ICE Production 
 
 AND 
 
 Voic^ Presefwatign 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 ^BAKERS AND bIMGERS 
 
 UUKDUN HULMHi5 M.lJ. 
 
 *HliHMiMlHiJMiai*M<i>HM>>i 
 
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 PROM THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 HeniTQ W. Sage 
 
 1891 
 
 A-//Am a/^/L 
 
Cornell University Library 
 arV14526 
 The science of voice prpductiona^^^^ 
 
 3 1924 031 387 826 
 olin.anx 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 387826 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS 
 
 ON THE AUTHOE'S TEBATISE ON 
 
 VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, 
 
 Of which the present Work is an Abridgment. 
 
 THE LANCET, November 1, 1879. 
 ' This book is well written, and gives evidence of great 
 industry and considerable and varied learning on the part 
 of the author. . . . The chapters on voeal culture will be 
 appreciated by professional speakers and singers. . . . Contains 
 many valuable hygienic hints. . . , The work is in every sense 
 a creditable one.' 
 
 THE SATURDAY HEVIEW, November 8, 1879. 
 ' He has evidently qualified himself for the task by rer 
 searches and study. . . . The copious and varied sources to 
 which he has turned for his authorities are a proof of the. 
 pains he has taken. . , . The work Is marked by sound sense 
 throughout, and maybe read with pleasure no less than profit.' 
 
 NATURE, January 22, 1880. 
 'We welcome with pleasure the appearance of a work 
 which . , . cannot fail to be largely useful. . . . Admirably 
 given. . . . The value, therefore, of such information as is 
 contained in this work, both to teachers and learners, can 
 scarcely be overrated. . • . The advice the author gives, 
 coming as it does from one having authority, is most 
 valuable.'— Dr. W. Pole, Mus.D., F.E.S. 
 
 NEW YORK MEDICAL RECORD, November 22, 1879. 
 , 'The desoi'iptions are much more clear and satisfactory 
 than >u ordinary bgoks of physiology,' 
 
O^irdona of the Prea» — eontinuecl. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA MEDICAL TIMES, December 6, 1879. 
 
 'We do not remember having ever read a book on this 
 subject with more pleasure and profit to ourselves than this 
 treatise.' 
 
 DUBLIN MEDICAL JOXTBlfAL. March 1880. 
 
 ' Of great excellence. . . . The perusal of which will well 
 repay any person interested in the art of singing or in the 
 physiology of the voice.' 
 
 THE WESTMIIirSTEB KEVIEW, April 1880. 
 
 ' A valuable book on the voice. . . . The various ways 
 in which the voice may be injured and preserved, and its 
 injuries remedied, are all carefully set forth; and the author's 
 experience is here given in such a form as to be easily 
 appreciated by all who have occasion to maintain the voice 
 in a state of health.' 
 
 THE ATHEN.fflUM, April 24, 1880. 
 
 ' Will be most useful. . . . The historical portion is highly 
 interesting, and abstruse theories of the vocal mechanism are 
 recapitulated, not in a dry and tedious manner. , . . The 
 most original part of the treatise is the chapter on the hygiene 
 of the voice, which treats of the influence of exercise on the 
 vocal organs and the effect of diiferent diet and modes of 
 living on the powers of vocalisation in a truly scientific 
 spirit.' 
 
 SBS ALSO 
 
 The Musical Times, Oct. 1, 1880, p. 496; The Monthly 
 MmicoH Bfcor^, Se^t, 1, 1880, &q, 
 
VOICE PEODUCTION 
 
 AITD 
 
 VOICE PEESEEVATION 
 
PRINTED BY 
 
 SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE 
 
 LONDON 
 
THE SCIENCE 
 
 OP 
 
 VOICE PEODUCTION 
 
 AND 
 
 VOICE PEESEEVATION 
 
 FOR the USE of SPEAKERS and SINGERS 
 
 BY 
 
 GOEDON HOLMES, M.D, 
 
 PnTSICIAS TO THE JtUSrOIPAL THEOAT AND EAB IHFIBMART, MNDOS 
 COKSDITIKQ PHYSICIAN TO THE SHEFFIELD EAB AND THEOAT HOSPITAL, ETC. 
 
 A NEW EDITION 
 LONDON 
 
 CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY 
 
 1895 
 
 ft 
 
TOW icat airo yXamnii jliAtTOS vXvKiwv o^ev avSl) 
 
 'Tolce Bweetor than honey flowed from his tongno' 
 
 Iliad, 1. 249 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 The object of this work is to furnish persons who make 
 an artistic or professional use of the vocal organs, with 
 a concise account of those relations of the voice to 
 physical and medical science which are only cursorily 
 alluded to, or passed over altogether, in treatises on 
 elocution and singing. It is an abridgment of my 
 ' Treatise on Vocal Physiology and Hygiene ' for the 
 use of those who do not require to study the subject in 
 all its technical and theoretical bearings. 
 
 The second edition has been carefully revised. I 
 have now been able to satisfy myself experimentally 
 that the physiological action of the larynx is identical 
 in both sexes, and that the vocal registers have the same 
 comparative extent in male and female. The details of 
 my observations, which I believe will finally settle this 
 important and vexed question, will shortly be published 
 in one of the medical or scientific journals. 
 
 G. H. 
 
 10, FiNSBUET Square, E.G. ; 
 September 1884. 
 
Tiii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acoustic Classification op the Yocal Organs . . 24 
 The chest or air-chamber commanding the motor element : 
 the trachea or conducting pipe — The larynx containing 
 the vibrating element, the vocal reeds — The resonance 
 apparatus : the vocal tube, phaiynx, mouth, and nose — 
 The articulating instrument ; tongue, lips, etc. 
 
 The Chest, ok Thoeax 26 
 
 Description of its osseous and muscular walls ; of its con- 
 tained organs, the lungs, heart, bronchial tubes, and trachea. 
 
 The Larynx 28 
 
 Its cartilages — The vocal reeds — ^Variations of the larynx 
 in relation to age and sex. 
 
 The Vocal Tube or Resonance Apparatus . . .34 
 The pharynx, mouth, and nasal passages — Use of the 
 lower jaw. 
 
 The Tongue, Lips, and Teeth .,:... 35 
 Great muscular mobility of the tongue and lips ; they 
 form, with the soft-palate, the active articulating organs : 
 ttie teeth, or fulcrum. 
 
 * CHAPTER ni. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 Action of the Aie- Chamber (Respiration) ... 37 
 Different modes of breathing; diaphragmatic, costal, 
 and clavicular : breathing in the female— Complements of 
 thoracic air ; tidal air, vital capacity, residual air, and 
 fixed air. 
 
 Action op the Vibrating Element (Vocal Keeds) . 4o 
 Former confusion of ideas as to the formation of voice ; 
 MiiUer's researches— The laryngoscope ; Garcia and Czer- 
 mak; its description — Action of the vocal reeds as observed 
 with the laryngoscope : chest-register ; falsetto-register. 
 
CONTENTS. ii- 
 
 FAGI 
 
 The Resonance Apparatus (Vocal Tube) ... 49 
 Use of the ventricles : their variations in difEerent 
 animals — The epiglottis : laryngoscopio ohservation of 
 its movements in phonation ; variability of shape and 
 size ; theories regarding its use ; conclusions to be drawn 
 from comparative anatomy — The pharynx : its alterations 
 and iuiluence on voice — The mouth : harmonious vocal 
 timbre mainly due to its reinforcement of overtones — 
 The nose : discordant tones produced in the nasal chan- 
 nels ; their pernicious efEeot on voice — The soft-palate : 
 its movements and directive functions over the laryngeal 
 vibrations. 
 
 Compass of the Voice — Individual and Sexual Dif- 
 
 FBBENCBS — EBGISTBRS 66 
 
 Bass, baritone, tenor, contralto, mezzo-soprano, soprano 
 — Tabular view — Conflicting theories as to registers. 
 
 Articulating Apparatus .60 
 
 Nature of vowel sounds and mechanism of their forma- 
 tion ; Kratzenstein, Kempelen, Willis, Wheatstone, Bon- 
 ders, Helmholtz : difficulty of pronouncing vowels in 
 certain tones of voice — Consonants : means of classify- 
 ing, acoustic, and anatomical, division into breathed and 
 voiced ; tabular view ; remarks on formation of various 
 letters. 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL 
 CULTTTBM. 
 
 Management of the Motor Element (Respiration) . 72 
 Measure of breathing : necessity of imposing certain 
 restrictions on the chest movements — Mode of breathing : 
 abdominal, costal, and clavicular types of respiration; 
 their comparative value in the artistic use of the voice 
 — Vocal gymnastics ; principles for the elaboration of a 
 course of breathing exercises. 
 
 Management of the Vibrating Element ... 82 
 Incompleteness of physiological data leaves much to 
 empiricism — Force, means of gaining an increment of — 
 
CO JSl TENTS. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Timbre, refinement of — Compass, practicability of extend- 
 ing in difEerent registers— Execution, methods to increase 
 facility of. 
 
 Management of the Ebsonakce Apparatus ... 89 
 JPanlty timbre : gnttural and nasal qualities of voice — 
 Enlarged tonsils and malposition of tongue — The soft- 
 palate ; abnormal deficiency, incomplete action, and disuse 
 of— Habitual closure of the teeth during phonation. 
 
 Management of the Aeticulating Appabatus . , 92 
 Vowel timbre, means of modifying in relation to mu- 
 sical effect — Consonants : culture of executive faculty of 
 tongue — Stammering and stuttering, or psellism, defini- 
 tion of : nature of stammering and mode' of remedying : 
 the etiology and treatment of stuttering, various theories 
 advanced concerning ; Guillaume ; summary and conclu- 
 sions : statistical estimate of the frequency of stutter- 
 ing. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 scope of the subject. 
 
 Special Hygiene of the Yocal Organs .... 99 
 Direct results of local muscular activity : gains derived 
 from judicious exercise : effects of over-exertion, effort, 
 and strain : persistent fatigue of the voice : congestion 
 leading tograndular sore-throat and laryngeal growths — 
 Influence of aerial motion : emphysema : nasal breathing ; 
 oral inspiration : rules for speakers and singers while sus- 
 taining their parts — Simple voice remedies witli local 
 action ; sipping cold Water : demulcent draughts : emol- 
 lient substances : voice lozenges and nostrums for hoarse- 
 ness. 
 
 General Hygiene in its Kblation to the Voice . , 117 
 
 Effects of regular vocal exercise on the animal economy : 
 
 benefit to health by increase of thoracic capacity ; degrees 
 
 of voice production : ill-results of vocal efforts — ^Influences 
 
 of modo of life on the voice. Alimentation ; food, animal 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 and vegetable ; digestibility ; errors in diet causing 
 dyspepsia, resultant voice troubles ; inexpedience of vocal 
 exercise after eating : corpulence ; its invariable association 
 with ehortness of "breath, physiological reasons of ; means 
 of combating obesity by diet : condiments, precautions to 
 be observed in the use of : tobacco, its effect on the con- 
 stitution and on the throat : drink ; tea, coffee, cocoa ; 
 alcohol, amount that may be taken habitually without 
 injury, deterioration of voice from excess of, harmf illness 
 of frequent small quantities. Exercise ; necessity of, to 
 health, desirable daily extent of, training, etc. ; advisa- 
 bility of limited gesticulating in public speaking. Care 
 of the skin; its functions and relations to respiration; 
 attention to clothing ; baths and bathing ; cosmetics. 
 Climatic influences : hot climates ; sea air ; miasma ; cold 
 climates ; cold and damp, their effects on the voice ; tem- 
 perate climates, their suflden variations ; mountain air. 
 
 Index op Subjects , ■ i . . r j .153 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAQE 
 
 Fia, 1, The Cabtilages op the Lakynx seen peom 
 
 BEHIND 28 
 
 „ 2. Tbansveese Vertical Section op the Laeynx 
 
 seen peom behind 31 
 
 „ 3. Anatomical Section, showino the eelations 
 
 OP the Oegans op Voice 36 
 
 „ 4. Laetngoscopic appeaeance op the Laeynx 
 
 DUEiNa quiet beeathing 44 
 
 „ 6. Laeynqoscopic appeahancb op the Laeynx 
 
 WHEN sounding A NOTE ABOUT THE LEVEL OP 
 THE OEDINAEY SPEAKING VOICE. ... 44 
 
 „ 6. Section op the Laeyngeal Caetilagbs show- 
 ing HOW tension op the Vocal Bands is 
 
 EPPECTED ,......• 46 
 
 „ 7. Laeyngoscopic appeaeancb op the Laeynx 
 
 when emitting falsetto tones ... 47 
 
VOICE PRODUCTION 
 
 AND 
 
 VOICE PRESERVATION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 TEANSMISSION OF SOUND VIBEATION — SYMPATHETIC EE- 
 
 SONANCE — QUALITIES OF SOUND AS DISTINGUISHED BY 
 
 THE EAR SOUNDS GENERATED IN TUBES OE PIPES — 
 
 EEBD INSIEUMENTS. 
 
 Definition of Sound. — Sound, in our apprehension, 
 is that which is heard, and therefore our only means of 
 recognizing its existence is through the sensation it 
 produces on our ear. Various nerves have various 
 faculties of appreciating external influences, as exem- 
 plified by sight, touch, &c., hut the auditory nerve alone 
 can perceive sound. 
 
 Transmission of Sound. 
 
 The physical source of sound is impulse or shock of 
 some material substance. But unless something inter- 
 
4-, SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 The surface of water may be agitated not only by 
 ranks of waves all proceeding in the same direction one 
 after the other, but also by many series of waves, mov- 
 ing at the same time all in different ways, and crossing 
 each other at angles of every degree in a manner too 
 complex for description. In order to observe this, let 
 us select a piece of still water and throw a stone into it. 
 We see a system of small waves, a ripple, in fact, pro- 
 duced around the spot, which spreads out in an ever 
 widening circle until it is lost to sight or dies out. Let 
 us now throw in several stones near each other. Imme- 
 diately numerous circular systems are created which meet 
 each other and cross at many points, dividing the surface 
 of the water into a multiplicity of squares, triangles, 
 and diamond-shapes, to an extent too complicated for 
 the eye to follow. 
 
 Precisely similar to what takes place in the water is 
 the state of the air when distm:bed by sound-waves, 
 either single or many, propagated from various points. 
 Whenever anything is sounded in air it acts like a stone 
 thrown into water, and creates a circular system of waves 
 which spread rapidly in all directions. But as the sound- 
 wave moves on all sides at the same time, it must be 
 considered as a spherical layer of condensed air, contin- 
 ually enlarging and becoming gradually less condensed 
 until lost. When a series of sound-waves are spreading 
 around, the intervals between each are formed of sphe- 
 rical layers of rarefied air. A soap-bubble blown till it 
 bursts would picture the progress of a single wave to 
 the eye. 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 5 
 
 In the following passage Professor Helmholtz' draws 
 a beautiful parallel between the motions of sea-waves 
 and of waves of sound as impelled through the atmo- 
 sphere : — ' It is seldom possible to survey a large surface 
 of water from a high point of sight, without perceiving 
 a great multitude of different systems of waves, mutually 
 overtopping and crossing each other. This is best seen 
 on the surface of the sea, viewed from a lofty cliff when 
 there is a lull after a stiff breeze. We first see the great 
 waves advancing in far-stretching ranks from the blue 
 distance, here and there more clearly marked out by 
 their white foaming crests, and following each other at 
 regular intervals towards the shore. From the shore 
 they rebound in different directions according to its 
 sinuosities, and cut obliquely across the advancing waves. 
 A passing steamboat forms its own wedge-shaped wake 
 of waves, or a bird darting on a fish excites a small 
 circular system. The eye of the spectator is easily able 
 to pursue each one of these different trains of waves, 
 great and small, wide and narrow, straight and curved, 
 and observe how each passes over the surface as undis- 
 turbedly as if the water over which it flits were not 
 agitated at the same time by other motions and other 
 forces. I must own that whenever I attentively observe 
 this spectacle it awakens in me a peculiar kind of intel- 
 lectual pleasure, because it bares to the bodily eye 
 what the mind's eye grasps only by the help of a long 
 
 ' Die Zeli/re der Tonempfindwiigen als jJ^i'V^iologischcGrundlage fiir 
 erne Theorie der Musih, or The /Sensations of Tmie as a Physiological 
 Basis for a Theory of Mime; translation by A. J. Ellis, p. 40. 
 
6 SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 series of complicated conclusions for the waves of the 
 invisible atmospheric ocean.' 
 
 ' We have to imagine a perfectly similar spectacle 
 proceeding in the interior of a ball-room, for instance. 
 Here we have a number of musical instruments in action, 
 speaking men and women, rustling garments, gliding 
 feet, clinking glasses, and so on. All these causes give 
 rise to systems of waves which dart through the mass of 
 air in the room, are reflected from its walls, return, strike 
 the opposite wall, are again reflected, and so on till they 
 die out. We have to imagine that from the mouths of 
 the men, and the deeper musical instruments, there 
 proceed waves of from eight to twelve feet in length, 
 from the lips of the women waves of two to four feet 
 in length, from the rustling of the dresses a fine small 
 crumple of Avave, and so on ; in short, a tumbled entangle- 
 ment of the most difl'erent kinds of motion, complicated 
 beyond conception.' 
 
 The Echo. — Having grasped the fact that sound con- 
 sists of waves of air travelling past us, it may naturally 
 occur to us that if by any means those same waves could 
 be made to return towards our ear, we should hear the 
 sound over again without its being produced a second 
 time. This is just the point that is illustrated by the 
 well-known phenomenon of the echo. If we stand 
 opposite the face of a tall cliff and speak with sufficient 
 loudness, the waves from our voice will rebound from 
 the rock and come back to us, as if it Were repeating 
 the words we said. The only things to be considered, 
 in order to ensure the production of the echo, are (1) 
 that if we stand too near the rock the echo comes back 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 7 
 
 60 fast as to blend into one with our voice, and (2) that 
 if the face of the cliff does not look straight towards us 
 the sound maybe reflected in some other direction, just 
 as a ball thrown against an uneven wall does not come 
 back to us, but hops off obliquely some other way. 
 
 ViBEATION. 
 
 Sounding bodies are in a state of motion termed 
 vibration. If we move a finger from side to side it is 
 vibration, but unless the vibrations are executed with a 
 certain degree of force the waves of air produced do not 
 reach, or do not strike with suflBcient impulse on pur ear, 
 and no sound is audible. 
 
 Vibrations may be simple or compound. A body 
 performs simple vibrations when it moves regularly from 
 side to side like a pendulum. Hence simple vibrations 
 are also called pendulum vibrations. But a vibrating 
 body may execute several eccentric motions simulta- 
 neously, as does the string of a piano when struck, and 
 in this way compound vibrations arise. Thus, a string 
 if stretched horizontally may vibrate not only up and 
 down, but also from side to side, diagonally, and in seg- 
 ments at the same time. Those points or nodes, as they 
 are called, at which a vibrating string divides into seg- 
 ments remain at rest, as can be proved by experiment. 
 Vibrational forms can be demonstrated very clearly by 
 observing the motions of heavy and light dust^ such as 
 sand and lycopodium, when sprinkled over the surface 
 of a plate of metal or glass fixed by one end horizon- 
 
S SOUND AND VOICE.. 
 
 tally and thrown into vibration by drawing a violin-bow 
 along its edge at different points. 
 
 Even air itself, in a body partially confined by a 
 cavity or in a stream impelled forcibly onwards, may 
 be tl^rown into vibration and generate sound-waves in 
 the circumambient atmosphere. Many wind instruments 
 exemplify this fact. 
 
 STMPAtHETIC EeSONANCE. 
 
 The power of exciting sympathetic resonance is a 
 property of sounding bodies, and at first sight might 
 seem identical with the echo. For example, if we lift 
 the dampers from the strings of a piano by means of a 
 pedal and sound rather strongly a certain note with the 
 voice or an instrument, we shall hear the corresponding 
 string vibrating audibly in the piano after we cease. 
 Or one key may be pressed down gently, so as merely 
 to lift the damper from the string, when by singing the 
 corresponding note we can provoke its repetition from 
 the instrument. It is to be observed that no string can 
 be excited in this way unless we sound exactly its own 
 note. As a further illustration we may take a tuning- 
 fork, and, having struck it, hold it to the mouth of a 
 wide-mouthed bottle. If the cavity of the bottle is of 
 such a size as to give a note in unison with the tuning- 
 fork, a distinct tone is heard. If we take a rather -large 
 bottle it can be tuned to the proper pitch by pouring 
 in water gradually, and testing it at each step with the 
 tuning-fork. Or a sounding tuning-fork will even excite 
 a quiescent one of the same pitch. 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 9 
 
 In order to uaderstand sympathetic resonance we 
 must suppose that each sound-wave moves slightly any- 
 thing against which it impinges in its course. If a file 
 of waves meets anything, such as a string or a body of 
 air, which can vibrate so as to produce waves precisely 
 similar to those that strike it, each successive wave 
 increases the impulse of its predecessor, till a fresh 
 sound is given forth. Thus the body on being struck 
 moves at first forwards, then backwards beyond its 
 original position, then again forwards, but to a lesser 
 extent than at first, and sc on until the motion is lost. 
 But if a succession of even slight impulses arrive with 
 such regularity that each one moves the body forwards 
 as it is starting itself in that direction from having re- 
 tained some of the preceding impulse, the result is an 
 accumulation of force which drives the body to take 
 considerable excursions. We can see this kind of pro- 
 gressive motion if we set a pendulum swinging from 
 our hand by a number of slight jerks properly timed. 
 Helmholtz ' illustrates sympathetic resonance by the 
 manner in which a heavy church bell may be rung by 
 a boy who pulls at the rope attached to it periodically 
 in such a way as to increase the effect of each preceding 
 pull. 
 
 The quality of the various tones of the voice has 
 important connections with the sympathetic resonance 
 of the cavities of the mouth, nose, &c., which will be 
 discussed in another chapter. 
 
 ' Op. cit. p. 57. 
 
lo SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 Qualities of Sound as Distinguished by the Eab. 
 
 Our ear readily enables us to divide sounds roughly 
 into two great classes, viz., into music and noise. A 
 musical sound strikes us as being even, smooth, and 
 melodious, like Ae tones of all musical instruments ; 
 but a mere noise has the opposite characteristics, viz., 
 irregularity, harshness, grating on our senses, such as 
 the rattle of carriages in the street, the confused din 
 of a crowd of people talking or shouting, the rushing 
 of wind, &c. 
 
 Furthermore we can distinguish sounds from each 
 other by three striking qualities, which are especially 
 observable in musical tones. They are ; — 
 
 1. Pitch, or relative height; 
 
 2. Force, or intensity ; 
 
 3. Timbre. 
 
 The first two qualities are sufficiently indicated by 
 their names; but by timbre, it may be explained, is 
 meant the peculiar distinctiveness between tones, even 
 if of the same pitch, when produced by different in- 
 struments, such as the voice, violin, clarionet, &c. 
 
 The difference between these various kinds of sound 
 has been very clearly explained by acoustic researches. 
 Scientifically sounds are separated into simple and 
 compound. 
 
 In a simple sound we have a single atmospheric 
 wave or a number of single waves following each other 
 in a given direction. ■ A single sound-wave strikes the 
 ear as a short sound, such as the crack of a whip ; a file 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. n 
 
 of waves is heard as a continuous sound, such as a 
 musical tone. 
 
 Eegularity of wave-formation is the characteristic 
 of musical sounds; irregularity, that of noise. Simple 
 sounds will generally strike the ear as musical, because 
 their waves must be regular, but not if they are so low 
 in pitch as to be a mere drone, like the deepest organ- 
 pipes ; or so high as to be painfully shrill ; or too sud- 
 den and powerful, like the report of a gun. 
 
 Simple sounds are not very easy to produce, and are 
 seldom heard in nature. As nearly approaching such 
 may be instanced the chirp of the grasshopper, whistling 
 with the mouth, the sounds of tuning-forks, flue organ- 
 pipes, flutes, &c. 
 
 In coyrvpound sounds 'a number of waves, each 
 formed by the coalescence of two or more sound-waves 
 having different qualities, are in motion. Compound 
 sourids are musical if their waves proceed together with 
 regularity of relation, whence harmony ; but if they dis- 
 turb each other, giving rise to confused and unperiodic 
 wave-motions, a discord, sometimes amounting to mere 
 noise, is produced, as may be illustrated by striking 
 together a number of adjacent notes on the piano. 
 Different sets of sound-waves may even interfere with 
 each other to such an extent that the result is silence. 
 Thus two simultaneous sounds may so nullify one another 
 that nothing is heard. 
 
 It is a peculiarity of our ear, however, as pointed out 
 by G-. S. Ohm, to resolve compound sounds into their, 
 simple constituents, and to hear them all separately 
 though in the same period of time. Within the ear 
 
13 SOUND AND VOICE, ( 
 
 is a peculiar arrangement, called Corti's organ, which 
 consists of a number of microscopical rods (about 3,000), 
 each of which is tuned, as it is surmised, to vibrate re- 
 sponsively to a certain note and to none other. By their 
 means we are enabled, after a little practice in directing 
 our attention to the matter, to recognise the several 
 component notes of any chord that may be sounded. 
 
 Pitch and Intensity — The Siren. 
 
 In order to study sound and understand its physical 
 properties we must have recourse to certain acoustic 
 instruments, one of the most important of which is 
 called the siren. The simplest form of siren is that 
 known as Seebeck's, and consists merely of a thin disc 
 of wood or metal with a circular series of equidistant 
 holes pierced around it near the edge. In order to use 
 it, it must be arranged so that it can be made to revolve 
 rapidly, and at the same time a small bellows must be 
 fixed so as to blow through each of the holes successively 
 according as the disc rotates. When it goes slowly we 
 hear a number of consecutive puffs or pulses of air, which 
 may be considered as separate sound-waves, but as soon 
 as a certain speed is reached they become fused together 
 and a continuous musical note is heard. The great 
 value of the siren consists in its enabling us to explain 
 the most signal of all the qualities of sound, with- 
 out which music would not exist, at least according 
 to our present acceptance of the term, viz., varying 
 pitch, or the difference between comparatively low or 
 high notes. In experimenting with the siren we perceive 
 
SOUND AND VOICE, 13 
 
 that the puffs do not appear to form a continuous sound 
 until they succeed each other with a certain rapidity, 
 which theoretically should be ahout sixteen puffs in 
 every second. We also observe the interesting fact that, 
 according as we make the disc revolve faster and faster, 
 the sound rises gradually from a very low note to a 
 pitch higher and higher, until, if ths mechanical ar- 
 rangements are sufficiently perfect, we can produce 
 notes high up in the musical scale.' This teaches us 
 that the pitch of a note depends on the rapidity with 
 which the sound-waves, or vibrations, follow each other, 
 viz., on the number of waves produced by the sounding 
 body per second. Thus, if our siren has sixteen holes 
 in its circumference, and we make it revolve at the rate 
 of once in a second, we have sixteen sound-waves pro- 
 duced in each second, viz., one for each hole. The 
 sound which proceeds from this rate of wave-formation 
 corresponds to a very low note, such as would proceed 
 from a 32-foot open organ-pipe, and one octave below 
 the lowest ^fi'^ on our pianos.^ In order to make our 
 
 ' The siren can produce about three octaves of good notes, viz., 
 from A W^ to a" ^=^. 
 
 W_ 
 
 The letter notation used throughout the work will 
 be understood on referring to the table at p. 57. 
 
 ' The pitch, however, of the notes on pianos varies a little in 
 different countries, and also according to the maker of the instru- 
 ment. The London Philharmonic concert-pitch gives 455-2 vibra- 
 tions (sound-waves) per second for a' in the second space of the 
 treble clef. 
 
14 SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 siren sound the octave above the note produced by one 
 revolution we must raake it perform two revolutions per 
 second ; for the next octave higher, four revolutions ; 
 for the next, eight, and so on. The octave of any given 
 note contains therefore exactly twice the number of 
 sound-waves (vibrations), so that in the present case the 
 series would run as 16, 32, 64, 128, &c. The lowest 
 octave or two are, however, hardly distinguishable by 
 the ear as musical sounds, as may be proved by striking 
 the deepest notes of the piano, or listening to those of 
 the organ, which has some deeper still. There is 
 also a boundary to the audibility of sound in the opposite 
 direction, and very high notes cannot be heard, or at 
 least cannot be produced beyond a certain limit. The 
 extent of our sense of hearing seems, however, to be 
 more difficult to define in the upper extreme of the 
 scale than in the lower. Thus Despretz produced and 
 heard the d'""", three octaves above the highest d"" on 
 our pianos, having 38,076 vibrations in the second, by 
 exciting small tuning-forks with a violin-bow. The 
 range of notes audible as musical sounds comprises about 
 ten or eleven octaves, but varies more or less in different 
 persons, according to the delicacy of their ear. 
 
 In order to find out the precise number of vibrations 
 in any note of the scale, sirens of more or less complexity, 
 such as those of Cagniard de la Tour, Dove, Helmholtz, 
 &c., have been constructed, in which, by means of 
 clockwork, the revolutions are registered on a graduated 
 dial with hands. 
 
 The nature of varying intensity of sound can also be 
 demonstrated by the aid of the siren, so as to render 
 
SOUND AND VOICE ij, 
 
 intelligible the difference between loud and weak sounds 
 Thus, according as the instrument rotates, we can make 
 the note louder by blowing harder ; but no amount of 
 hard blowing will raise the pitch,' unless the wheel re- 
 volves with greater speed, so as to produce more sound- 
 waves in the same time. Hence we must infer that 
 loudness of sound depends on the height of the sound- 
 waves ; not on their length, because that depends on the 
 rapidity with which they follow each other, but on the 
 distance of the crests of the waves from the bottom of 
 the trough between each one. Loud sounds, therefore, 
 consist of very tall waves with pointed crests and deep 
 furrows between them, but weak sounds are formed only 
 by low air-waves, which have no crests, and pass along 
 like mere undulations or curves on the surface of water. 
 
 In order to calculate the length of wave proceeding 
 from any given note, we have only to divide the rate at 
 which sound travels in air, 1,090 feet per second, by the 
 vibrational number of the note. Thus, if we take the 
 middle c' on the piano, with 264 vibrations in each 
 second, we obtain 4 feet 1^ inches as the length of its 
 wave. Because the first wave given off by the note 
 must be at the distance of 1 ,090 feet at the moment the 
 264th is generated, and the line of intervening waves 
 will therefore divide the distance into 264 equal parts. 
 
 Further on we shall see that the manner in which 
 the siren when revolving throws the current of air into 
 vibration is similar in principle to what takes place in 
 our own throats every time we speak or sing. Thus, 
 as we drive the air out of our lungs, the mechanism of 
 our vocal organs enables us to divide the stream into a 
 
i6 SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 series of puffs, with a variable and almost inconceivable 
 rapidity according to the note produced. 
 
 Timhre^ — Upper Partial Tones. 
 
