, June 5, 1906. IngersoU (1884, p. 15) tells of a number of nests which he found near Santa Cruz : The nests -were usually built near the center of the tules, and just above the water, which was two or three feet deep, and were inaccessible except by wading, as the tules were too thick to allow a boat to pass through them. The nests were all constructed of dry tules; those forming the lining were picked into fine shreds and slightly mixed with down of the parents. Nests were from eight to fifteen inches high, and ten to twelve in diameter. The cavity varied in size as much as the nests, but not in proportion to them, as the highest and most firmly built of any I saw had a cavity that was only large enough to hold two eggs in the first layer, and so shallow that the three other eggs it contained were above the level of the nest. This nest also varied from the others in having a slight covering of tules over the eggs. Two other nests found by IngersoU on June 26 contained nineteen eggs each. The eggs in these nests were arranged in three layers. Nests of the Ruddy Duck are but sparingly lined with down and sometimes it is lacking entirely. The eggs of the Ruddy Duck are always recognizable. They are extremely large for the size of the bird, more rounded than most other duck's eggs, and of a uniform dull white color. The thick, rough-surfaced shell is peculiar to the eggs of this duck. The shape varies somewhat from short ovate to elongate ovate. Twenty specimens from California average 2.52 by 1.82 inches. According to Brooks (1903, p. 280) the young are very precocious and dive for their food soon after hatching, a habit not found in the young of other ducks, which take their food from the surface of the water for several weeks. IngersoU (loc. eit.) surprised several families away from the tules, in which the parents invariably sought shelter, leaving the young to look out for themselves. The young were unable to fly but could dive and swim well. During the winter Ruddy Ducks are sometimes seen in small flocks numbering up to ten or twelve individuals, these forming a compact company. But more often they are to be seen singly or in BUDDY DUCK 209 pairs. They can often be closely approached, for they depend upon diving rather than flight for safety. If plenty of tules are at hand in which to hide, gunshots will not frighten them away from their favorite haunts. Their ability to dive and hide under water or beneath some floating object with only the head above water is unex- celled by any other duck; in this respect they resemble the grebes. When wounded, they invariably try to escape in this way, and very often succeed. During the breeding season the female is said to be the shyest of all the ducks and it is almost impossible to surprise her on the nest. On the water at a distance the Ruddy looks like a floating block of wood, so stoekily is it built and so low does it sit in the water. It rises with considerable difficulty, paddling along on the surface for some distance before getting clear of the water. It flies close to the surface of the water and its rapidly beating wings make a whirring sound. When well started the speed of this duck is great, but as it is slow getting under way this speed is not often evident. The food of the Euddy, as reported by various observers, consists of seeds, roots, plant stems and shellfish. The stomach of a bird from Guadalupe, Santa Barbara County, California, was found by us to contain twenty-five seeds of ditch-grass {Buppia mariUma) and some green algae. Three other stomachs contained finely ground vegetable materials. The Ruddy Duck is so small and has such strange habits that it is not always considered a game bird by the sportsman. On many of the gun club grounds these birds are not counted in the limits, or else are killed only as a makeshift to complete the bag. Nevertheless the Ruddy is very good eating unless it has subsisted on shellfish for a long time. Many people do not use it for food simply because they do not know how to remove the feathers, an operation which is very difficult for the uninitiated. Experts dip the bird in boiling water, and withdraw it almost immediately, before the grease starts; then it is wrapped in newspaper soaked in hot water. The steam loosens the feathers and the bird is then easily picked (Hedderly, 1912&, pp. 50-51). When properly dressed the Ruddy makes an excellent table bird. It is fat and has a mild fiavor. "Roasted Indian fashion in the fire with feathers on, its meat is juicy, tender and of delicious flavor . . ." (V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 65). As a mark for the gunner this species takes second rank, for it is not regularly on the wing and is very difficult to kill on the water because of its thick plumage and its expertness in diving. But as the more desirable ducks become reduced in numbers there is no doubt that the Ruddy will be one of the flrst to take a respected place in the hunter's bag. 210 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA When unmolested this duck is likely to nest in any suitable locality, be it even a pond in a city park. Consequently the maintenance of a breeding stock and the regulation of the annual supply by this means would probably prove a simple matter. The Buddy still exists in goodly numbers especially in southern California and can be expected to continue to hold its own until considerably greater numbers are taken by the hunter, or until the available breeding grounds are greatly reduced through reclamation or other causes. Lesser Snow Goose Chen hyperboreus hyperioreus (Pallas) Other names — White Brant; White Goose; Anser hyperboreus; Chen alhatus: Anser albatus; Chen hyperboreus nivalis. Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole plumage (except as mentioned below) snowy white; primaries black, becoming ashy at bases; primary coverts gray, with dusky shafts; lower surface of body often tinged with light yellowish brown; iris dark brown; bill lake red, nails whitish; edges of mandibles (forming "grinning patch") black; feet dusky lake red; claws brownish black. Total length (both sexes) ' ' about 23.00-28.00 ' ' inches (583-711 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 115). Males: folded wing 16.65-17-12 (423-435); bill along culmen 2.19-2.40 (55.5-60.9); tarsus 3.07-3.38 (77.9-85.8) (six specimens). Females: folded wing 15.20-16.65 (386-423); bill along culmen 2.00-2.26 (50.8-57.3); tarsus 3.01-3.32 (76.5-84.3) (eight specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Head, neck, back and scapulars, pale gray with brownish feather edgings; top of head darkest; primary flight feathers black; outer surface of closed wing pale ashy brown with broad white feather edgings; secondaries mottled darkly with drab, and margined with white; rump, upper tail coverts, tail and lower surface, white, the tail and breast faintly tinged with ashy; head and lower surface usually more or less strongly tinged with bright yellowish brown. Winter birds from California are mostly in more' or less mixed transitional plumage from juvenile to adult. Natal plumage: No specimen or description available. Marks foe field identification — Large size, pure white body plumage, black flight feathers, and reddish bill and feet (pi. 6). Distinguished from Eoss Goose by larger size, longer, smoother bill, and large black area ("grinning patch") exposed between edges of mandibles (compare figs. 30 and 31); Im- mature birds also appear white at a distance. Voice — In flight, a shrill howTc (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 441). Nest — On wet ground; made of grasses, mosses and down (Eifrig, 1905, p. 237). Eggs — 5 to 8, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.00 to 3.47 by 2.09 to 2.19 (in millimeters, 76.0 to 88.0 by 53.0 to 55.5), and averaging 3.17 by 2.13 (80.5 by 54.0) (nine eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color creamy white (Eifrig, loc. cit.; Davie, 1889, p. 79). General distribution — North America. Breeds only along Arctic coast from mouth of Mackenzie Eiver to Hudson Bay. Winters from southern British Columbia, southern Colorado, and southern Illinois south to northern Lower California, central Mexico and the Gulf States; rare on Atlantic coast (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 83). LESSEE SNOW GOOSE 211 Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant to the interior valleys ; less frequent near the seacoast. Recorded. south to San Diego (Belding, MS), and southeast to the Colorado River below Needles (Grinnell, 19146, p. 116). Arrives soofi after the first of October and leaves in March and early April. California probably surpasses any other state in the Union in the number and variety of geese which winter within its borders. The winter ranges of at least three species center within its confines, and as many as five different species have been taken in a single day, in 1913, at Los Banos, Merced County. To many people the geese are the most conspicuous examples of birds which migrate regularly with the changes of the seasons. The Lesser Snow Goose, often called White Brant, and occasionally by the Eskimo name, "White "Wavy," is among the commonest of geese to be seen in the Pacific region. For instance, on December 9, 1911, in the vicinity of Los Banos, Beck (MS) observed approximately 5,000 White-fronted Geese, 300 Canada G«ese, and 50,000 white (Lesser Snow and Ross) geese. On December 29 of the same year he estimated that he saw 1,000 White-fronted, 100 Canada, and 50,000 white geese. In migration the Lesser Snow Goose occurs more or less abundantly along the whole Pacific coast from Alaska to Lower California, but during the winter months almost the entire population concentrates in central and western California. These geese are most often seen passing overhead in long diagonal lines or V-shaped flocks; but on open level country, such as the plains of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley, it is not an uncommon thing, during the winter season, to see the ground fairly whitened with them as they rest or feed. So far as we know only two species of white geese occur in Cali- fornia. The Greater Snow Goose of the Atlantic coast has never been recorded from this state, and specimens which were first reported as instancing the occurrence of the Blue Goose here have since been shown to be young of the Lesser Snow Goose (Swarth, 1913a, p. 43). The Lesser Snow Goose differs from the Ross Goose, the other white species occurring in California, by its much larger size, longer and smoother bill, and by the presence of a large black area ("grin- ning patch") exposed between the two closed mandibles of the bill (compare figs. 30 and 31) . The voice of the Lesser Snow Goose is more sonorous than that of the Ross Goose. Although the Lesser Snow Goose has been found breeding along the Arctic coast east of the Mackenzie River, yet great numbers of the birds have been seen to pass still farther north, to breeding grounds as yet unknown. Nelson (1887, p. 83) states that this species finds a nesting ground along the course of the lower Anderson River and the neighboring region along the Arctic coast; and Raine (in 212 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA Maeoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 120) records several sets of eggs col- lected in Mackenzie Bay, in the middle of June, 1905, and says that this goose scrapes a hole in the sand and lines it with down and feathers. Eifrig (1905, p. 237) states that on Southampton Island, Hudson Bay, Lesser Snow Geese were found breeding in 1904. On June 22 a set of seven eggs was taken there. The nests which are six to eight inches high, are on wet ground and constructed of grass and moss and lined with down. The young are said to be able to fly by the middle of August and to keep in separate flocks. Many indi- viduals retain the grayish tinted (juvenile) plumage nearly through- out the winter, thus giving rise to the belief that this species does not attain its full snowy white plumage until at least the second year. ■ Fig. 30. Side of bUl of Lesser Snow Goose. Natural size. Note "grinning patch" exposed between the bowed rims of the two mandibles (compare with fig. 31). The Lesser Snow Goose is not averse to associating with other kinds and it is not an unusual sight to see some of them mixed in with a flock of "gray" geese. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 195) records having seen at Bed Bluff, Tehama County, a triangle of Canada Geese headed by a single Lesser Snow Goose, the two waving lines of dark forms converging to a snow-white point. Between California and their breeding grounds Lesser Snow Geese appear to take the most direct route ; they are seldom found in num- bers along the coast of Alaska, but are abundant during migration in the vicinity of Port Simpson on the Mackenzie River. Although some of these geese may migrate across the northern border of the state from or into Oregon, yet a great many are known to cross eastward LESSEE SNOW GOOSE 213 or westward over the Sierra Nevada. Belding (MS) noted flocks of this species at Summit, Placer County, on October 5 and 10, 1885. They were flying above the highest peaks westward from Nevada toward California. They were again noted at the same place on October 6, 1896, flying high and going toward the Sacramento Valley. On April 8 and 16, 1886, thousands of white geese were noted by the same observer, at Murphy's, Calaveras County, flying eastward over the Sierras in the direction of Nevada. The earliest arrivals of this species in west-central California, as noted by Belding, are : Stockton, San Joaquin County, September 28, 1886, September 29, 1881, and October 9, 1883; Gridley, Butte County, September 30, 1884. The first flock seen at San Diego in the winter of 1883-84 was on February 17. The latest records are : Stockton, April 30, 1880 ; Gridley, April 28, 1884 ; Chieo, Butte County, April 27, 1884 ; Gridley, May 1, 1896. Writing from the vicinity of Fresno, Tyler (19136, p. 18) makes the following statements: "White geese swarm by thousands on the westside plains. No record has been obtained of their date of arrival in the fall, but as late as April 7 (1906) they were congregated in large numbers on several hundred acres of grassy pasture near the Artesian Lake. Just before sundown, as I drove past, the ground was white almost as far as one could see and the noise was deafening. I have not had an opportunity of measuring any of these geese, but there appears to be a great variation in size. During January large flocks of Snow Geese move restlessly about, flying at a great height, and generally traveling toward the north." The Lesser Snow Goose feeds largely in grain fields and pastures at night, spending the middle of the day on the sea or on some open body of water. Beck (MS) says that in the vicinity of Los Baiios this goose leaves for the grain fields early in the morning, returning between ten and eleven o'clock, and spends the rest of the day in wet marshy places. One bird shot after returning from feeding in the fields contained 1,581 grains of barley. On March 25, 1912, in the same locality, Lesser Snow Geese were seen feeding on the stalks of "filaree." They bit off the tops and ate the roots as well. One killed had 500 of the stalks in its guUet (Beck, MS) . Various kinds of ordinary grass form a, large part of this bird's food, at least during their winter residence in the United States. . . . They alight upon a meadow or plain, and pass over the ground in broken array, cropping on either side as they go, with the peculiar tweak of the bill and quick jerk of the neck familiar to all who have watched the barnyard birds when similarly engaged (Coues, 1874, p. 552). While in California, this goose appears to feed largely on grass. Coues (loc. cit.) says that the short turfy grasses are highly relished 214 GAME BIBVS OF CALIFOBNIA and that the bulbous roots and soft succulent culms of aquatic plants are also eaten. The depredations of this and other geese in grain fields in California until very recently has prevented the placing of a closed season on these birds. In the north, their food in the summer consists of rushes and insects, and in the autumn, of berries particularly those of Empetrum nigrum (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 441). In former years in the far north this species during the fall migration was killed and salted in great numbers for winter consump- tion, it being almost universally regarded as good eating. It has always been the commonest goose on the markets in California. Whether this is because it is more abundant, more easily decoyed, or because it is most desirable for the table is not known. During the season 1895-96, 10,251 "white" geese were sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 41). A total of 3,649 were handled by one transfer company alone in San Francisco, in the season of 1906-07, and 3,800 similarly in 1910-11. In the season of 1910-11 the markets in San Francisco paid one to three dollars a dozen for them. During the season of 1913-14, they could be purchased regularly for seventy-five cents a pair retail. The young of this species are considered very good eating in spite of the fact that their meat is comparatively dry and dark and of a rather strong flavor. But our impression is that the other species of geese are held in somewhat greater esteem for table use. There has been a more conspicuous decrease in the numbers of geese than in any other game birds in the state. Many observers testify that there is only one goose now for each hundred that visited the state twenty years ago, and some persons aver that in certain localities there is not more than one to every thousand which formerly occurred here. Not only have these birds been slaughtered for the market, but gangs of men have been paid to destroy them where they were feeding in grain fields. Until 1915 they were afforded no pro- tection whatever and as a natural result their ranks have been so often decimated that, comparatively speaking, only a remnant now remains (see pp. 7-12). In former years, when passing through the Sacramento or San Joaquin valleys by train, great flocks of white geese in company with other, dark-colored species were often to be seen settling on the grain fields or pasture lands almost within gunshot of the cars. The days are past and gone when a man has to drive geese from his grain field. In many places where formerly the ground was so covered with white geese as to look snow clad, not a single goose is now to be observed feeding and but few flying overhead. In spite of the extreme shyness and watchfulness of these geese, the ingenuity c z < o > o m z H T) C CD O J] BOSS SNOW GOOSE 215 of the hunter and the increased efficiency of firearms has so far over- balanced the natural protection thus afforded that the birds are now actually threatened with extinction. Unless the protection now furnished proves adequate in the very near future, this state, which at one time appeared to have an inexhaustible supply of geese, will have entirely lost this valuable game resource. There is no reason why, with proper regard for the natural rate of increase, a certain toll might not be levied annually on the influx of geese from the far north. In their summer home they are doubtless largely free from human interference, so that the winter resort, which with snow geese lies chiefly within our own state, constitutes the critical area. It is in such cases as this that we are most favorably situated for putting into effect a system of regulation upon a sound economic and biological basis, so that we will secure the maximum returns. Koss Snow Goose Chen rossi (Cassin) Other names — China Goose; Anser rossi. Description — Adults, both sexes: Entire plumage snowy white except for primary flight feathers and their coverts; primaries black, becoming ashy basally; primary coverts gray, with dusky shafts; bill "dull reddish," nail "white" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 444), basal portion of upper mandible often wrinkled and warty; feet "dull reddish" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loc. cit.). Total length (both sexes) "20.00-26.00" inches (580-660 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 115). Males: folded wing 13.60-15.00 (345-381); bill along culmen 1.43-1.66 (36.3-42.2); tarsus 2.57-2.87 (65.2-72.8) (seven specimens). Females: folded wing 13.35-14.45 (339-367); bill along culmen 1.42-1.55 (36.1-39.3); tarsus 2.38-2.68 (60.4-68.0) (nine specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: "White, tinged with grayish on head and fore- back; wing as in adult but secondaries with blackish centers; bill and feet "dusky" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, loc. cit.). Natal plumage: Not known. Marks for field identification — Small size for a goose (but little larger than a Mallard), white plumage relieved by black primaries, and reddish bill and feet. Distinguished from Lesser Snow Goose by smaller size (about half the bulk of that species), and by much shorter bill, which is also more cor- rugated on surface and lacks broad black area between edges of closed mandibles (compare figs. 30 and 31). Voice — Besembles that of the Cackling Goose (Belding, MS). Nest and eggs — Unknown. General distribution — Western North America. Breeding range unknown but probably north of Mackenzie, Canada; winters in California. In migration occurs from Kent Peninsula, and Anderson Eiver, on Arctic coast of Canada, south to Manitoba and Oregon (modified from A. O. TJ. Check -list, 1910, p. 84). Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant; most numerous in Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley and about Los Angeles. Southernmost record station: Newport, Orange County (Daggett, 1901a, p. 15). 216 GAME BIRVS OF CALIFORNIA The Ross or China Goose is the smallest, and one of the least known of our North American geese. Its winter range, so far as known, is restricted to central and western California, in which area it often associates with its larger relative the Lesser Snow Goose. The species arrives in mid-fall, as shown by the following dates for Stockton: October 6, 1880; October 6, 1881; October 26, 1896 (Belding, MS). At Grayson, Stanislaus County, one was taken October 29, 1908 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). In the winter of 1911-12 specimens were secured at Los Baiios, Merced County, from November 30 to March 16, and the species was present there until April 2. During November and December, 1913, this goose was often seen by us in the markets of San Francisco. Belding (MS) states that in the winter of 1880-81 Ross Geese were found in equal numbers with Lesser Snow Geese in the Stockton markets, and in 1896 exceeded the numbers of the latter 21905 Fig. 31. Side of bill of Eoss Snow Goose. Natural size. Note rounded corrugations on side of upper mandible at its base (compare with fig. 30). species. Most of the birds secured at Los Banos in 1911-12 were birds of the year, while in 1908 hunters reported that the birds then killed were mostly adults. The much smaller size of the Ross Goose readily separates it from the Lesser Snow Goose. "When drawn, the Ross Goose seldom weighs more than two and one-half pounds. The comparatively short bill, only an inch and a half in length, with a warty appearance at the base in the adult, is a good character for identification when the bird is in the hand (see fig. 31). Young birds are distinguishable from adults by lack of the warty protuberances and by the presence of gray feathers on the head, neck and foreback. In fiight the small size and the peculiar note, which is much like that of the Cackling Goose, are characters which help in identification. Belding (MS) says that the rusty color so generally found on the Snow Goose is nearly always lacking on the Ross Goose, but the specimens in the Museum of Verte- ROSS SNOW GOOSE 217 brate Zoology do not confirm this statement, as many of them are suffused with rusty. The breeding grounds of this goose have not been definitely deter- mined, but apparently lie near the Arctic coast north of the region bounded by Port Anderson on the west and Hudson Bay on the east. "The path of migration of this goose seems to be different from that of any other species. It is a fair presumption that the principal route coincides with the districts in which the species is most common. The greater number pass from the breeding grounds to Great Slave Lake and Lake Athabasca, continue south to central and western Montana, and then turn southwest, cross the Rocky Mountains, and pass to central and southern California. . . . The average date at which the last one was seen in central Montana is April 24," and "the average date of arrival at Columbia Falls, Montana, is October 15" (Cooke, 1906, pp. 69-70). Thus, instead of turning to the southeast, to winter on the Gulf coast with the other eastern geese and ducks which have been its traveling companions, the Ross Goose parts company with them at the national boundary line, and goes southwest across the Rocky Mountains to California. The food and feeding habits of the Ross Goose are believed to be very much like those of the Lesser Snow Gtoose, but no detailed acounts are available to us. Belding (MS) says that the Ross Goose has comparatively light- colored flesh and makes very delicate, palatable food. During the proper season it has been found commonly in the markets of San Francisco, Sacramento, Stockton, and Los Angeles. A species with a restricted breeding range like that of the Ross Goose, and one which concentrates in a comparatively small area dur- ing the winter, is in an unusual position for total extermination at the hands of man. The one saving circumstance in the case of this bird appears to be its choice of breeding grounds, so remote as to have thus far escaped discovery by civilized man. In summer the species probably enjoys total immunity from human interference. But in winter it is fully exposed to the destructive agencies directed against it by man. The numbers sold in the markets of California are alone enough to arouse the fear that the depletion of the species will, if much longer continued, shortly reach the danger point. As has been the case so often before, the realization of the danger of extermination may come too late. Some people hold to the view that as long as there are some birds left, the species will persist, forgetting the principle that when the breeding stock is depleted below a certain point further reduction ensues at an increasing rate, so that total disappearance comes rather abruptly. The citizens of California are almost wholly responsible for the preservation of this species. 218 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA American White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons gamieli Hartlaub Other names — Speckle-breast; Speokle-belly; Checker-breast; Checker-belly; Laughing Goose; Gray Goose, part; Yellow-legs; Anser ' erythropus ; Anser albifrons; Anser gamieli; Bernicla gambeli. Description — Adults, both sexes: Head, neck and chest grayish brown; blackish-bordered area at base of bill, extending one-half to one inch up the forehead, and chin, white (in other words, a white border of varying width completely surrounds base of bill); iris and eyelid brown; bill yellow or orange, nail whitish; back dark brown, each feather tipped with ashy; rump slaty brown; upper tail coverts white; tail slate brown tipped with white; outer surface of closed wing slate gray; greater wing coverts tipped with white; secondaries blackish; primaries dark slate; under surface of wing and axillars slate gray; feathers of sides and flanks like back but with narrow white line along upper margin; breast and belly grayish white with irregular patches of dark brown or blackish, these varying greatly in extent from mere traces to a condition where lower surface is almost wholly black; under tail coverts white; under surface of tail feathers light slate color, tipped with white; feet reddish yellow. Females average less in extent of black markings on under surface. Total length (both sexes) 27.00-29.00 Inches (685-736 mm.) (five specimens). Males: folded wing 15.80-17.00 (402-432); bill along culmen 1.76-2.04 (44.6-51.7); tarsus 2.67-3.12 (67.8-79.3) (ten specimens). Females: folded wing 15.20-16.40 (386-416); bill along culmen 1.73-1.97 (43.8-50.0); tarsus 2.55-2.88 (64.7-73.0) (ten specimens) ; all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults, but region around bill wholly dark brown like rest of head, instead of white; wing coverts more brownish; no black blotches on under surface; nail of bill dusky. Natal plumage: Top of head and back olive brown; forehead, sides of head, hind-neck, chin, throat and whole under surface greenish yellow, yellowest on belly; stripe from base of bill through eye dusky; two yellowish spots on each side of back, one at hinder border of wing and one at side of rump. Marks for field identification — Large size, white forehead, black speckled belly, reddish feet, light colored bill and general gray body color (pi. 6). Voice — A loud, harsh wah, wafi, wah, somewhat like the laugh of a man. Nest — On the ground, near water, often in wooded districts; made of grass and feathers and lined with down. Eggs — 6 to 7, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.93 to 3.41 by 1.99 to 2.23 (in millimeters, 74.5 to 86.5 by 50.5 to 56.5), and averaging 3.21 by 2.13 (81.5 by 54.0) (thirty-two eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; color dull white, with yellowish discolorations. General distribution — North America and eastern Asia. In North America breeds on Bering Sea and Arctic coasts from mouth of the Yukon Eiver, Alaska, north and east to northeastern Mackenzie. Winters chiefly from southern British Columbia to southern Lower California and Jalisco, Mexico; and less commonly east of the Rocky Mountains from southern Illinois and New Jersey south to northeastern Mexico, southern Texas, and Cuba (modified from A. 0. V. Check-list, 1910, p. 85). Distribution in California — Common winter visitant to suitable localities throughout the state, on both the plains and swampy lowlands; most abundant AMERICAN WHITE-FSONTED GOOSE 219 in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley. Arrives in early September and leaves in April.* The American White-fronted Goose is a common winter visitant in California, and is much prized here as a game bird. While it occurs almost everywhere in the lowland portions of the state the center of abundance is on the plains and marshes of the Sacramento- San Joaqtiin Valley. This species is the first of its tribe to arrive in the fall and the last to leave in the spring. Belding (MS) noted its arrival at Stockton, San Joaquin County, on September 7, 1878, and September 8, 1881. At the same place they were last seen by him April 27, 1879, May 2, 1880, and April 29, 1896. His latest date of spring occurrence is May 3. At Los Banos, Merced County, Beck (MS) found this goose still present on April 22, 1912. The early arrival of this species from the north has doubtless been the basis for many of the predictions of an early winter which are sent to news- papers by local "weather prophets." The irregular black markings on the breast and belly of this bird have given rise to such names as Speckle-belly and Checker-breast, while its general gray tone of coloration has suggested the name Gray Goose in contradistinction to the white Snow Geese and black-headed Canada Geese and Brant. The white area about the bill is the basis of the accepted common name. White-fronted Goose. The black blotched breast, gray back, and white ring on the face, together with the large size, and light colored bill and feet, make this goose very easy to identify (pi. 6). The Snow and Ross geese are chiefly white, the Canada geese and Brant have black heads, necks and feet, and the rather rare Emperor Goose has the whole top of the head white. The loud harsh call-note of the White-fronted is said by hunters to be distinctive. The American White-fronted Goose nests in northern and western Alaska and eastward along the Arctic coast of British America to * Since the above chapter on the White-fronted Goose was set in type, the discovery has been made that two subspecies of Anser albifronit occur in winter in California (see Swarth and Bryant, Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., vol. 17, October 19, 1917, pp. 209-222, pi. 13). The most abundant of the two is exactly as described above but its name should be Anser aUiifrons albifrons. The newly distinguished and relatively rare bird, the "Tule Goose," properly bears the name Anser albifrons gambeli. The differences existing between the two subspecies may be summarized as follows : Anser albifrons albifrons Size small: wing 15.12-16.62 inches (384-422 mm.); bill small: culmen 1.73-2.05 (44-52) ; weight 3 lbs. 14 oz. to 5 lbs. 8 oz. (five specimens) ; tail feathers, sixteen; coloration in general paler, head and neck grayish; naked skin at edge of eyelid, grayish brown. Anser albifrons gambeli Size large: win^ 16.54-18.73 inches (420-475 mm.); bill large; culmen 2.08-2.45 (53—62) ; weight 5 lbs. 5 oz. to 7 lbs. 8 oz. (ten specimens) ; coloration in gen- eral darker, neck dark brown, head blackirh; tail feathers, male eighteen, female sixteen ; naked skin at edge of eyelid, yellow or orange. The Tule Goose has been' reported only from the upper Sacramento Valley where, in the vicinity of Butte Creek, it frequents ponds and sloughs surrounded by tules and willows. It flocks separately from its smaller relative, and is often seen only singly or in pairs. Its notes are said to be peculiar. The summer home of the Tule Goose is unknown but is con- jectured to lie in Arctic America somewhere east of Alaska. 220 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOBNIA Mackenzie ; also to some extent on the Asiatic coast bordering Bering Sea. Nelson (1887, p. 83) found eggs near the mouth of the Yukon Kiver as early as May 27 (1879). Prom this time on until the middle of June, fresh eggs were to be found; but very soon after the latter date, downy young began to appear. These geese choose for a nest- ing site the grassy border of a lakelet, a knoll grown over with moss and grass, or even a flat, sparingly covered with grass. Along the Yukon, Dall found them breeding in colonies, the eggs being deposited in hollows scooped out in the sand. At the Yukon mouth and around St. 