^45 
 
 CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
Cornell University Library 
 QD 22.G74S65 
 
 The life and works of Thomas Graham, D.C 
 
 3 1924 012 364 406 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924012364406 
 
LIFE AND WORKS OF THOMAS GEAHAM. 
 
THE LIFE AND WOEKS 
 
 THOMAS GEAHAM, D.O.L, F.E.S. 
 
 IlLTJSTEATED BY 64 UNPUBLISHED LETTERS. 
 
 PREPAHED FOE THE GEAHAM LEOTUEE COMMITTEE OF THE GLASGOW 
 PHILOSOPHICAL SOOIETT 
 
 BY 
 
 De. K. ANGUS SMITH, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 Edited by J. J. COLEMAN, P.I.C., F.C.S. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 JOHN SMITH & SONS, WEST GEORGE STREET, GLASGOW. 
 
 1884. 
 
GLASSOW: 
 
 PRINTED BY ROBERT ANDERSON, 
 
 22 ANN STREET. 
 
 
EDITOE'S PREFACE. 
 
 The Graham Medal and Lecture Fund was established in 
 1878 by the leading manufacturing chemists of Glasgow 
 subscribing a sufficient amount of money, the annual interest 
 of which was to be employed by the Chemical Section of the 
 Philosophical Society of Glasgow in the encouragement of 
 research, the name of Graham being coupled with this fund 
 on account of his being a Glasgow man and a great chemist, 
 whose aims and methods are worthy of imitation. „ 
 
 The first Graham Lecture was accordingly devoted to the 
 life of Graham as an investigator, and was delivered in 1879 
 by Mr. Chajidler Roberts, F.RS. • 
 
 The Committee did not think it then necessary to devote 
 further lectures exclusively to the life and work of Graham, 
 but it was pointed out to them by the late Dr. James Young 
 of Kelly that a full life of Thomas Graham had never been 
 written, and that a large collection of his private letters were 
 in the hands of Dr. R. Angus Smith, awaiting a convenient 
 opportunity for publication. Communication was then made 
 with Dr. R. Angus Smith, who expressed an opinion that ex- 
 tracts from these letters would be of sufficient interest to 
 justify the Committee in adopting them as the basis of the 
 second Graham Lecture, and that he would be pleased to 
 deliver this lecture for the Committee. 
 
 A letter was received on the 2nd February, 1884, in which 
 Dr. R. Angus Smith says : — " As to the Graham Lecture, I shall 
 endeavour to describe it. It will consist of — Fi/rat, Preface 
 about Glasgow — fragmentary, very fragmentary. Second, 
 An introduction, trying to describe Graham's surroundings 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 in Glasgow, also very fragmentary. Thwd, A long series of 
 extracts from letters by Graham, from his earliest college 
 days to his later years. This will constitute the pith and 
 novelty of the paper, and it is this which I desire to have 
 published in connection with his writings as abridged by me. 
 Fourth, The abridgment of Graham's writings. It will not 
 be in the artistic form of a lecture, but it will contain matter 
 to be preserV^ed, and it will be as it stands a life of Graham, 
 fragmentary, it is true, but capable of being added to, and 
 the additions I may be able to make as it is passing through 
 the press." 
 
 The lecture was fixed for the 20th February, 1884, but the 
 hand of death was already upon Dr. R. Angus Smith, and, 
 amid much feebleness and effort, the MS. was transmitted 
 to Glasgow a few days before, and read to the Society by 
 Professor Ferguson. Dr. R. Angus Smith was born twelve 
 years after Graham, and died 11th April, 1884, and some 
 of the last moments of his busy life were employed in 
 putting together these memorials of his early friend, who 
 may be called appropriately the "Scotch Faraday," and 
 who was certainly one of the most distinguished workers 
 in chemical science of the present century — Dr. R. Angus 
 Smith himself being not the least notable. 
 
 Dr. Smith's manuscript has required a few editorial re- 
 marks, which are enclosed within brackets; and it may be 
 mentioned that the Editor has not had the opportunity 
 of comparing the proofs with Graham's original letters, but 
 only with Dr. R. Angus Smith's transcripts of them. 
 
 J. J. C. 
 
LIFE AND WORKS 
 
 .THOMAS GRAHAM, 
 
 When I think of Thomas Graham I go back to a period in which, 
 it seems to me, Glasgow was by no means a remarkably scientific 
 spot ; and yet there were individuals there with great scientific 
 insight, and who have from time to time in twelv^undred years 
 shone brightly in it. 
 
 Fame has made the sap of this community the spirit of Kenti- 
 gern ; but there is always a beginning before the one that becomes 
 the most prominent, and St. Ninian was earlier. It is from the 
 community at the High Church, once a Cathedral, that historians, 
 and notably Skene, have drawn the line of active life' that has 
 become the Glasgow that we see. It is interesting to me to think 
 whether the teaching of those early men have really •influenced 
 the community to a great extent. Days of savage darkness came 
 over the country soon after Kentigern's death, but there still 
 seems to have been a memory of the good deeds of him and his 
 unknown successors five hundred years after his death, when the 
 thought came into life in 1150 that Glasgow had once been a 
 centre of civilization, and ought still to be able to act as one. So 
 remarkably do the laws of thought act upon man, so fully are we 
 influenced by tradition, so ready are we to seek the smallest and 
 most illegible sign-post, that the savagery and confusion of half a 
 millenium of misery were forgotten, and the faint tracing of 
 blessed life was enough, at the end, to re-establish the city with 
 even more of its original importance. Even in the next better- 
 known three hundred years, amid difficulties which nature and 
 
S Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 man seem to consider essential to the development of civilization, 
 there was such an advance that it was thought advisable, even by 
 the pope of the time, that a university should be established in 
 Glasgow, being a place well suited and adapted to that pui-pose on 
 account of the healthiness of the climate and the abundance of 
 of food, as well as being an Episcopal city. The university was 
 to be a place " adorned with the gifts of science, that it may produce 
 men distinguished for ripeness of judgment, adorned with virtue, 
 and skilled in different sciences ; and that it may be a fountain of 
 knowledge from the fulness of which all desirous of being in- 
 structed may driidv liberally.'' 
 
 The University at the beginning of this century had Dr. Thomas 
 Thomson, one of the most enlightened chemists in Europe — I do 
 not say the most original, but active and industrious he certainly 
 was. He was far behind his contemporary, John Dalton, in 
 vigour of thought, but he had a more brilliant vision and a 
 greater power of expression ; and chemists owe him much for 
 seeing so closely those laws which have made chemistry into a 
 science. He was Graham's teacher. 
 
 Thomas Graham was born in Glasgow, 21st December, 1805- — 
 Faraday being then fourteen years old — and went first to a pre- 
 paratory school in 1811, thence to the Glasgow High School in 
 1814, where he studied classics under Dr. Dymock and Dr. 
 Chrystal. He subsequently studied at the University from 1819 
 to 1826, taking his degree as M.A. in 1826. 
 
 His taste for chemistry was very early developed, even before 
 he left the nursery ; his amusements when 6 or 7 years old were 
 making gas in tobacco pipes, making eggs move with quicksilver, 
 and other little tricks of the kind. 
 
 [Graham's father was a merchant of good position in Glasgow, 
 and the boy was originally intended for the church. His strong 
 predilections for a scientific career, however, caused him to shape 
 out a path for himself, much to the grief of his father, who, 
 probably not understanding the aims and scope of science, was 
 prejudiced in his judgment. That such was the case was proved 
 by the sequel. Although Graham eventually became possessor 
 of his father's property and a comparatively rich man, in these 
 early days he was poor ; but his letters at this time to his mother 
 and sister Margaret show a gentle and courageous spirit, sustained 
 by lofty ambition, which make them as literary productions 
 peculiarly interesting.] 
 
Dr. E,. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham, 9 
 
 Immediately after obtaining his degree at Glasgow in 1826 he 
 went to Edinburgh, where he pursued his scientific studies under 
 Dr. Hope, and enjoyed the friendship of Professor Leslie. 
 
 One of his earliest letters from Edinburgh, dated June 10, 1826, 
 contains the following curious sentences : — 
 
 "To Mes. Graham. 
 
 " From Edinburgh, 10th June, 1826. 
 " The Professors here are all at logger-heads with each 
 
 other. Leslie calls Hope in his class-room 'the showman in the 
 other corner,' while Dr. Hamilton has just received £500 from 
 Hope for defamation." 
 
 [Graham's letters dated from Edinburgh are here printed in the 
 order arranged by Dr. Angus Smith, with a few connecting 
 remarks.] 
 
 Edinburgh, 22nd June, 1826. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I must request Henry to deliver the 
 enclosed letters. The only one which he is not acquainted with is 
 Muir's. Let it be handed in to Muir's warehouse, which is I believe 
 under Ronnie's school. It is requesting Muir to send down to Henry 
 the Chemical Society Minute Book, as I have at last succeeded in 
 establishing a similar institution in Edinburgh. If Henry gets 
 the Minute Book sent down to him, which I am rather afraid he 
 will not, as Steel has it probably away with him, he will be so 
 good as to send it to me by coach before the end of next week. 
 It will be too bulky to go into the oiEce parcel. I hope you will 
 be merciful to me in not answering your letters quickly, as I singly 
 have such a number of correspondents, and have before me a vast 
 deal of writing work. I opened the new Chemical Society last 
 Saturday with an essay, and am appointed to deliver soon in the 
 Hunterian. I am quite well-known here now. My best respects 
 to Grandmother and Aunt. Will you make my correspondents be 
 more particular in telling how grandmother is getting on. 
 
 I remain. 
 
 Dear Mother, 
 
 Yours sincerely, 
 
 THO. GRAHAM. 
 
10 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Edinburgh, 7th July, 1826. 
 
 Mt Dear Margaret, — I am much obliged to you for your 
 long and elaborate epistle. Till this moment T have not had the 
 smallest leisure to answer it. My first and introductory essay 
 in the Hunterian went off with great eclat. On the motion of 
 Dr. Brown (the poet of Stirling), a vote of thanks was given for 
 it. This must be a very good thing, if we are to judge of it 
 from its rarity, as it is the first time which it has occurred in the 
 
 Hunterian. The best part of the vote was " and that Mr. G 
 
 be solicited to mate his essay public " ! However, I have no 
 intention of publishing till I accumulate matter, not for an article, 
 not for a pamphlet, but for a book — God knows when that will be. 
 
 As for Edinburgh news, I can send you very little. Hamilton, 
 the bookseller, says that Constable's affairs are very bad — that he 
 has really been in an insolvent state for the last six or seven 
 years. For several years he has been paying at the rate of 
 £5,000 a year for mere discounts — a circumstance which of itself 
 was enough soon to have ruined him. The editors of the Hdin- 
 hurgh Medical Journal and Jameson's Scientific Journal have 
 deserted him, and taken to other publishers. His Edimhurgh 
 Monthly Magazine has been given up. A composition of 3s. 6d. 
 in the £, is talked of. Sir Walter Scott will get on ; he has been 
 made King's printer — a situation worth £3,000 a year, chiefly in 
 salary. Sir Walter must have been rather a calculating genius. 
 It turns out that he was almost sole proprietor in the printLug 
 establishment of James Ballantyne & Co., who have failed ; so 
 that he intended not only to profit by writing the novels, but also 
 to have a good share in the profits of printing them. Ballantyne 
 was little more than his servant. I have not had time to read 
 " Woodstock " yet. Sir Walter has in some measure satisfied the 
 cravings of his creditors by binding over to them " Napoleon," 
 and several forthcoming novels. The estate of Abbotsford is 
 ' really not Sir Walter's, it is his son's ; it was bought with Lady 
 Scott's money, who had £70,000, and settled upon her heirs, so 
 that it is in no danger. Lady Scott was a Frenchwoman. 
 
 Bentress is going to Paris in April next ; he confesses that his 
 estate is worth £1,500 a year. He and I were down at the glass- 
 house getting instruments constructed. He has been so dften 
 there about his Gravimeter that he is as well known (he says) as a 
 pickpocket. We had glorious fun the night he brought out his 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 1 1 
 
 instrument in the Hunterian — he was so afraid of a public 
 appearance. I followed, and eulogised his instrument. In 
 return, when he heard that I was to read on " Liquidity," he got 
 out all books possible on the subject, and was telling MacDowal 
 that he wished to God that he would be able to make a speech for 
 Gra-ham (two syllables). . . . You may assure Bell that the 
 washerwomen are such blockheads here that they did not put an 
 atom of starch into my shirts — horrible ! horrible ! . . . We 
 have had several showers here, and even a wet day or two, but the 
 rain has scarcely made a sensible impression. 
 
 How are the Miss Campbells ? How are all the Glasgow young 
 ladies ? Alas, the want of them is felt most sensibly here ; as Miss 
 Brown (Mitchell's landlady) says, the gentlemen turn savages when 
 they go out to the West Indies for want of them. Alas, that I 
 should become 
 
 Your most loving Indian Savage, 
 
 THO. GEAHAM. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1st August, 1826. 
 
 My Deak Mother, — I had not seen the Annak of i'hilosophy 
 since I came to Edinburgh, so that I was not aware, tiU 
 congratulated upon the circumstance by him (Johnston) that a 
 certain paper of mine had been republished in the number of that 
 work for July. I have sent a copy for you. The Annals of 
 Philosophy is a London publication, and is the leading scientific 
 journal of the country. It is published monthly, and is 2/6 a 
 number. You will find in the number enclosed articles by Dr. 
 Christison, a Professor in the College here, by Mr. Christie, 
 a Professor at Woolwich, by Dr. Hugh Colquhoun, Professor 
 Thomson's nephew, an ingenious young chemist, by Sir H. Davy, 
 page 62, etc; it is therefore a good introduction. I also trouble 
 you with the inaugural discourse of a young M.D., a friend of 
 mine. You need not care although his lairdship [Graham's father] 
 see the foregoing. 
 
 Edinburgh, 2l3t September, 1826. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — I have been writing a good deal of late 
 and experimenting too — although from LangstafF's absence and 
 
12 . Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 other circumstances, not in the laboratory. In the investigations, 
 however, in which I have been been latterly engaged, a laboratory 
 is by no means necessary. My essay in the Annals seems to have 
 had some effect, as it will appear from a quotation which I am 
 about to make from the No. of that Periodical for the present 
 month, p. 100 — the author is a Mr. Bailey, and he is criticising Dr. 
 Hugh Colquhoun's paper "The accurate reasoning of Mr. Graham, 
 I may also remark, in his observations on the absorption of gases 
 by liquids (quoted in the same number of the Annals in which Dr. 
 Colquhoiui's paper appears), as well as the experimental evidence 
 he cites, is entirely favourable to this view, etc.'' 
 
 It may be proper to mention that that essay forms a part, and 
 only a small part, of a much greater investigation in which I am 
 engaged, which I hope will all be equally successful. Perhaps in 
 a month or two I will have something additional in the Annals. 
 It is this circumstance which makes me less caring about being 
 baulked at the Mechanics' Institution. Had I got that situation, 
 the overwhelming labour which would have accompanied the proper 
 and successful discharge of its duties, would have been amply 
 sufficient of itself — a labour, too, which would be of very little use 
 to myself — whereas the labour in which I am at present engaged 
 in following out my theoretic speculations, may eventually be even 
 more productive and profitable — certainly more honourable and 
 productive of scientific distinction. Clark, my antagonist, has 
 never got the length of the Annals. 
 
 Edinburgh, 11th Oct., 1826. 
 
 My Dear Mothee, — The basket has been delayed from day to 
 day in the daily expectation of the journal which accompanies it, 
 and which contains another article, as you will see by the contents. 
 The journal was printed in London ten or eleven days ago, but 
 owing to a passage, per smack, of nine days, did not arrive here 
 till to-day. The next number will probably contain a notice of a 
 curious discovery of Miss C. and me in Baking. The present 
 article, although short, is one of considerable importance. There 
 is nothing that I wish more than that somebody should oppose 
 the theory whicli it contains, as a discussion of that kind is the 
 very thing to make one known. 
 
Dk. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 1 3 
 
 Before the laird's burst of eloquence arrived — conceiving that I 
 was fairly set upon my own plus —I had commenced a little chemical 
 work, for which I think there is a call. I can give you here no 
 more than its title page. 
 
 THE LANGUAGE OP CHEMISTRY: 
 
 OR A 
 
 Definition of the Term of the Science, 
 
 Systematically Arranged, Developing its Principles 
 
 AND Object. 
 
 Edinburgh, Oct. 15, 1826. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — My operations have been interrupted for 
 two or three days. I find a room, which Miss Cameron occupies 
 at night as a sleeping room, and which is otherwise unoccupied, 
 forms a very good laboratory for the experiments in which I am 
 engaged, and likely to be engaged for a considerable time. They 
 are doing very well. 
 
 Edinburgh, Nov. 7, 1826. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I send you, by Mr. Stirling, another 
 number of the Annals having a short notice of mine in it. I am 
 glad to hear by him that you are all well. You could not be 
 better than we are here. Did Mr. A. Mitchell call with my letter 
 and Miss C.'s, which was worth half a dozen of mine ? 
 
 The students are flocking in here in great numbers, but no classes 
 have opened as yet, except the medical. My laboratory is getting 
 on quite to my liking. 
 
 "The Language of Chemistry'' has been laid on the shelf for 
 some time. We are tiring to death here for want of letters from 
 Cloverbank. At the beginning of next week be so good as to send 
 . Bell down to Howie's, the carriers, for a tin box, carriage paid, 
 which I hope will contain a more faithful and full representation 
 of matters than this scrawl. — I am, with much respect, 
 
 Yours affectionately, 
 
 THO. GRAHAM. 
 
14 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Edinburgh, 20th November, 1826. 
 
 Mt Dear Mother, — Although I have not achieved a great- 
 coat, yet I am rather comfortably accoutred in a pair of "gentleman's 
 lamb's-wool pantaloons," alias long-legged worsted drawers. My 
 particular studies are going on very favourably, although I was 
 obliged to lay out a little in furnishing my home laboratory, yet 
 it will be easy to make it all up. 
 
 The town is filling very quickly. All the classes, nearly, having 
 opened, and the Courts having sat down for the winter. As for 
 myself, I neither see much of the bustle nor care for it. The 
 more secluded I keep myself from company till I have acquired 
 some standing in science the better. The lassie here is very 
 convenient for such interruptions, for whenever she knows that I 
 am engaged she takes it upon herself to say that I am from home 
 — very much to my satisfaction in general. 
 
 Edinburgh, 20th November, 1826. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — Mr. Dunn, a philosophical instrument 
 maker, cheated me of the opportunity of having an article in the 
 next number of the Annals, by making me wait for ten days or a 
 fortnight for some very minute weights which he was making for 
 me and which were necessary. Professor Brande has done me the 
 honour of giving a very favourable account of my first article in 
 his Quarterly Journal of Science for October, but which I did not 
 see till a few days ago accidentally upon the table of the Writers 
 to the Signet Library. The Annals were lying there too. I 
 have several articles on the stocks — but more of this anon. 
 
 Dr. Hope intends to give another lady's class this winter. I 
 have heard him lecture once or twice, and set him down for a 
 complete puppy. 
 
 Edinburgh, Dec. 20, 1826. 
 
 My Dear Mother,— Dr. Ritchie, the Professor of Divinity 
 here, has been doing all he can to prevent Dr. Chalmers from suc- 
 ceeding him. With this purpose he continued to lecture till a few 
 days ago, although he was not heard in the first bench. One day 
 a gentleman, who passes under the name of Dr. Syntax, and attends 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. Ig 
 
 all the classes, came in. He was applauded upon his entrance, 
 but considering this as meant to insult him, he made a long speech 
 to the students during the lecture, which Dr. Ritchie is so deaf 
 that he did not notice, so that the students were enlightened by 
 two lectures at once. At the conclusion of the lecture Dr. Syntax 
 stepped up to the professor and advised him in an audible voice 
 to resign his situation, for no one heard a word that he said. 
 Principal Baird has latterly been reading his lectures. 
 
 The Hunterian Society had an anniversary dinner at which 
 several of the professors were present. I had been pitched upon 
 to toast Professor Leslie, who was to be there, but was awfully 
 cheated of my speech. For just as I was about to rise and deliver 
 my most eloquent speech, Professor Leslie was obUged to leave the 
 room upon business. Mortifying, indeed ! 
 
 [During this year he was occupied with three papers — (1) " On 
 Absorption of Gases by Liquids;" (2) "On the Heat of Friction;" 
 (3) "Alcohol Derived from Fermentation of Bread."] 
 
 Edinburgh, January 29th, 1827. 
 
 My Deae Mothee, — Johnston brought me a letter from Steel, 
 and two letters of introduction from Dr. Thomson to Professor 
 Leslie and to Dr. Turner, Lecturer on Chemistry here. Both of 
 them I have delivered, and been very kindly received indeed. 
 
 I found Dr. Turner in his house, Pitt Street, New Town. He 
 is a very gentlemanly young man, apparently not above thirty. 
 He is chemical editor of Dr. Brewster's Scientific Journal, and has 
 written a good deal on chemistry. "We were conversing together 
 for more than an hour. He showed me a work which he has very 
 nearly finished, and which 'will be published in a very short time 
 — " Elements of Chemistry" — ^in one thick volume. He intends 
 to have a ladies' class for chemistry this winter in the Assembly 
 Rooms, instead of Dr. Hope. During my stay his sisters came 
 in, and were jesting about the method in which they had been 
 carrying round the hand-bills about these lectures in their muffs, 
 and leaving them at music shops, and wherever they called. Dr. 
 Turner promised to return my call, and hoped that we would 
 become well acquainted. 
 
 Professor Leslie resides in Queen Street, and there I found him 
 sporting a dressing-gown. There was even a longer confab here 
 than in the former case. He is a bachelor, and his drawing-room 
 
16 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 has a good deal the appearance of a laboratory, so that there were 
 plenty of instruments to show and discuss. As I suggested to 
 him a variation and improvement in a favourite process of his, 
 he was so good as to offer me the use of his instruments to perform 
 it. He also requested mo to prepare some chemical things for 
 him, for I find that although an excellent mathematician and 
 natural philosopher, he is no great chemist. He also invited me 
 to step into his class and his laboratory whenever- 1 chose, and to 
 call at his house. He took my address. As Dr. Thomson's 
 letters were sealed, I did not see what they contained, but I should 
 think that they were very favourable, as the first question that 
 both Professor Leslie and Dr. Turner asked was, if I was intending 
 to give a course of lectures. I am much obliged to Dr. Thomson 
 for these letters, as they give one an excellent introduction to the 
 scientific society of Edinburgh. 
 
 Steel, in his letter, without any commands from me, had 
 enclosed 15s. 6d., my share of the Chemical Society's funds. It 
 came very opportunely, although I would rather that it had never 
 come out of Glasgow. 
 
 Edinburgh, January 29, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Margaeet, — The ginger-bread was excellent. Mr. 
 Johnston got away the last of it as a supply for his Durham 
 journey, thinking greatly of it from the scientific principles upon 
 which it had been baked. 
 
 I was surprised the other day by the receipt of the card which 
 I have enclosed for your profitable edification — from Chalmers the 
 bookseller, the Doctor's brother. I have been led to understand 
 that it arose from something which Mr. Dunn, the optician, had 
 said to Mr. C, of and concerning your humble servant. Upon 
 calling upon Mr. C. as requested, I found that he was in a great 
 dilemma for material for the new popular journal of science which 
 he is setting about, and the plan of which he borrowed from our 
 Ghem. Society, and that he wished me to give him some papers — 
 ofiering six guineas a sheet of 24 pages, 12mo; the intended 
 magazine being of small size, containing 60 pages for one shilling, 
 to be published monthly. As I might publish anonymously in it, 
 I told him that I would think of it. 
 
 By the Powers! a very good method of adding two or three 
 guineas a month to one's income. What he wants is quite 
 
De. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 17 
 
 different from what would go to the Annals, so that they do not 
 interfere, and, as I wont put my name to them, the L. can know 
 nothing about it. Although I have been otherwise very throng, 
 I have sent him two or three short things, and will send him some 
 more for the first No., which will not appear for near a month 
 yet. I suppose he pays when the articles are printed. 
 
 Another great advantage of it is that, for the purposes of the 
 Magazine, Chalmers receives all the scientific journals, British 
 and Foreign, and submits them to his contributors. The ob- 
 taining a reading of them the moment they come out is what I 
 wovild have given anything to compass. 
 
 Notwithstanding my denial, some of my friends maintain here 
 that I am the Editor of the Magazine. Where they got the 
 information I know not, as I never told them anything about it. 
 
 Hoping that you will be satisfied for a season with the above 
 news, allow me to subscribe myself on this side of the sheet. 
 
 Your affectionate brother, 
 
 THO. GRAHAM. 
 
 Edinburgh, Feb. 23rd, 1827. 
 
 My Deae Mother, — I was surprised yesterday by a visit from 
 J. Eenwick, with parcel of provisions and packet of letters. He 
 called when I was out looking after a situation for Mr. M. Miller. 
 Mr. MUler is rather troublesome with his situations, and I am 
 determined, not to put myself to much trouble in regard to them ; 
 for, after having, with a good deal of manceuvering, secured this 
 situation for him, he declined it. It was a private classical 
 academy in Newcastle, like Johnston's, and which was either 
 worth, or might easily be made worth £150, while he is canvasing 
 away here for a Lancastrian school not worth £80, and not half 
 so respectable. 
 
 The publication of Chalmers' Miscellany has been rather hindered 
 for a few days from his absence, occasioned by the death of his 
 mother, but it will be out by 1st March. During his absence 
 Mrs. Chalmers had the charge of afiairs, and I was prime minister. 
 Mrs. C. very much regretted her mother-in-law. She was upwards 
 of 90, and was perfectly sensible. Young Mrs. 0. had a letter 
 from her within six weeks of her death, with a present of stockings 
 
 C 
 
18 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 for the children, of her own knitting. The doctor was her fourth 
 child, and our Mr. Charles C. among the youngest. Her oldest 
 son has been all along in London. The doctor left his class, and 
 was with her at Anster, in Fifeshire, during her last illness, which 
 was not severe, and only ten days. Mrs. C. said that she had a 
 great care for all her sons' wives, and liked to bring them all 
 together about her. 
 
 Mr. Renwick stayed here last night. I find upon looking at 
 the box of instruments that they are in a very bad state. I have 
 never opened them since I came here. Perhaps some of the 
 deficient instruments may be lying about the house. 
 
 Edinburgh, Feb. 27th, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Hbney, — You wUl see that Chalmers' concern is 
 printed. The woodcut on the title page was rather got up in a 
 hurry, but it is meant for a head of Dr. Franklin. Some say that 
 it is very like Chalmers himself, and that will probably be the 
 prevalent theory among the knowing ones at Glasgow. It is 
 rather thin, but he intends after he has printed a volume to add 
 a sheet and half more to it, and charge Is. 6d. My signature 
 isG. 
 
 There is one of my suggestions which you will find under the 
 head of " A Valuable Appendage to Kitohen Fire-places," which 
 has wondrously caught the fancy of our Ehony. He says that it is 
 calculated to produce a complete revolution in the sublime science 
 of cookery — that all the blue-stocking ladies of Edinburgh to whom 
 he has mentioned the improvement are captivated therewith, and 
 that a thousand and one sand baths are forthwith to start into 
 being. There must, he says, be another and a long article upon 
 it in the next number, and Mrs. Chalmers has been so kind as to 
 furnish me with Dr. Kitchener's " Cook's Oracle,'' in order that 
 the article may be garnished with apt quotations and " modern 
 instances.'' I shall probably devote a couple of hours to it some 
 time this week. •• 
 
 These, however, are merely subordinate pursuits, and neither 
 they nor their fruits are what I aim at. Eminence purely scientific 
 is more philosophical, fQore honourable, and more desirable in my 
 eyes. But leave it to time. 
 
Dk. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 19 
 
 Edinburgh, March 15th, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — The other day I got £5 from Chalmers 
 for contributions to his magazine. It -was quite a Godsend. It 
 certainly came very seasonably, as I do not expect a remittance 
 from the L. for a fortnight, if at all. I have had no letter from 
 him. I have great pleasure in sen,ding the little presents which 
 accompany this, as the first-fruits of Authorship. The expense of 
 them,. I can assure you, was a mere trifle. They would have been 
 better, had it not been for the temptation of adding some con- 
 veniences to my laboratory. The ring which I request you to 
 accept of,, you will perceive is for hair. Just start out the glass 
 front, by putting the point of a penknife into one of the ends; 
 and the hair is put where the silk is at present. It is quite easily 
 done, and there is no danger. 
 
 Do not make yourself uneasy about the L. sending money, 
 for, if I was applying myself to it, Mr. Chalmers is quite willing 
 to give me as much of the magazine to write, as would yield me 
 five guineas a month, which is more than I get from the L. 
 
 Edinburgh, March 15th, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — I saw Prof. Leslie yesterday, and he 
 says that his ladies' class has succeeded beyond expectation, and 
 keeps him tremendously busy, and he introduced a good deal of 
 chemistry for theii* amusement, in which he is by no means an 
 adept. 
 
 I intend to have Dr. Turner at breakfast some of these days, 
 and to introduce Bentress to Mm, as Dr. T. studied at Gottingen 
 under the celebrated Stromeyer, and Mr. B. intends eventually to 
 land there. 
 
 Edinburgh, April 16th, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I have had a good deal of intercourse with 
 Dr. B. [Brewster], chiefly, if I recollect, since my last letter to 
 Henry by Mitchell's parcel; indeed, it was by a mere accident 
 that Miss Cameron's lodgings escaped a visit from this doctor of 
 encyclopedic renown. Bentress and I were promenading Princes 
 Street upon some business or other, when we met with, and were 
 hailed by, Dr. B. He was on his way with the tickets of admission 
 
20 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 to Sir W. Hamilton's phrenological lecture for us. We had then a 
 ■walk, arm-in-arm, the whole length of Princes Street, the doctor in 
 the centre. Bentress had nothing to say, so that I had the whole 
 conversation to keep up with the doctor; but he is a person with 
 whom one feels perfectly at ease. He was anxious for a paper — 
 proposing as an inducement fellowship admission to the Edinburgh 
 Royal Society. 
 