 The next point we have to consider is the nature of 
 timbre, and this leads us to a further study of compound 
 tones. Formerly it was thought that the peculiarity of 
 the sounds emitted by various instruments was due 
 entirely to distinctive shapes of their vibrations. But 
 Helmholtz has lately proved that a particular timbre 
 is not rigidly productive of a single form of vibration, 
 but that this quality of sounds is essentially dependent 
 on the measure of certain supplementary tones which 
 are heard in conjunction with the fundamental tone on 
 almost all instruments. The fact, to which allusion has 
 already been made, has long been known, that strings 
 in vibrating do not only swing as a whole, but have 
 also several secondary motions, each of which produces 
 a sound proper to itself. A string, when struck, vibrates 
 first in its entire length; secondly, in two segments; 
 thirdly, in three ; fourthly, in four ; and so on. All of 
 these motions are simultaneous, and the sounds proceed- 
 ing from them are blended into one note. The lowest 
 note is the loudest, and is called the fundamental or 
 
 The Germans call a compound tone a Klang, and timbre Klang- 
 farbe (tone-colour), -which Professor Tyndall has anglicised by 
 cUmgtint. Mr. Ellis, in translating Helmholtz, prefers the expres- 
 sion quality of tone. A third writer suggests acoiistic colour {Eruyy 
 clopwdia Sritamniiia, art. AcouHios). I hare used the French tirribre, 
 as it is so commonly employed and so well understood in this 
 country. 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 17 
 
 prime tone, and the others are called overtones, upper 
 partial tones, or harmonics. These overtones invariably 
 bear certain definite relations to the lowest note of the 
 string, and constitute an ascending series which contains 
 twice, three times, four times, five times, etc., as many 
 vibrations as the fundamental tone. They are there- 
 fore separated by a constantly decreasing interval from 
 the lowest to the highest. The relative succession of 
 the first eight overtones of a string, taking c as the 
 prime tone, is exemplified by the following scale : — 
 
 The first upper partial is the octave, containing 
 twice as many vibrations as the fundamental tone, the 
 second, the twelfth, containing three times as many; 
 the third, the second octave, with four times the num- 
 ber, and so on ; in some cases as high as the fifteenth or 
 twentieth remove, where they do not lie as much as a 
 semitone apart. From this fact, it at once appears that 
 the higher overtones of a string must give rise to a dis- 
 cord, and thus render the timbre disagreeable. They 
 can, however, be got rid of by striking the string in a 
 certain point, which prevents their formation. 
 
 As with the notes of strings, so with the tones of 
 almost all instruments. Harmonics are present, but by 
 no means in the same number or position in the series 
 in all cases. Thus one instrument may be particiUarly 
 rich in the higher overtones, another in the lower ones, 
 whilst a third may select, as it were, a proportion of 
 both, omitting those intervening. In every instance, 
 
1 8 SOUND AND VOICE.. 
 
 however, they must bear the direct relation to the 
 fundamental tone of having twice, three, or four times, 
 etc., as many vibrations. On the number of harmonics 
 present and their intensity, according to Helmholtz, 
 depends the proper timbre of any instrument by which 
 we can recognise it from others of a different class. 
 The voice- especially is very rich in overtones, and not 
 only possesses a complete series as high as the seven- 
 teenth or twentieth, but has probably the power of vary 
 ing them according to the quality of tone it is desired 
 to produce. To this matter we will return later on. 
 
 In order to analyse compound tones and determine 
 the exact number and position of the harmonics proper 
 to any particular timbre, Helmholtz has taken advantage 
 of sympathetic resonance. He has had constructed a 
 series of glass globes to act as resonators, each with a 
 rather wide mouth on one side, and on the opposite 
 drawn into a short perforated tube which fits the en- 
 trance of the ear. Each globe in the series is tuned to 
 a certain simple tone, and resounds sympathetically to 
 that and no othei-. Whenever the proper tone of any, 
 one is sounded, it can, if placed to the ear, be heard to 
 sing into it very distinctly. Thus a delicate means is 
 furnished of ascertaining the presence or absence of 
 simple sounds of any particular pitch in complex com- 
 binations of tones. Even amidst the numerous and 
 confused noises of the streets, Helmholtz relates, the 
 proper tones of these resonators may often be heard- 
 cropping up. 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 Eeed Insteuments. 
 
 »"9 
 
 The production of musical sounds by means of vibra- 
 ting reeds claims our attention, as instruments of this 
 class bear the nearest analogy to the voice. The reed 
 always covers an aperture which, in vibrating under 
 pressure of air, it alternately closes and leaves partially 
 open for the passage of the current, on a principle iden- 
 tical with that of the siren. 
 
 Eeeds produce tones, therefore, by dividing the air 
 into a series of puffs, the rapidity of which determines 
 the pitch. Their notes are powerful and highly composite, 
 "having distinctly recognisable overtones as high as the 
 nineteenth or twentieth of the series. 
 
 Eeeds are divided into striking and free reeds.' The 
 former, whilst vibrating, strike the margin of the open- 
 ing at each excursion, the latter fit the aperture so as 
 exactly to close it without touching the edges. 
 
 Eeeds may further be separated into two classes, 
 according as they, are used with tubes, as in reed organ- 
 pipes, the clarionet, etc. ; or as they act only in conjunc- 
 tion with their aperture, that is, like the tongues of 
 harmoniums, concertinas, etc. 
 
 Tube reeds, in material, are generally woody or 
 meTnbranous. 
 
 ' A reed is, of course, a kind of tubular grass, and the reed of an 
 organ-pipe is, in fact, a small semi-cylinder against the open' side of 
 which the vibrating tongue is fitted. But the latter is the.essential 
 part of all reed instruments, and therefore the vibrating lamina, 
 which is the actual agerit in producing the sound, has come to be 
 termed a reed. 
 
 02 
 
ao SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 Woody reeds are used either singly or douHy. The 
 clarionet will serve as an example of a tube-instrument 
 with a single woody reed, which belongs to the cla^s of 
 striking reeds, though arranged so as not actually to 
 strike. The tube of a medium-sized clarionet (C) is 
 about twenty inches long, producing for its fundamen- 
 tal tone e,* with a wave four times its own length, and 
 following, therefore, the law of stopped pipes. The 
 column of air in this tube overpowers the reed and 
 forces it to vibrate sympathetically with it. The reed 
 does not, therefore, emit its proper tone, but merely 
 serves to make the tube speak by its power of rendering 
 the stream of air intermittent. A scale is formed by 
 shortening the tube (by opening side-holes), the amount 
 of shortening required to raise any given note a musical 
 tone being more than an inch. For a compass of an 
 octave, therefore, a shortening of nine or ten inches is 
 necessary. At the same time the reed must also be 
 shortened by pressure with the lips. The timbre of this 
 instrument somewhat resembles that of the soprano 
 voice, probably on account of its nasal character. 
 
 The hautboy or oboe is blown by means of double 
 woody reeds, fixed so that the air rushes through a chink 
 alternately opened and closed by their approximated 
 extremities when vibrating. In the production of notes 
 instruments of this class follow the law of open pipes. 
 The fundamental note of the hautboy is, therefore, an 
 octave above that of a clarionet with the same length 
 of pipe. 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 21 
 
 As membranous reeds we have the human lips in 
 sounding brass instruments, such as the horn, trombone, 
 etc. The lips, placed in apposition against the mouth- 
 piece of the tube, generate sound very much like the 
 mechanism by which voice is produced, but their vibra- 
 tions are commanded by those of the tube. Being thus 
 blown with double reeds, brass instruments follow the 
 acoustic law of open pipes, and produce sound-waves of 
 twice the length of their tube. They have usually very 
 long tubes, for reasons connected with the progression 
 of the harmonic series ; and in order to vary the pitch 
 of any note by a musical tone, an alteration in the length 
 of the tube of two or three inches or even more is re- 
 quired, according to the size of the instrument. 
 
 The brass springs or reeds of harmoniums and 
 similar instruments have no tube, and render, therefore, 
 the notes proper to their own vibrational number. Each 
 reed is fixed at its aperture, and no alteration in their 
 rate of vibration can be effected. A separate reed is 
 consequently required for each note of the scale. The 
 differences of pitch are obtained by using springs of vary- 
 ing length, breadth, and thickness. In a harmonium of 
 a compass of five octaves the lowest note is produced by 
 a tongue about Scinches long, the highest by one of half 
 an inch. In the lowest notes the varying dimensions 
 of the successive reeds are most apparent, but in ihe 
 highest octave the difference in size of adjacent springs 
 is barely appreciable by the eye. The power and timbre 
 of the tones are well known. 
 
 In the organ separate reeds are also used for each 
 note ; but a tube of fixed length, which sounds in unison 
 
22 SOUND AND VOICE. 
 
 with the reed, is added in order to render the tone more 
 powerful. 
 
 In studying the production of musical scales by reeds 
 we observe that, when tubes are superadded, the vibra- 
 tions of the reeds can only be commanded by pipes of 
 considerable length, which require very manifest shorten- 
 ings to raise their pitch, following, in fact, the natural 
 acoustic laws as determined for vibrations in tubes. On 
 the otjier hand we see that if reeds are used separately, 
 very slight modifications in their size produce remark- 
 able alterations of pitch. Thus, we shorten a tube by 
 an inch or two, and obtain a rise of only one tone or 
 perhaps a semitone ; but if we diminish the length of a 
 reed by a much less amount, the result is a leap of two 
 or three octaves. 
 
 ThQ Vocal Reeds. 
 
 The economy of nature, taking advantage of the 
 peculiar adaptability of reeds for producing musical 
 tones, and the slight material modifications they require 
 in order to yield a scale of notes, has given us a pair of 
 membranous reeds, the so-called vocal cords, as the essen- 
 tial part of our vocal apparatus. But, compared with 
 artificial reed instruments, the voice appears to exceed 
 them as much in complexity as it does in beauty, com- 
 bining more or less the mechanism and qualities of them 
 all, and having, in addition, a surplus of powers peculiar 
 to itself.' 
 
 To brass instruments sounded by the lips compressed 
 
 ' See Hullah, Cultivation of t?ie Spealdng Voice, t^.Q, 
 
SOUND AND VOICE. 23 
 
 together and tightened gradually in ascending the scale, 
 a close likeness is borne by the vocal reeds associated 
 with their tube, which, however, influences not the pitch 
 of their note, but only its timbre. 
 
 And again, as the vocal reeds alter their size and 
 shape almost indefinitely, according to the pitch of their 
 vibrations, it may be considered that the vocal scale is 
 formed by a series of separate reeds like those of the 
 harmonium. But, within their own compass, the vocal 
 reeds are infinitely more versatile in giving gradations 
 of pitch than the fixed series of springs of that in- 
 strument. 
 
 To analyse their pecidiarities of constitution, and the 
 delicacies of their action, forms our principal subject 
 for the next two. chapters. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ANATOMT OF THE VOCAL OMQANS. 
 
 acoustic classification of the tocal oegans — the chest, 
 or thorax — the larynx the yocal tube, or reson- 
 ance apparatus — the tongue, lips, and teeth. 
 
 Acoustic Classification of the Vocal Organs. 
 
 The anatomical parts concerned, directly and indirectly, 
 in tlie formation of voice and speech are numerous and 
 complex, whilst most of them present the peculiarity of 
 having often to fuljfil several functions in the same 
 moment of time. On this account the ostensible ma- 
 chinery, so to speak, of voice presents an entanglement, 
 in which it is difficult to perceive the essential com- 
 ponents, as distinguished from those which merely act 
 in concert with them in relation to other offices. 
 
 A mechanical description of the vocal organs, from a 
 purely acoustic point of view, is all that will he here 
 given. With this object they may be separated pri- 
 marily into two great classes, viz., the organs which 
 produce sound, and those which only afterwards modify 
 it. Both these classes, however, require subdivision, 
 because in the former case we have, iirstly, the organs 
 which furnish a current of air, and, secondly, those 
 
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 25 
 
 which by re-active vibration divide it into sound-waves ; 
 and in the latter case we have the parts which influence 
 purely the musical quality of the tones, and also the 
 organs which stand, psychologically, at the head of the 
 vocal series, i.e., those which form the instrument of 
 articulation. 
 
 On these principles the classification of the vocal 
 organs is shown in detail as follows: — 
 
 I. Okgans which Combine theik Action to Gtene- 
 
 EATE Sound. 
 
 1. The air-chamber commanding the motor 
 element. The chest- walls, with their proper 
 muscles ; the lungs ; the bronchial tubes ; 
 and the trachea or windpipe. 
 
 2. The larynx, containing the vibrating ele- 
 ment. The laryngeal cartilages sustaining 
 the vocal reeds, and the intrinsic and ex- 
 trinsic muscles acting on them. 
 
 II. Organs which mekelt Mobift Sound. 
 
 1. The resonance apparatus or vocal tube. 
 The ventricles and vestibule of the larynx, 
 the pharynx, mouth, and nose with its ac- 
 cessory cavities. Also certain moveable parts 
 of the boundaries of the vocal tube, viz., the 
 epiglottis, soft palate, and lower jaw. 
 
 2. The articulating instrument. The tongue, 
 lips, soft-palate, teeth, and lower jaw.* 
 
 ' It may be objected to this classification that the lungs and 
 larynx also modify sound the former in force or intensity, the latter 
 
26 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 The consonant action of all these parts is required 
 for the perfect formation of voice and speech ; but the 
 first class, in their proper functions, are essentially in- 
 dependent of the second, whilst the second class can 
 only perform their office with the co-operation of the 
 first. Secondary relations of a similar character exist 
 between the first and second groups of organs in each 
 pair of subdivisions. 
 
 The Chest, or Thorax. 
 
 The chest -walls consist of a bony and cartilaginous 
 framework, of which the various apertures are covered 
 in by numerous muscles and membranes. The osseous 
 portion is formed by the twenty-four ribs, twelve on each 
 side, which are seamed together, behind by the spinal 
 column, and in front by the breast-bone and costal car- 
 tilages. Above and in front the collar-bone, or clavicle, 
 and behind the shoulder-blades also contribute to the 
 bony consolidation of the chest-walls. In front the. 
 ends of the ribs are joined to the breast-bone by several 
 slips of cartilage, except the last or lowest two on each 
 side, which are therefore called floating ribs. 
 
 The space thus partly enclosed has a somewhat 
 conical shape, being broad and open below at the ab- 
 domen, and narrow and almost shut above at the neck. 
 The reason of this is that the opposite pairs of ribs in- 
 crease gradually in length and embrace successively a 
 
 in pitoli. The main acoustic action of both is, however, to produce 
 sound, and as regards the larynx every note must, I think, be con- 
 sidered as a separate production, and not as a modification of sovind,^ 
 primarily existing in another form, ' 
 
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 27 
 
 larger circle from the first or highest to the last two or 
 three. 
 
 The joints of the ribs with the spine admit of a 
 considerable degree of motion ; the articulations of the 
 cartilages with the breast-bone are also moveable, but 
 to a lesser extent, and not at all in old age. 
 
 The ribs are well clothed with muscles, which per- 
 form the doable duty of completing the closure of the 
 chest and altering the dimensions of its cavity by their 
 contractions. They consist of two classes, viz., muscles 
 of inepi/ration and of expiration. Both classes are also 
 subdivided into two groups, namely, abdominal and 
 costal, according as they enlarge the chest towards the 
 abdomen, or by expanding the ribs. There is only one 
 muscle of the abdominal class, viz., the diaphragm, or 
 muscular partition, between the chest and abdomen. 
 The costal group are numerous, and are divided into an 
 orddna/ry and an extraordinary set. 
 
 The chest contains the lungs, bronchial tubes, heart, 
 etc. At the top of the chest the windpipe, or trachea, 
 divides into two bi'onchial tubes, one for each side, 
 which pass outwards froin each other for a few inches 
 and then divide gradually into numerous small branches, 
 like those of a tree. The ultimate branches are no 
 thicker than a pin, and terminate each in a group of 
 little cells, called air-cells. All these little tubes and 
 cells are collected and connected together into a mass 
 on each side of the chest form the lungs, which are thus 
 of a spongy nature. They are also very elastic, and 
 if distended with air will re-contract to their previous 
 size. 
 
28 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 The Lar-^nx. 
 The windpipe is about 4^ inches long and at the 
 upper part of the thi-oat undergoes expansion and modi- 
 fication so as to form the essential organ of voice, the 
 larynx. Under the chin the larynx can be seen and felt 
 ' as the prominence called ' Adam's apple.' It consists of 
 
 ■J 
 
 Fig. 1. — The cartilages of the labynx seen fbom behind. 
 
 1. The epiglottis. 2. The tiyroid cartilage, its wir^gs and tionia. S. The ary- 
 tenoid cartilages tipped with the cartilages of Santorini. 4. The cricoid cartilage, 
 its body. 
 
 five principal cartilages, namely, the epiglottis, the thy- 
 roid, or shield cartilage, the cricoid, or ring-cartilage, 
 and two arytcenoid cartilages.' 
 
 ' These names are of Greek origin, i.e., from l]ri7\«TTJs, tJtat 
 mJdoh covers the glottis, or space between the vocal reeds ; Sufii6s, a 
 
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 29 
 
 The epiglottis is the highest cartilage, and stands 
 erect against the back of the tongue, above and in front 
 of the other parts of the larynx. In shape it much re- 
 sembles a leaf, being broad and expanded above and 
 dwindled below into a stalk-like extremity. 
 
 The thyroid cartilage is the largest, and forms the 
 front and sides of the larynx. It is quite open behind, 
 where its wings, as they are termed, terminate in 
 rounded margins, which are prolonged upwards and 
 downwards into horns, four in number, two on each 
 side, two above and two below. In front it is cloven 
 down the centre for half its length, and the rest of the 
 central part has a peculiarly elastic structure and gives 
 attachment inside to the vocal bands. 
 
 The cricoid cajtilage is very like a signet-ring, with 
 a broad, thick part behind and forming a slender half 
 hoop in front, just under the lower edge of the thyroid 
 cartilage. At this place an elliptical chink exists be- 
 tween the two which are thus separated for about a third 
 of an inch from above downwards at the widest part. 
 Behind, the lower horns of the thyroid cartilage em- 
 brace the thick part or body of the cricoid like two short 
 fingers, and a hinge-like joint is thus formed. The back 
 part of the cricoid, therefore, projects upwards, not quite 
 half way, into the open space of the thyroid. 
 
 The arytcenoid cartilages are a pair, and form two 
 small, irregular, three-sided pyramids, about half an inch 
 in height. Their apices are above, and their bases rest, 
 
 shield ; Kpixos, a ring ; hpiraiva, a vessel of a doubtful kind, pro- 
 bably a ipouted ladle. In the latter instance the resemblance 
 most likely that of the whole upper outlet of the larynx, the epi- 
 glottis forming the spout. 
 
30 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 about a third of an inch apart, on the upper thick edge 
 of the body of the cricoid, where two smooth surfaces or 
 facets are prepared for them. They stand between and 
 close to the posterior margins of the thyroid cartilage, 
 and thus tend to fill up still more its open space. In 
 front and below they run into rather long points, called 
 the vocal processes, because the vocal bands spring from 
 them. They turn and glide freely on the smooth part 
 of the cricoid, to which they are fastened by ligamentous 
 fibres. 
 
 In addition to these great cartilages there are also 
 several small ones, called sesainoid, some not larger than 
 a pin's head. Two such (Gajpituld Santorini) form the 
 apparent apices of the arytsenoid cartilages. Another 
 pair {Gartilagi/nes Wrisbergii) lie in the folds of mem- 
 brane (ary-e/piglottic) which form laterally the upper 
 margin of the larynx. The others will be noticed wher- 
 ever they appear to bear on the mechanism of voice. 
 
 The soft parts of the larynx consist of the vocal 
 bands, muscles, blood-vessels, nerves, etc., the whole 
 being clothed with mucous membrane,' which induces 
 a smoothness and uniformity of surface. 
 
 The vocal hands,^ or reeds, to which all the other 
 structures are subservient, consist at their edges, which 
 move from side to side, to and from each other, of strong, 
 whitish, and highly elastic tissue. Behind, they are at- 
 
 ' The red, moist membrane which covers the internal surfaces of 
 the body is called mucous, memh'cme. 
 
 ' Generally called vocal cords in this country ; but, as this term 
 conveys a false idea of their acoustic nature (see p. 22), it seems 
 to me preferable to call them vo'oal bauds (like the Gorman SHmm- 
 ban den) or reeds. 
 
ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 31 
 
 bached to the vocal processes of the arytsenoid cartilages, 
 and in front to the thyroid cartilage, quite close to- 
 gether, running into each other in fact. The space be- 
 tween them, the glottis, is therefore triangular in shape, 
 because the vocal bands can be drawn widely apart pos- 
 
 FiG. 2. — Transvekse vertical section of the laeynx seen 
 
 FEOM BEHIND. 
 
 1. Epiglottis. 2. Tongue-bone. 3. Thyroid cartilage. 4. Thyro-ary-cpiglottia 
 muscles. 5. Veutriculaar bands. 6. Ventricles. 7. Vocal bands. 8. Ext. and sup. 
 thyro-arytaBnoid muscles. 9. Int. ditto. 10. Lateral crico-arytaenoid muscles. 
 11. Cricoid cartilage. 12. Trachea. 
 
 teriorly, but are fixed to the one spot anteriorly. A 
 space exists between each vocal band and the inside of 
 the wings of the thyroid cartilage, which is filled, up 
 with muscle. Taken with this muscle, which is inti- 
 
32 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 mately connected with them, the vocal bands resemble 
 a pair of prisms, fixed by their base, horizontally and 
 parallel to each other, to the cartilaginous side walls of 
 the larynx, and projecting towards one another with their 
 free sharp edges. Three of the little cartilages men- 
 tioned are generally found imbedded in the substance 
 of the vocal bands where they are attached to the thyroid 
 cartilage, one at the point where they run into each other, 
 and one at the extremity of each just before they join. 
 
 Near the position where the stalk-like process of the 
 epiglottis is attached to the thyroid cartilage there is an 
 eminence, called the cushion of the epiglottis, which 
 projects over the .interior extremities of the vocal bands. 
 
 The upper surfaces of the vocal bands are flat, and 
 in order to give them breadth a deep hollow is scooped 
 out of the fleshy part of the larynx, just above them on 
 each side. These cavities are called the ventricles, or 
 pockets of the larynx. The upper edges of the ventricles 
 are somewhat thickened and cord-like, wherefore they 
 were formerly thought to be a second pair of vocal 
 cords. On this account they are now generally called 
 false vocal cords. But a better name for them is ' ven- 
 tricular bands.' ' 
 
 The larynx has several muscles attached to it, which 
 may be considered in two sets, i.e., an intrinsic and an 
 extrinsic, or the muscles which move the vocal bands 
 and those which draw the whole larynx up and down in 
 the throat. The names of these muscles usually imply 
 the cartilages to which they are attached.' 
 
 ' Like the German Tasclienhmiden (pocket bands). 
 ' It may be mentioned here that generally muscle must be 
 fastened to something by each end. Its action is to bring the two 
 
.ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 33 
 
 Variations of the Larynx in Age and Sex. — 
 The larynx undergoes a great and rapid increase of 
 size in the male sex, in about the fifteenth year of life. 
 The voice then ' breaks,' and descends in pitch by nearly 
 an octave. The same phenomena occur in females, but 
 not to a marked extent, and the depression of vocal 
 pitch is only about a tone or two. In adult age the 
 male larynx is always much larger than that of the 
 female ; its cartilages are much firmer, and are pro- 
 nouncedly angular in shape. The female larynx is more 
 delicate in the structure of its cartilages, which are also 
 curved in their outlines. The average length of the 
 ligamentous portion of the vocal reeds is in the male 
 nine, and in the female six lines.' After middle life 
 the laryngeal cartilages gradually undergo ossification, 
 whence in old age they become so rigid that much of 
 the power of varying the tension of the vocal bands and 
 inflecting the voice is lost. 
 
 points of its attachment closer together by its power of contracting 
 or shortening its length, at the same time increasing in thickness, 
 rigidity, and also in temperature. 
 
 ' The preparations in the Museum of the Eoyal College of Sur- 
 geons illustrate very well the variation of size in different larynges. 
 See, for example. No. 939 P, a female larynx with ventricles that 
 appear as mere chinks, and No. 939 P,a, a male larynx, the ventricles 
 of which are almost large enough to contain the first joint of the 
 little finger. For tables showing numerous comparative measure- 
 ments of various parts of the larynx, see B^clard, JHctioniiaire 
 Encyohpidique des Scimces MeMcaUs, Paris, 1868, art. Larynx, 
 p. 655 &c. 
 
 D 
 
34 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 The Vocal Tube, ok Eesonance Appaeatus. 
 
 This consists mainly of the pharynx, mouth, and 
 the double set of passages in the nose. The soft-palate, 
 pillars of the fauces, and lower-jaw may also be men- 
 tioned in this connection. There are also some auxiliary 
 cavities, such as the portion of the larynx, about three- 
 quarters of an inch deep, above the vocal cords, into 
 which the ventricles open, and also some chambers 
 in the thick bones of the head and face. Further, 
 even the trachea and lungs may be ranged under this 
 heading. 
 
 The 'pharynx extends from the upper part of the 
 larynx to the base of the skull, forming the open space 
 at the back of the mouth, and also at the back of the 
 nose. Its dimensions vary in different persons. On an 
 average it may be said to be 4 J inches from top-to 
 bottom, 2^ from side to side, and 1^ from behind for- 
 wards at its widest part opposite the base of the tongue. 
 Its size and shape can be altered by movements of the 
 various parts by which it is bounded. 
 
 The mouth requires no special description. Its 
 capacity can be greatly varied by the action of the 
 tongue and lower-jaw. 
 
 The cavity of the nose is peculiar, and may be 
 regarded as a collection of six small tubes." Each 
 nostril is separated into three channels, running 'hori- 
 zontally from before backwards to the upper part of 
 the pharynx, by projections on itg external wall formed 
 
■ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 35 
 
 by ridges of spongy ' bone. The floor of the nose is 
 formed by the upper surface of the hard-palate, or roof 
 of the mouth. 
 
 The 8oft-palate is attached to the back of the hard- 
 palate, and hangs down towards the back of the tongue, 
 separating the mouth and pharynx. From its centre 
 depends the uvula, a small body like a grape, as its 
 name implies. The pillars of the fauces are two ridges 
 of muscle on each side of the pharynx. They terminate 
 above in the soft-palate, of which they form the greater 
 part in arching across to unite with each other from 
 opposite sides. Between them on each side lie the 
 large glands called tonsils. The pair of posterior pillars 
 consist of the muscles before-mentioned {Palato-phor 
 ryng&i), which spring from the hind edges of the thyroid 
 cartilage, and converge towards each other in passing 
 upwards to unite at the palate over the uvula. The 
 lower-jaw assists tb open and shut the mouth, thereby 
 altering its capacity and resonance properties. 
 
 The Tongue, Lips, and Teeth. 
 
 The tongue, lips, and teeth superadded to the oral 
 portion of the vocal tube render possible articulate 
 speech. The tongue and lips are almost wholly com- 
 posed of muscular substance, which, being capable of 
 infinite combinations of contractions, bestows on them 
 a great versatility of motion. They, with the soft-palate 
 and'lower-jaw, may. be considered as the active organs 
 
 ' ' Spongy ' in appearance only, being of a cellular structure, but 
 pot capable of being squeezed like a sponge. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 ANATOMY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 of articulation. The teeth take a passive part, acting 
 as a kind of fulcrum for the tongue and lips. 
 
 Fig. 3.— Anatomical section showing the relations of the 
 
 ORGANS OF voice, 
 
 1. Cavities in tlie bones of the liead (frontal and sphenoidal cells). S. The chan- 
 nels of the nose (sup., mid., and inf. meati^). 3. Entrance of Eustachian tube (leading 
 to ear). 4. Uvula. 5. Pillars of the fauces with the tonsil between them. 6. Epi- 
 glottis. 7. Thyroid cartilage. 8. Cricoid cartilage. 9. Ventricle of larynx. 10, Vocal 
 band. 11. Trachea (windpipe), 13, CBsophagus (gullet). 
 
37 
 
 CHAPTER III, 
 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 ACTION OF THE AIE-CHAMBBE (eESPIKATION) — ACTION OP 
 THE VIBRATING ELEMENT (tOCAL EEEDS) — THE EESON- 
 ANCE APPARATUS (vOCAL TUBe) — COMPASS OF THE 
 VOICE : INDIVIDUAL AND SEXUAL DIFFERENCES : EEGIS- 
 TEES AETICULATINd APPARATUS. 
 
 In this chapter we have to consider the share taken by 
 the various parts of the body just described in the pro- 
 duction of voice and speech. , In accordance with the 
 classification adopted, the action of the thorax — the air- 
 chamber or wind-chest — which initiates the giving forth 
 of sound, first claims notice. 
 
 The Air-Chambee (Eespiration). 
 
 The muscles attached to the chest-walls have the 
 power of enlarging the cavity of the thorax, so as to 
 draw air through the windpipe into the lungs, which 
 thus become inflated. The lungs have not in themselves 
 any ability to increase their capacity, and are merely 
 blown out by force of the air which rushes into them, 
 according as the chest expands, in order to prevent the 
 
38 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 formation of a vacuum. As there are two principal 
 ways in which the thorax can be enlarged, inspiration 
 is divided into (1) abdominal and (2) costal. 
 
 In abdominal breathing inspiration is performed by 
 means of the diaphragm, which, when relaxed, projects 
 upwards into the chest. By contracting it greatly dim- 
 inishes the amount of its upward projection, thus render- 
 ing the chest more capacious below, at the same time 
 that it presses downwards the stomach and other 
 abdominal viscera. When it again relaxes the tendency 
 of the abdominal organs to return to their former posi- 
 tion is sufficient to thrust it up and expel the air 
 introduced. In men ordinary quiet breathing is chiefly 
 diaphragmatic ; but in women this muscle is used to a 
 much less extent. 
 
 Costal, or rih breathing, is accomplished by raising 
 the ribs, each of which can move, as on a pivot, at its 
 joint with the spine. During this action the ribs are 
 drawn up closer together in front and at the sides, so as 
 to lessen the vertical measurement of the spaces between 
 them, and the breast-bone is made to advance. Behind, 
 of course, the ribs merely rotate on their heads, and 
 cannot approach nearer to each other, owing to the nature 
 of their vertebral articulation. The lower ribs also move 
 much more than the upper ones, the first rib being, in 
 fact, almost fixed. In costal inspiration the thorax is 
 enlarged laterally and in front, because the larger ribs in 
 being raised are made to occupy the place of the smaller 
 ones. The ordinary costal muscles are generally suffi- 
 cient for respiratory purposes, and only in taking a long 
 breath — in forced inspiration — is the action of the extra- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 39 
 
 ordinary set required. The extraordinary muscles of in- 
 spiration are nearly all attached to the shoulder, and 
 their real object is to regulate the motions of that part. 
 Ifj.however, the shoulders be elevated, they can raise the 
 ribs, but only to a comparatively small extent, because 
 their power is mostly exerted over the upper ribs, -which 
 have little freedom of motion. In some diseased con- 
 ditions the movements of the diaphragm and lower ribs 
 are very much restricted, and in compensation the upper 
 ribs are called on to work to their utmost. This is 
 sometimes called clavicular breathing, because the 
 motions of the chest are principally in the region of the 
 collar-bone or clavicle. 
 