'Michaels they were found breeding in scattered pairs over the flat country. Every one of the nests examined by me in these places had a slight lining of grass or moss, gathered by the parent, and upon this the first egg was laid; as the complement of eggs is approached the female always plucks down and feathers from her breast until the eggs rest in a soft warm bed, when incuba- tion commences. The eggs vary considerably in shape and size. ... In color they are of a dull white, but ordinarily present a dirty brown appearance from being stained in the nest (Nelson, loc. cit.). The maximum number of eggs in a set appears to be seven. Seven eggs at hand from western Alaska are dull white, discolored somewhat to a yellowish tone, and measure in inches from 2.83 to 3.06 by 1.86 to 1.98, averaging 2.94 by 1.93. Grinnell (1900, pp. 17-18) says that in northern Alaska flocks of from six to twenty are found in the fall up to September 12 on the grassy margins of lakes and on wind swept sand-bars along rivers. When they first arrive, about May 10, they are very quiet but later they become noisy. The following also concerns the habits of the White-fronted Goose in Alaska, whence probably come our winter visitants : All through September, old and young, which have been on the wing since August, gather in larger flocks, and as the sharp frosts toward the end of September warn them of approaching winter, commence moving south. The marshes [in the vicinity of St. Michaels] resound with their cries, and after some days of chattering, flying back and forth, and a general bustle, they suddenly start off in considerable flocks, and the few laggards which remain get away by the 7th or 8th of October (Nelson, 1887, p. 84). Indians imitate the call of this goose by patting the mouth with the hand while pronouncing the syllable wah (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, 1, p. 452) . The notes of this goose are said to resemble the laugh of a man, and the species has been called, locally, the "laughing goose" on this account. Van Dyke (1904, p. 670) describes the manner in which the differ- ent species of geese come into a pond as follows : AMESICAN WHITE-FSONTED GOOSE 221 Coming from afar in a big white cloud, the snow geese before reaching the edge of the pond mass suddenly up in a long column inclined some forty degrees from the vertical. Every black-tipped wing is thrown outward and downward and rigidly set, with the axis of the body about corresponding to the axis of the whole column. Anything like sailing is thus impossible and the whole descent is a slow settling or drifting downward, almost as gently as the fall of a gossamer skein on the still air of Indian summer. . . . The White-fronted Goose swings over it high in air as if he enjoyed the play. He is reasonably silent about it as he floats a thousand feet or more above the water, where he lines up for the great plunge. Then the edge of the line breaks, and as if struck suddenly by the thunderbolt, yet with every throat tuned to concert pitch, the birds dive, tumble, and gyrate sidewise, upside down, rolling over in the air in every imaginable way, a cataract of whirling life, down to within a few feet of the water. There the grand go-as-you-please march suddenly ends, the wild clamor of every throat is stilled, each goose rights itself in a twinkling, drifts into an orderly line, and floats a few yards along the surface of the water, then drops its feet, raisfes its neck and head, and throwing back its wings slides into the water as gently as the reflection of the fleecy clouds above it. Canada geese descend in long curling lines, as if the birds were descending an invisible flight of winding stairs with every wing stiffly set and every white-collared throat silent as the grave. This species of goose is said to be more exclusive than other species, staying more largely in separate or unmixed flocks. They usually frequent low marshy ground when loafing, but during hours of feed- ing may be seen. in stubble fields or on the open plains far from water. "White-fronted Geese usually loaf on or near some body of water during the middle of the day, doing their feeding early in the morn- ing, in the evening, or during the night. Nordhoff (1902, p. 213) found that, at Elsinore Lake, Riverside County, they made four regular fiights daily to the grain fields, ten miles away, never varying the time of arrival and departure more than fifteen minutes. "Dur- ing periods of stormy weather they often fly over in large flocks, apparently with no definite object in view other than a change of feeding grounds. Their cry is often heard at night, especially during moonlight evenings" (Tyler, 19136, p. 18). The food of the "White-fronted Goose consists almost entirely of grass. Heermann (1859, p. 68) says that this goose is considered the most delicate for the table, as it feeds almost exclusively on the young herbage growing on the highlands and about the fresh water ponds. In years past this species, along with other geese, has been responsible for considerable damage to grain. The "White-fronted Goose is one of the commonest geese on the market. "Gray geese" (under which term this species and perhaps also the Hutchins Goose is included) to the number of 19,419 were sold in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles in the season of 1895-96. The total amount paid hunters for these birds was $4,042.30, 222 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA or about twenty cents apiece (Calif. Fish. Comm., 1896, pp. 41, 42). In 1909-10 (October 2 to March 5) one company handled 8,053 of the birds. In 1910-11 the prices paid ranged from $1.50 to $7.00 per dozen. In 1912-13 these geese sold for 65 cents to $1.00 per pair on the Los Angeles markets (E. J. Fischer in letter). In 1850 these geese sold at $1.00 to $1.50 per pair (Newberry, 1857, p. 102) which, considering the high prices prevailing during the gold rush, suggests that these birds were then very easily obtained. This species is said to be easily approached by the gunner, and so is readily procured. Nevertheless some ruse, such as hiding behind a grazing steer, has usually been resorted to in order to make a big killing. This method of approach, known as "buU-huntiag," was formerly widely employed by market hunters in procuring geese. It is now prohibited by law. Pits dug in the ground in localities over which the birds are known to fly regularly, are most often used as blinds in hunting geese. A brisk market demand as well as ease of capture has been instru- mental in greatly reducing the numbers of this goose visiting Califor- nia. There is probably not now more than one bird to a hundred that used to be found in the state. With no protection whatever until 1915, it is no wonder that we have lost the greater proportion of thes^ valuable game birds. It remains to be seen whether our present laws will be sufBeient to enable the species to maintain itself or increase toward its former abundance. Canada Goose Branta canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus) Other names — Honker; Hunter; Mexican Goose; Big Mexican Goose; White- cheeked Goose; Bernicla canadensis ; Branta canadensis occidentalis. Description — Adults, both sexes: Whole head and neck shiny black, except for large white patch on each cheek which usually meets its fellow across the throat; chin usually blackish; iris brown; bill black; general color of upper surface brownish gray, each feather narrowly tipped with gray or whitish; rump black; upper tail coverts white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing brownish gray, with pale feather edgings like back; primary flight feathers and inner webs of secondaries blackish; under surface of wing and axillars light grayish brown; under surface of body pale ashy gray, with whitish feather tippings giving an effect of obscure barring; flanks darkest colored, more brownish; lower belly and under tail coverts white; feet black. Total length (both sexes) "about 35.00-43.00" inches (888-1093 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 16.50-20.75 (418-527); bill along culmen 1.88-2.31 (47.7-58.6); tarsus 3.00-3.88 (76.2-98.5) (ten specimens). Females: folded wing 17.60-19.65 (447-499); bill along culmen 1.89-2.06 (47.9-52.4); tarsus 3.26-3.58 (82.7-90.8) (ten specimens) ; all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult but with colors duller and white cheek CANADA GOOSE 223 patches speckled with black. Natal plumage: Top of head old gold; forehead, sides of head, throat, and whole neck, deep straw yellow; back old gold, with patch of straw yellow behind each wing; wings and tail, light brownish olive; lower surface of body dull cream color. Marks for field identification — Very large size (largest of all our geese), black head, neck, bill and feet, white cheek patches, and uniform appearing gray body. Distinguished from Hutchins and Cackling geese by larger size, and from Sea Brant by presence of white patches on cheeks (see figs. 32-37). Recognizable in flight by abruptly black head and neck, gray body plumage, loud trumpet-like "honks," and slow wing strokes. Voice — A hoarse, sonorous honlc. Nest — Usually in swampy situation, but on dry ground, more rarely on a stump or in a tree in an old nest of some other bird; constructed of twigs, weeds, grasses or reeds, with abundant lining of down. Eggs — 5 to 7, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches 3.06 to 3.71 by 2.15 to 2.34 (in millimeters, 77.5 to 94.2 by 54.6 to 59.4), and averaging 3.37 by 2.25 (85.6 by 57.2) (Ray, 1912a, pp. 68-69) ; color dull yellowish white. General distribution — Interior North America. Breeds from limit of trees in lower Yukon Valley, Alaska, east to northwestern Mackenzie and central Keewatin, and thence south to Indiana, northern Colorado, and north-central California. Winters from southern British Columbia, southern Colorado, south- ern Wisconsin and New Jersey south to southern California, Texas and Florida (modified from A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 86). Distribution in California — Common winter visitant throughout the low- lands but chiefly to interior valleys; southernmost record station, San Diego (Belding, 1892a, p 100). Fairly common in summer in lake region north and east of the Sierra Nevada. Has been recorded as breeding at the following localities: Lower Klamath Lake (Newberry, 1857, p. 100; H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 232); Eagle Lake (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187); Honey Lake (Cady, MS); and Lake Tahoe (Belding, loe. cit.; Kay, 1912o, p. 72). The migrating V-shaped flocks of the Canada Goose, or Honker, together with the sonorous call-notes while on the wing, are familiar to almost everyone, so that it is safe to say that this is the best known of American geese. It is the most widely distributed species in North America and is the one which is here most often brought into domesti- cation. Of the geese occurring in California it is the largest, but at the present time is least common of all, save for the rare Emperor Goose. In winter it is found in suitable localities almost throughout the state, but those birds which remain for the summer to nest within our bound- aries betake themselves to the vicinity of the large lakes in northeastern California east of the Sierra-Cascade divide. The Canada Goose is about the last of the wintering geese to arrive •in California. It seldom puts in an appearance before the middle of November, or at least until unfavorable conditions drive it south from its breeding home. Belding (1892a, p. 100) noted the first birds of this species in the Stockton market on November 11 (1880), and November 23 (1881). In 1896 the first flock seen by him at Stockton was observed on November 27. At Gridley, Butte County, this goose 224 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA was first seen on December 2, 1885, November 24, 1890, and November 5, 1892 (Belding, MS). It is also among the first to leave for the north. As early as February 22, 1887, Belding (MS) saw flocks of Canada Geese going east over the snow-clad Sierras of Calaveras County, and at Stockton he saw them going north on February 12, 1896. Beck (MS) reports seeing two flocks February 23, 1911, at Los Barios, Merced County, but says that hunters maintained that Fig. 32. Canada Goose. 22001 Fig. 33. Hutchins Goose. most of the Canada Geese had already left. The latest spring record is April 11, 1893, when five individuals were seen in a grain field at Gridley, Butte County (Belding, MS). The Canada Goose is easily separated from geese belonging to other groups by its abruptly black head and neck, white cheek patches, and black bill and feet. The three subspecies or varieties of "white- cheeked ' ' geese ( Canada, Hutchins and Cackling) intergrade with one another, and individuals are occasionally found which cannot be satis- factorily referred to one or the other of these races. As a rule, how- ever, they can be separated on the basis of the length of the bill, which, CANADA GOOSE 225 of course, is an index of the general size. The Canada Goose has a bill 1.88-2.31 inches long; that of the Hutchins Goose is 1.37-1.80 inches, and that of the Cackling Goose, 1.04^1.44 inches. In flight the Canada Goose can be recognized by its large size, its peculiar pattern of coloration, its slow, measured wing beats, and its sonorous Itonk, honk. Swarth (19136, pp. 8-9) has recently shown that, contrary to the statements found in practically all ornithological books dealing in any way with the subject, the true White-cheeked Goose {Branta canadensis occidentalis) does not occur in California. The many references in literature to this goose really apply to the Canada Goose {Branta canadensis canadensis). The White-cheeked Goose is a large dark-colored northwestern race which occupies the immediate vicinity Fig. 34. Cackling Goose. Figs. 32 to 34 are natural size and serve to show the differences in the size and proportions of the bill which char- acterize average specimens of each race. of the seacoast, from Washington at least to Prince William Sound, Alaska, and which in summer probably does not occur farther south than the southern boundary of British Columbia. The Canada Goose is definitely known to breed in at least three localities in northeastern California — Lake Tahoe, Eagle Lake, and Lower Klamath Lake. The first record of nesting in California is that by Newberry (1857, p. 100) and pertains to Lower Klamath Lake. Belding (1892a, p. 100) states that, previously to 1892, this goose bred sparingly in a large marsh at Tallac Point, at the south end of Lake Tahoe. Numerous nests were found in the same neighborhood in 1909, 1910 and 1911 by Ray (1912a, pp. 67-71), and an old-time settler in Lake Valley told the last named author that this species had nested there almost every spring for the past thirty years. In all but one of the instances observed by Ray, the nest was 'composed entirely of dry marsh grass and down. In the exceptional case tules were used. One nest measured twenty-two inches over all, but the 226 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA cavity in it was only eleven inches across and three inches deep. Five nests were found on May 15, 1911, while snow was still on the ground. The number of eggs in the nests observed at Lake Tahoe, ranged from five to seven. In a number of instances eggs of the Canada Goose gathered at Lake Tahoe have been sent elsewhere and success- fully hatched. Judge F. "W. Henshaw has several adult Canada Geese on his place near Redwood City, San Mateo County, which were , hatched from eggs collected at Lake Tahoe. Many half- grown broods of Canada Geese were seen by Sheldon (1907, p. 187) at Eagle Lake in June, 1905. Farther north this goose does not lay until June (Cooke, 1906, p. 76). H. C. Bryant (1914e, p. 232), during a visit to Lower Klamath Lake in 1914, found on June 6 a band of at least ten half -grown young Canada Geese accompanied by one adult. Probably two broods were represented. On June 7 two other broods were seen near the mouth of "Willow Creek, one containing four young and the other five or six. Ranchers of the vicinity reported that every spring Honkers nest in the tules bordering the lake, and that they are the first of the water birds to nest. Ray (1912a, p. 68) recounts that while rowing up a slough on Rowlands Marsh, Lake Tahoe, May 23, 1910, a goose "rose from her nest, took a short run, and rising with heavy flight and loud cries, flew Fig. 35. Canada Goose. CANADA GOOSE 227 Fig. 36. Hutchins Goose. Fig. 37. Cackling Goose. Figs. 35 to 37 are natural size and serve to show the relative length of tarsus to middle toe which characterizes average specimens of each race. out to open water, where she was joined by her mate. The cries of the pair echoed so loudly over the marsh that it seemed the whole region must be awakened." The nest of this pair was situated on 228 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA the ground at the base of a willow growing on a small island in the marsh. In the north the Canada Goose does not always build its nest on the ground. Several instances have been recorded where it has utilized stumps of trees and even deserted nests of birds of prey (Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 126). In California during the mid-winter months' these geese inhabit the interior valleys rather than the neighborhood of the seashore. Their favorite resorts are the large open grain fields near some big river or other large body of water. Here they feed evening and morn- ing, spending the middle of the day and the night on the water itself. At Los Banos, Merced County, they leave the marshes for the even- ing flight to the grain fields about two, three or four o'clock in the afternoon, and return about dark (Beck, MS). The flight of this species is firm, rapid, and protracted, the bird moving with great steadiness and regularity. Before rising it usually runs a few feet with outspread wings, but when surprised can rise with a sudden spring. In its migrations it is liable to be thrown into confusion by passing into a fog- bank, or over a city or place where there is much shipping. . . . Both keen- ness of sight and quickness of hearing are remarkable in this bird, and it is always vigilant and suspicious; so that it is with great difficulty taken by surprise (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 463). "Few wild bird notes are more inspiring than the honk, honk, ha wank, honk, of a long line of Canada Geese flying with apparent deliberation but with really terrific speed overhead, calling as they go in notes that carry for a mile over marsh, lake, and prairie. The big strong wings whish loudly overhead far out of shotgun range, and often a low conversational gabble can be heard under the loud honking" (V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, pp. 67-68). It is believed to be alwaj's an old gander that forms the apex of the V-shaped flocks. Before alighting a flock circles several times to investigate. While feeding there appear to be several individuals who keep watch, thus making close approach in an open field almost impossible. In fact this goose has earned a well-deserved reputation for wariness. Much of the food of the Canada Goose is made up of grain gleaned from stubble fields or sprouting grain fields. Grass, especially the roots, also forms a staple article of diet, and a clean-cropped swath, like that made by sheep, is left where these geese have been feeding. During the summer they vary their vegetable diet with small animals to be found in their favorite marshes, such as snajls, tadpoles and minnows. Both as an object of sport and as a contribution to the table the Canada Goose, as a rule, surpasses all other geese. The young of this species are a real luxury, the flesh being very tender and sweet. CANADA GOOSE 229 The weight of a Canada Goose is said to vary from eight to twelve pounds. A lean female, taken in late spring at Lake Tahoe, weighed eight and three-quarter pounds. The amateur hunter is likely to shoot behind his first geese, for the birds appear to be moving slowly. In reality they move very fast, and a long lead is required. Their habit of resorting to fields to feed morning and evening makes it feasible to use a blind beneath a regular line of flight known to have been established by the birds. On the open plains a pit dug in the ground is used as a blind, and the birds are decoyed by live domesticated geese or by decoys. As soon as some birds are killed they are "stooled," that is, propped up with wires so as to appear life-like. In early days these geese were hunted from w^agons which were driven along on the windward side of feeding birds until quite near when a dash would be made for them and the hunter would fire into the flock, the members of which had of necessity to rise into the wind. The call is imitated by giving a nasal pronunciation to, the syllable "wonk." At the present time the Canada Goose must be considered the least common of the "gray geese" found in California. In many places where it was formerly abundant it has not been seen for years. During the season of 1895-96, 2,411 Honker Geese were sold on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 41). Eleven years later (season 1906-07) there were sold on the markets of San Francisco by one transfer company 154 Honkers, and in the season of 1909-10 the same company handled 416. Probably not more than this last number were sold in all the markets of the state during the season of 1912-13. Even taking into account the shorter season which came into efl'ect in 1913, the decrease has been serious. With the incentive of a high price offered (75 cents each in many cases) the market hunter does his utmost to procure this species of goose. Consequently the numbers sold on the market each year do not accurately indicate the comparative numbers of Honkers remaining from year to year. Among all the geese this is the one which most needs protection if it is to continue to exist as a game bird. It is the most southern breed- ing species, and in fact does not retire at any season altogether beyond the oiitposts of human habitation. The wariness of the Honker will help it to persist longer than some other species- but the demand for it as a game bird coupled with the ingenuity of man and the increased efficiency of firearms more than counterbalances the natural instincts which make for the preservation of the species. If people coiild only be brought to a realization of the true status of this species, more rigid protection would be forthcoming voluntarily, on economic grounds alone. 230 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA Hutchins Goose Branta canadensis hutchinsi (Richardson) Othee names — Gray Goose, part; Brant; Lesser Canada Goose; Medium- sized Honker; Little Honker; Anser hutehinsi; Bernicla hutchinsi. Description — Adults, both sexes: Practically the same as Canada Goose but size smaller. Under surface usually darker, varying from pale gray to dark brown; a black line down throat separating white cheek patches, and a narrow white collar at base of black neck may or may not be present. Total length (both sexes) "about 25.00-34.00" inches (635-863 mm.) (Bidgway, 1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 15.36-17.93 (390-455); bill along eulmen 1.37-1.80 (34.8-45.7); tarsus 2.68-3.40 (68.0-86.3) (ten specimens). Females: folded ■wing 15.25-16.60 (387-422); bill along eulmen 1.46-1.58 (37.1-40.2); tarsus 2.78-3.00 (70.5-76.2) (six specimens) ; all from California. Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known to differ from those of Canada Goose. Marks for field identification — Similar to those for Canada Goose but size slightly smaller: total length 25 to 34 inches (635-863 mm.), weight 3 to 4 pounds (1360 to 1812 gm.). On close examination the coloration is seen to be darker, the middle toe with claw about equals the tarsus in length, and the bill measures 1.37-1.80 inches (34.8-45.7 mm.) (compare figs. 32-37). Voice — Closely resembles that of Canada Goose but not so deep and sonorous; said to be distinguishable by experienced persons. Nest — On ground near water; composed of weeds, grasses or reeds, and profusely lined with down. Eggs — 4 to 6, in shape ovate to elongate ovate, measuring in inches, 2.84-3.27 by 2.05 to 2.21 (in millimeters, 72.0 to 83.0 by 52.0 to 56.0), and averaging 3.12 by 2.10 (79.0 by 53.5) (fifty-six eggs in U. S. National Museum); color white (Davie, 1889, p. 81). General distribution — Western North America. Breeds in far north, west in Alaska to Kowak Valley, and east along Arctic shores and islands to Hudson Bay. Winters from British Columbia, Nevada, Colorado, and Missouri south to Lower California, Texas and Louisiana; in migration rare east of Mississippi Valley, although recorded on Atlantic coast from Maine to Virginia (A. 0. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 86). Distribution in California — Common winter visitant to suitable localities throughout the state. Most plentiful in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Recorded east to Owens and Death valleys (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, p. 19) and south to San Diego (Heermann, 1859, p. 67). Three varieties of Canada or " white-eheeked " geese are found in California during the winter months and of these the Hutchins or Medium-sized Honker is the most abundant. It arrives from the north about the second week in October and departs about the third week in April. The earliest fall record is for Gridley, Butte County, where the species was seen on October 9, 1884, and the latest spring occurrence, April 26, 1896, is for the same locality (Belding, MS). In Alaska, in the Kowak Valley, the first Hutchins Goose in the spring was seen on May 14, 1899, while the last in the fall of 1898, was observed on September 14 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 18). The species is EUTCHINS GOOSE 231 found in very large numbers in the marshes of the great central valley of California, as for example at Los Baiios, Merced County; and it also occurs abundantly about certain of the lakes of high elevation such as Lower Klamath Lake (Ferry, 1908, p. 39). The Hutchins Goose is simply a slightly smaller "edition" of the Canada Goose, and the field marks of the latter species, except for size and weight, will apply equally well to the subject of the present account. A Hutchins Goose measures about six inches less in total length than a Canada Goose and weighs only about half as much. In hand the bill is found to measure 1.37 to 1.80 inches, and the almost equal lengths of tarsus and middle toe with claw also characterize the present race. The Cackling Goose is still smaller than the Hutchins, but has the same general color pattern. Occasional individual birds are found which cannot be satisfactorily classified with any of these three races (see figs. 32-37). Despite the fact that the Hutchins Goose nests over a wide extent of territory, from northwestern Alaska east to Hudson Bay, little has been published concerning its breeding habits. Nests are usually placed on the ground, in slight hollows lined with leaves, grasses and down. Of fifty nests found by MacFarlane (1891, p. 424) on the Lower Anderson River, Arctic Canada, all but one were on the ground and were composed of "hay, feathers, and down." The exception was where a female had deposited her four eggs and was incubating them in an old crow or hawk's nest nine feet above the ground in a pine tree. In the other nests six was the usual complement of eggs. In Alaska these geese sometimes choose hill tops for nest sites, but most generally sandy beaches and grassy situations near fresh-water lakes are chosen. Eggs were taken by Dall on June 15 and downy young on July 10 (Nelson, 1887, p. 85). MacFarlane secured eggs on June 10 and June 14, 1864-65 (Cooke, 1906, p. 78). Grinnell (1900, p. 18) found this a common goose in the Kowak Valley, Alaska, but did not see it along the seaeoast. In the fall, flocks were to be found on the same feeding grounds as the White- fronted Goose, but companies of the two species did not intermingle. In the spring they had become very numerous by the latter part of May and had spread out in pairs among the tundra lakes. The natives of the Kowak Valley have a method of trapping geese, which is surer than shooting. Inconspicuous fences of willow saplings are built across a mud-flat known to be a favorite resort of the birds. Gaps are left in these fences and in these openings ordinary steel traps are set. Heermann (1859, p. 67) says of this species in California : Whilst hunting during a space of two months in Suisun Valley, I observed them, with other species of geese, at dawn, high in the air, winging their way 232 GAME BIBVS OF CALIFOBNIA towards the prairies and hilly slopes, where the tender young wild oats and grapes offered a tempting pasturage. This early flight lasted about two hours, and as far as the eye could reach the sky was spotted with flock after flock, closely following in each other's wake, until it seemed as though all the geese of California had given rendezvous at this particular point. Between ten and eleven o'clock they would leave the prairies, first in small squads, then in large masses, settling in the marshes and collecting around the ponds and sloughs thickly edged with heavy reeds. Here, swimming on the water, bath- ing and pluming themselves, they keep up a continued but not unmusical clatter. This proves the most propitious time of the day for the hunter, who, under cover of the tall reeds, and guided by their continual cackling, approaches closely enough to deal havoc among them. Discharging one load as they sit on the water and the other as they rise, I have thus seen twenty-three geese gathered from two shots, while many more, wounded and maimed, fluttered away and were lost. At about one o'clock they leave the marshes and return to feed on the prairies, flying low and affording the sportsman again an opportunity to stop their career. In the afternoon, about flve o'clock, they finally leave the prairies, and rising high in the air wend their way to the roosting places whence they came in the morning. These were often at a great distance, as I have followed them in their evening flight until they were lost to view. Many, however, roost in the marshes. Our boat, sailing one night down the sloughs leading to Suisun Bay, having come among them, the noise made as they arose in advance of us, emitting their cry of alarm (their disordered masses being so serried that we could hear their pinions strike each other as they flew), impressed us with the idea that we must have disturbed thousands. Such are the habits of the geese during the winter. Towards spring they separate into smaller flocks and gradually disappear from the country, some few only remaining, probably crippled and unable to follow the more vigorous in their northern migration. "During the rainy season in California the plains and valleys, before brown and dry, become clothed in rich verdure, and the nourishing grasses afford sustenance to incredible numbers of these and other geese. Three kinds, the Snow, White-fronted and the pre- sent species, have almost precisely the same habits and the same food during their stay with us, and associate so intimately together that many, if not most, of the flocks contain representatives of all three" (Coues, 1874, pp. 555-556). Although the different species may feed together, other observers have noted that on being disturbed they immediately divide into flocks of their own kind. Specimens of this species collected at Los Banos, Merced County, in November, 1911, had been feeding entirely on grain. The gullet and gizzard of one shot from a flock returning from foraging at 10:30 A.M. contained 1,147 grains of barley by actual count; another 1,076 grains of barley (Beck, MS). Thus it can be seen that where geese collect by thousands on newly planted grain fields the depredations are serious. Near Windfall Harbor, Alaska, the natives say that this species of goose stops in large numbers, for a short time, to feed on HUTCHINS GOOSE 233 the herring spawn which is found adhering to rocks along the beaches which become exposed at low tide (Grinnell, 19096, p. 198). The Hutchins Goose, although not quite so desirable a bird for the table as are some other species, is the goose which has afforded the greatest- amount of sport for the hunter because of its abundance. It has usually been a common goose on the market, where it is known as the ' ' Brant. ' ' In 1909-10 one transfer company in San Francisco sold the following numbers of Brant: October, 1,442; November, 2,196; December, 1,592; January, 1,479; February, 1,226; March, 251. Cackling as well as Hutchins Geese are probably included in these numbers. This makes a total of over 8,000 geese of only two varieties sold by the one transfer company. That season the same company sold more than 20,000 geese of all kinds. In 1906-07 it sold only 7,431. In 1895-96 there were sold on the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles 48,400 geese of which 16,319 were Brant (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). There is little wonder that geese have decreased in numbers more than most other game birds. The markets of San Francisco during 1910-11 paid from $2.50 to $8.00 a dozen for geese other than the Snow Geese. On the Los Angeles markets during 1912-13 the same geese sold at from sixty-five cents to one dollar a pair. Two things make geese less desirable than ducks for the table. One is the relatively strong flavor and the other is the dryness of the meat. Certain people in the state have discovered a way of making a goose palatable no matter how tough it may be or how strong its flavor. The bird is prepared by skinning, as much of the strong taste comes from the skin. The flesh is then ground up with fresh pork, and a game sausage is made. A few pieces of bacon laid over a goose while roasting also serves to remove some of the strong taste and add flavor to the meat. The following extract from one of the many letters which we have received gives a good idea of the immense decrease of this and other geese in different parts of the state. Where years ago there would be ' ' settings ' ' of geese covering as much as 200 acres,- and where the farmers around would furnish a man with horse, board, ammunition, and $20 a month to keep geese off of his grain, it is now rare to see more than 10 to 15 per cent of the former numbers (H. F. Duprey, Dixon, California, March 11, 1913). Tyler (1913&, p. 19) says: Ten years ago when much of the country northeast of Fresno was given over to grain ranches these geese were seen very often and were sometimes noted in large numbers during late March when the spring migrations began; but during the last four or five years I have not seen half a dozen flocks any- where east of the city. 234 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFOSNIA In December, 1912, fourteen men worked continuously for two weeks in the Sacramento Valley to obtain 1,500 geese for a famous "goose-stew" served at Sacramento. Twenty years previously, according to local statements, the same number of geese could have been procured in less than a day and by an even smaller number of men. Such, then, has been the history of this and other geese. At the present rate of decrease it will only be a few years before the occur- rence of the Hutchins Goose, once one of the most numerous of aU the geese, will be noted with as much interest as is the occurrence of the Emperor Goose at the present time. The only hope of saving our geese lies in rigorous protection for a term of years. Cackling Goose Branta canadensis minima Ridgway Other names — Caekler; Yelper; Little Squeaking Goose; Brown Brant; Bernicla Jeucoparia; Branta Tmtchinsi var. leucoparia; Branta minima ' Description — Adults, hoth sexes: Similar to Canada and Hutchins geese but tone of coloration usually much darker and size much smaller. Pattern of head and neck markings extremely variable; cheek patches often wholly separated by black on throat; white collar at base of black neck often con- spicuous, though sometimes wanting. Total length (both sexes) "23.00-25.00" inches (583-635 mm.) (Bidgway, 1900, p. 117). Males: folded wing 13.27- 16.60 (337-422); bill along eulmen 1.04-1.44 (26.4-36.6); tarsus 2.38-3.18 (60.4- 80.7) (ten specimens). Females: folded wing 14.50-15.65 (368-398); bill along eulmen 1.18-1.36 (30.0-34.6); tarsus 2.57-2.98 (65.2-75.6) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: "... Dull grayish umber-brown; the head and neck almost uniform with the rest of the body and without any trace of the white cheek-patches. . . . Feathers of head, neck, and much of the rest of the body are bordered with a lighter shade than the main part of the feathers" (Nelson, 1887, p. 87). Natal plumage: Not known to us; probably similar to that of Canada Goose. Marks for field identification — Similar to those for Canada Goose but size considerably smaller (total length 23 to 25 inches [583 to 635 mm.]), and coloration darker. In hand the tarsus is seen to be much longer than the middle toe with claw, while the bill is less than 1.44 inches long (36.6 mm.) (figs. 32-37). The high-pitched call-note (whence the name Cackling Goose) is easily distinguished from the notes of the Canada and Hutchins geese. Voice — An oft-repeated luTc-luk (Belding, 1892o, p. 101). Nest — On grassy border of a pond; a slight depression, sparsely lined with grass and down (Nelson, 1887, p. 86). Eggs — 4 to 9, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.86 to 3.35 by 1.89 to 2.17 (in millimeters, 72.5 to 85.0 by 48.0 to 55.0), and averaging 2.99 by 2.01 (76.0 by 51.0) (twenty-nine eggs in TJ. S. National Museum) ; color buffy white. General distribution — Western North America. Breeds only in Alaska, on Aleutian Islands and along coast of Bering Sea. Winters along Pacific coast fl'om British Columbia south to southern California (modified from A. 0. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 86). CACKLING GOOSE 235 Distribution in California — Common winter visitant to interior localities, especially in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys; occurs also as far south as San Diego County (A. O. TJ. Check -list, loc. cit.)