 Talking of Dr. Brewster, I do not recollect whether I mentioned 
 that he had sent me a present of some specimens of carbon, similar 
 to what Colquhoun describes, and which Margaret will recollect. 
 He also sent me a liquid to examine, obtained from a portable 
 oil gaswork in London, which is rather curious. He mentioned 
 that upon being poured upon hot water it took fire. Por, one 
 night, when drinking toddy with some others in Sir Walter 
 Scott's, having accidentally had it in his pocket when the servant 
 came in with more hot water, he poured some of the liquid upon 
 the hot water, and it took fire. I suppose that they had all been 
 rather groggy, for when I told him that I thought it impossible 
 that it could have taken fire of itself, he confessed that perhaps 
 some of them had set fire to it. 
 
 By the bye, the sand bath, although it cost me very little thought, 
 is making some noise here. Mrs. Chalmers, of St. Andrews, and 
 many ladies here, are getting them erected. Do you think I write 
 popularly? Mr. Chalmers thinks as much of my new article on 
 " A Marine Amulet " as he did of the sand bath. 
 
 Edinburgh, May 27th, 1827. 
 
 My Dbae Mothee, — I think that I will be home for certain 
 within a week. Indeed, I would have come off with Mr. Mitchell 
 had it not been that the whgle of my pecuniary interest in this 
 sublunary world amolmts to three sixpences, so that it is neces- 
 sary for me to remain a few days and write to raise the wind. 
 
 May 30th, 1827. 
 
 I look forward with great pleasure to my visit to Glasgow, as 
 notwithstanding that I have now been a whole year in Edinburgh, 
 I feel as much as ever all the solitude and desolateness of being 
 in a land of strangers, which, from my retiring habits, will be 
 always the case wherever I go. 
 
De. E. a. Smith on Life .and Works of Thomas 0raham. 21 
 
 Edinburgh, July 20th, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I have seen Chalmers twice, although 
 neither of the times did I enjoy a private tite-a-tete, as other 
 people were present. He seemed, however, to say that the sale 
 of his journal had latterly been considerably injured in England 
 by the " Library of Useful Knowledge." It was detained last 
 month in expectation of a plate from Dr. Fleming of Flisk, which, 
 however, did not come forward. Wilson, the painter, and Browne, 
 of the Hunterian, were up last night. 
 
 I have not yet returned to my labours, but am drawing up a 
 plan for them. Everything is sufl3.ciently encouraging, although 
 I shall never know rest and peace till I get them completed. But 
 perseverance, I doubt not, will overcome every difficulty. 
 
 Edinburgh, August 1, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I have not seen Chalmers for near a 
 fortnight, so that I do not know what his present plans are. I 
 am busy at present with writing a treatise of a chemical nature on 
 " Steam as a Moving Power," and performing some experiments 
 which the subject gives rise to. It may be profitable in two ways 
 — first, as a book, for it would make a small one, and there is at 
 present a great demand for such a book, for all the previous writers 
 of such books were engineers, and confined themselves to the 
 machinery of the steam engine, neglecting the chemical properties 
 of steam, upon which everything depends, and of which they are 
 in general wofuUy ignorant. Secondly, my investigations into this 
 subject have led to a slight improvement, which may be applied 
 with the greatest ease to such engines, and increase the power of 
 the steam by one-fourth, or more — but of this anon. I may add 
 that I had been applying myself to this subject a considerable 
 time before I was West with you. 
 
 Edinburgh, August 6th, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — I had occasion to see Blackwood the 
 other day with the business of another Miss M., although a less 
 attractive and less lovely object. It was towards the end of last 
 week. Chalmers had seen him that forenoon, informed him of my 
 errand, and prepared him for my reception. Upon entering the 
 
22 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 shop, I requested one of the young men to inform Mr. Blackwood 
 that Mr. Graham waits for him. Ebony immediately made his 
 appearance — a business bustling like man ; said that Mr. C. had 
 informed him of my business, and requested me to walk on with 
 him. He led the way through a saloon, with a large circular table 
 in the centre, piled with new works, magazines, newspapers, and 
 other ambrosial sweets, around which there sat authors, blessed in 
 their labours, happy spirits ! Beyond, at the little door of a deep 
 recess — a most holy sanctum — Ebony drew up in position second, 
 and beckoned my entrance. It was a little cell, and the scanty light 
 from above played upon the busts of Scott and Byron, supported 
 on a marble table. These, with two chairs, constituted all the 
 furniture of the den. It soon appeared in our conference that 
 Ebony had determined to fight Shy. " So many excellent novels 
 have now been published, that nothing except what is very superior 
 would sell, &c." He enquired what was the nature of the story 
 and if the authoress had ever published before, and he con- 
 cluded by saying that if I sent it down, he would look over it, 
 although he might not be able to say anything about it for a week 
 or ten days. I sent him the manuscript that evening, so that 
 it is now in the hands of the Philistines. I suspect much, from 
 what little more I read of it before sending it away, that it will 
 not suit Blackwood. The first volume is historical, well written, 
 and interesting enough for a first yolume. But in the second 
 volume long conversations are given, which have certainly the 
 merit of being true to life, but to me at least feel exceedingly dull 
 and vapid. Instead of leaving the heroine Juliet's loveliness as 
 much as possible to the conception of the reader, so that every 
 one may mould her to their own standard of beauty, and none 
 be shocked, she is described most needlessly at sixteen, as " tall 
 and overgrown." Certain young ladies are introduced in "yellow 
 bonnets fitting the head." Now such might have been the fashion 
 at the period referred too, but the reader of the present age pamaot 
 help associating something ridiculous with characters so described. 
 A bad impression is produced which tells against such characters, 
 till the reader has forgot the circumstance. It was quite un- 
 necessary to mention it. 
 
 I wish that I had seen the second volume before I left Glasgow, 
 as it would have prevented me from being so sanguine of its 
 sucsess. I depended also upon Miss M., who told me that the 
 latter volumes were much better than the first. 
 
Db. E,. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas GraJiam. 23 
 
 Edinburgh, 16tli September, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I was very anxious to hear from Clover- 
 Bank till I received Margaret's letter yesterday morning. Yoti 
 see I send in another statement — as it is certainly the best policy 
 to do so as often as possible — sufficiently imaginative like the 
 rest. We are well here and exceedingly comfortable. The 
 weather has been rather broken here for a week or two, so that 
 the laboratory, with its little furnace, is the most comfortable 
 room in the house. I have scanned off my allowance two very 
 fine thermometers of great accuracy and beauty made by Dunn, 
 and some other things, so that I now go on pretty smoothly. 
 
 Robert Logan of Eastwood has been here for a few days, he 
 promised to call up immediately and to convey this parcel, so that 
 I am, as usual, pressed for time. By way of ballast I send you a 
 couple of letters, and the scrawl of one of mine. Johnston had 
 sent up a paper, that I should deliver for him to the R. Society, 
 upon which he had been working away for two years, for he has 
 never published anything. I at once detected a serious oversight 
 which pervades the whole of it, and will expose him to a severe 
 basting if he publish it. I accordingly wrote him as you have it 
 in the scrawl. His letter is an answer to mine — a good deal 
 nettled, you will see, and talking nothing to the purpose. I have 
 also answered that, and shown him to be wrong by experiment. 
 The other letter is a curiosity, in so far as it has been in the penny 
 post, and trying all the Grahams in Edinburgh since June. It is 
 from Dr. Thomson's nephew, Steel. The whole address originally 
 was " Mr. Thomas Graham," till at last it had fallen into the hands 
 of some person who knew me and completed the address. The 
 postman delivered it last night with that account. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1 W. Richmond Street, 4th October, 1827. 
 
 My Dear Johnston, — Your paper I received last night, after 
 it had been opened by a person of the same name who resides at 
 1 W. Nicholson Street. To-day (Thursday), with the intention 
 of delivering it, I have called twice on Dr. Turner without finding 
 him. Nevertheless, trusting to your friendly indulgence, I have 
 at last concluded, after a severe struggle, to retain the paper and 
 take no further step till I have communicated with you. I 
 
24 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 employed the greater part of last night in perusing the paper; the 
 result was the discovery (which the clear manner in which your 
 results are stated made the more easy) of a most important over- 
 sight — not, however, in what you candidly allow to be the 
 dehateable part of the essay. You make Gmelin's salt, or your 
 chloro-ferro-cyanide of potassium, to consist of 
 
 J atom clilorine. 
 3 , , cyanogen. 
 
 1 ,, iron. 
 
 2 , , potassium. 
 
 and of these elements (mark) alone, no water, no hydrogen, or 
 oxygen present. Now this constitution is totally subverted in a 
 passage which occurs in page 21 of your paper, and is as follows: — 
 " Heated in a tube they (crystals of chloro-ferro-cyanide of potas- 
 sium) give off no water. As the heat approaches to redness it is 
 decomposed, giving off hydrocyanic acid and airmwnia. At a 
 bright red heat it blackens and melts, and is at last totally 
 decomposed, leaving^otosA and peroxide, of iron." 
 
 Here we have oxygen and hydrogen in abundance in a body 
 which professedly contains not an atom of either. An analagous 
 result of the igneous decomposition of the old ferro-cyanide of 
 potassium did not disturb Porrett or Berzelius [and perhaps that 
 misled you]; but why? Because they allowed 3 atoms water in 
 their salt, the decomposition of which accounted for the disengaged 
 oxygen and hydrogen which appeared. Now, unfortunately, your 
 theory is expressly founded on the supposition that these 3 atoms 
 of water are got rid of. The decomposition of your chloro-ferro- 
 cyanide should have strongly resembled that of the cyanide of 
 mercury; and a very important body it would have been, enabling 
 us to procure potassium at once. I had been attempting in 
 vain to form a true cyanide of potassium for that purpose. 
 You must therefore either sacrifice your experiments on the 
 composition of Gmelin's salt or your theory. I mean not here by 
 your " theory " the particular theory of a chloro-ferro-cyanic acid, 
 to which you give preference — but every theory according to 
 which you can arrange the same elements, of which you give two 
 if not three (pp. 12 and 13). To save your experiments you may 
 deny the correctness of the common analysis of prussiate of potash 
 thus yielding up your theory, as it is founded on that analysis. 
 To save your theory on the other hand you must retract your 
 experiment on the decomposition of the salt by heat. But the 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas GraJiam. 25 
 
 fundamental synthesis of your salt given at the beginning of your 
 paper applies strictly not to the ruby crystals obtained on solution, 
 but to the " yellow substance " formed although the ruby crystals 
 are not a chloro-ferro-cyanide of potassium or compound of such 
 elements, the yellow substance might be, although I do not believe 
 it. Expose this latter substance properly dried to a red heat, and see. 
 
 Repetition of your experiments would probably show that the 
 whole three atoms water in the prussiate of potash are not displaced 
 by the chlorine. It is there you should look for the error. At 
 present your theory is contradictory. 
 
 As your character as an accurate experimenter might be 
 injured by the publication of your paper in its present shape, 
 although perhaps in no department of chemistry are such mis- 
 takes more allowable, I hope you will forgive the extraordinary 
 procedure I have followed. I am afraid I have presumed too 
 much. But still your paper is valuable — you have ascertained the 
 existence of chlorine in Gmelin's salt, and from an individual salt 
 you have raised the class. These results might be published with- 
 out the synthesis which alone are defective. I fear that from 
 your extreme susceptibility you will feel this partial failure more 
 keenly than you should. Your paper might be remodelled, so as 
 to be unexceptionable, although with diminished pretensions. 
 Anxiously awaiting your commands. 
 
 I remain. 
 
 My Dear Johnston, 
 
 Your affectionate friend, 
 
 THOS. GRAHAM. 
 
 I strongly suspect (although at present I' have not room for 
 my reasons) that the common analysis of Prus. Pot. on which you 
 found is inaccurate, and that it really contains iriore water and less 
 cyanogen. Should this be the case, you may get out of the 
 dilemma with your experiments safe — although not with your 
 theory. I hope it may. T.G. 
 
 Durham, 7th Oct., 1827. 
 
 My Dear Graham, — I have this morning received yours dated 
 the 4th. I don't know how it has been so long on the way. The 
 fellow that got the packet must have kept it a long time. How- 
 ever, (fee. 
 
26 PhilosopMcal Society of Glasgov). 
 
 f 
 
 What a desperately acute fellow you are, and with what a 
 vengeance you write. Your objection is certainly valid, but even 
 were it sustaiaed it would have no such overturning effect as you 
 suppose. You ■will observe that I allow 3 atoms water to the 
 salt of soda, and yet it contains the same acid and is a cyanide (if 
 you like) — the water being that of crystallization. It is in this 
 light that Berzelius views the ferro-cyanide. Nor does hyd. 
 enter into the composition of the ferro-cyanide of Porrett — 
 neither, therefore, need it enter into that of the chloro-ferro- 
 cyanide — so that the whole question consists in whether the salt 
 of potash contains water or not. It is true that I have founded 
 my reasoning upon the constitution of that salt, but this was 
 merely because it was the first formed — the most easily formed — 
 and that to which my attention had been chiefly directed. Any 
 other salt would have done as well, only if it contained water it 
 might have been said that the hyd. of it formed a part of the 
 acid. But that the chlorine at least of none of the salts, even of 
 those containing water — that of Barytes, for instance — is not 
 combined with hyd. is manifest by their giving off uncombined 
 chlorine when treated with concentrated sulph. acid. When you 
 mention the yellow powder as probably anhydrous, and as the 
 only thing to which my remarks apply, you forget the experiment 
 stated in which the salt dissolved and carefully crystallized gave 
 exactly an equal weight of anhydrous crystals. T hope you see, 
 then, that, allowing your objection, your conclusions are unsup- 
 ported, for even if the salt of potash did contain water I had only 
 to say with Berzelius — Yes, but it is water of crystallization. And 
 then you will observe that I have stated the quantity of water in 
 all the salts as very difficult to determine, and in no one case, so far 
 as I can recollect, have I spoken upon it with absolute certainty. 
 
 Thus far, for argument's sake, have I discussed the theory of the 
 matter with you. But still the salt of potash is anhydrous. The 
 passage which has given rise to your speculations has apparently 
 been carelessly written, whether or not I read it over again. I 
 am not certain, but I am sorry that I have not a copy of it. I 
 take it for granted, however, that the extract you have given me 
 is a literal copy, and I have to beg of you to make one or two 
 alterations to prevent any such mistakes in future. 1st. For 
 peroxide of iron, read carburet of iron. 2nd. The second clause 
 refers to the application of heat in contact with, and correct the 
 whole as follows (I copy from your letter, and make as few altera- 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 27 
 
 tions as possible to save blotting) : — Heated in a glass tube they 
 give off no water. In a platinum crucible, as the heat approaches 
 to redness, the salt is partially decomposed, giving off hydrocyanic 
 acid and ammonia. At a bright red heat it blackens and melts, 
 and is at last totally decomposed, leaving Potash and carburet of 
 iron. Here the underlined parts are the corrections. The 
 substitution of peroxide for carburet has, I suppose, arisen 
 from thinking at the moment of the green sediment, which, 
 when heated in an open crucible, gives peroxide of iron. Now, 
 you will see at once the source of the hyd. Potassium, when 
 heated in contact with air, burns and becomes potash; hydrogen 
 therefore will be evolved in proportion to the quantity of the 
 oxygen it obtains which is due to the decomposition of moisture. 
 You say its decomposition if anhydrous should be analogous to 
 that of cyanide of mercury; and so it is — heat cyanide of mer- 
 cury in the open air — it blackens, melts, and gives off white 
 fumes of hydrocyanate of ammonia. Whence comes the hyd. — is 
 it from water in the cyanide ? As to the absence of water in this 
 salt, Gmelin and I agree ; it is not, however, beyond dispute, but 
 the coiltrary is unsupported evidence. 
 
 I copy the following experiment from my note-book. I wish it 
 could be inserted in a note; it would show how difficult it is to 
 decompose the salt entirely, and that the iron is in the metallic 
 state : — " 5 grns. heated to redness in a platinum crucible over a 
 spirit lamp first decrepitated, giving off hydrocyanic acid; ammonia 
 was then evolved in considerable quantity, and this continuing, 
 the crucible was covered and exposed to a strong red heat. Re- 
 moved from the fire, a greyish black powder remains, which 
 appeared to 'have been in fusion. With dilute muriatic acid it 
 effervesces strongly, giving off the smell of hydrocyanic acid. The 
 solution obtained gave a precipitate of iron with benzoate of 
 ammonia, the previous filtration having left a slight blue sediment 
 on the filter. There remained undissolved a shining black matter 
 at the bottom of the crucible, which, by repeated digestion with 
 nitric and muriatic acid, was partially decomposed, and in solution 
 gave the precipitate characteristic of iron. It was, therefore, car- 
 buret of iron, and the metal taken up by the dilute muriatic acid 
 was probably in the state of carbonate. The blue sediment shows 
 a portion to have been stUl undecomposed." 
 
 This experiment is dated 18th December, 1826, and was made 
 in Thomson's laboratory. If you think it is of any service, I will 
 
28 Philotophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 be obliged by your writing it on a bit of paper and introducing it 
 as a note to the word Carburet. 
 
 If I have not succeeded in satisfying you, I have so in assuring 
 myself that you have been hasty in supposing this lapsus to over- 
 turn all my reasoning. As to repeating the experiments you 
 mention, I am satisfied myself upon the point. I have made 
 hosts of experiments — many of which are not stated in the paper. 
 Any more made are from blunders of the kind now corrected. I 
 have stated nothing which I have not verified or considered as 
 already settled. I conceive that upon reconsideration you will 
 find reason to be satisfied with the presently received composition 
 of the prussiate of potash. It is very difficult to determine the 
 water certainly, but I cannot see how you can increase it at the 
 expense of the cyanogen without also altering the amount of bases. 
 I have tried to estimate it, but certainly could not depend on my 
 own results if difierent from those of Thomson, Berzelius, and 
 Philips. I rely on Dr. Thomson the more as he has stated that 
 he had been obliged to come to that conclusion though anxious to 
 obtain a difierent result. 
 
 In my last letter I did injustice to Mr. Faraday in relation to 
 the disinfecting liquor. I have since had occasion to alter my 
 opinion in regard to his correctness, and I, therefore, hasten to 
 make him amends by saying I believe him to be right. 
 
 I had the pleasure of seeing a handsome notice of your paper on 
 solution in the Quarterly Journal for this month. Unfortunately 
 I have no opportuirity of seeing the Annals, and, therefore, I got 
 there the first notice of the publication of your paper. What is 
 given in the Quarterly (Brande's) I agree with perfectly. There 
 is only about a page : I should like to see the whole paper. 
 
 I hope that after making the corrections stated you will give 
 in the paper as early as possible. I fear it will now be too late to 
 have any chance of insertion in the Transactions. 
 
 Be kind enough to give me as early intelligence as possible, and 
 believe me, my dear Graham, 
 
 Yours very sincerely, 
 
 (Signed) JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON. 
 
 Edinbiu-gh, 12th Nov., 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — I have been exceedingly negligent in my 
 Cloverbank correspondence, notwithstanding the highly exemplary 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 29 
 
 conduct of my correspondents. I can scarcely hope to be excused, 
 but the truth is that I was never so busily engaged as during the 
 last five or six weeks (anxiously engaged, too). Dr. Brewster, 
 who manages the Royal Society here, is out of town, and intends 
 to be so during the winter. In the course of a few weeks the 
 Society intends to publish a volume of transactions in which I am 
 very anxious to have two papers. One of these papers is already 
 in the hands of Dr. Turner, and is highly approved of by him and 
 John Robinson, being, according to the doctor (modesty avaunt !), 
 " a beautiful and complete thing.'' The other paper is just finish- 
 ing, and is a horribly long one, containing an account of 40 or 50 
 new compounds, and such is the burdensome richness of the mine 
 I have opened, that I could easily add as many more. Dr. Turner, 
 whom I have told of the nature of the discoveries, says that it will 
 form a capital paper also. There is, therefore, no difficulty what- 
 ever in getting the papers read, and eventually printed by the 
 Royal Society, but the point is to get them read at the very first 
 meeting of the Society, otherwise they will be too late to appear 
 in the forthcoming volume of their transactions, and perhaps would 
 not be printed for a year.' Now, so little confidence have Turner 
 and Robinson in themselves that, protesting they will do everything 
 in their power to meet my wishes, they are not sure whether they 
 will be able to have both the papers read the first night, in fact 
 they are quite confused without Dr. Brewster to direct them, and 
 there is really no difficulty in the case. If they do not pick up 
 courage, I will write to Dr. Brewster, who will dissipate all their 
 imaginary difficulties in a moment. If they cannot be got read 
 and printed immediately by the Society here, I will take the 
 advice Leslie gave me the other day, and send them to the Royal 
 Society of London. 
 
 Not\vithstanding my hurry, I can assure you I have been in 
 excellent spirits, and as for health, strong as a thousand elephants. 
 Miss C. is also well, and everything comfortable. Never were 
 things in a more favourable state should I choose to set up in a 
 chemical line here, than they will be this winter or spring. Of 
 the two lecturers. Dr. Fyfe is setting out to travel on the con- 
 tinent for his health, and Dr. Turner expects every day to be 
 appointed to the Chemical Chair in the University of London, 
 Should he go, I can depend upon getting his fine new laboratory 
 tnoderately, with his practical classes, without any competition, in 
 the absence of Fyfe. Dr. Turner is exceedingly confident that he 
 
30 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 will get the London chair. He told me that the candidates beside 
 himself are Dr. Fyfe, Dr. Ure, of Glasgow, and Mr. Phillips, the 
 editor of the Annals — none of them great hands, although Phillips 
 is certainly the most deserving. Turner thinks, however, that 
 Phillips will have no chance, , because he has never lectured, as if 
 there was any mystery in lecturing. I think, however, that Turner 
 has a very fair chance, particularly from his acquaintance with 
 Leonard Horner, now the Warden or Principal of the University, 
 who is an Edinburgh man. It is curious how little distinguished 
 any of the candidates are ; and, indeed, the circumstance that the 
 election has been put off so long is not complimentary to them. 
 Indeed, perhaps in no other department of literature or science is 
 there so little competition in this country at the present day as in 
 chemistry. The chief reason of this is that the most of chemists 
 are medical men ; their reputation soon procures them great 
 practice, which is too tempting to be rejected, and chemistry 
 becomes neglected amidst their extensive and highly-profitable 
 professional engagements. This has been the case with almost all 
 the great London chemists who should have been competitors for 
 the chair, such as Dr. Prout, Dr. Wollaston, Dr. Bostock, &c. In 
 fact, they were no longer chemists. Turner expects to hear of the 
 issue of the election every day, as it was to be decided in the 
 beginning of November. I confess I would feel rather reluctant 
 at setting up as chemist in Edinburgh, preferring London, but 
 all will depend upon circumstances. Meanwhile everything is en- 
 couraging. Should Dr. Turner succeed in getting to London, I will 
 have a friend at court, and there is another chemical professorship — 
 " On the Application of Chemistry, to the Arts " — which probably 
 will not be filled up for a year or two. In all these competitions 
 everything depends upon sheer impudence, of which I confess I 
 have too little, confining it to my letters entirely. When Turner 
 first told me of his being a candidate, and of his confident expecta- 
 tion, it was only his presence that prevented me from laughing, 
 for he rests his whole merit upon his having lectured for a few 
 years, and having compiled " Elements of Chemistry," while his 
 original discoveries amount to nothing, or are exceedingly trivial. 
 Bentress would never give Turner any credit, and even told Dr. 
 Brewster that he thought he rated Turner too highly. But Dr. 
 Turner is very courteous, and really an amiable character, so that 
 people are charitable in their opinion of his talents ; and, for my 
 part, I will be happy in his success. You recollect of Johnston's 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 31 
 
 faulty paper, as he insisted I was obliged to give it to Turner, but 
 at the same time told him that I did not warrant its accuracy. I 
 was somewhat amused at Turner and his paper afterwards. He 
 had examined it, and saw there must be something wrong in it; 
 but being like Johnston, not overly clear-headed, he could not see 
 precisely where the error lay. The next time I met him I soon 
 found he was fishing me to find where I placed the error. Of 
 course this must have been disagreeable to him, so I spontaneously 
 explained the whole matter. It was then " as clear as day, an 
 error that overturned the whole theory," &c., and I was requested 
 to intimate to Johnston that, while his paper contained so 
 palpable and manifest an inconsistency, it would not be recom- 
 mended to the Society. This I did as mildly as possible, for I am 
 really sorry for poor Johnston. Johnston, however, has given 
 me provocation which, from any other person, would have been 
 unpardonable — in a second letter some time ago — but he has now 
 virtually surrendered, and must feel the excess of regret for his 
 nonsense. I have scarcely room to subscribe myself 
 
 Your afiectionate Son, 
 
 THOMAS GRAHAM. 
 
 Edinburgh, 19th Nov., 1827. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — Dr. Turner has been appointed to the 
 London University, and I am to succeed him here, so far as 
 succession is practicable. I am to take up his experimental or 
 laboratory classes in three months hence, or in February, and to 
 commence a summer course of lectures of three months in May. 
 During that time I am to have the free use of his laboratory, 
 apparatus, and everything, which is an unspeakable advantage. 
 But next winter I shall be obliged to get a class-room, &c., of my 
 own, as Dr. T.'s devolves by an old compact on Dr. CuUen, the 
 lecturer on the Practice of Physic. But other favourable circum- 
 stances may arise before that time, and at any rate the present 
 advantage is not to be rejected, while the accident of appearing as 
 successor to the Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
 London is itself of some value. 
 
 These experimental classes to which I refer consist of half a 
 dozen students and upwards who come to the laboratory for an 
 
32 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 hour, and get half lecture, half experiment, assisting in performing 
 the experiments. The fee is three guineas a quarter; and one 
 may have more than a single class of this kind in a day. They 
 are what you would call private classes. 
 
 Dr. T. is going up to see how things are doing in London at 
 Christmas, and it is probable if his stay is protracted that I may 
 lecture for him at that time, for a few days, both in his own 
 public lectures and in the School of Arts, where he is at present 
 lecturing in the place of Dr. Fyfe. 
 
 He has pi'omised, while at London, to recommend me as a fit 
 person for writing certain Treatises on the Chemical Arts " in 
 the Library of Useful Knowledge " to Leonard Horner and Mr. 
 Brougham. 
 
 He informs me that it is agreed that Dr. Hugh Colquhoun and 
 I are to be proposed as members of the Royal Society at an early 
 meeting 
 
 [During 1827 Graham was occupied with three papers — (1) " On 
 the Finite Extent of the Atmosphere ;" (2) "Longchamp's Theory 
 of Nitrification;" (3) "On Exceptions to the Law that Salts are 
 more Soluble in Hot than in Cold Water."] 
 
 Edinburgh, 11th Jan., 1828. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — Dr. Turner resumed the class yesterday. 
 He was up here, but for so short a time that I got scarcely any 
 news from him. Sir H. Davy had a paralytic stroke, but is 
 getting better. Mr. Phillips, the editor of the Annals, has left 
 London, having got the superintendence of some great work 
 about Birmingham. Dr. T. was highly pleased with his reception 
 among the dons. He breakfasted last Sunday with Mr. 
 Brougham. The arrangements about the class and laboratory are 
 quite agreeable to him. The class-room holds 500 seated. He 
 must go up sooner than he expected — in July — and open his class 
 in Oct. In the lecturing I was more at my ease this week. One 
 night I was upon phosphorus, had the room darkened, and was 
 exceedingly flashy. I was much amused by the fellows becoming 
 rather uproarious in the dark, just as we used to be in the Pig's. 
 James says that there was always a number of strangers present. 
 I was slightly annoyed with two things — a touch of sore throat, 
 
Dr. R a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 33 
 
 which I got from drinking a glass of water after finishing, and 
 by inhaling a little of chlorine gas when making it, owing to 
 James's fault in remaining away too long one day — T had per- 
 mitted him to be operator to Mr. Ritchie, of Tain, who delivered 
 a lecture on Oil and Coal-gas in the Assembly Rooms. 
 
 Edinburgh, Feb. 21, 1828. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — My silence has been so long as to be quite 
 inexcusable, but I have been always deferring and deferring tintil 
 I had something definite to tell you. Shortly after I wrote last I 
 had two ofiers, both of which deserved attention. The first was 
 through a Dr. Gardiner, from Constable Junior, to write a volume 
 of his Miscellany (which yon have perhaps seen) upon Heat and 
 Electricity. This I was very much inclined to do, as I would be 
 obliged to write lectures on the first of these subjects at anyrate. 
 But I have long had it in view to translate and get published in a 
 compressed form, like Tire's Dictionary, Thenard's French System 
 of Chemistry, which in the original is in five volumes. I had 
 employed Mr. Chalmers to sound some of the booksellers, and 
 Oliver & Boyd embraced the proposal at once, and, after I was 
 introduced to them, and had several meetings, ofiered to give me 
 half the profits of the publication, without any of the risk, if I 
 would undertake it. This would be considered a good ofier as 
 such things go, but at the advice of both Turner and Chalmers, 
 particularly of Turner, I preferred another plan, for by the former 
 one is quite in the power of the booksellers, who can estimate the 
 profits at what they choose. This is just to require a certain per- 
 centage on the retail price of the book, say 10 or 12 per cent, upon 
 the price of every copy printed, which would probably be sold 
 about 25s. Oliver &, Boyd have not expressed an opinion as yet 
 upon this plan, and the whole arrangement is postponed till a copy 
 of the last edition of the original (lately out) can be procured from 
 London, and I believe it will not arrive before the commencement 
 of next month. 
 