 With respect to expiration, when all the muscles of 
 inspiration relax, the ribs fall by their own weight, the 
 abdominal viscera returning to their position thrust back 
 the diaphragm, and the lungs by contracting assist to 
 drive out the superfluous air that is in them.. Much of 
 the act is therefore automatic ; but if more force is 
 wanted the muscles which pass from the lower ribs down 
 the abdomen and flank can pull the ribs down strongly, 
 and at the same time can press the abdominal organs up 
 against the bottom of the chest. In this manner a 
 forcible expiration can be performed. 
 
 The air of respiration may be divided into four 
 different complements. In the first place we have the 
 air which passes continually in and out of the lungs 
 during quiet breathing. This is called tidal air. Next 
 we have that which can be forced into the lungs when 
 expanded to their full extent by drawing a deep breath. 
 This gives the vital capacity of the chest. Thirdly, 
 
40 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS.- 
 
 there is the complement of air that can be pressed out 
 of the lungs when emptied by a strong effort of expi- 
 ration, called residual air; and lastly there remains 
 some air which cannot be squeezed out by any exertion 
 during life, nor even after death, without the direct 
 application of such mechanical force to the lungs as 
 would rupture their air-cells. Hence it may be called 
 fixed air, or air which cannot be removed. 
 
 The Vibeatino Element (Vocal Eeeds). 
 
 The column of air as it rushes out of the lungs 
 through the trachea is rendered sonorous by the vibra- 
 tions of the vocal reeds. Without these membranous 
 bands man would be voiceless, or at least could only 
 speak in a whisper, as is frequently seen in cases 
 where they are paralysed or destroyed through disease. 
 
 Great obscurity prevailed as to the actual action of 
 the larynx in emitting voice until within the last half- 
 century. The interest of such questions has always led 
 many to attempt their solution, whilst the former de- 
 ficiencies of anatomical and acoustic science and the 
 difiBculties of empirical observation rendered the nume- 
 rous conjectures conflicting and many of them baseless. 
 
 About 1830, however, Johannes Miiller, a great 
 German physiologist, made a series of most exhaustive 
 and ingenious experiments with the natural detached 
 larynx and artificial imitations of it. His researches 
 showed conclusively that a compass of a couple of octaves 
 could be drawn from the vocal bands merely by varying 
 their tension when approximated. 
 
PHYSIOt^OGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 41 
 
 The Laryngoscope and its Revelations. 
 
 After the researches of Miiller but little was left in 
 the way of direct experiment to be done by his suc- 
 cessors, although conflicting theories of voice were still 
 held, owing to the difficulty of obtaining the absolute 
 demonstration or ocular proof of any one set of deduc- 
 tions. The increase of acoustic science gradually threw 
 a light over many obscure points, but it was only on the 
 discovery of the larjrngoscope that most of the doubts 
 and absurdities were finally resolved and laid to rest. 
 Many unsuccessful, or perhaps disregarded, attempts to 
 see the action of the living larynx had been made prior 
 to 1854, when Manuel Garcia, a teacher of singing, 
 actually caught sight of his own vocal bands in a small 
 dentist's mirror pushed into the back of his mouth. 
 Continuing his observations on his own throat, he was 
 at the end of a year enabled to read a paper at the 
 Eoyal Society on the formation of voice as elucidated 
 by means of his invention. Garcia's device did not, 
 however, attract much immediate notice ; and it was 
 only at the end of two years that Czermak, a German 
 medical professor, commenced a systematic practice with 
 the instrument, on himself and on patients, and showed 
 finally the feasibility and facility of viewing the living 
 larynx. As soon as Czermak had satisfied himself as to 
 the actual value of the invention, he travelled into the 
 chief cities of Europe, and, by giving laryngoscopic 
 demonstrations before the principal physicians and sur- 
 geons of each town, achieved the introduction of the 
 
42 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 laryngoscope into medicine as an indispensable adjunct 
 to the local study of disease. 
 
 The laryngoscope, as now used, consists simply of 
 a small mirror, from half an inch to an inch in diameter, 
 fixed at the end of a stem of sufBeient length to allow it 
 to be passed to the back of the mouth (middle part of 
 pharynx). It is held there at such an inclination as to 
 reflect the parts of the throat below. Some practice is 
 required in order to be able to place it quickly at the 
 proper angle, which in fact differs somewhat in almost 
 every individual, and also in order to manipulate it so 
 delicately as not to irritate by pressure the tongue, 
 palate, and other parts adjacent. The tongue should be 
 protruded during the examination, as the larynx is thus 
 drawn up higher in the throat. It may be held i out 
 gently with a small cloth. Of course a strong light 
 must be thrown on the surface of the mirror, and for this 
 purpose various kinds of accessory apparatus are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 > The Vocal Reeds. — On inspecting the larynx with 
 the laryngoscope, the rim of its upper outlet, surmounted 
 in front by the epiglottis which generally stands erect 
 against the back of the tongue, is plainly visible. But 
 the most striking objects are the vocal bands which are 
 seen at a short distance below, projecting opposite each 
 other from the sides of the inner wall of the larynx, and 
 of a pearly whiteness which contrasts strangely with the 
 redness of the surrounding parts. Between them is the 
 oblong aperture through which the air continually passes 
 to and fro, the glottis, of dimensions varying at every 
 
■ PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 43 
 
 moment, for the vocal reeds are never absolutely at test ' 
 during breathing, but witli deep inspiration separate, 
 widely until they almost disappear from sight behind, 
 the ventricular bands, and with expiration gradually ap- 
 proach each other, so as sometimes almost to touch. 
 If the person tmder observation speaks in an ordinary 
 tone of voice they draw together so closely as to reduce 
 the glottis, to a mere thread-like fissure, and as the sound 
 issues forth the eye can perceive that they are in a state 
 of vibration. At one point they touch, viz., posteriorly, 
 where they join the tips of the vocal processes of the 
 a£v t3enoid^ _gaitilages. Behind this the chink of the 
 glottis is continued backwards for a short distance, 
 about three lines, between the inner edges of the base of 
 the arytsenoid cartilages {cartilaginous glottis), but 
 this portion is probably incapablg^. of vibration, and 
 cannot properly be considered as forming part of the 
 vocalregds. 
 
 The theory of the generation of sound by our vocal 
 bands is as follows : — By the contraction of the expira- 
 tory muscles of our chest we propel a stream of air'' 
 from our lungs through our windpipe. Impinging 
 against the closed glottis from below, the current drives ' 
 the vocal bands apart sufficiently for a puff to escape. < 
 This relieves momentarily the pressure of the air below,' 
 and the vocal bands at once spring back towards each^ 
 other by their own resiliency. The glottis is thus again 
 shut, the pressure re-accumulates below, and a second 
 puff escapes. By a continuance of this action the cur-f 
 rent of our breath is divided into a series of puffs, and 
 a tone is produced in like manner as is observed to 
 occur when experimenting with the siren. 
 
44 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 The Laktnx as tiewbd with the Lakthgoscope. 
 S 
 
 A iiiiTTikilB— 4 
 
 3-il 
 
 Fig. 4. — The labtnx during qtjibt bebathino. 
 
 1. Arytasnoid cartilages. 2. Cartilages of ■Wrisberg. 3. Vocal bands. 4. Ven« 
 I tricular bauds. 6. Epiglottis with its cushion below. 6. Trachea. 
 
 £acA: of- \T6nffne 
 
 Fig. 6.— The labtnx when sounding a note about the 
 level of the oedinart speaking voice. 
 
 1. Arytsenoid cartilages. 2. Cartilages of Wrisberg, 3. Vocal bands, 4. EntranM 
 Of veutricles, 6. Ventricular bands. 6. Epiglottis. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 43 
 
 Considerable alterations take place in the appear- 
 ance of the vocal reeds and the upper outlet of the 
 larynx during the production, of a scale of notes from 
 the lowest to the highest pitch. Whilst sounding the 
 deepest notes of the chest-register the glottis is open in 
 its whole length, and forms an elliptical slit, which, in 
 a bass voice, may measure as much as a line at its 
 widest part when the vibrations strike outwards. After 
 ascending two or three tones the tips of the vocal pro- 
 cesses become visible, projecting towards each other 
 across the chink, and on a rise of two or three tones 
 more they come by degrees into contact. At this mo- 
 ment the glottis is seen to consist of two parts; the 
 main portion in front, forming a linear fissure between 
 the vocal reeds of from a third to half-an-inch in length, 
 and a small triangular space behind separating the 
 arytsenoid cartilages. This condition of the glottis 
 occurs about the level of the ordinary speaking voice. 
 In mounting a few notes higher, the posterior trian- 
 gular space diminishes until at last it is quite closed, 
 and in this state it remains during the emission of the 
 upper three or four chest-notes. At the same time the 
 progressive narrowing of the anterior fissure, the actual 
 vibratory glottis, continues until it is reduced to a mere 
 dark line between the borders of the vocal reeds. Con- 
 comitant with these changes the vocal bands seem to be 
 lengthened ; they are so in fact by being stretched ; but 
 greater than their real is their apparent lengthening, 
 which depends on their coming more into sight in the 
 laryngeal mirror, according as the gamut is ascended. 
 Their actual lengthening may be about a line, their 
 
46 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 apparent increase of length twice or three times that 
 amount. In the lowest notes the ep^lottis' generally 
 conceals from view the front of the glottis; in the 
 middle notes the cushion of the epiglottis still covers 
 the anterior ends of the vocal bands, but at the top of 
 the chest-register their tension is very evident, and 
 
 Fig. 6.— Section op the laeyngbal cartilages showing how 
 longitudikal tension of the vocal bands is effected. 
 
 1. Thyroid cartilage. 2. Arytsenoid cartilage. 3. Cricoid cartilage. The dotted 
 lines from the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage to the thyroid indicate the 
 position of the edge of the vocal band, which is tightened by progressive closjii'e of 
 the chink below, between the thyi'oid and cricoid cartilages. 
 
 appears to draw them away from their attachment to 
 the thyroid cartilage, so as to bring their full length 
 into sight. In mounting the scale of chest-notes', 
 therefore, the outlet of the larynx undergoes enlarge- 
 ment, and its margins expand so as to afford a com- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE' VOCAL ORGANS. 47 
 
 plete view of the interior. When a note is swelled to 
 its maximum of loudness, the vocal reeds perform more 
 ample vibrations in the same period of time, their edges 
 cannot be seen in such sharp definition, and the glottic 
 aperture assumes a hazy appearance. 
 
 In the falsetto register, the laryngoscopic appear- 
 ances are in many respects the reverse of those just 
 described. The rim of the larynx, instead of becoming 
 dilated, suffers a progressive and marked constriction 
 
 FiQ. 7. — The laeynx during thb emission of falsetto notes 
 
 (MIDDLE OF EANOB). 
 
 in proportion as the pitch rises, until at last only the 
 edges of the vocal bands can be seen through the nar- 
 row orifice that remains. The object of the movements 
 seems to be to shorten_the glottis and li mit the vibratin g 1 
 portion of the vocal reeds as much as possible. As soon 
 .as their tension can be increased no further by the 
 means resorted to for the formation of chest-notes, a 
 change occurs in the physiological mechanism for the 
 purpose of obtaining a highe r scale of tones by graduall y 
 reducing the size of the reeds. The aperture during the 
 
48 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 emission of tlie lower falsetto notes occupies the centre 
 of the ligamentous glottis, and appears to be from a 
 quarter to a third of an inch in length, but somewhat 
 wider and more elliptical than at the highest level of 
 the chest-register. It diminishes in length as the sound 
 mounts up, but at the same time its width, if anything, 
 rather increases. AJi a certain elevation of pitch, which 
 of course varies considerably in different individuals, the 
 power of ascending any higher is lost. 
 
 Many theories have been put forward as to the ac- 
 tion of the larynx in producing the falsetto notes, and 
 the question is not yet quite decided. On the whole I 
 think it most in accordance with observed facts to sup- 
 pose that the falsetto range is produced by a truly 
 sphincter-like action of all the constrictive glottic 
 muscles. In such case the eifect would be a progres- 
 sive concentric narrowing of the glottis, during which 
 it would tend to pass from an elliptic to a circular 
 shape. Thus the aperture, until it had attained the 
 circle, would be seen to diminish in length and in- 
 crease in breadth during the ascent of the scale, and 
 elevation of pitch could proceed, cceteris paribus, until 
 the reduction of the opening to a mere pin-hole. The 
 remarkable delicacy and elasticity of the cartilages of the 
 female larynx is precisely the condition most favourable 
 to such an operation, and an explanation would thus be 
 afforded of the extraordinary range in the highest regis- 
 ter so often met with in female voices.' 
 
 ' See page 88. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 49 
 
 Eesonance Appaeatus (Vocal Tpbe, etc.). 
 The Ventricles, 
 
 The existence of these small cavities appears neces- 
 sary in order to allow a proper breadth to the vocal reeds. 
 In man, their acoustic influence on the voice must be 
 unappreciable on account of their limited area ; but in 
 the mycetes, or howling monkey, they communicate 
 with several large pouches on each side of the throat, 
 and with excavations in the body of the tongue-bone, 
 so as to impart to the cries of these animals a degree 
 of resonance which renders them louder than the roar- 
 ing of lions. On the other hand, that they are abso- 
 lutely unessential in conferring an extraordinary voice- 
 power, is proved by the fact that the lion, tiger, ox, 
 and many other animals that do not lack in this respect, 
 have neither ventricles nor ventricular bands. 
 
 The Epiglottis. 
 
 Viewed with the laryngoscope, the epiglottis pre- 
 sents considerable variability of size, shape, and position 
 in different persons. Sometimes it forms a mere pro- 
 jection of the anterior margin of the larynx of less than 
 three-quarters of an inch, and stands erect against the 
 back of the tongue ; or it may extend backwards over 
 the larynx, like a roof, for nearly an inch, so that its 
 surfaces are almost horizontal. It may appear round, 
 square, or folded so that its upper edge resembles a 
 
so PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 horse-shoe. In singing the scale it seems to have little 
 or no proper motion, but the movements of the larynx 
 make it apparently shift its place. Approximation of 
 the vocal bands draws the posterior margin of the larynx 
 slightly towards it. In the lowest notes the larynx 
 moves downwards and forwards, so as to cause it to 
 intercept the view, whilst in the upper range of the 
 chest-register the larynx is seen to pass away from it in 
 a direction upwards and backwards as the glottis comes 
 into full sight. During the contraction of the vestibule 
 of the larynx, of which it forms the anterior part, in the 
 falsetto scale it becomes gradually doubled up; and its 
 lateral edges approach nearly in the highest notes. At 
 the same time it is drawn more over the glottis than at 
 the top of the chest-register, but if naturally erect its 
 upper edge remains everted towards the back of the 
 tongue. Being closely connected with this organ, it 
 follows its movements during articulation. Thus it is' 
 depressed when the vowel-sound aw (as in law) is pro- 
 nounced, and drawn away from the glottis by the enun- 
 ciation of ee (as in feel). 
 
 This valve is capable of closing the upper outlet of 
 the larynx, to which it acts as a kind of operculum or 
 lid, if pressed down upon it, as occurs during the act 
 of swallowing, when the larynx is drawn upwards and 
 forwards, so that the base of the tongue rolls over it. 
 Food and drink are thus prevented from passing into 
 the windpipe. Such is certainly the physiological pur- 
 pose of the epiglottis ; but in those animals which have 
 well-developed ventricular bands it appears to be super- 
 fluous, unless we can regard it as a vocal appendage. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 51 
 
 The presence, however, of an ainple epiglottis in animals 
 for the most part voiceless, such as marsupials (kanga- 
 roo, etc.),' and cetaceans (whale, dugong, etc.), argues 
 against this supposition, which is further controverted 
 by its small size and comparative immobility during 
 phonation in man. It has been suggested that it acts 
 as a 'tuner,' a resonator, and that it modifies the timbre 
 of tlie voice. But the vocal reeds, with almost infini- 
 tesimal powers of altering their tension and dimensions, 
 do not seem to stand in need of such a tuner, whilst 
 their great resonator is the concavity of the hard-palate, 
 the roof of the mouth. It may modify timbre,, and give 
 something of the peculiarity of voice by which we 
 recognise different persons, as when it is large and 
 depressed, or small and erect ; but, apart from lingual 
 articulation, it has no motion to enable it to vary the 
 quality of any particular note. It certainly, however, 
 has the office of directing the sound-waves against the 
 back of the pharynx, to be, thence reflected, under the 
 variable arch of the soft-palate,, on to the hard-palate, 
 especially when the most resonant vowel-sounds, such 
 as aw (as in law), are pronounced. 
 
 The, Pharynx. 
 
 The share tafeen by this cavity in voiCe-production 
 is scarcely capable of separate definition. The vibrations 
 of the vocal reeds do not appear to dferive any special 
 modificq,tion froiii it, except in the utterance of certain 
 guttural speech- sounds. It allows: of the extrinsic 
 movements of the larynx necessary for the felaboratioQ 
 
 E 2 
 
52 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL OliGANS. 
 
 of a musical scale. The tongue encroaches on or recedes 
 from it during articulation of vowels. Under ordinary 
 circumstances it extends, with the laryngeal vestibule, 
 directly from the vocal reeds to the back entrance of 
 the nasal channels ; but by the action of the soft-palate 
 it may be caused to pass most directly into the mouth, 
 with which it usually forms a single resonance chamber. 
 The alterations of its capacity, so evident to any one 
 who observes it during singing, induced some former 
 physiologists and physicists to believe that it bore the 
 same relation to the voice as the tube of a flute or 
 clarionet to the soimds generated at the embouchure. 
 A knowledge of the acoustic laws of sonorous vibrations 
 in tubes and cavities has, however, reduced this hypo- 
 thesis to a nullity. 
 
 The Mouth. 
 
 The most harmonious tones of the voice are obtained 
 by the action of the mouth, as resonance chamber. In 
 this cavity the power and volume of the voice are greatly 
 augmented by secondary vibrations, to the formation of 
 which the solid arch of the hard-palate mainly contri- 
 butes. The highly composite clang proceeding from the 
 vocal reeds is reinforced in those upper partial tones 
 which are nearest and most consonant to the prime, 
 namely, its octave, the fifth above that, and the second 
 octave, etc. Such is probably the succession of over- 
 tones which are brought out distinctly when the most 
 resonant of vowel-sounds are pronounced or sung. But 
 the reinforcement of the upper partial tones is altered 
 by every motion of the tongue, lips, etc., during artiou- 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 53 
 
 lation, and hence results a pleasing diversity of timbre 
 which prevents the ear being fatigued by monotonous 
 repetition. 
 
 The Nose. 
 
 The office of the nasal cavity in phonation is also to 
 give increased intensity to upper partial tones. Con- 
 sisting, however, of a number of small channels which 
 have little intercommunication, its own proper sounds 
 must be high and shrill. The overtones, therefore, that 
 it can reinforce lie generally at a great distance above 
 the prime tone of the vocal reeds ; not nearer probably 
 in any part of the chest-register, than the eighth or tenth 
 in the harmonic series, i.e., more than three octaves 
 from the fundamental note of the voice. Beyond this 
 height the rapidly diminishing intervals between the 
 successive overtones soon render them dissonant, both 
 with each other and with the prime tone. When, there- 
 fore, the voice resounds fully in the nose, the funda- 
 mental note is impoverished and nearly drowned by the 
 predominance of high partial tones Hence the well- 
 known discordance, the jarring ' twang,' of an exalted 
 nasal intonation which, disagreeable in speaking, is 
 utterly ruinous to melodious singing. A due proportion, 
 however, of the nasal harmonics must generally be 
 present (invariably with m, or ri), and when the gap is 
 bridged over by a proper preponderance of oral reso- 
 nance they are of real value in adding to the brilliancy 
 and variety of vocal timbre.' 
 
 * The cavities iu the bones about tlie nose, viz., tlie antrum, and 
 
54 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 The Soft-Palate. 
 
 The use of this pendulous and mobile portion of the 
 palate is to cut off the communication between tbe 
 upper part of the pharynx and the nasal cavity during 
 the act of swallowing;' or in phonation. To effect this 
 purpose its muscles draw it backwards and slightly up- 
 wards till it meets the back wall of the pharynx. Whilst 
 singing a scale, this movement goes on progressively, 
 from the deepest chest-note to the highest limit of the 
 falsetto, when the retraction is nearly complete. A suf- 
 ficient opening, however, remains almost to the last to 
 allow of some nasal resonance. For every note of dif- 
 ferent pitch, therefore, the soft-palate occupies a sepa- 
 rate position, which is determined by the direction of 
 the sound issuing from the glottis. In ascending the 
 scale, the successive changes of place of the larynx tend 
 to project the column of aerial vibrations, so that they 
 rebound from the back of the pharynx more and more 
 vertically upwards towards the posterior nares. Step 
 by step the motions of the soft-palate counteract this 
 tendency and divert the course of the sound-waves to 
 the arch of the hard-palate. It is quite possible to sing 
 all the chest-notes without moving the soft-palate, but, 
 as a consequence, there is a great loss of resonance and 
 an insupportable predominance of nasal timbre. The 
 effect is somewhat similar to blowing a trumpet from 
 which the bell has been removed ; a ' tin-kettle,' or 
 
 the frontal and sphenoidal sinuses, have a certain, though undeter- 
 mined, effect on voice. When they are undeveloped, as in many of 
 tlie Australian aborigines, a noticeable want of vocal resonance has 
 been observed. 
 
PHYSIOLQGV OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 55 
 
 ' cracked-pot ' tone is the result. But when the falsetto 
 scale is reached it is no longer practicable to restrain 
 the retraction of the soft-palate, although these notes 
 would probably suffer least from a surplus of nasal har- 
 monics. The action of the palato-pharyngeus muscle 
 seems indispensable, in order to approximate the wings 
 of the thyroid cartilage, and consequently the falsetto 
 register cannot be produced without the palatal motions. 
 In cases, however, where the soft-palate has been de- 
 stroyed by disease, the power of producing the falsetto 
 notes is not abolished, as the lateral parts of the palato- 
 pharyngeus and the inferior constrictor are still able to 
 fulfil their office. It is thus demonstrated that the 
 gradual occlusion of the posterior nares in this register 
 is merely an accidental phenomenon without any acous- 
 tic necessity for its occurrence. 
 
 Compass of the Voice — Individual and Sexual 
 
 DiFFEEENCES EeGISTEES. 
 
 The compass of the voice from the lowest note of the 
 male to the highest of the female includes about four 
 octaves, viz., from E^ to c"'.^ Many gifted singers can, 
 however, exceed both these extremes by several tones, 
 and males may even descend to ^F^ whilst females can 
 sometimes attain /"',* a range of five octaves. The 
 
56 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 voices of individuals, of infinite variety as regards tim- 
 bre, present also numerous diversities in compass, but 
 they can always be relegated to some one of six different 
 classes, the precise extent of which is not strained. 
 Men's voices are termed hass, baritone, and tenor; and 
 women's contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano, in 
 regular succession, from the bottom to the top of the 
 vocal scale.' The bass and soprano are more than an 
 octave apart, whilst the tenor and contralto lie for the 
 most part over the same notes. The range of each kind 
 of voice is shown in the adjoining table, according to the 
 conventional acceptance. The compass here apportioned 
 to the various voices is, however, only such as the com- 
 poser would regard when writing music for different 
 classes of singers, and is far from representing the 
 physiological limits of each kind. From merely acous- 
 tic considerations, for instance, we might suppose that 
 the bass voice would be capable of producing not only 
 the deepest notes, but also those of the highest pitch, 
 on the same principle that an imitation of the violin can 
 be performed on the violoncello, though the notes are 
 not of the same musical value as the proper tones of the 
 instrument. In either case, the only faculty required is 
 an unlimited power of shortening and tensing the strings 
 or vocal reeds. The truth of this hypothesis is exem- 
 plified, as regards voice, in the fact that a bass or 
 
 ' In determining to what class a voice belongs, attention is often 
 directed more to its timbre than to its actual compass. A first-rate 
 
 baritone, for instance, may be able to deliver g' fy J — from the 
 
 chest, whilst a good tenor may be unable to rise beyond that note. 
 But an unmistakable difference of timbre at once decides the question. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. S7 
 
 
 -ID 
 
 a S,: 
 
 I ) 
 
 -S' 
 
 fSl -g- 
 
 
 a^ 
 
 A 
 
 R 
 
 
 O^ 
 
 1 
 
 g^ 
 
 < 
 
 g^ 
 
 •eo 
 
 
 S 
 
 < 
 
 
 'A 
 
 
S8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 baritone singer' may have such an extent of falsetto 
 notes as to be able to counterfeit the vocal performances 
 of a soprano.' Similarly the male alto voices employed 
 in cathedrals for choral service are generally, if not 
 always, of bass or baritone range fundamentally, but 
 with an unusual facility for falsetto singing. In these 
 instances the upper voice may embrace ten or twelve 
 notes.^ 
 
 Male and female voices differ not merely in degree, 
 i.e., in lower or higher pitch, but also in kind. They 
 are characterised by a peculiarity of timbre, so that the 
 dullest ear is in no danger of mistaking a man's voice 
 for that of a woman, even on notes of the same pitch. 
 The falsetto tones of a male voice have little resemblance 
 to their equivalents in the m.usical scale when sung by 
 a female, and the woman's voice is remarkably more 
 brilliant and full in its sound. The causes here are 
 obscure, but one of the greatest is undoubtedly superior 
 resonance. The air-chambers connected with the female 
 larynx are better adapted to reinforce high tones. The 
 circumstance that the retraction of the soft-palate cuts 
 off the nasal part of the vocal tube in woman to a 
 lesser extent for notes of similar pitch than in man may 
 have some influence. But principally we must regard 
 the fact that the female larynx is formed for a treble 
 instrument and produces tones naturally and with ease 
 
 ' ' Dans une setae de la Prova d'un opha seria, Lablaohe, imi- 
 tant un soprano, chante rnie cavatine entifere en Yoix de fausset.' 
 Sfigond, HygUne du Cliantev/r, Paris, 1846, p. 86, 
 
 2 From a ^^5 to d" fc 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. S9 
 
 which the male organ can only emit, if at all, with more 
 or less of a strain. A man singing in falsetto is, there- 
 fore, in a position somewhat similar to a violinist who 
 should endeavour to draw the highest notes from the 
 fourth or lowest string of his instrument. 
 
 Having dealt with the question as to the mechanical 
 formation of the chest and falsetto notes, it remains to 
 consider at what level of the voice the break' between 
 the two usually occurs. We should naturally expect 
 that this point would bear a similar relation to the bot- 
 tom of the chest-register in every individual, not occur- 
 ring at any determinate point in the musical scale, but 
 movable according to the notes embraced within the 
 corhpass of each particular class of voice. Anatomical 
 and physiological observations point clearly to Such a 
 conclusion. Amongst singing-masters, however, it is 
 usually considered tliat the falsetto scale commences at 
 or near (f^ whatever the kind of voice and whether the 
 singer be male or female. I do not know whence this 
 hypothesis originated, but, it appears to rest on the basis 
 that in women's voices there is often a break, more or 
 less pronounced in that position, and a marked differ- 
 ence of timbre between the ascending and descending 
 series of notes. In many cases, on the other hand, the 
 break and change of timbre are scarcely perceptible. It 
 is difficult to believe that the finest notes of the soprano 
 voice are produced in a manner strictly analogous to the 
 
 • T,he falsetto register can generally be carried down two or 
 three notes below the highest level of the chest-soale. Some tones 
 can, therefore, be produced with either quality of voice. In this 
 position the so-called ' mixed voice ' is said to occur. 
 
6o PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 falsetto tones of the male, and the fact that the female 
 voice presents a second break near its upper limit, where 
 the so-called ' head ' voice begins, renders the proposi- 
 tion extremely doubtful. Such a view would also allow 
 no falsetto notes to a bass singer who could not rise 
 beyond dl ^ from the chest, whilst it would give onlythree 
 or four chest-notes to the soprano. As might be expected, 
 this conception of the registers is involved in some con- 
 troversy, even amongst teachers of music, some of whom 
 argue for the physiological view of the subject.^ It is 
 probable, however, that there are differences, as yet un- 
 defined, in the manner of forming or managing the vocal 
 tones habitual to the two sexes, which prevent their 
 voices being reduced to one category with the same pre- 
 cision as a pair of musical instruments, identical except 
 as regards size and pitch. 
 
 As stated in the preface, I have now been able to 
 satisfy myself of the incorrectness of the commonly 
 received views as to the comparative physiology of the 
 larynx in the two sexes. After lengthened observations 
 and experiments, I now feel assured that the registers 
 have the same comparative extent in male and female, 
 and the main portion of the vocal scale is as much 
 ' chest ' in the one sex as in the other. The details 
 of my working out of this problem will shortly be 
 published at length.. 
 
 Articulating Instrument. 
 
 Speech is produced by modifying the capacity of 
 the vocal tube and by altering the size and position of, 
 or entirely closing, its outlets through the instrumen- 
 
 For a detailed argument on this point, see 
 
 Y^^ Lunn, The PliVosopJiy of Voice, 1875, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 61 
 
 tality of the mobile parts contained within it or forming 
 its boundaries. The various sounds or phases of sounds, 
 which are joined together in almost endless combina- 
 tions to build up words, are represented in written 
 language by letters, and classified according to the 
 peculiarities of their formation. Almost at first con- 
 sideration letters fall naturally into two great divisions. 
 The first comprises those that consist of continuous 
 sounds of characteristic timbre, called vowels ; and the 
 second embraces the series of interruptions or complete 
 stoppages, enunciative or terminal, of the current of 
 breath or sound, named consonants. 
 
 Nature of Vowel-Sounds and Mechanism of 
 thevr Production. 
 
 In 1780 the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg 
 awarded a prize to Kratzenstein for an essay on the 
 nature of vowels, illustrated by a reed instrument of 
 purely empirical design which sounded a recognisable 
 imitation of them. About the same time Kempelen ^ 
 pursued an inquiry of a similar kind, and published a 
 treatise containing his results. In 1828 Willis, treat- 
 ing the question more scientifically, made a series of 
 experiments by attaching cylindrical chambers to a 
 reed-pipe, and showed that the prime tone could be 
 thus modified, so as to produce a number of sounds 
 closely resembling the vowels of speech. Some few 
 years later a consideration of these phenomena led 
 
 ' These were not, however, the first or only attempts to construct 
 a talking machine. Albertus Magnus, Friar Bacon, the Abbe Mical, 
 and others made, or are accredited with having made, heads that 
 could utter sentences. 
 