- Arrives about mid- October and leaves about the middle of April. The Cackling Goose is believed to be about as abundant a winter visitant to California as the Hutehins Goose. Belding (MS) states that, on Butte Creek, Butte and Sutter counties, a favorite resort for these geese especially when they first arrive from the north, he has seen a half million of them in a single day. But this was over twenty- five years ago. At the present time, although reduced at least ninety per cent, this is to be still considered a common species of goose in favorable parts of California. The Cackling Goose appears to arrive before the Hutehins Goose; for Belding (MS) states that at Gridley, Butte County, October 12, 1892, the former was abundant though the Hutehins Goose had not arrived, and at Stockton, San Joaquin County, November 25, 1881, the Cackling was common whereas the Hutehins Goose had not yet appeared. The earliest records of arrival for the Cackling Goose are Gridley, October 1, 1884 ; Gridley, October 12, 1892 ; Stockton, October 10, 1894 (heard at night) ; Stockton, October 12 (year not specified). For spring a late record is April 25, at Stockton (Belding, MS). A specimen was taken at Los Banos, Merced County, on March 21, 1911 (Mus. Vert. Zool.). The Cackling Goose is the smallest of the geese belonging to the Canada group, and it is but slightly larger than even the Ross Goose. The high pitch of its call-note, which resembles the syllables luk-luk, is about the best character to use in the field after recognizing the bird to be of the Canada type. In the hand, measurements, particu- larly of bill and of tarsus, the latter being generally longer than the middle toe and claw, are the only satisfactory characters to use in separating this from the Hutehins Goose (compare figs. 32-37). As a rule, the Cackling is decidedly darker-colored than either the Canada or Hutehins. During the breeding season the Cackling Goose is confined to western Alaska. It breeds abundantly on the Bering Sea coast, from the Seward Peninsula to the north side of the Alaska Peninsula, and has also been reported from the Aleutian Islands. Nelson (1887, p. 86) says that many of these geese are already mated when they return north to the Yukon mouth in the spring. Others appear to be still unmated and such males fight hard and long for the possession of the unmated females. Of these combats he says: The females kept to one side and dozed, or dabbled their bills in the mud; the males were scattered about, and kept moving uneasily from side to side, making a great outcry. This would last but a few minutes, when two of the warriors would cross each other's path, and then began the battle. They would 236 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA seize one another by the bill, and then turn and twist each other about, their wings hanging loosely by their sides meanwhile. Suddenly they would close up and each would belabor his rival with the bend of the wing, until the sound could be heard two or three hundred yards. The wing-strokes were always warded off by the other bird's wing, so but little damage was done, but it usually ended in the weaker bird breaking loose and running away. Just before the males seize each other they usually utter a series of peculiar low growling or grunting notes. From the seashore its breeding ground extends along the courses of the great rivers far into the interior. . . . While descending the Yukon, Dall found their eggs laid upon the bare sand-banks, as were those of the White- fronted species. The last of May finds many of these birds already depositing their eggs. Upon the grassy borders of ponds, in the midst of a bunch of grass, or on a small knoll, these birds find a spot where they make a slight depression and perhaps line it with a scanty layer of grasses, after which the eggs are laid, numbering from five to eight. These eggs, like the birds, average smaller than those of the other geese. ... As the eggs are deposited the female gradually lines the nest with feathers plucked from her breast until they rest in a bed of down. When first laid the eggs are white; but by the time incuba- tion begins all are soiled and dingy. The female usually crouches low on her nest until an intruder comes within a hundred yards or so, when she skulks off through the grass or flies silently away, close to the ground, and only raises a note of alarm when well away from the nest. When the eggs are about hatch- ing, or the young are out, both parents frequently become perfectly reckless in the face of danger. The young are hatched from the middle of June until the middle of July (Nelson, 1887, pp. 86-87). In habits the Cackling Goose so nearly resembles the Hutehins Goose, that no one has been able to point out difEerenees. As with the latter species, the Cackling Goose feeds largely on grass and grain during its stay in California. Along with other geese this species used to do much damage to young wheat in Colusa, Butte, Sutter and Yuba counties. But the ranks of the birds are so thinned at the present time, that the injury they inflict now is negligible. On the market this species is usually classified along with the Hutehins Goose as "Brant." Very large numbers of Cackling Geese are to be found at times in the markets of our larger cities. The Cackling Goose, once just as numerous, if not more so, than the Hutehins Goose, is like the Hutehins, rapidly decreasing in numbers from year to year. Old residents in some parts of the Sacramento Valley say that now there is ' ' not more than one of these Geese present where formerly there were hundreds." To the work of the market hunter can be attributed much of this decrease, for this goose is one which is easily procured, and which finds a ready sale on the market. "While still rated as common in restricted portions of the state, this goose is in a fair way to disappear completely unless enough of the birds are left each winter to guarantee the return of an adequate stock in the spring to the breeding grounds in the north. BLACK SEA BSANT 237 Black Sea Brant Branta nigricans (Lawrence) Other names — Sea Brant; Black Brant; Eskimo Goose; Bernicla nigricans; Bernicla irenta. Description — Adults, both sexes: "Whole forepart of body including head, neck, breast and forepart of back, solidly black, except for incomplete white collar at base of neck; small narrow streaks of white run forward from this collar onto front and sides of neck; iris dark brown; bill black; back brown, abruptly defined against black in front, and each feather narrowly edged with lighter brown; middle of rump blackish brown; sides of rump and longer upper tail coverts pure white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing like back; flight feathers dull black; under surface of wing and axillars, brown; under surface of body slaty brown, feathers of sides and flanks broadly tipped with dull white; area in front of and behind vent, and under tail coverts, pure white; legs and feet black. Males: total length 23.75-25.50 inches (604-647 mm.) (ten specimens); folded wing 12.40-13.40 (315-340); bill along culmeu 1.25-1.41 (31.8-35.7); tarsus 2.14-2.48 (54.4-63.0) (nine specimens from Cali- fornia and Alaska). Females: total length 22.50-24.00 (572-610) (nine speci- mens from California and Alaska) ; folded wing 11.90-12.65 (302-321) ; bill along culmeu 1.20-1.33 (30.4^33.9) ; tarsus 2.16-2.46 (54.7-62.4) (eight specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults but with white collar entirely lacking; general tone of coloration more grayish, especially on darker parts; secondaries, scapulars, and wing coverts tipped with dull white; feathers of lower surface faintly tipped with lighter color. Natal plumage: General tone of color light leaden brown, darkest on top of head and back and lightest (nearly white) on throat and middle of belly; a dark band across breast and light collar around hind neck at level of throat; entirely lacks any of the greenish or yellowish tinge found in other American species of geese. Marks for field identification — Moderately small size (for a goose), with very dark coloration. Head and neck black, with white collar about front of neck; sides of rump white, bill and feet black. Flies in undulating course, close to water. Voice — A low guttural gr-r-r-r-r, uttered when at rest or in flight (Nelson, 1887, p. 88); a mellow cronk, cronTc, cronlc (Dawson, 1909, p. 836). Nest — On marshy ground; a simple depression, abundantly lined with down. Eggs — 4 to 8, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.64 to 3.09 by 1.75 to 1.97 (in millimeters, 67.0 to 78.5 by 44.5 to 50.0), and averaging 2.82 by 1.85 (71.5 by 47.0) (fifty eggs in TJ. S. National Museum) ; color grayish white (Eeed, 1904, p. 86). General distribution — Western North America and eastern Asia. In North America breeds on Arctic coast and islands from Point Barrow east to near mouth of Anderson Eiver, north probably to Melville Island; winters on Pacific coast from British Columbia south to San Quintin Bay, Lower California (modified from A. O. IT. Check-list, 1910, p. 87). Distribution in California — Abundant winter visitant in former years to Humboldt, Bodega, Tomales, San Francisco, Morro, and San Diego bays. Now occurs in numbers only on Humboldt and Tomales bays. Occasionally reported at other places along the coast such as: Point Pinos, Monterey County (Beck, 1910, p. 69); and San Pedro, Los Angeles County, and near Newport, Orange 238 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA County (Willett, 1912a, p. 28). Has been found in the interior on Klamath Eiver near Beswick, Siskiyou County (Ferry, 1908, p. 39) ; and near Los Banos, Merced County (specimen taken January 3, 1912, now in Mus. Vert. Zool.). The Black Sea Brant is notable for being the most maritime of all the species of geese which visit California. It does not occur along our whole seacoast, as do so many sea-faring birds, but restricts itself to certain coastal bays, especially those north of San Francisco. It is a wary species, difficult to shoot, it has peculiar habits, and in the opinion of many persons its succulent flesh renders it the most desir- able of all the geese for table use ; hence it has been extensively sought after in past years, with the usual result that its numbers have been greatly reduced. In earlier years the Black Sea Brant visited all of our large coastal bays from the Oregon line south to San Diego, but more recently it has been found in numbers only on Humboldt and Tomales bays. Its close adherence to bay water's suggests that only in such situations can it find the food materials which it likes best. This Brant is strictly a winter visitant arriving in October and leaving in April. At San Diego, Cooper (in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 473) saw it first, in 1861, during October, and it left there by April 20 of the following year. The same writer saw the species on the water outside San Francisco Bay on April 24, 1863. Belding (MS) states that it was last seen at San Diego, in 1884, on April 15, and in 1885, on April 7. A few years ago a flock of about twenty-flve of these birds was seen on San Francisco Bay near Redwood City — but this is the only recent instance of occurrence on this bay of which we have knowledge. A few stra^ggling individuals are found rarely on interior bodies of water, as on Klamath River near Beswick, Siskiyou County, and at Los Banos, Merced County. The Black Sea Brant is a small goose, resembling the Ross Snow Goose in bulk. When at rest on the water it has a general blackish appearance. The solidly black coloration of the fore part of the body as well as of the bill and feet, and the white neck collar, are noticeable features. From all the several varieties of "Canada" Geese the Black Brant is best distinguished by the absence of white cheek patches, and from the Canada and Hutchins geese by its size. Its call-note, which has been described as a guttural croak, wah-ook or gr-r-r-r, and its habit of flying in flocks abreast close to the water in undulating lines, are both useful field characters. This Brant breeds along the extreme Arctic coast west of Hudson Bay. The following meager nesting notes are the only ones available : "It was seen breeding abundantly by Mr. MacFarlane near the Arctic Ocean. Some of the nests were found on small islets in fresh- BLACK SEA BBANT 239 water, ponds ; others on islands in the Anderson, near its mouth ; and many others either on the shore or on islands in Franklin Bay, or other parts of the Arctic Sea. In some cases the nest was nothing more than a mere depression lined with down; hut in some the quantity of down was quite large. The number of eggs in a nest was generally five; but in one case as many as seven were seen, and in six or seven instances six" (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 474). Writing from western Alaska, Nelson (1881, pp. 134-136) says: The flight of this species is peculiar among North American geese and bears a close resemblance to that of the Eider and other species of heavy- bodied short -winged Sea Ducks. It has a parallel in the flight of the Emperor Goose except that the latter is a far heavier bird and, in consequence, the wing strokes are less rapid. In B. nigricans the strokes are short, energetic, and repeated with great rapidity, carrying the bird with a velocity far greater than that attained by any other [American] Goose. ... The flocks . . . have a protean ability to change their form without ever breaking the array or causing confusion. They are very gregarious and two flocks almost invariably coalesce when they draw near each other. This frequently occurs, until ... it results in a single flock numbering between four hundred and five hundred birds. The usual size is considerably less, generally compris- ing from twenty to fifty or more, and it is rare to see less than ten or fifteen in a party. At times four or five individuals become detached and until they can unite with a stronger party they fly irregularly about as though bewildered, continually uttering their harsh notes, and hurry eagerly away to join the first flock that comes in view. The order of flight is invariably a single rank, the birds moving side by side in a line at right angles to their course so that the entire strength of a flock is to be seen at a glance along its front, which, at times, covers several hundred yards. There is barely room enough between the individuals to allow a free wing-stroke. Thus ranged the flock seems gov- erned by a single impulse, which sends it gliding along parallel and close to the ground, then, apparently without reason, careering thirty or forty yards overhead only to descend to its former level as suddenly as it was left; now it sways to one side and then to the other, while at short intervals swift undulations seem to run from one end of the line to the other. These move- ments are repeatedly taking place. . . . The entire flock, consisting of perhaps over a hundred birds arranged in single line, is hurrying on, straight as an arrow, towards its destination when, without warning, it suddenly makes a wide curving detour of several hundred yards, then resumes its original course only to frequently repeat the manoeuvre, but always with such unison that the closest scrutiny fails to reveal the least break or irregularity in the line; nor does the front of the flock swerve, except- ing an occasional slight obliquity which is corrected in a few seconds. In addition to this horizontal movement is a still more interesting vertical one which often occurs at the same time as the other but generally by itself. A bird at either end of the flock rises or descends a few inches or several feet, as the case may be, and the movement is instantly followed in succession by every one of its companions till the extreme bird is reached and the entire flock is on the new level; or, it may be that a bird near the middle of the line 240 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA changes its position when the motion extends in two directions at once. These latter changes are made so regularly and with such rapidity that the distance between the birds does not appear altered in the least, while a motion exactly like a graceful undulation runs the length of the flock lifting or depressing it to the level of the originator of the movement. These changes present to one 'a eye as the flocks approach, keeping close to the ground, the appearance of a series of regular and swift waving motions such as pass along a pennant in a slight breeze. The Black Brant never wings its way far up in the sky, as many other geese have the habit of doing, but keeps, as a rule, between ten and thirty yards above the ground, with more flocks below these limits than above them. The Black Brant ' ' rafts ' ' far out on the sea during much of the day. Here the members of a flock keep up a constant gabble which is said to resemble somewhat the croaking of frogs. At certain changes of the tide the birds fly to the kelp-beds to feed. During the winter residence of this Brant upon the shore of California it is noted for its pertinacity in following the outline of the coast as it passes from place to place. In the north this habit still clings to them, and although they frequently pass over broad, marshy flats, yet a low ridge, but a few yards high above the general level, is sufiicient to turn their course and send them' skimming along its base and around the obstacle rather than over it (Nelson, 1887, p. 88). The food of the Black Brant is made up largely of marine plants for which it often dives as well as dips. The kelp beds off-shore offer the most attractive feeding grounds. In addition to the vegetable food, marine Crustacea are probably eaten M'hen available. Cooper {in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 473) says that in San Diego Bay the Brant fed almost exclusively on the leaves and roots of eel grass (Zostera marina). In Tomales Bay the birds also feed largely on this grass. A number of specimens from Humboldt Bay examined by W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) had beeii feeding entirely on eel grEiss. According to Sanford, Bishop and Van Dyke (1903, p. 544) this is the most "gamy" of all our waterfowl and generally the finest flavored. The slight marine flavor, is far from being unpleasantly fishy, and resembles that of the oyster. The Black Brant evades the devices of the hunter better than any other duck or goose. In very early days on San Diego Bay it was never seen to alight on the shore or near it. By 1875 it was almost impossible to obtain a shot at the bird from a boat, and even with a box sunk in the mud and concealed by sea-weed a good bag was secured with difficulty. In 1883 a floating battery with plenty of decoys alone would enable a hunter to obtain this much prized bird. A few years later many of the birds failed to put in an appearance at all off San Diego, probably going farther south, along the Mexican coast. EASTERN SEA BSANT 241 Because of its habit of occasionally cutting across low sandspits to avoid a long detour in its flight, most of the hunting has been done from blinds situated beneath such a line of flight. On Tomales Bay hunters have sailed down on flocks with "blind-boats," when the birds were at rest during a fog, their whereabouts being disclosed by their "gabbling" noises. The Black Sea Brant has not been sold on the markets to any extent for a good many years. About twenty years ago consignments were shipped to San Francisco from Humboldt Bay and the birds sold for as little as 25 cents each. Even the high price that the bird would bring at the present time does not attract it to the market because of the difficulty now attached to obtaining it. There has been a marked decrease in the number of Black Brant visiting the coast of California in the last twenty-five years. They have apparently been driven away entirely from San Diego Bay and most of the other bays south of San Francisco. California is unique in the possession of this bird during the winter season so that the survival of the species depends almost entirely on the amount of destruction accorded it while it is within the state. Its extreme wari- ness together with its attachment to the open ocean has always been, and will continue to be, its chief protection, but we should supplement this with adequate legislation properly enforced. Eastern Sea Brant Branta hernicla glaucogastra (Brehm) Desceiption — Adults, both sexes: Head, neck, whole breast and forepart of body entirely circled by solid black except for restricted areas of white oblique lines on each side of neck in a collar-like arrangement which, however, is broadly interrupted both in front and behind; bill black; iris "brown" (Sanf ord. Bishop and Van Dyke, 1903, p. 244) ; back brown, abruptly defined in front, each feather tipped with lighter brown; sides of rump and upper tail coverts pure white; tail black; outer surface of closed wing like back; flight feathers black; under surface of wing and axillars brown; under surface of body ashy brown, sharply contrasted with black of fore-breast, and paling gradually behind into pure white of belly and under tail coverts; feathers of sides and flanks broadly tipped with white; legs and feet black. Male: total length 26.31 inches (667 mm.); folded wing 13.37 (339); bill along culmen 1.36 (34.6); tarsus 2.37 (60.2) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Like adults but with "... wing-coverts and secondaries broadly tipped with pure white, forming very conspicuous bars. Lower parts paler and more uniform; white on middle of the neck reduced to small specks" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 468). Natal plumage: Not known to us. Marks tor field identification — Similar to those for the Black Sea Brant (which see). Distinguished from Black Sea Brant by much lighter color of under surface, more abrupt line of contrast between black of chest and light 242 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA gray of under surface, and smaller amount of white on neck collar which consists merely of a restricted patch at each side. Voice — ^A guttural car-r-rwp, or r-r-r-ronk ; ruTc-ruk (Forbush, 1912, p. 183). Nest and eggs — Like those of Black Sea Brant. Genebal distribution — Northern Hemisphere. Breeds on Arctic islands north of latitude 74 degrees and west to about longitude 100 degrees, and on the whole west coast of Greenland; winters on the Atlantic coast from Massa- chusetts south to North Carolina, rarely to Florida; has been recorded in the interior from Manitoba, Ontario, Colorado, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana, and Louisiana; accidental in British Columbia, California and Bar- badoes (modified from A. O. TJ. Check-list, 1910, p. 87). Distribution in California — One known instance of occurrence: A specimen taken on Areata Bay, Humboldt County, January 30, 1914 (H. C. Bryant, 1914 w O o B 266 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA birds of our state because it belongs to the same order of birds as the White-faced Glossy Ibis which has in California been ranked as a game species. The extraordinary appearance of this bird naturally attracts attention, but does not warrant the destruction of the species by the hunter. In many parts of its general range the Roseate Spoonbill has been almost exterminated by plume hunters. But in California it never occurred in conspicuous numbers, and the probability is that it will always remain one of the rarest birds accredited to the state — a natural curiosity that should be conserved as such. Wood Ibis Mycteria americana Linnaeus Other names — Water Turkey; Tantalus loculafor. Desceiption — Adults, both sexes: Whole head and upper neck devoid of feathers (save for a few small scattering ones on fore and hind neck), and covered with a hard, scurfy skin of a dusky bluish color; top of head covered with a horny shield about one and three-quarters inches square; iris "deep brown" (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 70); bill stout, tapering, and curved down- wards at end, dull yellowish brown in color, edges and tip greenish yellow; whole of plumage white except for flight feathers, primary wing coverts, and tail feathers, which are black with metallic green and purple iridescence; legs bluish black; toes yellowish; claws black. Total length (both sexes) "35.00- 45.00" inches (888-1,143 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 125); folded wing 19.00- 19.35 (483-492); bill along culmen 9.00-9.12 (228-231.5); tarsus 8.25-8.50 (209-216) (two specimens from Imperial County, California). Juvenile plumage: Head and neck feathered, save for region about base of bill in front of eyes, and top of head between eyes, which are continuously naked; feathers of head and neck grayish brown, approaching brownish black on hind neck and sides of neck; otherwise as in adult, but with black portions of plumage showing less of metallic sheen. Natal plumage: Not known to us. Makks roR FIELD IDENTIEICATION — Large size (over three feet tall when standing), white plumage, black tail and wing tips, bare forehead, heavy bill down-curved towards tip, and long stout legs. Voice — Usually silent; call-note: croak, croak, croaJc (Coues, 1874, p. 515). Utters a ' ' rough guttural croaking note ' ' when frightened (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 84). Nest — In tall trees in dense cypress swamps; a, platform of sticks loosely arranged and lined with moss. Eggs — 3, elongate or elliptical ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 2.57 to 3.12 by 1.77 to 1.92 (in millimeters, 65.2 to 79.3 by 45.0 to 48.7), and averag- ing 2.75 by 1.84 (69.9 by 46.7) ; color white, without surface gloss (nine eggs in U. S. National Museum from Florida). General distribution — Temperate and tropical America from southern ■California, Arizona, Texas, Ohio Valley, and South Carolina south to Argentina; casual north to Montana, Wisconsin, New York, and Vermont (A. O. U. Check- list, 1910, p. 93). WOOD IBIS 267 Distribution in California— Regular and common summer visitant along lower Colorado River; irregular and less common visitant in midsummer through southern California. Recorded by Cooper (1887, p. 90) as having been seen north to San Francisco Bay and the San Joaquin Valley. No authentic instance of breeding on the Pacific slope north of the Mexican line. The Wood Ibis is a tropical species of wide distribution in Central and South America. In the United States it is common only in Florida and along the Gulf Coast to southern Texas. After the breed- ing season, and when the young are fully grown, both old and young are in the habit of moving northward to the swamps along the Missis- sippi Eiver, particularly in southeastern Missouri and southern Illinois, which at this season of the year swarm with their favorite food. In similar fashion the breeding birds of the coast of western Mexico work northward in summer after the nesting season. They are espe- cially common in the valley of the lower Colorado River, and also appear, though irregularly, throughout southern California (Cooke, 1913, pp. 22-24). The Wood Ibis is the only member of the family of true storks to be found in California. Along the lower course of the Colorado River it is regularly found during the summer season, but in other southern parts of the state it is more or less of a straggler. The most recent records of its occurrence within the state are : Daggett, San Bernardino County (Lamb, 1912, p. 34) ; near Long Beach, Los Angeles County (Law, 1912a, p. 41) ; and near Los Angeles (Willett, 19126, pp. 194^195). The earliest seasonal record within the state is for May 18, and the latest August 5. The northernmost record stations are on San Francisco Bay (Cooper, 1887, p. 90). The Wood Ibis cannot be confused with any other bird found in California; for no other large crane-like bird has a bald head, white plumage, and black-tipped wings and tail. The extremely long bill, stout at base and slightly curved downwards toward the tip, is like- wise diagnostic. This bird stands over three feet in height and thus presents a conspicuous figure about the open margins of shallow ponds and on marshy land and the shores of streams, where it forages. Nests of the Wood Ibis have never been found in California, the species apparently requiring a warmer and moister climate than ours during the breeding season. In the Gulf states the Wood Ibis like the herons selects dense cypress swamps for its breeding grounds, and nests in colonies. The nest is built of sticks and is placed in the tallest of trees. The cavity is deep and usually lined with moss. Eggs have been found in Florida as early as December 8 and January 5. Consequently this species must be considered one of the earliest of birds to breed (Cooke, 1913, p. 24). According to Audubon (1843, VI, pp. 68-69, 70) the young are entirely dusky gray, with brownish 268 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA black wings and bill. The head is at first covered, but becomes partially bare after the first moult. Four years are said to be required for the bird to attain its full pluinage. Wood Ibises seen by Stephens (1903, p. 76) along the Colorado Eiver near Needles, in June, were not shy and were feeding in the shallower parts of the lagoons, wading about where the water was a few inches deep. Eight birds under observation by Feudge (1903, p. 79) in San Bernardino County midway between San Bernardino and Highlands, in the summer of 1901, and three seen in the same locality on June 5, 1902, were foraging in damp fields and in the creek bottoms, but were occasionally seen circling high in the air. Law (1912a, p. 41) describes the manner in which a Wood Ibis was feeding at Dominguez Station, near Long Beach, on July 2, 1911, in the follow- ing words : "It was standing almost knee deep in the muddy water, and would insert its bill almost up to the eyes and then, standing on one foot, would seem to be stirring up the water with the other foot." The farmers in this vicinity stated that half a dozen of the birds had visited the slough almost every day for a month. "One was shot some years since at San Leandro . . . [Alameda County] having incautiously alighted on a shade tree by the roadside" (Cooper, 1887, p. 90). The carriage of the Wood Ibis is firm and sedate, almost stately; each leg is slowly lifted and planted with deliberate precision, before the other is moved, when the birds walk unsuspicious of danger. I never saw one run rapidly, since on all the occasions when I have been the cause of alarm, the bird took wing directly. It springs powerfully from the ground, bending low to gather strength, and for a little distance flaps hurriedly with dangling legs, as if it was much exertion to lift so heavy a body. But fairly on wing, clear of all obstacles, the flight is firm, strong, and direct, performed with continuous moderately rapid beats of the wing, except when the birds are sailing in circles as above noted. When proceeding in a straight line the feet are stretched horizontally backward, but the head is not drawn closely in upon the breast, as is the case with Herons, so that the bird presents what may be called a top-heavy appearance, increased by the thick, large bill (Coues, 1874, p. 516). The Wood Ibis . . . feeds entirely on fish and aquatic reptiles, of which it destroys an enormous quantity, in fact more than it eats; for if they have been killing fish for a half an hour and have gorged themselves, they suffer the rest to lie on the water untouched, when it becomes food for Alligators, Crows and Vultures. ... To procure its food, the Wood Ibis walks through shallow muddy lakes or bayous in numbers. As soon as they have discovered a place abounding in fish, they dance as it were all through it, until the water becomes thick with the mud stirred from the bottom by their feet. The fishes, on rising to the surface, are instantly struck by the beaks of the Ibises, and on being deprived of life, they turn over and so remain. In the course of ten or fifteen minutes, hundreds of fishes, frogs, young alligators, and water-snakes cover the surface, and the birds greedily swallow them, until they are completely WEITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS 269 gorged, after which they walk to the nearest margins, place themselves in long rows, with their breasts all turned toward the sun, in the manner of Pelicans and "Vultures, and thus remain for an hour or so (Audubon, 1843, VI, p. 65). The crop of a Wood Ibis taken at Bixby, Los Angeles County, August 23, 1901, and examined by Daggett (1903, p. 19) was filled with aquatic insects. Leo Wiley (in letter of February 19, 1915) states that three Wood Ibises which were examined by him at Palo Verde, Imperial County, showed stomach contents as follows: (1) three tadpoles, four "pumpkin-seed" beetles (water beetles), two paddle bugs, and moss and slime; (2) nine tadpoles, one pumpkin- seed beetle, nine dragon-fly larvae, and one fish (a carp) ; (3) one water-cricket, ten carp, one catfish, and two bony -tails (a kind of fish). There seems to be a difference of opinion as to the value of the Wood Ibis as a bird for the table. Along the Colorado River, where it is known as the "Water Turkey," it has been eaten with relish; but as a rule, north of Mexico it is classified along with the herons as being beneath the dignity of a game species. As far as California is concerned the Wood Ibis should be protected as a bird whose rarity makes it a subject of interest rather than an object of sport. White-faced Glossy Ibis Plegadis guarauna (Linnaeus) Other names — Bronze Curlew; Black Curlew; Falcinellus cayanensis ; Ibis ordi; Ibis mexicanus ; Ibis thalassinus. Descrfption — Adults, both sexes: Head, neck, and body in general, deep cinnamon brown; a narrow area about base of bill and extending back around each eye, white; bare naked skin about base of bill and including area about eye, reddish purple; iris blood red; bill slate-colored, slender, curved down- ward like that of a curlew; top of head, lower back, wings and tail giving metallic reflections of purple, pinkish bronze, and green; longer scapulars and outer surface of closed wing with purplish and greenish reflections predominat- ing; shorter scapulars and lesser wing coverts rich chestnut; primaries irides- cent green; secondaries mostly bronze; sides of body, axillars, and under surface of wing, bronze, purple and green according to angle of view; rump and tail mixed green and purple; lower tail coverts with steel blue and purple reflections; legs and feet varying from grayish brown to dark reddish purple. Males: Total length 23.75-24.00 inches (603-610 mm.) (two specimens); folded wing 10.40-10.75 (264^273); bill along culmen 5.25-5.67 (133-144); tarsus 3.90- 4.15 (99-105.5) (six specimens). Females: Folded wing 9.45-9.75 (240-248); bill along culmen 4.30-4.55 (109-115.5); tarsus 3.35-3.40 (85-86.4) (two specimens); weight 13.6 oz. (386 gm.) (one specimen) ; all .from California. Juvenile plumage: Cinnamon and chestnut hues wholly lacking; head, neck and lower surface, dull grayish brown, the head and upper part of neck streaked narrowly with white; back grayish brown, with green and steel blue reflections; outer sur- 270 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA face of closed wing, and flight feathers, dusky, with green and steel blue reflections, but bronze and purple iridescence of adults lacking. Second-year (or winter?) plumage: Like Juvenal in body plumage (that is, with grayish brown body and white-streaked head), but with lower back, wings and tail, more as in adult, differing only in lesser amount of rich chestnut, and purplish pink reflections. Natal plumage: "Uniform blackish . . . bill whitish, with dusky base" (Eidgway, 1900, p. 124). Marks for field identification — Curlew-like profile, bright iridescent chest- nut-colored plumage appearing black at a distance (whence the name Black Curlew), down-curved curlew-like bill about five inches in length (fig. 44), and long legs. Ply in orderly diagonal lines, each bird with legs and neck extended (pi. 8). Voice — A hoarse ka-onk, several times repeated (Grinnell, MS) ; a jerky, squawking cry of three syllables, rapidly repeated when disturbed (Shields, 1894, p. 108); a nasal ooh-ick-ooh-ick (Chapman, 1908, p. 292). Nest — In colonies in marshes, compactly built of dry tules, placed on a foundation of bent-over growing tules a foot or more above the water. Eggs — 3 to 4, rarely 5, elongate ovate and rather pointed, measuring in inches, 1.81 to 2.16 by 1.40 to 1.46 (in millimeters, 46.0 to 55.0 by 35.5 to 37.0), and averaging 2.03 by 1.42 (51.5 by 36.0) (forty-six eggs in TJ. S. National Museum) ; color dark blue fading to lighter blue during incubation. General distribution — Temperate and tropical America from southern Oregon, Arizona, Texas, and Florida south through Mexico; also in southern South America; migratory in the northern portion of its range; casual north to British Columbia, Wyoming, and Nebraska (A. O. U. Check -list, 1910, p. 92). Distribution in California — Common summer visitant interiorly to south- ern and central portions of the state. Breeds in suitable swampy areas. Some northern record stations are: Lower Klamath Lake, Siskiyou County (H. C. Bryant, 1914e, p. 232); Sutter County (Belding, 1879, p. 443); Owens Valley (A. K. Tisher, 1893o, p. 19) ; casual on Farallon Islands (W. E. Bryant, 1888, p. 42). Some breeding stations are: Escondido, San Diego County (Sharp, 1907, p. 91) ; San Jacinto Lake, Riverside County (Willett and Jay, 1911, p. 159); Los Banos, Merced County (Mailliard coll.; H. C. Bryant, MS). Winters occasionally in the southern coastal district, and in vicinity of Los Banos (Mus. Vert. Zool.) and Stockton (Belding, MS). Like the Cinnamon Teal, the White-faced Glossy Ibis furnishes a good example of discontinuous or interrupted distribution. Although found in both North and South America there is a great extent of country in Central and northern South America where it is not found. The two ranges are separated by 22° of longitude and 30° of latitude and there is but one record of the occurrence of even a straggler in this intervening territory (Cooke, 1913, pp. 19-21). In North America the White-faced Glossy Ibis is to be found from central Mexico north to Louisiana, Utah and Oregon, and occa- sionally as far north as Minnesota, Wyoming, Idaho and southern British Columbia. Its winter and summer ranges overlap to some extent, but most birds of the species winter south of the United States. There are records of its occurrence in winter at Tombstone, Arizona, and in San Diego, Los Angeles, Merced and San Joaquin counties, California. o > m 2 J) CD > w -\ O 3) WHITE-FACED GLOSSY IBIS 271 In California this is a common summer visitant and breeder in the San Joaquin Val- ley. One or two colonies have been found in southern California. Elsewhere in the state the records pertain as far as known to birds in migration or on foraging expeditions. Thus the northernmost records of occurrence in California are