 It would take about a year to translate Thenard and write 
 notes to it, and the profits of the first edition might be about £120; 
 but then there would be as much on every subsequent edition. It 
 would also be a great thing to have one's name attached to a book 
 
34 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 of such weight and importance. Turner thinks that if he were in 
 my situation he would adopt the plan at once. Dr. Thomson first 
 brought himself into notice by translating Fourcray's System of 
 Chemistry. In the meantime, however, I have been doing some' 
 thing to Constable's business, as it would' require more than two 
 or three months — the return about £30 — and as the materials will 
 do for lectures. On all these accounts I have deferred the experi- 
 mental course, of which the success would be rather problematical, 
 but am still ready for the lectures, should things yet turn that 
 way. But I am somewhat unwilling to set up as a regular 
 lecturer in Edinburgh ! It is so medical 
 
 Edinburgh, 8th April, 1828. 
 
 My Dear Mothee, — I was admitted into the 
 
 Royal Society last night. I don't care although the L. should 
 know, but should he think that there is anything to pay it will 
 take away all the merit of it. 
 
 Friday, AprU 25, 1828. 
 
 My Dear Mother, — The business with 
 
 Boyd, of Oliver & Boyd, is not yet settled, although I have delayed 
 from day to day to write you, expecting that it would be settled. 
 He seems determined to make a good bargain, and to-day I received 
 a note from the firm, declining my proposal of j£130 sure for the 
 first edition, and half the profits on every subsequent edition, which 
 might be estimated at £100 on each subsequent edition. It is not 
 my charge for the first edition which he quarrels with, but he seems 
 to think that if I am made sure of so much on the first edition 
 that I have no title to so much as half the profits upon subsequent 
 editions. I am quite aware that my proposal as to subsequent 
 editions is high, but Boyd is so wary that it is diificult to guess 
 what proposal as to that matter he would be disposed to fall in 
 
 with. He won't suggest anything At the Royal 
 
 Society Jast Monday I had a paper, and made my debut as a 
 member. Johnston, of Durham, was rejected in the Council as a 
 
Dr. E,. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 35 
 
 member, ■where he was proposed by Dr. Turner, at his own urgent 
 request. I had a great deal of talk with Dr. Hope as to John- 
 ston's merits, and kept him up as well as I could, but to no purpose. 
 It was Dr. Hope who occasioned his rejection in the Council, he 
 being, as Miss Cameron says, "no poor man's friend." .... 
 Hope told me that he had repeated my alcohol process, " which he 
 fancied," before his class with success — it takes a week, so that it 
 is no bad advertisement — and added, with a pomposity which was 
 almost too much for my gravity, " and may I be allowed to ask, 
 Sir, was this beautiful discovery the result of accident or of 
 research?" Humbug. 
 
 [Graham was occupied with three papers in 1828, viz.: — (1) 
 "Experiments on the Absorption of Vapours by Liquids;" (2) 
 " On the Influence of Air in determining the Crystallization of 
 Saline Solution;" (3) " A Short Account of Experimental Re- 
 searches on the Diffusion of Gases."] 
 
 The poverty of Graham at this period is illustrated by the 
 following curious anecdote communicated by his sister, Mrs. 
 Reid: — "I dare say you know of his taking a very poor little 
 " room at Portobello, and laying wires in the sea, mostly after it 
 " was dark, but moonlight perhaps, for his experiments. His 
 " landlady found some of his things below the bed in his room, and 
 " told him she did not like to see such things, she doubted he was 
 " after no good, and he had better take his leave. She put his 
 " wires, etc., out at the door and bid him walk, she would rather 
 " want a week's rent than let him in again ; so poor Tom had to 
 " hide his things and walk back to Edinburgh that night. The 
 " rent of the room was 3s. per week, without fire, which was a 
 " great deal more than he could spare at that time." Graham 
 then returned to Glasgow, where he taught Mathematics for some 
 time at the suggestion and under the patronage of the late Dr. 
 Meikleham, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University 
 of Glasgow. Subsequently he had a Chemical Laboratory in 
 Portland Street, where he also delivered lectures, and for the year 
 1829-30 did similar work in the Mechanics' Institution. In 1830 
 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry in the Andersonian 
 University. 
 
 [During the next six years Graham worked hard in Glasgow — 
 lecturing, teaching, and sending out worker? from the Andersonian 
 University. ] 
 
36 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Glasgow, August 2, 1831. 
 
 My Dear Maegaeet, — I had occasion yesterday to address, for 
 the first time, that most learned body — the Faculty, for the purpose 
 to get attendance on a course of Practical Chemistry made imper- 
 ative, which should long ago have been the case. Mr. Harry 
 Eainy seconded my motion, and our proposal was graciously 
 received, although, as all dignified bodies move slowly, the bill 
 must be read a second and a third time at successive meetings 
 before it is passed into a law. 
 
 I do not know what to say for news. Some mad doctor at 
 Port-Glasgow, it appears, lately alarmed the Government on the 
 fancied appearance of the Russian cholera in that quarter, and 
 occasioned a meeting of the Privy CouncU and other unnecessary 
 measures. The Faculty replied yesterday to a letter of inquiry 
 from Mr. Dixon, that the town was never more healthy at this 
 season of the year than at the present moment. 
 
 Millhausen, Alsace (Hotel de la Couronne), 
 1st September, 1836. 
 
 My Deae Margaret, — In his laboratory (Daniel Kochlin) we 
 found the excellent chemist Schlomberger, he is an eleve of Mr. 
 Kochlin's, and who has written the best papers on Madder. The 
 chemist was throng at work in his blouse-coat and wooden clogs. 
 Kochliu is himself a most interesting person. By the way, G. 
 Thomson is studying with him, and he has a high opinion of 
 Walter Crum, and pronounces him, now that James Thomson 
 is getting old, the most accomplished printer we have in England. 
 The afternoon we devoted to Mr. Hofier's own establishment; 
 John finds them exceedingly communicative, and they seem to 
 show us everythmg without reserve. He thinks that he has 
 already attained the most important objects of his mission, and 
 that he will be able, on returning, to produce the beautiful 
 Madder rose-reds for which Alsace is famed, so that the jouriiey 
 will not be lost 
 
 I was amused by the feeling which seems to prevail here in 
 regard to the French Institute. They have never published 
 Schlomberger's valuable papers on Madder, because they impugn 
 the results of a brother member, M. Robiquet ; although Mr. 
 Kochlin spoke on the subject to Gay-Lussac, Chevreul, and others. 
 
Dr. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Grahmm. 37 
 
 The fact, I believe, is that this exclusive dealing results from no 
 bad feeling, but the Institute is a coterie, all the members are 
 familiar with each other, and unwilling to give each other cause of 
 offence. Gay-Lussac likewise, who is chemical editor of the Annates 
 de Chimie, is an exceedingly mild man, and is certainly carried too 
 far by the fear of offending his brother academicians. There is 
 one of my papers which he has promised to publish (on Phosphu- 
 retted hydrogen), but which I would not be surprised to find him 
 restrained from doing when he finds that I give more credit to 
 Henry Eose than will be agreeable to M. Dumas. Dumas 
 surprised me much the first day I met him by a hasty and 
 unfair criticism on Eose, whom I defended. But afterwards, 
 on reflection, he was at pains to undo the impression which 
 his remarks might have produced, and finally transmits through 
 me sentiments of respect to Eose, so that I hope to be the means 
 of reconciling them. 
 
 Hotel de Rome, Dresden, September 27, 1836. 
 
 My Dear John, — I have this morning arrived here, having 
 travelled from Jena by way of Leipsic in company with Dr. 
 Daubeny, of Oxford. After you left me at Frankfort I went 
 down to Giessen and spent two days with Liebig. He is a most 
 delightful fellow, and I was glad to find him in very fair health. 
 Eetumed to Frankfort, and took the diligence to Weimar, near 
 Jena, which I reached this day week. Between 300 and 400 
 "Naturforscher" had arrived, and the business of the meeting had 
 fairly commenced. The arrangements were satisfactory, although 
 there was not the same ostentation and amount of treating as at 
 the British meetings. In the mornings sectional meetings — 
 the Chemical and Physical Sections meeting together ; a general 
 meeting from 11 to 1, at which memoirs, or rather essays, of 
 general interest were read. Dinner from 2 till 4, and sectional 
 meetings again at J past 4 to 6 for those who had not taken too 
 much champagne; and the evenings concluded very rationally 
 with a ball at which there was a good turn-out of Jena beauties. 
 As for the communications, they were interesting enough, but 
 nothing strikingly important. Of the savans who had assembled 
 Humboldt was the great star, but to me Mitscherlich was the 
 
38 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 I had a good deal of Mitscherlich's society, and found him very 
 communicative. He has a most insinuating address, but there is 
 a cold propriety in everything he says and does. I was sorry also 
 to notice (and I made the same observation of M. Dumas) that 
 when I stated any little discovery of my own he was fretted and 
 could not conceal a little disappointment because it had escaped 
 him. This was not like the hearty good feeling of Liebig or 
 Henry Rose. But 1 have no reason to complain of Mitscherlich. 
 My opinion of him as a chemical philosopher, high as it was 
 before, has been elevated by my intercourse with him. I was 
 particularly struck by the beautiful simplicity of some hints which 
 he diffidently threw out as to the effect of a base, such as water 
 or potash, on the corpuscular arrangement of particles which cannot 
 subsist without a base. The base, which may be water, has here 
 manifestly an effect upon the atomic constitution of the acid, if 
 we could figure it to ourselves. Water may have a similar effect 
 on the metaphosphate of water, which contains one atom water. 
 The influence of the water on the arrangement of the particles 
 composing phosphoric acid may be different from what it was in 
 the other case. This idea of Mitscherlich is, of course, altogether 
 hypothetic, and he by no means pressed it, but it is certainly a 
 very little assumption, and we can observe in it the great secret of 
 correct philosophising, namely, to advance by the shortest possible 
 steps. In these corpuscular speculations it was interesting to 
 observe how naturally he fell into the simple but philosophic 
 views of Dalton in regard to atomic arrangements. 
 
 You know Clark's letter to Mitscherlich on a difficulty in 
 isomorphism, which is unquestionably a most profound speculation. 
 Mitscherlich has never noticed it, which in courtesy he was bound 
 to do, even although lie has had a second letter from Dr. Clark. 
 I more than once started the subject, but he talked of having been 
 so busy overhauling the arrangements of his laboratory, of being 
 " tormented from morning till night," I suppose to palliate his 
 neglect; and the speculation was evidently not to his mind — too 
 striding for him. He alluded to other cases of similarity or 
 identity of form besides that on which Clark founds, such as that 
 of sulphur and bisulphate of potash, where the constitution of the 
 two bodies is totally different. Mitscherlich's law is that two 
 bodies which have the same constitution should have the same 
 crystalline form, but it does not necessarily follow that bodies 
 which possess the same crystalline form should likewise have the 
 
Dr, R. a. Smith on Life and Works of T/iomas Graliam. 39 
 
 same constitution. Mitscherlich disposed of tlie question by- 
 observing that because two and two make four that is no reason 
 why three and one may not make four also 
 
 Berlin (Hotel de Brandenbourg), October 10, 1836. 
 
 My Dear Margaret — .... This morning Magnus and 
 I visited Prof. Enke by appointment at the Eoyal Observatory, 
 where we spent several hours. The Professor explained all the 
 admirable arrangements of a working observatory to us in detail. 
 We saw the spots on the sun, and also the two stars which com- 
 pose the double star Alpha Herculis, although it is only of the 
 third or fourth magnitude, which, considering that it was bright 
 daylight, was a very severe trial of his splendid Frauenhofer. 
 I have not seen anything for a long time that pleased me so 
 much as this far-famed observatory 
 
 [About this time Graham sought the appointment of Professor 
 at the University College, London, having during the preceding 
 seven years been at work on the following papers, viz.: — (1) 
 "Observations on the Oxidation of Phosphorus;" (2) "Notice of 
 the singular Inflation of a Bladder ; " (3) " On the Application of 
 Spongy Platinum to Eudiometry;" (4) "Effect of Animal Charcoal 
 on Solutions ; " (5) " An Account of the Formation of Alcohol ; " 
 (6) "Researches on Arseniates, Phosphates, <&c. ;" (7) "On 
 Hydrated Salts;" (8) "On Phosphuretted Hydrogen;" (9) "On 
 Water as a Constituent of Salts."] 
 
 Sablonierls Hotel, Leicester Square, 
 London, Saturday, April 29, 1837. 
 
 My Dear James, — By the letter which I wrote (to Margt.) on 
 Tuesday you would learn that I had started fairly in my canvass. 
 I have seen nothing since contradictory to my first impressions. In 
 whatever way it goes, the appointment will be made by the medical 
 professors, who will take care to be unanimous, or nearly so. Of 
 the nine or ten virtual electors I have good reason for believing 
 that four, at least, are not only favourable but anxious for my 
 appointment, while the others, so far as I can discover, are not as 
 
40 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 yet committed to any other candidate. It is also a little fortunate 
 for me that my supporters belong to both of the two parties into 
 which the professors occasionally separate, although there is no 
 serious division among them. But, as the whole force of the 
 recommendation to be made to the Council by the professors 
 depends upon their unanimity, I am not to expect that my four 
 friends are to stand out in my favour if there should be a majority 
 in favour of another candidate. It would be perilling their in- 
 fluence with the Comicil, without securing my return. 
 
 Johnston of Durham turns out, after all, to be my most formid- 
 able opponent. Both Mr. Richard Phillips and Dr. D. B. Reid 
 would have some support in the Council — particularly the former, 
 from his true respectability of character — but they are both given 
 up for dififerent, although sufficient reasons, by the professors. 
 
 Dr. Apjohn, of Dublin, from whom I feared most, has been 
 rather inactive, and I think his chance of success inferior to 
 Johnston's or my own, although he follows us. 
 
 ^ I remain, Dear James, 
 
 Yours most faithfully, 
 
 (Signed) THO. GRAHAM. 
 
 Leicester Square, London, May 6, 1837. 
 
 Dear William, — At this moment I am in considerable doubt 
 as to my movements. I had intended to start by the steamer 
 for Leith to-night, and may very likely do so still, but the appli- 
 cations, &c., of the candidates havmg been lodged yesterday, 
 and a meeting of the Council taking place to-day at 4, after the 
 distribution of the prizes in University College, I am advised by 
 Dr. Carsewell not to decide till I hear whether the Council takes 
 up the applications at that meeting and refers them to the Senate, 
 in which case a meeting of the professors would be called for 
 Tuesday or Wednesday, and a committee then appointed to report 
 upon the applications. Dr. C. thinks it might be worth while 
 postponing my departure for a week to give that committee an 
 opportunity of communicating with me personally if they desire 
 it. The Council will sit till six, and I can scarcely hear the result 
 before seven, which will be too late for the post at this distance. 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 41 
 
 I shall, however, retain this letter till the last moment. In case 
 I remain here, -would you make a point of seeing Mr. Young and 
 request him to begin the Practical Course, and get on with it till 
 the end of the week, assuring the students of my return at the 
 beginning of the week following. . . . 
 
 I remain. My Dear William, 
 
 Yours affectionately, 
 
 (Signed) THO. GRAHAM. 
 William Graham, Esq. 
 
 [Graham was elected Professor of Chemistry at University 
 College, London, in 1837 — an appointment he held for eighteen 
 years. He lived in the_neighbourhood of this College to the end 
 of his life, 16th September, 1869 — first in Torrington Square and 
 afterwards in Gordon Square.] 
 
 London, Saturday, Oct. 21st, 1837. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — I have to-day completed the third week 
 of my course, and am as well and comfortable as at the beginning 
 of it. My number to-day is 221, which I have no doubt is the 
 largest class on chemistry in the United Kingdom. I have got 
 70 pages of my first number in type, it requires 93 or 96. It is 
 likely to be ready in time so far as I myself am concerned, but 
 there is a risk of the woodcuts, about 30 in number, not being 
 all ready, as this is the busy season for the annuals, and so forth. 
 It is not a matter of much consequence, however, if it appears in 
 the first week of November, as to' the exact day. 
 
 We are all doing well at University College this season. I am 
 very much pleased with the attention and respectful behaviour of 
 my students, more than 120 of them have put down their names 
 for examination. 
 
 London, Oct. 26th, 1837. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — At Sharpey's advice I have thrown 
 away the papers, and for a few days past have been extemporizing. 
 I am satisfied that it is the true system, and will come to be much 
 
 F 
 
42 Philosophieal Society of Glasgow. 
 
 the easiest in the end. After I get my first No. out (which by 
 the way is all in types), I shall not allow it to interfere with my 
 other engagements, but only take it up when perfectly convenient. 
 The extemporiziag requires one to be both in good health and in 
 good spirits, and I am determiued not to risk myself for any con- 
 sideration ; so keep yourself easy. 
 
 36 Keppel St., Russell Sq., 
 Nov. 3, 1837. 
 
 My Dear Maegaket, — Already five weeks over. My No. in 
 the class is 232, and a third student has joined the laboratory, a 
 Mr. Fenton, of Rochdale. 
 
 36 Keppel St., Russell Square, 
 Nov. 24, 1837. 
 
 Mt Dear Margaret, — I have after all left myself very little 
 time to write to you. I had a very long and agreeable letter 
 from Liebig a few days ago, conveying the information that his 
 University have made me a Dr. of Philosophy causa honoris, but 
 this is a profound secret, and to be kept like all such, as I am 
 doubtful whether I shall make any immediate use of it, although 
 it is very flattering. He has been reconciled to Dumas at Paris, 
 and has a grand project of publishing a chemical journal in three 
 languages, to be edited by Liebig, Dumas, and myself, but not 
 before summer. 
 
 London, Dec. 2, 1837. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — . . . My present number is 238, 
 and we cannot look for any addition till January, when we may be 
 joined by few new perpetuals, for we do not give the second term 
 by itself. But you must not think that all my 238 are payees. 
 This arises from the system of perpetual tickets. 
 
 Somerset House, 24th March, 1838. 
 
 Sir, — i am directed by his Royal Highness, the , President 
 
 of the Royal Society, to communicate His Royal Highness's thanks 
 
Dr. E.. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham,. 43 
 
 to you for having exhibited your very interesting experiment of 
 the solidification of carbonic acid gas at Kensington Palace, and 
 also to express to you the very great gratification which that ex- 
 hibition afibrded to His Royal Higlmess's visitors. I am further 
 directed to suggest to you whether you might not present to the 
 Eoyal Society an account of the experiment, which would be very 
 acceptable to this body. 
 
 In thus conveying to you the sentiments of His Royal High- 
 ness, allow me to express to you my individual gratification in 
 witnessing your truly scientific experiment on that occasion. I 
 felt, I assure you, at a loss which most to admire — the highly im- 
 portant result, the philosophical beauty of the principles on which 
 it was obtained, or its immediate scientific application. 
 
 I have the honour to be, 
 
 SlE, 
 
 Your most obedient Servant, 
 
 (Signed) S. HUNTER CHRISTIE. 
 
 Professor Graham, F.B.S., 
 &c,, &c., &c. 
 
 9 Torrington Sq., Monday, March 11, 1839. 
 
 My Deae Margaret, — .... I attended last night the 
 first of the Marquis of Northampton's soirSes. He has one of the 
 large houses in Piccadilly, facing the Green-park, beyond Park 
 Lane. There was a great turn-out. The heliographic drawings 
 of Niepce, Daguerre's old partner (referred to in the Athenceum of 
 this week), were on the table. They are on metal — extremely 
 delicate and beautiful when seen in a proper light, suggesting a 
 mezzotinto drawing. My idea is that the metallic plate, wetted 
 with nitrate of silver, has been placed in a small camera obscura con- 
 taining hydrogen gas, and then the prospect reflected in upon it. 
 Where the light fell the white silver was deposited in the metallic 
 state on the plate, and makes the lights on a darker metallic 
 ground, while the shade can be etched afterwards by an acid from 
 which the lights will be protected by the silver. But we shall 
 see. Mr. Talbot's plan for prepared paper, in which the lights 
 and shades are reversed, is curious but not at all new. 
 
44 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 9 Torrington Sq., Monday, April 29, 1839. 
 
 My Dear Margaret, — My compliments to Mr. Eeid, and tell 
 him that he may have the cabinet for £1 10s., neither less nor more 
 (the sum for which Howard procured me the bookcase I have here), 
 but not before his house is buUt and he finds that he has room for 
 it. If not a very handsome, I believe it is a substantial piece of 
 carpentery, as Mr. Young [Dr. James Young] used to pride himself 
 on it, particularly on the hinges of the lower compartments, which 
 are of his own invention. 
 
 [During the years 1837-9 Graham was busy with three elaborate 
 and important papers, viz. : — (1) " On the Constitution of Salts ; " 
 (2) " On the Law of the Diffusion of Gases;" (3) " On the Theory 
 of the Voltaic Circle."] 
 
 From York, Sept. 29, 1844. 
 
 To Mrs. J. Eeid, — I write you in the middle of our meeting 
 here, which has proved an excellent one. We have the best men 
 in all departments and a pretty numerous attendance besides. 
 My own Section is particularly favoured as we have the two stars 
 of the meeting, Professor Matteucci from Italy, and Liebig. The 
 latter has attracted crowds of country gentlemen to the Section, 
 which is quite a new feature in it. Liebig is residing with the 
 Archbishop, whose son, the Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, is highly 
 chemical. I drove out with Mr. Harcourt to dinner on Thursday 
 at his father's, and arriving early had half-an-hour of the Bishop's 
 company while the rest were dressing. He is a hale old man of 
 eighty four, of strong sense and highly popular. He was using a 
 stick from a lameness occasioned by his breaking one of the branches 
 of the tendon achilles of the heel at the late Royal christening, of 
 which accident he gave me a familiar account. He suffered so 
 much that he could not have read the service, but having been a 
 parish Priest before he was a Bishop he knew it by heart; and the 
 Queen and Albert were afraid all the time that he would let the 
 child fall out of his arms. His daughter Miss H. does the honours; 
 and the young ladies of the family (her nieces) are fine girls, young 
 Miss H. in particular, who has had a week of desperate flirtation 
 with Rev. Deans and Professors who flock about the palace. 
 
 I return to London on Wednesday evening and will therefore 
 miss the Liebig dinner at Glasgow. 
 
Dr. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 45 
 
 Oct. 29, 1844. 
 
 To John Graham, Esq. — I have had a bustling week 
 owing to Liebig's return to London, and second visit. He 
 saw no company except private friends, and did not visit out 
 last week (except once) till we left for Oxford together on 
 Friday after my lecture. This was a long promised visit 
 for me to Dr. Daubeny, and I remained there till Monday, 
 occupying Felton's chambers in the Dr.'s college (Magdalen) for 
 three nights. This being term time, I saw Oxford, as you may 
 suppose, to great advantage. The Doctor had his sister and two 
 nieces on a visit to him in his official residence in the Botanic 
 Garden, one of the said nieces is not quite a beauty, but every- 
 thing else, and very dangerous. 
 
 Liebig returned before me on Saturday evening, accompanied 
 by Dr. Buckland,-who consented to remain with him at No. 9, 
 and did the honours of the house till the return of the usual 
 occupant. I wish Margaret had been here to have met the 
 Doctor, his good nature and humour or rather classical drollery 
 are quite overpowering. 
 
 Liebig had a very satisfactory interview with Sir Robert [Peel] 
 after church on Sunday— Buckland introducing. Among other 
 things, the Professor was asked his opinion of the new (proposed) 
 College of Chemistry. He said that its character and success 
 • would depend entirely upon the chemist who should undertake its 
 management, and that not being settled he could not give any 
 opinion, although he thought favourably of the principle. It is, 
 Liebig really believes, at present a job of certain parties, but I 
 would not be surprised to see it taken out of their hands. Sir 
 Robert enquired why not attach it to one of the existing institu- 
 tions — University College or King's College. This Liebig thought 
 the proper plan. 
 
 Dr. Buckland has much of the premier's confidence, and is, I 
 can easily see, his principal scientific adviser. I have no wish to 
 be encumbered with the new college, and believe that the means 
 of teaching chemical analysis in London are sufficiently ample and 
 cheap, more than the public will take advantage of. The best 
 locale for a Giessen school is not London, but some country town, 
 and it might be well connected with an agricultural college. I 
 have no wish to meddle with such a speculation or be any way 
 responsible for it ; foreseeing, as I do, great perils and chances of 
 
46 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 failure. Dr. Buckland, however, having extracted my views of 
 the subject, adopts them, and I have no doubt they will go further. 
 Sir B,., I should mention, had expressed his willingness to go as 
 far as to accommodate such a college of chemistry with house- 
 room, provided the necessary expenses were otherwise guaranteed. 
 Dr. Daubeny was taken by surprise by the announcement in 
 the Standard of Saturday that Dr. Dalton had left £4000 to found 
 a new professorship of chemistry in Oxford (!!!) One of the 
 executors (Mr. Nield, I believe) also informed Dr. Daubeny at 
 York that he had a legacy of £100, but of neither of these cir- 
 cumstances has he received any official notice or confirmation. 
 I wish you would let me have what you know on this matter. 
 The will, having been sworn in Doctors' Commons, is, I suppose, 
 published. Also, how your own proposed professorship in Man- 
 chester is likely to be received. Say how much I should subscribe. 
 Dr. Daubeny proposes to give ten guineas, but perhaps you would 
 expect twenty from one who fraternizes with the League, and 
 has so much to interest him in Manchester. 
 
 [Between the years 1839 and 1844 Graham was busy with three 
 papers, viz. : — (1) "On Preparation of Chlorate of Potash;" (2) 
 "On the Constitution of the Sulphates;" (3) "On the Heat Dis- 
 engaged in Combination," in two parts.] 
 
 Aug. 31st, 1850. 
 
 To Miss Gkaham, — I started from London on Tuesday night, 
 and in twenty hours reached Cologne very much cut by sea-sickness 
 and fatigue. But after a night at the Hotel Hollande I was quite 
 recovered, and enjoyed the sail up the Rhine in a very fair day, 
 the voyage to Biberich near Mayence lasting from 6 to 7 evening 
 and reached Frankfort by railway about ten: when I got to a 
 good hotel, " the E,oman Emperor," the town being crowded from 
 the fair. The peace people had left. Cobden had been most 
 admired, and the people here had been gratified by the discursive 
 style of English addresses which they take as a lesson in public 
 speaking. Next morning I went on by railway and diligence to 
 Giessen, from 9 to 2 p.m. ; and after dining at the Kappen called 
 on the Professor. He appeared to me in better health than the 
 reports, indeed I would imagine quite as well as when I first saw 
 him thirteen years ago. He had many inquiries for you, and has 
 made up his mind that you are to come and spend four or five 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 47 
 
 months with them. Madame Liebig and part of the family are at 
 Ostend, he had waited a day or two on my account, and then Dr. 
 WUl and he proceed to Aix-la-Chapelle to analyse the waters — a 
 professional engagement. I found the leading young chemists of 
 the place still here, Dr. Strecker whom I think very highly of, 
 Flutmann, and Will. Kopp had already left, but Knapp and 
 Madame Knapp were at home ; also an Austrian young professor 
 Dr. — we had a very merry supper party. Dr. Hoffman I also 
 found at his mother's, and was introduced to the old lady and his 
 two sisters, a very pleasant family circle. They know you very 
 well through Mrs. H. ; she had left again for Darmstadt after a 
 visit here; she, I understand, is very well. The doctor however 
 has not made so much ground as he should have done. We shall 
 be occupied all this day (Saturday) about Giessen, then Dr. W. 
 and I go to Marburg to-morrow (by rail) to see Bunsen. On 
 Monday we propose starting with his married sister for Frankfort, 
 next day to Darmstadt, and Wednesday to proceed direct to 
 Switzerland. If you should write a line, it would be best to 
 address me to " Post Eestante " Beme. 
 
 The season in Germany has hitherto I think been scarcely equal 
 to England. This, however, is a magnificent day, and they hope 
 for a warmer Autumn. 
 
 I am living with the Professor, and have the world of news and 
 information. You will be glad to hear that he is entirely reconciled 
 to Dumas. They had met and spent a few days together, at Lille 
 I believe. The minister of commerce had in command from the 
 president to present the decoration of the Legion of Honour to 
 the Professor. Liebig will be over for ten days at Easter to see 
 the great Exposition, with every body in Germany, and intends to 
 bring Madame Liebig. 
 
 [Between 1844 and 1855 Graham was at work on ten papers 
 — eight on small matters, but two of great importance, being his 
 celebrated papers on the " Motion of Gases," and the " Diifusion of 
 Liquids."] 
 
 In 1855 Graham succeeded Sir John Hersohel as Master of the 
 Mint. On his appointment to the Mint, he laboured assiduously 
 and successf lilly in acquiring a thorough knowledge of the technical 
 work and financial relations of his oflSce, and discharged his duties 
 with much energy and judgment. It is known that he brought 
 about various reforms and economies in the working of the esta- 
 
48 FMlosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 blishment ; but the service for -which he will be chiefly remembered 
 was the introduction of the new bronze coinage, which, besides 
 substituting a more convenient medium of circulation than that in 
 previous use, was attended with a pecuniary profit to the State of 
 very large amount. 
 
 The Mint, Nov. 7th, 1855. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Nice, — ... I have not happened to 
 remark anything of late respecting the state of Rome and other 
 ItaKan cities as regards cholera, .but if they are sufiering from an 
 autumn attack that is likely to be on the wane. T shall send, 
 however, a few daily papers to Nice, and if matters are really 
 bad you are likely to find some notice of them. 
 
 We are keeping up our high rate of work (£420,000) weekly at 
 the Mint, although it requires constant vigUance on my part, 
 particularly in the absence of Mr. Barton, whom I wish to make 
 out his month's holiday undisturbed. He returns in a day or 
 two 
 
 London, Deo. 1st, 1855. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Eome, — .... I hope you will find 
 a healthy, comfortable apartment, and would recommend you not 
 to be too parsimonious on that head. 
 
 Here things have been going on much as usual. But I have one 
 surprise for you. Dr. Lee, of Hartwell, has just married a lady 
 of twenty-five. The first news of the happy event, coming through 
 Admiral Smyth, was set down as a joke, but it has been published 
 since in the Times. At the Royal Society Anniversary Dinner 
 yesterday, where I first heard this, not a bad joke was current 
 respecting the new Lord Mayor's dinner, Salomons, being, you 
 know, a Jew. One of the city waiters was addressing the visitors — 
 " Gents., would you have fish," and when Baron Piatt remarked 
 that it was too bad to address judges in that manner, his neighbour 
 at table asked if the Baron did not know that " Gents." was short 
 for Gentiles! t 
 
 Faraday called at the Mint, looking uncommonly well after a 
 sojourn of three months at Brighton, and in first-rate spirits. He 
 had many enquiries about you. Sharpey also appears to be some- 
 what better in health. 
 
De. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Tlwmas Graham. 49 
 
 Playfair says that Lord Palmerston does not look favourably 
 upon the decoration of the English jurors by the Emperor, and that 
 the crosses -will be somewhat contraband on this side of the channel; 
 it is the aristocratic feeling coming out. 
 
 I should mention that Lord Wrottesley, notwithstanding his 
 omissions of the soirees, is giving much satisfaction as President of 
 the R. S. The two Royal medals were given one to Hind, Mr. 
 Bishop's Astronomer, and the other to Westwood the Naturalist. 
 The Copley medal to M. Foucault (pendulum movement, showing 
 rotation of the earth, <&c. ) I dine to-day with Dr. and Mrs. Amott 
 to meet the latter. He made a pretty French speech at the 
 Anniversary Dinner, where, by the way, I was myself called up, 
 Sabine giving me the alternatives of proposing the health of the 
 President or returning thanks for "Her Majesty's Ministers," of 
 which I preferred the former 
 
 Dec. 13th, 1855. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Rome, — . . . Dr. Hofiinan had an accident 
 to his eye which was at first a little alarming, and got, I believe, 
 into the newspapers. The Rev. Mr. Barlow had caused an 
 explosion of sulphuric acid, a small drop of which found its way 
 past the glasses into the Dr.'s eye. He was confined to a dark 
 room for a week or ten days in consequence of the infiammation, 
 but is now going about again without having sufiered any permanent 
 injury. You may imagine what a vexation the accident was for 
 poor Mr. Barlow, who attended at Fitzroy Square like a nurse. 
 The Dr. promises a musical party as an opening of the house; the 
 furnishing goes on gradually. At the Mint we have continued to 
 keep up to our six deliveries a week (£430,000), although 
 unusually troubled with unworkable gold, of which I was obliged 
 to complain to the bank. The mischief I have since traced to a 
 small quantity of iron in the gold, which is that" of " Ballarat " and 
 the " ovens " simply melted down, whereas it ought to be refined 
 before being sold to the bank and sent to us. The bank melters. 
 Brown and Wingrove, promise to look after this in future. I am 
 gradually and quickly suppressing the abiises of the coining depart- 
 ment, and Mr. Brande now submits to my innovations with 
 resignation if not with a particularly good grace. They were 
 
50 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 chiefly ridiculous extra charges which the men had been allowed to 
 make, the passing of which every week was a recurring vexation 
 which I now escape. 
 
 Jan. 8, 1856. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Rome. — I had your long and amusing letter 
 giving your visits to the Cardinals and French Commandant, for 
 which many thanks. It has siace been forwarded to Cooper at 
 Southport. On calling on Mrs. Wilkinson, a few days ago, to deliver 
 your message, I received an emphatic contradiction from her of 
 the report that Dr. Wiseman was going to Rome. She rather 
 opened her heart to me on the occasion, teUing me that she is 
 the only Catholic convert in the family, her husband having lived 
 and died — "poor man" — a Protestant clergyman. Her brother 
 Mr. Porrett, is High Protestant also, and a little intolerant, so 
 that the good lady holds to her adopted faith under what she 
 considers no small persecution. She was present at Oscot College 
 when Mr. Talbot was first received; he gave up an English living. 
 When she was fifteen or sixteen, the father of Mr. Hemans was 
 devotedly attached to her, but afterwards mairied Felicia. She 
 saw a young man once at Oscot Church, in whom she recognized 
 the form and features of her old admirer, although the young 
 man was shorter and not so good looking; this is your Mr. 
 Hemans. She is very well and sends her compliments. 
 
 I got tolerably through the holidays all things considered. 
 First — I went to a German tea, with which No. 9 Fitzroy Square 
 was inagurated, but here made two mistakes — dining beforehand, 
 for the repast was of a most substantial character, recalling the 
 tea-dinners of primeval times. The other, for which in some 
 degree I must blame the Doctor, who had put at the bottom of 
 his invitation, " evening dress with decorations," was appearing 
 on the occasion in white choker, black coat, buttoned up to the 
 throat, and the Rosette and Star of the Legion of Honour blazing 
 on the left breast. Coming late and proving to be alone in my glory, 
 the effect upon the company, and especially the female portion of 
 it, was magnificent, perfectly stunning. The Dr. himself had not 
 mustered courage for such an exhibition, and there was no other 
 decore present. Miss Hofimann is evidently more comfortable in 
 their own house than she was forrherly in her brother's lodgings. 
 
De. E-. A. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 51 
 
 Secondly — I ate my Christmas dinner at W. Tookes, Russell 
 Square, who has lots of grandchildren, and had the honour to take 
 
 out Mrs. Arthur Tooke, an old Pau friend of yours 
 
 Also, old Thomas Tooke, the distinguished political economist, Dr. 
 Gray of the British Museum, and a remarkable lady whom I must 
 not forget, Mrs. Grajit, who has been to Pau and everywhere; she 
 has a daughter a Ward in Chancery, whose property Mr. Tooke 
 manages. Mrs. Grant has been presented to all the Queens of 
 her time I believe, and discussed the royal bearing of each. She 
 is not altogether satisfied with the Empress of the French, who 
 is a nice gentleman's wife, but wants fierte. The Queen of Spain 
 disgusted her. She pronounces our own Queen, little as she is, to 
 have dignity, and to look the Queen more than any of her 
 compeers. 
 
 It is a little curious to find myself taken into council by the 
 Government on financial questions, and to be talking over affairs 
 of state with the Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of 
 the Treasury, over a parlour fire in Downing Street. The fact is, 
 that finance at present ofiers a magnificent career if one could give 
 up Chemistry ; but no, I must remain true to my first love. 
 
 Paris, 3rd Oct., 1856. 
 
 To Miss Graham, — Pelouze was at his post, and from him and 
 the contractor at the Mint I have every information that I can 
 desire. We were to-day at the manufactory of MM. Rousseaux, 
 and saw the production of both sodium and aluminum on a grand 
 scale. 
 
 I shall have scarcely occasion to go beyond Paris, and will pro- 
 bably remain over the meeting of the Institute on Monday. I 
 propose to take Brussels on my way back. 
 
 30th Dec, 1857. 
 
 To Mes. James Eeid, — The five-pound gold piece was struck 
 expressly for you as a souvenir of the Mint. It is considered one 
 of Wm.Wyon's best works. " Una and the Lion," and such pieces 
 are so scarce that they bring a good premium. I am only afraid 
 that the gold will burn in the pocket of such a thrifty person, and 
 that you will be disposed to realize. 
 
52 Fhilosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 [From 1855 to 1860 Graham publisted nothing of importance, 
 but in 1861 appeared his celebrated paper on "Liquid Diffusion 
 applied to Analysis."] 
 
 16th May, 1861. 
 
 To Miss Geaham, — The issue of the new bronze is going on 
 satisfactorily, all that is manufactured being out or bespoke. 
 
 Last week has been a week of soirees. I could not avoid being 
 out every evening. Among the rest Lord Ash burton's, as Presi- 
 dent of the Geographical. I had not seen Lord A. since his 
 marriage. He introduced me very kindly to Lady A. Wild, you 
 will be surprised to hear, has given up his office at the Royal 
 Society. There is some difference between him and the other 
 (superior) officers, which has not been explaiaed. He certainly 
 was not generally liked. 
 
 I was able to send in a paper to the R. S. last week, which 
 contains two or three years' work, and has cost no small effort to 
 get up amid my other distractions. I need only describe it as 98 
 folio pages in length. I expect also to hand in two short ones, all 
 but ready, before the recess. This is an unspeakable relief to me, 
 for nothing depresses me so much as the falling behind in my 
 scientific career, consequent upon my official engagements ; but I 
 hope to recover in some considerable degree my place in the race 
 by these papers. 
 
 17th. — I had a visit to-day at the Mint from Prince Arthur, a 
 fine bright boy. He certainly promises well. 
 
 7th June, 1861, from London. 
 
 To Miss Geaham, Pau, — . . I forget if I told you of the 
 last move of the officers of the R. S. — it was to place me as 
 Treasurer and Vice-President in succession to Sabine, the latter 
 being elevated to the chair. This would have suited me better, as 
 the duty would have been light; but, after some hesitation, I have 
 felt it necessary to decline this also. W. Crum and Dr. Hoffman 
 agreed ^vith me in the propriety of this resolution, Sharpey is, 
 however, much disappointed, as he had set liis mind upon such an 
 arrangement, which he says would have made Sabine's presidency 
 go down better with the body of the Society. But the overwork 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 53 
 
 of last winter and spring has made me nervously afraid of 
 encountering engagements merely for honour's sake. My chemical 
 work, on the other hand, is going on very nicely. 
 
 4th Nov., 1861. 
 
 My Dear Master, — I am very glad to be able to inform you 
 that Lord Palmerston has sanctioned the appointment of your 
 brother to the office of senior clerk and assistant coiner in the 
 Mint. 
 
 This may be attributed not only to the testimonials of superior 
 fitness for the office which your brother possesses, but I hope that 
 you will also consider it a mark of the estimation in which, for 
 your services and the economy you have introduced into the 
 department over which you preside, you are held. 
 
 Believe me. 
 
 My Dear Master, 
 
 Very truly yours. 
 The Master of the Mint. 
 
 7 Nov., 1861, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau, — I am enjoying my holidays, after a way. 
 The change in the weather, wind and snow, sent me up from 
 Hastings after a few days. The business at the Mint has been 
 brought up so that things can go on for a few weeks without my 
 intervention. Mr. Barton and John have it all their own way, 
 and I believe both will be improved by the responsibility. In 
 the meantime I fully enjoy my temporary release. 
 
 The election of President of the Royal Society comes on upon 
 the 30th inst. Dr. Roget is still urgent for Lord Brougham, and 
 he will be proposed. The election might, I believe, be easily secured 
 by a little organization among his supporters. It would be an 
 appropriate close to the career of the old hero. In the meantime, 
 from necessity as well as choice, I keep myself entirely out of the 
 melee. 
 
 In making holiday 1 looked in at the National Gallery yesterday 
 and found Mr. Wornam the Director. The change is surprising. 
 
54 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 That Turner room is really a National treasure. I wandered out 
 afterwards, to the Zoological where I met Lewis with " George 
 Eliot " on his arm. I had never seen the lady before, she has a 
 long face, and her attractions do not reside in her looks — so far for 
 first impressions. Last week I had a very agreeable communication 
 to make to Mr. Aitkinson and University College. My old friend 
 Mr. Evans of "Worcester (Hill and Evans, the vinegar makers) gave 
 me the first intimation to the College, of a small legacy to U. C. 
 imder a will of which he is one of the Executors. It is about £60 
 per annum, without any restriction. The testator was an old 
 gentleman of the name of Webb, 90' years of age. 
 
 9th Nov., 1861, from London. 
 
 To Miss Geaham, Pau, — The issue of the new bronze pieces 
 goes on successfully, and we have the public with us. The change 
 from the old to the new will, I believe, be roughly completed 
 within the Metropolitan district in the course of a few weeks more. 
 
 11th Dec, 1861, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau. — I have obtained another senior clerk, a 
 kind of deputy to John, principally for the outdoor work. He is 
 a Mr. C. F. Macdonald, of Manchester, who was recommended to 
 me by George Wilson, and of whom Mr. Gladstone had also heard 
 from other sources. 
 
 In this business I have allowed an extremely simple system to 
 develope itself, which has kept the work falling on the department 
 at a minimum, and procured us an amount of gratuitous assistance 
 all over the country which is really surprising. We have had 
 nothing to retract, had no mishap of any kind, and every step we 
 take I see my way better, and can advance more confidently. 
 
 . . . I have had letters from old chemical friends respecting 
 my paper, which is being translated into German and French, and 
 find that it is attracting attention, Professor Schonbein, of Basle, 
 writes an amusing letter. 
 
I 
 Dr. R a. Smith on Life and Works of Tliomas Gralwm, 55 
 
 14th Dec, 1S61, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau. — The bulletin of the Prince Consort's 
 health is favourable this afternoon. Dr. Amott says that all 
 ground for uneasiness has ceased. Lord Monteagle, with whom I 
 was talking, says that so serious did things appear yesterday that 
 the Duke of Cambridge was called away from parade. 
 
 Miss Coutts has been to Compeigne, and reports the Emperor 
 as speaking strongly against the Americans. He wished they had 
 tried it on one of his ships. 
 
 16th Jan., 1862, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau. — Doctor Hoffmann has had a tempting 
 offer of a Chemical Professorship at Bonn. His countrymen are 
 anxious to have him back, which I can well understand. I was 
 telling him his countrymen must look upon him as the " missing 
 planet" between the orbits of Bunsen and Strecker. He was 
 much shaken by the offer for several days, but he is too well 
 situated in every respect here to make a change. 
 
 James Young, with John Thom, Dr. Angus Smith of Manchester, 
 Dugald Campbell, and John, dined here the day before yesterday. 
 The gathering was due to Mr. Young's friendly anxiety to support 
 the claims of Dr. Smith to the Chemical Chair in Aberdeen, which 
 has become vacant by the death of Dr. Fyfe. 
 
 In case the Rev. Mr. Yorke should be disposed to look into a 
 correspondence on the glacier question, I beg to enclose a letter 
 from Professor Hopkins, the eminent Mathematician and Physical 
 Geologist, who is to lecture on the subject at the Royal Institution 
 on the 31st., with my explanatory reply. I do not care to publish 
 more on the subject till I have had an opportunity of making a 
 few experiments to illustrate the subject. 
 
 3rd February, 1862, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau.^Since I had your last favour, Professor 
 Hopkins' lecture on the glacial theories came off at the Royal 
 Institution. It was very clear and satisfactory so far as it went, 
 but of too elementary a character to take up such a point as the 
 
56 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 colloidal condition of ice. It was entirely decisive against Forbes's 
 confused views of viscosity. A peculiar idea was brought out by 
 Mr. Hopkins to account for the glacier movement, so far as it is a 
 sliding motion. He had observed that when a block of ice is 
 placed upon a plane, such as a Welsh slate, slightly inclined, the 
 ice will slowly move downwards. This slipping motion was 
 admitted to depend upon the melting of the lower surface of the 
 mass of ice in contact with the slate. But whence the heat to 
 melt in such a way the bottom of a glacier? The internal temper- 
 ature of the globe to be sure. The Professor had a mass of ice 
 placed as described on a slate, to show this motion, but somehow 
 or other it was " no go ; " but Faraday, the moment the cause of 
 the expected movement was given, darted off, and placed a gas 
 lamp below the slate, thus bringing in the " central heat " with a 
 vengeance. The movement speedily followed. There may be 
 something in this motion of Hopkins', although the prevailing 
 opinion is that the effect of the central heat upon the surface of 
 the globe is too small now to be appreciated. But the rocky bed of 
 the glacier is scratched, showing a sliding motion ; to which it may 
 be replied again, that the bottom surface of the glacier ice itself 
 has been found scratched also — not melted away as the hypothesis 
 seemed to require. Mr. Hopkins, however, insisted most upon 
 the crushing of the brittle ice, and its subsequent " regelation '' 
 into a homogeneous mass in its new position. Dr. Tyndall's pretty 
 experiment of crushing the ice into the form of a transparent cup 
 by a Bramah press was successfully repeated. And here the 
 lecturer stopped. Mrs. Faraday had her enquiries for you. She 
 reports Mr. F. as pretty well, " but we must not let him work so 
 much as he would like." The Bucktons were also enquiring for 
 you. 
 
 While we are scientific, T may refer to Mr. Yorke's problem of 
 the brandy cherries and your own preserved greengages. The 
 sugar and much of the flavouring material come out and are 
 distributed through the brandy. It strikes me that the thing 
 would be made plainer by using a little bag of animal membrane 
 (or parchment paper) instead of the gi'eengage. Supposing the 
 little bag was tied up filled with gum-water, and placed in the 
 bottle of brandy. The first result would be (I believe) that the 
 water would go out to the brandy, which greatly attracts it, and 
 the bag would collapse. The diflSculty of the brandy entering the 
 bag is greater than that of the water leaving it. But in a certain 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith oti Life and Works of Thomas Graliam. 57 
 
 time the proportion of brandy would be the same inside and out- 
 side the bag, the latter still much collapsed. So it would end 
 were it not for the gum in the bag. Gum is one of those sub- 
 stances which cannot get through the walls of the bag (gum being 
 a colloid), and must therefore remain there. But the imprisoned 
 gum now attracts water to ibself from without by endosmose, and 
 the consequence is that the bag is again distended, the gages 
 become plump at last. The water that has so got in is also 
 followed by alcohol, attracted by the water. 
 
 You refer to the sad coal-pit accident. Some one has cut out of 
 a paper and sent to me the enclosed sUp. It was an old idea of 
 mine, but the material mentioned should be kept in store in all 
 miaes liable to choke-damp. But still, it is the old story, the 
 life-boat not at hand when wanted. The surest guarantee against 
 such accidents is the Scotch law, which gives to friends of the 
 miners an action against the mine proprietor. In Scotland each 
 of the widows would have thus received, at least, .£250. 
 
 14th February, 1862, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau, — He (Mr. John Graham) is very much 
 engrossed with our bronze issue, which is truly a considerable 
 affair. It requires a great deal of attention, but goes on 
 prosperously. 
 
 Last Friday evening we had an interesting lecture from 
 Professor Huxley, at the R. Institution. The great point was 
 producing a human skull from the bone cavern — the skull of 
 the man who made the flint implements found in the di'ift. It 
 appears that the skull in question was found so long ago as 
 1830 or '40, in a bone cavern near Liege, and was described by 
 a good native geologist as being contemporaneous with the accom- 
 panying elephant and tiger remains; but nobody believed it. 
 Lately, however. Sir C. Lyell went into the question, and on re- 
 examining the skull, found it to be in exactly the same fossil 
 condition as the other bones, and manifestly of the same age. 
 It was a fairly formed skull. Next Friday evening Dr. Odling 
 is to illustrate " Dialysis." Calvert, of Manchester, lately gave a 
 lecture there on the same subject. Redwood followed. 
 
 Saturday was the private view of the picture exhibition of the 
 British Institution, which I would not like to miss. It is a kind 
 
 H 
 
58 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 of harbinger of Spring, the snowdrop of exhibitions. There I met 
 old artistic friends, Wornam, D. Eoberts, your Caucasian admirer 
 Solomon Hunt, RA., &c. It was a pretty show, remarkable, as 
 usual, for the large number of fair pictures, rather than for any 
 salient production. 
 
 19th Feb. — I have allowed several days to elapse. Odling's 
 lecture I hear from all quarters went off exceedingly well. The 
 subject admitted of a number of pretty experiments which he 
 made the most of. I dined on that day with Bence Jones, found 
 Col. Thos. Yorke, Dr. Hoffman, a Miss Raphael or Gabriel (I 
 forget which angel), a clever creature and great favourite of our 
 host. The Franklands were expected, but by some accident did 
 not come although they were at the lecture with Miss Colvill 
 afterwards. I had also a quiet dinner with Dr. Sharpey last week, 
 to meet a brother of Professor Kolliker's, who is, I believe, a Swiss 
 merchant. All your friends were enquiring for you. Miss 
 Hoffman is still very weak, and has not come down stairs, but I 
 was admitted to a visit. She also desired to be particularly 
 remembered to you. Their sister, Mrs. Raw, is with her. James 
 H. and Carl are both well. The Dr. has cleared up lately with 
 great success the nature of the magenta colours, which was very 
 obscure. The amount of good work he gets through is something 
 extraordinary. The printed copies of my second paper came to 
 hand to-day. It is a much less general subject than the last, and 
 not of the same popular interest. But I shall post a copy to you. 
 
 I am drawing up my report on the Hong-Kong currency, which 
 seems to drive everything else out of my head for the time, and 
 is the only apology I can offer for scarcity of news. 
 
 [In 1863 appeared Graham's paper on " The Molecular Mobility 
 of Gases and Atmolysis " — the remaining years of his life being 
 chiefly occupied by this subject and that of the occlusion of gases.] 
 
 11th Feb., 1863, from London. 
 
 To Miss Graham, Pau, — I am getting a head of the Queen 
 engraved by a German artist, C. Weiner, who has come to settle 
 in London. His first attempt is certainly good as a likeness, but 
 too realistic to please. He will probably try again, and if a 
 portable impression can be taken, I shall send it for your opinion. 
 Weiner's designs for the Rumford medal met with a qualified 
 
Dh. R. a. Smith on Life and Worhs of Thomas Graha/m. 59 
 
 approbation only in the Committee of the R. Society. The 
 Committee included Sir C. Eastlake and Mr. Westmacott, the 
 sculptor, -who pronounce rather decidedly against the taste of the 
 work. Werner has improved the designs greatly, acting upon 
 suggestions of Mr. "Westmacott, and it will now probably be passed. 
 The old dies to be superseded were quite wretched. 
 
 9th May, 1863, from London. 
 
 To Miss Geaham, Pau, — .... The fact is I had an 
 evening occupation for the last two months which has nearly 
 excluded 'everything else, correspondence in particular. It is the 
 composition of a paper for the R. S., embodying several years' 
 work — the subject, the Gases — which I was very anxious to get off 
 my hands. It has cost more work (I mean investigation) than the 
 dialysis, but is necessarily a little mathematical, and consequently 
 less generally interesting. I am glad that it is now off my hands, 
 having been delivered in fairly copied only last evening. . . 
 
 I had a few words with Playfair last night, who had just returned 
 from Osborne. He describes the Queen as in fair spirits, and able 
 to speak of the late Prince, which she is constantly doing, without 
 suffering. He is very thankful for the informatpn you sent him 
 respecting the education of his boy at Pau. It was a meeting of 
 the Chemical, and I found Stenhouse there, remarkably vigorous. 
 Hoffman also in great force. 
 
 I have avoided any inquiry about the Bonn business. It seems 
 publicly rather to have passed over. Stenhouse gave the general 
 impression that the Bonn salary, about £400 a year, would be 
 insufficient for the Dr. after his London experiences. I am to dine 
 with him next week at Mrs. Wilson's, and then may perhaps hear 
 more of his intentions. There is a little stir just now with the 
 appointment to a new office, the Inspector of Chemical Works, for 
 which Dr. Angus Smith, of Manchester (James Young's friend), 
 is the favourite candidate. Young was in town, and went with 
 me to dine at the R. S. club. He considered himself very fortunate 
 on the occasion, as he was placed between Sir Wm. Armstrong 
 and Sir R. Hill. He had been in Glasgow, and spoke favourably 
 as to Mrs. Reid's health. I have not heard anything direct from 
 Blythswood Square for a long time. I accepted an invitation 
 from the " divine Rachel " to visit Bushey Park and see the 
 
60 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 chestnuts next Sunday afternoon, dining afterwards with the 
 Chadwicks, at Richmond. I have been little out for some time, 
 but I dined last Saturday with Dilke. Except Willis, of Cambridge, 
 and myself, the party were chiefly old family friends. The 
 President's soiree followed, at which the Prince of Wales made his 
 appearance. Dilke says, by the way, that the Queen has spent a 
 great deal of money lately, that she insisted on refunding all the 
 Danish expenses from Copenhagen to London, also the Hessian, 
 " because they had not the money to do it." It appears that the 
 English officers who escort on such occasions receive large douceurs, 
 two or three hundred pounds. She also paid the hotel bills. 
 Being in mourning, she did not receive the visitors in Buckingham 
 Palace, which explains why her visitors were in hotels. ' . . 
 Enclosed you have a little piece for Hong Kong, a thousand in a 
 dollar, or twenty in a penny. . . 
 
 [This completes the letters of Graham, who belonged to a group 
 of cheinists of the first rank, whose education and experience were 
 entirely acquired on British soil, and, moreover, of a group of 
 chemists whose powerful generalizations materially advanced the 
 science throughout Europe. 
 
 The matter which follows is exactly as written by Dr. Angus 
 Smith, and appears to call for no further remarks by the Editor.] 
 
 As a private man Graham led an uneventful life; but no man 
 has passed through the world more uniformly respected. Too 
 retired, too quiet, his life appears to have a deep tinge of melan- 
 choly in it, notwithstanding its eminent success. Very intimate 
 friends he had few out of the circle of the family of brothers and 
 sisters, who were strongly attached to him, and to whom he was 
 much devoted, being himself unmarried. 
 
 It was by Dr. Thos. Thomson's teaching that Graham first 
 learnt Chemistry, an,d however much his boyish mind may have 
 been attracted by the wonders of experiment, it was at a very 
 early age I believe that he began to think of the recondite laws of 
 matter. In 1826 there is a memoir by him on the absorption of 
 gases by liquids, and his shrewdness and calm mode of speculation 
 are as. apparent there at 21 as at any time of his after life. He 
 supposes for example that absorption and liquefaction of gases are 
 regulated by the same fundamental properties.* 
 
 * Faraday's experiments on the liquefaction of gases were made in 1823. [En.] 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 61 
 
 Next year, viz. 1827, speculating on the atmosphere, he thinks 
 that it may become liquid or solid when cooled to 284°C. He 
 says that if the air cools at the rate of 1 degree for 300 feet, it 
 may lose its elasticity at 2 7 '2 7 mUes, and temperature occasion a 
 limit to diffusion. Here then we almost say we find him beginning 
 his work, and next year we have a memoir by him on the absorption 
 of vapours by liquids, and another giving an account of experi- 
 mental researches on the diffusion of gases, seizing boldly the 
 subject as it/ was left by Dalton and others. 
 
 In the same year we have the nucleus of his work on the 
 diffusion of liquids. This I consider to be found in his paper 
 " on the inflvience of air in determining the crystallization of saline 
 solutions.'' 
 
 Whilst he was speculating on laws of liquids, vapours, and gases 
 at this time he was also very much occupied with practical ideas, 
 and one would alinost have expected from his note book to see 
 him come forward as a manufacturer, or what is now called a 
 Chemical Engineer. Some of his thinking is to be found in 
 Chalmers's Jovimial — referred to in his letters — when it was 
 published monthly in small octavo, and even then able to say 
 that "from the highest to the lowest, the various ranks of the 
 community appear to vie with each other in the acquisition of all 
 that in Science and Literature hath a practical bearing on their 
 convenience or comfort." In the first number, page 25, we have 
 a short article on the great weight of charcoal, signed Gr., and 
 showing some of the remarkable transformations of that element. 
 There is also an article on the advantage of copper bolt§ in 
 soldering. 
 
 Another short article is a proposal to use a sand-bath as a cook- 
 ing apparatus, an idea that might readily come from a chemical 
 student in early days. This seems to have pleased the readers of 
 the Journal, and brought out in number 2 a longer discussion 
 of its advantages. He recommends also that ladies should have 
 for themselves, outside of the kitchen, a sand-bath for " the more 
 delicate and interesting processes, and to present to our country- 
 women a fair field for the exertion of their culinary powers, unen- 
 cumbered by the coarser details of the art." A drawing is .given 
 in the third number, and thanks presented for the encouragement 
 he had received. In this number — that is, number 3, page 121. 
 May, 1827 — there is an article by Graham on a "Marine Amulet 
 or Life-preserver, on a new principle." This is the production of 
 
62 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 carbonic acid in an air-tight bag. The bag may be put round the 
 body, and take up so little room as scarcely to be felt or seen, but 
 the moment it is immersed in water a valve opens, and allows a 
 certain amount of water to enter. This enables an amount of 
 tartaric acid and soda bi-carbonate to act, and the bag distends, 
 A bag capable of holding a gallon, when distended, is filled to the 
 extent of one-third in ten seconds by using half an ounce of each 
 of the powders. It is worth while giving this more ftiUy. The 
 production of buoyancy is a most valuable quality, and if we can 
 so apply gases that the act of foundering produces the means of 
 elevation, we have gained a great point. May this principle not 
 be employed to raise sunken vessels 1 
 
 The following is the account given of "The Mariae Amulet" in 
 Chalmers's Journal of Useful Knowledge and Monthly Miscellany 
 of Arts and Sciences, 1827. 
 
 "The instantaneous production of a large quantity of air is 
 familiar to everyone in the case of mixing the solutions of soda 
 powders. Could such an evolution of buoyant gaseous matter be 
 made to take place in a proper recipient, and without trouble, upon 
 the occurrence of an accident, a life-preserver, correct in prmciple, 
 would be obtained. This principle might be applied in different 
 ways, but perhaps the following is the most simple : — 
 
 "A bag of Maciutosh's water-proof double cloth, of cotton or silk, 
 being procured, and found upon trial to be air-tight, a collar of 
 strong and stiff leather may be fixed to the mouth of it. This 
 collar should be three or four inches long, and of a flatteiied con- 
 struction, perhaps two inches across in one direction and three- 
 fourths of an inch in the other. The open mouth would now be 
 closed with a valve or lid, opening inwards. The valve or lid 
 would, of course, be as wide as the collar, or two inches by three- 
 fourths of an inch. Supposing the bag to be capable of containing 
 four quarts, or a gallon, a quantity of the soda powders, amounting 
 to half an ounce of each, may be intimately mixed, and introduced 
 into the neck of the bag, still dry, by pushing back the valve. 
 The apparatus may be then fixed to the person, the empty bag 
 stretching across the breast, and the flattened neck or mouth being 
 brought out from beneath the waistcoat at the right side, so as to 
 be easUy got at by the hand should that ever be necessary. As, 
 when the apparatus is so arranged, the collar would be in a position 
 somewhat oblique, most of the powder would rest upon the interior 
 side of the collar, and not press much upon the valve, which would 
 
Dk. R. a. Smith on Life mid Works of Thomas GraJiam. 63 
 
 therefore be loose, and probably not altogether shut, although 
 sufficiently so to retain the powder. A sudden plunge into the 
 water would therefore be unfailingly attended by a considerable 
 insinuation of the liquid into the neck of the bag, the valve yield- 
 ing inwards to the stroke. But the moment that water comes in 
 contact with the powders they violently react upon each other, pro- 
 ducing a copious evolution of incoercible air [carbonic acid gas], 
 which would violently press down the valve, and inflate the bag 
 with considerable force. We have found by experiment that the 
 bag, in such circumstances, is filled with air to the extent of at 
 least one-third, which is enough to render a man buoyant within 
 ten seconds ; in twenty seconds the bag is more than half-filled, 
 and within a minute it is completely filled, and all perceptible 
 action at an end. ' Should a person invested with such a preserver 
 be accidentally thrown into water, the air-producing apparatus 
 would be brought immediately into action, and the bag forcibly 
 inflated, although previously it had been flaccid, and had occupied 
 very little space. 
 