62 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 Wheatstone to suggest that in such instaiaees' the 
 vowels are formed by the feeble vibrations arising in 
 the short tube, which, most markedly when its reso- 
 nance corresponds to one of the multiples (i.e., over- 
 tones) of the prime tone given by the reed, confers the 
 effeqt of a superadded musical note. A further step 
 was gained -in 1857 by Bonders, who discovered that 
 for the various vowels the cavity of the mouth is tuned 
 to different pitches; by observing the whistling noise 
 produced in whispering. 
 
 Subsequently many investigators directed -their at- 
 tention to the subject, but for the most complete 
 experimental elucidation hitherto we are indebted to 
 Helmholtz.- According to this physicist, the essential 
 origin of vowel timbre is the reinforcement of a funda- 
 mental tone by the superadded note of a resonance 
 chamber, which for the same vowel always yields the 
 same note, although the fundamental tone may under- 
 go a considerable, but not unlimited, change of pitch. 
 When the note of the resonance chamber corresponds 
 to one of the partials of the fundamental tone, the vowel 
 is best heard ; but in proportion as it recedes from this 
 measure the vowel loses character, until it becomes im- 
 perceptible. 
 
 Thus, in the case of spoken vowels, the pharynx and 
 mouth constitute a short tube, which resounds during 
 phonation, not so as to yield a distinctly separate musical 
 note, but only so that a weak secondary sound of deter- 
 minate pitch is heard blended with the laryngeal tones. 
 Within certain limits the capacity of this vocal tube can 
 be altered to any required extent by the actiqn of the 
 tongue and lower-jaw, with the effect of lowering' or 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 63 
 
 heightening its proper note, the pitch of which is still' 
 further governed by the size of the orifice circumscribed 
 by the lips. The smaller the aperture of the mouth, the 
 lower the resonance pitch of its cavity. 
 
 For the vowel U {00 in 'pooV) the vocal tube is ar- 
 ranged to give its lowest pitch of resonance ; the tongue 
 is collected into the smallest space at the bottom of the 
 mouth, and the lips are protruded so as to lengthen the 
 cavity, at the same time that they leave a narrower 
 opeiiing than for any other vowel. Under these cir- 
 cumstances the shape of the vocal tube corresponds to 
 that of a bottle with a small orifice and without a neck. 
 For (o in note) the lips retract and enlarge the open- 
 ing, so that the pitch of cavity is considerably raised. 
 For A (a in father) the oral aperture is still further in- 
 creased in size, aM for A {a in hath) the mouth is wide 
 open. : The elevation of the resonance pitch of the vocal 
 tube, taken as a whole, has now been brought to its maxi- 
 mum, and beyond this point we pass into another regis- 
 ter, so to speak, of vowel-sounds. To produce A (a in 
 fate) a part of the tube is cut off by the tongue, which 
 was' quiescent hitherto, rising near to the hai'd- palate, 
 whilst the lips remain so far separated that the front of 
 the mouth loses all power of resonance. The shape of 
 the vocal tube now resembles a bottle with a narrow and 
 rather long neck, as the tongue forms with the roof of the 
 mouth an elongated channel which leads back to the more 
 capacious pharynx. As a consequence of this adjuStmeni/ 
 of the articulating apparatus, a double vowel resonance 
 arises,, because a comparatively low tone is generated in 
 the pharyngea [cavity and a higher one in the narrow 
 pipe which leads out of it in front. For I (ee in /eef) 
 
64 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS, 
 
 the tongue is applied to the hard-palate, so as to reduce 
 the anterior channel to the smallest possible dimensions, 
 and the highest limit of vowel resonance is reached. 
 Diphthongs are sounded by the rapid consecutive format 
 tiou of two different capacities, and other vowels (such 
 as are used in Continental languages) are obtained by 
 various gradations of the positions described. In the 
 speech of every nation, and even in that of provincials 
 and individuals, distinctions of vowel timbre are found, 
 which, of course, depend on the production of diversities 
 in the size and resonance of the vocal tube. The vowel- 
 sounds distinguishable as separated by the ear may, 
 therefore, be considered as more numerous than conso- 
 nants, although in each language they are always rela- 
 tively few. 
 
 Various efforts have been made to determine the 
 precise note to which the vocal cavity resounds for each 
 vowel as pronounced by the natives of different countries. 
 The results for vowel-sounds, the same or almost similar, 
 coincide very nearly according to some authors, but di- 
 verge considerably according to others. The best and 
 most trustworthy experiments have been performed by 
 Helmholtz by means of his resonators, which he has 
 employed to ascertain what upper partials are rein- 
 forced most strongly whilst different vowels are sung. 
 He also uses tuning-forks, which, on being struck, are 
 held close to the opening of the lips when the mouth is 
 shaped for the emission of each vowel. The vocal tube 
 thus acts as a resonance chamber, which will reinforce 
 sympathetically the vibrations of a tuning-fork that 
 sounds the same note, speaking for itself, as it were, in 
 this way as to its own pitch. After repeated observft' 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 65 
 
 tions by the combined aid of both these methods, which, 
 however, in the case of the highest and lowest vowels, 
 had to be supplemented by aural observation, Helmholtz 
 is inclined to fix the pitch of the mouth for the various 
 vowels used by the North Germans according to the 
 following notation :— 
 
 Helmholtz has found the pitch of the mouth for 
 the same vowels invariable in all ages and sexes. In 
 women and children the want of capacity of the vocal 
 tube is compensated by diminishing the opening at the 
 lips. 
 
 An interesting point in the consideration of the sub- 
 ject is the existence of an antagonism between certain 
 combinations of vowel and laryngeal sounds. Helmholtz, 
 whilst confessing the incompleteness of his observations 
 on this side, advances the proposition, implied above in 
 the enunciation of his theory, that particular vowels 
 cannot be sounded properly on certain notes of the voice 
 because of an acoustic diflSculty in producing a vowel 
 resonance concomitantly with a laryngeal tone, which 
 does not afford it a sufficient base in the natural series 
 of partials. The evidence is too incomplete to follow 
 
 ' The first six of these vowels are most nearly represented in 
 English by the six described in the preceding paragraph, in the same 
 order. The last two are unpronounceable in English, and correspond 
 nearly, to the French cm in penjile, and il to u in jijj. 
 
 M 
 
66 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 this question further here, and it will suffice to allude to 
 the ■well-known fact, to singers at least, that all voices 
 find a difficulty in fornaing vowels and syllables at the 
 extremes of their compass. From my own observation, 
 I am led to conclude that the obstacle in this case is in 
 great part, if not altogether, of a mechanical nature. 
 Pronunciation is most distinct at the level of the speak-, 
 ing voice, and becomes imperfect according as the laryn- 
 geal notes move away from this pitch in an upper or 
 lower direction. In the lowest notes the contraction of 
 one group of the extrinsic muscles of the larynx fixes 
 the base of the tongue and greatly impedes the motions 
 required for articulation. In the highest notes the 
 tongue is also tied down by muscular activity, whilst the 
 constriction of the pharynx and isthmus of the fauces 
 hinders still more the various and rapid modifications 
 of the vocal tube necessary for fluent speech. 
 
 Conaonamts — Thevr Formation and Classijlcatidn, 
 
 Consonants, as their name signifies, can only be 
 sounded in conjunction with a vowel. They comprise in 
 fact a number of methods, each characteristic, of put- 
 ting on or cutting off more or less completely the 
 current of vocal sound, modified to the timbre of some 
 one of the various vowels. The most obvious means of 
 classifying consonants is derived from acoustic considera- 
 tions, and from this point of view they admit of division 
 into explosives, aspirates, resonants, and vibratives. 
 They may be further subdivided by regarding the ana- 
 tomical disposition of the articulating apparatus required 
 for their enunciation. Hence they are also arranged as 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 67 
 
 labials, dentals, and gutturals. Finally, consonants 
 possess a third characteristic, which admits of their 
 being distinguished as breathed and voiced. 
 
 1. 1. In Explosives the vocal tuhe is, for a moment, 
 completely closed at some part of its course during 
 phonation. Their enunciation is therefore accompanied 
 by a kind of burst or explosion, occasioned by the sudden 
 release of the confined airwhichis forced against the point 
 of constriction by the chest. The explosive consonants 
 form a class specially distinct from the rest, which, in 
 opposition, may be grouped together under the term 
 continuous. , 
 
 2. In Aspirates the vocal tube is only partially 
 stopped and the breath pours out, accompanied by a 
 faint wind-rush, through the point of constriction. 
 
 3. In Resonants the vocal tube is completely, closed 
 at some position of its main, i.e., oral, channel in the 
 same way as occurs during the formation of explosives, 
 but a free secondary passage is still left by the inaction 
 of the soft-palate, and the voice passes out with a pecu- 
 liar resonance through the nose. These consonants might 
 also, therefore, be called nasals. 
 
 4.. In Vibratives the Eiction of the articulating appa- 
 ratus is a combinatiori of that required in pronouncing 
 explosives and aspirates ; i.e., at one moment the breath 
 is stopped, and at the next allowed to force its way 
 through, in continued alternation. They consist, there- 
 fore, of a series of explosions, and the opposing surfaces 
 at the point of constriction act as membranous reeds 
 (like the vocal reeds themselves), whichj however, 
 vibrate too slowly and momentarily to give the sensa- 
 
 S 2 
 
63 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL OUGANS. 
 
 tion of a musical note. A kind of ' purr ' is all that is 
 heard. 
 
 II. 1. In labials the vocal tube is closed by the 
 approximation of the lips, or hy the lower lip being 
 pressed against the upper row of teeth. 
 
 2. In dentals the tip of the tongue is pressed against 
 the back of the upper front teeth, or against the part of 
 the hard-palate which borders on them. 
 
 .3. In gutturals the back of the tongue is approxi- 
 mated to the soft-palate. 
 
 III. The difference between breatlied and voiced 
 consonants is, that the former are accompanied at the 
 moment of their pronunciation merely by a wind-rush, 
 whilst the latter have a base of audible laryngeal vibra- 
 tion. These qualities are not so easily determined as 
 the distinguishing characteristics between the various 
 consonants of the explosive class on account of their 
 momentary duration, but continuous consonants can 
 easily be recognised as breathed or voiced by attentively 
 observing their sound when prolonged indefinitely. 
 Testing in this way, for example, S and Z, the former, 
 when prolonged, is found to consist of a mere 'hiss,' 
 whilst the latter has a strong foundation of tone proceed- 
 ing from the larynx. Otherwise their formation is pre- 
 cisely similar. 
 
 After this description of the various qualities of 
 consonants the following table, showing them ranged 
 according to their respective groups, will be intelli- 
 gible : — 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 69 
 
 LahiaU 
 Dentals 
 Gutturals 
 
 Labials 
 Dentals 
 
 Gutturals 
 
 EXPLOSIVES. 
 Breathed. 
 P 
 
 T 
 K 
 
 ASPIRATES. 
 Ereatlied. 
 
 F 
 
 S,L,Sh,Th ■ 
 (hard, Greek 0) 
 
 Voiced, 
 
 B 
 D 
 
 a 
 
 Voiced. 
 V 
 
 Z,L, J,Th (soft) 
 
 Ch (Grerman, 1 f Y (beginning 
 Grreek y^) J 1 ^ word) 
 
 KESONANTS. A 
 
 Labial 
 Dental 
 Guttural 
 
 All voiced. 
 
 . M 
 
 N 
 . NG 
 
 X™ 
 
 TIBEATIVES. 
 
 Labial (not used as a definite letter). 
 
 Dental 
 
 Guttural ... 
 
 E 
 E 
 
 A few words of explanation are required respecting 
 some letters which are omitted in this table, and also as 
 to some others which have special characteristics. 
 
 H is a breathed aspirate, but differs from all other 
 letters in being formed in the larynx itself by the glottis, 
 narrowed so as to produce a wind-rush, but not suffi- 
 ciently so as to allow the vocal reeds to be thrown into 
 vibration. It is therefore called the spiritus asjper, or 
 
70 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 
 
 ' rough breathing ' — denoted in Greek by a comma 
 turned the reverse way (') — whilst words beginning with 
 a vowel that are pronounced without this preparatory 
 wind-rush are said to have the spwitus-, lenis, or 'smooth 
 breathing,' 
 
 C is redundant, having at one time the power of K, 
 at another that of S ; also Q, which is equivalent to K, 
 but is only used before the vowel U ; and X, which is 
 the same as Ks at the end of a syllable, and as Z when 
 beginning a word. 
 
 L is formed by the passage of the mouth being left 
 permeable at both sides of the tongue whilst the centre 
 is stopped by the tip of the organ being pressed ag£iinst 
 the hard-palate. The English L is always voiced ; the 
 breathed L is used by the Welsh and is represented by 
 the LI, so well known in their local names of places. 
 
 Sh is the brea,thed equivalent of the voiced J, as it 
 occurs in the French word jamais. 
 
 Th is formed by placing the front edge of the tongue 
 between the two rows of teeth ; the voiced Th would be 
 more decidedly represented by Dh. They can be sounded 
 less distinctly by .pressing the -tip of the tongue against 
 the back of the upper front teeth, when they tend 
 towards S and Z, 
 
 The English Ch is not a guttural aspirate, but a 
 consonantal diphthong, sounding when breathed as TSh, 
 when voiced as DZh or rather DJ. The latter is the 
 sound of the English Gr soft, and also of J. 
 
 The dental K is produced by trilling the tip of the 
 tongue against the hard-palate at the rate of about thirty , 
 vibrations in the second ; the guttural E is formed by 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE VOCAL ORGANS. 71 
 
 the uvula vibrating about nineteen times in the second 
 against the back of the tongue.' 
 
 In whispering the vocal reeds are approximated so 
 as to produce a wind-rush, like the spvritus asper con- 
 tinued indefinitely. This suffices to render recognisable 
 the pitch of the note to which the mouth is tuned for 
 the various vowels, and articulation is carried on in the 
 same manner as in sonorous phonation. The distinction, 
 however, between breathed and voiced consonants is for 
 the most part lost, and B becomes P ; D, T ; etc., if 
 entirely deprived of laryngeal tone. 
 
 ' See Bonders, De Phynologie der Spraaklanlien. Utirecbt, ] 870, 
 p. 18. 
 
ya 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL 
 CULTURE. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF THE MOTOK ELEMENT (eESPIEATION)— 
 
 management of the tibeating element manage- 
 ment of the eesonance appaeatus management of 
 
 the aeticulating appaeatus. 
 
 Management of the Motoe Element. 
 
 (Eespieation). 
 
 Measure of Breathmg. 
 
 DuBiNG quiet respiration the chest expands and con- 
 tracts, i.e., we breathe, about seventeen times in every 
 minute, as the tidal air flows in and out of the lungs. 
 Under these circumstances inspiration and expiration 
 occupy each less than two seconds, whilst the chest is 
 seldom filled to its vital capacity or emptied of its 
 residual air. But phonation completely alters this pro- 
 cess, because voice is only produced during expiration. 
 In speaking or in singing it is necessary, for the con- 
 tinuity of sentences or phrases of music, that expiration 
 should be prolonged as much as possible. And lest 
 utterances of words or notes intended to be delivered in 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 73 
 
 close succession should be separated by an intolerable 
 gap, whicli would give a disjointed character to a whole 
 speech or song, it is also required that inspiration should 
 be performed as quickly as possible. And further, as 
 breath cannot be drawn in at any moment, but ad- 
 vantage must be taken of places where a pause occurs in 
 the flow of words or stream of melody, the acts of respi- 
 ration during phonation are of unequal length in contrast 
 to the regularity of ordinary breathing. 
 
 Hence we see that in speaking or singing the function 
 of respiration, instead of being carried on by a number 
 of short breaths in which inspiration and expiration are 
 duly proportioned, consists of a few long breaths, five 
 or six in the minute, or even less, where the relations of 
 inspiration and expiration are very disproportionate. In 
 such cases the balance as regards the quantity of air 
 required by the lungs for their vital operations is main- 
 tained by supplying them more copiously each time, 
 and the chest is expanded more by inspiration, and 
 generally parts with some of its residual air during ex- 
 piration. And moreover voice production occasions a 
 greater activity of the respiratory muscles during expi- 
 ration than mere breathing, for if a soft tone is desired, 
 the tendency of the chest-walls and lungs to contract 
 has to be counterbalanced by the action of the muscles 
 of inspiration, whilst the expiratory muscles are called 
 on to labour vigorously whenever loudness of voice is 
 required. 
 
 Under these circumstances the taking of breath de- 
 mands the direct attention of the speaker or singer at 
 every moment, and on his judgment and training depends 
 
74 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 the accomplishment of the function with ease and ab- 
 sence of embarrassnaent. On the one hand, he must be 
 quick to notice the occurrence of all the pauses, and 
 must even look out for them beforehand ; and, on the 
 other, he ought to be well acquainted with the capacity 
 of his own chest in order to decide when the oppor- 
 tunities may be taken and when he can afford to let 
 them pass by. It is in music especially that the artistic 
 management of the breath is of the greatest importance, 
 because in speaking the attention of the audience is not 
 so much concentrated on sound as on sense. If the 
 singer neglects a proper occasion he may have to squeeze 
 all the residual air put of his chest before he can find 
 another, or else mar the effect of a phrase of melody by 
 a cacophonous gasp. And the evil may not terminate 
 in a momentary difiSculty if the chest is. exhausted, for 
 it must afterwards be replenished by a very long breath 
 in order to prevent a repetition of the same trouble. 
 A pause, however, which will allow of an extraordinary 
 inspiratioii may not occur, and the vocalist, may be kept 
 for the rest of his song breathing at the lowest, limit of 
 his respiratory cap9,city. Now the expulsion of the 
 residual air from the chest demands a considerable. mus- 
 cular effort, which increases up to the point where the 
 lungs are emptied of all but their fixed air. In such 
 case the stream of air caflnot be propelled with sufficient 
 steadiness through the larynx, a wavering sound will.be 
 produced, and it will be evident to the audience that the 
 singer is straining himself. Such muscular straining, 
 of course, soon creates fatigue, and as the consequence 
 of a single mistake the singer may not regain his freedom 
 
PRINCIPLES 01' VOCAL CULTURE. 75 
 
 of Lreath through a whole song, or perhaps during the 
 length of an evening. . And such awkward naanagement 
 of the breath may be habitual with vocalists who have 
 not had the advantage of technical training, and they 
 may exhaust their lungs unnecessarily, through inex- 
 perience, on each occasion that they sing. 
 
 The converse of the preceding proposition may also 
 be considered, viz., the practice of filling the lungs too 
 full at each inspiration, and singing always with a chest 
 expanded almost to its vital capacity. The result here 
 is nearly similar to that just described. Powerful mus- 
 cular contractions are required in order to inflate the 
 chest to the utmost, and of course the chest-walls, when 
 released, tend to return with great force to their state 
 of normal equilibrium. Consequently, the command 
 over the current of air, to be thrown into sonorous 
 vibration as it passes the glottis, is lessened, and the 
 singer quickly becomes tired through over-exertion. 
 
 The foregoing remarks apply also to the speaker, 
 but not always with equal force. For the orator or 
 actor, during passionate declamation, may exhaust his 
 breath, whilst the evident severity of his labour will 
 only serve to constrain the attention and rouse the 
 feelings of the auditors, so as to impress them most 
 strongly with the importance or reality of the theme. 
 Yet the actor will perhaps do better by imitating vividly 
 the appearance of natural excitement, than if, by yielding 
 entirely to the force of his representation and identifying 
 himself with the presented character, he agitates and 
 tires his system as violently as if torn by the convulsions 
 of a veritable passion. For in the one case, indeed, he 
 
76 PRINCJPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 seems to practise that art which can conceal art, but in 
 the other to abandon himself to an irrational phrenzy. 
 And though the orator may sometimes allow himself to 
 be carried away by the depth and sincerity of his impulses 
 or the loftiness of his subject, on ordinary occasions, 
 sr.ch as lecturing, for example, on a scientific topic, he 
 must manage his breath with as much delicacy as a 
 singer. Because when the understanding alone of the 
 audience is addressed they will be more attentive to a 
 smooth and consecutive flow of sentences, whilst their 
 taste may be offended by an abrupt and gasping delivery. 
 
 Mode of Breathing. 
 
 We have seen that there are three sets of muscles 
 which are capable of enlarging the thoracic cavity in 
 different directions for inspii-ation. Now, in practising 
 respiration with the mind turned towards the mechanism 
 of the act, it is possible to use one or two of these sets 
 almost to the exclusion of the remaining respiratory 
 muscles, and it therefore happens that, on false theoretical 
 grounds, or by accidental proclivity, a vicious habit of 
 breathing, the so-called ' clavicular,' may be adopted. 
 Thus a departure occurs from what ought to be the 
 standard rule, i.e., to breathe always naturally and to fill 
 the chest in the manner which comes easiest. If this 
 simple rule were invariably adhered to, there would be 
 no occasion to compare the various kinds of breathing, 
 and to decide from physiological data which is the most 
 proper to be chosen. This question, however, must be 
 briefly discussed here, in order to show why clavicular 
 breathing should be generally prohibited. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 77 
 
 During abdominal respiration the expansion of the 
 thorax is obtained with the least expenditure of muscular 
 energy. The only muscle concerned is the diaphragm, 
 which descends by contraction, and thus shifts the lower 
 chest-wall farther down into the abdomen. The oppo- 
 sition to this act is but slight, as the only parts moved 
 are the abdominal viscera, which gravitation assists to 
 carry downwards. Therefore this mode of breathing 
 can be employed for a long time without fatigue, and 
 by man, in fact, for an indefinite period, because the 
 diaphragm, through constant action, gains an amount 
 of endurance practically inexhaustible. But in woman 
 the diaphragm is not brought so continually into play, 
 for physiological (obstetric) reasons, of which, however, 
 the potency, under ordinary circumstances, is probably 
 considerably over-estimated. We may, indeed, conclude 
 that the custom of confining the waist with a rigid cor- 
 set, which compels the upper part of the abdomen in 
 its whole circumference and probably the last two ribs 
 to inaction, has generally the greatest share in restrict- 
 ing the abdominal breathing of females. 
 
 Costal or lateral respiration, where most of the 
 ribs have to be raised en masse proportionately to the 
 increase required in the capacity of the chest, is accom- 
 panied by no small degree of musctdar effort. But, as 
 the ribs to be elevated are suflSciently mobile and not 
 hampered by superincumbent parts, this kind of breath- 
 ing can be accomplished to its fiill extent without any 
 excess of strain being put on the muscles engaged. 
 Consequently it forms a salutary exercise for the chest 
 and for the body generally, so that it may be practised 
 
78 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 habitually, though not exclusively, with advantage to 
 health. The respiratory capacity included in the range 
 of combined abdominal and costal breathing gives air 
 enough for all the requirements of the artistic exercise 
 of the voicei and a well-trained speaker or singer can 
 rarely be obliged to exceed such limits. 
 
 Clavicular respiration, as already stated, is per- 
 formed by a number of muscles Which are not primarily 
 intended to move the chest-walls. Their position and 
 attachments constitute a kind of respiratory reserve which 
 nature presses into service, if at any time an extra- 
 ordinary eflfort of breathing be demanded, or when dis- 
 ease obstructs the motions of the diaphragm or lower 
 ribs. And as these muscles act chiefly on the upper 
 ribs, which not only possess little mobility on account 
 of their size and stiff joints, but are, moreover, restrained 
 by the bones and soft parts of the shoulders and neck 
 being superimposed on them, clavicular breathing can 
 only be effected by a kind of a struggle. For the 
 muscles which are capable of lifting the shoulders off 
 the upper part of the chest must first contract before 
 room can be obtained for the elevation of the superior 
 ribs. The consequence of such labour is rapidly super- 
 vening fatigue, which is greatly disproportionate on the 
 side of excess to the trivial amount of respiratory move- 
 ments executed. Hence we can perceive the error and 
 injury of attempting to substitute clavicular breathing 
 for the more natural and facile methods. And it may 
 also be afiBrmed with confidence that no speaker or 
 singer can practise it to any extent without showing 
 a marked deficiency of endurance, which must lead to a 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 79 
 
 complete defeat of his strength if called on tb use his 
 voice for a lengthened period, such as when engaging 
 energetically in a protracted debate, sustaining a lead- 
 ' ing part in a five-act play, or singing through an opera. 
 Clavicular breathing is always betrayed by the 
 motion it necessarily gives to the shoulders, which are 
 alternately drawn up towards the ears and depressed. 
 Should the habit be formed, it must then be got rid of 
 by paying attention to keeping the shoulders immovable 
 during respiration. Any difficulty in attaining this ob- 
 ject may be surmounted by practising breathing with 
 the back to a wall having projecting ledges, which can 
 fix the shoulders and prevent their moving upwards, or 
 the same purpose may even be effected by crossing the 
 arms behind a chair and holding on to the rail behind.' 
 
 Respiratory Gymnastics. 
 
 Every action of the body accelerates the circulation, 
 and is also, therefore, an exercise for the chest, because 
 the more rapid flow of blood through the lungs causes 
 them to demand a larger supply of air. This demand 
 
 ' Mandl was the first to demonstrate the evil of clavicular breath- 
 ing — Gaaette medicale de Paris, 1855, pp. 244, 275, 294. Previously 
 many teachers of note actually encouraged this mode- of respiration, 
 and the Vsris Conservatoire promulgated the absurdity that in sing- 
 ing the breath should not be taken in the same manner as in speak- 
 ing. ' Quand on respire pour parler ou pour renouveler simpiement 
 I'air des poumons, le premier mouvement est celui de I'aspiration, 
 alors le ventre gonfle et sa partie post&ieure S'avance un peu. . . . 
 Au contraire, dans Taction de respirer pour chanter, en aspirant il 
 faut aplatir le ventre et le faire remonter aveo promptitude en 
 gonflant et avangant la poitrine.' — MHliode de chant du Conservatoire 
 de musipie, p. 2. 
 
8o PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 may, however, be met simply by quickened respiration, 
 so that instead of seventeen breaths in the minute, 
 thirty, forty, or even more may be taken. In such case 
 there is no influence at work which can increase the 
 lung capacity, and it therefore becomes necessary to or- 
 ganise a system of gymnastics with the direct object of 
 developing the chest. 
 
 The iirst point to which attention must be directed 
 is to obtain a proper position of holding the chest, 
 whereby the ribs may be allowed, as much as practi- 
 cable, a free and extensive mobility. For when the 
 muscles of the trunk are not vigorous, the various parts 
 which it is their oflBce to support are abandoned to 
 gravitation, and a stooping posture is maintained. Thus 
 the shoulders, with the arms dependent from them, droop 
 forward and lie passively on the top and upper parts of 
 the sides of the chest, whilst the spine, instead of pre- 
 serving its forward curve at the hinder part of the 
 abdomen (small of the back), relaxes to verticity, so as 
 to lower the thorax, laterally and in front, until the last 
 ribs rest on the pelvis (hips). In this way, as the pelvis 
 rests on a seat or through the legs on the ground, the 
 muscles are relieved in great part from their task of 
 sustaining the body erect. But, as a consequence, the 
 chest is built up in such a manner by its contiguous 
 structures that its osseous case is rendered nearly im- 
 mobile. 
 
 Hence it appears that the preliminary action in res- 
 piratory gymnastics should be to draw the shoulders 
 backwards, and to advance the chest forwards and 
 upwards, by giving the spine a strong forward curve 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 8i 
 
 at the, hinder part of the abdomen. At the same time 
 the arms should not be allowed to hang against the sides 
 of the chest. 
 
 The next proceeding should he to practise the dif- 
 ferent modes of breathing. The activity of the diar- 
 phragm, as evidenced by the power of protruding and 
 retracting the abdomen during inspiration and expi- 
 ration, whilst the ribs are retained nearly motionless, 
 should be encouraged. And when the pupil has drawn 
 a full abdominal breath, costal inspiration may follow, 
 and occasionally, at the last, the chest may be expanded 
 to the utmost by a clavicular effort. But the natural 
 sequence of the different kinds of respiration should 
 never be disturbed. It should be seen that the abdo- 
 men is first expanded, then the lower ribs, and only at 
 the extremity of inspiration should any motion of the 
 shoulders be permitted, so that the lungs may be in- 
 flated to the maximum extent. As a rule the exercise 
 should be restricted to the abdominal and costal breath- 
 ing ; but an occasional clavicular inspiration in its proper 
 place may be allowed, in order that the pupil, by being 
 accustomed to the highest limit of chest expansion, may 
 be enabled to practise the intermediate movements with 
 more facility. 
 
 Furthermore, it is important to observe that this 
 factitious breath-taking should not, especially at the 
 commencement of a course of training, be pushed too 
 far at each lesson. After every two or three efforts it 
 ought to be alternated with movements of the arms, 
 and with pacing up and down for a few steps with an 
 erect carriage. By thus engaging the pupil in a positive 
 
82 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 muscular exercise, a natural incentive is obtained to in- 
 creased respiration, and the breath training will, proceed 
 more effectually. Otherwise, to draw a number' of long 
 breaths for reasons that are purposeless., as rega;rds>the 
 immediate' requirements of the animal econoniy,;Canjiot 
 fail to upset the pulmonary and vascular equilibrium 
 and to produce a transient exhaustion.' 
 
 Management of the Vibrating Element 
 (Vocal Eeeds). 
 
 Whilst our knowledge of the physiology of the larynx 
 is incomplete, a considerable part of this division of our 
 subject must.be given up to empirical treatment, and 
 the ear must be guided, by results to act as chief arbiter 
 of the utility of many -practices relating to voice train- 
 ing. In all cases the ultimate appear must be to the 
 ear, but a basis for the successive steps of any process of 
 voice development must 'nevertheless be sought for in 
 physiology. Where such a basis is wanting, the result 
 often fails to justify the means adopted, and the obgect 
 which from the first "was aimed at is not attained. 
 
 The cultivation of the laryngeal' powers has for its 
 purpose, (1) to awgment the force of the aowndsihat 
 can be produced^ (2) to modify thevr tvmh're, (3) ip ex- 
 tend their com/pass, and (4) to increase th6 exBciUive 
 faculty of the laryngeal iriuscles. ' ' ' • 
 
 In training the speaking voite poWer and timbre 
 
 ' The most accurately systematised series of ,bie*t^ing zeroises, 
 very much in accordance with the' principles" enunciated in.the'tpxt, 
 will be found in Ifonroe's Vocal and Pliysioal Training, Philadelphia, 
 1869, p. 19 et seq. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 83 
 
 only, so far as the larynx is concerned, claim close at- 
 tention, because the sounds employed are concrete and 
 the range of pitch is limited. Thus the voice glides iip 
 and down without marking the intervals that form notes, 
 whilst its excursions seldom comprise the compass of an 
 octave. 
 
 In singing, on the contrary, discrete sounds are 
 emitted, so that changes of pitch are effected by leaps 
 of not less than a semitone,^ whilst tlie entire range of 
 notes of which the voice is capable is often traversed. 
 Hence every activity that the larynx possesses is called 
 into play, and the physical training of the organ is, 
 therefore, of a much more complicated description. 
 