probably of birds in transit to or from the known breeding colonies in eastern Oregon. Beck (MS) noted the first of these Ibises at Los Baiios, Merced County, in 1912, on April 22, when he saw two bands of about twenty each flying north. Lamb (1912, p. 34) noted the species as late as September 10 and 24 at an oasis on the Mohave desert. A re- markable flight of White-faced Glossy Ibises was noted by Belding (1905, p. 112) at "Stockton on May 5, 6, 7, 1879, during a gale from the northwest which lasted for three days. During this time from 4,000 to 5,000 of these birds flew north. They followed the eastern edge of the tule marsh as nearly as the strong wind would allow them to, going by sinuous flight up and down, to the right and left, with few wing strokes." J. S. Hunter (MS) saw about 200 Ibises in one flock near Los Baiios on October 30, 1914. This is an exceptionally late date in this lati- tude for more than occasional stragglers. There are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology three specimens taken in the same locality on November 25 and December 4 and 23, 1911. One of these was plainly a cripple, and all were immature. But Belding (MS) saw a flock of more than a hundred feeding in a pasture near Stockton on February 9, 1886^ and several dozen were seen by him in the markets of Stockton during the winter of and naked area between 1885. Small flocks were observed in the ^^^7g,.rfJaZr^ winter of 1885 (January 1, etc.) near San Diego (Holterhoff, 1885, p. 312), and there are other reports of occa- sional winter occurrences in the southern coastal district; but the species cannot be considered as regularly present in winter north of the Mexican line. \l \ I Fig. 44. Side of bill of White-faced Glossy Ibis. Natural size. Note down-curved tip 272 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA The "White-faeed Glossy Ibis chooses dense tule thickets for its breeding grounds. The nests are built in colonies and are composed of dry tules and often lined with marsh grass. They are placed on broken-down growing tules one to six feet above the water. In "northern San Diego Gounty," Shields (1894, pp. 108-109) found new nests and completed sets slightly incubated on May 29, 1893. The Mailliard collection contains a number of sets of two to four eggs taken in Merced County on July 4 and 12, 1913. These eggs varied from fresh to slightly incubated. The nests varied in height above the water from one foot to eighteen inches. "Willett and Jay (1911, p. 159) give the following account of the nesting of the White-faced Glossy Ibis at San Jacinto Lake, Eiver- side County, as observed there May 28, 1911 : In nearly every patch of tules was a nest or two of this species, and in the patch farthest west which covered about a half acre, there must have been at least two hundred nests. They were built on bent-down tules, and were composed of tule stalks and lined with marsh grass. They were situated from two to six feet above the water, the average height being about four feet. About half the nests examined contained young and most of the others held badly incubated eggs. A very few fresh sets were found but the height of the nesting season was past. The sets almost invariably consisted of three or four eggs. In one or two instances sets of two incubated eggs were noted, and three nests contained five eggs each, two nests six eggs each, and one nest had seven. It is probable that sets numbering more than five eggs were deposited by more than one bird. In fact they invariably showed two differ- ent types of eggs. The color of the eggs evidently fades with incubation, as the heavily incubated eggs are much lighter blue than the freshly laid ones. This is probably the largest breeding colony of these birds in southern Cali- fornia west of the mountains. The "White-faced Glossy Ibis is usually to be found in or near marshes. It is ordinarily seen in small flocks wading in shallow water, probing into the soft muddy ground with its long sickle-shaped bill, or circling overhead with slow wing-beats and ah occasional soar- ing flight. While on the ground, Ibises have the dignified pose of herons, but while on the wing more nearly resemble cranes. The White-faced Glossy Ibis performs interesting aerial evolu- tions. Chapman (1908, p. 292) describes this habit as witnessed near Los Bancs, Merced County, in the following words : In close formation, they soared skyward in a broad spiral, mounting higher and higher until, in this leisurely and graceful manner, they had reached an elevation of at least 500 feet. Then, without a moment's pause and with thrilling speed, they dived earthward. Sometimes they went together as one bird, at others each bird steered its own course, when the air seemed full of plunging, darting, crazy Ibises. When about fifty feet from the ground, their reckless dash was checked, and, on bowed wings, they turned abruptly and shot upward. Shortly after, like the rush of a gust of wind, we heard the LITTLE BEOWN CBANE 273 humming sound caused by the swift passage through the air of their stiffened pinions. The food of this Ibis is composed of insects, worms, snails, Crustacea, small fish, and frogs. Most of its food is apparently obtained by probing in the mud. Belding (MS) states that the stomach of a bird shot in some tules near Stockton March 18, 1886, was full of fragments of an aquatic plant among which were the legs of a beetle. The resemblance of this bird to a curlew has doubtless led people to suppose it related to the shore-birds, and hence of desirable table qualities. But judging from the food of the White-faced Glossy Ibis, which appears to be of similar nature to that of the herons, one would not expect to find the Ibis particularly palatable as an article of food. Belding (MS) states that he never knew of anyone eating Ibis in California excepting Chinese. Yet this species has been marketed in the larger cities with apparent regularity for many years, as witness Heermann's report of its being sold here during the fifties (1859, p. 63). California is the only state in the Union that has ever ranked the "White-faced Glossy Ibis as a game bird, and provided an open season for it. In three states, Nevada, Kansas, and New Mexico, the bird is unprotected, but iu all other states where it is found it is protected by law the year round. The open season in California was from October 15 to March 1 in the northern part of the state, and from October 1 to March 1 in southern California. The bag limit was twenty birds. Even with this open season there was little drain on the num- bers, for, as a matter of fact, because of the marked migratory habit of this species, but few are to be found as a rule within the state during the open season. In 1915 ibis were removed from the list of game birds and thereby came under the laws protecting non-game birds. Large numbers of White-faced Glossy Ibis continue to nest in the larger fresh-water marshes, and the greatest danger to the species lies in the possible reclamation of these breeding grounds. Little Brown Crane Grus canadensis (Linnaeus) Other names — Sandhill Crane, part; Grus mexicana part. Description — Adults, ioth sexes : Large area on top of head to level of eyes, and including space between bill and eye, bald, with but scattering black "hairs" (hair-like feathers); the granulated skin of this area is "dull livid red" in life (Nelson, 1887, p. 96), and the feathers on hind head extend forward into it in the form of a wedge; bill black; iris "orange yellow" (Nelson, loo. cit.) ; whole of plumage light leaden gray, except for primary wing feathers which are brownish black with dull white shafts; gray clearest 274 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA on neck and chest, while cheeks and throat are usually lighter, sometimes almost white; a rusty brown wash often covers parts of plumage; legs and feet black. Males: Total length 35.50-39.50 inches (901-1,003 mm.) (three speci- mens from Alaska); folded wing 17.40-20.20 (442-513); bill along culmen 3.22- 3.98 (81.8-101.0); tarsus 6.58-8.35 (167-212) (nine specimens from California and Alaska). Females: Total length 33.70 (856) (one specimen from Califor- nia); folded wing 17.90-19.12 (455-486); bill along culmen 3.66-3.78 (92.8- 96.0); tarsus 7.20-8.45 (183-215) (three specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but head entirely gray -feathered; back of head and neck with a rusty brown patch, and same tone conspicuous on feather margins of back and wing coverts. Natal plumage: Not known to us. Marks toe field iDENTiricATiON — Large size, standing about three feet, long neck and black legs, and general bluish gray coloration, without any contrasted markings; forehead unfeathered in adults (fig. 45) ; neck straight out in flight, not drawn in or "crooked" as with Herons. With us in winter usually in flocks, rather than singly. The only distinguishing mark between the Little Brown and Sandhill cranes is size; see measurements of latter beyond. Voice — "A loud, hard, rolling k-r-roo Tcr-r-r-roo, Im-Tcr-r-roo" (Nelson, 1887, p. 94). Nest — A slight hollow in ground sprinkled with grass or twigs. Eggs — 2, elongately ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.29 to 3.88 by 2.10 to 2.34 (in millimeters, 83.6 to 98.4 by 53.3 to 59.4), and averaging 3.62 by 2.25 (91.9 by 57.2) (nineteen eggs from Alaska); color light buffy or olive brown, spotted and blotched, most thickly at large end, with reddish brown, grayish brown, and lavender; these markings have a, distinctly longitudinal trend. General distkibtition — North America. Breeds from northern and western Alaska east to Baffin Land and central Keewatin; migrates south along the Pacific coast and through the interior of the United States, wintering from California and Texas south to Jalisco, Mexico. Has been recorded in summer from eastern Siberia (Cooke, 1914, pp. 7-9). Distribution in California — Common migrant through interior portions of the state. Eemains throughout winter in varying numbers north at least through San Joaquin Valley. Does not as a rule visit seacoast or affect vicinity of alkali lakes, preferring open plains or vicinity of fresh water. The cranes are among the largest of the long-legged game birds occurring in California. Their well-known rolling cries as they pass to and fro in migration most often bring them to popular notice. Because of their extreme shyness and habit of foraging far out on open plains they are usually successful in eluding the hunter, and, in spite of the good quality of their flesh, have come nearer maintaining their numbers than many smaller species. Among the near relatives of the Little Brown Crane only the closely similar Sandhill Crane can lay proper claim to a place among California birds. It is true that the Whooping Crane iOrus americanu), of much larger size and chiefly white plumage, was thought by Belding (1891, p. 99 ; also MS) to have been seen by him on two or more occasions, in flight, in Butte and Sutter counties. But no specimens of this species from anywhere west of the Rocky Mountains are preserved in any museum. LITTLE BBOWN CRANE 275 The Little Brown and Sandhill cranes are identical in proportions and coloration, differing only in the decidedly greater size of the latter (see measurements) . Neither of them should be confused with any of the herons, to which, especially the Great Blue Heron, they bear some general resemblance. The cranes have no sharply contrasted white or black markings, in the adult their heads are bald (down to the level of the eyes), their necks are held out straight in flight (not drawn in or "crooked"), and their sonorous rolling cries are totally different from the guttural squawks of the herons. Writing from Montana, Cameron (1907, p. 251) says: "If un- disturbed the cranes fed in the morning and evening, strongly recall- ing turkeys in general behavior ; their stately manner of walking and Fig. 45. Side of bill and head of Little Brown Crane. One-half natural size. Note hair-like feathers on forehead and smaller size as compared with Sandhill Crane (fig. 46). drooping tertiary plumes causing them to present a striking appear- ance. ' ' During the breeding season the Little Brown Crane is confined to northern North America from the vicinity of Hudson Bay to Alaska, where it inhabits the great treeless tundras. It migrates through Canada and the western United States, wintering from California and Texas southward into Mexico. In California this crane is most abundant during the season of migration, but considerable numbers remain through the winter in the San Joaquin Valley and on suitable parts of the coastal slope, of southern California. As judged from the size of migrating flocks each year, there has been some diminution in numbers, though estimates are difficult to make. Formerly the term "thousands" was often applied to the migrating hosts. James A. MacDonald, Jr., of Lathrop, San Joaquin County, states (MS) that five flocks of cranes were seen feeding in that vicinity on February 4, 1914. In one flock which flew overhead 149 birds were 276 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA counted, and it was estimated that at least 800 birds were seen inside of forty-five minutes. Persons in the neighborhood reported that flocks of cranes had been feeding in that vicinity for the two or three months previous to this observation. Six specimens now in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology were collected at Los Baiios, Merced County, February 6, 1912. The following migration data gathered by Belding (MS), although attributed to the Sandhill Crane, prob- ably, in the light of our present knowledge, refer chiefly or altogether to the Little Brown Crane. The earliest fall records for Stockton, San Joaquin County, are: September 18, 1880, and September 23, 1881, when cranes were seen flying south. At Campo, San Diego County, many flocks have been seen passing high overhead in a south- easterly direction which would have led them to the head of the Gulf of California where the species is known to winter abundantly. In early spring flocks have been noted traversing the same course in re- verse direction. In the vicinity of Volcan Mountain, San" Diego County, cranes were seen going north or northwest in flocks March 16 and 20. At Tehachapi Pass, Kern County, April 4, 1889, many flocks were seen by Belding going west to the San Joaquin Valley, the flight continuing interruptedly for several days. They were first seen at Marysville, Yuba County, in 1884, on March 6, but the bulk did not arrive until May 1. The same year large numbers were seen going north at Chieo, Butte County, on May 2 ; the last were seen on May 20. At Gridley, Butte County, large flocks were seen going north on May 10, 1884. The Little Brown Crane resorts to a far northern summer home where it can raise its young in safety from most of its enemies and where suitable food is to be found in abundance. The vast open tundras of western and northern Alaska and extreme northern British America afford these conditions. Because of the prolonged winters, the cranes do not arrive on their breeding grounds until some time in May, and this may account for the lateness of their departure from California. The earliest arrivals at Saint Michael, Alaska, have been noted, on May 7 (Nelson, 1887, p. 94) ; farther north, on the Kowak River, Alaska, the first birds in 1899 appeared on May 14 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 19). Recording his experiences with the Little Brown Crane at St. Michael, Nelson (loe. cit.) says: "They come from the south toward the Lower Yukon, and on mild, pleasant days it is a common sight to see the cranes advancing high overhead in wide circuits, poised on motionless wings, and moving with a grace unexpected in such awkwardly formed birds. ... The air is filled with the loud, hard, rolling Jc-r-roo, kr-r-r-roo, ku-kr-r-roo, and either flying by, with trail- ing legs, or moving gravely from place to place, they do much to render the monotonous landscape animate." LITTLE BBOB'N CEANE 277 Immediately upon their arrival courtship begins. The mating antics of this species are thus described by Nelson (1887, p. 95). On May 18, while lying in a hunting blind, he witnessed the performances of two cranes which alighted near by: The first comer remained alone but a short time, when a second bird came along, uttering his loud note at short intervals, until he espied the bird on the ground, when he made a slight circuit, and dropped close by. Both birds then joined in a series of loud rolling cries in quick succession. Suddenly the new-comer, which appeared to be a male, wheeled his back toward the female and made a low bow, his head nearly touching the ground, and ending by a quick leap into the air; another pirouette brings him facing his charmer, whom he greets with a still deeper bow, his wings meanwhile hanging loosely by his sides. She replies by an answering bow and hop, and then each tries to outdo the other in a series of spasmodic hops and starts, mixed with a set of comically grave and ceremonious bows. The pair stood for some moments bowing right and left, when their legs appeared to become envious of the large share taken in the performance by the neck, and then would ensue a series of stilted hops and skips. . . . Frequently others join and the dance keeps up until all are exhausted. The site for the nest is usually on the grassy flats, where the drier portions or the slight knolls afford them suitable places. The spot usually has an unobstructed view on all sides, and it is common to see the female's long neck raised suspiciously at the appearance in the distance of anything unusual. If one approaches, the head sinks lower and lower to avoid being seen, but if the person, even though 150 or 200 yards away, should stop and look toward the bird, she will generally rise and skulk away, her neck close to the ground, wings hanging loosely by the sides, and legs bent, so as to avoid being seen. When she is 100 yards or more from the nest she straightens up and stalks anxiously about, uttering her loud call-note incessantly, and is generally joined by the male; but it is rarely that either can, even then, be approached within gunshot. . . . The nest is frequently a mere hollow in the ground, and is commonly lined with more or less coarse grass-stems and straws. In one instance a nest was found on a bare flat, and was lined with a layer of straws an inch deep, all of which must have been brought for some yards; this is unusual, however. The breeding season is necessarily of brief duration. Eggs, partly incubated, have been found at Saint Michael as early as May 27 (1879), and in the Kowak Delta, well-incubated eggs were found on June 14 and 15, 1899 (G-rinnell, 1900, p. 20). The number laid is always two. They are elongate ovate in shape, and average in inches, 3.62 by 2.25. In color the eggs are buffy or olive brown spotted and blotched with reddish brown, grayish brown and lavender. These markings are thickest at the large ends and have a decidedly longi- tudinal trend, reminding one in this respect of the pattern of markings on the eggs of the Ash-throated Ply-catcher. In the north the Little Brown Crane feeds on berries and grasses, with some insects. On this diet the birds become fat and are esteemed excellent eating, surpassing every other game bird there except ptarmigan. 278 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA The stomach of a crane taken at Ash Meadows, on the Nevada- California line, March 10, 1891, contained small bulbous roots, foliage of young plants, and a quantity of barley, which latter had been picked up from a place where horses had been- fed (A. K. Fisher, 1893a, pp. 20-21). The gullet of one killed at Los BaSos, Merced County, was found to be filled with large barley grains probably obtained from sowed ground (Beck, MS) . When feeding on the plains or in stubble fields these birds dig up the ground with their bills in such a way that it looks as though a pick had been used. In the tule country near Stockton Belding (MS) states that they used to feed extensively on sagittaria bulbs. In the Imperial Valley Van Kossem (1911, p. 129) observed cranes visiting the grain fields to forage, going and coming from Salton Sea morninig and evening as regularly as though timed by a clock. In 1901 it was reported that cranes were so numerous in the wheat fields west of Tulare that they had to be scared away. The birds were seeking the newly sprouted grain, but no detailed account of the kind or amount of damage done has been obtained. ' ' In the early settlement of California by Americans, when turkeys were yet scarce, I have known a Sandhill Crane to command from sixteen to twenty dollars in the San Francisco market for the purpose of replacing, on the Christmas dinner table, that almost indispensable feature of this particular festival" (Heermann, 1859, p. 62). More recently cranes were of regular appearance in the markets of San Francisco and Los Angeles. In the season of 1895-96, 385 cranes were sold, bringing to the hunter about 50 cents each, considerably more than any of the geese (Calif. Fish Comm., 1896, p. 42). All testimony agrees as to the edible quality of the flesh of the crane, and this is to be expected from its chiefly vegetable diet. As illustrating the craftiness of the Little Brown Crane, by which it insures its safety from even long-range molestation, there may be cited the experience of one of the present writers (Grinnell, MS). On March 10, 1910, camp was pitched on the California bank of the Colorado Eiver about twenty-flve miles below Needles. A large flock of cranes arrived at early dusk and took possession of a sand bar directly opposite camp. This bar was about midwaj' from one wooded shore to the other, and fully three hundred yards from either. It was thus impossible to approach the birds under cover from any direction. They were evidently on their guard all night; every now and then something would disturb them, and a chorus of sonorous calls and wing-flappings would ensue for some minutes before quiet again reigned. At dawn they were up and ofE. There are a few of our game birds which, because of their extreme wariness, may be expected to survive in spite of the increased effi- SANDHILL CRANE 279 eieney of firearms and the increasing number of hunters. The Little Brown and Sandhill cranes are to be included in this category. It is nowadays only by mere chance that the shotgun can bring one of these birds to bag. To get within range with a rifle, even, takes con- siderable ingenuity. This, with the protection afforded them by our closed seasons, should suffice to maintain the cranes indefinitely, as far as California is concerned. Sandhill Crane Grus mexicana (Miiller) Other xames — Grus canadensis, part; Grus canadensis mexicana. Description — Identical in coloration, as far as known, with the Little Brown Crane (which see). Size larger; bulk probably close to twice that of Little Brown Crane. Adults (both sexes): Total length "40.00-48.00" inches (1,015-1,220 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 135); folded wing 21.30-22.00 (540-558); bill along culmen 5.33-6.46 (135.4^164); tarsus 9.14^9.58 (232-243) (four specimens from California in Mailliard coll.). Marks foe field identification — See Little Brown Crane. Voice — Probably not much different from Little Brown Crane; a raucous, resounding note (Forbush, 1912, p. 485) ; a prolonged bugle-like cry (Bailey, 1902, p. 79). Nest — On ground in marshy places, usually surrounded by open water; made of grasses, weeds, moss or rushes (authors). Eggs — 2, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 3.56 to 3.70 by 2.35 to 2.41 (in millimeters, 90.3 to 93.8 by 59.7 to 61.2); ground color pale buff, spotted irregularly with light brown, most numerously about the larger end; deeper markings of pale lavender (two eggs from Iowa in Mailliard coll.). General distribution — Middle latitudes in North America, ranging from southern Canada south to Florida, Cuba and Mexico. Breeds from southern British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, south to Cali- fornia, northern Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, and northern Indiana; also in a detached area including Cuba, Florida, and the Gulf coast of Louisiana. Winters in California, the Gulf states, Cuba, and Mexico to the latitude of Yucatan. Most of intervening area covered during migration (modified from Cooke, 1914, pp. 10-13). Distribution in California — At one time doubtless common in summer in northern and interior parts of the state, more particularly about elevated meadows east of the Sierran crest; now rare. A few are thought to winter in the San Joaquin Valley and southern California coastal district. Definite knowledge is wanting, because of confusion of this species with Little Brown Crane. The Sandhill Crane is the southern representative of the Little Brown Crane, supplanting the latter as a breeding bird in the United States and extreme southern Canada. For a long time the Little Brown and Sandhill cranes have been confused in western literature ; much of the published information attributed to the Sandhill Crane, we now believe refers to the Little Brown Crane. In coloration the 280 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA two species are identical ; and there remain only dimensions to furnish constant characters (see measurements of both). The Sandhill seems to bulk about twice as large as the Little Brown. While the breeding ranges of the two species are distinct, both occur during migrations and probably also in winter on the same ground. The Sandhill' Crane, in its general range, formerly existed much more widely than it does today ; in a number of the middle- western states where it was formerly found in numbers it is now extirpated. The Sandhill, with a southern breeding ground, has suffered largely through human occupancy of the country. In southeastern Oregon in the middle seventies, Bendire (1878, p. 143) found this a common summer resident, breeding abundantly on y^. ==siMD^- ^^--' Fig. 46. Side of bill and head of Sandhill Crane. One-half natural size. Note much larger size as compared with Little Brown Crane (fig. 45). ■ X2067J&JWM. the lowlands as well as in the highest mountain valleys. Its hoarse cries could be heard almost everywhere in the vicinity of water so long as the locality remained undisturbed. Each pair appeared to own a certain district during the breeding season, and two pairs were never found nesting within half a mile of each other. In 1887, Merrill (1888, p. 144) found this crane breeding in the vicinity of Port Kla- math, Oregon. In California the Sandhill Crane was formerly notably numerous in summer on the elevated meadows lying chiefly northeast of the Sierran crest. Henshaw (1880&, p. 323), writing of his explorations in 1877 and 1878 in northern California and Eidjacent states, con- sidered Sandhill Cranes to have been so often met with as not to require specific mention of locality. "They breed in many of the sub-alpine valleys where are found meadows of sufficient extent." Two partly grown young taken by Henshaw at Camp [Fort] Bidwell, Modoc County, July 29, 1878, are contained in the National Museum collection in "Washington. C. H. Townsend (1887, p. 197) reports seeing a crane on a mountain meadow east of Mount Lassen in June. SANDEILL CRANE 281 Coues (1874, p. 534) records eggs from Fort Crook, in northeastern Shasta County. In the San Joaquin Valley cranes have been observed during the summer months, and there is a chance that they may breed there, or at least have once done so. Goldman (1908?), p. 202) saw three at Tulare Lake, July 8, 1907. L. Tevis (Grinnell, MS) reports their presence in the neighborhood of Buttonwillow, Kern County, all through the summer season ; a pair watched on April 30, 1912, behaved as if nesting. In winter the Sandhills breeding in California may or may not move south out of the state. In either case it is probable that some birds come into California from the Pacific Coast district to the north- ward, as far as the limit of the summer range in southern British Columbia. Again we have to point to the confusion which has pre- vailed in separating the Sandhill and Little Brown cranes. Tyler (19136, p. 22) says that the birds he has examined in the Fresno dis- trict have all been Sandhill Cranes, and he believes that the majority of the cranes visiting that locality are Sandhills. Four specimens purchased in a San Francisco market, January 20, 1898, and thought to have been shot in the vicinity of Los Baiios, Merced County, are in the Mailliard collection (J. Mailliard, 1911, p. 50). There is a skin of the Sandhill Crane in the United States National Museum (no. 11927) taken by Lt. J. C. Ives, probably in 1857 or 1858, on the Colorado River, though whether or not in California is not clearly stated. The measurements of this bird are: wing 21.75 inches; tarsus 10.60; culmen 5.40. In flight the Sandhill Crane flaps along heavily, as though the wings were hardly able to lift the large body. Except when launched for a long-distance journey these birds fly close to the ground. In migration they fly very high, and in lines somewhat like those of ducks and geese. The legs and neck are held stretched out to full extent. On the big unfenced prairies and the treeless expanse of marsh where there is nothing to hide a lurking foe, you find the Sandhill Cranes, sometimes in small migrating flocks but usually in pairs, stalking about in dignified but ever watchful manner, stretching up to nearly a man's height to survey the surrounding country, then stooping to probe the earth for worms, catch a distant grasshopper, or spear a luckless frog or minnow. Let an enemy appear in the distance, and the long necks are up, and one of the most powerful, far- reaching of bird-notes rings out with its alarm challenge, a prolonged bugle- like cry, deeper and heavier than the loon's, and often heard a mile away. With a quick run the splendid birds mount on the wing, the bugle-notes resounding rhythmically with only the space of an inspiration between as they fly; and though their calls mellow in the distance, the cranes vanish as specks in the air before the sound of their magnificent voices is entirely lost (V. Bailey, in Bailey, 1902, p. 79). 282 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA Like the Little Brown Crane, this larger cousin is noted for its strange antics during the mating season which resemble a "war dance ' ' of some sort. The ground selected for nesting is usually some extensive meadow, with small lakes here and there. The birds demand a broad outlook on all sides, and a slight elevation is often chosen for the nest, usually nearly or quite surrounded by water. The nest proper is a simple affair, of grass and other vegetation gathered together on the ground to form a shallow mat. The time of egg-laying in the west is indicated by the following data : Camp Harney, Harney County, Oregon, April 14 (1878) to May 2 (1875) ; Gunnison County, Colorado, June 5 (1903) (Cooke, 1914, p. 12). The two young birds in the United States National Museum, with down still adhering to the plumage, taken by Henshaw near Fort Bidwell, Modoc County, July 29, 1878, would indicate a nesting date comparable with the instances just cited. Judging from descriptions, the eggs of the Sandhill Crane closely resemble those of the Little Brown, differing only in somewhat larger average size. Chapman (1912, p. 230) gives 3.90 by 2.40 inches for the Sandhill, while Davie (1900, p. 122) gives the averages as 3.98 by 2.44. Compare these figures with our average for the Little Brown Crane, of 3.52 by 2.24. The food of the Sandhill Crane is doubtless in all respects similar to that of the Little Brown. Both prefer vegetable substances, par- ticularly certain bulbous roots. In the lowlands of Kern County a kind of "little tule," or "tulito," is selected. The bill is an efficient tool in obtaining food, and also a powerful weapon of defense. A. quick thrust of this long sharp beak will make a serious wound, and the hunter should take care in approaching a wounded bird. There is reason to believe that the Sandhill Crane exists today in but a small fraction of the numbers once present in the interior valleys and plains. Its breeding grounds have been almost altogether taken up for farms and stock-ranching, and in consequence the species as a breeding bird in California is nearly or quite gone. It is likely that some still come to us regularly in the fall either as transients or to pass the winter within our boundaries. So seldom are specimens of cranes secured, that uncertainty obtains as to the actual numbers, relatively, of our two species. CALIFOBNIA CLAPPER BAIL 283 California Clapper Rail Rallus obsoletus Ridgway Other names— San Mateo Rail; "Water-hen; Marsh-hen; Salt-water Marsh- hen; Mud-hen, part; King Rail; Ballus elegans; BaJlus elegans var. obsoletus. Description — Adults, hoth sexes: Top and sides of head blackish brown; top of head with black, bristle-like feather tips; streak of cinnamon from base of bill directly backwards over eye; chin and throat white, bordered along sides and behind with light cinnamon, the latter blending with the duller tones of color elsewhere; iris dark brown or orange brown; bill reddish orange at base of lower mandible and along edge of upper, otherwise dusky olive brown; rest of upper surface including rump and tail grayish olive brown, streaked broadly with blackish as formed by darker centers of feathers; outer surface of closed wing chiefly cinnamon brown; inner secondaries like back, and rest of flight feathers dark brown; axillars and lining of wing brown, barred narrowly and irregularly with white; foreneok and breast clear light cinnamon, fading to pale buffy on belly; sides and flanks dark grayish brown barred sharply with white; lower tail coverts like flanks, except for outer- most feathers which are white; legs and feet dull orange brown, darkest at joints. Measurements: — Males: Total length 15.87-16.62 inches (403-422 mm.) (three specimens); folded wing 6.04-6.90 (153-175); bill along culmen 2.22- 2.54 (56.4^64.4); tarsus 2.17-2.42 (55.0-61.5) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 15.12-15.62 (384-397) (three specimens); folded wing 5.75-6.08 (146- 154); bill along culmen 2.17-2.32 (55.0-58.9); tarsus 2.10-2.24 (53.3-56.8) (eight specimens). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but with streak- ing on back duller, less strikingly contrasted, lower surface very much lighter, more bufEy in tone, and barring on sides and flanks scarcely or not at all in evidence. Natal plumage: Black with a slight greenish iridescence except on belly; bill yellow; feet (dried) reddish brown. Marks foe field identification — Of rails in general: Narrow (compressed) body, small head, slender bill, long neck and legs, short rounded wings, and extremely short tail. Of California Clapper Rail: Large size (largest rail in California), light cinnamon breast, and dark -toned, brown and black streaked back (pi. 9 and figs. 47 and 48). Skulks through marsh vegetation and when flushed rises nearly vertically several feet before flying off. Distinguished from Virginia Rail by much larger size; from Light-footed Rail of southern California by slightly larger size and lighter color. Voice — Often spoken of as a harsh cackle; a clattering, chucTc, cJiucTc, chuck, chuelc, or a cheeTc-a-cheeTc-a-cheelc, etc., rapidly uttered. Nest — ^In salt marshes; usually of pickle- weed (Salicornia ambigua), loosely laid together, and concealed in the same sort of vegetation or beneath some small shrub. Eggs — 6 to 12, usually 8 to 9, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.61 to 1.82 by 1.17 to 1.30 (in millimeters, 40.8 to 46.5 by 29.7 to 33.0), and averaging 1.72 by 1.23 (43.7 by 31.2) (Emerson, 1885, p. 143); color light creamy bufif, spotted or blotched rather scatteringly with reddish brown and lavender. General distribution — Resident on salt marshes adjacent to San Francisco and Monterey bays, California; casual elsewhere along the Pacific coast north to Humboldt Bay, and even, possibly, to Gray's Harbor, Washington. Distribution in California — Common resident on salt marshes bordering 284 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA southern arm of San Francisco Bay (Alameda, San Mateo and Santa Clara counties). Formerly occurred also on bay shores of Marin and Sonoma coun- ' ties, but no records from there within past 25 years (Mailliard, MS). Resident in small numbers in marshes bordering Monterey Bay near Elkhorn, Monterey County (Silliman, 1915a, p. 201). Recorded once from Tomales Bay (Storer, 1915, p. 98) and twice from Humboldt Bay (Suckley, in Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p 246; Storer, loc. cit.). Casual on Farallon Islands (W. E. Bryant, 1888, p. 42). No other game bird in California has so limited a distribution as has the California Clapper Rail. The salt marshes bordering the southern arm of San Francisco Bay and a few smaller nearby areas of the same character alone seem to afford the proper kinds of food and shelter necessary for its existence. It is found in small numbers 6995 Pig. 47. Side of foot and tarsus of California Clapper Rail. Natural size. Note slender form of all toes and entire absence of webs or lobes. on the marshes of Monterey Bay near Elkhorn, Monterey County, and individuals have been re- corded from Tomales Bay and Humboldt Bay. A single strag- gler was taken on the Farallon Islands, November 18, 1886 (W. E. Bryant, 1888, p. 42). Newberry (1857, p. 96) states that this species was common in his day around San Pablo Bay, and was particularly numerous at Petaluma. Also Messrs. J. and J. W. Mailliard have told us that Clapper Rails occurred on the bay marshes of Marin and Sonoma counties up to about twenty-five years ago. But there have been no recent records from these places. Rails in general are to be recognized by their narrow, compressed bodies, rather long bills, small heads, long necks and legs, large feet, slender toes, and small rounded wings. The present species is the largest of its kind occurring' in California. In flight it may be recog- nized by its long bill (nearly two inches in length) (fig. 48), its long legs (fig. 47) (which dangle when the bird first starts in flight), its cinnamon-colored under surface and streaked back (pi. 9). In colora- tion the California Clapper Rail is practically identical with the Virginia Rail but is much larger in size (see measurements of both). CALIFORNIA CLAFPEB BAIL 285 The California Clapper Rail makes its permanent home on the salt marshes where the vegetation consists chiefly of pickle- weed {SaU- cornia ambigua) and an evergreen shrub {Grindelia cuneifolia) . Here it may easily be found at any time of the year skulking along the banks of the small muddy sloughs which penetrate the marsh in every direction. Its very long and unwebbed toes make large chicken-like tracks spaced about ten inches apart in the soft mud of the slough banks and these are very easy to recognize. The voice, too, is characteristic. It is a harsh, mechanical cackling — chuck, chuck, chuck, chuck, or cheek-a-cheek-a-cheek — uttered rapidly for several seconds and sound- 6995 Pig. 48. California Clapper Eail. Fig. 49. Light-footed Eail. Both drawings are natural size and the two serve to show the differences in size of bill between these two closely similar species. ing as if two or more birds rather than a single one were participating in its production. When flushed this Rail jumps almost straight up into the air for six or eight feet and then flies off in a clumsy manner, its short narrow wings moving at the rate of two or three beats per second. These flights are usually short, the bird soon dropping down again into the protection of the marsh vegetation. Rails in general begin to nest rather early in the year. The breed- ing season of the California Clapper Rail commences about the middle of March, and by the first of April full sets of eggs are to be found. On March 31, 1912, H. W. Carriger (MS) found three sets of nine eggs each, all fresh, on the marshes near Redwood City, San Mateo County. On April 3, 1915, the writers found two fresh sets of nine eggs each on Bay Farm Island, Alameda County. April 18, 1885, Emerson discovered five nests near Hayward, Alameda County, two 286 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA of which contained eight and nine eggs respectively. On May 11, 1884, Emerson (1885, p. 142) found nine nests from which the young had hatched and departed, while on May 4, 1885, three nests of eight eggs each were found by him. On June 3, 1883, he found a nest of seven eggs on the point of hatching. The latest date of which we have record is June 29, 1894, when a set of six eggs with incubation com- menced was found by H. R. Taylor in the Alameda County marshes (Mailliard coll.) . Thus it will be seen that the breeding season extends from the middle of March to the end of June, but that the bulk of the birds nest between the middle of April and the middle of May. A high piece of marsh ground, usually on the bank of a slough, is selected for a nesting site. The nest may be concealed in salt grass or pickle-weed, or under a small bush. It is a platform built up three to six inches above the ground, and measures about ten inches across with a cavity in the center one and one-half inches deep. Grasses or dead and living stems of pickle-weed are used for building material. A well-marked trail leading off through the adjacent vegetation is usually discernible. A nest examined by the authors on May 7, 1914, was composed of closely matted Salicornia stems, some of the stems being bent over from the growing plants surrounding it. The struc- ture was well-saucer ed, the cavity containing the eggs being five and one-half inches across and one and one-half inches deep. The rim was two and one-half inches above the ground which was still wet from a recent high tide. The nearest slough was twenty feet away. Eight or nine eggs constitute a full set ; these are of a light creamy buff color, spotted, often blotched, with reddish brown and lavender markings, the latter appearing as if beneath the shell. These mark- ings are rather evenly distributed over the egg surface, perhaps a trifle more numerous on the larger end. The eggs are shaped like hen 's eggs, possibly slightly more pointed on the average ; forty-one measured by Emerson (1885, p. 143) ranged in inches from 1.61 to 1.82 by 1.17 to 1.30 and averaged 1.72 by 1.23. Like some other rails this one sometimes builds nests which it never uses. Three or four new nests, often uncompleted, apparently possess- ing all the advantages of the one used, are occasionally to be found in the near vicinity of an occupied nest. Nor is this bird averse to adopt- ing places out of the ordinary for building its nest. Nests have been found in old barrels, and one was found on a pile of hay near a salt marsh (H. R. Taylor, 1894, p. 154). Adams (1900, p. 32) states that both parents are often seen about the nest and that it is certain that the male assists in incubation. The female is a very close sitter and will sometimes remain on the nest until the intruder is within two feet of her. She will then jump from the nest and either fly away, or glide swiftly through the grass or along the edge of a slough. CALIFOSNIA CLAPPEM RAIL 287 H. R. Taylor (1894, p. 153) states that one he flushed from her nest fluttered and limped along, as if to lead him away. The following description of the downy young is given by Emerson (1885, p. 142) : One nest of seven glossy jet black chicks was found, seemingly just out of the shell, one not quite dry. All but this one would hold their long necks out, moving them from side to side, and calling in a low plaintive tone pe-ee-ep, pe-ee-ep, very much like a weak young chicken. ... On skinning one I noticed a small claw sticking out from the second joint of each wing, not more than a sixteenth part of an inch long, claw part turning down, of a light horn color and comparing only to a little kitten's claw; it was found on all the chicks. Writing in 1880, W. E. Bryant (p. 124) said of the California Clapper Rail : I have found these birds abundant, at all seasons of the year, on the salt marshes of Oakland, San Mateo, and other marshes that are partially covered by the highest tides. At such times they may be shot by the dozen, as they sit upon floating drift-wood, the dead body of an animal, a fence, or, in one instance, a railroad bridge, from which they would not fly until nearly run into by an approaching train. Their tameness at all times, especially during the high tides, is remarkable. If obliged to fly, they start from either land or water as readily as a Duck. They swim well; but when wounded and closely pursued, they dive, and hold on to the marsh grass beneath the water to keep from rising. The birds are close sitters, and not easily flushed; but when once started, they seem to fly as long as they have the power, sometimes alighting in the middle of a slough, as though unable to reach the opposite bank. The only note that I have known them to utter is a harsh cackle, frequently heard at night. Like aU rails the Clapper Rail is, when need be, very skillful at keeping out of sight. Sometimes individuals appear shy, flushing at a distance, or running toward the denser vegetation at great speed, with lowered head and elusive mien ; at other times they walk out into the open in bottoms of sloughs at close range and view the intruder seem- ingly with perfect equanimity. They have a long running stride, and the body is held close to the ground. The narrowly compressed body enables them to slip easily between the rigid upright stems of a sort of rush which grows in thick beds along the larger salt sloughs. If not thoroughly alarmed rails will sometimes stop or hesitate on open ground, when the peculiar twitching movement of the tail may be clearly seen. This member is held vertically and the twitching of it is rendered conspicuous because of the white color flashed from the under tail coverts. "When walking, the head and tail twitch forward in unison with each stride. When thoroughly alarmed this Rail will take to water and swim considerable distances, as, in one observed instance, across a thirty-foot slough. 288 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA "In walking along the slough banks at low tide quietly, they can be seen wading through the soft mud, probing here and there for worms and insects, which mostly compose their food. I have also seen them come out of the long salt grass along the shore, feeding here and there at the edge of tide drifts" (Emerson, 1885, p. 142). The food is made up almost entirely of animal matter — worms, crustaceans, and the like, as afforded on the salt marshes. In the gullet of a bird shot on a salt marsh, near an artesian well, W. E. Bryant (1893a, p. 55) found a good-sized frog. Several stomachs from birds taken at Bay Farm Island, Alameda County, were found by us to contain only parts of crabs {Hemigrapsus oregonensis) . The California Clapper Rail has long been considered an excellent bird for the table, and formerly great numbers were sold on the markets of San Francisco. Kennerly (1859, p. 34) says that in his day it was one of the most numerous of the water birds found in those markets. So also says Suckley (in Cooper and Suckley, 1859, p. 246). The weight of an adult bird, freshly taken by the authors, was three- fourths of a pound (340 grams) ; so that the food value of a Clapper Rail as regards size is not inconsiderable. The sport furnished in hunting Clapper Rails is of a rather tame sort ; for the birds are ordinarily not wild, and, owing to their slow, or sluggish, straight-away flight, are easy to hit on the wing. Unlike many other game birds this one seems to be but slightly endowed with effective means of self-preservation. When pursued, a Clapper Rail is said to sometimes hide its head, ostrich-like, in a tuft of grass ; and it is not an uncommon thing for dogs to catch the birds alive. For these reasons, as well as for the fact that they are considered by many to be excellent eating, these rails have been slaughtered in great numbers. Few game birds in this state were more surely on the road to total extinction than was this species just previous to the passage of the Federal Migratory Bird Law. The reclaiming of much of their former breeding grounds was concentrating them into smaller and smaller areas, where they were still more easily sought out and killed. Ray (1902, p. 24), speaking of the abundance of this bird in San Mateo County, says: "As late as 1889, I remember sportsmen returning with as many as 200 Clapper Rails while now one would find it exceed- ingly hard to bag a dozen . . .". H. R. Taylor in 1894 (p. 153) reported that an old market hunter of Alameda told him that rails were becoming very scarce at that time in the Alameda marshes. Where they had formerly nested in numbers it was difi&cult to flush a single bird. This was believed to be due to persistent hunting throughout the year. (Since then a summer closed season was estab- lished.) Mr. Samuel Hubbard, Jr., of Oakland, has stated to us LIGHT-FOOTED BAIL 289 that formerly during high tides as many as forty Clapper Rail could easily be killed along Oakland Creek. None of these birds are to be found in that locality at the present time. Accounts generally agree that the California Clapper Rail is much less abundant now than it once was. Even the extended annual close season, in force for a few years and now replaced by total protection, was not sufficient to pro- tect this bird; for its haunts are so readily accessible to the Bay cities that hunting remained excessive. In 1913, the Federal Migratory Bird Law was passed, and within two years a marked increase was observable locally on the Alameda County marshes: proof that ade- quate protection long enough continued will restore the species. The worst enemy of the rail now remaining is the Norway rat which infests many parts of the salt marshes, and whose depredations during the nesting season have come to our personal notice. The California Clapper Rail is truly a native of the Golden State, being found nowhere else in the world. It deserves protection on esthetic grounds, if not on economic ones. It is entirely within possi- bility that at the expiration of the present closed term of years, hunt- ing can again be safely allowed — with of course, a small bag limit and short season. Light-footed Rail Jiallus levipes Bangs Other names — Southern California Clapper Eail; Clapper Eail, part; Bangs Eail; Ballus obsoletus, part. Description — Adults, both sexes: Similar to California Clapper Eail, but with back darker and more olive in tone, breast a richer tone of cinnamon, and size slightly smaller. Top and sides of head blackish brown; top of head with black, bristle-like feather-tips; streak of light cinnamon or dull white from base of bill backwards over eye; chin and throat white, bordered along sides and behind with cinnamon, the latter blending with the darker tones of sides of head and neck; iris dark brown; bill brownish orange at base, dusky along ridge and at tip; rest of upper surface including rump and tail, olive brown broadly striped with blackish; outer surface of closed wing chiefly cinnamon brown; inner secondaries like back, and rest of flight feathers dark brown; axillars and under surface of wing brown barred narrowly with white; foreneck and breast deep cinnamon, fading to buffy white on belly; sides and flanks dark grayish brown barred sharply with white; lower tail coverts like flanks, except for outermost feathers which are white; legs and feet dull orange brown, darkest at joints. Males: Total length 15.00-16.44 inches (381-417 mm.); folded wing 6.08-6.27 (155-160); bill along eulmen 2.22-2.37 (56.4-60.2); tarsus 2.24^2.35 (57.0-59.7) (six specimens). Females: Total length 14.75- 15.19 (375-386) (four specimens); folded wing 5.48-5.87 (139-149); bill along eulmen 2.05-2.14 (52.2-54.3); tarsus 1.98-2.14 (50.3-54.3) (six specimens). Juvenile plumage: Probably similar to that of California Clapper Eail (which see). Natal plumage: Wholly uniform glossy black; bill dusky, with yellowish white band near end, and yellow spot about nostril; feet (dried) blackish. 290 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA Makes for field identification — Same as for California Clapper Eail. In hand may be distinguished from that species by olive brown rather than grayish brown tone on upper surface, deeper cinnamon color of breast, and whitish instead of rusty stripe from bill over eye; also by smaller size, espe- cially of foot and bill (compare figs. 48 and 49). Voice — Like that of California Clapper Eail. Nest — ^In salt marshes (usually) along the seacoast; constructed of stems of marsh vegetation. Eggs — 6 to 9, ovate to elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.69 to 1.77 by 1.21 to 1.26 (in millimeters, 42.8 to 45.0 by 30.8 to 32.0), and averag- ing 1.72 by 1.23 (43.7 by 31.3); color creamy white, evenly and rather sparsely spotted and blotched with umber brown and lavender (one set, seven eggs, in Mus. Vert. Zool.). General distribution — Coastal region of southern California, and of Lower California south to San Quintin Bay. Casual at Yuma, Arizona. Distribution in California — Common resident on salt marshes of southern seacoast, from Santa Barbara to and including San Diego Bay. The Light-footed Rail, which inhabits the coastal marshes of south- ern California and Lower California, is so closely similar to the Cali- fornia Clapper Rail that it might be considered merely a southern race of the latter. Neither of them is migratory, and there is a strip of coast nearly two hundred miles in extent between the southern limit of the California Clapper Rail and the northernmost station for the Light-footed Rail. Practically all of the coastal marshes from the vicinity of Santa Barbara south to and including the vicinity of San Diego Bay are inhabited by the present species, and it is also found along the coast of northern Lower California. The Light-footed Rail is slightly smaller than the California Clapper Rail, is somewhat darker colored on the back and breast, and the light stripe from the bill over the eye is whitish instead of rusty. Since the ranges are so distinctly separated, these two species are most easily identified by locality, after they have once been determined as Clapper Rails. There are no essential differences in the general habits of the two species. The Light-footed Rail, however, has been found breeding in an inland brackish marsh, though, to be sure, this was not far from the seacoast. "Willett (1906, p. 151) found a nest in some reeds at the edge of Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, on May 29, 1906. The nest was a very loose affair, the foundation being composed of decayed tules and reeds, and the upper part, containing the cavity, of broken bits of tule stalks. "When first found, the nest contained three fresh eggs, and when reexamined on June 14 it held nine eggs partially incubated. The eggs were creamy white, spotted and blotched with umber and lavender, principally around the large end, the lavender markings having the appearance of being beneath the surface of the shell. The eggs measured 1.56 to 1.61 inches long by 1.12 to 1.16 broad. VIRGINIA BAIL 291 A set of seven half-incubated eggs in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology was taken by F. Stephens on False Bay, near San Diego, April 10, 1908. The nest was composed of rotting stems of pickle-weed, and was situated on the ground in a thick growth of the same plant at the edge of the salt marsh. The male bird was flushed from the nest. These eggs measure 1.69 to 1.78 inches by 1.22 to 1.26, and average 1.24 by 1.73, being thus decidedly larger than the set described above. Two other sets of seven eggs each were found on the same day (Stephens, MS). Eggs have also been reported as follows: Bal- lona, Los Angeles County, May 16, 1894, set of six slightly incubated eggs (Grinnell, 1898, p. 15) ; Bay City, Orange County, March 19, 1910, set of nine fresh eggs (Willett, 1912a, p. 32) ; San Diego, April 16, 1895, and April 8 to 10, 1900, sets in Thayer collection (Cooke, 1914, p. 18). Three small young (in Mus. Vert. Zool.), in the curious black natal dress, were taken near National City, San Diego County, June 11, 1908 ; these were part of a brood seen swimming just outside the marsh vegetation at the edge of the bay (Stephens, MS). Henshaw (1876, p. 273) states that, in 1875, in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, this rail was common, and that by the first of July the young were out and able to accompany their parents in search of food. They began to be active about sunset. Willett (1912a^ p. 32) says that at extreme high tides the Clapper Rail swims on, the water after the fashion of Coots, and, as the Rails are at such times easily approached, they are killed in large numbers by the hunters. This pertained, of course, to the time before the. enactment of the Federal law providing a five-year close season. In many of the marshes in southern California where this rail was formerly common, as for instance around Santa Barbara, it has been practically exterminated. Like the California Clapper Rail this south- ern race should be accorded absolute protection until such time as its numbers return to normal, after which shooting might be allowed under conditions of moderation insuring the safety of the species. Virginia Rail Rallus virginianus Linnaeus Other name — Sweetwater Bail. Description — Adults, both sexes: Top of head and Kind neck blackish, nar- rowly streaked with olive brown; sides of head uniform lea'd color; patch between base of bill and eye blackish; above this patch a streak of brownish white; chin white, blending into cinnamon of throat and breast; iris "bright red" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 178); bill dark brown, the lower mandible and edges of upper mandible more yellowish brown; back, scapulars, rump, upper tail coverts, and tail, olive brown, broadly striped with black; outer surface of closed wing chestnut brown; flight feathers dusky brown; axillars dusky 292 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA brown barred with white; under surface of wing plain dusky brown; breast and under surface einuamon brown fading to lighter on belly; flanks blackish, barred narrowly with white; lower tail coverts mixed blackish, white, and cinnamon; legs and feet yellowish brown. Males: Total length 10.00-10.50 inches (254-267 mm.) (two specimens from California); folded wing 4.14r- 4.33 (105-110); bill along culmen 1.53-1.71 (39.0-43.4); tarsus 1.40-1.49 (35.6- 37.6) (nine specimens from California and Vancouver Island). Females: Total length 9.31-10.00 (236-254) (three specimens from California); folded wing 3.76-4.17 (95.3-106.0); bill along culmen 1.38-1.59 (35.0-40.3); tarsus 1.30-1.45 (33.1-36.8) (ten specimens from California). Juvenile plumage: Top of head, hind neck, fore-back, and rump, dull black with traces of buffy feather-edgings; chin and throat extensively white; head otherwise as in adult; wings and tail as in adult; lower surface mixed black and white, the latter predominating down middle of breast and on belly; lower tail coverts dull cinnamon. Natal plumage: Entirely black, with greenish and steel blue reflections; bill scarlet or orange-red except for black band across upper mandible and black basal part of lower mandible. Marks for field identification — Medium size (about that of a Killdeer), long, slender, brownish bill (fig. 50), cinnamon-colored breast, and olive brown back broadly streaked with black. Closely resembles Clapper Rail in pro- portions and coloration, but of less than one-third the bulk of that bird. Distinguished from Sora by much longer and slenderer bill (compare fig. 51), lack of black on face, and presence of bright cinnamon on lower surface; dis- tinguished from Yellow Rail by much larger size, longer bill, and absence of narrow white bars on back and wing coverts. Voice — Cut, cut, cutta-cutta-cutta ; during the breeding season a rapid suc- cession of low, yet penetrating grunts not unlike those of a hungry pig (Brewster, 19026, p. 47). Nest — Of dead grasses, sedges, or tules gathered in a heap, with a shallow depression on top; usually well concealed in dense vegetation. Eggs — 5 to 12, rounded oval in shape, measuring in inches, 1.18 to 1.36 by 0.83 to 1.00 (in millimeters, 30.1 to 34.5 by 21.2 to 25.3), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93 (32.5 by 23.7) (eighteen eggs from Utah); ground color pale buffy gray, with superficial spots and dots of reddish brown, chiefly around larger end, and deeper ones of lavender. General distribution — North America. Breeds from British Columbia, south- ern Saskatchewan, southern Keewatin, Ontario, southern Quebec, and New Brunswick south to southern California, Utah, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, New Jersey, and eastern North Carolina, and in the Toluea Valley, near the City of Mexico; winters from British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, Utah, and Colo- rado, to Lower California and Guatemala, also in the lower Mississippi states, and from North Carolina (casually Massachusetts) to Florida (A. O. U. Check- list, 1910, p. 103; Cooke, 1914, pp. 23-24). Distribution in California — Common in summer throughout the state, chiefly in fresh-water marshes. Breeds south to Escondido, San Diego County (Sharp, 1907, p. 86). Also fairly common in winter, on both fresh water and salt marshes, west of the Sierras, north at least to Suisnn Marshes, Solano County (MuB. Vert. Zool.), and Tomales Bay, Marin County (Mailliard, MS). Rails are so reclusive in their habits and frequent such dense marshy growths that most people know very little about them. In fact, people often live within a stone's throw of the habitat of these riBGINIA EAIL 293 birds without being aware of their presence. Of the six species of rails occurring in this state the Virginia has the widest general range ; it is found almost everywhere throughout California and in most other parts of North America as well. Even though it is a seemingly poor flyer it migrates south during the winter months and spends the cold season south of its breeding grounds. During the nesting season it is found as far north on the Pacific coast as British Columbia, but in winter it does not usually remain north of the latitude of central California. During the summer months it may be found nesting in almost any portion of the state where proper conditions offer. It frequents both fresh and salt water marshes although chiefly the former. As regards proportions of body and pattern of coloration the Vir- ginia Rail is almost a duplicate of the California Clapper Rail, but it is much smaller, being of about the bulk of a Killdeer. From marsh- inhabiting birds other than rails it may be distin- guished by its long, slender, brownish bill (fig. 50), bright red eye, short tail (which is usually held in a vertical position), cinna- ^^J^,^''^ °' "''' "^ ^'^'"^'^ ^^"- mon-colored under surface, , -. , 1. 1 mi Note slender form (compare with ng. 51) and olive brown back. Ihe and small size (compare with figs. 48 and 49). flanks are blackish, barred with white. From the Sora Rail, a bird of about the same size as the Virginia and to be found in the same situations, the latter species may be known by its much longer and slenderer bill, by the lack of black on its face, and by the presence of cinnamon rather than gray on the under surface of its body. The Yellow Rail is much smaller than the Virginia, and has a shorter bill and narrow white bars on the upper surface of its body. The breeding range of the Virginia Rail in California extends almost the entire length of the state. Eggs were taken at Fort Crook, Shasta County, May 13, 1861 (Cooke, 1914, p. 24) ; and the species is known to have nested at San Pasqual, San Diego County (Sharp, 1907, p. 86). As to altitude, it has nested from sea level, as at New- port, Orange County (Willett, 1912a, p. 32), up to at least 4,000 feet in Papoose Valley, Lassen County (Sheldon, 1907, p. 187). The nesting season extends from early April — April 13 in one instance ("Willett, loc. cit.) — to late June (Sheldon, loc. cit.). The records at hand as shown in the accompanying table (no. 12) indicate that the height of the nesting season is between the middle of May and the first week in June. 294 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA Table 12 — Data relative to the nesting of the Virginia Bail in California Locality Date Nest Contents Condition AND Authority Ballona, Los Angeles Co. Apr. 13, 1902 Eggs, 2 sets, fresh Willett, 1912(1, p. 32 Alvarado, Alameda Co. Apr. 23, 1915 1 egg: fresh-water marsh H. C. Bryant, 1915o, p. 194 Fort Crook, Shasta Co. May 13, 1861 Eggs Cooke, 1914, p. 24 Newport, Orange Co. May 13, 1906 6 eggs Willett, 1912o, p. 32 Los Banos, Merced Co. May 20, 1916 10 eggs, fresh Fair, MS. Los Bafios, Merced Co. May 20, 1916 8 eggs, fresh Fair, MS. Bamona, S'an Diego Co. June 2, 1888 Young seen Willett, 1912a, p. 33 Near Coulterville, June 5, 1916 10 eggs, fresh McLean, MS'. Mariposa Co. Sespe, Ventura Co. June .., 1907 2 young and 1 egg Willett, 1912o, p. 32 Papoose Valley, Late June, Nesting Sheldon, 1907, p. 187 Lassen Co. 1905 Olema, Marin Co. Spring of 1884 About a dozen nests. IngersoU, in Belding, Mi 5 to 9 eggs Woodland, Yolo Co. Spring of 1886 A nest Belding, MS. San Pasqual, 1900 and 1902 Nested Sharp, 1907, p. 86 San Diego Co. Ordinarily the Virginia Rail chooses drier ground on which to build its nest than does the Sora. Usually a pile of broken-down tules is used as a foundation, and on this the nest itself, which is often con- structed of the same material, or of dry grasses, is placed. Usually the nest is well concealed, even though its foundation may raise it a foot or more from the ground. A typical nest found by Sheldon (1907, p. 187) in Papoose Valley, Lassen County, was made of the dry husks of tule stems and placed among low tules. As reported by different observers the eggs number from five to twelve in a complete set. In shape they are roundedly oval, while in size they average 1.28 by 0.93 inches. The ground-color is pale buffy gray, with superficia,l spots of reddish brown and deeper ones of lavender. The markings are rather sparsely distributed except at the larger end of the egg. The eggs of the Virginia differ from those of the Sora in having a lighter ground color and more reddish mark- ings. Sets of eggs of the Virginia Rail usually number less than those of the Sora. Concerning the voice of the Virginia Rail, Brewster (19026, pp. 47-48), writing from Massachusetts, says: About the middle of April we begin to hear in our marshes, usually in the early morning, late afternoon or during cloudy weather, and coming from some briary thicket or bed of matted reeds, a guttural cut, cut, cutta-cutta-cutta repeated at brief intervals, often for hours in succession. This is occasionally interrupted or closely followed by a rapid succession of low yet penetrating grunts not unlike those of a hungry pig. The Virginia Eail is the author of both these sounds, the former appearing to be peculiar to the male and, no doubt, his love song. When heard very near at hand it has a peculiar vibrant quality and seems to issue from the ground directly beneath one's feet. The grunting notes are given by both sexes, but, with rare exceptions, only during the breeding season. The female when anxious about her eggs or young also calls Tci-M-M and sometimes Iciu like a Flicker. VIRGINIA BAIL 295 In a small fresh-water marsh near Coulterville, Mariposa County, Donald McLean (MS) discovered and watched a nest of the Virginia Rail during the season of 1916. It was a tower-like structure about eight inches in height and the same in diameter, and was composed of flat marsh grasses. On June 5 the nest held ten eggs which were just beginning to be incubated. "Whenever anyone approached the vicinity of the nest the incubating bird (female?) would utter low clucking sounds. Sometimes she would slip quietly off and stand nearby in the marsh grass; again she splashed through the water as she departed. Nothing was heard or seen of the male until June 18 when he made his presence known by an ear-piercing whistle which the female answered in a lower tone. He was more wary than she and did not come near the nest. On June 19 there were six coal black young in the nest. They had black-ringed pink bills and very large feet. With the hatching of the young, the demeanor of the female changed. Now she became quite fearless and would walk out to within three feet of an observer, fluffing out her feathers after the manner of a domestic hen, and uttering many clucks and whistles. The male answered these calls but would not show himself except momentarily. By the afternoon of the twentieth the last egg had hatched and the next morning the whole family had departed. Bowles (1893, p. 115) states that in Massachusetts he has found a Virginia Rail destroying her eggs after they were disturbed in her absence. In one instance when he returned to a nest which he had discovered a few minutes previously he found one of the parents driving her bill through the eggs in quick succession, and later he found another nest which gave evidence of the same sort of treatment. That this is a general trait seems doubtful. The Virginia Rail keeps well to cover, and like its allies is more often heard than seen. But if the observer will remain quiet for a short time the bird will sometimes become inquisitive and approach within a few feet. When frightened it seldom takes wing, but prefers to slip away through the close-growing marsh vegetation. Small stretches of open water form no serious barrier, for the bird is able to swim easily. It flies close to the ground, even in migration, and is consequently one of the birds which commonly meets death by flying against wire fences and telegraph lines. Rails are, partially at least, nocturnal in habits, and feed at night as well as in the daytime. Their food is made up almost entirely of small animals such as earthworms, snails, caterpillars, and insects, mostly beetles. Some vegetable matter, principally weed seeds, is probably taken when the supply of insects runs low (Forbush, 1912, p. 209). The stomach of a Virginia Rail taken at Los Baiios, Merced County, May 22, 1914, and examined by us, contained nothing but beetles (3 Carabids, 2 Sphenophorus sp., 1 Hydrophyllid ) . 296 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA By some, the Virginia Rail is adjudged a delicious bird for the table, but it is of small size, not nearly as big as a Valley Quail. Where this species is abundant no skill whatever is required to kill a large number. For both these reasons it cannot be considered as important a game bird from the sportsman's point of view as its larger relative, the Clapper Rail. Snipe. shooters often get a chance to shoot Virginia Rails, but seldom do so, and there are few men in this state who pur- posely pursue these birds either for food or for sport. This Rail has seldom been seen in the markets of California cities, and the small amount of shooting it has received has permitted it pretty well to hold its own. Even if hunted to a greater extent in the future than at present, the species M'ould have a good chance to survive in numbers because of its generally seelusive habits. Sora Rail Porzana Carolina (Linnaeus) Other n^^mes — Common Eail; Carolina Rail. Description — Adults, both sexes: Top of head olive brown, with median stripe of black; sides of head and neck, with extension above eye to forehead, lead color; whole face (that is, area between eye and bill, continuous across forehead) and a longitudinal stripe down chin, throat, and foreneek, black; iris "brown"; bill "greenish yellow (more orange, especially at base in summer adults)" (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 370); upper surface olive brown, continuous up hind neck to top of head; back streaked broadly with black, and narrowly lined with white; outer upper tail coverts narrowly barred, black and white; tail feathers black, broadly margined with olive brown; outer surface of closed wing and flight feathers, nearly uniform olive brown, but with innermost secondaries and tertials showing white lines like back; breast lead color; sides, flanks, axillars, and under surface of wing conspicuously barred with brownish slate and white; belly and central under tail coverts creamy white; under tail coverts otherwise pale buff; legs and feet greenish. Males: Total length 8.50-9.37 inches (216-237 mm.) (seven specimens from California and eastern states) ; folded wing 3.97-4.42 (101.0- 112.4); bill along culmen 0.75-0.89 (19.0-22.7); tarsus 1.24-1.44 (31.6-36.7) (ten specimens from California). Females: Total length 8.00-8.97 (203-228) (four specimens from eastern states); folded wing 3.90—4.10 (99.0-104.2); bill along culmen 0.71-0.73 (18.0-18.7); tarsus 1.18-1.29 (30.0-32.8) (three speci- mens from California); weight 1.7 oz. (48 gm.) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adult, but with black and slaty areas on head and throat nearly or quite wanting; sides of head and forehead dull buffy brown; top of head duller olive brown, with narrow or interrupted black stripe; chin and throat whitish; rest of neck, and breast, light buffy brown. Natal plumage: "Bill short, . . . high at base, rapidly tapering, the tip deflected. The whole body densely covered with dull black down, beyond which are produced abundant long, glossy, black hair-like filaments. Upon the throat is a tuft of stiff, coarse, bristle-like feathers of a bright orange-color. These are directed forward, and give the bird a most singular appearance" (Brewster, 1879, p. 46). SOBA BAIL 297 Marks tor field identification — Moderately small size (less than that of Killdeer), of usual rail aspect and habits; short, chicken-like greenish yellow bill (fig. 51), black throat, and slaty tone of under surface. Distinguished from Virginia Eail by somewhat smaller size, and much shorter bill (compare fig. 50). Both the Yellow and Black rails are much smaller. Voice — A clear whistled leer-wee, now and then interrupted by a high- pitched rolling whinny which, like a call of alarm, is taken up and repeated by different birds all over the marsh (Chapman, 1912, p. 234). Nest — Made of dry grass, weeds, or rushes, placed on wet ground, or often supported upon vegetation above water, and usually well concealed in growing vegetation. Eggs — 4 to 15, ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.14 to 1.29 by 0.86 to 0.92 (in millimeters, 29.0 to 32.7 by 21.9 to 23.3), and averaging 1.24 by 0.89 (80.6 by 22.5) ; ground color buffy drab marked scatteringly with spots of reddish brown and dull purplish gray (two sets, twenty-four eggs, from California and Nevada). General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and Gulf of St. Lawrence south to southern California, Utah, Colorado, Kansas, Illinois, and Pennsylvania ; winters from northern California, Illinois and South Carolina through the West Indies and Central America to Venezuela and Peru (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 104). Distribution in C.