 " The collar which is appended to the bag, and the valve or lid, 
 which are the most important parts of this apparatus, might be con- 
 structed of various materials, and of any shape which was found 
 most convenient. The .most important circumstances to attend 
 to are, that the neck or collar be of such materials as would not 
 readily collapse or close together from external pressure, and that 
 the valve be of considerable size, and such as would admit the 
 water with ease. Should it be thought advantageous to admit 
 more water than has entered at the first rush, the valve could be 
 pushed inwards by the hand near it, and more water would enter; 
 or, if it was perceived that more air would be produced than was 
 necessary to inflate the bag to its full dimensions, from too great 
 a quantity of the powders being employed, a momentary opening 
 of the valve would remove the injurious excess. From the con- 
 struction of the apparatus, and the manner in which it is attached 
 to the body, it is evident that when in actual use in the water, 
 the inflated bag would rise and maintain a superior position, 
 while the collar and valve would be constantly under water — an 
 arrangement which would secure the retention of the air in the 
 bag. The air, too, within the bag would not be in immediate 
 contact with the valve, which would be protected and made 
 certainly air-tight by the water which had entered and induced 
 the action." 
 
64 P/idlosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 At this point it is remarkable how varied was the action of 
 Graham's mind, both in practical and theoretical Chemistry. But, 
 perhaps, chemists are, by the nature of their studies, driven to a 
 greater variety of subjects than most other men. It may be 
 interesting, however, to remark, that we find in the note-book, 
 1827-1828, reasoning on— 
 
 Nitrification, ... ... ... page 1. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, ... .. ... 16. 
 
 Steam ... ... ... ... 25. 
 
 Steam-engines — Cylinder — Piston. 
 Steel Pens. 
 MiscibUityof Gases. 
 
 On this point, his note-book contains the following at page 144 — 
 " Dalton's theory, of the tendency of gases to mix with each other, 
 that they are vacua to each other, is faulty, as it would occasion 
 an instantaneous and complete mixture, which certainly does not 
 take place, and I have shown previously that cold could be produced 
 on mixture as a necessary effect of Dalton's supposition, which I 
 have found on trial not to be the case. The gases must, therefore, 
 actually press against each other. Aqueous vapour in the atmo- 
 sphere must be pressed upon, and be really as dense as the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Suppose a vacuum made in the receiver of an air pump, as 
 nearly perfect as possible. Admit a little water, the vacuum 
 would be filled completely with aqueous vapour of light tension, 
 upon admitting air into the vacuum, the first efiect would be to 
 drive the aqueous vapour before it, compress and condense it. If 
 the bottom of the receiver was not dry, aqueous vapours would 
 rise without the artificial introduction of water, and it is probably 
 the condensation of such vapours which occasions the haziness 
 often observed on the entrance of air. This, of course, is quite 
 contrary to Mr. Dalton's theory of vacua." 
 
 It is interesting to see one of his earliest private thoughts on 
 this subject, but, also curious to find that he, like many others, 
 had not entered fully into Dalton's mind on the subject. Dalton 
 never doubted that one gas could drive forward another, as a rod 
 of pine would drive forward a rod of oak if pressure were suitably 
 applied, although, at the same time, he never could clearly express 
 the mystical relationship which he supposed each gas to have to 
 
Dr. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graliam. 65 
 
 the particles of its own kind. Graham too had not made clear to 
 himself at this time the distinction between ispecific gravity and 
 tension. 
 
 The same note-book speaks of Phosphates, Iodides of Carbon, 
 Alcohates, Salts of Magnesia, Atomic weights, and Combining 
 Volumes. I think he must have been early on this subject. 
 Then we have the absorption of salts from solution, evaporation 
 of saline solutions, water of crystallization, a subject on which he 
 spent much time; Howard's patent for sugar boiling, Perkin's 
 ideas of steam, and a plan for an Academy of Science, with some 
 other discussions. 
 
 When Graham came to Glasgow, in 1830, to lecture at the 
 Andersonian University, after he had been some time in Edin- 
 burgh, there was a good deal of interest excited about him, and I 
 fancy this was felt more by the boys than the general population. 
 I was told by a boy, now pretty far advanced in years, that a 
 wonderful young man had appeared, one who, although only 
 nineteen years old, had still a great reputation. I went to hear 
 one or two of his popular lectures, and I remember his looks well. 
 He might have been taken for nineteen, but, in reality, he was 
 twenty-five when he first lectured at the Andersonian. He had the 
 same quiet, rather stifi", and hesitating manner which he never 
 lost. He did not cause enthusiasm by brilliancy of address, but 
 a certain reserve and a certain feeling of power, as well as of 
 ambition, which his letters prove to have been strong in him, so 
 acted on his demeanour, that students became attracted, and were 
 ready to work beside him and devote themselves also to his service. 
 Amongst these was James Young, of paraffin oil celebrity, who, 
 from a student, became an assistant, and played a part in the 
 industrial world which was not less remarkable than his teacher's 
 part ra the scientific. I remember hearing him also spoken of as 
 a very wonderful individual, but I remember little more, as he 
 stands out before me, chiefiy as a head sufficiently red and un- 
 combed, by no means like the smooth yellow hair of his middle 
 age, or the venerable white of his later years. 
 
 When Graham first lectured here, it was certainly to an audience 
 ready in interest, a Mechanics' Institute had been formed some 
 years before, and the University was proud of Dr. Thomson. Dr. 
 Ure, a man of great mental activity and power, a man who might 
 have been a force in Europe, preceded him in the Andersonian, 
 but lost his position by attending too much, to his interest. It 
 
66 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 was pleasant to find a young man who took an interest in young 
 people. I well remember how far the sympa;thy went. One of 
 my playmates, Edward Craig, became a small walking laboratory, 
 his waiscoat pockets had each a range of several small vials. He 
 had no test tubes, beakers, or basins, he asked us to put out our 
 band and to make it as hollow as possible. Into these "loofs" he 
 poured his solutions, made precipitates, solutions and smells. That 
 boy made more than one chemist; he himself did not continue the 
 subject, but next year had his pockets full of abridgements of 
 Locke, Bacon, and others, and on these he raised many discussions. 
 Nothing came of Edward Craig, he had too little ambition in 
 any direction. This was a little offshoot from the scientific 
 schools. 
 
 Graham's direct influence was exercised in a manner which I 
 rather think may be called quite new. I incline to call him the 
 founder of the practical system of teaching Chemistry, at least in 
 this country. Liebig was two years older, and opened his Giessen 
 Laboratory in 1826; Graham began his very naturally, and not by 
 imitation. His pupils wanted work, and he gave them his to 
 do. He early got into a very languid mode of life, owing to 
 simple constitutional want of elasticity. The work on water of 
 crystallization was all done in these early days at the Andersonian, 
 whilst Graham himself sat looking at the fire in weather not at 
 all wet or cold, too languid even to look at the experiments. But 
 the cause of this was partly mental. He was often in great straits 
 for want of money. Once he required a silver crucible to make 
 some experiments for a commercial firm, but he could not buy one 
 and he was refused credit. In that Laboratory were taught some 
 chemists of which Glasgow might be proud. Dr. Stenhouse, who 
 lately died, may be mentioned first, as a man of great force of 
 character and wonderful energy, who has left numerous results 
 of his shrewd enquiries in botanical chemistry. Sir Lyon Playfair 
 and Dr. Gilbert being stUl in full vigour, I shall only allude to 
 them; the same may be said of Mr. John Thorn of Chorley, who 
 in reality did the experiments which based the theories of consti- 
 tutional and saline water. The Griffins made a departure, in 
 another direction of no small advantage to the community, and 
 the family still continues their important services to chemists. 
 Crum and Harvey are still great manufacturing names in Glasgow. 
 These names first showed themselves as attached to chemists in 
 Graham's Laboratory. Blyth and Thorn still hold their ground as 
 
De. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 67 
 
 great manufacturing names in Lancashire, and promise to continue 
 to flourish. 
 
 As a scientific man, his claims were never disputed; he was not 
 called to assert his position, and he remained the undisputed head 
 of his department. He received in early life (1834) the Keith 
 Medal of the Koyal Society of Edinburgh, and the Royal Medal 
 of the Eoyal Society in 1838, and in 1862 the Copley Medal. He 
 was made a Doctor of Civil Law of Oxford, Honorary Member of 
 the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Corresponding Member of the 
 French Institute and of the Academies of Berlin and Munich, and 
 of the National Institute of Washington. His election into the 
 Royal Society was in 1836. 
 
 In 1841, in concert with some friends, he formed the Chemical 
 Society of London, and was elected its first President. 
 
 Graham's Chemical and PnysicAL Researches : an Abridgment 
 OP Thomas Graham's Work, containing an Abstract of 
 ALL HIS Papers. 
 
 GASES. 
 
 /. — Absorption of Gases by Liquids — 18S6. 
 From "Annals of Philosophy," xii., 1826, pp. 69-74. 
 
 Liquids miscible in all degrees, as alcohol and water; or in limited 
 degrees, as ether and water. Some mixtures exhibit chemical 
 union. Water impairs the volatility of alcohol. Gases may be 
 considered volatilized liquids, and such bodies may have the common 
 properties of liquids. 
 
 It is assumed then that gases liquefied by pressure or other 
 means will mix with liquids in some proportion. Sulphuric acid, 
 at boiling, or 600° F. (316° C), will liquefy steam of the same 
 temperature, although it would require to pass down to boiling 
 point to be condensed. Gases may owe their absorbability to 
 their capability of being liquefied. 
 
 Gases already liquefied, by Faraday, easily absorbed. 
 
 The sp. gr. of the liquids - formed, and of their solutions, are 
 confirmatory. Dr. Henry's law, that absorption is directly pro- 
 portional to pressure at variance, ex. gr., in muriatic acid, but 
 may be approximately true when absorption is small. 
 
 By diminishing temperature we diminish the absorption of a 
 gas, not in the same but in much greater proportion. Amount 
 
68 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 of gas absorbed by a liquid depends on. the gaseous residue or 
 amount of gas exposed to tlie liquid. This is deducible from the 
 gases being liquefied. Analogous instances occur with liquids. 
 
 Finally, absorption of gases is in the same class as miscibility of 
 liquids. 
 
 //. — On tlie Finite Extent of the Atmosphere — 1827. 
 
 From "Philosophical Magazine and Annals of Philosophy," i., 1827, 
 pp. 107-109. 
 
 "Wollaston's opinion that the limit of the atmosphere would be 
 arrived at on mechanical principles. Faraday's illustration. But 
 it may be that by being cooled down to 284° 0. it becomes liquid 
 or solid. If the air cools 1 degree for 300 feet it will lose its 
 elasticity at 27-27 mUes, and temperature occasion a limit to 
 diffusion. 
 
 ///. — Longchamvp^ Theory of Nit/rification, with an extension of 
 it— 1827. 
 
 From "Philosophical Magazine and Annals of Philosophy," i.-, 1827, 
 pp. 172-180. 
 
 Reason to doubt Glauber's theory, the prevailing one, that 
 " saltpetre is formed by the decomposition of mineral and vege- 
 table substances." 
 
 The solution of lime, by the free carbonic acid of the air, enables 
 the oxygen and azote to act on each other more effectually. 
 
 IV. — Experiments on the Absorption of Vapours by Liquids — 1828. 
 
 From "Edin. Joum. of Science," xvi., 1828, pp. 326-335 ("Schweigger 
 Journ.," liii. (Jahrb. xxiii.), 1828, pp. 249-264). 
 
 Saturated solution of chloride of sodium absorbs water in. a 
 position where water evaporates, and where the crystals do not 
 deliquesce, at 57° F., 14° C. 
 
 Saturated solution of muriate of ammonia and sulphate of 
 magnesia. 
 
 Water lost 23 grains. A solution of chloride of sodium, 1 in 
 4 of water, gained 39 grains. Carbonate of potash, 1 in 4 of 
 
Dk. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 69 
 
 water, gained 6-5. Table of gain of water in six days, and in 
 fourteen days in 10 solutions of salts. Not only deliquescent, 
 but even efflorescent salts, absorb water when in solution, saturated 
 solutions being used, except in the case of carbonate of potash and 
 chloride of calcium. 
 
 All saline solutions just as readily inhale as exhale vapours, 
 according to the atmosphere. Column of boiling points. Index 
 of the evaporating powers of the solutions. Liquids irevaporate 
 when they take in vapour, and evaporate when they give it out. 
 Gain in five days with chloride of sodium. Loss with sea water. 
 
 Examples of solutions which boil at the same point. Absorp- 
 tion of water by muriatic acid, at temperature not above 55° 
 (13° C.) giving out acid and absorbing vapour till the strength 
 is 1-0960. 
 
 Sulphuric acid absorbs the vapour of alcohol. 
 
 Absorption of alcohol vapour by camphor. 
 
 Absorption of carbonate of ammonia. Passage of dry sub- 
 carbonate into water. 
 
 V. — On the InfMence of Air in determining the Crystallization 
 of Saline Solutions — 1828. 
 
 From "Edin. Roy. Soc. Trans.," xi., 1831, pp. 114-118, Author's Reprint 
 (" Phil. Mag.," iv., 1828, pp. 215-218 ; " Sillimann Journ.," xvii., 1830, 
 pp. 373-374). 
 
 Various opinions. Solutions of Glauber's salts might be kept 
 in tubes inverted over mercury in a trough without crystallizing, 
 if the mercury were heated first, and the whole allowed to cool 
 gradually. 
 
 Sometimes solutions did not crystallize by introducing a bubble 
 of air, at temperature not exceeding 150° or 170°F. ; in all suc- 
 cessful cases crystallization commenced around the bubble of air. 
 Efiect may be by absorbing air, the smallest increase causing a 
 change in saturated solutions. The most absorbable gases had 
 the greatest efiect. 
 
 Ammonia and sulphurous acid act vigorously. Hydrogen, 
 less influential than common air. Minute quantities of foreign 
 liquids, soluble in water, act well. The solution does not expand 
 as water does in freezing. Expansion, temporary, caused by rise 
 of temperature of 20°— 30°F. (11°— 17°C.). 
 
70 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 VI. — A Short Account of Experimental Researches on the Dif- 
 fusion of Gases through each other, and their Separation by 
 Mechanical Means — 1828. 
 
 From "Quart. Joum. of Science," ii., 1829, pp. 74-83 ("Poggend. Amial.," 
 x\di., 1829, pp. 341-347; "Schweigger Journ.," Ivii. (Jahrb. xxvii.), 
 1829, pp. 215-227). 
 
 Law that gases diffuse, developed by Dalton. BerthoUet's 
 results. Diffusion of the different gases into atmospheric air. 
 
 Evident that the diffusion of gases is inversely as some function 
 of their density — apparently the square root. Diffiision of mixed 
 gases into atmospheric air. 
 
 Of mixed gases, the more diffusive gas leaves the receiver in 
 greater proportion than ia solitary diffusion, and the less diffusive 
 in less proportion than in its solitary diffusion. 
 
 By taking advantage of diffusion a light gas may be eliminated 
 from others by a species of rectification — so of a denser gas by a 
 converse method. 
 
 Diffiision .of gases into other atmospheres than common air. 
 Examples — hydrogen and defiant gas, etc. 
 
 §5. Concentration of alcohol by spontaneous evaporation of 
 water. It is conceivable that imperceptible pores or orifices of 
 excessive minuteness may be altogether impassable (by diffusion) 
 by gases of low diffusive power, that is, by dense gases, and 
 passable only by gases of a certain diffusive energy. 
 
 VII. — Observations on the Oxidation of Phosplwrus — 1829. 
 
 From "Quart. Journ. of Science," ii., 1829, pp. 83-88 ("Poggend. Annal.," 
 xvii., 1829, pp. 375-380; "Schweigger Journ.," Ivii. (Jahrb. xxvii.), 
 1829, pp. 230-240). 
 
 Some curious properties of phosphorus mentioned. The presence 
 of a minute quantity of certain gases and vapours entirely prevents 
 the usual action of phosphorus upon the oxygen of common air. 
 
 j5„- of olefiant gas in common air, in July and August, prevented 
 the smallest oxidation over water. With -^^ of olefiant gas in 
 three months the phosphorus never became luminous. Essential 
 oils prevent luminosity, so also 4 per cent, of chlorine in the 
 surrounding medium, also 20 of .sulphuretted hydrogen. Alcohol 
 also at about 80°. Not so vapours from camphor, sulphur, iodine, 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of ThomcLS Graham. 71 
 
 benzoic acid, carbonate of ammonia, iodide of carbon, at 67°. 
 Muriatic acid increases, nitric acid diminishes it. Phosphorus 
 therefore cannot take oxygen from mixtures of olefiant gas. 
 
 In 1 of air and 1 of olefiant gas, luminosity begins at 200° F; 
 3 of air and 2 of ether vapour, luminosity begins at 215°; 111 
 of air to 1 of naphtha, at 170°; 166 of air and 1 of vapour of 
 turpentine, at 186°. Luminous in air, with 50 per cent, olefiant 
 gas under pressure of half-an-inch of mercury. Table of lumi- 
 nosity at difierent pressures and proportions. 
 
 Potassium oxidation retarded by vapour of ether or olefiant 
 gas. Perhaps allied to the property olefiant gas lias of preventing 
 explosion of hydrogen and oxygen. 
 
 VIII. — Notice of the /Singular Inflation of a Madder — 18S9. 
 
 From "Quart. Journ. of Science," ii., 1829, pp. 88, 89 ("Schweigger 
 Journ.," Ivii. (Jahrb. xxvii.), 1829, pp. 227-229). 
 
 A bladder filled with coal gas became inflated in carbonic acid 
 gas standing over water. 
 
 The outer portion of the bladder would be moist and absorb car- 
 bonic acid. The water would pass the bladder,. and the carbonic 
 acid would evaporate within it, as nothing, but the presence of car- 
 bonic acid within could prevent the disengagement of that gas. 
 
 IX. — On the application of Spongy Platinum to Eudiometry — 1829. 
 
 From "Quart. Journ. of Science," ii., 1829, pp. 354-359 ("Erdm. Journ. 
 Tech. Chem.;" viii., 1830, pp. 20-27). 
 
 Olefiant gas, which had been found to prevent the oxidation 
 of hydrogen and oxygen, was found to lose this power when 
 sedulously washed with caustic potash. Then the ball with 
 platinum acts in a few minutes, and the heat is so great that 
 some of the olefiant gas is oxidized, and carbonic acid always 
 appears. The same with vapours of naphtha and essential oils. 
 With sulphuretted hydrogen the latter gas only oxidized, and 
 little of the free hydrogen. Sulphurous acid also hinders the 
 oxidation of free hydrogen. The action of these gases is there- 
 fore unlike the action of the same gases and vapours in protecting 
 phosphorus from oxidation. The action not influenced by 
 diminishing barometric pressure. 
 
72 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 X. — On the Law of the Diffusion of Gases — 1888. 
 
 From "PhU. Mag.," ii., 1833, pp. 175-190, 269 276, 351-358 ("Poggend. 
 Annal," xxviii., 1833, pp. 331-358; "Edin. Boy. Soc. Trans.," xii., 
 1834, pp. 222-258). 
 
 The object is to establish with numerical exactness the following 
 law of the diffusion of gases. " The diffusion or spontaneous 
 intermixture of two gases in contact is effected by an interchange 
 of position of indefinitely minute volumes of the gases, which 
 volumes are not necessarily of equal magnitude, being in the case 
 of each gas, inversely proportional to the square root of the 
 density of that gas." 
 
 The volumes may be called equivalent volumes of diffusion: — 
 ail', 1; hydrogen, 3-7947; carburetted hydrogen, 1'34:14; water 
 vapour, 1'2649; nitrogen, 1'0140; oxygen, 0'9487; carbonic acid, 
 0'8091 ; chlorine, 0'6325. Gases being separated by a screen, with 
 apertures of insensible magnitude, the interchange of " equivalent 
 volumes of diffusion" is effected by a force of the highest intensity: 
 if the gases are of unequal density, there is an accumulation on 
 the side of the heavy gas. The process of exchange continues 
 till both sides are equalized. Doebereiner's explanation, \iz., the 
 capillary action of the fissure in the case of a broken jar, is im- 
 probable; hydrogen is condensed and absorbed by porous bodies, 
 according to Saussure, with greatest difficulty, and we have no 
 reason to suppose that its particles are smaller than those of other 
 gases. When hydrogen escapes air always enters. 
 
 Better than broken jars are Wedgewood stoneware tubes un- 
 glazed. But these are superseded by gypsum. 
 
 A diffusion-tube — :a glass tube open at one end, and with a plug 
 of gypsum at the other, was filled with hydrogen, over mercury, 
 when that liquid rose 2 inches in three minutes ; with water it is 
 striking, the rise in a tube 14 inches long is 6 to 8 inches in as 
 many minutes. 
 
 Amount of five gases absorbed in the pores of the stucco — 
 oxygen hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic oxide, olefiant gas, and coal 
 gas, not in sensible proportions. Yacuity of the stucco one-third 
 of the volume. Experiments on the diffusion of hydrogen in the 
 air. Wet and parched plugs of stucco. Some anomaly in the 
 action of hydrogen. 
 
 The more compact and dense plugs are the best. When the 
 plug is lose, the return of air is notably diminished in the case of 
 
Dr. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 73 
 
 hydrogen. Passage of gases into vacuum in time through a stucco 
 plug, not in direct proportion to pressure. 
 
 Tables of the times. The kind of gas in the receiver did not 
 alter the' velocity with which hydrogen entered under a certain 
 pressure. 
 
 Dry sound corks answer well as a substitute for stucco-plugs. 
 This passage of hydrogen is against Dalton's opinion that one gas 
 is vacuum to another. Diffusion of carbonic acid. The gas 
 confined over a solution of common salt. 
 
 Chlorine, Sulphurous acid, protoxide of nitrogen, Cyanogen. 
 
 Muriatic acid, ammoniacal gas, sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Oxygen, Nitrogen, defiant gases, carbonic oxide. 
 
 Carburetted hydrogen of marshes. General table. In the 
 volumes of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic oxide, theory and 
 experiment agree as closely as could be desired. 
 
 Density of any gas diffused into air, both being in the same 
 state as to aqueous vapour, is obtained by the formula D = 
 / A)2 where G is the volume of the gas difiused, and A the returned 
 air. It is possible to come within 100th part of the specific gravity 
 by operating on a cubic inch of gas. 
 
 Nitrogen and carbonic oxide diffuse without any contraction on 
 either side. Same density. Inequality of density not essential 
 requisite in diflfusion. Plugs not used for some days did not 
 diffuse. Hydrogen opened a passage in a few minutes, and they 
 went on as before. Heat also restored the action; dust the cause 
 of stoppage. Evaporation may be explained on the principle of 
 diffusion. 
 
 Mechanism of respiration. Carbonic acid being carried out from 
 the air-cells, oxygen is carried in. 
 
 Heavy carbonic acid exchanged for a larger amount of oxygen, 
 and may explain inflation of the minute tubes. To insect respir- 
 ation most distinctly perceived applicable. Diffusion takes place 
 by interchange of position of indefinitely minute volumes of the 
 gas, not between sensible masses. The law not provided for in the 
 corpuscular philosophy of the day. Supplementary observations 
 on the law of diffusion of gases. 
 
 Some gases mix more rapidly than others, still keeping in 
 conformity with the law. This is connected, in the case of 
 hydrogen, with the apparent deviation from the law of diffusion, 
 mentioned p. 53. It is there shown that more hydrogen passes 
 out than the exact quantity proportional to the return air. 
 
74 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 XI. — On Phosphuretted Hydrogen — 18S5. 
 
 From "Edin. Roy. Soo. Trans.," xiii., 1835, pp. 88-106 ("Phil. Mag." v., 
 1834, pp. 401-415; "Erdm. Journ. Prak. Chem.," iii., 1834, pp. 
 400-416). 
 
 Spontaneously inflammable, prepared by heating phosphorous, 
 lime, and water; not spontaneously inflammable when allowed to 
 stand over water 24 hours, or when made by heating hydrated 
 phosphorous acid. The peculiarity attributable to something 
 adventitious. Not free phosphorus presumably, because that is 
 less acceudible than the hydrogen compound. Loss of accendibility 
 over water caused by rise of oxygen from air in the water. Free 
 hydrogen unexpectedly rendered the gas self-accendible, but not if 
 quite pure. 
 
 Caused by nitrous acid vapour. 
 
 Spontaniety destroyed by charcoal, caustic potash, — phosphorous 
 acid, strong arsenic acid, essential oils, and most hydrooarburets, 
 alcohol, oleflant gas slowly and potassium. 
 
 Spontaneous action restored by small quantities of nitrous acid, 
 not by a large amount, between 1 and 10 to 10,000 of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Nitric oxide acts only when nitrous acid is in it. 
 
 In the reaction there is a spontaneous formation of compounds 
 of phosphorus and oxygen. . 
 
 The gas obtained by ordinary processes probably owes its 
 peculiarity to a minute trace of such a compound, analogous to 
 nitrous acid. 
 
 XII. — On a New Property of Gases — 1845. 
 
 From Report of Brit. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, 1845 
 (Part ii.), p. 28. 
 
 The passage of gases into a vacuum. Speed of efiiision. 
 Proposal to find the density by speed of effusion. Passage of 
 gases through porous bodies, called transpiration. Air more rapid 
 than oxygen. Carbonic acid more rapid also, and under low 
 pressure more rapid than air. 
 
 Xlll.^On the Convposition of the Fire-damp of the Newcastle 
 
 Goal Mines — 184-5. 
 
 From Memoirs of Chem. Society, iii., 1845-48, pp. 7-10. 
 
 Only carburetted hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen found. The 
 
 power of resisting oxidation remarkable in light carburetted 
 
De. E. a. Smith on Life and Worhs of Thomas Graham. 75 
 
 hydrogen; cause of its being found in coal mines. Resists the 
 action of platinum black, but permits other gases to be oxidated. 
 
 XIY.—On the Motion of Gases. Fart I.—I84.6. 
 From Phil. Trans, iv., 1846, pp. 573-632; ii., 1849, pp. 349-362. 
 
 Necessary to keep apart the phenomena of the passage of a gas 
 through a small aperture in a thin plate, and its passage through 
 a tube of sensible length. Rate of discharge independent of the 
 material of the tube. 
 
 Rate of discharge of gases by tubes has no uniform relation to 
 the density of the gases. Passage of gas through a thin plate. 
 Effusion tube. Transpiration. 
 
 Part 1. — Effusion of Gases. — Effusion ' of hydrogen into a 
 vacuum by a glass jet. 
 
 Effusion of oxygen and nitrogen; of carbonic oxide; of car- 
 buretted hydrogen of marsh gas. 
 
 Effusion of carbonic acid and nitrous oxide; of olefiant 
 
 gas- 
 Effusion into a vacuum by a perforated brass ^late A, with 
 results. Different gases pass through minute apertures into a 
 vacuum in times which are as the square roots of their specific 
 gravities. For a proper effect the plate ought to have no sensible 
 thickness. 
 
 Tubularity of the opeijing quickens the passage of carbonic acid 
 and nitrous oxide in reference to air, they being more transpirable 
 and less diffusive than air. Effusion of nitrogen and oxygen, and 
 of mixtures of these gases under different pressures, by a second 
 perforated brass tube B. 
 
 Table of effusion of air, nitrogen, oxygen, and mixture. 
 
 Effusion of air, carbonic acid, oxygen, and mixture, at different 
 pressures, by plate B. 
 
 Effusion of carbonic acid, air, and of mixtures of carbonic acid 
 and air, at different pressures, by plate B. 
 
 Effusion of mixtures containing hydrogen. 
 
 Effusion into a sustained vacuum by platinum plate E. 
 
 Effusion of air of different elasticities or densities by brass plate 
 B. The effusion time of air of two atmospheres falls below that 
 of air of one atmosphere. 
 
 Effusion of air of different temperatures by plate P. 
 
76 FhilosophiQal Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Effusive time of air of different temperatures is proportional to 
 the square root of its density at each temperature. Moist air, 
 great effect in opening fissures. 
 
 Part 2. — Transpiration of Gases. — Transpiration of air of 
 different densities or elasticities by a glass capillary tube E. 
 
 For equal volumes of air of different densities the times of 
 transpiration are inversely as the densities. Transpiration of air 
 of different temperatures. 
 
 Preliminary experiments on the transpiration of different gases 
 by capillary A. 
 
 Preliminary experiments on the transpiration of different gases 
 by capillary B. 
 
 Preliminary experiments on the transpiration of different gases 
 by capillary C, 1 inch long. 
 
 Preliminary, experiments on the transpiration of different gases 
 by capillary C, 2 inches long. 
 
 Preliminary experiments on the transpiration of different gases 
 by capillary C, i inches long. 
 
 Transpiration by capillary H, 22 feet long, of glass, into vessels 
 of different sizes. 
 
 Transpiration by capillary H with cupped ends. By cupping 
 the end of ingress the passage of air became slender in the propor- 
 tion of 509 to 496 ; cupping the egress caused no further change, 
 pressure being between 28-5 and 23-5 inches. 
 
 Transpiration of different gases by a capillary tube of copper ; 
 tube, 11 feet 8 inches; diameter, O'Olli inch. 
 
 Transpiration of different gases by a glass capillary E. This 
 was 20 feet long and 0'0187 inch diameter. 
 