 Force and, Timbre.^ 
 
 Force and timbre, as far as the vocal reeds are con- 
 cerned, may be treated of together, because in the larynx 
 they are practically inseparable, and only modifiable by 
 identical and simultaneous efforts. Force of voice de- 
 pends very much on the firmness and elasticity of the 
 vocal reeds and on the accuracy with which their op- 
 posing edges fit together, as they are thus most apt for 
 the isochronous vibration which is the characteristic of 
 
 • A glide, ca^eApoHameiito, is, however, occasionally admissible 
 in singing. Quarter tones are used in Oriental music. 
 
 2 Loudness of sound roay be considered as a compound quality, 
 constituted by two factors, viz., intensity and volume. In voice, 
 intensity is primarily governed by breadth of the- vocal bands, and 
 volume by capacity of the resonance chambers. In persons, therefore, 
 with a powerful voice the laryngoscope will show a remarkable width, 
 of the upper surfaces of the vocal reeds, and a, striking amplituds 
 of the pharynx, mouth, and nasal cavities will also be observed. In 
 the opposite case the appearances will be the reverse, 
 
 3 
 
84 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 musical tone. They must be homogeneous in density, 
 and the muscular contractions which hold them together 
 and regulate their tension must be exactly balanced, so 
 that all their parts may respond alike to the current of 
 air issuing from the lungs. Should their edges be un- 
 even, their substance hard in one spot and soft in another, 
 or their tension dissimilar on opposite sides, the pres- 
 sure of the air has a different effect according to the 
 part at which it strikes, irregular sets of vibrations are 
 generated, and, instead of a tone of fulness and volume, 
 a harsh, jarring sound, a mere noise in fact, is produced. 
 As far as physical inequalities of the vibrating element 
 are concerned these phenomena may be dismissed with- 
 out further notice here, because in the normal state the 
 vocal reeds are always homogeneous in structure and 
 symmetrical in form.' One of the chief causes of a 
 rough, unmusical voice is disparity of action between the 
 various pairs of laryngeal muscles. The tone of the 
 voice is, therefore, governed almost wholly by the will 
 of the speaker, and according to the delicacy of his ear 
 will be tuneful or the reverse. That the ear is mainly 
 instrumental in producing reCnement of vocal tone is 
 proved by the example of persons who, being born in- 
 curably deaf, have been taught to speak, as in such cases 
 the voice remains harsh to the highest degree. On this 
 account the voice becomes an index of mental and social 
 status, by which we can distinguish the uneducated from 
 persons of culture, as the aural perceptions are generally 
 
 ' All elevation of the edge of one of the vocal bands, causing an 
 unsteadiness of pitch when singing, sometimes exists without any 
 evidence of past, or present disease. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 85 
 
 in a state of development proportionate to that of the 
 other senses. 
 
 Persons in trying to speak with a sonorous voice too 
 frequently strain the muscles of the chest and pharynx 
 by violent efforts to expel the air with excessive force, 
 whilst the action of the vocal reeds is entirely disre- 
 garded. But the best way to fill a large hall is to con- 
 trive to press as many regular and ample vibrations as 
 possible into each syllable uttered,' on which account 
 the words should be somewhat more prolonged than in 
 ordinary conversation. In singing, though the same 
 fault may occur, it is guarded against to a great extent, 
 because so much more watchfulness is demanded over 
 the musical quality of the notes. 
 
 In voice practice, therefore, with the view of ob- 
 taining a full and pure tone, attention should at first 
 be mainly fixed on the laryngeal vibrations. For this 
 purpose the exercise of vocalisation, i.e., the exclusive 
 emission of vowel-sounds, as adopted by the old Italian 
 school of singing, and still kept up by many modern 
 teachers, seems most plausible. By this means the ob- 
 servation can be concentrated on the character of the 
 laryngeal tones without being turned aside at every 
 moment by other actions, because the vocal tube and 
 articulating organs either remain completely at rest or 
 execute very slight movements according as a single 
 vowel or a succession of vowels is employed. 
 
 An action of the vocal reeds, encouraged by many 
 
 ' Allowing, of course, for pitch. Apart from the choice of resonant 
 vowels, such is the only mode I can conceive physiologically of pro- 
 ducing the so-called ' orotund ' voice. 
 
8^ PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULIURE. 
 
 teachers of singing, and termed the ' stroke of the glot- 
 tis ' (cowp de glotte), appears well adapted to steady 
 the working of their muscles either for speecH or song. 
 Usually at the fceginning of pronation the vocal reeds 
 approach during expiration and commence to vibrate 
 as soon as they come near enough to interrupt without 
 absolutely breaking the continuity of the issuing stream 
 of air.' But in practising tte stroke of the glottis the 
 vocal reeds are first tightly approximated, so that a con- 
 densation of the air in the thoracic cavity precedes the 
 emission of tone^ which consequently commences by a 
 slight explosion, arising thus in a manner mechanically 
 similar to the explosive consonants. The notes begun 
 in this way strike the ear witli an initial sharpness of 
 definition and firmness of tone which add to their mu- 
 sical effect. This stroke of the glottis should, of course, 
 be produced without any more marked effort than occurs 
 in the pronunciation of p or 6 by the lips. To attain 
 the perfect execution of it the pupil should first learn 
 to explode the glottis on whispered vowels, for which 
 purpose the short u in up, as recommended by Monroe, 
 appears specially adapted. 
 
 Extension of Compass. 
 The extension of vocal compass may be obtained by 
 specially practising the voice at the extremes of its 
 
 ' In speaking, however, Helmhbltz, thinks the vocal bands act as 
 striking reeds. In holding the breath the ventricular bands are 
 brought together tightly and the- ventricles . axe inflated, as first 
 observed by Galen (apud Oribasium, lib. xxiv. cap. 9), and recently 
 confirmed by WyUie. The same action is probably necessary for the 
 proper execution of the covj) de glvtte as suggested by I.unn (op. cit.) 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 87 
 
 natural scale. If a gain in the lowest notes is desired, 
 it is necessary to produce an extraordinary relaxation of 
 the vocal reeds. As, however, there is great diflBculty 
 in making them vibrate harmoniously, or even at all, 
 when much slackened,' one or two notes will usually 
 represent the whole sum of success in this direction, hut 
 at the same time the tone of deep notes already existent 
 may be considerably developed. 
 
 At the top of the chest-register we have seen that a 
 kind of dead-lock occurs when the crico-thyroid chink is 
 closed and the opposing margins of the cartilages come 
 into contact. Hence it is evident that an ,almost insu- 
 perable obstacle exists in the way of pushing the voice 
 upwards in this register. To try to do so is to attempt 
 the compression of the dense cartilaginous material which, 
 if at all practicable, must call forth a hazardous amount 
 of muscular strain. As far as the vocal reeds are con- 
 cerned they would probably bear more tension than is 
 ever put on them ; but since the cartilages interfere, it 
 will doubtless be wisest to be content with improving 
 the qualities of the chest-notes actually possessed. When 
 this has been done, an upward gain of a semitone or 
 two will generally be found within easy reach. 
 
 To the upward extension of the falsetto register there 
 would appear to be less opposition, acoustic or physio- 
 logical, than in either of the instances just noticed. For 
 here, indeed, it seems that the vocal reeds should still be 
 able to vibrate strongly, though excessively shortened by 
 
 ' Miiller instances the deep croak of frogs to show what grave 
 tones can be drawn from short membranous reeds wHen greatly 
 relaxed, 
 
88 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 constrictive action, whilst the curtailment of their length 
 is not quickly checked by a mechanical impediment, but 
 is ruled more remotely by power of muscular contracti- 
 lity. And these considerations are practically exempli- 
 fied by the extraordinary falsetto range for which many 
 celebrated singers, mostly females, have been noted, 
 some of whom could attain to a pitch even an octave 
 above the usual limits of voice.' The main obstacle, 
 therefore, to the upward development of the voice in 
 this register must be sought for in the natural consti ■ 
 tution of the vocal organs with respect to vigour and 
 tonicity in various individuals. Should the pupil be 
 endowed with perfect soundness and strength of all the 
 parts engaged, an acquisition of two or three tones, or 
 even more, may be the reward of careful and assiduous 
 practice. Under the contrary conditions, however, the 
 vocal organs will break down under the strain if the 
 exercise be not kept strictly within the boundary pre- 
 scribed by the natural gifts. 
 
 Vocal Execution. 
 
 A rapid execution is probably more frequently a 
 
 positive acquirement than any other of the qualities 
 
 displayed in singing, and flexibility of voice may be 
 
 looked on as the special prize of diligent practice. The 
 
 • H.g., Mara could sing e"' ~f—^—- ; Catalani g"' -S- ; and 
 Agniari o"" Q . The last fact rests on the testimony of Mozart. 
 
 m 
 
 See Ktis, SiograpJde universelh des musiciens, Paris, 1860-66, sub 
 nominlbus. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 89 
 
 laryngeal muscles deserve to be signalised beyond all 
 others for power of making minute movements with 
 extraordinary exactitude — a property which is doubtless 
 derived from their being able to rely on so delicate a 
 guide as the ear. They can determine the amount- of 
 their contractions with the utmost precibion, and can 
 pass with preconception between degrees farthest apart 
 either instantly, through a succession of equal intervals, 
 or by the most complicated irregularity of distances, A 
 wide field is here open for the ingenuity of the com- 
 poser or teacher of singing to systematise solfeggi or 
 vocal exercises, which shall contain every possible tran- 
 sition between the various notes in ascending or descend- 
 ing the scale, commencing with the simplest movements, 
 and advaneipg insensibly to the greatest complexity. An 
 important point to be kept in view during this kind of 
 practice is to facilitate the passage from one register to 
 another by endeavouring to amalgamate the notes in the 
 vicinity of the break, especially those that can be sung 
 in either voice at will. It should, however, be carefully 
 ascertained at what points breaks actually do occur in 
 each voice that comes under notice. It cannot but be 
 injurious to force all voices indiscriminately to make a 
 change of register at one and the same position in the 
 musical scale. 
 
 Management op the Eesonance Appaeattis 
 (Vocal Tube). 
 
 The questions here involved relate mainly to pro- 
 nunciation of vowels. There are, however, some super- 
 
90 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 added qualitie?, individual or national, of vocal timbre 
 which may be treated of separately. Thus a guttural 
 or nasal character may be given to every vowel-sound, 
 though otherwise well defined, by an improper predo- 
 mina,nce of pharyngeal or nasal resonance. 
 
 In the first case the fault lies in the pharynx and 
 mouth not communicating by a sufficiently capacious 
 opening. The causes of such a condition depend either 
 on anatomical conforniation or on peculiar and habitual 
 muscular action. The tonsils may be enlarged so as to 
 block up the upper part of the pharynx, or the soft- 
 palate and uvula may be elongated, so as almost to reach 
 the posterior surface of the tongue. Or the individual 
 may be in the habit during speaking of maintaining the 
 tongue in a position arched upwards and backwards, so 
 that it approaches the soft-palate too closely, whilst there 
 may be at the same time an excessive contraction of the 
 muscles of the fauces. Under these circumstances the 
 laryngeal tones will be almost deprived of oral resonance, 
 and, not having a free passage for exit, will have a gut- 
 tural and muffled sound. In such instances the remedy 
 must be adapted to remove the cause, and if the tonsils 
 or uvula are abnormally large, a part of them may be 
 removed by a simple and momentary surgical operation. 
 And the effect of excision of the tonsils may not only be 
 to render the voice clear and sonorous, but may also 
 allow the compass to be extended one or two notes 
 higher.* For the action of the extrinsic muscles of the 
 
 ' It is stated that 'many of our greatest singers, from Madame 
 Eatti downwards, have undergone the operation ' with the heslj 
 results. — Bro-Fne, Medioal Bints on the Singing Voice, 1877, p. 30. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 91 
 
 larynx, which is so essential in the production of high 
 notes, is greatly impeded when the pharynx is blocked 
 up by an enormous pair of tonsils. But when the vicious 
 tone of the voice is due to injudicious management of 
 the muscles of the tongue and pharynx, a course of gym- 
 nastic training of the parts will soon induce them to the 
 habitual assumption of the proper positions. 
 
 With respect to excess of nasal timbre, its causes are 
 also twofold, and it may arise from a deficiency of the 
 soft-palate, which renders the occlusion of the posterior 
 nares impossible, or it may be simply the result of an 
 imperfect action of the same organ. In the former 
 instance the fault will often be irremediable as far as 
 regards purity of tone ; but when it is merely a question 
 of muscular control, the pupil should be made to observe 
 the action of the soft-palate, and to practise its elevation 
 before a mirror. If, at the same time, the attention of 
 the ear is thoroughly awakened, the voice may soon be 
 freed from the objectionable timbre. 
 
 Another point which deserves notice here relates to a 
 practice by no means uncommon, viz., the keeping the 
 teeth shut during speaking or singing. A considerable 
 loss of resonance is the consequence, because the cavity 
 of the mouth is never placed in the best position for 
 reinforcing the laryngeal tones, and also because the 
 sound-waves cannot issue with sufficient freedom to the 
 external air. It is only necessary to recognise the habit, 
 where existent, in order that the inclination to it may 
 be overcome by the will. 
 
92 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 Management of the Articulating Okgans. 
 Yowd Timbre. 
 
 We have seen that the difference between the various 
 vowel-sounds is not one of kind, but merely of degree, 
 and that they depend on the pitch of the note proper 
 to the resonance cavity formed by the pharynx and 
 mouth. As this cavity can be reduced by infinite gra- 
 dations from its greatest to its least capacity, whilst the 
 procession of vowels used in any one language advances 
 by steps of about an octave, it follows that the lowest 
 can be made to pass insensibly into the highest through 
 all the other members of the series successively. It is, 
 therefore, possible to produce as many vowels as will 
 correspond to each note, or rather degree of pitch, ob- 
 tainable from the vowel-cavity. According as our ear 
 recognises them to approach nearest to one or another 
 of the vowels familiar to us, we class them as varieties 
 of those they most resemble. Hence arises mainly the 
 endless diversity of pronunciation observed in indivir 
 duals, provincials, and nationalities. 
 
 With these facts in view it is easy to understand 
 how many shades of timbre the voice can be made to 
 yield at will. Of these some add sonorousness, some 
 brightness, others softness ; whilst others, again, are 
 disagreeable. Thus, in the emission of a (as in father) 
 the fullest volume of vocal tone can be generated, be- 
 cause the dimensions of the buccal cavity and the size 
 of the oral aperture are most favourable to the formation 
 of strong vibrations. And for the reverse reasons the 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 93 
 
 vowel e (ee in /eet) deprives the lower tones of the voice 
 of power, though, on account of its sharpness, it renders 
 high notes penetrating. The choice, however, of vowels, 
 or modifications of them, is a complex matter which 
 must be decided by the taste of the pupil or his teacher.' 
 It is sufficient to have indicated here the principles on 
 which change of vocal timbre is made. In accordance 
 with these principles, an exercise may be devised for 
 practising the enunciation of all the grades of vowel 
 timbre. A good imderstanding of the state of the vocal 
 tube for the different vowels, and the custom of direct- 
 ing the attention to it, will greatly facilitate the accu- 
 rate imitation of the peculiar vowels found in foreign 
 languages. 
 
 Consona/tita. 
 
 A rapid and well-defined pronunciation of the various 
 consonants, either in speaking or singing, requires a con- 
 siderable amount of lingual and labial dexterity. The 
 tongue or lips may be naturally clumsy and awkward in 
 their movements or the reverse. In order to attain to 
 a good execution in articulating consonants, it is usually 
 only necessary to practise the utterance of numbers of 
 syllables containing every pronounceable combination 
 and succession of them * under the empirical guidance 
 of the ear. But, of coiu-se, a correct idea of the posi- 
 tions of the parts concerned in the formation of each 
 letter wiU render the task more easy. In a certain 
 
 ■ See Ellis, PronimciaUanfor Sm^ers, 1877. 
 " See Hullah, op. clt. Appendix, and Bell's Standa/rA Hhoutionist, 
 p. 29. 
 
94 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 class of persons, however, the action of the vocal organs 
 is specially defective, so that speech, even for oriiinary 
 purposes, becomes a matter of great, and occasionally of 
 almost insuperable, difficulty. This leads us to the 
 consideration of defects of speech. 
 
 Stcmim&rmg and Stuttering, or Psdlism. 
 
 Such affections have been well known from the ear- 
 liest times, and are often alluded to by Hippocrates;' 
 but nevertheless it is only within the present century 
 that systematic endeavours have been made to discover 
 their causes, and to invent suitable modes of treatment. 
 Already considerable success has been attained with 
 respect to the latter object, although no wholly satisfac- 
 tory explanation of their intrinsic nature has yet been 
 furnished to us. It is evident, however, that a multi- 
 plicity of causes are at work, and that the disability of 
 any of the organs of voice, from the chest to the lips, is 
 sufficient to disturb the consentaneous action of the en- 
 tire series, and produce the phenomena of psellism. 
 
 Stammering may be defined to be indistinctness of 
 pronunciation, arising from the letters of the alphabet 
 not being properly formed by the organs of articulation. 
 It most frequently arises from a muscular defect, giving 
 rise to a clumsiness in getting the tongue round one or 
 more letters, which are, therefore, so imperfectly enun- 
 ciated as to be unrecognisable ; or one letter may even 
 be habitually substituted for another ; or the difficulty 
 may only be in combining the sounds of certain letters. 
 ' Praceptiones, c, 6 ; Aphorismi, s. vi. 32 ; etc 
 
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 95 
 
 In some cases stammering may te the result of mere 
 carelessness or too great eagerness in speaking, so that 
 the words are clipped and successive syllables are allowed 
 to run into one another in a c-onfused manner. In a few 
 instances, however, a decided malformation of the speech 
 organs exists, such as cleft-palate, abnormal enlargement 
 of the tonsils, or shortness of the frcBnwm, linguce. A 
 classification of stammering has been attempted accord- 
 ing to the character of the defect noticed in dififerent 
 cases. Thus faulty pronunciation of g is termed gam- 
 macism, of I, lambdadsm, of r, rhotadsm, of j, iota~ 
 cism, lisping, sigrnatism, etc. 
 
 The treatment of stammering is simple and obvious. 
 The pupil should be made to repeat the alphabet slowly, 
 and a note taken of every letter that is iU-formed, and 
 he should also be made to read aloud. From such ex- 
 perience, a series of suitable exercises in pronunciation 
 miist be given him to practise. The instructor should 
 be a good practical orthoepist, and should see that the 
 tongue, lips, etc., are put in the proper position for each 
 letter. He should show the pupil, in his own person, 
 the action of the articulating organs, and desire him to 
 imitate them. If the stammering arises from hasty and 
 impetuoiis speech, a slow and distinct delivery must be 
 inculcated. Of coui-se, if there is a malformation, sur- 
 gical assistance must be sought. 
 
 Stuttering ' is a much more important disprdei? and 
 more complicated in its physiological relations.. Here 
 
 ' The distinction, between stammering and stuttering ; is nof 
 always accurately drawn, and the terms are often employed intev- 
 changeaWy both in speaking and writing. 
 
96 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 we have rapid repetitions of a letter, usually one of the 
 explosive consonants, convulsive stoppages of articula- 
 tion, and sometimes even contortions of the face and 
 limbs before the utterance of each sentence, or possibly 
 of every word. Notwithstanding the attention that 
 many eminent observers have given to these pheno- 
 mena, their nature is still in great part obscured, and 
 conflicting theories are held by some of the most exact 
 investigators. 
 
 The subject of psellism has been dealt with by a 
 crowd of authors, each of whom has classified the sub- 
 ject and modified the treatment in accordance with his 
 own peculiar mental bias. Of these Hunt ' may be 
 cited as the writer of the most elaborate and systematic 
 treatise. But the most able and important of the recent 
 literary contributions in this field is due to Gruillaume,^ 
 who, from having suffered himself, has had special prac- 
 tical advantages in studying the affection. The measures 
 in which he places his confidence are, (1) keeping the 
 tongue steadily raised to the palate, (2) taking an ample 
 inspiration at the beginning of each sentence, and (3'^ 
 careful attention to ensure correct movements of the 
 lips. He further counsels the use, when necessary, of a 
 small wedge to keep the teeth apart, and dwells with 
 considerable weight on the practice of whispering ex- 
 ercises. 
 
 From observation of various cases and examination 
 of the chief theories that have been propounded relative 
 
 ' A TreaUie on Starrrniermg and Stuttering, London, 1870. 
 " IHeUon/nmre Eneyclopedigv.e de> Scienoes Midicales. Paris, 
 1868, art. Begtdement, 
 
•PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. -97 
 
 to stuttering and the modes of treatment that have been 
 adopted, it is manifest that the affection is one of great 
 .complexity, and to which, according to circumstances, 
 diverse remedies must be applied with considerable 
 judgment. Thus, to summarise the subject as far as 
 practicable, we see that five principal groups of muscles 
 may be implicated, separately or in various combina- 
 tions, viz., the muscles (1) of the chest, (2) of the la- 
 rynx, (3) of the tongue, (4) of the jaw, and (5) of the 
 lips. And the nature of the disorder may be either 
 spasmoddc, so that the muscles take up a fixed position 
 which can only be overcome by a strong and often pro- 
 longed effort of the will ; or choreic, so that when called 
 on to act they perfonn a series of eccentric and involun- 
 tary movements instead of being instantly subservient 
 to the wish of the speaker. And beyond all this, there 
 is still a mental influence, a nervousness or timidity, 
 which must be banished before the vocal organs can be 
 ruled by the volition into a perfectly concerted action. 
 Hence the first object in treating a case must be to ob- 
 tain the co-operation of the pupil, and his anxiety must 
 be aroused to conquer the defect. This done, a great 
 step in advance will have been made, as is evidenced by 
 the fact that a marked amelioration of stuttering usually 
 occurs on arrival at adult age, whilst occasionally the 
 affection quite disappears about that time of life. This 
 circumstance no doubt arises from the awakening of the 
 reasoning faculties and the confirmation of the powers of 
 th^ mind, which then assumes a more discretionary con- 
 trol over the impulses of the body. As soon as the pupil 
 has been engaged to assist the teacher with his own endea- 
 
 H 
 
98 PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL CULTURE. 
 
 vours, an attempt to discover the main spring of the 
 disorder may be made, and such of the exercises above 
 mentioned as seem most suitable to the case put in prac- 
 tice. The system of Gruillaume promises the best results ; 
 but every voice-trainet will have to draw largely- on his 
 own judgment, and, in the present state of our know- 
 ledge, empiricism will sometimes guide most directly 
 to the desired end. - - 
 
 The originating causes of stuttering are not well 
 ascertained, and in many eases where it appears to date 
 from infancy it can only be attributed to some acci- 
 dental organic defect. But sex predisposes very markedly 
 to the affection, and a striking majority of the examples 
 met with occur in males. Thus, of all the instances ob- 
 served by Colombat and Hunt, only about 10 or 12 per 
 cent, were females. The latter author also endeavoured 
 to discover the origin of 200 cases that he treated, and 
 found that 7^ per cent, dated from convalescence after 
 illness, such as fever, measles, whooping-cough, etc. ; 
 5 per cent, were the result of fright or ill-usage at 
 school ; 4 per cent, were caused by voluntary, and 9 per 
 cent, by involuntary, imitation ; 10 per cent, were stated 
 to be inherited from the father, and 5 per cent, from the 
 mother ; whilst the remainder, 49^ per cent., cottld not 
 be accounted for. 
 
 The numerical relation of stutterers to the whole 
 population is reckoned by Colombat to average about 
 1 to 5,397. Hunt, however, and some other, observers 
 make the proportion much higher, viz., 3 p6r 1,000, 
 
99 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 SPECIAL HYGIENE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS — GENERAL 
 HYGIENE IN ITS RELATION TO THE VOICE. 
 
 Sccype of the subject. — The relations of the voice to 
 the general health of the body are of the most intimate 
 and complete description. The hygiene of the voice in 
 its fullest sense is, therefore, the hygiene of the whole 
 animal economy; an'dthe spirit of the well-known pro- 
 verb, which sets forth how closely is interwoven the in- 
 tegrity of mind and of body, might with equal propriety 
 be applied to the voice in the form of ' vox sana in 
 corpore sano.'' At the same time, however,, the voice, 
 like the mind, has a sphere of its own, within which it 
 may be affected, for good or ill, without immediate re- 
 ference to the state of the constitution. Hence its 
 sanity may be treated of under the twofold aspects of 
 a general and a special hygiene. The latter, as the 
 more immediate, though less familiar and less inves- 
 tigated, may be first discussed. 
 
 Special Hygiene ot the Vocal Organs. 
 
 In this section we may consider how far the state 
 of the vocal organs with respect to soundness and vigour 
 
 P 2 
 
loo THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 may te influenced by their own actions, i.e., by the ex- 
 ercise, moderated or exaggerated, of the voice ; whilst 
 at the same time some appropriate rules may be laid 
 down of preservative and remedial hygiene. In the 
 professional use of the voice the parts concerned are 
 urged to perform their functions to a much higher 
 degree than is ever exacted by the ordinary exigencies 
 of social life, and they are, therefore, subjected to a 
 marked intensifying of the conditions, both intrinsic 
 and extrinsic, under which they usually act, whence 
 a signal alteration may be effected in their physical 
 structures. 
 
 Voice is generated mainly as the result of two con-^ 
 secutive and specially combined movements, the one 
 primary and vital, namely, activity of muscle, the 
 other secondary and material, viz., motion of air. To ' 
 these two relations may be traced all the physiological 
 effects of vocal exercise. 
 
 Direct Results of Muscular Actwity. 
 
 The systematised daily use of the various groups of 
 muscles called into action during phonation impels them 
 to gain in size and strength as long as the efforts made 
 do not exceed from time to time their proper powers. 
 Hence follows increasing ease in performing the respi- 
 ratory functions and extension of the initial faculties of 
 mobility of the larynx and articulating apparatus. The 
 nutrition of the local muscles and all the contiguous 
 structures is carried on with more than ordinary energy ; 
 tJiey glow with health and their growth is accelerated. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. loi 
 
 Precisely the opposite phenomena are produced by 
 over-exertion. In this case the muscles become exhausted 
 and diminished in bulk and vigour because the waste 
 of their tissues entailed by the excessive action is pressed 
 beyond the reparative powers of the vital forces, and 
 fresh material cannot be laid down in an equal quan- 
 tity to that which passes away as effete. At the point 
 when labour becomes inordinate fatigue is felt, and 
 rest becomes a necessity, whilst in the interval of ces- 
 sation from work the parts that had suffered from 
 too much wear and tear are restored to their normal 
 state. 
 
 Over-exertion may be of two kinds. Thus it may 
 consist in sudden and violent effort, or in a prolongation 
 of ordinary movements until endurance is completely 
 spent. In the former case the harm partakes more of 
 the nature of an injury ; some of the tender fibrils of 
 the muscle, and of the minute blood-vessels or capillaries 
 which traverse it, may be torn across. Hence there may 
 be soreness, pain, and swelling, or even inflammation, 
 the results in fact commonly recognised as occurring 
 from a strain or sprain. Eecovery from such a condi- 
 tion is often protracted. In violent vocal efforts the 
 muscles engaged may suffer in this way, whence the 
 chest may for some time after feel sore to the touch 
 and during respiration. But the muscles most likely 
 to be strained are those of the larynx, because they are 
 called on to contract very forcibly in order that the 
 vocal bands may resist by their steady approximation 
 the impetuous rush of air from the lungs. Hence 're- 
 sults what is sometimes spoken of as ' a strain of the 
 
102 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 vocal cords.' ' Such an accident is soon betrayed by 
 hoarseness, which, however, generally disappears spon- 
 taneously after a few days of rest. But weakness of 
 voice may often be a troublesome symptom for a con- 
 siderable time. 
 
 The consequences of persistent speaking or singing, 
 in spite of great fatigue being felt, are somewhat similar 
 to those jiist described, but of a less pronounced cha- 
 racter. On single occasions, therefore, recovery is usually 
 rapid and complete after a short interval of repose. The 
 evils, however, to be here considered are those attendant 
 on repeated and habitual exertion of the vocal organs 
 beyond the enduring power of the individual. In such 
 instances the fundamental cause at work is generally 
 some vice of : voice-production — that is to say, a well- 
 trained voice can seldom suffer from over-fatigue, be- 
 cause the vocalist has learned by precept and experience 
 how to make the best of his natural gifts. Thus, even 
 a feeble voice can be saved, by judicious management, 
 from the consequences of oft-repeated fatigue. Such a 
 result depends mainly on well-regulated respiration and 
 attention to the formation of the laryngeal tones.* But 
 when clavicular or other improper modes of breathing 
 
 ' Positive strains of the voice are now rarely met with, but were 
 common enough in classical times, when the plwnasci had to force 
 their voice to the utmost in order to fill the enormous theatres, 
 Thus Galen : ' Phonasci, qui magno vocis exercitio utuntur, quum 
 conteudendo oblseserint vocem. . . . balneis mnltis utuntur, et olbos 
 lenes, ac laxantes ednnt.' — Se Com/positione PlMitiiOfOomm secundwn 
 Locos, 1. vii. c. 1. According to Q. Serenus Sammonicus, Hortensius 
 strained and permanently lost his voice from declaiming intempe- 
 rately in the Eoman forum, — PrcBoepta de Medioina, c, 16, 
 
 » See last Chapter, 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 103 
 
 are employed, the muscles of the chest-walls soon become 
 tired out. And the evil tends to augment on every sub- 
 sequent occasion, because the use of the voice, instead 
 of being a tonic exercise for the chest, becomes a debi- 
 litating one. Hence the voice loses in fulness and 
 steadiness, and becomes weak and trembling. So far, 
 then, a radical exhaustion of the respiratory muscles 
 sets in, and this is one phase in the convergence of con- 
 tingencies under which a voice may be worn out. 
 
 But the most striking and frequent troubles are 
 those which follow faulty usage of the laryngeal and 
 pharyngeal muscles. Wlien the individual, instead of 
 throwing his vocal bands into even and ample vibration 
 by equable and carefully-moderated expiration, conti- 
 nually resorts to blowing a powerful blast of air through 
 the glottis, both the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of 
 the larynx must be maintained in an almost constant 
 state of vigorous contraction. Under these circum- 
 stances, as in all overtaxed muscles, the overplus of 
 effete products generated by the exertion cannot be re- 
 moved readily by the proper channels, but accumu- 
 lates. ■ As a consequence, the substance of the muscles 
 becomes turgid, the capillary vessels traversing it are 
 partially obstructed, and much of the blood sent to the 
 part, instead of flowing through measuredly, collects 
 there and increases the intumescence. Such is the 
 condition generally described as congestion. When oc- 
 curring in the laryngeal or pharyngeal muscles, hoarse- 
 ness invariably results, because the delicate movements 
 necessary to regiolate the tension and approximation of 
 the vocal bands are clogged and cannot be executed with 
 
104 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 precision. Unequal vibrations are therefore produced. 
 At the same time, there may be little or no appearances 
 of disease, because the mucous membrane which forms 
 the surface and invests the affected muscles may remain 
 intact. Such, when induced by fatigue of the voice, 
 appears to be the incipient stage of the malady, for- 
 merly called Dysphonia dericorum, or clergyman's sore 
 throat, but now, through a better knowledge of its etio- 
 logy and nattire, more properly termed ' glandular sore 
 throat.' 
 