*.lifornia — Common in summer in appropriate localities throughout the state; southernmost breeding station, Escondido, San Diego County (Sharp, 1907, p. 86). Fairly common in winter in interior valleys west of the Sierras, north at least to Butte County; northernmost winter record, mouth of Mad Eiver, Humboldt County (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 197). Once reported from Farallon Islands (Keeler, 1892, p. 164). Throughout California the Sora is one of the commonest of the rails. It is most abundant in fresh-water marshes but it also occurs at times on the salt marshes. In summer it is apparently more abundant and widespread than in winter, and this fact has given rise to the belief that most of the birds of this species move southward out of the state during the winter months. During the spring and fall migrations Soras appear in many isolated localities where they are not known to breed and this but strengthens the idea that they pass out of the state for the winter. The species is common in Mexico and Central America during the winter months and at the same season is found in small numbers as far north as the Sacramento. Valley and Humboldt County, California. Belding (MS) found it at Stockton as late as October, 1880, and said that it wintered in fair numbers on suitable ground near San Diego. Winter specimens are in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from the following localities : Los Banos, Merced County ; Modesto, Stanislaus County ; Martinez, Contra Costa County ; and the Suisun Marshes, Solano County. This rail is hardly as large as a robin and this fact alone will serve to distinguish it from either of our Clapper Rails. The short, chicken- 298 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFORNIA like bill (fig. 51), the slaty tone of the under surface and the presence of black on the face and throat are enough to distinguish the Sora from the slightly larger Virginia Rail. From both the Yellow and Black rails the Sora is separable by its larger size, as well as different coloration. In habits this species closely resembles the Virginia Rail. From records at hand, April and May seem to be the months when most birds of this species nest. In California the earliest date for eggs is April 18, and the latest June 10. These extremes are, in part, however, accounted for by differences in altitude, the early date being for Whittier, in the lowlands of Los Angeles County, and the late one for Lake Tahoe. The nest of the Sora is usually built on the ground and well con- cealed in tules or tall grass. One found by H. C. Bryant (1915c, p. 194, and MS) in a small fresh-water marsh near Alvarado, Alameda County, on April 23, 1915, was situated in a clump of pickle-weed (Salicornia), and consisted of a large ^^_^^--»----'^==. mass of dry sedge stems and grass ^__^-^ /'^^ blades, the latter chiefly composing the -'~ ^'^'K ~.. ^=^ lining. The nest proper rested on a mass 5486 of vegetation which raised it fully six inches above the ground. Externally it Fig. 51. Side of bill of . ^ f . , . \. Sora Bail. Natural size. was approximately seven inches in di- Note relatively stout form ^"^^ter and three and one-half inches (compare with fig. 50). high. The saucer-shaped depression holding the eggs was about four inches across and two and one-half deep. The fourteen eggs which this nest contained were arranged in a single layer except for one egg which topped the rest. The incubation of these eggs ranged from quite fresh to far advanced, showing either that some of the eggs had failed of sufficient warmth to carry on incubation, or that the birds had com- menced to sit as soon as the first few eggs had been deposited. The latter surmise is more probably the correct one. Ray (1913, pp. 112-114) records the discovery of a nest among tall grass in Bijou meadow at Lake Tahoe, June 4, 1909. It held the unusually small complement of four eggs, and strange to say two of these were pipped while two were infertile. A second nest found at Al-Tahoe marsh, June 10, consisted of dry tules ' ' laced to tules above water three feet deep." This contained thirteen eggs in varying stages of incubation. The same author (Ray, 1912&, p. 145) found a nest at Rowland's, Lake Tahoe, May 31, 1910, also with thirteen eggs. Six sets of from seven to fourteen eggs, were taken by A. M. Shields in a marsh near Los Angeles in 1886 (Davie, 1889, p. 102). A set of six slightly incubated eggs was found near Whittier, April 18, 1896, SOBA BAIL 299 and another set of six eggs was found at Nigger Slough, also in Los Angeles County, May 13, 1911 (Willett, 1912a, p. 33). Merrill (1888, p. 144) writing from Port Klamath, Oregon, in 1887, says: "A nest found May 27 was among water grass near the edge of a shallow pool, and was supported by the stalks of the grass ; the eggs were raised about six inches above the water, but the founda- tion of the nest was wet ; it was composed entirely of the dead stalks and blades of the grass, and was rudely arched over with growing blades of the same. It contained twelve eggs from which the young would have soon appeared . . . ." Another nest similarly located and containing nine nearly fresh eggs was found in the same locality, June 15. W. P. Taylor (1912, p. 358) describes the nest of a Sora Kail found on Quinn River, Humboldt County, Nevada, May 22, 1909, as being built in an open bunch of marsh grass, with the bottom of the nest so near the water that it was damp. Marsh grass was its principal structural constituent, some of the stems being still green. The fragments incorporated into the lining were smaller than those in the main body of the nest. The whole structure was securely inter- woven among the grass-stalks which partly supported it. It was over- shadowed and effectively concealed by a frail canopy of broken-down stems. Ten eggs constituted the set. As indicated by the instances cited above, full sets of eggs number from four to fourteen ; but ten or twelve would seem to be the average number per set. The eggs are of ordinary ovate shape, and measure, in inches, 1.14 to 1.29 by 0.86 to 0.92, averaging 1.20 by 0.88 (twenty- four eggs in Mus. Vert. Zool., from California and Nevada). The ground-color is notably dark, being deep cream or drab decidedly darker than that on the eggs of the Virginia Rail, and the sparsely distributed markings are of reddish brown and dull purplish gray. The young, like those of other rails, are of a general black color, and are capable of taking care of themselves soon after leaving the shell. The Sora contributes importantly to the medley of sounds which issues from the average marsh. The following two quoted paragraphs pertaining to Massachusetts afford the best description available to us, of the notes of this rail : In the more open, grassy stretches of meadow, as well as among the beds of cat-tail flags, but seldom, if ever, in thickets of bushes, we also hear, after the middle of April, mingling with the notes of Virginia Eails and the din of countless frogs, the love song of the Carolina Bail, a sweet, plaintive er'-e given with a rising inflection and suggesting one of the "scatter calls" of the Quail. Such, at least, is its general effect at distances of from fifty to two or three hundred yards, but very near at hand it develops a somewhat harsh 300 GAME BIRDS OW CALIFOBNIA or strident quality and sounds more like hd-e, while at the extreme limits of ear range one of the syllables is lost and tha other might be easily mistaken for the peep of a Pickering's hyla [a species of tree-toad]. This note, repeated at short, regular intervals, many times in succession, is one of the most fre- quent as well as pleasing voices of the marsh in the early morning and just after sunset. It is also given intermittently at all hours of the day, especially in cloudy weather, while it is often continued, practically without cessation, through the entire night. Equally characteristic of this season and even more attractive in quality is what has been termed the "whinny" of the Carolina Rail. It consists of a dozen or fifteen short whistles as sweet and clear in tone as a silver bell. The first eight or ten are uttered very rapidly in an evenly descending scale, the remaining ones more deliberately and in a uniform key. The whole series is often followed by a varying number of harsher, more drawling notes given at rather wide intervals. Although it is probable that the "whinny" is made by both sexes I have actually traced it only to the female. She uses it apparently, chiefly as a call to her mate, but I have also repeatedly heard her give it just after I had left the immediate neighborhood of her nest, seemingly as an expression of triumph or rejoicing at the discovery that her eggs had not been molested. When especially anxious for their safety and circling close about the human intruder she often utters a low whining murmur closely resembling that which the Muskrat makes while pursuing his mate and some- times a out-cut-cutta not unlike the song of the Virginia Rail, but decidedly less loud and vibrant. In addition to all these notes both sexes have a variety of short, sharp cries which they give when startled by any sudden noise (Brewster, 19026, p. 48). The flight of the Sora Rail among the reeds is usually low, and, shelter being abundant, is rarely extended to more than fifty or a hundred yards. When winged, and uninjured in its legs, it dives and swims with great rapidity, and is seldom seen again. On such occasions it has been found clinging with its feet to the reeds, under the water, or skulking under the floating vegetation with its bill just above the surface. This bird is apparently weak and delicate in everything except its legs; but these possess great vigor; and its body being remarkably thin, it is able to pass readily between the reeds. Though its flight seems feeble, yet it occasionally rises to a considerable height, stretches its legs out behind it, and flies rapidly across the Delaware where it is more than a mile wide (Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, p. 373). "To avoid flying, when their field is heing mowed they will often stay in the fast narrowing strip of green until they must go or meet the sharp teeth of the sickle, when perhaps a dozen will rise one after another and fly to fresh cover" (V. Bailey iji Bailey, 1902, p. 81). Ranchers have stated to us that these birds are often driven in like manner from California alfalfa fields. Soras are said to answer a clap- ping of the hands with a mocking, cackling laugh. In the marshes they are noisy birds especially towards sunset. "They seem so absorbed by their musical devotions that even when calling con- tinuously it requires endless patience and keen eyes to see the dull- colored, motionless forms in places where one would not suppose there was sufficient growth to conceal them" (Chapman, 1912, pp. 234^235). YELLOW BAIL 301 The flight of the Sora is so slow and labored and the bird seems so reluctant to use its wings that some writers have supposed that it was unable to fly long distances and that its migration was therefore a series of short flights or even performed on foot. As a matter of fact the Sora is among the long- distance migrants, the most northern breeders traveling not less than 2,500 miles to the nearest winter home; and those wintering south of the equator being at least 3,000 miles from the nearest breeding grounds. Thousands make the hundred-mile flight between Florida and Cuba, and there is reason to believe that many individuals easily achieve the 500-mile passage from Florida to Yucatan, and the equally long journey from the West Indies across the Caribbean Sea to South America (Cooke, 1914, p. 4). The food of the Sora consists mainly of insects, but snails and other aquatic animals are taken. In the eastern states it is known to be fond of wild rice, and doubtless here, too, vegetable matter forms a good part of its food at certain times of the year. In the east thousands of Sora Rails were formerly killed by sports- men and market hunters during the fall migration, when the birds concentrated in the coastal marshes. Although easy to shoot, this bird has been* highly prized by eastern sportsmen on account of its attractiveness for the table. In California this rail is so scattered in its distribution as not to have attracted concentrated attention from hunters, and its numbers here do not seem to have been much affected except as a result of the reclamation of marsh land. This species like the Virginia Rail seems to be pretty well able to take care of itself, and unless more aggressive means are taken for its destruction it may well be expected to persist in fair numbers within our state. There is no data at hand which will allow of a statement as to the exact status of the Sora Rail in California at the present time. The rapid rate of reproduction, as indicated by the large average complement of eggs laid, would seem to guarantee a large annual crop of Soras, if breeding conditions were favorable over extensive areas. Yellow Rail Coturnicops novehoracensis (Gmelin) Othee name — Ortygops noveboraeensis. Description — Adults, hoth sexes: Top of head and whole of upper surface including tail, blackish, broadly streaked with yellowish brown (as feather margins), and barred narrowly with pure white; the bars are sparsest, or even wanting, on top of head, and most distinct and widest separated on lower back; sides of head and neck, continuous with breast, yellowish brown, with regions immediately below eye and between eye and bill, dusky; chin white or buflfy white; iris brown; bill " greenish -black, with the base dull yellowish-orange" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 153); outer surface of closed wing like back; flight feathers slaty brown except for white patch formed by white 302 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA ends of secondaries; axillars and lining of wing, white or mixed white and dusty; breast yellowish brown; belly white; sides and flanks blackish or dusky brown, narrowly barred with white; under tail coverts chestnut brown; legs and feet light brown. Some specimens have white bars on top of head broken into spots and occasionally extending down onto sides of head and even around onto breast. Whether this condition is a mark of old age or of immaturity is not apparent. Males: Total length 7.50 inches (190 mm.) (one specimen) ; folded wing 3.34-3.53 (84.8-89.5) ; bill along culmen 0.63-0.66 (16.0- 16.8); tarsus 0.91-1.02 (23.1-25.9) (five specimens). Females: Total length 6.50 (165) (one specimen) ; folded wing 3.20-3.36 (81.3-85.3) ; bill along culmen 0.58-0.64 (14.7-16.3); tarsus 0.91-0.92 (23.0-23.4) (three specimens); all from California. Juvenile and natal plumages: Not known to us. Marks for field identification — Rail characters of form, small size, yellow- ish brown cast of coloration, and presence of narrow white cross-bars which contrast conspicuously with the otherwise streaked upper surface, and white patch on wing shown in flight. In all our other rails, except the dark-colored Black Bail, the back markings run lengthwise. Voice — Not definitely known; thought to be similar to that of the Black Eail (Eaton, 1910, pp. 281, 282). Nest — Seems to be not yet described, but probably situated on the ground and similar to the nests of other rails. Eggs — 5 (?), ovate in shape, measuring in inches, about 1.06 to 1.16 by 0.81 to 0.85 (in millimeters, 27.0 to 29.5 by 20.5 to 21.5), and averaging 1.11 by 0.83 (28.2-21.0) ; ground color pinkish buff; a small dense cap of fine dots of orange cinnamon, mikado brown and vinaceous drab on large end; dots more sparingly distributed elsewhere on surface (5 eggs, a set?, in IT. S. National Museum, taken in Illinois). General distribution — North America from central Canada to the Gulf Coast. Occurs in summer from southern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, and Quebec south to North Dakota, Minnesota, Illinois, and Maine; winters in the Gulf states and California, visiting more rarely New York, North Carolina, Bermuda, Oregon, and Arizona (Cooke, 1914, p. 32). Distribution in California — Bather rare winter visitant to marshes of west- central California: Martinez, Contra Costa County (Cooper, 1868, p. 8); Alvarado, Alameda County (W. B. Bryant, 1886, p. 426) ; Alameda County (Kaeding, 1898a, p. 70); Sonoma County (Carriger, 1899, p. 72); Eincon Valley, Sonoma County (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; Suisun Marshes, Solano County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Los Bafios, Merced County (Mus. Vert. Zool.); Marin County (J. Mail- liard, 1901, p. 16) ; San Mateo County and Berryessa, Santa Clara County (Cooke, 1914, p. 32). Also recorded from Humboldt Bay (C. H. Townsend, 1886, p. 491); Newport Bay, Orange County (Osburn, 19116, p. 108); and Corona, Biverside (Pierce, 1914, p. 182). The Yellow Eail in California must be classed purely as a winter visitant. Like certain geese and the Mountain Plover it seems to have a diagonal route of migration from the north-central portion of the continent. Its breeding grounds appear to lie mostly north of the United States in central and eastern Canada. Not all of the birds of this species winter on the Pacific coast, however, for a large contingent moves directly southward and spends the colder months in the Gulf states. West of the Rockies the species has been found only in Cali- YELLOW SAIL 303 fornia, Oregon, and Nevada, and in but one instance in each of the latter two states. Even in California, the Yellow Rail is of extremely local occurrence, and at best cannot be considered common. The center of abundance here appears to be in the San Francisco Bay region, for it has been recorded but once north of this region and but twice from southern California. Not more than twenty specimens taken in California are known to be in collections, and as far as we know all of these were secured on fresh-water marshes. The Yellow Rail is of small size, being considerably smaller than a Virginia or Sora, and but slightly larger than the California Black Rail. Its general yellowish color, sharp, narrow, white transverse bars on the back, and white patch on the secondary wing feathers, showing during flight, are characters which not only distinguish the Yellow Rail from the Black, but from all our other rails. This bird has proven more difficult to find and flush than almost any other bird of the marsh. Most of those captured have been found unintentionally ; only a trained dog and pro- longed search at the proper season will be likely to reveal this will-o-the-wisp. Eggs of the Yellow Rail have been taken at Winnebago, Illinois, May 17, 1863, and near Devils Lake, North Dakota, June 4, 1901, ^.j^'^-^ fellow'^Eaih June 8, 1903, and June 9, 1910 (Cooke, 1914, Natural size, p. 32). The first of the latter three finds is referred to by Reed (1904, p. 105) as follows: "Their eggs are of a rich buff color, speckled in the form of a wreath about the large end, with reddish brown. They are rleatively narrower than those of other rails. Size 1.10 x 0.80 [inches] ." The set consisted of ten eggs. The eggs of the set taken in Illinois and now in the United States National Museum have a pinkish buff ground color. At the large end of each egg there is a small dense crown of minute dots of orange- cinnamon, mikado brown, and vinaceous-drab ; elsewhere on the sur- face there are scattering dots of similar color. Audubon {in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, 1884, I, pp. 376-377) observed the habits of this rail along the margins of lakes and swampy bayous in eastern Florida. He noticed that the birds were accus- tomed to follow the margins of the muddy shores with measured steps, until attracted by some object. The tail would then be suddenly jerked upward, followed by the disappearance of the bird for the moment. Each bird proved as a rule so unsuspicious that at times it could be approached within a few yards, when it would only rise more erectly, gaze at the observer for a moment, and then resume its occu- pation. The best way to obtain a shot at this bird was to lie concealed near an opening, and call it out of cover by imitating its notes, when, 304 GAME BIEVS OF CALIFORNIA being very pugnacious, it would come to the open space and be easily- shot. Its flight is said to be swift and more protracted than that of most rails, but it can seldom be driven to take refuge in flight. On December 28, 1883, W. E. Bryant secured a specimen of the Yellow Rail at Alvarado, Alameda County. Of this bird it was stated that it was pointed by a dog and picked up in the hand, whereupon it made a noise something like a young chicken (Belding, MS). One of the specimens in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology from the Suisun marshes was captured by a house cat. The stomach of a Yellow Rail collected by A. C. Shelton in Rincon Valley, Sonoma County, November 17, 1912, contained eighteen clover seeds (TrifoUum sp.) and a quantity of grass (H. C. Bryant, 1913, p. 92). This is of course insufficient evidence to show that this rail subsists entirely or chiefly upon a vegetable diet. The scarcity of insects at this time of year was probably responsible for the lack of animal matter in this particular stomach. The only reason why the Yellow Rail is classed by law as a game bird is because it belongs in the same family with the larger rails which are legitimate objects of pursuit for food and sport. It is altogether too rare and too small properly to take rank as a game bird in this state. As the reader has doubtless already inferred, this bird is so seclusive in its habits that, as yet, very little is known of its life history. California Black Rail Creciscus coturniculus (Ridgway) Other names — Farallon Bail; Forzana jamaicensis ; Creciscus jamaicensis; Porzana jamaicensis coturniculus; Forzana coturniculus. Description — Adult male: Whole head, foreneck, and most of under surface, blackish slate, darkest on top of head; iris red; bill blackish; hind neck and back dark chestnut, brightest on hind neck and deepening to black on rump and tail; middle of back, rump, tail and outer surface of closed wing with small sharp dots and short irregular cross-bars of white; scapulars and outer surface of closed wing blackish brown; flight feathers dusky brown sparsely dotted with white; axillars, under surface of wing, and flanks, slaty brown, barred narrowly with white; belly pale slate barred with whitish; under tail coverts slate gray barred with white and more or less tinged with light cinna- mon brown; legs and feet "bright yellowish green" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 158). Total length 5.37 inches (136 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 2.56- 2.81 (65.0-71.3) ; bill along culmen 0.55-0.60 (14.0-15.3) ; tarsus 0.76-0.85 (19.3- 21.6) (ten specimens). Adult female: Similar to male, but duller colored on back, and lower surface somewhat lighter in tone, particularly on throat and belly. Folded wing 2.56-2.68 (65.0-68.1); bill along culmen 0.52-0.55 (13.2- 14.0); tarsus 0.76-0.83 (19.3-21.1) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Somewhat lighter in general tone of coloration than that of adults. Natal plumage: Probably as in the Eastern Black Bail which is "entirely bluish Black" according to Baird, Cassin and Lawrence (1858, p. 750). CALIFORNIA BLACK RAIL 305 Makks for riELD IDENTIFICATION — Very small size (our smallest rail, about the bulk of a Least Sandpiper), black bill, and black-appearing plumage with small white dots. Young rails of all species are, as far as known to us, solidly black, without any white spots. Voice — Clee-cle, clee-ee (accent falling on first syllable of last word) uttered chiefly during early mating season, and also in protest against intruders (Huey, 1916, pp. 58-59). Nest — On salt marsh, composed of stems of pickle-weed (Salicornia) loosely laid together and situated on ground, or more often on a platform of matted pickle-weed a few inches above the ground, and usually concealed by arching stems of the same and other plants (Ingersoll, 1909, p. 124). Eggs — 4 to 8, bluntly ovate to almost elliptical in shape, measuring in inches, 0.87 to 1.06 by 0.69 to 0.75 (in millimeters, 22.1 to 27.0 by 17.5 to 19.0), and averaging 0.96 by 0.72 (24.4 by 18.3) (three sets, and one single, fourteen eggs, from San Diego County, California) ; ground color white with a scarcely perceptible tinge of pink, with surface spots of reddish brown and deeper ones of lavender. General distribution — Pacific Coast of the United States from Puget Sound to northern Lower California. Only known breeding ground on salt marshes in vicinity of San Diego Bay, California (Cooke, 1914, pp. 35-36). Distribution in California — Fairly common fall and winter visitant to the salt marshes on the San Francisco Bay shores of San Mateo and Alameda counties, and at head of Tomales Bay, Marin County (many specimens). Also in smaller numbers interiorly: Martinez, Contra Costa County (Cooper, 1868, p. 8); Stockton, San Joaquin County (Belding, 1879, p. 443), and Suisun marshes, Solano County (Mus. Vert. Zool.) ; and southerly: Santa Cruz (Emer- son, 1904, p. 38) ; Hueneme, Ventura County (Willett, 1912a, p. 33) ; Orange, Orange County, and Ballona, Los Angeles County (Grinnell, 1898, p. 15) ; and Eiverside (L. Miller, 1893, p. 104). Twice taken on the Farallon Islands (Brewster, 1907, p. 205; Mus. Vert. Zool.). . Fairly common throughout the year and breeds regularly on the salt marshes adjacent to San Diego Bay (Stephens, 1909, pp. 47-48; Ingersoll, 1909, p. 123; Cooke, 1914, p.. 36; Huey, 1916, p. 59). The California Black Rail is the smallest species of the rail family- found in the United States, and differs but slightly from the Black Rail of the eastern states. Neither of these small species appears to he abundant, but as their habits are very seelusive their actual num- bers are probably greater than is generally believed. The range of the California Black Rail is limited to the Pacific coast and is separated from that of its eastern relative by a broad interval comprising the Rocky Mountain region. The present species has been recorded as a winter visitant from various points within this state. At San Diego it is evidently present throughout the year. The small size, dark coloration, white-dotted back, and black bill constitute a sufficient number of field marks to identify this rail under favorable circumstances of observation. But it keeps so to cover and is so seldom flushed, that a full view of it is rarely obtained, even when a person is making a special search for the bird. It frequents 306 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFOBNIA low-growing vegetation and at first glance is likely to be taken for a mouse. The only known breeding ground of the California Black Kail is a limited area on the salt marshes of San Diego Bay between National City and Chula Vista. There, A. M. IngersoU succeeded in finding three occupied nests of this species. But this much success was attained only by twenty-five trips to the locality. There are few birds the nests of which are so hard to locate. In regard to his finds, IngersoU (1909, pp. 124r-126) says: The salt weeds of this marsh are of an evergreen character and perennial, varying little from season to season. Old clumps of Salieornia [pickle-weed] become more or less matted down, forming an ideal retreat for this secretive little bird. A favorite nesting site is one formed by an old top-heavy weed falling over a growth of previous years in such a way as to leave a shelf -like space between the layers of stems and foliage. Away from the glaring sun on such a platform, is concealed a flimsy nest of fine dry weed stems. These weeds are too brittle to admit of weaving, and _ fall apart on being lifted from the sustaining platform. . . . The whitish eggs have a scarcely perceptible .,,Q, tinge of pink. They are finely speckled with bright reddish-brown and obscure lilac dots. The average Pig. 53. Side of bill of measurement of the eggs is .95 x .71 inches. The California Black Eail. Nat- eggs exhibit great variations in size and shape ural size. ^,^^ ^rg rather uniformly marked. I believe the eggs of this species could not be mistaken for those of any other bird. The shells are of close-grained hard texture. They possess greater durability than any eggs of similar size that I know of. One year's exposure to the elements is not enough to destroy the shell. In 1908, there were many eggs of the California Black Bail floated out of the nests by the high tides, probably by those of March 30 and 31. I examined upwards of thirty "floaters" during May of that year. They were then rotten and partially dried up. Fourteen ' ' floaters ' ' that were whole and perfectly dry were picked up dur- ing the present season; most of them were bleacht entirely free of markings. A few that had lodged beneath the vegetation were still speckled. These dry eggs were at least ten months old; possibly the salt water acted as a preservative. Sixteen old nests were found in the immediate vicinity of "floaters." On several occasions, eggs were found lodged in weeds at a higher elevation than the nest from which they had floated. About one-third of the nests were built on or within two inches of the ground. I am informed of one nest being placed at a height of eighteen inches. An accurate estimate of the number of birds in this colony is of course impossible; but judging from the number of floaters and old nests, I should say that in 1908, thirty pairs of birds resided there at that time. Huey (1916, p. 59) who has had considerable experience with this species on the marshes bordering San Diego Bay gives March 24 (1912) for the earliest nesting date, a complete set of five eggs having been then secured. His latest record is for May 25 (1909) when a CALIFORNIA BLACK RAIL 307 set of four partly incubated "runt" eggs was secured. This set meas- ured in inches. 0.87 to 0.95 by 0.69 to 0.74, and averaged 0.92 by 0.72. He says that normal eggs average 1.02 by 0.90. The smaller size and late date on which these eggs were found suggests that the set may have been of a second laying, the first having been destroyed or the nesting otherwise interrupted. Our averages for egg measurements are 0.96 by 0.72, as based on Huey 's set, one in the Carriger collection, a set taken by A. M. IngersoU and presented by him to the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, and a ' ' single ' ' in the same museum, fourteen eggs in all. Cooke (1914, p. 36) gives April 7 (1910) as the earliest nesting date known to him; while Willett (1912a, p. 33) says that the egg- laying period falls between April 1 and 10. Downy young of the Black Rail have not yet been reported from California, but they are probably entirely black like the young of the eastern Black Rail. The call according to Huey (1916, pp. 58-59) sounds like the syllables clee-cle, clee-ee, and in an earlier account (Stephens, 1909, p. 48) it is said to be a sort of clicking sound. This accords with the nature of the voice of the eastern Black Rail as reported by Brewster (19026, p. 54). A bird which IngersoU (loc. cit.) flushed from near a nest rose and flew off feebly for thirty or forty feet, hovered, and then returned to within sixteen feet of the nest. Until it hovered the legs were left dangling in the air, and as it alighted in the vegetation they were again dropped below the body. This species is exceedingly secretive in its habits, although it does not display any great amount of fear in the presence of human beings. It will crouch and almost allow itself to be stepped on before it will flush. A dog can easily capture one of the birds and individuals have even been picked up in the hand. The shyness of this rail is reflected in the regularity with which it abandons nests which have been discovered, even in the most casual manner, by a human observer. Huey (1916, p. 60) says he has never yet found a nest of this species that did not on a later visit prove to have been abandoned, even when the nest and surrounding vegetation had been left entirely undisturbed. A Black Rail which Huey (1916, pp. 61-62) captured was confined on a screened porch with a Sora Rail. "... The two birds proved quite companionable. They ate freely of the food offered them. . . . The Black Rail . . . seemed rather vicious at all times, pecking angrily at anything offered her — sticks, fingers and all." In attempting to photograph these birds, "a small, round clump of salicornia, perhaps three feet in diameter, was selected for the background. . . . The little rail proved the more elusive of the two. She would dive into the dense mass, exactly as a duck dives in water, and would then crouch 308 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA motionless, as if hiding. The walking positions of the two species were noticeably different. The little Black was always proud, with head erect and no jerky movements while walking, but the Caroliaa [Sora] was a typical rail, head down, tail erect, and forever sneaking off sideways as though he were ashamed of himself." H. R. Taylor (1898, p. 79) says that in San Mateo County The Black Bail we saw would fly up . . . with others and several alighted for refuge, after circling in irregular flight, in bunches of bushy weeds, being still within range. They are seldom if ever shot at by hunters and are very unsuspecting little creatures, allowing the boat to approach within a half an oar's length from where they are hiding. In this Way I struck the one I captured with the blade of the oar, and stunning it but for a moment, took it alive. This bird was kept in captivity where it was observed to be alert to see things and active with its bill. However, all its movements were notably deliberate. It made no attempt to escape and acted as though it had always known a prison. When the Black Bail is asleep he is no longer a rail. He has become simply a ball of feathers as big and almost as round as an orange, and coming upon one in such a position you would more readily believe it were some strange animal [mammal] than a bird. There is a gradual ruffling of the feathers until they are fluffed out all over the body and the rail is more than twice his usual proportions. Now the short wings are not noticeable and the little tail shows but slightly. The head is twisted about by slow degrees until like a flash it disappears. It has gone into that ball of feathers, but where? Of course, it is under the wing, but looking at the transformation you would never know. Where the neck was lost in the ball there is a circle which reminds you of the end of a lady's muff, only the brown has harmonized beautifully with the black of the body and its dainty flecking of white. We touched the little fellow once while he was thus fluffed up. Out came his head but it was quickly popped into place again (H. B. Taylor, 1898, pp. 79-80). The bird held captive by H. R. Taylor was fed eight earthworms for one meal. Several stomachs of Black Rails taken by Huey (1916, p. 60) in San Diego County contained remains of Isopod crustaceans belonging to the species called Alloniscus mirabilis. A captive indi- vidual was fed upon bread crumbs, some of these crustaceans, and some "garden bugs." This is another of the marsh birds which meets death to some extent by accident. There are two instances of the sort on record. A bird was found on the main street of Santa Cruz in September, 1903, which had been killed by flying against a wire (Emerson, 1904, p. 38) ; and one was picked up August 4, 1876, beneath where it had been killed by flying against the Point Loma Light, near San Diego (Belding, MS). The California Black Rail, like many another of the rarer birds really merits but a casual place on any list of game birds. Probably not more than ten sportsmen in a thousand have ever seen this bird, FLORIDA GALLINULE 309 and of these ten surely not one would raise his gun against such a mite of a bird, unless needed for a scientific specimen. To ornith- ologists the species is of interest because of its restricted range and eltisiveness. It seems probable that the reclamation of the marshes where it makes its home will be the only factor having to do with any change in its status in the future. Florida Gallinule Galliniila galeata (Lichtenstein) Othek names — Red-billed Mud-hen; GaUmula chloropus galeata. Description — Adults, both sexes: Head and neck dull black, darkest above; iris "bright red" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 136); large frontal shield above base of bill bright scarlet; bill bright red except for tip which is greenish yellow; whole of upper surface dark sepia brown, darkest on rump and upper tail coverts; edge of wing white; outer surface of closed wing sepia brown at base, otherwise slaty; flight fleathers blackish brown; axillars and under surface of wing ashy brown, with mottlings of white on former; under surface of body blackish slate; feathers of flanks elongated and with white shaft streaks; belly chiefly dull white; lower tail coverts white, the middle and basal feathers black; legs and feet greenish yellow, joints ashy blue; naked part of legs above heel joint, red; toes slender and without lobes. Males: Total length 14.75 inches (375 mm.); folded wing 7.28 (185); bill along culmen (to top of shield) 1.53 (38.9); tarsus 2.25 (57.1) (one specimen from California). Females: Total length 14.00-14.50 (356-368) (three specimens); folded vdng 6.91 (176); bill along culmen (to top of shield) 1.32 (33.6) ; tarsus 2.16 (55.0) (one specimen from California). Juvenile plumage: Top and sides of head sooty black, paler on sides where also sparingly flecked with white; chin and throat white, flecked with slate gray; whole neck dull black; rest of upper surface brown, red-toned on back, more blackish from rump backward; breast and sides of body pale slate gray, many of the feathers extensively tipped with white; middle of belly white; flanks and rest of under surface pale brown; feet proportionately large, as in adults. Natal plumage: Black, the upper surface with a greenish cast, under surface with a brownish tinge; a few slender feathers on cheeks and chin, white-tipped; bill straw yellow, dark-banded across middle; legs and feet (dried) reddish. Mabks for field identification — Dark coloration, white under tail coverts, and flaming red frontal shield. Distinguished from the Mud-hen, which is of similar size, general coloration and habits, by red instead of white bill, white stripes on flanks, greenish legs (red above "heel"), absence of white on wings, and entire absence of lobes on sides of toes. YoicE — A loud, discordant, hoarse, hen-like cuci, repeated slowly but in a connected series (Brewster, 1902&, p. 51). jJest — In dense tule thickets in marshes, usually placed over water; con- structed of tules on a platform of the same material. Eggs — 6 to 13, elongate ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.54 to 1.95 by 1.10 to 1.30 (in millimeters, 39.0 to 49.5 by 28.0 to 33.0), and averaging 1.73 by 1.22 (44.0 by 31.0) (105 eggs in U. S. National Museum) ; ground color deep pinkish buff, with surface spots of chocolate and reddish brown, and deeper ones of grayish lavender. 