 All these tubes gave the same co-efficient of transpiration to 
 each gas. 
 
 A certain length of tube most favourable. 
 
 A certain interference supposed to depend on friction. 
 
 Theory of transpirabUity, that it is a kind of elasticity, depend- 
 ing upon the absolute quantity of heat, latent as well as sensible, 
 and more immediately connected with specific heat than any other 
 property of gases. 
 
 Transpiration of olefiant gas. 
 
 Transpiration of nitrous oxide. 
 
 Transpiration of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Conclusions drawn from Tables XLII. to LV. 
 
 Tables of the observed transpiration of gaseous mixtures. 
 
Dr. E. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 77 
 
 XV.— On the Motion of Gases. Part I J. —1849. 
 From Phil. Trans., 1849, pp. 349-392. 
 
 The velocities of gases attain a particular ratio with, a certain 
 length of tube and resistance. After attaining this the passage of 
 of gases become slower. 
 
 Transpiration velocity of hydrogen double that of nitrogen ; that 
 of carbonic oxide and nitrogen the same. Velocity of nitrogen 
 and oxygen inverse to the densities, equal weights and not equal 
 volumes being transpired. 
 
 Points demanding attention. Capillary tubes for transpiration. 
 
 Transpiration by capillary H reduced to 237 '875 inches. 
 Transpiration of equal volumes by capillary H of different lengths. 
 
 Transpiration of all gases does not become normal for. the same 
 length of tube or resistance. 
 
 Use of a thermometer tube of fine flat bore, capillary K, 52|^ 
 inches. 
 
 K shortened to 39-375 inches. 
 26-2.5 
 13-125 
 8-75 
 6-4375 
 4-3125 
 
 Use of capillary M 521 inches thermometer, tube as above, bore 
 cylindrical. K and M have 50 times the resistance of E and H 
 capillaries of extreme resistance recommended. 
 
 Capillary P, a compound one, formed of 30 capillary tubes each 
 4 inches in length, in a sheaf 400 times the resistance of K and 
 M. Gases compressed instead of being drawn into a vacuum. 
 
 Results obtained by this sheaf of capillaries of extreme resistance 
 the most uniform of all. 
 
 In carbonic acid the carbon gives velocity to the oxygen, showing 
 the important chemical bearing of transpirability. 
 
 Transpiratioii of various gases and vapours : — 
 
 Protocarburetted hydrogen. 
 
 defiant gas. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Cyanogen. Hydrocyanic acid.: 
 
 Hydjcosulphuric acid. 
 
 Bisulphide of carbon.. Sulphurous acid. 
 
78 Philosophical /Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Bromiae, Hydrochloric acid. 
 Ether. 
 
 Methylic ether. 
 Chloride of methyl. 
 "Water. 
 
 Alcohol, naphtha and coal gas. 
 
 Transpiration of air of different densities or elasticities. 
 Transpiration of air and other gases at different temperatures. 
 Transpiration of equal volumes at different temperatures. 
 Transpiration of air under pressure (into air) at different tem- 
 peratures. 
 
 General results of the inquiry. 
 
 XVI. — On the Molecular Mobility of Gases — 186S. 
 
 From PhU. Trans., 1863, pp. 385-405 ("Chemical News," viii., 1863, 
 pp. 79-81; "Paris ComptesEendus,"lvii., 1863, pp. 181-192; "Phar- 
 maceut. Journ.," v., 1864, pp. 166-171; "Poggendorf Annal., cxx., 
 1863, pp. 415-425). 
 
 The passage of gases undpr pressure through a thui porous plate 
 or septum. 
 
 Description of the graphite diffusiometer. Pores so small that 
 molecules only can pass, not gases in mass. Sole motive agency, 
 the intestine movement of molecules. The hypothesis of the 
 movement of gaseous particles, by Bernoulli, revived in recent 
 times by J. Herapath. 
 
 The passage of gas through a graphite j)late agrees with the 
 times of diffusion, not of transpiration. 
 
 Diffusion tube with pressure of 100 mms. of mercury. 
 
 Diffusion tube described to obtain a torricellian vacuum. 
 
 Movement through graphite and stucco plates. 
 
 Stucco under pressure gives mixed diffusion and capillary tran- 
 spiration. Movement through biscuit ware. 
 
 Passage through graphite closely proportional to pressure. 
 Passage of a mixture of air and hydrogen. 
 
 Time neither diffusion nor transpiration. Gas altered in 
 composition. Each gas impelled by its own molecular force. 
 Separation is a consequence of the movement being molecular. 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 79 
 
 Permeation through the graphite plate into a vacuum, and the 
 diffusion into a gaseous atmosphere due to the same inherent 
 mobility of the gaseous molecule. The diffusive mobility is a 
 property of matter fundamental in its nature. 
 
 The physical basis is the molecular mobility. 
 
 Diffusion of mixed gases into a vacuum with partial separation 
 — Atmolysis. 
 
 Oxygen and hydrogen, amount of separation in proportion to 
 the pressure. 
 
 Oxygen and nitrogen, separation of. 
 
 All porous masses will have some effect in separating mixed 
 gases. The tube atmolyser — a clay tube within a glass or metal 
 one to increase rapidity. 
 
 Separation of oxygen from hydrogen and nitrogen. 
 
 Interdiffusion of gases — double diffusion. Remarks on Bunsen's 
 results. 
 
 Interdiffusion without an intervening septum. 
 
 A portion of carbonic acid travelled at an average rate of 73 
 millimetres per minute, of hydrogen a third of a metre in one 
 minute 
 
 XVII. — On the Absorption and Dialytic Separation of Gases by 
 Colloid Septa. 
 
 From "Phil. Trans.," 1866, pp. 399-439. 
 
 Part I. — Action of a Septum of Caoutchouc — Dr. Mitchell's 
 experiments. 
 
 Important to remember the complete suspension of the gaseous 
 function during the transit through the colloid membrane. 
 
 Passage of gases through caoutchouc. 
 
 The relation not that of diffusion. The first absorption of the 
 gas by the rubber must depend on a kind of chemical affinity. 
 
 A film of caoutchouc has no porosity, and resembles a film of 
 liquid in its relation to gases. 
 
 Liquids and Colloids have an unbroken texture, and afford no 
 opportunity for gaseous diffusion. 
 
 Penetration of varnished silk. 
 
 Absorption of gases by a block of caoutchouc. Dialytic 
 separation of oxygen from atmospheric air (1) by means of other 
 gases; (2) by means of a vacuum. 
 
80 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Dialytic action of caoutchouc in various forms. 
 
 Dialytic action of sUk cloth, varnished with caoutchouc on one 
 side, slightly vulcanized. 
 
 Percolation of air through gutta-percha and other septa. 
 
 Part II. — Action of Metallic Septa at a Red Heat. 
 
 Platinum porosity when heated. DevUle. 
 
 Platinum tube M millm. in thickness. Not permeable to 
 hydrogen till of a red heat, and then more permeable than 
 caoutchouc. Is the difference of temperature the cause? 
 
 Heated platinum, with oxygen and nitrogen, not sensibly 
 permeable. Carbonic acid penetration iacalculably small. 
 
 Heated pljitinum, with chlorine, not sensibly penetrating. 
 Hydrochloric acid do., vapoUr of water do., ammonia do. Carbonic 
 oxide, marsh gas, and olefiant gas not penetrating. 
 
 Hydrosulphuric acid not penetrating. Table of above results. 
 
 Absorption and detention of hydrogen by platinum. 
 
 A new property in platinum to absorb and retain hydrogen 
 at a red heat, occlusion of hydrogen 3 '79 vols, for wrought 
 platinum. 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 Occlusion of hydrogen 643 '3 vols. Hydrogen absorbed at 
 natural temperature in vacuo. 
 
 Action of the occluded hydrogen on salts. 
 
 Palladium, its absorptive power for liquids. Alloy of silver and 
 palladium. 
 
 Conclusions regarding the absorption by palladium. Hydrogen 
 taken up as a volatile liquid. 
 
 Separation of pure hydrogen from a gaseous mixture. Passage 
 of ether through palladium. 
 
 Speculations on the pores of metals, and the excess obtained in 
 the diffusive co-efficient of hydrogen, caused by a small amount of 
 liquefaction. Osmium-iridium, no absorbent power. This is con- 
 sistent with its crystalline character. 
 
 Copper — occludes 0"306 vol. hydrogen. Gold — occlusion of 
 nitrogen, oxygen, carbonic acid and oxide, hydrogen. 
 
 Silver — occlusion of above gases. 
 
 Iron — ^penetration by hydrogen. 
 
 By carbonic oxide 4 '15 vols. Acieration and carbonic oxide. 
 
Dr. R a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 81 
 
 XVIII. — On the occlusion of Hydrogen by Meteoric Iron — 
 1867. 
 
 From Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xv., p. 502, May 16, 1867; 
 " Comptes Eendus," May 27, 1867, vol. Ixiv., p. 1067; "Poggendorf's 
 Annal.," vol. cxxxi. (1867), p. 151. ' 
 
 That of Lenarto yielded 2-85 vols, of gas, with 86 per cent, of 
 hydrogen. 
 
 XIX. — On the occlusion of Hydrogen Gas by Metals — 1868. 
 
 From Proceedings of the Royal Society, June 11, 1868, vol. xvi., p. 422; 
 (" Comptes Rendus," May 25, 1868, vol. Ixvi., p. 1014; " Archivesdes 
 Sciences," June 1868, vol. xxxii., p. 148; "Annales de Chemie et de 
 Physique (4)," vol. xiv., p. 315; " Poggendorf's Annal," vol. cxxxiv., 
 1868, p. 321; " Philosophical Magazine (4)," vol. xxxvi., p. 63. 
 
 A thin plate of palladium in contact with zinc which is giving 
 off hydrogen in sulphuric acid occludes that gas. Still more, when 
 the plate is the negative electrode to a Bunsen battery of six cells. 
 This gas is not given out in a vacuum, it is taken out by heat, or 
 by reversing the position of the palladium in the cell, and evolving 
 oxygen on the surface. 
 
 Palladium charged with hydrogen apt to heat spontaneously in 
 the air. 
 
 Platinum charged with hydrogen by voltaic action. Soft iron 
 occluded 0-57 vols, hydrogen. 
 
 Explanation by the electro-chemical theory. 
 
 Precipitated palladium occluding 982-14 vols, of hydrogen. 
 
 Penetration by hydrogen and carbonic acid. Liquid diffusion 
 explains the passage of hydrogen through a soft colloid metal. 
 
 " Solution affinity " of metals confined to hydrogen and carbonic 
 oxide. 
 
 XX. — On the Relation of Hydrogen to Palladium, and on 
 Hydrogenium — 1869. 
 
 From Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xvii., pp. 212, 500, Jan. 14, 
 1869; •'Comptes Rendus,'' Jan. 18 and June 28, 1869, vol. Ixviii., 
 pp. 101, 1511; "Annales de Chemie et de Physique (4)," vol. xvi., 
 p. 188; " Chemical News," vol. xix., p. 478; "Berichte der deutschen 
 chemischen Gesellsohaft (No. 2)," 1869; "Annalen der Chemie," vol. 
 clii., p. 168; "Philosophical Magazine," December 1869; "Poggen- 
 dorf's Annalen der Physik," vol. cxxxviii. (1869), p. 49. 
 
 Properties of occluded hydrogen, which if metallic would have 
 to be called hydrogenium. Palladium charged with hydrogen is 
 
 L 
 
_ 82 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 lowered in density. Emits bubbles when in water, so that the 
 density is obtained best by measurement and calculation. 
 
 A piece of palladium wire 609-144 millims. long, charged with 
 936 vols, of hydrogen, was increased to 618-932 millims., showing 
 increase of 9-778 millims. (or 23-982 inches gained 0-385 in.), 
 increase in length 100 to 101-605, and in cubic capacity from 100 
 to 104-908. 
 
 Alloy:— Palladium 95-32. 
 
 Hydrogenium 4-68. 
 
 100- giving density of hydrogenium 1-708, 
 
 The palladium wire lost when heated 9 -7 milUms. below original 
 length: gravity less: length only was contracted. Mobility of 
 metallic particles. Combustion of the wire. Another experiment, 
 hydrogenium 1-898 specific gravity, and a third 1-977. 
 
 Further trials, highest number 2-055, retraction of the wire 
 continues in four experiments. 
 
 Loses its power to occlude hydrogen, and after 6 times only 
 320 and 330 -5 volumes. Power restored partly by heat, and 
 whoUy by extracting the hydrogen by electrolysis in an acid fluid. 
 Tenacity of palladium being 100, that of palladium and hydrogen 
 was 81-29 electrical conductivity, copper 100, palladium 8-10, 
 palladium and hydrogen 5-99. 
 
 Hydrogenium, a magnetic metal. Slight absorption of hydrogen 
 at a high temperature. Speed of movement through palladium 1 
 mOlim. in thickness is 4 millims. per minute. 
 
 AUoy contains about 20 volumes of palladium, and 1 of hydro- 
 genium. An approach to equivalents. Summary. 
 
 XXI. — Speculative Ideas concerning the Constitution of Matter 
 
 —1864. 
 
 From the " Philosophical Magazine '' for February, 1864. 
 
 It is conceivable that the various kinds of matter may possess 
 one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule in difierent conditions 
 of movement. 
 
 Ponderable matter and a common atom. The atom is not at 
 rest. Motion due to primordial impulse. This gives rise to 
 volume. The more rapid the movement the greater the space 
 occupied by atoms. Matter of diflFerent density forms different 
 substances. This not applied to known gases which are composed 
 
• Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 83 
 
 of molecules or groups of atoms. There may be infinite repetitions 
 of such steps. Molecular volumes of difierent elementary sub- 
 stances have the same relation to each other as the subordinate 
 atomic volumes of the same substances. 
 
 Volumes uniting retain a portion of the original movement and 
 volume. This is chemical combination. The same result attained 
 by hypothesis of a fluid medium caused to undulate. A special 
 rate of vibration or pulsation imparted to a portion of the fluid 
 medium. No incompatibility between the liquid, solid, and gaseous 
 states. Possibility of something like an undeveloped condition of 
 matter comiecting two states. 
 
 Molecular mobility has an obvious bearing on the communication 
 of heat to gases. The impact of the gaseous molecule, when more 
 rapid, produces more frequent contact. A hot object in hydrogen 
 is touched 3 '8 times more frequently than in air. Dalton ascribes 
 this to mobility. Hydrogen in an air engine favours the alternate 
 heating and cooling of a confined volume of gas. 
 
 SALTS AND SOLUTIONS. 
 
 /. — On Exceptions to the Law that Salts are more Soluble in Hot 
 than in Cold Water, with a new instance — 1827. 
 
 From " Philosophical Magazine and Annala of Philosophy," ii., 1827, 
 pp. 20-26. 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia prepared by precipitation. 
 
 Efflorescent. Solution cloudy at (120°F.) about SCO. 
 
 Precipitate like anhydrous phosphate. 
 
 774 parts water dissolve 1 at 7°"2, and 
 1151 do. do. 1 at 100°. 
 
 Time required to dissolve it. 
 
 Mere continuance of heat did not increase the precipitate. A 
 solution once precipitated by heat did not precipitate more except 
 by greater heat. Efilorescence in hydrates shows a weak afiinity 
 for water. 
 
 As all the hydrates of salts lose water by heat, there is a point 
 at which every salt diminishes in solubility. 
 
 Some substances insoluble in water whilst the hydrates are 
 soluble, such as silica. 
 
84 Philosophieal Society of Glasgow. 
 
 II. — An Account of the Formation of Alcoafes. Definite Com- 
 pounds of Salts and Alcohol analogous to the Hydrates 
 —1831. 
 
 From "Edin. Koy. Soc. Trans.," xi.^ 1831, pp. 175-193 ("Phil. Mag.,"'iv., 
 1828, pp. 265-272, 331-336; "Journal de Pharm.," xv., 1829, pp. 
 105-124; "Poggendorf Annal.,"xv.,1829, pp. 150-153; "Quart. Journ. 
 o£ Science," ii., 1828, pp. 442, 443; "Scliweigger Journ.," Ivi. (Jahr- 
 buch xxvi.), 1829, pp. 180-203). 
 
 Mode of concentrating alcohol by quicklime. Quicklime ab- 
 sorbs a small quantity of alcohol vapour. 
 
 Sulphuric acid absorbs the vapour of absolute alcohol, as of 
 water. 
 
 Chloride of calcium absorbs it. Compound described. 
 Alcoate of nitrate of magnesia. 
 Do. of lime. 
 
 Do. of protochloride of manganese. 
 
 Do. of chloride o'f zinc; chlorides of magnesium and iron. 
 Dent-absorption of dent-oxide of azote by protochloride of iron 
 and alcohol more than by the salt alone. 
 
 Absorption by the iron salt may show a tendency to deliquesce 
 in an atmosphere of that gas, the retaining power being equal to 
 the absorbing power. 
 
 ///. — Researclies on Arseniates, Phospliates, and Modifications 
 of Fhosphoric Acid. 
 
 From "Philosophical Trausaotions," 1833, pp. 253-284. 
 
 1. — Subsalts. — Description of subarseniate and subphosphate of 
 soda. 
 
 Explanatory hypothesis thut phosphoric acid is disposed to 
 unite with three atoms of base, common phosphate of soda being 
 phosphate of soda and water. For the water another base may be 
 substituted, as an atom of soda in the subphosphate, or an atom of 
 silver in the corresponding salt. Pyrophosphate produced by 
 heating phosphate, not by subphosphate, as it leaves an excess of 
 base. Phosphoric acid by burning phosphorus. 
 
 Water in the crystals of subarseniate of soda, probably 24 atoms 
 differing from the neutral arseniate by an atom of soda substituted 
 for water. 
 
Dr. E. a. Smith on Life and WorJcs of Tlioraas Graham. 85 
 
 Subphosphate dried, heated, fused with protoxide of lead. 
 Calcined with exposure to carbonic acid. 
 Subsesquiphosphate formed. 
 Subphosphates and subarseniate of potash. 
 Barytas, lime, and lead salts. 
 
 2. Neutral Phosphates and Pyrophosphates. — Clark on the 
 action of heat on the phosphate of soda, and removal of the last 
 atom of water. 
 
 Phosphate of soda has three atoms base — two soda, one water; 
 added to earthy and metallic salts, gives precipitates, with three 
 atoms base; one may be water, the basic function of which is 
 essential to the phosphate of soda. The pyrophosphate has two 
 atoms base, and gives accordingly bibasic precipitates. Unusual 
 appearance of the crystals after long boiling of the solution. 
 
 3. Of the Superphosphates. (1st) Of the biphosphate. Re- 
 markable body. Its dimorphism. Crystals contain four atoms 
 of water, and lose two at 212° F. (100'' C), and no more till 375° 
 F. (191° C.) 
 
 Two atoms essential to the salt — one atom soda, two water, and 
 a double atom of phosphoric acid — these three atoms replaceable 
 by three of oxide of silver. Second variety of bipyrophosphate 
 of soda. The biphosphate heated to 400° F. (204° C.) rapidly 
 semifuses, and one atom of water comes off in ebullition. 
 
 Salt, still soluble, but altered. Precipitates silver white, and 
 with two atoms to a double atom of the acid, pyrophosphate of 
 silver. 
 
 Third variety of the biphosphate of soda. The above biphosphate 
 heated between 400° and 470"" F. (204° and 243 C.) for several 
 days. Small part insoluble nearly, see p. 341. Solution exactly 
 neutral. Probable composition. 
 
 Fourth or insoluble variety of biphosphate of soda. If sufficient 
 heating were possible, water would probably be incapable of acting 
 on it. Eeasons for this. Fifth variety of biphosphate of soda. 
 The preceding insoluble variety heated to low redness. 
 
 Description of its properties. Metaphosphate. — Not crystallized, 
 changed. The acid coagulates albumen. The glacial acid was 
 supposed to be pyropbosphoric. The hydrated salt retains one 
 atom water heated to 400° F. (204° C), becoming bipyrophosphate 
 The anhydrous fused metaphosphate is not changed by heating for 
 several days, change effected by water; dried sharply, or with 
 sufficient alkali, becomes common sub-phosphate. 
 
86 Philosophical Society of Glasgoio. 
 
 Metaphosphate of Barytes. — Insoluble even by washing in hot 
 water, but on long boiling is decomposed and dissolved, biphosphate 
 of barytes being in the solution. 
 
 4. On the Modifications of Phosphoric Acid. — Acid in common 
 phosphate of soda has three atoms of base to the double atom of 
 acid. Does not effect albumen. Other modifications pass into it 
 in solution, after some days in water or boiling, on fusion with 
 three proportions of fixed base. Pyrophosphoric acid of the fused 
 phosphate forms salts with two atoms base. Does not disturb 
 albumen, or make a precipitate in muriate of barytes. 
 
 The metaphosphoric acid disposed to form salts, with one atom 
 of base to the double atom of acid. Made by heating the other 
 modifications jier se, or with only one atom of certain fixed bases. 
 These three acids, even when free, have still their usual proportion 
 of base, and that base is water, or they are a terphosphate, a bi- 
 phosphate, and a phosphate of water. 
 
 Table of oxygen in the salts. Loss of water by heating phos- 
 phoric acid. Possible hydrates of the acid. Binarseniate of soda 
 does not undergo the same changes as bij)hosphate. 
 
 IV. — On Hydrated Salts and 2Ietallic Oxides: with Observations 
 on the Doctrine of Isomerism — 183^. 
 
 From "Brit. Assoc. Report," 1834, pp. 579-582 ("LiebigAnnal.,"xii., 1834, 
 pp. 1-12; "Poggend. Anna!.," xxxii., 1834, pp. 33-75.) 
 
 Certain salts mentioned with five or seven atoms of water retain 
 one in more intimate union than the others. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc loses 6 atoms at 65° F. (18'2° C), and retains 
 one up to 410° F. (210° C.) This salt may be viewed as a sulphate 
 of zinc and water, with 6 atoms of water of crystallization. This 
 last atom discharges a basic function explaining the disposition of 
 the salt to form double sulphates. Sulphate of potash may take 
 the place of this water, and form the double sulphate of zinc and 
 potash. Sulphate of lime, peculiarity. 
 
 Protochlorides and cyanides. Tin. Two oxides. Different 
 hydrates. Various peroxides and some salts obtained as debris 
 of hydrates by heating. Incandescent on heating to redness. 
 Isomerism, which has been proposed to explain the change of 
 character in bodies of the same composition, may often be ex- 
 plained by certain differences in composition when carefully 
 
Dk. R. a. Smith on Life and Worhs of Tliomas Graham. 87 
 
 examined, ex.gr., — (1) The water of the phosphoric acids; (2) Some 
 bodies are mere debris of chemical compounds; (3) The proximate 
 constitution may be very different when the ultimate is the same. 
 No evidence of cyanogen in fulminic acid. Tartaric acid and 
 racemic probably have as little relation to each other as any two 
 vegetable acids which could be named, certainly contain different 
 radicals. (4) A minute trace of adventitious matter may affect a 
 body. See phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 V. — On Water as a Constituent of Salts — 1836. 
 
 From"Edm. Roy. Soc. Trans.," xiii., 1836, pp. 297-314 ("Phil. Mag.," 
 vi., 1835. pp. 327-334, 417-424; " Aunal. de Chimie," Ixiii., 1836, pp. 
 45-64; "Erdm. Journ. Prak. Chem.," v., 1835, pp. 90-109, xv., 1838, 
 pp. 437-439; "Liebig Annal.," xx., 1836, pp. 141-149; "Poggend. 
 Annal.," xxxviii., 1836, pp. 123-142). 
 
 Water in salts of ammonia. Water of crystallization, feeble 
 affinity. Water in the caustic alkalies has the function of an acid. 
 
 The inseparable water of acids, as of sulphuric acid, has been 
 held to be basic, and that acid to be a sulphate of water and bisul- 
 phate or bitartrate of potash a double salt. Development of this 
 view in the meinoir on the phosphates. Now finds water to exist 
 in a different state, replaceable by salt. The tendency of phos- 
 phate of soda to unite with more soda was traced to the existence 
 of basic water in the former. The question arose, Does an analo- 
 gous provision exist in such salts as form double salts'? 
 
 In the sulphates of magnesia, zinc, iron, manganese, copper, 
 nickel, and cobalt, an atom of water seems essential. In sulphate 
 of zinc and potash one of the seven atoms of water in the first 
 salt is replaced by sulphate of potash, and the six atoms of water 
 remain as water of crystallization. 
 
 Supersulphates, double salts. Second atom of water in sulphuric 
 acid replaced by sulphate of potash, but the first replaceable only 
 by a ti'ue base. The sulphuric acid hydrate, therefore, has an 
 atom of basic and an atom of saline water, just as the hydrous 
 sulphate of zinc is a sulphate of zinc with saline water. No super- 
 sulphates of magnesia, &c., are analogous in constitution, and do 
 not tend to combine. Sulphate of water with saline water. The 
 primary sulphate. Specific gravity, 1'78. The dilute acid may 
 be concentrated at a temperature not exceeding 380°F. (193°C.), 
 
88 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 without loss of acid, the water reduced to two atoms. At 400° or 
 410° F. (264° — 210 C.) this hydrate begins to be decomposed. 
 
 Sulphate of water and sulphate of potash. Bisulphate of potash, 
 without water or crystallization. 
 
 Sulphate of potash, sulphate of soda. Of the ten atoms of water 
 in crystals of sulphate of soda, none essential to its constitution, 
 crystallizes anhydrous from a liot solution. 
 
 Sulphate of Zmc with saline water. Heated above 410°F. 
 (210°C.), loses the last atom of water, but regains it with evolution 
 of heat when moistened. Sulphate of zinc and potash. Retains 
 the six atoms with more force than the sulphate of zinc alone. 
 The sulphate of potash does not neutralize the acidity. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc and soda. Not obtained merely by crystaUizing 
 together the mixed salts, but from a solution of bisulphate of soda 
 and sulphate of zinc in a day or two. 
 
 Sulphate of copper and saline water. Loses its fifth or saline 
 atom above 430° R (221°0.) Takes it up with evolution of heat. 
 Sulphate of copper and potash. Table of water at different 
 temperatures. 
 
 Sulphate of copper and soda. 
 
 Sulphate of manganese, with saline water, five atoms of water 
 reduced to one, at 410° F. (210° C.) Table of water at different 
 temperatures. Stdphate of iron with saline water. The saline 
 atom of water retained to the temperature of 535° F. (279° C.) 
 
 Hydrated sulphate of lime. A sulphate with one atom of water 
 obtained by heating the hydrate over sulphuric acid in vacuo at 
 212°F. (100° C.) The salt can be made anhydrous at 300°F. 
 (149° C.) Table of water at different temperatures. Monohydrate 
 does not adhere like stucco. This power retained to 270°F. 
 (132° 0.) The heated sulphate — the debris of the hydrate, not to 
 be confounded with anhydrate. 
 
 Anhydrous gypsum may be written with a - or minus after it 
 to show that something is wanting. Anhydrate requires no - 
 as it takes up no water. Sulphuric acid and other salts may be 
 equally represented. This view of the constitution of sulphates 
 must not be hastily applied to other classes of salts, as each has its 
 own peculiarities to be studied. 
 
Db. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 89 
 
 VI. — On the Water of Crystallization of jSoda-Alum — 18S6. 
 
 From " Phil. Mag.," ix., 1836, pp. 26-32 ("Liebig Annalen," xxiii., 18iS7, 
 pp. 269, 270; '• Poggend. Annal.," xxxix., 1836, pp. 582-585). 
 
 Of soda-alum. This alum, like potash alum, has octoh'edral 
 crystals, but is said to contain two atoms more water than the 
 latter. No proof of isomorphism of soda and potash, but rather 
 that soda, plus two atoms water, is isomorphous with potash. 
 
 Mode of preparation. Efflorescent. Contains, like potash 
 alum, 24 atoms of water. 
 
 VII. — Inquiry respecting the Constitution of Salts, Oxalates, 
 Nitrates, Phosphates, Sulphates, and Chlorides — 18S7. 
 
 From "Phil. Trans.," 1837, pp. 47-74 ("Liebig Amial.," xxix,, 1839, 
 pp. 1-35.) 
 
 From the paper on water in salts would be inferred an analogy 
 between any hydrated acid and its magnesium salt. So the 
 oxalate and nitrate of water resemble the oxalate and nitrate of 
 magnesia. In certain subsalts of the magnesium class of oxides 
 the metallic oxide replaces the crystallization water. As in the 
 case of sulphates, an atom of water seems to be replaced in the 
 oxalates, so as to form double oxalate. 
 
 1. — Of the Oxalates.^ — Oxalate of water, or hydrated oxalic 
 acid. Three atoms of water one basic. The two others may be 
 termed constitutional, and are found in the magnesium oxalates. 
 By drying, two atoms are lost or none. 
 
 Oxalate of Zinc. — Retains its two atoms water strongly. 
 
 Oxalate of Magnesia. — Retains these two atoms still more 
 strongly. 
 
 Oxalates of Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt.— Not obtained pure, as 
 they appear to carry down part of the precipitant. No binoxalate 
 of magnesia. 
 
 Oxalate of Lime. — Contains two atoms of water, lost readily. 
 Oxalate of barytes — one atom water, and thus differs from pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 Oxalate of Potash. — Crystalizes with one atom of water. Bi- 
 noxalate of potash contains three atoms. The constitutional 
 water of the neutral oxalate displaced by oxalate of water, which 
 has two atoms. 
 
 M 
 
90 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Quodroxalate of Potash. — The two atoms of preceding salt 
 replaced by two atoms of hydrated oxalic acid. Has seven atoms 
 of water, four of which it loses at 240° F. (116° C), being the two 
 atoms of water of tlue two atoms oxalic acid. 
 
 Oxalates of Ammonia. — Agree with those of potash. There is 
 also a quadroxalate as well as binoxolate. 
 
 Oxalate of soda. — Least soluble of soda salts. Anhydrous. 
 With oxalic acid forms a binoxalate. No quadroxalate. Absence 
 of water probably shows an indifference for further combination. 
 