 After repeated congestions, however, the mucous 
 membrane becomes deeply implicated, and more or less 
 chronicity then characterises the disease. In this stage 
 its chief features consist in the swelling of numerous 
 minute glands,' which dot the surface of the larynx and 
 pharynx. Their office is to secrete and discharge the 
 lubricating fluid which is so essential to keep the inside 
 of the throat moist and supple. As soon as they parti- 
 cipate in the congestion, their orifices become choked 
 and the fluid collects in them. They then appear like 
 granules or small grains of shot, studding the surface of 
 the mucous membrane. Still later on the secretion dis- 
 tends them to such an extent that they re-open or burst, 
 so as to let it exude. It has then become so altered 
 from its natural state, being thickened and of a chalky 
 whiteness, that it remains at the opening whence it 
 issues as a small white patch, or even projects or hangs 
 down from it like the end of a white thread. 
 
 The symptoms of sensation which accompany these 
 
 ' Called 'racemose,' from their resemblance to a miniature, 
 cluster of grapes. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 105 
 
 J)henomena are a feeling of irritation or pricking, heat, 
 and slight soreness in the throat. A short cough is 
 sometimes present. 
 
 The effects on the voice are marked, and generally 
 destructive as regards its artistic use. Hoarseness, more 
 or less pronounced, is present, and singers especially com- 
 plain of a loss of their high notes. This latter conse- 
 quence arises from the thickening of the mucous mem- 
 brane, which in the larynx prevents the vocal bands 
 from being properly approximated and tensed, and in 
 the pharynx interferes with the action of the extrinsic 
 muscles, which draw up the larynx and fix and compress 
 the wings of the thyroid cartilage. 
 
 A less frequent consequence of abuse of the vocal 
 powers is to provoke the growth of polypi, or warts, on 
 or near the vocal reeds. Such new formations are likely 
 to be engendered by tissues which are irritated by being 
 kept in a state of constant congestion. So with the larynx 
 when the voice is frequently over-exerted. The existence 
 of anything of the kind in the larynx is almost imme- 
 diately felt by the singer, because so slight an alteration 
 in the normal condition of the parts disturbs the forma- 
 tion of the high notes. But the speaker may often go 
 on until the growth attains a considerable size without 
 suffering much inconvenience. If not properly reme- 
 died, polypi of the larynx sometimes lead to complete 
 loss of voice. 
 
 Influences of Aerial Motion, 
 
 "We have already seen how a violent effort of the ex- 
 piratory muscles is transmitted by the body of air in the 
 
io6 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 chest so as to provoke a tantamount action of those of 
 the larynx. Thus, the one set of muscles strives to 
 expel, and the other to confine, the current of breath, 
 
 A further phenomenon of such compression of air in 
 the thoracic cavity has to be considered here, viz., its 
 effect on the lungs themselves. In this connection we 
 find another cause of loss of respiratory power ; for the 
 delicate air-cells of the lungs yield suddenly or gradfiia;lly 
 before, the pressure and become dilated. The conse- 
 quence is immediate laceration and subsequent oblite- 
 ration of the complex arrangements of fine blood-vessels 
 on their walls which necessarily exist in order to allow of 
 the performance of the essential pulmonary functions.-' 
 By such an occurrence a portion of the lung is irre- 
 coverably lost as regards respiration, and if the injury 
 is at all extensive a decided dyspnoea, or shortness of 
 breath, results, which of course may be translated into 
 an equivalent diminution of vocal power. 
 
 The 'mod,& of inspiration adopted or necessitated in 
 speaking or singing, as already dwelt' on in one connec- 
 tion, forms one of the most important hygienic relations 
 of professional voice practice. It has still, however, to 
 be dealt with under another aspect, which draws our at- 
 tention to the distinction between breathing through' 
 the nose or mouth. As a rule, we inspire through the 
 nose, and there are cogent reasons why that method of 
 breathing should be regarded as beneficial and pro- 
 tective. 
 
 In the first place, the atmosphere is almost always 
 much colder than the blood, and for this reason, if it 
 were allow Dd to impinge in a direct current on the; 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 107 
 
 lining membrane of the air-passages or lung-cells, such 
 a disturbance of function would be likely to ensue 
 as would lead to inflammation of those parts. It is 
 therefore indicated that the air, before arriving in the 
 windpipe and lungs, should be warmed. This require* 
 ment is usually fulfilled by the nose. For as the breath 
 is drawn through the several narrow nasal channels, into 
 which each nostril subdivides, its temperature is consi- 
 derably augmented, and by the time that it has passed 
 down the whole length . of the pharynx to the larynx it 
 has arrived nearly at blood-heat. 
 
 In the next place, the atmosphere is full of impuri- 
 ties which ought to be eliminated from it before it passes 
 into the interior of the body. As maybe seen in a sun- 
 beam, numberless particles of an infinite smallness are 
 continually floating around usj and these being collected 
 and examined by the microscope are found to consist of 
 substances derived from every kingdora of nature. The 
 fine dust of metals and of minerals is mingled with the 
 pollen grains of the highest orders of plants, with the 
 germs of the very simplest forms of vegetation, algse 
 and fungi, and even with the living bodies of minute 
 animalcules,* The air is also contaminated by diverse 
 gaseous emanations, such as the carbonic acid proceed- 
 ing from animal respiration, putrid effluvia from drains, 
 
 ' See Parkes, Ma/rmal of Pi-aotical Hygiene, p. 93. The air is so 
 crowded with active germs that if a vessel of the purest water he 
 left exposed to it, it will soon swarm with "countless growing atoms 
 ef animal and plant life; to such an extent,- that formerly it was 
 believed that the agency at work Could be none other than spon- 
 taneous generation. See Tyndall, On Dust and Disease, in Frag' 
 tnents of Science, 1876, p. 126, 
 
io8 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 marsh miasmata, etc., and .by various subtile essences, 
 incapable of being recognised by scientific tests, gene- 
 rated by diseased processes in the human body. The 
 atmosphere forms, therefo'-e, a rich reservoir whence 
 injurious matters may find their way into the animal 
 economy. In passing through the nose, however, the 
 air becomes very much purified, because almost all dust 
 is arrested in the narrow and tortuous meatus, especially 
 so on account of the lining membrane (pituitary) being 
 generally covered with a superabundance of fluid secre- 
 tion in which the foreign particles may a'lhere and 
 accumulate, and with which they may be afterwards 
 expelled from the body. 
 
 Such facts indicate clearly that nasal inspiration 
 exerts an important protective power, Local and general, 
 over the health. Hence we can understand the fervour 
 with which Professor Tyndall exclaims that if he could 
 leave a perpetual legacy to mankind he would embody 
 it in the words, ' Keep your mouth shut.' But in ad- 
 dressing an audience it is difficult, and in singing pro- 
 bably impossible, to avoid inspiring habitually through 
 the open mouth. Because, as before pointed out,' in 
 the professional use of the voice, in order that expiration 
 may be prolonged as much as possible, the lungs must 
 be inflated to a much greater extent than in ordinary 
 breathing. And at each inspiration the replenishment 
 of the chest must be effected by a rapid gush through 
 the mouth, because the nostrils will only permit the 
 passage of a small stream of air. Under these circum- 
 stances the inside of the throat, and perhaps the lungs, 
 
 ' See page 74, 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 109 
 
 may suffer in three ways, i.e. (1) from the coldness of 
 the air, (2) from its drying influence as it russbes in a 
 large body over the mucous membrane, which in this 
 situation does not, like that of the nose, contain glands 
 suflBciently active and numerous to keep the surface 
 moist if exposed to a moving atmosphere, and (3) from 
 lodgment of dust. By such pernicious influences the 
 mucous membrane is irritated and may become con- 
 gested^ whilst the muscles beneath lose their vigour and 
 become relaxed. Hence arises sore and relaxed throat 
 which interferes with the activity of the vocal organs 
 and deteriorates the qualities of the voice ; or trouble- 
 some dryness, causing stiffness of the throat, may be 
 produced with equally damaging results as regards voice. 
 And according to some observers, breathing through the 
 mouth is a principal exciting clause of glandular sore- 
 throat. For the muciparous glands, before mentioned, 
 suffer from the congestion of the mucous membrane in 
 which they are situated, and also because they are 
 stimulated to an abnormal excess of function in order 
 to preserve the rapidly drying surface in a state of 
 moisture. Thus they inflame, swell, become choked, 
 and present all the phenomena described in the last 
 section. 
 
 The foregoing observations make it plainly visible 
 that every precaution should be taken in order to reduce 
 to a minimum the evil of inspiring through the mouth. 
 In speaking, the nostrils will usually furnish enough air, 
 unless in occasional declamations where great vehemence 
 is demanded. That the orator will find assiduous atten- 
 tion to breathing through the nose, whenever practi- 
 
no THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 cable, a most effective agent for the preservation of his 
 voice, may be considered as proved by experience on th^ 
 testimony of numerous eminent teachers of elocution.^ 
 We even find that in the last century the knowledge of 
 this hygienic fact, then only recc^ised by experts, was 
 believed to be of such value to the professional speaker, 
 that it was often sold for a large sum under a pledge of 
 ■secrecy.* 
 
 To the singer, nasal breathing is of equal moment, in 
 order to maintain the sanity of the throat and the purity 
 of the voice. The exigencies of vocal melody, however, 
 scarcely allow of any exception to the rule that inspi- 
 ration must always be performed rapidly through the 
 mouth. Nevertheless, this disadvantage of the singer, 
 as contrasted with the orator, is counterbalanced by the 
 fact that, whereas a speech or lecture may entail inces- 
 sant use of the voice for a couple of hours or more, a 
 eong rarely lasts more than a few minutesj and even 
 the most arduous rble in an opera is composed of de- 
 tached songs, between which there are usually ample 
 intervals of rest. In such intervals, the mucous mem- 
 brane of the throat has an opportunity to return to its 
 natural state, if it has become in any degree irritable or 
 dry during singing. The vocalist should remember this 
 fact, so that when off the scene or platform, he may not 
 engage too much in conversation, especially if he has 
 any throat sensations which indicate irritation of the 
 part. He should also be on his guard against beiflg 
 led into the habit of breathing constantly through the 
 
 ' See Plamptre, Kinq's College Lectures m Elocntion, 1876, p. 69, 
 '• « Ibid. p. 62, 
 
IHE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. iil 
 
 ■mouth, because compelled to do so while singing his 
 ■part» Inattention to these matters has doubtless been 
 .the ruin of many good singers, and it is only those gifted 
 'by nature with excessive strength, constitutional and of 
 -the vocal organs, who can sometimes afford to disregard 
 them and escape with impunity.' Such rare examples, 
 however, should not be allowed to mislead others into 
 running unnecessary risk. 
 
 Singers should generally beware of singing in the 
 open. air, especially in cold or damp weather. Singing 
 on the water in the evening has sometimes been followed 
 by disastrous consequences as regards the voice. 
 
 Simple Voice Remedies with Local Action. 
 
 Almost all persons who use the voice professionally 
 resort to swallowing from time to time some local ap- 
 plication, with the view of keeping the throat cool and 
 moist whilst speaking or singing. Such remedies usually 
 partake more of a dietetic than of a Qiedicinal nature, 
 and vary according to the taste and fancy of the indi- 
 vidual. It is only certain that the irritation of the 
 throat, caused by its exercise and exposure, can be re- 
 lieved and the vocal powers assisted, by bringing some 
 
 ' It is a well-observed fact that the greatest singers rarely have 
 anything the matter with their voices, and it is equally well assured 
 tha.t this is not always to be attributed to the judicious care which 
 tliey take of their health. They owe their pre-eminence chiefly to 
 great physical strength and soundness of the vocal organs, and to 
 the same cause may be ascribed this comparative immunity from 
 disease. The vocalists who suffer most are those of medium rank, 
 sometimes from carelessness and faulty voice-production, sometimes 
 from the natural tone of the vooa;l organs being unequal to the tax 
 J)ut on them by prof essipnal singing, 
 
112 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 suitable substance in contact with the mucous mem- 
 brane at proper intervals. Slight throat symptoms, aris- 
 ing from tiring the voice, are also frequently treated in 
 a homely fashion by some popular medicaments or nos- 
 trums, A few remarks and recommendations are, there- 
 fore, called for here respecting these classes of remedies. 
 
 At the head of the list stands the traditional glass of 
 cold water of the speaker. Notwithstanding its simpli- 
 city, I am inclined to believe that sipping of cold water 
 is one of the worst habits that could be contracted with 
 the object of keeping the voice in good order. My rea- 
 sons for arriving at this decision are two. In the first 
 place, when the throat is dry the wetting power of water 
 is very slight, because it will scarcely adhere to a parched 
 mucous membrane. Secondly, if there is congestion of 
 the throat, as betrayed by a feeling of heat, the effect 
 of a douche of cold water is ultimately to increase that 
 congestion, for the blood is only momentarily driven 
 away, and returns in a few minutes, by reaction, in a 
 larger quantity. The familiar example of the cold bath, 
 which is generally the best of all possible means for mak- 
 ing the skin glow, will illustrate this point. In the case 
 of the throat, a temporary relief is of course experienced, 
 but reactive congestion quickly sets in, and the demand 
 for a draught of cold water is greater than ever. For 
 these considerations, therefore, I think it advisable that 
 orators should discard the use of cold water whilst 
 speaking. 
 
 Better than plain cold water, is the eau auerSe, that 
 is such a favourite beverage with the French, or gum- 
 water, rice-water, whey, milk, or thin beef tea, as occa- 
 
7Hii: HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 113 
 
 sionally used by some speakers. Nor can we disapprove 
 of the tragacanth draughts' to which the ancient sophists 
 had recourse, because all these liquids have some con- 
 sistency and an adhesive power, so that after they are 
 drunk, the lining membrane of the throat may be covered 
 and protected for some little time by a thin, moist film. 
 But, under all circumstances, the coldness should be got 
 rid of, and whatever is drunk during speaking, or in the 
 intervals of singing, should have a temperature near, but 
 below, that of the body, viz., 98° Fahr., or at least it 
 should not be colder than 60° Fahr. The proper degree 
 of heat can best be determined by sensation, and if the 
 drink feels at all chilly whilst passing down the throat, 
 it may be decided to be too cold. At the same time it 
 should not be too warm; a neutral temperature, so to 
 speak, should be obtained. In warm weather, of course, 
 the drink will not require to be warmed ; but a special 
 warning must be entered against taking iced water, or 
 anything iced, whilst the voice is being exercised. The 
 amount of liquid taken should also be limited to a small 
 quantity, so as to avoid any chance of overcharging the 
 stomach. Much difference as to the amount of drink 
 required exists in various persons ; some, indeed, have 
 naturally so much moisture in the throat as to want 
 little or none at all. Beer or wines, as containing al- 
 cohol, call for consideration in another place. 
 
 ' As related by Synesius in Dion. The compound tragacanth 
 powder of the British Pharmacopoeia, containing equal parts of tra- 
 gacanth, starch, and sugar, may he used to make a lubricating drink 
 for the throat. About a teaspoonful may be added to a pint of 
 water. It should first, however, be well mixed with a little water 
 and then diluted. 
 
 I 
 
114 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 Another class of remedies for lubricating the throat 
 have more of a solid character. To this division may 
 be relegated eggs beaten up, and all kinds of gelatinous 
 or gummy fruits, and bonbons. As a rule, such sub- 
 stances should be avoided as likely to clog the throat 
 and stomach. They are particularly unsuited to per- 
 sons whose mouth and fauces are naturally dry; but 
 those who have a copious flow of saliva may sometinieia 
 use them with more advantage than liquids. In such 
 cases, the act of chewing or sucking stimulates the sali- 
 vary glands, so that the substance is completely dig-; 
 solved and the throat is well moistened. To, persons 
 for whom remedies of this class are suitable, I should 
 recommend lozenges or jujubes of pure glycerine or 
 gum.' 
 
 ' It may be interesting and not upinstruotive to read tie follow- 
 ing information which the Pall Mall Gazette (1869, vol. ii. pp. 676; 
 714) reproduces from a Vienna paper as to the refreshments taJsen 
 by some distinguished opera singers to ' keep their voices in good 
 order ' ^iiriiig the performance. ' Each, it appears, has his or her 
 own peculiar specific. The Swedish tenor, Labatt, takes "two salted, 
 cucumbers " for a dose, and declares that this vegetable is the best 
 thing in the world for strengthening the voice and giving it " the 
 true metallic ring.'' The other singers, however, do not seem to be 
 of this opinion. Sontheim takes a pinch of snuff and drinks cold 
 lemonade ; Waohtel eats the yolk of an egg beaten up with sugar ; 
 Steger, "the most corpulent of tenors," drinks "the brown juice of 
 the gambrinus;" Walter, cold black coffee; Nieman, champagne; 
 and Tichratchek, mulled claret. Ferenczy, th-e tenor, smokes one ol , 
 two cigars, wliioK his colleagues regard as so much poison. Mdlle. 
 Brauu-Brini takes after the first aot a glass of beer, after the third 
 and fourth a cup of cafi-au-lait, and before the great 'duet in the ■ 
 fourth aot of " The Huguenots," always a bottle of Moet CrSmant 
 Eos^. Naohbaur munches bonbons during the .performance;. 
 Kiibsam, the baritone, drinks mead ; Mitterwurzer and Kindermann 
 Buck dried plums; Eobinson, another baritone, drijiks soda-water j. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 115 
 
 So far, I have only spokea of adjuvants to the voice 
 in health, while undergoing exertion. In many instances, 
 however, when slight hoarseness or \f eakness, of the vocal 
 organs is present, the sufferers have recourse to remedies 
 with more or less decided medicinal propeities. The va- 
 rious voice or cough lozenges that are sold belong to this 
 class* Of these there are about tour kinds, viz., those 
 that contain (1) cayenne, (2) cubebs,.(3) some expec- 
 torant, and (4) opium or morphia. Their applicability 
 may be discussed separately, 
 
 1. The eflect of cayenne on the throat is to stimu- 
 late or irritate the mucous membrane, by which more 
 
 i'ormes takes porter, and Arabanek Gumpoldskirchner, wine I The 
 celebrated baritone Beck, on the other hand, takes nothing at all, 
 and retuses to speak. Draxler smokes Turkish tobacco, and drinks 
 a glass ot beer.' Another singer. Dr. Schmid, regulates his diet 
 according to the state of his voice at the: time. Sometimes he 
 drinkS' coffee, sometimes tea, and a quarter of an hour afterwards 
 lemonade, mead, or champagne, taking snnfi between whiles, and 
 eating" apples, plums, and dry bread.' . . . 'Malibran never sang 
 better' than when she had drank at least a pot of porter out of the 
 pewter pot — the more difficult the music, the larger the quantity. 
 Grisi drank always bottles of Dublin stout between the acts, and if 
 she had to sing a stormy character the dose was strengthened. 
 French singers prefer simply eau muyree ; the Spaniards take strong 
 cups of chocolate, followed by glasses of water sugared and lemoned. 
 The Italians like eggs beaten up simplj', or with wine.' As a rule, 
 operatic singers are described as very temperate, ' they dine early 
 on the day they sing, they take as little as possible, and they receive 
 very iew visitors; before they have to sing.' Mandl {Hygiene de la 
 i>(4x, p. 66), fropi another paper culls the further information that 
 • Mdme. SontagtakeSi in the cwto-'acies, sardines ; Mdme. Desparre; 
 warm water ; Mdme:., Cruvelli, Bordeaux mixed with champagne ; 
 Mdme Ad. Patti, seltzer- water ; Mdme. Nilsson, lieer ; Mdme. Cabel, 
 pears ; ifdine. tlgalde, prunes ; Mdme. Trebelli, 'strawberries ;- Troy, 
 milk ; Mario smokes ; Mdme. Borghi-Mamo takes snuff ; and Mdme, 
 Dorus-Gras used to eat cold meat behind the scenes.' 
 
 1 2 
 
116 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 blood is sent to the part, i.e., some congestion is pro- 
 duced. Such action would be highly injurious if some 
 disorder of voice were present which actually arose from 
 congestion. On the other hand, should there be a weak- 
 ness of the voice dependent on an anaemic or bloodless 
 state of the throat, cayenne might be a very serviceable 
 application. As, however, it is too much to expect an 
 unskilled observer in disease to distinguish between the 
 two conditions, especially in his own person, I can only 
 advise that lozenges containing cayenne be discarded as 
 a popular voice remedy. 
 
 2. Cubebs is often valuable where there is a great 
 deal of expectoration. If the throat be at all dry, it ia 
 most likely to do harm. Lozenges manufactured with 
 cubebs may generally be recognised by a biting, bitter 
 taste — it is a weak kind of pepper in fact. 
 
 3. Cough lozenges are generally composed of harm- 
 less ingredients, unless they contain (4) opium or its 
 active principle, morphia. Opium, in any form, should 
 never be taken without medical advice. It usually has 
 a parching effect on the throat, and throws the diges- 
 tive system into disorder. In most instances, it is, 
 therefore, likely to exert a deleterious influence over 
 the vocal powers. 
 
 From the foregoing observations it may be inferred 
 that popular medicinal remedies should be generally 
 eschewed ; not that they are an unalloyed evil in the 
 abstract, but because any drug indiscriminately applied 
 will probably injure as many cases as it benefits. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE, 117 
 
 General HreiENE in its Eelations to the Voice. 
 
 Under this heading we may discuss, in the first place, 
 how far the health of the body may be affected by the 
 systematic exercise of the voice ; and secondly, to what 
 extent the voice may derive benefit or suffer from the 
 general habits and surroundings of the individual. 
 
 Effects of Regular Vocal Exercise on the Animal 
 Economy. 
 
 The ancient physicians believed, from experience, 
 that a vigorous course of declamation was one of the 
 most salutary and health-preserving exercises that could 
 be practised, and they therefore prescribed it systematic- 
 ally as an important curative agent in many debilitat- 
 ing diseases. Although modern practitioners have not 
 exactly followed their example, the principle that in- 
 creased respiratory movements are highly beneficial in 
 the treatment of invalids from pulmonary maladies is 
 fully recognised. Some efforts have also been made, 
 and are still in course of maturation, to inflate the lungs 
 in certain affections beyond their ordinary capacity, by 
 means of artificial instruments, such as the compressed- 
 air apparatus of Waldenburg, and promising results have 
 already been obtained. 
 
 There is, indeed, considerable statistical evidence to 
 prove that the professional use of the voice exercises an 
 important prophylactic influence against the develop- 
 ment of consumption, and several investigators have 
 shown by statistical evidence that a, remark£(.bly small 
 
ii8 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE, 
 
 relative percentage of singers, orators, public criers, 
 &c., fall a victim to that disease. 
 
 The general well-being of the constitution is pro- 
 moted by voice-practice, because the wider chest-move-i 
 ments accelerate the circulation of the blood, at the same 
 time that they cause a more ample flow of fresh air in 
 and out of the lungs. The obstacle to expiration offered 
 by the contraction of the glottis during phonation, con- 
 fers a greater penetrating power on the pulmonary air, 
 which therefore permeates the minute bronchi, and dis- 
 tends the air-vesicles of the lungs more effectively.' Thus 
 the blood attains a higher oxygenation and greater 
 purity, by which qualities it gains in power of stimulating 
 the vital activities of the various tissues of the body as 
 it courses through them. Effete matters are freely cast 
 off, and new wholesome material is assimilated in in- 
 creased amount. The appetite, so to speak, of the 
 various corporeal structures becomes more keen, and 
 they are thus subjected to an exalted nutrition. And, 
 moreover, these effects have a certain permanency on 
 account of the gains to the thoracic capacity derived 
 from the habitual increase of lung expansion necessi- 
 tated by constant vocal exercise. 
 
 The mode in which the voice is used alters, of course, 
 considerably the sanitary aspects of the exercise, and a 
 proper method of voice-production, according to the 
 indications already given, must be pursiied. A division 
 of another kind may also, however, be regarded here, 
 ' Cuvier, according to Combe (^Physiology applied to HeaUTi, pp. 
 121, 206), believed that he was saved from incipient consumption 
 by receiving a professorship whioh obliged him to lecture for some 
 hours daily. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. fig' 
 
 and the four degrees of voice-practice, viz., conversing, 
 reading aloud, declaiming, and singing, may be alluded 
 to in relation to their gymnastic efficiency. Thus in 
 ordinary conversation, the vital activities are stimulated 
 least of all ; in reading aloud, fatigue is apt to super- 
 vene rapidly, because the posture, especially if the per- 
 son be seated, is somewhat constrained, and freedom of 
 action is limited by the attention being concentrated on 
 the text ; in declamation and singing, on the other hand, 
 there is ample scope for respiratory play and appropriate 
 gesture or carriage of the body. 
 
 The ill efifects of exaggerated vocal labour on the 
 health are, generally, those of any kind of overwork, 
 i.e., lassitude, depression, loss of appetite and sluggish 
 performance of the various vital functions. Specially, 
 they are the result of any particular accident that may 
 occur, such as emphysema, by which a portion of the 
 lung is lost to respiration, and a permanent diminution 
 of thoracic capacity, with consequent impairment of the 
 constitution, results. Or a vein in the lungs maybe 
 ruptured, and loss of blood occasion a long illness, with 
 subsequent obstinate debility. Or an overflow of blood 
 to the head, inducing congestion of the brain, apoplexy, 
 etc., may arise from a violent vocal, as from any other 
 inordinate, effort.' Lastly, the forcible compression 
 
 ' Anligonus Doson, King of Macedonia (Plutarch, in Yita CUq- 
 i«e?iM), and Valentinian I., Roman emperor (Suidas, sub Aefas), are" 
 reported to have died in giving vent to an excited exclamation. In 
 the former case a blood-vessel burst, and blood issued from the 
 mouth J and in the latter some kind of a fit supervened. Seneca 
 seems to allude to accidents of this class as If they were of frequent 
 occurrence. — Be Brevitate Vitce, o. 2. Blo"wing a violent blast on a 
 
I20 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 of the abdominal organs may cause some of the viscera 
 of that cavity to protrude beyond the limits assigned to 
 them by nature, forming the condition known as hernia. 
 
 Influences of Mode of Life on the Voice. 
 Man, in order to live and preserve health, must con- 
 form to certain natural laws, which impel him to take 
 food, to sleep, to take exercise, etc. He is also subjected 
 to various terrestrial influences derived from diverse con- 
 ditions of earth and air, which affect him potently with 
 respect to his health. Such esoteric and exoteric forces 
 do not, however, hold him in fast servitude, but, whilst 
 allowing him a considerable freedom of choice, merely 
 instigate him gently towards the course he should select. 
 He is called on, therefore, constantly to exert his judg- 
 ment, and he enjoys extensive powers of avoiding evil, 
 and of taking refuge in good. To such contingencies 
 hygiene owes its existence, and it may thus be defined 
 as the science which teaches the recognition and prac- 
 tice of what is best for health. Amidst the many rami- 
 fications of this wide subject we may notice here with 
 brevity the bearing of the principal factors that make 
 up life on the function under examination. 
 
 I. Alimentation. — Every action of the animal body, 
 whether mental or muscular, is accomplished at the ex- 
 pense, and accompanied by the destruction, of a portion 
 of the fabric of which it is composed. That which is 
 destroyed is at once carried away and cast off from the 
 
 wind-instrument has also caused sudden death in a similar manner. 
 For instances, see Lucian, San-momdes, and Bamaazini. De MoriU 
 4-rtifievm,, XJltrajeoti, 1703, o. xl. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 121 
 
 body, and in its place fresh material supplied by the 
 blood is laid down. Hence the desire for aliment, which 
 is received into the stomach and, if solid, is there di- 
 gested until brought to such a state of fluidity that the 
 suitable part of it may be conveyed into the blood, as 
 the whole mass passes through the long tract of intes- 
 tine. Thus the stomach and intestines feed the blood, 
 and the blood feeds the tissues. The material primarily 
 introduced into the stomach may be of two kinds, viz., 
 food and drink,' which may be considered separately. 
 
 1. Food. — About two- thirds of the body of man is 
 pomposed of water, and the remaining one-third consists 
 of substances supplied by the solids of the food naturally 
 taken by him. These latter may be conveniently dis- 
 tributed into four classes, i.e., into (1) nitrogenous sub- 
 stances, richest in flesh or meat, (2) fatty or oleaginous 
 matters, (3) starchy or saccharine (sugar) compounds, 
 and (4) mineral matters, or salts. A supply of all these 
 diSierent kinds of food is necessary to maintain the body 
 in health, and they are, therefore, found in proper pro- 
 portion in the natural provision of milk. Thus, cheese 
 is a nitrogenous substance, butter a fatty matter, lactose, 
 or sugar of milk, represents the starchy or saccharine 
 class, and there are also abundant salts, the whole being 
 dissolved in water. 
 
 Although meat or animal food is richest in nitrogen, 
 there exists an abundant quantity of that element in 
 many vegetables, such as wheat, beans, peas, etc. It is 
 consequently practicable to live in health without eat- 
 ing any meat, and on this account some persons advocate 
 
122 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE, 
 
 a purely vegetable diet. As far as the comparative nu- 
 tritiveness of meat and vegetables is concerned, there 
 appears to be little distinction, if we may judge by Con- 
 trasting carnivorous animals with those who are entirely 
 herbivorous. Thus the lion and tiger, though fiercer, 
 more combative, and more agile, because of the actions 
 they have to perform in order to supply themselves with 
 food, are not in reality stronger or more enduring than 
 the more docile horse, ox, or elephant. The inference 
 to be drawn from such observations is that each animal 
 should have the kind of food to which its mode of life 
 has accustomed it, because its digestive organs obtain 
 by habit facilities for disposing of certain substancesj 
 whilst their healthy action is likely to be disturbed by 
 strange sorts of aliment. 
 
 European races have mostly used a mixed diet of 
 flesh and vegetables for as long as there are any records 
 to prove the fact, and it seems therefore unadvisable to 
 attempt any change in this respect. Another point, 
 however, which deserves consideration is that a mixed 
 diet is more economical, because it affords most nearly 
 a due proportion of the various classes of solid aliment 
 mentioned above. Thus, in order to obtain a proper 
 amount of each of these, a man, if restricted to meat, 
 would'have to eat about seven pounds daily. On the other 
 hand, he could subsist on a less quantity of bread, viz., 
 about four pounds in the twenty-four hours. But when 
 taking both combined, a much smaller aggregate weight 
 would Suffice, namely, about one pound of meat and a 
 pound and a half of bread. Hence the duty of the 
 stomach would be lightened, and the abdominal viscera 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 123 
 
 would not be loaded with a large quantity of refuse 
 matters. If, however, eggs and milk be added to a 
 diet otherwise of' vegetable products, meat may be al- 
 most superseded as far as bulk is concerned. 
 