310 GAME BIBVS OF CALIFORNIA General disteibution — Tropical and temperate America. Breeds from central California, Arizona, Nebraska, Minnesota, Ontario, New York, and Vermont south through the "West Indies and Mexico to Chile and Argentina, and in the Gralapagos and Bermuda islands; winters from southern California, Arizona, Texas and Georgia southward; casual in Colorado, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Maine (A. O. IT. Check-list, 1910, pp. 105-106). Distribution in California — ^Fairly common summer visitant to fresh-water marshes in southern portion of the state west of the desert divides from Santa Barbara southeastward; also in the San Joaquin-Sacramento Valley north to Sutter County (Belding, MS). Several recorded breeding stations within these areas. Winters sparingly in southern coastal district, as at Los Angeles (Swarth, 1900, p. 15) ; possibly also in the vicinity of Fresno (Tyler, 19136, p. 23). Although the Florida Gallinule is a bird of wide distribution in both North and South America, it does not exist in great numbers anywhere in the western United States. Along the Atlantic coast it has been found breeding as far north as Pennsylvania and New York, but on the Pacific coast the northernmost station of record is Sutter County, California. South of the latter place, in the great interior valleys, and on the marshes of southern California from Santa Barbara southeastward, the species breeds regularly, and in the extreme south some individuals remain throughout the winter season. There is but one coastal record for the species north of Santa Barbara. This is for San Francisco (Newberry, 1857, p. 96), and might have been of a bird brought from some interior locality to the markets. The favorite haunts of this bird are the dense tule thickets to be found in fresh-water marshes. From these shelters it seldom ventures out into the open as does its relative, the Mud-hen. There is no definite midwinter record for the G-allinule north of Tehachapi, but Tyler (19136, p. 23) saw two individuals near Fresno on November 26, 1907, and a single one near Clovis, Fresno County, March 7, 1908, which led him to suggest that the species may be a permanent resident in that district. At Los Banos, Merced County, the first spring arrivals in 1912 were seen on April 22 (Beck, MS). At Los Angeles, Swarth (1900, p. 15) says that "the young remain until late in the fall, when they nearly all disappear. Usually one or two remain through the winter." No other California bird has a flaming red shield on the forehead such as is possessed by the Florida Gallinule. This shield is so con- spicuous, even at a distance, that there is usually no difficulty in recognizing the bird by this feature alone. The Gallinule resembles the Mud-hen in general build, color of plumage and habits, but can be readily distinguished from the latter bird by the lack of white on the wings, by the absence of lobes on the toes, by the red on the legs above the "heel" joint, by the presence of white streaks on the flanks, and by the red instead of white bill. The Gallinule has a rail-like FLORIDA GALLINULE 311 mannerism of spasmodically jerking its tail upwards. This results in the white under tail coverts being intermittently flashed forth in a conspicuous manner. No account of the courting antics of the Florida Gallinule has been published from California, but Brewster has recorded the behavior of a pair of these birds seen near Cambridge, Massachusetts. After they had been under observation for some time a great outcry was suddenly heard one afternoon, . . . and soon our pair of Gallinules appeared; the female, who was much the plainer-colored in every respect, swimming swiftly, her tail lowered and about in line with the back; the male flapping his wings on the water in his eagerness to overtake her. This he soon succeeded in doing, but just as he clutched at her with open bill . . . she eluded him by a sudden clever turn. He then swam round her in a narrow circle, carrying his tail wide-spread and erect, his neck arched, his scarlet front fairly blazing and apparently much enlarged and inflated. During the chase one of the birds, presumably the male, uttered a series of cries which sounded like ficket, ticket, repeated six or eight times in succession. This cry was evidently a wooing note as it was heard on no other occasion (Brewster, 1891, p. 4). Information concerning the nesting of the Florida Gallinule in California is rather meager. Wicks (1893, p. 363) records the find- ing of a nest with nine eggs near Los Angeles, April 27, 1890. The nest was situated in a clump of tules and composed of the same mate- rial. At Nigger Slough, Los Angeles County, Antonin Jay collected a set of eight fresh eggs on May 5, 1901, and a set of five with incu- bation commenced, June 30, 1895 (Willett, 1912a, p. 33). A. M. IngersoU took a set of six partly incubated eggs at Lakeside, San Diego County, on May 15, 1895, and another of nine eggs heavily incubated at San Jacinto Lake, Eiverside County, June 7, 1897 (IngersoU coll.). There is but one instance of nesting in the Central Valley of Cali- fornia of which we know. At Dos Palos, Merced County, a set of ten slightly incubated eggs was taken May 22, 1912 (Carriger coll.). The nest of the Florida Gallinule is always placed in a fresh-water marsh, sometimes on small islands but usually on a mass of dead tules and over standing water two or three feet deep. As elsewhere described (Brewster, 1891, p. 6), it is a bulky affair for the size of the bird, measuring 13 to 20 inches in diameter, and eight inches high. The central cavity which contains the eggs was found to be 2% inches deep by seven in diameter. As with the Mud-hen an approach or ' ' gang-way ' ' of tules leads from the surface of the water to the nest. In the east, incubation is said to commence with the deposition of the first eggs, so that completed sets comprise eggs in all stages of incuba- tion from fresh to nearly hatching (Brewster, loc. cit.). 312 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA Brewster (1891, p. 4) says that the calls of these Gallinules were varied and complex. Sometimes they gave four or .five loud harsh screams, again a series of sounds resembling those made by a brooding hen when disturbed, then a number of querulous complaining cries intermingled with subdued clucking. Again . . . something which sounded like this: hr-r-r-r-r, Tcrue-Tcruo, Tcrar-r, Tch-Tch-Tch-'kh-Tcea-Tcea, delivered rapidly and falling in pitch toward the end. Shorter notes were a single, abrupt, explosive Icwp, very like the cry given by a startled frog just as he jumps into the water, and a low Tcloc-Moc or Tcloc- Tcloc-kloc. Speaking generally, the notes were all loud, harsh, and discordant, and nearly all curiously hen-like. ... In the early morning and late after- noon their calls were frequent and at times nearly incessant. They ceased almost entirely after nightfall, for the Florida Gallinule is apparently much less nocturnal than any of the Rails. . . . Of the general habits of the Florida Gallinule in Massachusetts, Brewster (1891, pp. 3-4) says: His manner of swimming and of feeding from the surface of the water was very like that of a Coot. He sat high and accompanied the strokes of the feet with a forward-and-backward nodding motion of the head and neck, accent- uated at times as he reached out to sieze some tempting morsel. On land he walked like a Bail, treading his way deftly among the stems of the bushes and tall rushes, stepping daintily, lifting and putting down his feet slowly, and almost incessantly jerking up his tail with a quick, nervous motion which caused the under coverts to flash like the sudden flirt of a handkerchief. As he picked his food from the vegetation at his feet, the head and neck were shot forward and downward at intervals of about a second, with a peculiarly vivid, eager motion. His manner of walking and feeding also suggested that of the Guinea- hen, the body being carried low and in a crouching attitude, while the movements of the head partook of that furtive swiftness which is so characteristic of this barnyard fowl. Our Gallinule at most times, whether in action or repose, was a bird of slender shape and graceful outline, his carriage light yet firm, the play of the body lithe and strong. While preening his feathers, however, his attitude was often stiff and awkward, and the rufiling of his plumage made him appear nearly as portly as a duck. Again, the motion of flight was ludicrously awk- ward and uncouth. When, frightened by a glimpse of . . . [the observers], he rose and flew with legs hanging down, wing-beats feeble and labored, the whole bearing was indicative of strain and exhaustion, which received an added emphasis from the abrupt reckless drop into the bushes which ended the flight. Almost every time the birds which Brewster was observing came to a small ditch in the marsh they would stop to bathe. The male would stand at the water's edge where With a quick plunge and upward fling of the head he scattered the drops over his back in a shining shower, opening and trembling his wings as the water fell. After repeating this performance five or six times in rapid succes- sion, he rested a moment, and then went through it once more. After his MUD-SEN 313 plumage became thoroughly soaked, he proceeded to dress it, running each feather separately through his bill. This elaborate toilet occupied a consider- able time, often lasting as long as fifteen minutes. When it was completed to his satisfaction, he would start off to feed again. This Gallinule frequents tule-bordered ponds and streams and may occasionally be seen feeding along with Mud-hens. Although the Gallinule is partially gregarious, it and the Mud-hen are never seen together in any numbers, usually not more than a few pairs of the former frequenting any one marsh in this state. . Aquatic and other insects form the larger part of the food of the Florida Gallinule ; but certain water plants and seeds are also taken. The stomach of a specimen taken in Nebraska contained seven grass- hoppers, twenty-nine other insects, some seeds and other vegetable matter (Barrows, 1912, p. 162). The birds forage more largely on the shores of ponds and among the vegetation, and less on the open water, than does the Mud-hen. Where known to sportsmen Gallinules are considered fine birds for the table, and were they more numerous here more would doubtless find places in hunters' bags. But in California they are present in such small numbers as to be considered curiosities, and it is this fact which most often leads to their being shot. Near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Florida Gallinules have increased during recent years, and there is a possibility that by careful pro- tection their numbers might be made to increase in our own state. "We have not been able to find a basis for any judgment as to com- parative abundance here, now and formerly, though it seems evident that they have never been notably numerous in California since natural history records began to accumulate. Mud-hen Fulica americana Gmelin Other names — Coot; Chinese Mallard. Description — Adults, "both sexes: Whole head and neck, black; iris bright red; frontal shield chocolate brown; bill whitish, with a brownish or blackish spot on both mandibles near tip; rest of upper and under surface of body including wings and tail, dark slate, blending into black on neck; edge of wing narrowly white; secondaries tipped broadly with white; lower back tinged with olive brown; feathers of belly tipped more or less with white; longer under tail coverts white, forming a V enclosing the shorter black feathers; front toes broadly lobed (see fig. 55); legs and feet greenish yellow. Males: Total length 15.00 inches (381 mm.) (one specimen); folded wing 7.40-7.90 (188-200); bill along culmen (to top of shield) 1.62-1.84 (41.1-46.7); tarsus 2.21-2.36 (56.2-60.0) (ten specimens). Females: Total length 14.00-14.62 (356- 372) (two specimens); folded wing 6.70-7.45 (170-189); bill along culmen 314 GAME BISDS OF CALIFOBNIA (to top of shield) 1.53-1.85 (38.9-47.0); tarsus 1.86-2.19 (47.3-55.7) (ten specimens); all from California. Juvenile plumage: Similar to that of adults but lower surface generally more suffused with whitish, frontal shield less developed, bill lighter in color and lacking blackish spots, and iris brown instead of bright red. Natal plumage: General color blackish slate; throat, cheeks, neck, wings and back covered with elongated, crinkled, bristly feather- tips of orange; top of head almost bald, but with a few black hair-like feathers; bill orange red, black at tip; legs and feet blackish. Marks fok field idbntifioation — Of small duck size and actions. Dark slate-colored plumage with whitish bill and white V under tail (pi. 10). Dis- tinguished in flight by labored efforts in leaving water, large feet extending bulkily beyond tail, and white patch on hind margin of wing. Walks and swims with distinct fore and aft movement of head at stroke of each foot. In hand the broad thin lobes on the front toes are diagnostic (fig. 55). Sepa- rable from Florida Gallinule by whitish instead of red bill (fig. 54), presence of lobes on toes, presence of white on secondaries, and absence of streaking on flanks. Voice — An explosive, cackling, pulque, pulque, pulque, or plop, with a hollow intonation. Nest — Of tules, reeds, or sedges, most often floating on the water, or built up in tules; seldom well concealed in thick growth. Often several nests are found close together. Eggs — 6 to 15, pointedly ovate in shape, measuring in inches, 1.76 to 2.05 by 1.25 to 1.36 (in millimeters, 44.8 to 52.0 by 31.7 to 34.7), and averaging 1.96 by 1.30 (49.8 by 33.1) (thirty eggs from California) ; ground color creamy white, spotted and speckled in fine pattern with dark brown or blackish. General distribution — North America. Breeds from central British Columbia, southern Mackenzie, Manitoba, Quebec, and New Brunswick south to northern Lower California, Texas, Tennessee, and New Jersey, and also in southern Mexico, southern West Indies, and Guatemala; winters from southern British Columbia, Nevada, Utah, the Ohio Valley, and Virginia, south to Panama; casual at Fort Yukon and Sitka, Alaska, and in Greenland, Labrador and Bermuda (A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, p. 106; Cooke, 1914, p. 43). Distribution in California — Abundant resident , of suitable localities throughout the state, breeding at very many points, both east and west of the Sierras. Distinct local migrations, which may be altitudinal rather than latitudinal, are often in evidence; at the higher stations there are local increases in numbers in spring and corresponding decreases in fall. The Mudhen, commonly known in booklore as the Coot, ranges over much of the North American continent. It breeds as far north as British Columbia and southern Mackenzie and has been taken twice in Alaska. It is perhaps more common in the west than in the east, but there is hardly a favorable marsh in the whole country that does not support a few birds of this species at least during the summer season. In Lower California it has been found breeding as far south as Purisima (Cooke, 1914, p. 43). In most places in California the Mud-hen nests in far greater numbers than does any native species of duck. Although remaining within the state during the whole year, a partial migratory movement MUD-HEN 313 is to be noted. It may be that this migration is more largely alti- tudinal than latitudinal; in other words that bodies of water above the winter snow line are largely deserted in the fall. Along with the fall migrants of the duck tribe, Mud-hens appear in the lowlands in very great numbers. In certain places in southern California they are much more abundant in winter than in summer. Belding (MS) says that in the tule districts of central California the Coot does not migrate, in the accepted significance of this term, but that in winter when deep and often muddy water covers their feeding grounds they Fig. 54. Head of Mud-hen showing Natural size (no. 22149). ' shield ' ' on forehead. spread out into the cultivated fields and cause some damage by eating sprouted grain. Tyler (1913&, p. 24) found a stray or migrant in a peach orchard two or three miles from the nearest water. It was so confused that it was easily captured, but when released fiew away. To the average boy in California the Mud-hen is more familiar than any species of duck. And any person with even the slightest possible knowledge of waterfowl can distinguish the bird, aside from its general duck-like appearance, by a single character — the short whitish bill. The plumage is of a dark slate color shading into black on the head and neck (pi. 10). In flight a white patch on the hind margin of each wing shows conspicuously, and the large feet protrude clumsily beyond the end of the tail. In the hand the flat lobes of skin 316 GAME BIBBS OF CALIFOENIA along the joints of the toes make identification certain (fig. 55). At a distance the bird may be distinguished from ducks by the fore-and-aft bobbing motion of the head, in unison with that of the feet. This is observable when walking on land or when swimming in the water. Almost any large or small marsh, or a pond with more or less of a border of tall grass or tules, may be selected by the Mud-hen as a Fig. 55. Top of foot of Mud-hen. Natural size. Note broad lobes on sides of toes (compare with figs. 11 and 47). nesting site. The Mud-hen is a gregarious species and frequently nests in colonies, the nests being placed even as close as ten feet from each other. Davie (1889, p. 105) says that five hundred Coot eggs were taken from a single marsh near Los Angeles. At Los Bancs, Merced County, nests are so common that it would be a comparatively easy matter to obtain even a larger number of eggs in a single season. Courtship is evidenced by persistent pursuit of the female by the male, MUD-SEN 317 and this is as often carried on under water as above it. The female appears to be able to elude the pursuer just as long as she wishes to do so. The nest nearly always consists of a platform of vegetation, ' ' float- ing" in the sense that the mass of broken-down reeds upon which it rests lies in the water; but it is occasionally situated high and dry on a sedge-covered island, though always near the water. Perhaps the most common nesting site in California is in the edge of a tule thicket. Often the nest is in such an exposed situation that the sitting bird may be seen at a considerable distance. The usual material enter- ing into the composition of the nest proper, is the green stems of tules or sedges, the smaller stems often forming the semblance of a lining. These are sometimes woven into a firm, deeply-cupped or basket-shaped structure. The drying out of the fresh stems during incubation has led to the popular idea that the birds use dry stalks in constructing their nests. There is. usually a sort of gangway, com- posed of bent-over tules, leading to the nest, and the parent bird enters and leaves the nest by this one route. Six to fifteen eggs are laid. Morcom (1887, p. 39) records a nest found in Bear Valley, San Bernardino County, which contained twenty-two eggs; but doubtless this was the product of more than one female. The eggs are creamy white in color, finely and uniformly speckled with dark brown or blackish. In shape they are much like hens' eggs but usually more pointed at the small end. As compared with eggs of the Florida Gallinule those of the Mud-hen are slightly larger and have a less reddish tone of coloration. The eggs of the Mud-hen are occasionally used for food, but they are less palatable than those of domestic fowls. Incubation often begins as soon as the first few eggs are laid and consequently the last egg hatches several days after the first one. Broods have been seen as early as the first week in April. In the lower country the birds usually nest from April 15 to June 15; at high altitudes the season is later. Eggs were found at Lake Merced, San Francisco County, July 23, 1911 (Carriger coll.), and at Bear Lake, San Bernardino County, altitude 6,750 feet, as late as July 27 (Grinnell, 1908, p. 54). The young take to the water within a few minutes after hatching. Here they seem to be perfectly at ease as they swim and dive with agility and are expert in hiding in the vegetation. Their ability to remain beneath the surface of the water for a long period of time is remarkable. In two instances youngsters not more than a day old were observed to remain under water nearly three minutes, as timed by a watch. They could be seen clinging to vegetation beneath the 318 GAME BISDS OF CALIFORNIA surface until apparently forced to come up for air (H. C. Bryant, MS). In contrast to the sombre hue of the adult the downy young is a most brightly colored bird. The general color is shiny black, but on the throat, neck, wings and back there are patches of Crinkled fuzzy feathers with hair-like terminations which are of a Chinese orange shade, brightening to orange vermillion on the head. The bill is a bright vermillion except for the tip, which is black. The top of the head is at first bare except for a few short black bristles. A quite significant and interesting fact was noted in that the feet of the young grew far more rapidly in proportion than the rest of their body. A half-grown Mud-hen has astonishingly large feet, and after observing the ease with which the youngsters swam and dived (apparently just as well as the adults), the relative importance of those members to the early success of the individual seemed plain. The young of a family near camp returned with both parents to the old nest each evening at dusk, but much squabbling and jostling, accompanied by various toots, grunts, and cries, took place before they were all finally settled for the night (Grinnell, 1908, pp. 54-55). Rich (1907, p. 247) writes concerning the Mud-hen in the East: ' ' In summer the separate families keep by themselves, but when in the fall the young are fully fledged and ready for business flocks of con- siderable size are formed preparatory to migrating." The same is true of California birds. Coots are noisy birds and their explosive cackling notes are the commonest sounds emanating from our tule swamps. The usual call- note is a pulque, pulque, pulque, often with a peculiar resonant quality. When alarmed a flock breaks out into a great chorus of these cackling notes, and this seems to act as a warning, as most of the birds in the vicinity at once scurry for cover. The Coot is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time on the water. It prefers the margins of shallow lakes and ponds, however, and often wanders about on the shore. Safety is more often sought by swimming than by flight. When forced to fly a bird "runs" along on top of the water for some distance before gaining headway enough to rise from the surface. Both wings and feet make the water fly in every direction, producing a characteristic sound and wake. Even when well started, the flight is labored, and as soon as fairly out of danger's way, the bird usually drops back into the water with an appearance of complete exhausion. Yet it must be remembered that in parts of its range the Coot undertakes extensive annual migrations. Rich (1907, p. 247) states that it swims well under water, "using its wings in conjunction with its long, lobed feet, which are a most serviceable pair of paddles." Coues (1874, p. 543) says of a flock on open water : ' ' They swam with ease and gracefully ; o m 2 H C MUD-EEN 319 the head now drawn back and held upright over their plump bodies, that floated lightly and changed their course at a movement of their broad paddles, now stretched out to full length as the birds hurried about, throwing off the ripples from their half-submerged breasts, crossing and reerossing each other's path, in wanton sport, or attracted by some delicacy floating at a little distance. ' ' The barbed-wire fence has introduced a new element of danger into the lives of these low-flying birds, and it is not an uncommon thing to see one or more individuals hung on the barbs (Chapman, 1908, p. 292). The Coot is a splendid diver and obtains much of its food from under the surface. The bird is almost omnivorous and although it feeds most extensively on seeds and aquatic plants, it is not averse to taking insects, tadpoles, or even, on occasion, to eating dead ducks. Pondweed (Potamogeton) is a favorite food in most localities. Ander- son and Jenkins (1903, p. 154) found Coots feeding on green grass near shore on a lagoon in San Mateo County. Grain is relished when obtainable. Many gun-clubs consider the Mud-hen an enemy, because it destroys both the natural and artificially supplied food on the pre- serves. In some localities clubs hold a "Mud-hen shoot" at the begin- ning of the season so as to rid their grounds of these so-called pests and as many as 5,000 Coots have been killed in a day on one preserve in Merced County (Tyler, 1913&, p. 23). Some far-seeing sportsmen, however, are averse to these harsh measures, for they are inclined to think that at some not far distant day, when the supply of ducks is exhausted, our sportsmen will of necessity turn to this less desirable game bird as has been done in certain eastern localities. Many people think as little of the Mud-hen as an article of food as they do of a crow. On the other hand we have heard it asserted that young Coots, skinned and fried, or even old ones parboiled, are quite as delicious as most ducks. The story is current that this bird has for many years been sold by the hotels of San Francisco and other large cities as "duck." At present the Mud-hen is very tame and is an easy mark for the gunner. "Whether increased attention would make it a wary bird is problematical. As far as we can find out there has been little or no diminution in the numbers of Mud-hens. Through the decrease of more desirable birds it is possible that it will be more largely shot as a game bird, and in that event we may expect this species to decrease just as the ducks have done, unless the shooting be judiciously regulated. 320 GAME BIRDS OF GALIFOBNIA Red Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius (Linnaeus) Other names — Gray Phalarope; Sea Goose; Whale-bird; Bow-fin Bird; Crymophilus fulicarius. Desckiption — Adult male in spring and early summer: Top of head, hind neck and back, sooty black with broad feather marginings of buffy brown, giving a streaked appearance; region around eye dull or buffy white, most extensive below and behind eye; area about base of bill, and chin, mixed reddish white and black, white predominating on chin; bill dull yellow at base, brownish black at tip and about nostrils; iri^ "brown" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 293); rump slate-colored; upper tail coverts tawny, with some dark shaft streaks; tail above sooty brown, the feathers with narrow tawny or whitish margins; outer surface of closed wing brownish slate; edges of coverts white, those of greater coverts extensively so, forming a conspicuous white band, this being continued along tips of secondaries; flight feathers sooty brown, shafts of primaries and bases and shafts of secondaries, white; tertials margined with dull tawny; under surface of wing and axillars white; margin of wing at and below bend, mottled white and dusky; under surface of flight feathers dusky, becoming brownish toward tips; sides of neck and under sur- face dull cinnamon red with more or less white scattered along middle of belly; feathers of sides and flanks with dusky shaft streaks; under tail coverts like under surface, but with some of the feathers white; feet dark brown, darker at joints, webs lighter. Total length 7.90 inches (200 mm.) (two speci- mens from California); folded wing 4.77-5.18 (121.7-131.8); bill along culmen 0.82-0.95 (20.8-24.3); tarsus 0.83-0.90 (21.1-22.9) (ten specimens from Cali- fornia and Alaska). Adult female in spring and early summer: Top of head, chin, and area about bill, deep brownish black, darker above than below; area around eye, white, more extensive below and behind eye; hind neck and back dull black; feathers of back extensively margined with light buffy or pale tawny; rump slate colored; middle upper tail coverts pale buffy with brownish black shaft streaks; outer tail coverts clear cinnamon red; inner tail feathers brownish black with narrow light brown edgings, outer ones lighter with whiter edgings; wing as in male; side of neck, and whole under sur- face including sides, flanks and under tail coverts, uniform deep cinnamon red, approaching chestnut, with a very few white feathers on belly. Total length 7.96-9.00 inches (202-228 mm.) (seven specimens from California and , Alaska) ; folded wing 5.06-5.48 (128.4-138.6) ; bill along culmen 0.82-0.96 (20.8-24.5); tarsus 0.79-0.89 (20.0-22.6) (ten specimens from California). Adults, both sexes, in late fall and winter: Head white, except for blackish area almost encircling eye and extending backwards over ear region; back of head and hind neck blackish; back and scapulars pearl gray with narrow white feather tippings; rump dusky brown; middle upper tail coverts blackish, with buffy edges, lateral ones white with gray shaft -streaks; tail and wing as in summer except that lighter margins are lost or reduced by wear; sides of chest, sides of body, and flanks, grayish; whole lower surface otherwise white. Juvenile plumage: Top of head mixed black and tawny; cheek and stripe from side of bill running over eye, buffy white; chin white; back and tail, black with broad feather margins of tawny; rump gray; outer surface of closed wing largely dull grayish brown; greater coverts and secondaries broadly tipped with white, forming a broad bar across wing; breast pale brown; rest of under BED PHALASOPE 321 surface white, washed with brownish on flanks. Natal plumage: Ground color of head buff, darkest and most reddish on forehead and crown; narrow stripe from bill to eye, and broad stripe on each side of crown black; eye region whitish; bill yellowish, dark at tip; back a mixed pattern of black, reddish buff and white; chin, throat and breast buff; belly whitish; flanks washed with buff; legs and feet (dried) yellowish brown. Marks tor field identification — Small size, chunky form, absence of spot- ting, streaking or barring on under surface, white bar across wing, under sur- face chiefly reddish brown in spring, with white cheek -patch, mixed white and dull red in fall, and pure white in winter; neck short and thick (thicker than in Northern Phalarope) ; wings not markedly different in color from back; spends much of time swimming on water, and, within our borders, is rarely if at all, found feeding on shore; "spins" about rapidly from time to time while feeding on surface of water. Voice — A low and musical clinic, clinic (Nelson, 1887, p. 97). Nest — Close to or in near vicinity of small fresh or brackish pools; com- monly only a moderate depression in damp ground, without lining, or else a rather deep depression sunk in the top of mossy hummock, with a thin lining of dry grasses (Nelson, loc. cit., and Grinnell, 1900, p. 20). Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.07 to 1.33 by 0.85 to 0.90 (in millimeters, 27.2 to 33.8 by 21.6 to 22.8) ; ground-color greenish olive, light or dark buff, or even a grayish olive with large or small markings of dark brown, sometimes aggregated about the larger end forming a zone of dark color, or else rather evenly distributed over the whole egg; differ from eggs of Northern Phalarope only by slightly larger average size (authors). General distribution — ^Almost world-wide. Sreeding range circumpolar; in North America extends north to Ellesmere Land, Melville Island, and Point Barrow, and south to St. Michael, Alaska, central Mackenzie, central Keewatin, Hudson Strait, and southern Greenland. Winters in Eastern Hemi- sphere south to Morocco, India, China and New Zealand. In Western Hemi- sphere probably winters in large part on southern oceans. Common offshore in both migrations on Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to vicinity of Massa- chusetts, but not known between that region and coast of Argentina. Common at times, chiefly during migration, on Pacific coast from Alaska to southern end of Lower California, and again off coast of Chile (Cooke, 1910, pp. 14-16). Distribution in California — Abundant transient along the seacoast during both migrations. Northward spring migration lasts from late April to early June. Southward migration lasts from first of August to late November or early December. A few stragglers have been taken near Monterey in Decem- ber and January (Beck, 1910, p. 70), and some probably winter around the Santa Barbara Islands and off the coast near San Diego. Recorded inland only at Stockton, one specimen, October 10, 1890 (Belding, MS), Pasadena (Grinnell, 1898, p. 16), and Los Angeles (Willett, 1912o, p. 34). The Red, or Gray, Phalarope is the most maritime of the three species of phalaropes and for that reason comes under observation of fewer persons. The migrating flocks begin to pass northward about the last of April, and from that time to the first of June (in two eases June 3), the species is abundant in the bays along our coast and on the adjacent ocean. The return migration sets in early in August (earliest instance August 2) and lasts at least through 322 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFOBNIA Mg. 56. Side of tarsus and top of foot of Bed Phala- rope. Natural size. Note webs between bases of toes and lobes on margins of toes. October. The November and December records of this species prob- ably indicate that some individuals winter on the ocean off the south- ern California coast and even as far north as Tomales Bay. The collection of the California Academy of Sciences contains fifteen specimens taken at Monterey during December . and January (Beck, 1910, p. 70). In this respect the Bed Phalarope differs markedly from the North- ern. At the height of the migrating season the former species is exceedingly abundant offshore, sometimes occurring in flocks be- lieved to number thousands of individuals. In breeding plumage the Red Phalarope can be easily identified by the uniform dull cinnamon red of its under surface, and the conspicuous white patches on the sides of its head; but in the fall identification is not so easy. From the Northern Phalarope the Red may then be distinguished at a distance only with some difficulty, by its thicker neck, heavier bill (fig. 57), and chunkier appear- ance. From many of the shore birds it may be told by its small size and dense duck-like plumage, and from others by its rather thick head and neck, tawny upper tail coverts, and by lack of streaks, bars or spots on the under surface. Often, especially early in the fall migration, the plumage of the under surface is mixed red and white, but never with a definite pattern. The note is described as a low and musical clink, clink, sounding very much like the noise made by lightly tapping to- gether two small bars of steel. When the birds are disturbed the note is repeated oftener and becomes harder and louder (Nelson, 1887, p. 97). In our latitude this species is noted most commonly on the surface of the water, usually on the ocean, either resting quietly or else actively whirling about and dabbing the bill rapidly into the water from side to side after the small forms of animal life on which the birds feed. On rough water the birds often take wing to avoid curl- ing waves, alighting immediately on smoother water. Streator (1888, p. 54) saw numbers of these Phalaropes standing on floating kelp near San Nicolas Island; and individuals are not infrequently seen 4804 Fig. 57. Side of bill of Bed Phalarope. Natural size. Note somewhat stouter form as compared with bills of other Phalaropes (com- pare with figs. 58 and 59). BED PEALABOPE 323 standing or walking on mud flats or the seabeach close to the surf. Dawson says (1911, p. 178) that when feeding, they work at the rate of 300 dabs per minute and that the excrement is voided at two or three minute intervals when so feeding. McGregor (1898, pp. 87, 88) says concerning the habits of the species as a visitant along the coast of California: ... I have repeatedly seen them in deep water feeding and swimming. . . . Near San Diego the Red Phalarope remains all winter at times and swims about on the "tide slicks" feeding . . . [and] swimming nervously here and there with a peculiar jerky movement [of the head] .... [At Santa Cruz it was] busily feeding, gathering as I afterwards found, small Crustacea from the surface of the water. As I attempted to approach them the whole flock arose and circling rapidly for a few seconds lit again a long way off. Another time, apparently forgetting my presence, they would light only a few feet from their starting place. . . . The head moved as if on a spiral spring and food was secured by quick dabs at the surface of the water. I found their time was spent either at the edge of the salt water, or, as likely in swimming on small brackish lagoons, just back of the sand beaches. ... In the Bay of San Diego they are often seen, and a flock of eight or nine Red Phalaropes was seen in Lower California on a fresh water lagoon some twelve miles from the coast. This was the middle of April and several showed red blotches on the white plumage. . . . The Phalaropes usually feed near the water's edge when they are not actually in the water. Not a moment is lost as they run hurriedly back and forth, now following a receding wave to catch a belated Hippa and again industriously turning over decaying algae in order to capture the small crus- taceans (Orchestia) which are . . . lurking there. . . . They feed on minute particles of animal matter. . . . [One] may approach to within a few feet of a feeding flock, perhaps, but Crymophilus [= Phalaropusi is notional and if you get too near, away goes the whole flock as a single bird, with no warning that we can detect. A killed or crippled Phalarope is almost sure to decoy the remainder of the flock. . . . Whether on the wing or running along stretches of white sand beach or whether rapidly paddling over the water, the Phalarope is always neat and careful of its snowy feathers. In northeastern Greenland, Manniche (1910, pp. 152-159) im- proved an excellent opportunity to learn something of the habits of this Phalarope. Of a pair seen June 19, 1907, he says : At flrst they were entirely occupied in searching for food. Swimming on the water and going amongst the tufts they eagerly hunted for gnats and larvae. . . . They caught the larvae by swimming swiftly with the neck stretched out towards the selected prey. They would often keep the bill vertically and — reconnoitring the water just in front of them — pick up the prey . . . with the greatest dexterity. Between the tufts the Phalaropes would especially hunt flying insects. [They were evidently afraid of the larger shore birds such as, for instance. Knots.] Several times I saw them rush together in terror and lie motionless on the water with their heads pressed down to their backs until the supposed danger — a passing Knot — was past. . . . 324 GAME BIBVS OF CALIFOBNIA When the Red Phalarope first arrives on its breeding grounds in the far north, during the latter part of May or the first few days of June, flocks of fifty or more individuals are the rule. A little later the birds pair off, but are still to be found associated together and feeding in scattering companies on the slightly flooded grassy flats. A vivid description of their behavior at this season was secured by Nelson (1887, p. 97) in western Alaska, and is as follows: A little later in the day, as their hunger became satisfied, they began to unite into parties until fifteen or twenty birds would rise and pursue an erratic course over the flat. As they passed swiftly along stray individuals and pairs might be seen to spring up and join the flock. Other flocks would rise and the smaller coalesce with the larger until from two to three or even four hundred birds were gathered in a single flock. As the size of the flock increased, its movements became more and more irregular. At one moment they would glide straight along the ground, then change to a wayward flight, back and forth, twisting about with such rapidity that it was difficult to follow them with the eye. Suddenly their course would change, and the compact flock, as if animated by a single impulse, would rise high overhead, and, after a series of graceful and swift evolutions, come sweeping down with a loud, rushing sound to resume their playful course near the ground. During all their motions the entire flock moves in such unison that the alternate flashing of the under sides of their wings and the dark color of the back, like the play of light and shade, makes a beautiful spectacle. When wearied of their sport the flock disbands and the birds again resume their feeding. The nesting habits of all the Phalaropes are peculiar in that the male performs most of the duties in other birds alloted to the female. In complementary fashion it is the female that does the courting. From his observation of the Eed Phalarope in northeastern Greenland, Manniche (1910, pp. 153-154) writes: IT When the male had been eagerly searching food for some twenty minutes, often standing on his head in the water like a duck to fish or pick up some- thing from the bottom, he would lie down on a tuft stretching out his one leg and his one wing as if he would fully enjoy the rest after his exertions. The female for some moments was lying quietly and mutely in the middle of the pool; suddenly she began with increasing rapidity to whirl around on the surface of the water always in the same little circle, the diameter of which was some 10 cm. [2% inches]. As the male seemed to pay no attention to her alluring movements she flew rapidly up to him — producing as she left the water a peculiar whirling sound with her wings and uttering short angry cries — pushed him with her bill, and then she returned to the water and took up her swimming dance. Now the male came out to her and the two birds whirled around for some moments equally eager and with increasing rapidity. Uttering a short call the female again flew to a tuft surrounded by water and waited some seconds in vain for the male; again she flew to the water tp induce him with eager pushes and thumps to accompany her. They again whirled violently around, whereafter she, uttering a strong alluring sound flew back to the tuft this time accompanied by the male — and the pairing immediately took place. BED PSALABOPE 325 While the Red Phalarope remains in northern latitudes for a longer period than does the Northern, usually from late May to the middle of October, the nesting period is quite restricted. Nelson (loc. cit) found that the bulk of the species nested at St. Michael during the first two weeks of June, while Grinnell (1900, p. 20), just north of Cape Prince of "Wales, found slightly incubated eggs on June 27 and 28. The species varies somewhat in its nesting habits, according to Nelson and Grinnell, the nests sometimes being situated close to bodies of water and at other times at considerable distances from water. The nest itself is a slight depression in the top of a grassy hummock or on the surface of the bare ground, usually with a sparse lining of dry grasses or leaves. In some cases the nest is rather well concealed behind drooping grasses or willows. Manniche (1910, pp. 154-155) says that in northeastern Green- land . . . the nest building was executed by the male. He was busy in build- ing the nest on a low bank covered with short grass, while . . . [his mate] paid no attention to his labour, but swam around the beach searching food. The male shaped a nest-hollow by turning round his body against the ground on the place selected, having first by aid of the feet scraped away and trampled down the longest and most troublesome straws. He diligently used feet and bill at the same time to arrange the shorter fine straws, which are carefully bent into the nest hollow and form the lining of this. The nest was much smaller than that of Tringa alpina and contained one egg the next day. A brooding "Phalarope will lie motionless with his head pressed deep down against his back. He is almost fully covered by straws, which svirround the nest, as he with the bill bends these over himself ; besides he is so similar to the surroundings, that no human eye is able to distinguish him from these, if the spot is not known before- hand" (Manniche, loc. cit.). If disturbed, the male will perform the broken-wing ruse used by females of other species in decoying an intruder from the vicinity of the nest. Three or four pear-shaped eggs comprise a full set in the Red Phalarope. They measure in inches from 1.07 to 1.33 by 0.85 to 0.90. The ground-color is a greenish olive, light or dark buff, or even a grayish olive. The markings consist of large or small spots of dark brown, sometimes equally crowded over the entire surface. They are to be distinguished from those of the Northern Phalarope only by slightly larger average size. The period of incubation is not known but probably is about three weeks, as Nelson (1887, p. 98) states that "... toward the end of June most of the young are hatched and, by the middle of July, are on the wing." The young, when they are able to fly, form flocks in 326 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA company with the adults. Whether these mixed flocks break up dur- ing migration is not known; but the extensive series of this species obtained by Mr. R. H. Beck for the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at Monterey in August, 1910, does not contain a single immature bird. So far as we can determine all are adults, and the males and females are about evenly divided as to numbers. Some of the food of this species has been indicated in the fore- going account, as quoted from McGregor. Beck found the birds at Monterey in 1910 feeding, as he supposed, upon small jellyfish which were numerous along "slicks." This is unusual as most of the food of the species is probably made up of small Crustacea. The forage grounds include brackish ponds, as well as the kelp beds and tide slicks ("whale grease") of the open ocean. This phalarope, as in the case of some of the other smaller shore birds, has been killed in considerable numbers by flying against tele- graph wires where strung out across a marsh. For instance, near Alameda, May 15, 1896, fourteen individuals were found dead, having been killed in this manner (Cohen, 1896, p. 15). The Red Phalarope, being a more maritime species than either of the other two, and than most of the shore birds, has probably suffered but little diminution in its numbers. The fact that its breeding range is in the extreme north, farther toward the pole than either of the other two species, has probably also contributed to its protection. It is a small species, not worth the shot of the hunter, important neither as a game bird nor economically. Northern Phalarope Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) Othee names — Mono Lake Pigeon; Lobefoot; Sea-goose; Phalaropus lobatus; Phalaropus hyperboreus ; Lobipes hyperboreus. Desokiption — Adult male in spring and early summer: Top of head and liind neck, dull sooty brown, the feathers with or without whitish or brownish tips; spot in front of eye, whitish; upper and lower eyelids white; sometimes a dull whitish spot behind eye; chin and upper throat pure white; bill black; iris "dark-brown" (Audubon, 1842, V, p. 298); patch on each side of neck bright rusty brown; back sooty brown, feathers widely margined with light buffy brown, and extreme edges white until lost by wear; upper tail coverts dull dark brown or blackish with narrow light brown edgings; tail feathers blackish, lateral ones lighter and margined with white; outer surface of closed wing sooty brown, except for tips of greater coverts and bases of secondaries, which are white; in unworn condition there are slight white tippings on rest of coverts; shafts of outer primaries light buff to white; elongated tertials more brown in tone than rest of wing; axillars and most of lining of wing white; bend of wing beneath mottled with dusky; under surface of flight feathers dusky, shafts white; lower throat and breast grayish NOETHEBN PHALABOPE 327 brown with feathers more or less white tipped and central portion of the area more or less suffused with rusty brown; rest of under surface white; feathers of sides and flanks with dusky shaft streaks; feet dusky with pale webs. Total length 6.40-7.75 inches (163-197 mm.) (ten specimens from Cali- fornia) ; folded wing 4.04-4.35 (102.8-110.5) ; bill along culmen 0.79-0.93 (20.0- 23.7); tarsus 0.78-0.84 (19.7-21.5) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Adult female in spring and early summer: Like adult male in corresponding plumage but with bright rusty brown on sides of throat deeper in tone and more extensive, reaching farther around toward middle of chest, and running down outer edge of scapulars as a duller streak; top of head, hind neck and back, nearly uniform slate, with a longitudinal buffy brown stripe on scapulars of each side; rump and upper tail coverts nearly black; general color of wing blackish. Total length 7.37-8.00 inches (187-203 mm.) (ten specimens from California); folded wing 3.91-4.29 (99.2-109.0); bill along culmen 0.84-0.96 (21.4-24.4); tarsus 0.76-0.86 (19.2-21.8) (ten specimens from California and Alaska). Adults, both sexes, in fall and winter: Head and whole lower surface white, except for spot of dusky just below and behind eye; back and scapulars pearl gray with broad white feather margins; wings as in summer, save as modified by wear. Most late summer birds observed in California are in mixed, transitional plumage, from summer to winter. Juvenile plumage: Similar to summer plumage of adult male but with bro^vn of neck and throat wanting, grayish brown of chest and sides replaced by pale drab, and edgings of scapulars and tertials bright rusty brown. Natal plumage: Ground color of upper, surface, sides and chin, tawny, paler on lower back and chin; white spot over eye; stripe from side of bill to eye, dusky; top of head striped with black and tawny; ear region, middle of hind neck and side of neck, black; a median stripe, and two lateral ones on each side of back, black; throat suffused with tawny, fading to dull white on under surface, which is in turn replaced by drab in the region of the vent; feet (dried) yellowish. Marks tor field iDENTiriCATiON — Small size, needle-like bill (fig. 58), slender head and neck, white under surface, and, in summer plumage, absence of conspicuous streaking or barring on back of head and back, and reddish sides of neck. Frequents open water, either salt or fresh; swims gracefully and with quick movements. Among Phalaropes, distinguished by smaller size, short, slender bill, dark rump, and in summer plumage by blackish head and back. The phalarope most commonly met with on inland waters. Voice — A plaintive "pe-et, pe-et, " or "pleep, pleep, " or "wit, wit." As the birds take wing from the water, these notes may be uttered at intervals of one or two seconds. Nest — On banks of sloughs or near shores of small lakes; a depression molded in grassy sod and situated on top of a small hummock; sometimes a small collection of marsh grass, but arranged with little care. Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.10 to 1.30 by 0.75 to 0.85 (in millimeters, 28.0 to 33.0 by 19.1 to 21.6), and averaging 1.20 by 0.82 (30.5 by 20.8) ; ground color greenish-olive, light or dark buffy, or even grayish olive, with either large or small markings of dark brown, sometimes aggregated around larger end to form a dark zone, or else rather evenly distributed over the whole egg (authors). Slightly smaller and less coarsely or deeply marked than those of the Eed Phalarope. General distribution — ^Both hemispheres. In North America breeds from northern Alaska, Melville Island and central Greenland, south to the Aleutian Islands, valley of the upper Yukon, northern Mackenzie, central Keewatin, 328 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA and northern TJngava; in the Old World from the limit of tree growth north to the Arctic coast. Winter range in Western Hemisphere unknown, but prob- ably on ocean south of equator; in Eastern Hemisphere winters in northern tropics. During migration occurs in almost all localities between breeding and winter ranges (Cooke, 1910, pp. 16-18; A. O. U. Check-list, 1910, pp. 107- 108). Distribution in California — Spring and fall migrant coastwise,' less com- mon in the interior. Occurs abundantly both in northward migration in May (extreme dates May 1 and June 19), and in southward migration from late July (earliest, the 11th, at Monterey) to late October (November 16, latest at Santa Barbara). Stragglers may winter within the state, as suggested by the records from Humboldt Bay (C. H. Townsend, 1887, p. 198); Stockton, in January (Belding, MS); and San Diego (McGregor, 1898, p. 88). Interiorly, in spring migration seems to keep to west side of San Joaquin Valley (east to Fresno), but in fall migrates down Sierras (Lake Tahoe) to southern San Joaquin Valley and western side of Mohave Desert. Among the shore birds there are none more dainty, more unsus- picious and more entertaining than the Phalaropes, of which the Northern is the smallest and most widely known. With its nesting range centering almost on the Arctic Circle and its winter home somewhere in the vast expanse of the Southern Hemisphere, the Northern Phalarope presents one of the most interesting problems in migration. Among the fishermen of the North Pacific Ocean these birds together with the Red Phalaropes are known as "Bow-head Birds" by reason of their feeding on the same small marine animals as the bow-head or right whale. They are also known in these regions as "Sea Geese" because of the erect posture of their head and neck while they are on the water. East of the Sierras in the region of Mono Lake they have been called "Mono Lake Pigeons." Writers have also referred to them as "Lobe-foots," a name which they might appropriately share with the other two phalaropes. Northern Phalaropes begin to appear off our coast by the first day of May, becoming abundant by late May or early June from which time on they rapidly decrease in numbers until about the middle of the month -when they disappear. Dawson (1916, p. 25) records seeing five on Goose Lake, Modoc County, June 24, 1912. As with many other shore birds the breeding season of the Northern Phalarope is exceedingly short, the great bulk of the individuals beginning to nest within a few days of one another. This accounts for the fact that barely five or six weeks elapse between the time that the last of the north-bound migrants disappear in June, and the time when the advance guard of the south-bound host reaches our latitude in the latter part of July. From this time on, the species increases in abun- dance; its numbers are maintained during August and September, after which time it again becomes rare. The last of the birds disappear by late October or early November. The few records of birds having NOETEEBN PHALABOPE 329 been seen within our boundaries during the winter season are prob- ably cases of stragglers that have been detached from the migrating flocks. The winter home of the species is not definitely known but it is believed to be the open ocean south of the equator and the birds are thought to feed and sleep on the water during the winter months (Cooke, 1910, p. 16). The Phalaropes as a group may be distinguished as the only wad- ing birds which habitually swim or rest on the surface of the water. This, coupled with the peculiar whirling motion, characteristic at least of the Red and Northern, will serve to identify them on the water. In flight their small size, direct course, and color markings must be depended upon. The Northern Phalarope may be dis- tinguished from the Wilson by its smaller size, and, in the breeding season, by the relatively larger amount of reddish on the neck and throat. From the Red it may be distinguished in the breed- ing season, of course, by the restriction of _ _ reddish to the neck and throat, but in the ' ""^^ '^^^ fall and winter plumage chiefly by its ^.^ ^^ ^.^^ ^^ ^.^^ smaller head and extremely slender neck of Northern Phalarope. (Torrey, 1913, pp. 52, 53). Natural size. The Northern Phalarope is at nearly all Note slender form, and times of the year a gregarious species espe- f,"oS,rtith'-figs.''57 cially in feeding and migrating. Even and 59). when nesting, pairs remain in the near neighborhood of one another. While it resorts to the shores of inland ponds or streams to nest and may sometimes be found in such locali- ties at other seasons of the year, it spends the greater part of the year in the vicinity of or on salt water. At times this bird associates with the Red Phalarope, occasionally in large numbers, especially while out on the ocean, as for example near Monterey. It may also join with some of the sandpipers in feeding, but the species is more commonly found in flocks containing only those of its own kind. The call-note of the adult Northern Phalarope may be described as a plaintive pleet, pleet, or peet, peet. It is also credited with a note resembling wit, wit, wit (Saunders, 1899, p. 568). During the breeding season and to a less extent during migration the Northern Phalarope feeds along beaches or in muddy creeks at low tide, but it spends most of its time on the water, either while resting or feeding. When on the water the birds have a habit of whirling about rapidly. On this account they have been given the name of ' ' whirligig birds. ' ' This movement is evidently for the pur- pose of bringing to the surface some of the minute animal life which serves as food, and the movement is used most effectively in shallow 330 GAME BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA water where the rotating motion produced by alternate movement of the lobed feet creates a little whirlpool. This whirling is maintained at a rapid rate, and from three to forty revolutions may be made with- out stopping. As a bird rotates, the bill is rapidly dabbed down into the water, at a rate in some cases of 150 dabs per minute. Evidently the success of this method depends upon the light conditions because little or no "whirling" is noted on cloudy days (Bowles and Howell, 1912, p. 67). On their breeding grounds these birds have been ob- served to dart in zigzag fashion along the margins of the pools in their search for food (Nelson, 1887, p. 99). The nesting season of the Northern Phalarope is exceedingly short, a point which was mentioned in connection with their reappearance in June and July along the California coast. Extreme nesting dates available are June 11, 1908 (Dixon, MS), and June 30, 1899 (Grinnell, 1900, p. 21). Nelson (1887, p. 99) states that fresh eggs are rarely found after June 20. In North America this species nests throughout most of the northern half of Canada and Alaska on the banks of ponds or streams near either fresh or salt water, seeming however to prefer the former. The nest itself may consist of a small collection of marsh grass, some- times arranged on the top of a tussock of moss, or more commonly on the level surface. Little or no care is shown by the birds in con- structing the nest. Grinnell (loc. eit.) describes nests in the Kotzebue Sound region as being "... neatly moulded depressions in the grassy sod, usually on a hummock at the side of a pool of water. There was no lining except that formed by the broken-down grasses underlying the nesting cavity." The eggs of the Northern Phalarope usually number three or four, sets of the latter number being much the more common. Turner {in Macoun and Macoun, 1909, p. 159) is authority for the statement that five eggs sometimes comprise a set. "The ground [color] varies from dark greenish-olive or brownish-olive, through various lighter drab- tints, nearly to a buffy-brown, and in one instance to a light grayish- drab. The markings are usually very bold and heavy, consisting of large spots and the still larger splashes produced by their confluence, mingled with dots and scratches in interminable confusion. The markings are, in general, pretty evenly distributed, sometimes aggre- gated about the butt, and in rarer instances forming a complete, definite circle. In a few instances all the markings are mere dots. In general, the heaviness and size of the markings bear some proportion to the intensity of the ground-color. The color of the markings is dark bistre, chocolate, and sometimes still lighter brown" (Goues, 1874, p. 471) . The eggs measure in inches 1.10 to 1.30 by 0.75 to 0.85, and average 1.20 by 0.82. The eggs of the Northern are said to be NOBTBEBN PHALABOPE 331 indistinguishable from those of the Eed Phalarope, save that the latter average slightly the larger. When a person approaches the nest of a Northern Phalarope, the sitting bird slips quietly from the nest while the intruder is twenty yards or more away, and flies to the surface of a nearby pond where it commences feeding unconcernedly, giving the impression that there is no nest in the vicinity. At other times the bird will employ the broken-wing ruse and other tactics common to nesting birds. During the nesting period the adults remain close around the nest site ; when foraging they follow one another about attentively. According to different authors the male of this species does haK or all of the work of incubation. Indeed, except for the primary function of laying eggs, the male performs all or most of the duties assumed by the female in other species of birds. As a result of the low swampy nature of the ground chosen for the nesting site many of the nests are at times inundated by high tides and the eggs destroyed (Grinnell, loe. eit.). By the latter part of July (20th to 27th) the young are fully fledged and on the wing, feeding with the adults. The fall molt seems to extend through a considerable portion of the period from July to September. At least among the many speci- mens taken in the fall along our coast varying conditions of the plumage are shown, though not one is in full winter plumage. While often appearing in great numbers on the ocean during migration, the flocks are smaller on fresh water inland, perhaps thirty individuals being the average number found in a flock. The flight is usually quite direct, without the zig-zag movements of the sandpipers, but at times it is erratic. Heavy winds on the ocean sometimes prove disastrous to the migrating hosts of Northern Phalaropes. Chapman (1905, p. 273) records finding many bodies of this species in the tide pools of the Farallon Islands. A heavy northwest wind had been blowing along the coast for the previous two weeks and many of the birds had resorted to inland pools of water. The emaciated condition of the birds at the Farallones was probably due to their inability to procure food while on the open ocean in migration. Forbush (1912, p. 228) records numbers of these birds as being killed on the Atlantic coast by dashing against lighthouses at night. In the Cape Region of Lower California, Brewster (1902a, p. 59) found that "most of the birds examined had lost one or more toes, and two or three an entire foot, and part of the tarsus, also, while others showed gaping wounds on the breast. These mutilations were probably caused by the bites of fishes." Emerson (1904, pp. 37, 38) records finding several of these birds killed by flying against the telephone wires strung across the salt ponds on the marshes west of Hayward, and says that very many of this and other species of birds are killed in this manner. 332 GAME BIBDS OF CALIFORNIA The Northern Phalarope feeds chiefly, although not exclusively, on aquatic forms of animal life : Aquatic worms (including Nereis, the oyster-worm), Crustacea, such as small shrimps, larvae of aquatic in- sects, flies, especially those species which inhabit the surface of water, salt-marsh mosquitoes, crane flies, grasshoppers, clover-root curcuUos, wireworms, click beetles, and water beetles (Dytiscidae) (McAtee, 1911a). It is a mistake to refer to the Northern Phalarope as a "game bird." Its small size, if nothing else, should remove it from the list of species reckoned as objects of pursuit for food or sport. This, coupled with the fact that its food habits, when it resorts to non- aquatic forms of life, make it beneficial to our agricultural interests, should be sufficient ground for placing it in the category of perman- ently protected shore birds. Wilson Phalarope Stegarwpus tricolor Vieillot Other names — Needle-billed Snipe; Fhalaropus tricolor; Fhalaropus wilsoni. Description — Adult male in spring and summer: Top of liead and stripe from base of bill through eye to ear region, dull blackish brown; forehead sometimes suffused with grayish white; stripe over eye, lower eyelid, spot on hind neck, chin, upper throat and lower portion of cheek, white; area behind ear region black, sometimes suffused with reddish; bill black; iris brown; upper surface except rump and upper tail coverts dull dark brown, many of the feathers with lighter margins, and some marked with rusty; feathers of hind neck slightly washed with white; rump feathers drab, tipped with white; upper tail coverts with light drab shaft streaks and white shafts and margins; outer surface of closed wing uniform dull dark brown; primaries blackish, shaft of outermost one white; bend of wing mottled white and light brown; inner surfaces of flight feathers light grayish brown, shafts white; lining of wing and axillars, white; sides of hind neck dull reddish; throat and fore-chest abruptly light buffy, more whitish near mid-line and fading to liglit drab on lower chest; sides and flanks pale drab, many of the feathers with dusky shaft streaks and dull whitish tips; rest of lower surface white; legs and feet black. Total length "8.25-9.00" inches (210-228 mm.) (Eidgway, 1900, p. 145); folded wing 4.60^.92 (117-125); bill along culmen 1.08-1.22 (27.5-31.1); tarsus 1.17- 1.29 (29.7-32.8) (seven specimens from California and Nevada). Adult female in spring and early summer: Top of head forward to upper base of bill pearl gray; conspicuous stripe through eye and continuing more broadly down side of hind neck, black; short, black-bordered stripe above and in front of eye white; lower eyelid, chin, upper throat and lower portion of cheek, white; bill black; iris brown; middle of hind neck light grayish or white; side of hind neck behind black stripe, and outer margins of scapulars, deep cinnamon red; back otherwise shading from light gray on hind neck through deeper slate gray to dull brown on lower back and rump; upper tail coverts white, the longer feathers irregularly marked with dusky; middle tail feathers light drab with white tippings, lateral ones light drab with increasing amounts of white WILSON PHALASOPE 333 irregularly distributed; outer surface of closed wing uniform dull dark brown; primaries blackish; shaft of outermost primary white, of the rest light brown; some of secondaries narrowly margined with white; axillars and lining of wing white; bend of wing mottled white and light brown; under surfaces of flight feathers light grayish brown with white shafts; lower throat and upper part of chest abruptly tawny, darkest toned at sides, paling on breast, sides and flanks; rest of under surface white; feet and legs black. Total length "9.40-10.00" inches (239-254 mm.) (Eidgway, loo. cit.) ; folded wing 4.97- 5.29 (126.6-134.3); bill along culmen 1.25-1.39 (31.8-35.2); tarsus 1.19-1.32 (30.1-33.6) (ten specimens from California and Nevada). Adults and birds of the year, hoth sexes, in late summer, fall and winter: Forehead, side of head, stripe above eye, and whole under surface, white; top of head, stripe through eye, hind neck, and whole back, brownish gray with minute white feather tippings; upper tail coverts chiefly white; wings and tail as in adult in spring; sides of throat, chest and body, faintly washed with light gray. Juvenile plumage: Upper parts blackish, the feathers extensively margined with light rusty, giving a streaked effect; chin and area around eye, whitish; bill black, yellowish at base of lower mandible; iris light brown; throat and sides of chest washed with dull buffy; sides buffy, obscurely streaked with blackish; rest of under surface dull white; legs flesh-color; feet yellow; nails black. Natal plumage: "Prevailing color bright tawny fulvous, paler beneath, the abdomen nearly white; occiput and nape with a distinct median streak of black, on the former branching laterally into two narrower, somewhat zig-zag lines; lower back and rump with three broad black stripes; flanks with a black spot, and caudal region crossed by a wide subterminal bar of same ' ' (Baird, Brewer and Eidgway, 1884, I, p. 336). Masks foe field identification — Moderate size, slender neck, long needle- like bill (fig. 59), and white upper tail coverts; no spotting, streaking or barring on under surface, no white on back, and no white bar or patch on wing. The other two Phalaropes have white on back, and white bar or patch on wing. An inland species rarely if ever found along the seacoast. Voice — A nasal oit, oit, oit (W. P. Taylor, 1912, p. 359), or soft trumpeting yiia, yna (Chapman, in Porbush, 1912, p. 229). Nest — In marshy or grassy land at varying distances from water; a small aggregation of grass or sedge with a slight depression in the center, or else merely a slight depression in the surface of the ground with a sparse lining of grass blades. Eggs — 3 to 4, pear-shaped, measuring in inches, 1.25 to 1.33 by 0.92 to 0.94 (in millimeters, 31.7 to 33.7 by 23.4 to 23.8), and averaging 1.28 by 0.93 (32.6 by 23.6) (two sets, seven eggs, from Nevada and Colorado) ; ground- color light buff to very light drab; superficial markings dark brown or brownish black, deep ones pale olive or light brown; markings chiefly spots, the larger ones aggregated about larger end of egg, smaller ones profusely sprinkled over whole surface. General distribution — North and South America. Breeds from northern Washington (and probably southern British Columbia), central Alberta, central Saskatchewan and northern Manitoba, east to northwestern Indiana (and probably eastern Wisconsin), and south to central Iowa, southern Kansas, southern Colorado, and northeastern California. In fall migration reaches the Atlantic coast casually from Maine to New Jersey, and Pacific coast from southern British Columbia to Lower California. Winters in South America from central Chile and central Argentina south to the Falkland Islands (A. O. U. Cheek-list, 1910, p. 108). 334 GAME BIEDS OF CALIFORNIA DiSTBiBUTiON IN Calipoenia — Fairly common summer visitant and breeder in suitable localities in the northeastern section of the state, east of the Sierrau divide, from Lake Tahoe northward, and westward to Lower Klamath Lake on the Oregon line. In spring migration has been observed at various inland points north to vicinity of Los Banos, Merced County; also on the coast at Santa Barbara. In fall migration occurs sparingly on coast from San Francisco southward, but more commonly inland. The "Wilson Phalarope, or Needle-billed Snipe as it has been called in parts of the east, is the non-maritime representative of the phala- ropes, and is the only strictly American member of its family. It is a distinctly fresh water species in its habits and is seen but rarely even near the seaeoast. In the spring migration it has been observed inland at Salton Sea (April 21), Los Banos (May 11 and June 19), Death and Owens valleys (June 19 and 27), and, on the coast, at Santa Barbara (April 30 to May 20). In the fall it has been taken at Ceme- teries, San Mateo County (September „. 9), and has been noted at Santa Bar- Fig. 59. Side of bill of Wilson /' , -. , on ..