 Binoxalate of soda — three atoms of water. Like the potash, 
 salt loses -only two at 300° E. (147° C.) 
 
 Double oxalates. — One member of the magnesium class of oxides, 
 namely — copper forms binoxalates with an alkaline salt. 
 
 Oxalate of copper- and potash. — One form of crystal has two, the 
 other four atoms of water. The second loses two by efflorescence. 
 The oxide of water is substituted for the basic water of the bin- 
 oxalate. 
 
 Oxalate of chromium and potash, with six atoms water. 
 
 Oxalate of peroxide of iron and potash. 
 
 Oxalate of peroxide of iron and soda. 
 
 These three salts occupy the same important position among the 
 oxalates as the alums among the sulphates. 
 
 2. Of Nitrates. — (1) Hydrated nitric acid the nitrate of 
 water. This has one atom of water as base, and three held less 
 powerfully. 
 
 . (2) Nitrate of Copper. — Two crystals. The prisms contain three, 
 the rhomboids six atoms of water, and lose three readily; the other 
 three cannot be expelled without loss of acid. 
 
 (3) Subnitrate of Copper. — Thinks the single atom of water to 
 be the base, and the three atoms of oxide of copper in place of the 
 constitiitional water of the nitrate of water. 
 
 (4) Nitrate and Subnitrate of Bismuth. — The neutral nitrate 
 contains three atoms of water like the nitrate of copper. 
 
 (5) Nitrate of Zinc. — Contains six atoms of water which cannot 
 be reduced below three without loss of acid. 
 
 (6) Nitrate of Magnesia. — Contains six atoms of water. At 
 heat of melting lead reduced to one atom. This intimate com- 
 bination of one atom does not indicate a disposition to form a 
 double salt, and is probably the result of a new arrangement of the 
 constituents at a high temperature. No proof of the existence 
 of supernitrates. 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 91 
 
 3. — Of Phosphates. — Table of phosphoric and salts. Nomen- 
 clature — monobasic, bibasic, and tiibasic. 
 
 (1) Tribasic phosphate of soda, ammonia, and water. — The 
 name expresses the view of the constitution of the salts. 
 
 (2) Tribasic phosphates containing oxides of the magnesium class. 
 — Tribasic phosphate of zinc and water has two atoms of water 
 difficult to expel, besides one basic. Tribasic arseniate of magnesia 
 and water has fifteen atoms water of which three, one being basic, 
 are retained at 212° R (100° C.) 
 
 (3) Tribasic phosphate of magnesia and water — has fifteen atoms 
 of water reduced at 21 2'^ F. (100° C), to seven atoms one of which 
 is basic. 
 
 (4) Tribasic phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. — This not 
 a double phosphate, but formed from the tribasic phosphate of 
 magnesia and water by the substitution of oxide of ammonia for 
 the basic water of that salt. 
 
 4r. Sulphates. (Chromates.) See former paper. 
 
 As to the suggestion that bisulphate of potash is a double 
 sulphate of water and potash, and therefore nearly neutral in com- 
 position, if all bisalts are neutral in composition, what explains 
 the condition of the bichromate? The vapour of anhydrous 
 sulphuric acid is absorbed by sulphate of potash and chloride of 
 potassium without decomposition. Chromic acid forms analogous 
 compounds; with neutral chromate, it forms the red chromate, 
 and with chloride of potassium Peligot's salts analogous to, but 
 more permanent than Rose's sulphates. The red chromate may 
 then belong to a new order of combination. 
 
 Sulphates hold water with remarkable force. That of copper 
 retains its four atoms at 212° F. Alum an alkaline sulphate with 
 alumina attached. 
 < 5. Chlorides. — Hydracids have a weak affinity for water. 
 
 The law seems to be that chlorides of the magnesian class have 
 two atoms of water pretty strongly attached. Some have two 
 or four mOTe, advancing by two's. 
 
 (1) Chloride of copper, two atoms of water. 
 
 (2) Chloride of manganese, four atoms water. 
 
 (3) Protochloride of iron, four atoms water. 
 
 (4) Chloride of magnesium, six atoms water. 
 
 (5) Chloride of- calcium, six atoms water, reduced in value 
 over sulphuric acid to two. 
 
 (6) Double chloride of copper and amonium with two atoms water. 
 
93 Philosophical Soaiety of Glasgow. 
 
 The disposition of the protocyanide of iron and of the cyanide 
 of copper to combine with two atoms of cyanide of potassium 
 may depend upon the cyanides of iron and copper possessing two 
 atoms of constitutional water. 
 
 VIII.— On the Thtory of Voltaic Circle— 1839. 
 
 From "Brit. Assoc. Report," 1S39 (Pt. it.), pp. 29-31. 
 
 The polar molecules of a salt contain negative and positive, or 
 rather chlorous and ziiicous affinities, called also halogenous and 
 basylous. (Graham's elements of Chemistry, 1850, p. 239, etc.) 
 Explanation of the apparent travelling of hydrogen to the copper 
 plate, by a series of transferences, beginning with the first partially 
 fixed atom of hydrogen (in the case of hydrochloric acid), i.e. by a 
 propagation of a decomposition through a chain of particles of the 
 acid (see also Elements of Chemistry, p. 272, etc.) 
 
 IX. — On the Constitution of the Suljihates, as illustrated by late 
 Thermometrical Researches — 184^. 
 
 From " Chem. Soc. Mem.," i., 1841-43, pp. 82-84; "Phil. Mag.," xx., 1842, 
 
 Ijp. 539-541. 
 
 No heat evolved in uniting sulphate of magnesia with sulphate 
 of potash, some with sulphate of ammonia, but on stirring the 
 latter when the double salt fell the temperature rose .5° 40 F. 
 (3° C), and fell on resolution. No heat of combination, because 
 sulphate of potash and water are equicalorous in the constitution 
 of such salts. 
 
 A'. — Experiments on the Heat disengaged in Combinations. 
 Part 1—1S4.2. 
 
 X-'rom "Chem. Soc. Mem.,"i., 1841-43, pp. 106-126—11., 1843-45, pp. 51-70. 
 "Auual. de Chemie," viii., 1843, pp. 151-180; xiii., 1845, pp. 188- 
 216. "Erdm. Journ. Prak. Chem.," xxx., 1843, pp. 152-183. "Phil. 
 Mag.," xxii., pp. 329-352; xxiv., 1844, pp. 401-420. 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Hydration of magnesium sulphates. 
 Sulphates and chromates of the potash family. 
 Double sulphates. 
 
Db. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 93 
 
 Table of heat absorbed by equivalent quantities of crystallized 
 salts on dissolving in water 
 
 Simple relations observed between tbe heat disengaged by the 
 sulphates of magnesia and zinc, which appear to belong to one 
 class, whilst the sulphates of water, copper, and manganese belong 
 to another. 
 
 XI. — Experiments on the Heat disengaged in Combinations. 
 Part II.—184S. 
 
 Neutralization of various acids by hydrate of potash. 
 
 1. Neutralization of potash by nitric and hydrochloric acids. 
 
 2. ,, potash by sulphuric acid. 
 
 3. ,, bichromate of potash by hydrate of potash. 
 
 4. ,, acetic acid by hydrate of potash. 
 
 5. ,, oxalic acid by hydrate of potash. 
 
 6. „ bicarbonate of potash by hydrate of potash. 
 
 7. „ arsenic and phosphoric acids by hydrate 
 of potash. 
 
 XII. — On the Diffusion of Liquids — 184-9. 
 
 From "Phil. Trans.," 1850, pp. 1-46, 805-836; 1851, pp. 483-494. "Aimal. 
 deChemie," xxix., 1850, pp. 197-229; "Brit. Assoc. Report," 1851 
 (Pt. 2), p. 47; "Cliem. Soc. Journal," iii., 1851, pp. 60-67; "Jour, de 
 Pharm.," xix., 1851, pp. 394-401 ; "Liebig. Annal.," Ixxvii., 1851, 
 pp. 56-89, 129-160; "Phil. Mag.," xxxvii., 1850; pp. 181-198,254-281, 
 341-349. 
 
 Any substance in solution is diffused uniformly through the 
 mass of the solvent by a spontaneous process. 
 
 The subject has been obscured by the experiments being made 
 with a membrane which imbibes the substance and produces 
 endosmose, not connected with diffusibUity. A diffusibility like 
 that of gases would afford means of separating bodies, and present 
 a scale of densities for substances in solution analogous to vapour 
 densities. Gay-Lussac's theory. Chemical combination attended 
 solution with cold; dissimilar bodies combine, whilst sokible 
 substances and their solvents are like, or analogous. Solubility 
 is not the same as the intensity of the solvent force, the gradations 
 of which may depend on unequal diffusibUity. 
 
 Diffusion of liquid or dissolved carbonic acid slow compared 
 • with gaseous. 
 
94 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Mode of experimenting without a diaphragm. 
 Solutions of salts of the same density diffuse equally. 
 
 1. Characters of liquid diffusion. Diffusion of chloride of 
 sodium. 
 
 Quantity diffused closely proportioned to the quantity of salt. 
 Diffusion increases with the temperature. Nearly the same for 
 eight days, but diminishing. 
 
 2. Diffusion of various salts and other substances. 20 salt to 
 100 water at 60° -5 (15°-8 C.) for eight days. Salt, sugar, gum, 
 albumen. Sugar less than half the diffusibility of chloride of 
 sodium. 
 
 The diffiision of albumen very much lower than of saline bodies. 
 
 Chloride of sodium appears 20 times more diffusible ; actually 
 more so, as nearly one-half the matter diffused from the first con- 
 sists of inorganic salts. Value of this low diffusibility in retaining 
 serous fluids in the blood vessels. 
 
 Diffusion of solutions of 10 salt to 100 water, at 59°-5 F. (15°-3 C.) 
 Do. do. do., at 37°-5 F. (3°-05 C.) 
 
 Near equality of certain isomorphous salts. 
 
 Diffusion of acid solutions, 4 acid to 100 water, at 59°-3 F. 
 (15°-1 C.) 
 
 Considerable latitude in the diffusibility. 
 
 3. Diffusion of ammoniacal salts of copper. 
 
 4. Diffusion of mixed salts. 
 
 Inequality of diffusion is not diminished but exaggerated in 
 mixtures. Same observed of mixed gases. 
 
 5. Separation of salts of different bases by diffusion. The potash 
 salts more diffusive than the soda salts. Experiments. Sea salt. 
 Slowness of diffusion. 
 
 In the sea salt does magnesium exist as a chloride or sulphate? 
 Will diffusion show this by taking out the most diffusible? Or 
 will the most diffusible, the chloride, form because of its opportu- 
 nities to diffuse % liiquid diffusion, as well as gaseous evaporation, 
 can produce decomposition. 
 
 6. Decomposition of salts by diffusion. Bisulphate of potash. 
 Potash alum. Ammoniated sulphate of copper. Alkaline salts 
 with lime. 
 
 7. Diffusion of double salts. A mixture of sulphate of magnesia 
 and sulphate of potash gave in diffusion the sum of the separate 
 diffusions. The salts probably not combined immediately on dis- 
 solving. 
 
Dr. R. a. Swith on lAfe-and Works of Thomas Graham. 95 
 
 8. Diffusion of one salt into the solution of another salt. Chlo- 
 ride of sodium does not resist carbonate of soda diffusing into it. 
 Sulphate of soda does. Nitrate of potash is not resisted by nitrate 
 of ammonia, although isomorphous. They are inelastic to each 
 other, like two gases. 
 
 At a certain pressure attraction impairs the elasticity of a gas, 
 so at a certain saturation the salt molecules tend to crystallize. 
 
 Further analogy between liquid and gaseous diffusion. 
 
 Diffusion of salts of potash and ammonia. Vials for diffusion 
 holding 2,080 grains (134:'74 grammes), outside vessel or water 
 atmosphere 8,750 grains (or 571-1 grammes). Density 2, 4, 6f, 
 and 10 to 100 water by weight. Some at two temperatures. 
 
 Diffusion of carbonate of potash, sulphate of potash, and sulphate 
 of ammonia. Sensibly equal except at the densest point. 
 
 Diffusion of chromate of potash and acetate of potash. Close 
 correspondence, even to the 10 per cent, solution. 
 
 Diffusion of bicarbonate of potash and bichromate of potash. 
 Close approximation : so that equality is not confined to isomorphous 
 
 Diffusion of nitrate of potash and nitrate of ammonia. A slight 
 superiority in the latter. 
 
 Diffusion of chloride of potassium and chloride of ammonium. 
 Agree well: related to the preceding nitrates. Crystallizing 
 attraction in strong solutions resisting diffusion. 
 
 Diffusion of chlorate of potash. Inferior to the nitrate. Its less 
 solubility may be connected with a tendency to crystallize, 
 uniformity of diffusion greater in weak solutions. 
 
 Diffusion of salts of the sulphate of potash class. Diffusion of 
 1 per cent, solutions. Ferrocyanide and ferricyanide of potassium. 
 
 Diffusion of salts of the nitre class. 
 
 Nitrate of potash and carbonate of potash. 
 
 Times of equal diffusion. A 4 per cent, solution of nitrate of 
 potash diffused for 7 days, or as 1 to 1'4142, the square root of 2. 
 Leading to the idea of solution densities, and further analogy 
 with gases. Further trials. 
 
 Hydrate of potash. Compared with nitrate and sulphate. 
 
 Diffusion of salts of soda. 
 
 Diffusion of sulphate and carbonate of soda. Nitrate of soda. 
 
 Relation of salts of potash to salts of soda. Times of equal 
 diffusibility as the square root of 2 to that of 3. 
 
 Diffusion of sulphate of magnesia. 
 
96 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Has half the diffusibility of sulphate of potash, and one-fourth 
 that of the hydrate at 52° F. (12°-2 0.) Sulphate of zinc differed 
 from sulphate of magnesia 4 per cent., although isomorphous. 
 
 Table of solutions of 1 and 2 salt to 100 water. 
 
 Summary of results: — Diffusion a property of a fundamental 
 character. Supplies the densities of a new kind of molecules. 
 
 Relations in diffusion refer to equal weights, not to atomic 
 weights, or to larger molecules, if not of equal weight, of weights 
 with a simple relation to each other. Classes of equidiffusive 
 substances. Division of salts of potash. Separation of salts by 
 diffusion. Decomposition by diffusion. Use in the study of 
 endosmose. 
 
 Supplementary Observations on t/ie Diffusion of Liquids — 1850. 
 
 Diffusion of hydrochloric acid. One of the most diffusive 
 substances. Effect of time. 
 
 Diffusion of hydriodic acid, hydrobromic acid, and bromine. 
 
 Diversity of physical properties compatible with equal diffusi- 
 bility in substances which are isomorphous. 
 
 Hydrocyanic acid. Nitric acid. 
 
 Sulphuric acid. Chromic acid. 
 
 Acetic acid. Sulphurous acid. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 Nitrate of baryta. 
 
 Nitrate of strontia. Nitrate of lime. 
 
 Acetate of lead. Acetate of baryta. 
 
 Chloride of barium. Chloride of strontium. 
 
 Chloride of calcium. 
 
 Chloride of manganese. Nitrate of magnesia. Nitrate of copper. 
 
 Protochloride of iron. Sesquichloride of iron. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia. 
 
 Sulphate of zinc. 
 
 Sulphate of alumina. 
 
 Nitrate of silver. Nitrate of soda. 
 
 Chloride of sodium. 
 
 Chloride of potassium. 
 
 Iodides and bromides of potassium and sodium. 
 
 Chloride of ammonium. 
 
Db. R. a. Smith 07i Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 97 
 
 Dichloride of copper. Diffusion diminished by excess of hydro- 
 chloric acid. Same effect of acid on chloride of sodium. Effect 
 of acids. 
 
 Bicarbonate of potash. Bicarbonate of ammonia. 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda. 
 
 Hydrochlorate of morphine. 
 
 Hydrochlorate of strychnine. Observations in this paper favour 
 the existence of a close similarity or equality in diffusibility 
 between certain classes or substances. Chlorides and nitrates and 
 their acids show this, isomorphous salts also. 
 
 Additional Observations on the Diffusion of Liquids — 1831. 
 
 In the following the salts of potash and soda only are used, and 
 in four different proportions. Hydrate of potash. 
 
 Hydrate of soda. 
 
 Carbonate of potash. 
 
 Carbonate of soda. 
 
 Comparison of potash and soda. Sulphate of potash. 
 
 Sulphite of potash. 
 
 Sulphite of soda. Hyposulphite of potash. Hyposulphite of 
 soda. 
 
 Sulphovinate of potash. Sulphovinate of soda. Oxalate of 
 potash. 
 
 Sulphate and oxalate compared. Oxalate of soda. 
 
 Acetate of potash. Sulphate and acetate compared. 
 
 Acetate of soda. Acetates of soda and potash compared. 
 
 Tartrate of potash. 
 
 Tartrate of soda. Tartrate of potash and soda compared. 
 Double tartrate of potash and soda decomposed by diffusion. In 
 nine pairs of potash and soda salts the potash salts uniforml}^ 
 exceed the soda in diffusibility, the ratio sensibly the same, the 
 hydrates not included. 
 
 XIII. — On the AppUcatio7i of Liquid Diffusion to 23roduce 
 Decompositions — 1849. 
 
 From " Chem. Soc. Joiirn.," vol. iii., p. 60, 1851. 
 
 Observations made on the spontaneous diffusion into pure water 
 of several salts already dissolved in 100 times their weight of 
 
98 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 water. Apparatus as before. The water of the water jar is an 
 atmosphere into which the salts diffuse from the solution phial 
 within. Together they form a diffusion cell. Time, seven days, 
 unless stated otherwise. Temp., 50° F. (10° C.) 
 
 Salts diffuse from a one-per-cent. solution in equal times. 
 
 Decomposition of sulphate of potash by lime in diffusion cells. 
 
 Decomposition of sulphate of soda. Potash salt most decom- 
 posed. 
 
 Alkaline chloride very slightly decomposed. Decomposition of 
 sulphates by lime in dilute solutions, which cannot deposit sulphate 
 of lime. Decomposition of sulphates by carbonates of lime. 
 
 Effect in the soil. No decomposition in saturated solutions of 
 chlorides. 
 
 An agency in the soil by which the alkaline carbonates required 
 by plants may be formed from the chlorides of potassium and 
 sodium, as well as from the sulphates. This brought into action 
 by top-dressing with lime. 
 
 XIV. — On the Concentration of Alcohol in Somviering's Eocperi- 
 ments — I86J1.. 
 
 From "Brit. Assoc. Eeport," 1^4, pt. ii., p. 69. 
 
 The alcohol was, by Sommering, concentrated in a bladder; it 
 was here shown that gelatine had the same effect. 
 
 XV. — Liquid Diffusion applied to Analysis — 1861. 
 
 From "Phil. Trans.," 1861, pp. 183-224 ("Roy. Soc. Proc," xi., 1860-62, 
 pp. '2AZ-24ri ; "Chem. Soc. Journ.," xv., 1862, pp. 216-270; "Liebig 
 Annal.," oxxi., 1862, pp. 1-77, cxxiii., 1862, pp. 90-112; "Nuovo 
 Cimento," XV., 1862, pp. 92-94; "Paris Comptea Rendus," liii., 1861, 
 pp. 275-279; "Phil. Mag.," xxiii., 1862, pp. 204-223, 290-306, 368-380; 
 "Poggend. Annal.," cxiv., 1861, pp. 187-1'92). 
 
 Volatility a means of separating bodies. Diffusion similar in 
 character. Hydrate, sulphate of potash, etc., "volatile" as regards 
 diffusion. The fixed class are silicic acid, albumen, gums, etc. : 
 crystalline bodies the type of first; gelatine the type of colloids. 
 Distinction intimate molecular. The crystalloid state is statical, 
 the colloid dynamical. 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 99 
 
 Colloidal has energia. The source of force in vital phenomena. 
 
 Colloid substances assisting diffusive separations. Starch and 
 pectin greatly resist passage of less diffusive substances, and 
 entirely cut off .colloid substances. A mere film of jelly is enough. 
 
 Instances with sized paper. Not as a filter. Only molecules 
 permeate, and not masses. The water of the colloid is in a state 
 of combination, although feeble, and cannot be used as a medium 
 for diffusion. The crystalloid can separate the water, molecule by 
 molectde, and make its way through the gelatinous septum. 
 This action called dialysis. 
 
 Vegetable parchment or parchment paper made by M. Gaine. 
 Unsized paper dipt in sulphuric acid. Dialysing vessel or saucers 
 of paper. Jar diffusion explained. 
 
 Diffusion of 10 per cent, solutions of chloride of sodium, sugar, 
 gum, and tannin in fourteen days, at 10° C. 
 
 Diffusion of sulphate of magnesia, albumen, and caramel for 
 fourteen days. 
 
 Diffusion of chloride of sodium in different times. 
 
 Diffusion of a 10 per cent, solution of cane sugar in different 
 times. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid compared with salts, sugar, and albumen. 
 Diffusion in alcohol of iodine and acetate of potash. Diffusion of 
 alcoholic solution of resin. 
 
 Diffusion of 5 per cent, solution of chlorides of potassium and 
 sodium. 
 
 Diffusion of 5 per cent, solution of chloride of sodium and 
 sulphate of soda at 10° C. for seven days. 
 
 Same for fourteen days. Can two unequally diffusive metals be 
 separated by varying the acid? 
 
 Diffusion of 5"12 per cent, chloride of potassium and 4-88 of 
 sulphate of soda for seven days at 14° C. 
 
 Diffusion of 4'01 per cent, chloride of sodium and 5 '99 of 
 sulphate of potash for seven days at 14° C. Effect of temperature 
 on diffusion. 
 
 Dialysis. 
 
 Diffusion of a 10 per cent, solution of chloride of sodium iu the 
 jelly of gelose for eight days at 10° C. A crystalloid passes through 
 a firm jelly with little or no abatement of velocity. 
 
 Heat. The effect of heat increasing diffusion is diminished in 
 dialysis. Bell jar. Bulb dialyser. 
 
 Effect of volume of liquid in the dialyser. Effect of acids. 
 
100 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Dialysis through parchment paper during twenty-four hours at 
 10°— 15° C. 
 
 Dialysis through animal mucus during twenty-five hours at 10° 
 —15° C. 
 
 Dialysis through parchment paper during twenty-four hours at 
 12° 0. 
 
 Purification of colloid substances by dialysis. 
 
 Crystalloids eliminated by diffusion. Soluble sUicic acid. 
 Hydrochloric acid and chloride of sodium removed from it in a 
 hoop dialyser in four days. Pure solution of silicic acid, limpid 
 and colourless, preserved a few days. 
 
 Coagulated by earthy or alkaline carbonates and carbonic acid, 
 precipitated on calcareous stone without penetrating ; acid like 
 carbonic acid, precipitated by certain other colloids (ordinary 
 silicate of soda not colloidal). Soluble sUicic acid forms a peculiar 
 class of compounds also colloidal. 
 
 Silicate of gelatine. Colli-silicates or cosilicates. 
 
 Cosilicic acid. Albuminic acid. Soluble alumina made by placing 
 ou the dialyser a solution of alumina in chloride of aluminium. 
 Very unstable. Coagulated by extremely minute amounts of salts. 
 Colloidal alumina has a high atomic weight, like cosilicic acid. 
 
 Soluble metalumina. Crum's discovery. Heating a binacetate 
 to the boiling point of water, and keeping thus for several days; 
 also by dialysing an acetate of alumina that has been altered by 
 heatj not a mordant. Soluble peroxide of iron. Preparation. 
 
 Solution of the peroxide in the chloride goes on for months. 
 Slow action characteristic of colloids. — Very unstable solution. 
 Separation ^y diffusion. 
 
 Soluble metaperoxide of iron. Ferrocyanide of copper. 
 
 Neutral Prussian blue. 
 
 Ferrocyanide of iron, soluble in oxalic acid and binoxalate of 
 potash. Sucrate of copper. Sucrate of peroxide of iron. Sucrate 
 of peroxide of uranium. Sucrate of lime. Soluble chromic oxide. 
 Hydrated uranic oxide and glucina. It appears that the hydrated 
 peroxides of the aluminous type when free are colloid bodies ; two 
 species exist, of which alumina and metalumina are the types. 
 
 The double type in fibrin of blood. 
 
 Peroxide of tin. Metastaunic acid. Titanic acid. 
 
 Dialysis of organic colloid substance. — Tannin difiuses, at most, 
 200 times less than chloride of sodium. Gum, 400 times less 
 diffusive than chloride of sodium. 
 
De. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graliam. 101 
 
 Gummic and metagummic acids. — ^'Gnmmate of gelatine, dextrin, 
 caramel, varieties of. Cane sugar, albumen. 
 
 Emulsin. Coagulated albumen. Gelatinous starch. Extract 
 of flesh. Separation of arsenious acid from colloidal liquids. 
 
 95 per cent, of the arsenious acid diffused out in 24 hours. 
 Amount with albumen and gum. 
 
 Arsenious acid with other organic substances. 
 
 Colloidal condition of matter. — Colloids and crystalloids difierent 
 worlds of matter, distinct as the material of a mineral and the 
 material of an organized mass. Colloids may be soluble or 
 insoluble. Easily thrown out of solution by crystalloid. Crystal- 
 loids sapid ; colloids insipid. 
 
 Tendency to change in colloids. — Colloids equivalents high. 
 Possibly a collection of crystalloid molecules. 
 
 Gelatine an important colloidal base. 
 
 Ice. — Colloidal and crystalline. No abrupt transitions. 
 
 Osmose. — Caused by hydration and dehydration of the mem- 
 brane. Outer surface being piire water is most hydrated. With 
 full hydration through the membrane osmose is checked. Weak 
 alkalies swell the colloids, and cause extreme osmotic sensibility. 
 
 XVI. — On Capillar !j Transpiration of Liquids in relation to 
 Chemical Composition — 1861. 
 
 From "Phil. Trans.," 1S61, pp. 373-38() ("Roy. Soo. Proc," xi,, 1860-62, 
 pp. 381-384; "Chem. Soo. Journ.," xv., 1862, pp. 427-445; "Paris 
 Comptes Rendus," liii., 1861, pp. 774-777). 
 
 Poiseuille. — Greatest retardation of alcohol is with six equi- 
 valents of water. 
 
 Nitric acid. — Retardation greatest with three atoms water.- 
 
 Sulphuric acid. — Twenty-four times slower than water. Least 
 transpirability in the crystallizable hydrate, or one atom of water 
 added to SHO4. Transpiration time of water 109 seconds. 
 
 Acetic acid. — The hydrate C4H404-I-H20 has a transpiration 
 time 2 '7 times longer than water. 
 
 Butyric acid. — With three equivalents water greatest retardation. 
 
 Valeiianic acid. — Retarded most by two equivalents of water. 
 
 Formic acid does not follow the same rule. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid. — Its retardation indicates a 12-hydrate. No 
 appearance of a point indicating a 16-hydrate. 
 
102 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 Alcohol. — Poiseuille's fundamental discovery confirmed by 
 numerous experiments. Methylic alcohol, 6-hydrate of amylic 
 alcohol. 
 
 Ethers. — Formiate, acetate butyrate, and valerianate of ethyl, 
 give transpiration times progressively rising — this may be 
 connected with the increased weight of the molecule. 
 
 Acetone. — Time greatest with twelve equivalents of water. 
 
 Glycerine. — -So point of retardation found. 
 
 Importance of observing transpiration. Retardation of hydrates 
 may be caused by the increased size of the molecules, but it ife 
 ])ossible to conceive a decomposition caused by the friction of 
 passage and the propelling power lost by conversion into heat. 
 
 Table of the transpiration of water at difierent temperatures. 
 
 Table of the transpiration of alcohol at different temperatures. 
 
 XVII. — On the Properties of Silicic Add and other Analogous 
 Colloidal Substances — 1864- 
 
 From the " Joxirnal of the Chomioal Society," 1864. 
 
 Hydrate of silicic acid soluble according to hydration. x\. jelly 
 with 1 per cent, of silicic acid gives a solution with one of that 
 acid in 5,000. Time alone may cause coagulation which is opposed 
 by concentration and warmth. 
 
 Pectization by pounded graphite. No crystallization. Colloids 
 transpire slowly. The particles aggregate. 
 
 Alcohol and silicic acid. 
 
 Ether and silicic acid. Glycerine and silicic acid. 
 
 Sulphuric acid and acetic acid. 
 
 Restoration of the liquid from the pectose state. Liquid stannic 
 and metastannic acids. 
 
 Liquid titanic acids. Liquid tungstic acid. 
 
 Jlolybdic acid. 
 
 UNCLASSBD TAPERS. 
 
 /. — 0)1 the Heat of Friction — ISJU. 
 From " Annals of Philosophy," xii., 1826, pp. 260-262. 
 A speculation on the separate cxistentx' of heat. 
 
Dr. R. a. Smith on Life and Works of Thomas Graham. 103 
 
 //. — Alcohol derived from the Fermentation oj Bread — 1826. 
 
 From "Annals o£ Philosophy," xii., 1826, p. 363. 
 
 There was found alcohol equal to 0'3 to 1 per cent, of the flour 
 employed. 
 
 ///. — Effect of Animal Charcoal on Solutions — 18S0. 
 
 From "Quart. Journ. of Science," i., 1830, pp. 120-125 ("Dingier Polyteohn. 
 Joiirn.,"xl., 1831, pp. 443-446; "Poggend. Annal.,"xix., pp. 139-144). 
 
 Here it is shown by several instances, chiefly of metallic salts, 
 that the charcoal removes more than mere colouring matter from 
 solution. 
 
 IV. — Note on the Preparation of Chlorate of Potash — ISJ/.!. 
 
 From "Chem. See. Mem.," 1841-43, pp. 5-7. 
 
 Loss of oxygen by acting with chlorine on carbonate of potash 
 alone. Recommends addition of hydrate of lime. The chlorine 
 attacks the potash, and the lime takes the carbonic acid at the 
 same time. Similar result of secondary action found when sulphate 
 of soda is added to lime, which mixture takes up two equivalents 
 of sulphuretted hydrogen to one of lime. 
 