 An important question in dietetics relates to the 
 digestibility of the various substances used as food. 
 Some kinds of food only require to be acted on for 
 an hour or two before they are brought to a state to 
 yield up their nutrition to the blood ; whilst others re- 
 main as long as four or five hours in the stomach, or 
 pass out of the body unchanged, being indigestible. 
 Tender meat, well masticated, is soon digested ; whereas 
 tough meat, swallowed without being well divided by 
 the teeth, remains several hours in the stomach. The 
 digestibility of meat also varies according to the man- 
 ner of cooking. When boiled or stewed it is, as a rule, 
 more easily digested than when roasted or baked. From 
 various experiments that have been made it has been 
 ascertained that rice, tripe, whipped eggs, sago, tapi- 
 oca, barley, boiled milk, raw eggs, white fish, venison, 
 lamb, parsnips, mashed and baked potatoes, and fri- 
 casseed chicken, in the order given, are the most easily 
 digested substances. Thus rice disappears from the 
 stomach in one hour, and fricasseed chicken in about 
 two hours and three quarters. Less readily digested 
 are beef, pork, mutton, oysters, butter, bread, veal, and 
 boiled and roasted fowls. Beef passes out of the stomach 
 in three, and roast fowl in four hours. Salt beef and 
 salt pork require more than four hours to be digested, 
 whilst fungi, such as truffles and mushrooms, are in 
 great part indigestible. Nutritious soups, such as beef 
 
124 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 tea, mutton broth, chicken broth, etc., are often valu- 
 able when the digestive system is delicate. 
 
 As regards the precautions in alimentation to be 
 observed with a view to preserving the integrity of the 
 voice, it is obvious, in the first place, that a choice 
 should be made of those articles of diet which do not 
 tax excessively the powers of the stomach to get rid of 
 them. Should the stomach be habitually subjected to 
 digestive over-exertion, it will soon become inefiEcient 
 in the performance of its functions, and the condition 
 termed dyspepsia, or imperfect digestion, will be brought 
 on. In such case, the direct consequence is that the 
 blood does not receive a proper amount of nutrition, and 
 the body is badly nourished. Loss of flesh ensues, the 
 muscles diminish in tone and vigour, and the strength 
 is impaired. Amongst the rest, the muscles of the vocal 
 organs suffer, and lose the faculty of firm and ready con- 
 tractility. The respiratory apparatus cannot expel the 
 air with steadiness and force, and the laryngeal muscles 
 act defectively. Hence the voice becomes wanting in 
 tone and timbre, and sounds weak and wavering. More 
 or less enervation is also produced, and therefore the 
 manner lacks energy. Thus the individual appears 
 apathetic, whilst his speech is irresolute and his de- 
 livery shows indecision. 
 
 Such are the evils, variable in degree according to 
 circumstances, of dyspepsia, which may arise in several 
 other ways, such as irregularity of meal times, taking 
 cold, excesses of all kinds, etc. 
 
 Another point to be observed, ia to avoid exerting 
 the voice when the stomach is full. When the process 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 125 
 
 of digestion has reached its height, about an hour after 
 eating a substantial meal, the stomach is not only dis- 
 tended with food, but is also swollen through the deter- 
 mination to it of a large quantity of blood. This state 
 of congestion is necessary, in order to enable it to pour 
 out the gastric juice, which is an indispensable agent in 
 bringing the food to a proper fluidity. At this time, there- 
 fore, the proximity of the firm and bulky stomach to the 
 under-surface of the diaphragm, greatly impedes the 
 contractions of that muscle, and thus reduces the ab- 
 dominal type of respiration within narrow limits. A 
 further effect of the distended stomach is to compress 
 the aorta or main trunk of the blood-vessels, which are 
 distributed to the lower extremities. Hence arises a 
 plethora of the lungs, which also interferes with respi- 
 ration. For these reasons, even when the body remains 
 in a state of repose, a certain shortness of breath is some^ 
 times experienced after eating. Such arrangements 
 should always, therefore, be made as to allow an in- 
 terval of three or four hours or more to elapse before 
 the voice is exerted after a full meal.' 
 
 Somewhat similar to the last mode of interference 
 with the vocal powers is the operation of corpulence. 
 The connection, indeed, between fatness and scantness 
 of breath, is almost proverbial.^ Here we have the ab- 
 
 ' It is also asserted tliat exercise after eating is injurions, because 
 it draws the blood away from the stomach to the parts that are in 
 activity, and so interferes with digestion. Combe, The Phynology 
 of Digestion, 1800, ch. zi. 
 * Thus Shakespeare : — 
 
 K, Our son shall win. 
 
 Q, He's fat and scant of breath. 
 
 Hamlet, Act v, Sc, 2. 
 
136 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 dominal organs rendered almost immobile by the depo- 
 sition of fat between and around them, and they are 
 thus buUt up against the diaphragm, so as to prevent 
 its descent. The effects of obesity on respiration are 
 not, however, confined to this quarter, but the motions 
 of the ribs are also probably restricted by the chest 
 being wrapt round with a thick layer of fat. And 
 should the action of the heart be impeded by, the 
 growth of fat within the thoracic cavity, the circular 
 tion of the blood will be retarded, and a consequent con- 
 gestion of the lungs will create a difiSculty of breathingi 
 Or the course of the blood through the various tissues 
 of the body may be interrupted with a like result. Thus, 
 there are manifold reasons why a deterioration of voice 
 should be induced by obesity. 
 
 The tendency to corpulence can be combated very 
 effectively by paying strict attention to the regulation 
 of diet and exercise. As regards diet, the great point 
 is the avoidance, as far as possible, of all kinds of food 
 appertaining to the second and third classes, which, are 
 included under the term carbo-hydrates. Partial or 
 complete abstinence is, therefore, necessitated from all 
 fatty matters, such as fat of meat, cream, and biitter ; 
 from starchy substances, such as white bread, potatoesj 
 corn flour, etc. ; and froin saccharine aliments, such as 
 sugar, beet-root, parsnips, etc. A considerable variety 
 of dietary may, however, still be indulged in, and, lean 
 meat, poultry, game, white fish, brown bread, turnips, 
 green vegetables, and a small allowance of milk,,may 
 all be taken at choice. Such is the , system to which a 
 good deal qf notoriety was given some years ago by 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 127 
 
 Mx. Banting, a gentleman who by following it had been 
 greatly ^benefited.' 
 
 Such condiments as contain irritating principles, i.e., 
 pepper, mustard, curry, the many hot sauces, &c., are 
 open to the same objections as have already been urged 
 against cayenne in ' voicfe lozenges.' They are likely to 
 produce congestion, which may ultimately lead to thick- 
 ening of the lining membrane of the throat, and thus 
 damage temporarily or permanently the purity of the 
 voice., Pale and delicate persons, however, often find 
 that they afford a valuable stimulus to digestion, and in 
 such instances, as the opposite condition to congestion 
 mostly prevails, they may often be taken without harm, 
 or even with some benefit to the vocal powers. 
 
 A few remarks may here be made as to the effects of 
 tobacco. The action of this herb on the animal fabric 
 is constitutional and local. Thus nicotine, the name 
 
 ' By adherence to the following routine of dietary for twelve 
 montha he reduced his body-weight from 202 to 156 lbs. and his 
 girth by 121 inches. ' SreaJifast. — Four or five ounces of beef, 
 mutton, kidneys, boiled fish, bacon, or any cold meat (except pork), 
 a large cup of tea (without milk or sugar), and one ounce' of dry 
 toast. JDinner. — Five or six ounces of any fish (except salmon or ' 
 eels), any meat (except pork), any vegetables (except potatoes or 
 rice), one ounce of dry toast, fruit out of any pudding, any kind of 
 poultry or game, and two or three glasses of good claret, sherry, or 
 Madeira (champagne, port, or beer forbidden). Tea. — Two or three 
 ounces of fresh f rujt, or a rusk or two, and a cup of tea without milk 
 or sugar. The tea may be very much enjoyed when taken, in the 
 Eussian fashion, i.e., with a thick slice of lemon floating on the top 
 ^nstead: of milk.. Supper. — Three or four ounces of meat or fish, 
 swiilar, to dinner, with a glas.3 or two of claret. -Nighteap, if re- 
 quired, a tiuinbler of grog (gin, whisky, or brandy, without sugar), 
 or a glass or two of claret or sherry.' For a fuller discussion of the 
 dieting 6f corpulence see Pavy, Food and Dietetics, 1876, p. 439, 
 
128 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 given to its active principle, exerts a powerful depres- 
 sant influence over the nervous system, being in fact a 
 virulent poison, a very small quantity of which, when 
 pure, would suflSce to cause death by prostration. Per- 
 sons, therefore, who indulge to excess in smoking are 
 likely to become nervous, so that their hand trembles, 
 and the command of the brain over the muscles gene- 
 rally is lessened, whilst there is a tendency to palpita- 
 tion of the heart and oppressed breathing. As a natural 
 consequence, there is a failure to some extent of the 
 vocal powers, and a hesitation in delivery, the results, 
 on the one hand, of the lack of respiratory vigour, and, 
 on the other, of enervation. Habit, however, usually 
 produces such a tolerance of tobacco, that the constitu- 
 tional effects of moderate smoking are most frequently 
 imperceptible, unless in delicate individuals. 
 
 As regards the local injury that may be sustained 
 from tobacco, it consists in dryness and congestion of 
 the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx from 
 their coming in contact with the hot and often acrid 
 smoke. Should the membrane be naturally very active 
 in furnishing the necessary lubricating secretions, it will 
 probably escape unscathed, unless subjected to an inces- 
 sant play of smoke from full-flavoured cigars. But in 
 the opposite case it is likely to become soon parched, 
 whence some hoarseness or roughness of voice may arise. 
 In taking snuff the voice may suffer similarly if the 
 particles of tobacco pass backward from the nostrils, 
 and become lodged continually on the pharyngeal mu- 
 cous membrane. 
 
 A further disadvantage of smoking is waste of saliva. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 129 
 
 of which the fumes of tobacco provoke in some persons 
 a profuse flow into the mouth Under these circum- 
 stances the salivary glands become exhausted from time 
 to time, and do not supply the proper amount of fluid 
 during mastication of food. Hence some disorder of 
 digestion may arise with a chronic dyspeptic tendency, 
 which may tell indirectly on the voice in thei way already 
 noticed. Persons, therefore, who are obliged to expec- 
 torate much during smoking should be on their guard 
 against the abuse of the habit. 
 
 2. Brinlc. — Tea, coffee, and cocoa or chocolate con- 
 tain active principles, termed respectively thein, caffein, 
 and theobromin, which have identical properties as die- 
 tetic substances. In small quantities they stimulate the 
 nerves, and are refreshing after fatigue ; but if taken to 
 excess they often produce nervousness and tremour. Over- 
 indulgence in strong tea is a frequent cause of palpita- 
 tion of the heart and oppressed breathing. Those who 
 make a professional use of the voice should remember, 
 therefore, that moderation, even in these apparently 
 harmless beverages, is required in order to preserve the 
 integrity of the vocal organs. 
 
 We now come to the all-important class of alcoholic 
 cl/rvnks, the evil effects of the abuse of which are so 
 familiar to almost every one, that they call for very 
 little comment, except from the point of view of scien- 
 tific inquiry. Taken in moderation by a healthy per- 
 son, spirituous liquors may be considered as a kind of 
 agreeable stimulus of the nature of a luxury, which, if 
 seldom beneficial, is still not absolutely harmful. It is 
 
 K 
 
130 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 difficult, however, to determine the precise amount that 
 may be consumed habitually without injury, especially 
 as it doubtless varies according to the fundamental con- 
 Btitutional strength of each individual. From some 
 careful scientific observations Parkes ^ has concluded 
 thatthe average male adult may take from one td one- 
 ahd-a-half "fluid ounces of pute alcohol daily without 
 any resultant injury to health. In order to apply this 
 calculation' practically, it is necessary to estimate the 
 percentage of alcohol contained in the different classes 
 of liquors commonly used. Thus beer and the weaker 
 wines (clarets) contain about 6 per cent., the stronger 
 wines (port, sherry, &c.) about 15 per cent., and spiri- 
 tuous liquors (brandy, whisky, etc.) 50 or 60 per cent., 
 or even more, of alcohol. Hence we may decide that a 
 man desiring strictly to avoid excess may dritfk in the 
 twenty-four hours — 
 
 Of brandy 21 ounces.' . 
 
 Of sherry or port (strong wines) 5 „ 
 Of claret or hock (weak wines) 10 „ 
 Of beer 20 „ 
 
 For females the above amounts should be reduced to 
 one-half or two-thirds, on account of the lessened power 
 of resistance of their physical economy. In addition to 
 alcohol, wines and beer contain a small quantity of 
 certain putiitiVe and tonic principles, which have an 
 invigorating effect on the constitution. For general 
 
 'Op. oit. p. 277. 
 
 '' An ordinary wine-glass holds about 2| ounces, a beer glass 
 about 10 ounces. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 131 
 
 consumption or for invalids they possess, therefore, an 
 important advantage over the various kinds of spirits. 
 
 Considered specially with reference to the voice, too 
 much stress cannot be laid on the warning against mak^ 
 ing too free a use of alcoholic drinks. ' The voice,' as 
 Brouc' judiciously observes, ' is the hygrometer of so- 
 briety.' Alcohol exerts a degenerative influence over 
 every organ and tissue of the body, and nowhere more 
 markedly than on the mucous lining of the cavities. 
 Here it produces constant congestion, which soon leads 
 to thickening of the membrane. In the throat such a 
 condition is betrayed sooner than elsewhere, because so 
 slight a physical alteration is sufficient to induce a per- 
 ceptible modification in the delicate tones of the voice. 
 Thus hoarseness,- at first slight, but always steadily pro- 
 gressive, is one of the earliest symptoms that over- 
 indulgence in alcoholic beverages has commenced to 
 undermine the constitution. And when once unsound- 
 ness has been induced in any of the organs of the body, 
 they lack the vigorous vitality necessary to protect them 
 against the exciting causes of disease, or to promote a 
 facile recovery, should they be actually attacked. Thus 
 a mild malady, of properly ephemeral character, may 
 gain a firm footing and deepen into a serious affection, 
 through the insufficient potency of the recuperative 
 forces of the body. A slight sore-throat, instead of 
 getting well in a day or two, is likely to be the pre- 
 cursor of inflammatory or ulcerative ravages that may 
 permanently injure the voice; or an ordinary cough, 
 
 ' Itygienc pMUsopldqre des arlistet dramatiqnes, Paris, 1836 
 torn. ii. p. 109. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE HYGIEN,E OF THE VOICE. 
 
 whicli seldom calls for other than domestic treatment, 
 may be the premonitory sign of an intense lung mis- 
 chief, prostrating in its attack, protracted in its course 
 towards convalescence, and the parent of shattered health 
 ever afterwards. 
 
 It is especially important to observe that the ill 
 effects of intemperance are not necessarily confined to 
 those cases in which there is frequent and positive ex- 
 cess. Oft-repeated, though small, draughts of alcohol 
 are in proportion as pernicious as large quantities taken 
 at longer intervals, whilst in the former case, as the 
 psychical influence of the spirit may be scarcely, if at 
 all, felt, the individual may be wholly unconscious of 
 running any risk. Hence the practice of drinking 
 many separate glasses of beer, stout, or wine, as a 
 support against fatigue and a stimulant to further ex- 
 ertion, must be strongly condemned. Such a habit 
 once contracted soon becomes a necessity, because every 
 period of briskness arising from artificial stimulation is 
 followed by a corresponding interval of depression, which 
 can only be banished by resorting again to the alcoholic 
 spring. Thus a state of decided, but almost impercep- 
 tible, inebriation is perpetually kept up, which, like an 
 insidious disease, incessantly preys upon the life-holds of 
 the body, and presses on a premature decay and death.' 
 
 ' The fact that Grisi and Malibian had recourse to draughts of 
 stout whilst sustaining their parts has often, I have no doubt, been 
 regarded by other singers as a precedent for doing likewise. The 
 first-named artiste by keeping to a strict moderation appears to have 
 escaped without harm, but the circumstance should be recorded with 
 emphasis that the career of Malibran was unusually short, and that 
 she died at the early age of twenty-eight. See F6tis, op. oit. s. n. 
 The presumption is too immediate to be passed over that her consti- 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 133 
 
 II. Exercise. — Whilst the greater portion of the 
 substance of our body, the muscular system, exists for 
 the direct purpose of conferring the power of voluntary 
 motion, it is evident that exercise must form an integral 
 and irremovable part of the phenomena that make up 
 our life. For, in accordance with a well-ascertained 
 law, no organs of the animal body can possess qualities 
 which are absolutely purposeless, but they must perform 
 the functions for which by their structure they are de- 
 signed, or else lose their distinctive characters, or dwindle 
 to a rudimentary state. Thus our muscles, through dis- 
 use, become at first soft and flaccid, and subsequently 
 diminish progressively in bulk, until partially or com- 
 pletely atrophied. Concomitantly, most of the other 
 organs of the body, including the brain and nerves, 
 undergo, by a parallel process, a similar change, be- 
 cause their activity is, in great part, the result, on 
 the one side, of the demand of the working and thriv- 
 ing muscular system for a regular supply of nutrition 
 and nervous energy, and, on the other, of the ofiSce of 
 removing effete matters generated by exertion. Hence 
 a sedentary life induces feebleness of body and may also 
 give rise to apathy of mind. 
 
 A moderate amount of exercise is, therefore, a vital 
 necessity. To the beneficial effects of systematically- 
 sustained muscular movements some reference has 
 already more than once been made. "We have seen the 
 value of vocal exercise directly on the organs of voice, 
 and generally on the constitution. Exercise should not, 
 
 tution succumbed to inconsiderate efiEorts to maintain an artificial 
 excitement. 
 
134 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 however, be confined to any particular part, if it is de- 
 sired to preserve a full integrity of wind and limb. Free 
 action of all the members should be encouraged, and in 
 no way can this object be better attained than by walk- 
 ing daily in the open air. The motions called forth in 
 walking are sufficiently forcible and general, without 
 requiring anything like effort — an error on the side of 
 excess — for their performance. A daily. walk of at least 
 four or five miles should be taken by every person in 
 health. This, would be about equivalent to walking for 
 two hours, not necessarily consecutive, at a rather slow 
 pace. And the fact must not be lost sight of that a 
 supply, of air as fresh and pure as can be obtained, is 
 essential during exercise, in order that the full advan- 
 tage, inay be gained^ For thus the blood, stimulated by 
 the exercise to a swifter course through its vessels, at- 
 tains its highest qualities, and is enabled to nourish the 
 tissues most energetically. 
 
 With reference to special exercises, such as running, 
 rowing, swimming, and the system of operations that 
 make up ' training,' they are useful within carefully de- 
 fined limits, both to develop the vital forces of those 
 that are naturally delicate, and to maintain the mus- 
 cular activity of the more robust, at the same time that 
 they counteract the tendency to corpulence. 
 
 A well-regulated course of training, which iacludes 
 a carefully-ordered diet, generally efifects an increase of 
 breathing power, with a strengthening of the circulatory 
 system, an enlargement of the muscles, and altogether 
 a state of more vigorous health.' If carried to excess, 
 ' See Maclaren, Training in Theory and Practice, 1874. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 135 
 
 however, such a course may be injurious, and it is, more- 
 over, uncertain whether in any case the advantages de- 
 rived are permanent. For if the exercise is not kept 
 up, the body soon readapts itself to the ordinary mode 
 of life, and returns to its former condition. The best 
 rule to be adopted, is that each person should take as 
 much exercise as appears best suited to his normal 
 physical development. Thus the delicate may restrict 
 themselves to exertion, gentle, but sufficiently pro- 
 longed, suck as walking, whilst the vigorous shordd 
 have recourse to more decided muscular efforts, such 
 as feats of a gymnastic character. 
 
 It is worth while to notice here a peculiar bearing 
 of general bodily motion on the artistic use of the voice. 
 This relates to the familiar circumstance of being, out 
 of breath after making any unusual exertion — a condi- 
 tion which is the direct consequence of the quickened 
 flow of blood through the lungs, and the increased re- 
 spiratory action thereby occasioned. At such a time 
 singing, or speaking with the measured delivery of 
 rhetoric would, of course, be impossible. On this ac- 
 count, care Ehould be taken to avoid all superfluous 
 movement, whilst it is necessary to make a sustained 
 use oftlie ,voice, for, otherwise, fatigue of the vocal 
 organs is likely to arrive rapidly through interference of 
 hurried breathing with phonation. This remark applies 
 particularly to the orator, as, during histrionic singing 
 or dramatic declamation, there are always intervals of 
 rest sufficiently long and frequent. The speaker should, 
 therefore, as Becquerel observes, avoid energetic con- 
 tractions of the muscles of the lower limbs and trunk. 
 
136 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 and make free use only of the arms and shoulders, in 
 order to confer the requisite animation and expression 
 on his utterances. 
 
 III. Care of the Skin. — The skin does not form 
 merely a covering for the body, but it also has impor- 
 tant functions to perform, -which afford an indispensable 
 aid in maintaining the health of the organisation. For 
 this purpose it contains in its thickness an almost count- 
 less number of minute glands, each of which opens by a 
 microscopic orifice on its surface for the purpose of dis- 
 charging its proper secretion.' These glands are of 
 two kinds, termed respectively sudoriparous, or per- 
 spiratory, and sebaceous, or oil-elaborating. The per- 
 spiratory glands purify the blood by removing from it 
 effete matters, which they discharge, dissolved in water, 
 on the surface of the skin. The water evaporates at a 
 rapidity proportionate to the degree of heat of the ex- 
 ternal air, and thus regulates the temperature of the 
 body, keeping it cool in warm weather or during exer- 
 cise, when it exudes in greatest quantity. The solid 
 portion of the perspiration, consisting of organic and 
 mineral matters, remains and collects on the skin, and 
 if not removed by some means, interferes with the con- 
 
 ' Each gland consiata of a fine convoluted tube about i inch long, 
 and the average number of pores marking their openings in a square 
 inch of skin is computed at 2,800. The area of the surface of the 
 body in a man of ordinary stature is about 2,500 square inches, and 
 hence the total number of pores may be reckoned at 7,000,000. As 
 to each pore corresponds a gland, we should thus have 1,750,000 
 inches of tubing, equal to 115,833 feet, or 48,611 yards, or nearly 
 twenty-eight miles, 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 137 
 
 tinuance of its action. The sebaceous glands lubricate 
 the skin, so as to prevent its becoming dry and cracked, 
 and on this account they are especially numerous in na- 
 tives of tropical climates. A further function of the skin, 
 of the highest moment, is the oxygenation of, and removal 
 of carbonic acid from, the blood, as it circulates through 
 the capillary vessels near the exterior of the body. 
 
 Thus, it may be seen that the ofiBce of the skin is, 
 to a great extent, similar to that of the lungs, and, there- 
 fore, there exists a cutamous as well as a pulmonary 
 respiration. And should the eliminative action of the 
 skin be interrupted, it follows that the lungs would be 
 called on to perform an increased amount of duty, 
 which would be likely to provoke hurried and difficult 
 breathing. At the same time the accumulation of the 
 solid effete matters in the blood would necessitate an 
 inordinate activity of other internal organs, especially 
 the kidneys, and a general constitutional disturbance 
 would arise. Should the function of the skin be com- 
 pletely suspeiided, as would occur if it were coated with 
 some impermeable substance, such as varnish, death 
 would supervene in a few hours, with symptoms resem- 
 bling those of suffocation — a fact which has been ascer- 
 tained by some experiments that have been made on 
 animals. 
 
 From the above observations it is easy to perceive 
 the general importance of keeping the skin in a healthy 
 state, as well as the direct influence that its derange- 
 ment may exert over the soundness of the vocal powers. 
 Attention to the health of the skin comprises the judi- 
 cious employment of clothing, ablutions, and cosmetics. 
 
138 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 1. Clothvng. — The variable temperature of the at- 
 mosphere, arising from circumstances of climate, season, 
 and habitation, necessitates the use of apparel, in order 
 to obtain an equilibrium of the external influences which 
 tend at one time to overheat, and at another to chill, 
 injuriously the surface of the body. In order to carry 
 out this indication most economically, regard must be 
 paid to the quantity, the quality, and the colour of the 
 clothing employed. Thus the. heat of the body is better 
 preserved in proportion to the thickness of the garments 
 worn ; but their power in this way also depends very 
 much on the material of which they are made. The 
 principal substances used in the manufacture of clothes 
 are linen, silk, cotton, and -wool. 
 
 Linen is composed of fine, hard fibres, which conduct 
 heat with comparative rapidity. Clothes made of linen 
 are therefore cool and suitable for warm weather. 
 
 Silken fabrics are also cool, but still form a warmer 
 covering than linen. 
 
 Cotton materials are much warmer, and softer to the 
 touch, than either linen or silk. 
 
 Wool conducts heat most slowly of all the substances 
 which enter into the coinposition of clothing, and. as a 
 covering to the skin, thus causes, to a maximum degree, 
 the retention of the animal heat evolved by the vital 
 activities. Woollen garments are, therefore, the most 
 suitable for cold climates. They are also especially 
 valuable and protective against taking cold when per- 
 sons are obliged to experience sudden transitions of 
 temperature, either through dwelling in changeable cli- 
 mates, such as our own, or by reason of their occupation 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 139 
 
 compelling them to emerge frequently from heated rooms 
 or lialls into a comparatively colder external air. Under 
 these circumstances, flannel should be worn habitually 
 as underclothing. This rule applies very forcibly to 
 dramatic artists, who are often obliged to wear light 
 or. heavy clothing on the stage, irrespective of the ac- 
 tual . exigencies of temperature. A further important 
 property of wool is to condense and absorb perspiration. 
 For this reason it is valuable as a covering when rest is 
 taken immediately after exercise, as it prevents the body 
 cooling too rapidly by continued evaporation. . The ap- 
 plication of this fact would, of course, not need to be 
 observed in hot and calm weather. 
 
 A,s regards colour, it need only be mentioned that 
 white fabrics resist much longer than dark materials the 
 passage through them of heat rays from refulgent bodies. 
 They should generally, therefore, form the outer attire 
 of persons when exposed to the glare of the sun in hot 
 seasons or climates. 
 
 The evils of insufficient clothing to maintain the 
 skin at a normal temperature are very marked, and are 
 manifested by enervation, depression, and general slug- 
 gishness of the vital functions. Such a condition is the 
 result of impoverishment and defective nutrition of the 
 various structures near the surface of the body, owing 
 to the proper supply of blood being kept out of them 
 by the constringent action on the peripheral capillaries 
 of the persistent cold. At the same time, the internal 
 organs also suffer from being passively congested by an 
 excess of blood, which is driven inwards instead of being 
 distributed equally throughout the whole circulatory sys- 
 
140 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 tern. In such case, if disease is not directly produced, 
 the constitution is enfeebled, and laid unusually open to 
 the numerous exciting causes of maladies to which we 
 are perpetually exposed. Hence the fallacy becomes 
 palpable of wearing insuflSeient clothing under the im- 
 pression that the constitution can thereby be rendered 
 more hardy and vigorous. The dress should be care- 
 fully adapted to every variation of indoor and outdoor 
 temperature, and also to periods of exercise and repose. 
 The skin should be invariably kept comfortably warm, 
 but at the same time, the error of excessive wrapping 
 up should be avoided. In the latter case, indeed, a 
 delicacy or exaggerated susceptibility of the surface to 
 slight thermometrical changes may be engendered, which 
 may be a constant source of mild catarrhal affections, 
 the forerunners, possibly, of serious inflammatory at- 
 tacks in the throat or lungs. 
 
 As a protection against sharp winds, the best clothing 
 is something wholly impervious, such as waterproof cloth, 
 or leather in the form of strong skins with or without 
 fur. The objection to this class of garmients is that they 
 prevent the evaporation of the perspiration, and the body 
 thus remains in a state of continual dampness. For this 
 reason they should generally be dispensed with during 
 exercise, unless required to keep out rain. 
 
 With respect to the corset, enough has already been 
 said in order to show how detrimental its improper use 
 may be to the free play of the chest, and consequently 
 to the artistic employment of the voice.' As a covering 
 
 • See page 77. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 141 
 
 for the skin, its place could easily be supplied by any 
 looser vestment of similar substance. 
 
 Whilst alluding to tight articles of female apparel, 
 a word of warning may be spoken against the wearing 
 of rigid and narrow cravats amongst the male sex. A 
 dangerous compression of the superficial blood-vessels of 
 the neck, causing congestion of the brain or even fatal 
 apoplexy, has not unfrequently been laid to the charge 
 of a neckerchief drawn so tight as to become an unin- 
 tentional instrument of strangulation. 
 
 2. Ablutions {Baths). — The systematic cleansing of 
 the skin, which is carried out even by many of the lower 
 animals through an impulse of instinct, is in man both 
 a social and a sanitary necessity. The products of per- 
 spiration, as well as any foreign matters derived from 
 the dust of the atmosphere, which tend to accumulate 
 on the skin, are thereby removed, and the pores are 
 opened so as to allow the various sets of glandules to 
 carry on unhindered their ofSce of excretion. The 
 universal detergent is water, which is applied most 
 effectively to the surface of the body in the form of a 
 bath. Water baths are of various kinds, and differ 
 either in temperature or by holding in solution some 
 mineral substance, wherefore they may have other hy- 
 gienic actions besides their cleansing properties. 
 
 Pure water baths may be cold, tepid, or warm. 
 
 The cold bath, generally at about 60° Fahr., has a 
 tonic and stimulating effect on the skin and constitu- 
 tion of persons in ordinary health. It causes the blood 
 to rush inwards momentarily, whence, however, it is soon 
 
142 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 again driven outwards if the circulatory apparatus is 
 moderately vigorous. A comfortable glow df the sur- 
 face is then felt, which' is termed ' reaction.' This re- 
 action is the index to the benefit derived from the bath^ 
 and the skin is thereby stimulated to a more energetic 
 performance of its functions. On the contrary, should 
 it not occu]', the skin remains pale and cold, whilst the 
 internal organs are injuriously congested, especially the 
 lungs, and there is evidence that the cold bath is harm- 
 ful. On such an event the reaction should be encour- 
 aged by friction of the surface with a rough towel or 
 with flesh gloves, but the bather should in future re- 
 frain from the use of a decidedly cold bath. It must 
 also be observed that in no case should the cold bath be 
 taken when the skin is cold, as there is then hardly any 
 possibility of provoking a reaction, and injury may even 
 result from increasing the already existing congestion of 
 internal organs. Moreover, it is a standard rule not to 
 bathe after a meal, as a disturbance of the circulation 
 is then inadmissible. 
 