 V. — Lettre de M. Graham a M. Dumas — 18j^. 
 
 From "Annal. de Chimie," iv., 1842, pp. 177-186. 
 
 Some ideas arising from the law of substitution — even aii isolated 
 element, such as a metal, held to be made up of several parts. 
 Combination the natural state of matter. Electro-chemical theory, 
 and mode of writing the symbols under this theory. A view of 
 the constitution of several molecules of compound bodies. 
 
 VI. — Note on the Useful Application of the Refuse Lime of 
 Gas-works — 18^5. 
 
 From "Chem. Soc. Mem.," ii., 1843-45, pp. 358-359; " Erdm. Jour. Prak. 
 Chem.," xxxvi., 1845, pp. 48-49; "Frankl. Inst. Journ.," xi., 1846, 
 pp. 281-282. 
 
 By exposure to air refuse lime becomes quickly oxidized, and * 
 one-sixth of its weight has been taken from it as crystallized hypo- 
 sulphite of lime by a single crystallization. 
 
104 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 VII. — iVofe on the Existence of Phosphoric Acid in the Beep Well 
 Water of the London Basin — ISJ/S. 
 
 From "Chem. Soc. Mem.," ii., 1843-45, pp. 392, 393; "Bibl. Univ.," Ix., 
 1845, pp. 385, 386. 
 
 Deposits carbonate and phosphate of lime. Green confervoe 
 grow readily. Does the value of water for irrigation depend on 
 the phosphoric acid ? 
 
 VIII. — Observations on Etherification — 1851. 
 
 From "Chem. Soo. Journ.,"iii., 1851, pp. 24-28; " Jom-n. dePharm.,"xviii., 
 1850, pp. 124-130; "Liebig's Annal., Ixxv.," 1850, pp. 108-116. 
 
 The most direct method of preparing ether is to add 4 to 8 of 
 alcohol to 1 of strong sulphuric acid of 83 per cent., and to heat 
 to 320° F. (160° 0.) under pressure. No distillation or sei^^ible 
 formation of sulphovinic acid necessary. Action of the acid com 
 pared to that on the essential oils. A polymerizing action. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 OBITICAL REMARKS ON THE FOREGOING PAPERS OF THOMAS 
 GRAHAM, BEING PREFACE BY DR. R. ANGUS SMITH TO 
 " PHYSICAL RESEARCHES OF THOMAS GRAHAM," PUBLISHED 
 FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION BY DR. R. ANGUS SMITH AND 
 JAMES YOUNG IN 1876. 
 
 GRAHAM AND OTHER ATOMISTS, 
 
 Atoms and eternal motion are amongst the first known scientific ideas. 
 We find them discussed with full keenness of insight by the earliest 
 Greeks of whom we have received definite accounts. If the opinions did 
 not spring from Hellenic soil they certainly found themselves in a land 
 weU fitted for their development ; but so many of the thoughts of men have 
 come from the East that it is natural to suppose that both had their origin 
 there. India has had several atomic systems and acute discussions on 
 atoms and matter. I shall leave it to others to decide at what time the 
 earliest known were written, but it is at least clear that the subject was 
 thought out in a peculiar method, with occasional logic of the keenest 
 known, moving forward into regions where reasoning is difiicult and 
 mysticism reigns. There we may find thoughts, the same apparently as 
 led to the centres of force of Bosoovioh and original fluid or universal 
 ether, as well as the various atoms of the Greeks, or the clearest ideas of 
 moderns, too clear at times to be su£Sciently comprehensive. It is said 
 that Lencippus obtained his opinions from a Phoenician called Moschus 
 (and Mochus), and it is pleasant to think of this earlier name of an atomist 
 to whom it seems unnatural to deny existence, even if he be little known. 
 And although Zeller^ tells us that the roots of the ideas lay in the earlier 
 Greek mode of thought, this scarcely is sufiicient for separating the East 
 and the West, since tradition in very remote times led to the belief in 
 frequent and interesting communication. Such names are not forged, and 
 when characters are invented we find them rarely to be men of science. 
 Still, the accounts are vague, and Indian literature waits arrangement. 
 Although Kapila as a philosopher is almost lost as a personality, his 
 system^ shows a long train of successfully cultivated thought. How and 
 when did Cdndde's notion arise that an atom was the sixth part of a mote 
 in a sunbeam? If, however, we turn to the second idea, namely, "eternal 
 motion," we must claim for it decidedly an Eastern origin, and perhaps it 
 is stiU to be found among the remnants where Chaldseans or Accadians 
 may have recorded their thoughts, when their astronomers and astrologers 
 sought wisdom out of the heavens. Science seems to have begun amongst 
 
 1 In JHe Philosophie der Griechen, p. 688. 
 
 2 Colebi'ooke'3 Essays on tbe Religion and Philosophy of the Hindus, 
 
 O 
 
106 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 the heavenly bodies, and even amongst the Greeks Anaximander brought 
 forward his mystic idea of the immeasureable, before the smaller move- 
 ments in matter were considered. To follow a late writer,^ even the idea 
 of eternal motion, as held by that early Greek speculator, referred only to 
 the motion of the stars and the unceasing changes of the sun and moon. 
 When Leucippus gave his mind to the study of atoms he saw there also the 
 need of movement, and the restlessness of all creation in detail was thus 
 early expressed by him. It was the result of a process of reasoning, begun 
 by observing objects that strike all men unceasingly, and ending amongst 
 those too small to be visible; it began with what to us is infinitely great, 
 and ended with what to our senses is infinitely small. Leucippus seems to 
 have concluded, as so many thinkers have since done, that arguments con- 
 cerning the infinite divisibility of matter must end in empty words, or in 
 thoughts of awe regarding the unlimited, which we cannot comprehend. 
 To assume an actual end of division was to take a basis of thought; without 
 such a foundation where would he stand to observe the building up of the 
 world ? The assumption, if it be one, formed the atom of science, and its 
 study, although without a distinct advance for ages, has richly rewarded 
 the student of the present century, giving us the basis of a rational view of 
 inatter, as the atoms are the basis of the matter itself. In the mind of this 
 early Greek, first or not, the action of the atom, as one substance taking 
 various forms by combinations unlimited, was enough to account for all the 
 phenomena of the world. By separation and union, with constant motion, 
 aU things could be done. 
 
 These great thoughts, the oneness of matter and the power of motion and 
 combination, were given to gifted men of the early days, and, like some 
 other great thoughts, they have been misunderstood or neglected to a very 
 late time. It is because Graham took a similar view, and advanced the 
 idea of atomic motion with unity of material to that which might be fairly 
 called its utmost limit, that he is brought forward here with Leucippus. 
 The Greek told us that all was in motion. Graham conceived the idea that 
 the diversity in the motion was the only basis of the diversity of the 
 material, or, in other words, that an atom constituted an element of a 
 special kind, according to rate or peculiarity of its movements. To the 
 study of the motion of atoms, or at least of molecules, the practical atom 
 of our chemistry, or that which although in a sense divisible is not known 
 to be divided, Graham gave all the leisure of a thoughtful life. When he 
 came to the subject it had advanced far beyond the early stage, notably by 
 the thoughts of Dalton and the chemists of the earlier part of this century. 
 To pass over more than two thousand years in a bound is apparently to 
 forget the efiect these thoughts had on mankind ; but it cannot be denied 
 that no important results followed for the human race, and only a few men 
 seemed seriously to think on the subject until very modern times. A glance 
 at a few of the more striking halting-places will help us to see better the 
 relative position of "Graham as an atomist and a philosopher, words which 
 suit his character better than chemist, although chemistry was his pro- 
 fession and the source of all his speculations and reasoning. 
 
 I GnetaT TeichmuUer, Studien GachicJite der Begriffe. Berlin, 1874. 
 
Appendix. 107 
 
 Leucippns was soon almost forgotten, until a time came when men gladly 
 treasured the little that was remembered of him; but his successor was 
 better known, and Democritus has obtained much of the honour of the 
 acute thoughts that taught ua atomic motion. It is said that Xerxes him- 
 self stayed, when at Abdera, with the father of Democritus, who was very 
 wealthy, and that the magi in the great king's train taught the theory of 
 atoms to the young man. It may be true, for the East ever appears at the 
 beginning of things, and the fresh minds caught up the richest crops as they 
 showed themselves on the face of the creation, expanding before men's eyes. 
 A few words, quoted from Lange,i give the position of Democritus so far as 
 we are here concerned : — 
 
 " The difference of substances arises from the difference in the number, 
 size, shape, and arrangement of the atoms. The atoms have no internal 
 conditions ; they act by pressure and percussion only. " 
 
 These words express the early theory with great beauty and precision. 
 We do not say here with Aristotle, "Matter cannot move itself," and so 
 inquire further into the subject; for us it is enough to remember the 
 physical theory. So far as is apparent, Democritus left the pure physical 
 theory of oneness of atom, and he makes many varieties, so that at last it 
 is said that "the soul consists of round atoms, fine and smooth like those 
 of fire, and by their motion, which penetrates the whole body, the whole 
 phenomena of life are produced." But although this theory leaves the 
 oneness of atoms, it keeps closely to the idea of motion as the only one 
 phenomenon conceivable for matter or mind, and it is without much doubt 
 the origin of the saying that life is motion, the great thought of Heraclitus. 
 All life consists of this constant moving, nothing is but as a movement. If 
 we care to view the subject very strictly, we may say that the simplicity of 
 the atom is gone even at this early stage ; but if the simplicity of the atom 
 is gone, the age of the molecule commences, a body composed of bodies not 
 to be separated; and although the atom of Democritus is spoken of as one 
 in quality, its diversity of size gives it a composite character, and one might 
 even choose to find in him the germ of an opposition to the theory showing 
 itself during the very building.^ The peculiar soul-atoms' destroy even the 
 supposed qualitative uniformity of atoms ; but Leucippus is said to have 
 had the same opinion. At best this early atom is a practical one, like that 
 of Newton's, not an intelligible one, an idea that has still to be imagined in 
 a reasonable manner. This difficulty produces the non-atomista, but the 
 atomist may see it quite as clearly, and leave the reasoning for a stage, 
 since he cannot proceed with any firmness of step. A consistent atomist 
 of the Dalton type maybe a thorough non-atomist when he breaks up in his 
 mind the present elements. 
 
 We do not find that anything fitting our present purpose was added to 
 the theory of atoms until the time of Lucretius, if indeed he can be said to 
 have added anything. He, however, as the only full expositor of the 
 doctrine among the ancients, must be viewed with attention. As a philo- 
 sophic poet, Lucretius is interesting, it ought rather to be aaid interesting 
 
 1 F. A. Lsnge, Oeschichte des materialismat. 1873. 
 
 2 Zeller, vol. i. , 699 ; Aristotle quoted in the note. 3 P. 729. 
 
108 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 for the time in which he lived, but he contradicts himself more than the 
 early Greeks in his theories, and his explanations, that are so satisfactory 
 to himself, seem to many men to explain little. Nevertheless he deserves a 
 full share of honour. 
 
 If it is attempted to give by quotations from Lucretius a good idea of his 
 system, we get rather into confusion. The reason probably is that he had 
 not thought out the details clearly in his own mind, and indeed every man 
 who has attempted consistency in this department has failed ; but it may 
 be said that his atoms are solid and eternal, with some unalterable motion, 
 and a tendency downwards as well as to the side, easily agitated also 
 by many forces. They are made of parts, which parts cannot exist by 
 themselves, the atoms are partly like our molecules, but the parts seem 
 hypothetical existences, conceived apparently in order to bridge over the 
 distance between nothing and something, a difficulty frequently attempted 
 by those who reason outside the atomic idea. Motion is to him everything 
 that can be found in life and thought, which are only the clashing of atoms, 
 light or heavy, round or smooth, made by more or fewer of the combinations 
 of small points that do not exist by themselves. This theory allows of any 
 shape of molecules, even hooked ones, which are spoken of as explaining 
 combination both in Lucretius and more mddern writers, and to which the 
 name of atom is applicable only with suitable explanation. 
 
 In reality, Lucretius sometimes loses the clear meaning of the atom he 
 admires; as he loses also and objects to the idea of centres in the imiverse, 
 preferring up and down as fundamental ideas. After the first great thoughts 
 are uttered, the rudest ideas come into play, and the carpenter and hammer 
 seem to be set to do the whole work as was done by his predecessors, and 
 which his successors continue to admire. 
 
 The alchemists got rid of this, but lost also the idea of atoms. They re- 
 tained, however, the one fundamental matter of which they were composed ; 
 with a loss of clearness they gained in breadth. Roger Bacon, so much 
 superior to the most, may be looked on as an ideal one. He says logically : 
 "The elements are made of yU.^ Barley is » horse by possibility, that is 
 occult nature, and wheat is a, possible man, and man is possible wheat." — 
 De Arte Chymice, 
 
 If, however, we come to the atom which has done most good work in 
 modern chemistry, we are after all obliged to turn back to one of the 
 descriptions of it by Lucretius in one of his best moments, and after it has 
 been modified by the powerful hand of Newton, and freed from connecting 
 obscurities. Lucretius says, book i. line 603, ' ' Primordial bodies are solid 
 ia their simplicity, and consist of the smallest parts closely united, not 
 combined by a union of others, but i-ather endowed vrith eternal simplicity: 
 from them nature allows nothing to be taken away or to be diminished, 
 reserving them as seeds for bodies." ^ 
 
 r Or the one original matter. 
 
 2 " Sunt igitur Solida Primordia simplicitate, 
 Quaj minimis stipata cohserent partibus avcte ; 
 Non ex ullorum eonventu conciliata, 
 Sed magis sterna pollentia Simplicitate : 
 XJnde neque avelli quicquam, neque diminui jam 
 Concedit natura, reservans semina reljus." :-r ■ . ■ 
 
Appendix. 109 
 
 Newton's well-known words may be quoted, since they form an era in 
 the theory of atoms, not so much by new ideas as by distinctness, and the 
 elimination of much confusion: — "It seems probable to me that God in the 
 beginning framed matter in solid, massy, hard, impenetrable moveable 
 particles, of such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in 
 such proportion to space, as most conduced to the end for which He formed 
 them ; and that these primitive particles being solid, are incomparably harder 
 than any porous bodies compounded of them; even so very hard as never 
 to wear or break in pieces ; no ordinary power being able to divide what 
 God himself made one in the first creation. While these particles continue 
 entire, they may compose bodies of one and the same texture in all ages ; 
 but should they wear away, or break in pieces, the nature of things de- 
 pending on them would be changed. Water and earth composed of old 
 worn particles would not be of the same nature and texture now with water 
 and earth composed of entire particles in the beginning. And, therefore, 
 that nature may be lasting, the changes of corporeal things are to be placed 
 only in the various separations and new associations and motions of these 
 permanent particles; compound bodies being apt to break, not in the midst 
 of solid particles, but where those particles are, laid together, and only 
 touch on a few points." 
 
 Here, then, is the real atom of the chemist — explaining a mode of combin- 
 ation which Bergman, Wenzel, and Eiohter laboriously tried to understand, 
 which Higgins reached but did not see with vigour — the atom which Dalton 
 made his fertile discovery — the atom which has built up the modern science 
 of chemistry, and from which oilr most precise ideas of the constitution of 
 matter have been aoq^uired, one which must remain probably without 
 fundamental alteration until a new mode of analysis is found, and one 
 which probably is in principle true even at stages considerably below that 
 which contains our unaltered elements. This atom, however, is by no 
 means of necessity indivisible in every sense ; it is only indivisible by us, 
 although some chemists may have different views. It may be in a strict 
 sense a molecule, but it is much better to keep that word for a combination 
 of atoms of known bodies rather than of hypothetical existences, a double 
 atom of hydrogen or other element being our simplest molecule. 
 
 When we arrive at this point we pass to the next important stage, namely, 
 the motion of gaseous molecules, if not of atoms, and the beginning of the 
 attempt to define it precisely. The first definite ideas are by D. Bernoulli. 
 They are explained in his Hydrodynamics,! -yirhich, although published in 
 Strasburg in 1738, were previously worked at when he was Professor in 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 D. Bernoulli says, — " Tlie chief peculiarities of fluids are these : 1st, they 
 are heavy; 2nd, they expand in all directions unless they are confined; and 
 3rd, they allow themselves to be compressed more and more, according to 
 
 I Danielis Bernoulli, Job. Fll., Med. Prof. Basil. Hydrodynamica, sive d6 viribus et molitius 
 flaidorum Commentm-ii (Ai-gentorati, 1738), p. 200. Seetio decima :— 
 
 " Fluida nunc elastica consideraturls liceWt nobis talem iis affingere constitutionem, qua 
 cum omnibus adhuc cognitis conveniat affectaonibus, ut sic ad reliquas etiam nondum satis 
 cxploratas detnr aditus." 
 
110 Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 the increased force applied. "^ Speaking of a vessel of air with a weighted 
 cover, and which he illustrates with a diagram, he says, " So the minute 
 bodies, whilst they impinge on the cover E F, keep it up by their continually 
 repeated strokes, and form an elastic fluid, which expands itself when the 
 weight is removed or diminished."^ "We shall consider the corpuscles 
 enclosed in the hollow of the cylinder as infinite in number, and when they 
 occupy the space E C D F we shall say that they constitute the natural 
 air.'" 
 
 Davy and Count Rumford entered the field when this theory of gaseous 
 motion was forgotten, and inaugurated a new theory of heat founded on 
 molecular activity. That heat is immaterial was no rare opinion last 
 century, or since Lord Bacon spoke of it as motus et nihil aXivd. However, 
 atomic motion ceased from the time of Rumford to be a vague idea. Davy* 
 spoke definitely when, without calling m the aid of forces, he supposed that 
 in solids the particles are in a vibratory motion, the particles of the hottest 
 bodies moving with greatest velocity and through the greatest space ; that 
 in fluids and elastic fluids, besides the vibratory motion, which must be 
 considered greatest in the last, the particles have a motion round their own 
 axes with different velocities, the particles of elastic fluids moving with the 
 greatest quickness; and that in ethereal substances the particles move i^ound 
 their own axes and separate from each other, penetrating in right lines 
 through space. Temperature may be conceived to depend on the velocity 
 of the vibrations, increase of capacity on the motion being performed in 
 greater space, etc. 
 
 This is evidently the work of Rumford and Bernoulli, with additions 
 after passing later through an original and powerful miud. 
 
 We may take the next step to Herapath.^ At p. 15, vol. i,, he says: — 
 
 " Theory of Oases. — From these considerations it follows that if a number 
 of small bodies be inclosed in any hollow body, and be continually impinging 
 on one another, and on the sides of the inclosing body ; and if the motions 
 of the bodies be conserved by an equivalent action in the sides of the con- _ 
 tainiag body, then will these small bodies compose a medium, whose elastic 
 force will be like that of air and other gaseous bodies; for if the bodies be 
 exceedingly small, the medium might, like any aeriform body, be com- 
 pressed into a very small space ; and yet if it had no other tendency than 
 what would arise from the internal collision of its atoms, it would, if left to 
 itself, extend to the occupation of a space of almost indefinite greatness. 
 And its temperature remaining the same, its elasticity would also be greater 
 when occupying a less, and less when occupying a greater space; for in a 
 
 1 " Fluidorum autem elasticoiiim prsecipuse affectiones in eq posits sunt : I'', ut sint gravia; 
 2°, ut se in omnes plagas expliQent, nisi contineantur, et 3^, ut se continue magis magisqne 
 comprimi patiantur crescentibus potentiis compressionis : ita comparatus est aer, ad quern 
 potisBimum presentes nostra pertinent cogitationes." 
 
 2 ^' Sic corpuscuia dum impingunt in operculum E F idemque suls sustinent impetibus 
 
 continue repetitis fluidum componunt elasticum quod remoto aut diminato pondere F sesc 
 expandit ." 
 
 3 " Corpuscuia cavitati cyllndri inclusa considerabimus tanquam numero infinita, et cum 
 spatlum E G D F occupant, tunc aerem ilia dlcemus formal'^ naturalem." 
 
 4 Collected Workt, vol. It., p. 67. 
 
 . 5 Mathematkal Physio, etc., by John Hei-apath. 2 vols., 870, 1847. 
 
Appendix. Ill 
 
 compressed state the number of atoms striking against a given portion of ~ 
 the containing vessel must be augmented, and the space in which the atoms 
 have to move being less, their motions or periods must be shorter, and the 
 number of them in a given time consequently greater; on both of which 
 accounts the elasticity is gi'cater the greater the compression. Besides, 
 when other things are the same, the elastic force augments with an augmen- 
 tation of temperature and diminishes with a diminution; for an increase of 
 temperature, according to our theory, must necessarily be attended with an 
 increase of velocity, and therefore with an increase in the number of 
 collisions." 
 
 Joule took up the subject immediately after Herapath, and says : " Since 
 the hypothesis of Herapath, in which it is assumed that the particles of a 
 gas are constantly flying about in every direction with great velocity, the 
 pressure of the gas being owing to the impact of the particles against any 
 surface presented to them, is somewhat simpler, I shall employ it in the 
 following remarks on the constitution of elastic fluids,'' etc.^ Dr. Joule 
 continued the subject, and introduced it into the region of experiment and 
 observation, or, in other words, to the science of modern times.' Joule 
 might have added that the view he adopted is not only in accordance with 
 the known laws of the elasticity of gases, but conforms to the ratio of the 
 specific heats of gases. The mathematical development continued to make 
 progress in the hands of Clausius, Clerk Maxwell, Holtzmann, and others, 
 taking us to new fields, and outside the region of Graham's activity. 
 
 Graham is as strict an atomist as perhaps can be found. We have seen 
 how difl&cult it has been to hold the doctrine pure, how even Demooritus 
 looked on the atoms as containing parts, and to get rid of the difficulty, 
 Lucretius makes the parts incapable of existence par se, — thus introducing 
 the inconceivable ; even, with Newton, and decidedly with Dalton, hitherto 
 the greatest of atomists, because his system has had the most substantial 
 results, the atoms are either compounded of matter, besides many properties 
 which for want of a better name we might call metaphysical, or are sur- 
 rounded with forces which act very independently, and attach themselves 
 to the atoms doing apparently most of the work. 
 
 It was a true movement in the direction of atoiftism, when Davy gave his 
 ideas ; and one may almost say that it was the object of Graham's life to 
 find what the movement of an atom was. Davy does -not define his vibratory 
 motion, which could scarcely be imagined in an unconfined space unless the 
 body had parts; for fluids he gives a motion of rotation making thereby a de- 
 finite boundary; but we do not see in his opinions what an atom, say of iron, 
 would do when alone. He would probably in such a case give it the same 
 revolving motion as he gives the parts of gas. Graham avoids picturing the 
 most primitive motion in all its character, but he seems to indicate one of 
 revolution as he brings in the similarity to the orbit of a planet, and in this 
 way with Davy connects in an interesting manner the very first speculations 
 on the eternal motion of the heavens with those movements the smallest 
 conceivable of atoms. 
 
 1 Memmrs of Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Mmchester, vol. iv. 186X, p. 111. Read in 1848. 
 
 2 See Math. Physici, vol. i. p. 364. 
 
112 Fhilosophical Society of Glasgoio. 
 
 He has, however, advanced further, when he adopts the theory of one 
 kind of matter, each atom being distinguished by the extent of its motion, 
 one primordial impulse for each kind. This movement is an unalterable 
 one, unaffected even by heat. These atoms do not come to us free, but are 
 believed to be congi'egate, forming the compound atom or molecule, whose 
 movements have of late been more carefully studied, and which form, in 
 fact, the elements as the chemist finds them. And then, in his cautious 
 manner, he adds that they have a singular relation connected with equality 
 of volume. Equal volumes can coalesce and form a new atomic group, 
 retaining the whole or the half, or some simple proportion, of the original 
 movement and consequent volume. This is chemical combination. 
 
 It is iierefore clear that Graham was a true descepdent of the early 
 Greeks, his mind altered, of course, by intervening thinkers; but in one 
 point he differs from most, if not all, known to us, in that he devoted his 
 whole life to the study of this subject. 
 
 In all his work we find him steadily thinking on the ultimate composition 
 of bodies; he searches after it in following the molecules of gases when 
 diffusing; these he watches as they flow into a vacuiim or into other gases, 
 and observes carefully as they pass through tubes, noting the effect of 
 weight and of composition upon them in transpiration. He follows them 
 as they enter into liquids and pass out, and as they are absorbed or dissolved 
 by colloid bodies, such as caoutchouc, he attentively inquires if they are 
 absorbed by metals in a. similar manner, and finds the remotest analogies, 
 which, by their boldness, compel one to stop reading and to think if they 
 be really possible. He follows gases at last into metallic combination, and 
 the lightest of them all he makps into a compound with one of the Heavier 
 metals, chasing it finally through various lurking-places until he brings it 
 into an alloy and the form of a medal, and puts upon it the stamp of the 
 Mint. Indeed, he is scarcely satisfied even with this, and he finds in bodies 
 from stellar spaces — in meteoric iron — this same metallic liydrogeniura, 
 which he draws out from its long prison in the form of a gas. 
 
 It was a wonderful, and one may say romantic, ending to a series of 
 inquiries, to the eyes of most men the most vminteresting. His works are 
 full of care, but not of joy. He slowly collected figure after figure, never 
 idle with his theories, but never venturing without a reason. 
 
 If we examine his work on Salts and on Solutions we have a similar train 
 of thought. One might have slighted the importance which he attached to 
 the water of salts and the temperature at which it was reduced, but in his 
 hands it was a revelation of some of the most mysterious internal phenomena 
 of these bodies. Although the inquiry was made without reference to the 
 new position which hydrogen takes in acids, it was- entirely on u, track of 
 preliminary necessary thought ; the modern view he received favourably at 
 an early period in his history of chemistiy. Other advanced ideas were 
 stimulated by him in the' 1st vol. of the publications of the Cavendish 
 Society — a Society established mainly by his influence. 
 
 A chemist must take great pleasure in following Graham when he seeks 
 the laws of the diffusion of liquids, and traces their connections, especially 
 when they lead to such results as he has expressed by dialysis, a process 
 founded on a new classification of substances, and promising still the most 
 
Appendix. 113 
 
 valuable truths. We see in the inquiry how carefully Graham thought on 
 the internal constitution of bodies, by examining the motion of the parts, 
 and from the most unpromising and hopeless masses under the chemist's 
 hands — amorphous precipitates of alumina or of albumen — brought out 
 analogies which connected them with the most interesting phenomena of 
 organic life. Never has a less brilliant-looking series of experiments been 
 made by a chemist, whilst few have been so brilliant in their results or 
 promise more to the inquirer who follows into the wide region opened. 
 
 It is easy to see that, however various the subject on the surface of his 
 writings, Graham's inquiries all led to one end, namely the condition and 
 motion of the molecule or atom. In using the word atom chemists seem to 
 think that they bind themselves to a theory of indivisibility. This is a 
 mistake. The word atom means tJiat which is not divided, as easily as it 
 may mean thai which cannot he divided, and indeed the former is the prefer- 
 able meaning. Even when Lucretius speaks of primordial bodies that 
 cannot be divided, he does not deny that they have parts, although these, 
 as we have seen, cannot exist by themselves, and Graham, as well as other 
 atomists, give a similar opinion, that is, that the original atom may be far 
 down. Graham speaks of this in more than one place. There comes to us 
 a something indivisible by us, and it is consistent to call it an atom, as it is ' 
 consistent to call the smallest particle of alum, with its twenty-four equi- 
 valents of water, an atom, simply because it is the smallest possible portion 
 of alum, which to divide woxild be to destroy. 
 
 Some have preferred to leave the atom without believing in infinite 
 divisibility, and it is strange that when we come to the point of deciding 
 on the existence of atoms the mind insists on going further and finding of" 
 what the atom is composed. By doing this the atomist often ends by being 
 a non-atomist, and probably this is the necessary double conclusion: we 
 believe in atoms because Nature seems to use them, and we break them up 
 continuously because we know not when to stop. There are various methods 
 of spanning the distance from nothing to something. Bbsoovich, by his 
 centre of force, forms an atom, but it differs in nowise from Newton's but 
 in name. Newton and Dalton, and all others, would allow all the forces 
 that Boscovich can desire. Sir W. Thomson has made a vortex atom in the 
 perfect fluid described by Helmlioltz, and some such fluid is much required 
 for the explanation of many phenomena. 
 
 In 1868 Graham acknowledged the possibility of the vortex atom when 
 he said, "We may unagine the same result from atoms and from a fluid 
 medium to a position of which a. special rate of pulsation is imparted, 
 enlivening that portion of matter into an individual existence and con- 
 stituting it a distinct substance or element.'' 
 
 Davy's revolving atom has been more fully considered by Czirnianski, 
 but our real success is confined to the fuller development of the idea of 
 motion in gases and in solutions. 
 
 We see, then, that Graham advances the idea of atomic motion, and 
 teaches us also how to observe it. The accuracy of his method, as well as 
 of his work, is proved by the results ; and it is not without reason that he 
 is placed in that chain of eminent thinkers which has been represented by 
 such as Leucippus, Lucretius, Newton, Higgins, and Dalton. 
 
 P 
 
114: Philosophical Society of Glasgow. 
 
 In Graham's lifetime chemistay had been enriched with inquiries into 
 atomic volumes, the volumes of compound molecules, and the specific heat 
 of the atom, or the relation of heat to the atomic weight. The relations in 
 which the atoms of a, compound stand to each other have been viewed very 
 differently by chemists, and given rise to a certain change in the names, 
 whilst the idea of atomicity has been developed more fully. To some of 
 these Graham contributed his part in his inquiries on Salts, but to the 
 mechanics and statics of the molecule, so to speak, he gave his special 
 attention; and although new names have already arisen of men who have 
 carried the Subject in directions not followed by Graham, it is still true 
 that his own mode of thought is peculiar, and he has left no one who can 
 be called a successor. 
 
 His Elements of Chemistry form two admirable volumes, where the kernels 
 of thought could be obtained free from shell, and where the student was led 
 up to the newest opinions. As a text-book, however, time has removed 
 much of its value.