 The tepid batli, at about 90" Fahr., has no particular 
 effect on the circulation, and is, therefore, suitable for 
 delicate persons who merely desire to fulfil the duty of 
 washing. 
 
 The warm bath, 100° to 120° "Fahr., determines a 
 flow of blood to the surface of the body and increases 
 the cutaneous action. At the same time it relaxes all 
 the muscular structures and renders the flow of the 
 blood through its channels more laboured-*a tendeil&J^ 
 which is met by greater contractile efforts of the heart, 
 whence arises a quickened respiration. The wann bath, 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 143 
 
 when short, supplies a salutary stimulus and alterative 
 to the vital activities, but if indulged in too long or too 
 often has a debilitating influence on the system which 
 loses in tone on account of the excessive or repeated 
 relaxations. After a warm bath the bather should re- 
 main at rest and well covered for a short time until the 
 circulation has regained its normal course. 
 
 Of mineral baths, cold sea-water need only be men- 
 tioned here. Sea-bathing has always been considered 
 tonic and invigorating ; the motion of the water, the 
 exercise taken whilst immersed in it, the stimulating 
 atmosphere, and possibly the absorption by the skin of 
 some of the mineral salts held in solution, combine 
 to exert a peculiarly beneficial action on the system. 
 Most persons can generally, therefore, bathe in the sea 
 with marked advantage, except the very delicate and 
 timid. 
 
 Another class of baths deserves a short notice, viz., 
 the dry hot-air bath and the Turkish bath, of which it 
 is the chief part. By the dry and hot air the glands of 
 the skin are solicited to a very energetic action, and 
 they respond by a copious flow of perspiration. A puri- 
 fying effect on the blood is thus obtained, which is often 
 highly salutary in the robust, especially if there be an 
 inclination to corpulence. In the Turkish bath the 
 perspiration is checked by a cold-water douche, and a 
 reaction is then brought about by friction, shampooing, 
 etc. These baths sh<tuld, however, be taken with caution, 
 as they are too powerful to be advisable in all cases. As 
 a rule, they should never be persevered in without a 
 medical recommendation. 
 
144 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 3. Cosmetics. — The chief of cosmetics is soap, a 
 combination of oil and alkali, which is indispensable 
 to every toilet on account of its solvent power over all 
 foreign matters that may coat the skin. It may be 
 made more agreeable to the sense of sight and smell 
 by clarification and admixture with various odoriferous 
 oils or balsams, but beyond this there is usually but 
 little choice to be exerted in the selection of so uni- 
 versal a commodity. The simplicity and cheapness of the 
 articles that enter into its composition generally ensure 
 a sufficient purity. Certain medicated soaps, containing 
 tar, carbolic acid, sulphur, etc., are sometimes used, but 
 are unnecessary unless when there is some structural 
 disease of the skin, for the relief of which the special 
 ingredient is intrinsically suited. 
 
 This term also includes the various applications used 
 for the skin, such as violet-powder, rouge, hair-oUs, 
 various lotions for the complexion, eau-de-Cologne, etc., 
 which are employed mostly about the face only for the 
 sake of appearance. Such substances should always 
 be used guardedly, unless their precise composition is 
 known, as they are sometimes compounded with poison- 
 ous drugs, notably lead and arsenic, which may act per- 
 niciously both locally and generally. 
 
 rV. Climatic Influences. — The hygienic estimation 
 of climate resolves itself almost entirely into a con- 
 sideration of the state of the atmosphere in different 
 parts of the earth, as to temperature, humidity, density, 
 movement, and any foreign element that may permeate 
 it, such as marsh miasma. The action of the air on the 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 145 
 
 health of the body is determined by the degree in which 
 it possesses these qualities, which spring from terrestrial 
 and solar influences.' 
 
 1. Hot Climatea. — In excessively hot weather (80" 
 to 90° Fahr,, or higher), if the air is dry, the skin is 
 stimulated to provide a large quantity of perspiration, 
 and the body is kept cool by rapid evaporation. At the 
 same time respiration is quickened because the rarefied 
 air contains less oxygen, and a larger supply of it is 
 therefore required for breathing purposes. The increased 
 rush of the dry air through the vocal channels tends to 
 parch the mucous membrane — an effect which may de- 
 teriorate the quality of the voice. Moreover, the heat 
 relaxes the musculai; system, so as to reduce the apti- 
 tude for exertion. Under these conditions, therefore, 
 the voice may lose in power and purity. 
 
 Should the air be unusually moist, although the 
 parching effect is not present, the heat is more than 
 
 ' M^liot conceives that climate exerts a peculiar influence over 
 voice. He states that in hot countries there are finer voices than 
 in cold regions, and that high voices are also more common there 
 than deep voices. Thus in Italy more tenors than basses are found, 
 and in Germany more basses than tenors. In France Picardy fur- 
 nishes most ba.S3 voices. Languedoc and especially Toulouse and 
 its environs are celebrated for tenor voices. Burgundy and Franohe- 
 Comtfi (Jura, Doubs, and Haute-SaSne) supply most female voices. 
 — La mvMque expUquee. aum gens dm monde, Paris, 1867 (quoted by 
 Mandl, TrmU pratique, etc., 1872, p. 294.) History, however, appears 
 uO indicate that musical gifts of voice are rather phylogenetio in 
 their origin. Thus Italy, so prolific in our own times with fine singers, 
 was not remarkable in the same manner in the age of the Romans ; 
 seemingly, indeed, the reverse. And in the classical period Greece 
 and Asia Minor, which do not now produce singers of note, probably 
 famished the most esteemed vocalists. 
 
146 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 ever depressing, because the normal temperature of the 
 body cannot be preserved by perspiratory evaporation. 
 
 When wind is present it facilitates evaporation. It 
 therefore increases the molestation if the air be already 
 too hot and dry, but lessens the evil of humidity with 
 elevation of temperature. 
 
 It is only in hot weather that marsh miasmata are 
 potent for harm. They arise from low-lying tracts of 
 land covered with decaying vegetable matter, but cannot 
 emanate so as to pervade the general atmosphere, unless 
 aided by a temperature above 60° Fahr. They engender 
 the class of fevers called intermittent or agues, and in 
 thus disturbing the animal economy interfere, of course, 
 with the artistic exercise of the voice. These noisome 
 exhalations consist of heavy gases which hug the ground, 
 being unable to ascend into the higher regions of the 
 air. On this account they can be avoided by living up 
 hills,' should there be any, in the infected districts. 
 
 In hot climates the vicinity of the sea- coast is gene- 
 rally more healthful than the inland districts. The 
 mariae air has stimulating and tonic properties owing to 
 its being impregnated with iodine, bromine, and various 
 saline principles. It contains the largest amount of oxy- 
 gen, allowing for temperature, because it has the greatest 
 density ; for the sea^level being the lowest, atmospheric 
 pressure is there at its maximum. Its humidity is 
 generally- of an average measure according to the tem- 
 perature, whilst miasmata, in infected localities, are 
 
 • The height, however, at which safety is. obtained varies in dif- 
 ferent .parts of the wQrld. 400 ft. may suffice, but it may be neces> 
 sary tg ascend 2,000 ft. See Partes, op. oit, p. « 1 . . 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 147 
 
 lessened on the shore and absent on the water at a short 
 distance from it. The sea-side is, therefore, a valuable 
 and ready refiige against many of the evils encountered 
 in tropical climates. 
 
 2. Cold Climates.— Very cold weather (25° to 40° 
 Fahr.), if the air is dry, is invigorating. It renders the 
 function of the lungs more active, in order that a greater 
 amount of animal heat may be evolved, with the object 
 of preserving the normal degree of temperature. But 
 the breathing is not consequently hurried or oppressed, 
 because the cold air, being condensed, contains a com- 
 paratively large quantity of oxygen. The dryness of 
 the atmosphere creates little tendency to parching of 
 the air-passages, because it is counterbalanced by the 
 cold which checks evaporation. On the whole, there- 
 fore, a cold, dry climate is favourable to vocal exercise, 
 or at least is not injurious to the integrity of the voice. 
 
 The combination of cold and damp is notorious for. 
 its pernicious influence on health, though why it should 
 act so injuriously is not quite certain. It may be taken 
 for granted, however, that the. exhalation of watery- 
 vapour, by the skin or lungs, or by both, is a vital 
 necessity ; probably because the water holds in solution 
 certain foetid organic matters which exert a poisonous 
 effect on the system, and which cannot be otherwise 
 removed.' In cold and damp air we have the conjunction 
 of the two atmospheric conditions most potent in their 
 antagonism to evaporation. In such case little or no 
 aqueous vapour can be given cfff by the cutaneous or 
 ' See Partes, op. cit. p. 98. 
 12 
 
148 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 pulmonary surfaces ; and the foetid organic matters, 
 therefore, accumulate in the blood and tissues, tending 
 to originate disease, mostly of a rheumatic character. 
 But cold and damp also greatly exaggerate the liability 
 to congestion of internal organs, and are prolific gene- 
 rators of inflammatory affections of the air-passages, 
 such as quinsy, laryngitis, bronchitis, etc. 
 
 Fogs generally occur in cold, often in frosty, weather. 
 They consist of molecules of water, which float about, 
 suspended in the air. They are evidence of excessive 
 dampness, and they are also particularly noxious in cities, 
 as they there entangle and fix fuliginous or sooty par- 
 ticles in the stratum of air near the earth. The effect 
 is, that persons involved in such fogs are obliged to in- 
 hale damp smoke, which has an irritating action on the 
 air- passages. In foggy weather it will generally be found 
 that the nasal discharges and expectorated matters have 
 a blackened appearance. 
 
 It has been asserted that the gravity of the voice is 
 increased in a cold and humid atmosphere,' but the 
 statement needs proof. Eetention of moisture in or 
 about the vibrating portion of the vocal apparatus 
 might, indeed, by increasing the density of the vocal 
 
 • The following incident would appear scarcely credible did it 
 not rest on a high authority. When Grassini came to England the 
 hygrometric influence of the climate caused her voice to descend in 
 pitch by an octave. Its quality was not, however, deteriorated by 
 this curious change ; on the contrary, she had a great success in her 
 lyric achievements until, by her becoming accustomed to the climate, 
 her voice regained its normal compass. She then actually lost her 
 popularity here, though her vocal powers had returned to the condi- 
 tion to which she pre-»-iously owed her fame. 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 149 
 
 bands, lower their tones. Singers certainly feel the 
 effect of chill and damp weather, and are then seldom 
 in good voice. 
 
 Persons who are obliged to be out of doors in chilly 
 and moist weather should be especially careful to breathe 
 through the nose, as the air, being thus considerably 
 warmed, will be enabled to carry off more watery vapour 
 from the lungs. The mucous lining of the throat is also 
 thus guarded from the ill effects of the cold. Should 
 breathing through the nose be difficult from any cause, 
 a respirator should be worn. This instrument is worn 
 over the mouth, in order to warm the air and catch any 
 particles of dust during inspiration. It supplies,in fact, 
 the place of the nasal channels for those who are 
 obliged to breathe through the mouth. 
 
 The action of wind in dry, cold weather is to cause 
 the cold to be disagreeably felt. A cold, but dry climate 
 is usually, indeed, well tolerated or even pleasant, when 
 a uniform calmness of the air is the prevailing condi- 
 tion. In chilly, damp weather a brisk movement of the 
 air increases the evaporation, but, in doing so, also aug- 
 ments the cold, which is then most painfully felt. 
 Although winds are often favourable in maintaining 
 atmospheric purity, and will dispel fogs, it seems that, 
 on the whole, in decidedly cold weather, their influence 
 is not precisely hygienic. 
 
 The sea-air, even in cold climates, retains its tonic 
 properties. Its humidity on or near the shore is gene- 
 rally uniform, as far as terrestrial influences are con- 
 cerned, because the soil in the vicinity of the ocean is 
 usually of a sandy nature. 
 
150 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 3. Temperate Climates. — The characteristic of most 
 temperate climates is their variability ; for, whilst their 
 summer may be almost tropical, their winter is not 
 unfrequently of polar severity. And the junction of 
 these two extremes is not affected by insensible grada- 
 tion, so as to amalgamate tbe seasons imperceptibly ; 
 but sudden changes of temperature to the extent of 2(f 
 or 30° Fahr. may occur in the course of a single day. 
 At one time dryness, and at another humidity, of the 
 air, may be present to a marked degree. This muta- 
 bility is chiefly due to the action of winds, which, if 
 they come from the north, have no opportunity to 
 become heated; or, if from the south, are not exposed 
 to any cooling influences before reaching the temperate 
 zone. 
 
 The hygienic qualities of temperate climates are in 
 direct relation with their variability, and the rapid 
 transitions from heat to cold are especially inducive of 
 catarrhal and inflammatory maladies, such as usually 
 result from taking cold. Diseases of the throat are, 
 therefore, frequent, and the inhabitants have some diffi- 
 culty in preserving the purity of voice required for its 
 professional use. On this account they are obliged to 
 be particularly careful in adapting their clothing to the 
 manifold emergencies of weather. 
 
 Notwithstanding these circumstances, it is in the 
 temperate zone that some of the most agreeable and 
 salubrious districts for dwelling in may be found. For, as 
 the solar influences, if undisturbed, would generally con- 
 fer a well-poised mean of temperature, it is only necessary 
 to neutralise the action of the winds in order to obtain a 
 
THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. '151 
 
 stable climate free from hurtful extremes. This require- 
 ment is effected in many localities on the south coasts 
 of temperate lands, such as Torquay, the Eiviera, San 
 Francisco, etc., where a mountainous chain intercepts 
 the northern bla.sts, -whilst the marine evaporatibn cools 
 the sultry air blowing from the south. Such are the 
 localities which are best adapted for the residence of 
 invalids, as the constitution is not disturbed by the 
 necessity of perpetually readapting itself to altered 
 conditions of climate, whilst the weather is so equable 
 as seldom or never to debar the taking of outdoor 
 exercise. Life in the open air is, indeed, the most 
 potent reinvigorator of those afflicted with consump- 
 tive tendencies. 
 
 4. Mountain Air. — The air of mountains or ele- 
 vated plateaus has a favourable effect on the health of the 
 animal economy, either from its purity or from its light- 
 ness. As the atmosphere is considerably attenuated on 
 account of the altitude, it contains less oxygen, and 
 consequently the breathing is hastened and the circula- 
 tion of the blood accelerated. This change is salutary, 
 and not attended with any sensation of pulmonary 
 oppression, because the diminution of the atmospheric 
 pressure on the surface of the body and the lessened 
 force of gravitation facilitate exercise and increase the 
 activity of the limbs. In hot climates the mountain air 
 has also the advantage of being cool,' whilst in cold 
 regions it is beneficial on account of its dryness. Life 
 
 ' The decline of temperature according as we ascend may be 
 roughly estimated at 1° Fahr. for every 300 ft. of elevation. 
 
IS2 THE HYGIENE OF THE VOICE. 
 
 on the slopes of a mountain, at a height of from 3,000 
 to 7,000 feet, is now considered as an eminently cura- 
 tive agent in the treatment of many debilitating 
 diseases, especially scrofula and consumption.' In cases 
 of mild constitutional depression, such as continued 
 fatigue from overwork, when a change of air is required, 
 no tetter choice could be made than of residence for a 
 few weeks in a temperate and elevated situation amongst 
 the hills. 
 
 • See Weber, Climate of the &mss Atpi, 1864. 
 
INDEX TO SUBJECTS. 
 
 ABD 
 
 Abdominal breathing, 38, 77 
 
 Ablutions, lil 
 
 Abuse of voice, maladies from, 
 104,105 
 
 Activity, direct results of mus- 
 cular, 100 
 
 Age, relations of, with voice, 133 
 
 Air chamber, 87 
 
 — damp, 145 
 
 — iixed, 40 
 
 — foggy, 148 
 
 — impurities in, 107 
 
 — marsh or miasmatic, 146 
 ■ — mountain, 151 
 
 — residual, 40 
 
 — sea, 149 
 
 — tidal, 39 
 
 — where most dense, 146 
 Alcohol, ill efEects of, on voice, 
 
 131 
 Alimentation, 120, 124 
 Altitudes, air in high, 2, 151 
 Alto voice, 56, 58 
 Articulation, 61, 100, 105 
 
 — of consonants, 67, 93 
 
 — of vowels, 63, 89, 92 
 Arytaenoid cartilages, 29, 43, 44, 
 
 45,46 
 
 Bands, vocal, 30,-40, 42, 82, 84, 86 
 breadth of, 31 
 
 — ventricular, 31, 32 
 Banting's system for the reduc- 
 tion of corpulence, 126, 127 
 
 CAR 
 
 Baritone voice, 56 
 Bass voice, 56 
 Baths, 141 
 
 — cold, 141 
 
 — dry hot-air, 143 
 
 — medicated, 144 
 
 — sea, 143 
 
 — tepid, 142 
 
 — Turkish, 143 
 
 — warm, 142 
 Beer, 113, 132 
 
 Break of voice at age of puberty, 
 59 
 
 Breath, holding the, 77 
 
 Breathing, abdominal or dia- 
 phragmatic, 38, 77 
 
 — by the skin, 145 
 
 — clavicular, 39, 76, 78 
 
 — costal or rib, 38, 77 
 
 — exercises for development of, 
 77 
 
 — management of, during vocal 
 exercise, 81 
 
 — mode of, 76 
 Bronchial tubes, 27 
 
 Caetilagbs of the larynx, 28 
 
 — arytajnoid, 28, 29, 45 
 
 — cricoid, 29, 46 
 
 — epiglottis, 29, 36 
 
 — of Santorini, 30 
 
 — of Wrisberg, 30, 44 
 
 — sesamoid, 30, et seq. 
 
 — thyroid, 29, 31, 46 
 
1 54 
 
 INDEX TO SUBJECTS. 
 
 .CAY 
 Cayenne, 115, 127 
 Chest, action of, 37 
 
 — anatomy of, 26 
 
 — development of, 38 
 Chest-voice, laryngoscopio ap- 
 pearances in, 45, 46 
 
 • — muscular mechanism of, 47 
 Chest-vi'alls, 26, 37, 73 
 Circulation, influence of vocal 
 
 exercise on, 103 
 Clavicular breathing, 39, 76, 78 
 Cleft-palate, 95 
 Clergyman's sore throat, 104 
 Climates, 144 
 
 — cold, 147 
 
 — hot, 145 
 
 — relations of, with voice, 147 
 
 — temperate, 150 
 
 Clothing, different kinds of, 138 
 
 — insv^oient, 139 
 Cocoa, 129 
 Coffee, 129 
 
 Cold climates, 147 
 Colour in clothing, 139 
 Compass of voices, 55, 86 
 Composer, separate office of 
 
 musical, 56 
 Compound sounds, 10 
 
 — vibrations, 7 
 Condiments, 127 
 Conduction of heat in clothing, 
 
 140 
 Consonants, mechanism of the 
 production of, 93 
 
 — classification of, 66 
 
 — formation of, 66 
 Contralto voice, 56 
 
 Cords, vocal, 30, 40, 42, 82, 84, 86 
 
 true and false, 32, 53 
 
 Corpulence, ill -effects of, on 
 voice, ]25 
 
 — remedy for, 126, 127 
 Corset, injurious effects of, 77, 
 
 140 
 Cosmetics, 144 
 Cotton as clothing, 138 
 Omp de glatte, 86 
 Cricoid cartilage, 29 
 Cubebs, 116 
 
 FLA 
 Damp air, 145 
 Defects of speech, 94, 95 
 Diaphragm, breathing by, 38, 77 
 Differences, individual and 
 
 sexual, of voice, 56, 58 
 Digesti\)ility of food, 123 
 Digestion, vocal exercise during, 
 
 124 
 Diseases from abuse of voice, 
 
 104, 105 
 Drink, 129 
 
 Drinks, alcoholic, 129 
 Duration of vocal tones, 72, 75 
 Dust, iU-effects of inhalation of, 
 
 109 
 Dyspepsia, deleterious influence 
 
 of, on voice, 124 
 Dysphonia clerioorum, 104 
 
 ECHO, nature of, 6 
 Efforts, excessive vocal, 74, 119 
 Elements in the formation of 
 voice, 24 
 
 — motor, 25, et seq. 
 
 — resounding, 25, et seq. 
 
 — vibrating, 25, et seq. 
 Epiglottis, description of, 49 
 
 — functions of, 50 
 Eustachian tube, 36 
 Evaporation from the skin, 136 
 Execution, vocal, 88 
 Exercise in general, 133j 135 
 
 — vocal, general effects of, 117, 
 133 
 
 local effects of, 133 
 
 Expiration, act of, 39 
 
 — in singing or speaking, 72 
 
 — muscles of, 27 
 Extension of vocal compass, 82, 
 
 86 
 Extent, musical, of voice, 66, 57 
 
 FALSBXTO-voiCB, laryngoscopio 
 
 appearances in, 47 _ 
 — muscular mechanism of, 48 
 Fatigue, effects of vocal, 135 
 Flannel as clothing, 139 
 
INDEX TO SUBJECTS. 
 
 IS5 
 
 FOG 
 Foggy air, 148 
 Food, animal, 121 
 
 — diges(;ibility of, 123 
 
 — vegetable, 121 
 
 Force or intensity of sound, 12, 
 
 14 
 Fundamental tone, 62 
 
 Glands, sebaceous, 136 
 
 — sudoriparous, 136 
 Glandular sore throat, 101 
 Glottis, 31, 42, 43, 48, 105 
 Glycerine for the voice, 114 
 Growths in the larynx, 105 
 Gymnastics,.general, 134, 135 
 
 — respiratory, 79 
 
 — vocal, 75, 76, 335 
 
 Haed-palatb, 35, 54 
 
 Harmonics, 11, 17, 18 
 
 Health, beneficial effects of vocal 
 exercise on, 117 
 
 Hot climates, 145 
 
 Humidity of air, 145, 146, 148 
 
 Hydrogen, effects of, when re- 
 spired, 2 
 
 Hygiene, definition of, 99 
 
 — general, in relation to voice, 
 117 • 
 
 — special, of vocal organs, 99 
 
 IMPUBITIES, atmospheric, 107 
 Influences, climatic, 141 
 ,' — of aerial motion, 105 
 Inspiration, act of, 106 
 
 — in singing or speaking, 72 
 
 — muscles of, 27 
 Instrument, articulating, 25, 60 
 Instruments, rped, 60 
 Intensity of sound, 12, 14 
 
 LABTNaOSCOFE, 41 
 Larynx, anatomy of, 44 
 
 — as viewed with the laryngo- 
 scope, 42, 44, 47 
 
 — cartilages of, 28 
 
 OPI 
 Larynx, muscles of, 32 
 
 — physiology of, 28 
 
 — variations of, in age and sex, 
 33 
 
 Linen as clothing, 138 
 
 Lips, action of, in articulation, 
 
 35, 86, 97 
 Lower jaw, in articulation, 25 
 
 — in stuttering, 97 
 Lozenges, voice, 115, 127 
 
 Maladies from abuse of voice, 
 104, 105 
 
 Management of articulating or- 
 gans, 92 
 
 — of breath, 81 
 
 — of vocal reeds, 82 
 Marsh miasmata, 146 
 Medicine oif the voice, 115, 116 
 Membrane, mucous, 30 
 Mezzo-soprano voice, 56 
 Monkeyi howling, 49 
 Motion, aerial, influences of, 105 
 Mountain air, 161 
 
 Mouth, breathing by the, 108, 
 109 
 
 — resonance in, 52 
 Muscles of expiration, 27 
 
 — of inspiration, 27 
 
 — of larynx, 32 
 
 Nasal timbre jn instruments, 
 
 17 
 
 in voice, 53, 91 
 
 Nodal elevations on vocal bands, 
 
 104 
 Noise, as distinguished from 
 
 music, 10 
 Nose, anatomy of, 34 
 
 — breathing by the, 106, 107 
 
 sounds of, 53 
 
 Nostrums of eminent singers, 
 
 112, 114, 115 
 
 Obesity, see Corpulence 
 Opium, or morphia, 115 
 
156 
 
 INDEX TO SUBJECTS. 
 
 OEG 
 
 Organ, construction of pipes of, 
 11, 15, 21 
 
 Overtones, 17, 62 
 
 Oxygen, amount of, in air rela- 
 tive to climate, 146, 147 
 
 — increased respiration of, dur- 
 ing vocal exercise, 118 
 
 Palatb, cleft, 95 
 
 — hard, 35, 54 
 
 — soft, 35, 54, 68 
 Partial tones, upper, 17 
 Perspiration, 136 
 Pharynx, anatomy of, 61 
 
 — resonance in, 85, 91, 92 
 Pitch of sounds, 12 
 Polypi, or warts, 105 
 Prime tone, 17, 62 
 Pronunciation, 65, 66 
 Psellism, 94 
 
 Ebbds, membranous, 21 
 
 — production of sound by, 19 
 
 — woody, 20 
 Eegister, chest, 45, 48 
 
 — falsetto, 47, 58, 87 
 Registers of voice, limits of, 
 
 55 
 Resonance apparatus, 34, 49 
 
 — action of, 92 
 
 — anatomy of, 34 
 
 — management of, 92 
 
 — sympathetic, 8, 18 
 Resonators of Helmholtz, 18, 
 
 46 
 Respiration, see Breathing 
 Respirator, use of, 149 ' 
 Respiratory exercises, 89 
 Ribs, arrangement of, 27 
 
 — movements of, in breathing, 
 27 
 
 Rantobini, cartilages of, 30 
 Scale, comparative, of different 
 
 classes of voices, 57 
 Silk, as clothing, 138 
 Siren, the, 12 
 
 YEN 
 Skin, care of the, 136 
 
 — functions of the, 136 
 Smoking, effects of, 127 
 Soft-palate, 35, 54, 58, 90 
 Soprano voice, 56 
 Sound, definition of, 1 
 
 — intensity of, 12, 14 
 
 — pitch of, 12 
 
 — qualities of, as distinguished 
 by the ear, 10 
 
 — timbre of, 16 
 
 — transmission of, 1 
 Sound-waves, 3 
 Sounds, compound, 11 
 
 — simple, 10 
 
 Stammering and stuttering, 94, 
 
 95 
 Stroke of the glottis, 86 
 Sustaining power of voice, 73, 
 
 77,79 
 
 Tea, 129 
 
 Teeth, use of, in articulation, 35, 
 
 68, 91 
 Temperate climates, 160 
 Tenor voice, 66 
 Thorax, 26 
 Thyroid cartilage, 29 
 Timbre, 10, 16 
 
 — acoustic nature of, 83 
 
 — guttural, 90 
 
 — nasal, 90 
 
 — vowel, 92 
 
 Tobacco, effects of, on the sys- 
 tem, 127 
 
 Tongue, action of, in articulation , 
 36, 66, 90, 97 
 
 Trachea, or windpipe, 27, 43 
 
 Tube, Eustachian, 36 
 
 — vocal, 49, 89 
 Tuning fork, 8, 64 
 
 Uvula, 35, 90 
 
 Tboetabianism, 121 
 
 Veil of the palate, 35, 68, 90 
 
 Ventricles of larynx, 32, 49 
 
INDEX TO SUBJECTS. 
 
 IS7 
 
 VEN 
 Ventricular bands, 32, 44 
 Vestibule of larynx, 50, 62 
 Vibration, sonorous, 7 
 Vocal bands or cords, 30, 40, 42, 
 
 82, 84, 86 
 Voice, influence of mode of life 
 
 on, 120 
 
 — culture, physiological prin- 
 ciples of, 72 
 
 — organs, acoustic classification 
 of, 24 
 
 anatomy of, 24 
 
 WEI 
 Voice, physiology of, 37 
 
 — remedies. 111, 114 
 Volume of voice, 52 
 Vowels, formation of, 61 
 
 — pronunciation of, 63 
 
 Watek-waves and air-wayes, 
 
 3,4 
 Whispering, nature of, 71 
 Wool, as clothing, 138 
 Words, first sources of, 60 
 Wrisberg, cartilages of, 30, 44 
 
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 OLIVER Wendell Holmes. 
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 17 
 
 THE PICCADILLY NOVELS. 
 
 Library Editioms op Novels, many Illustrated, crown 8vo, cloth estra^ 3s. 6d. each. 
 
 By Mrs. ALEXANDER. 
 
 A Life Interest | Mona's Choice i By Woaan's Wit 
 
 By F. M. ALLEN. 
 flieou as QrasB. 
 
 By GRANT ALLEN. 
 
 The Great Tahoo, 
 DamareEtt'B Daughter. 
 Duchess of PoiTysland. 
 Blood Eoyal. 
 Ivan Greet's Master- 
 piece. 
 The Scallywag. 
 At Market Value. 
 Under Sealed Orderi. 
 
 Phlllstla. 
 
 Btrange Btorles, 
 
 Babylon. 
 
 For Malmle's Bake, 
 
 In all Shades. 
 
 The Beckoning Hand. 
 
 The Devil!« Die. 
 
 This Mortal CoU, 
 
 The Tents of Shem. _ 
 
 By MARY ANDERSON. 
 Othello's Occnpation. 
 
 By EDWIN L. ARNOLD. 
 Fhra the rhoenician. I Constable of St. Nicholas. 
 
 By ROBERT BARR. 
 In a Steamer Chair. i A Woman. Intervenes. 
 From Whose Bourne. Bevenze I 
 
 By FRANK BARRETT. 
 The Woman of the Iron Bracelets. 
 The Harding Scandal. | A Missing Witness. 
 
 By 'BELLE.' 
 Vaahti and Esther. 
 By SirW. BESANT and J. RICE. 
 
 Beady-MoneyMortlboy, 
 My LltUe Oirl. 
 With Harp and Crown. 
 This Son of Vulcan. 
 The Golden Butterfly.; 
 The Monks of Thelema. 
 
 B^ - 
 
 All Sorts and Condi 
 
 tions of Men. 
 The Captains' Room. 
 AU in a Garden Fair. 
 Dorothy Forster. 
 Uncle Jack. 
 The World Went Very 
 
 Well Then. 
 Children of Gibeon, 
 Herr Faulus. 
 For Faith and Freedom. 
 To CaU Her Mine. 
 The Bevolt of Man. 
 
 By Cclia's Arbour. 
 Chaplain of the Fleet. 
 The Seamy Side. 
 The Case of Mr. Lucraft. 
 In Trafalgar's Bay. 
 
 _ The Ten Years' Tenant. 
 
 Sir WALTER BESANT. 
 " ~ The Bell of St. Paul's. 
 
 The Holy Bose. 
 Armorel of Lyonesse. 
 S.Katherine's bv Tower 
 VerbeilS Camellia Ste- 
 
 phanotis. 
 The Ivory Gate. 
 The Rebel Queen. 
 Beyond the Dreams of 
 
 Avarice. 
 The Master Craftsman. 
 The C.ty of Refuge. 
 
 By AMBROSE BIERCE. 
 
 In the Midst of Life, 
 
 By PAUL BOURGET. 
 A living Lie. 
 
 By ROBERT BUCHANAN. 
 
 Shadow of the Sword. — " — "- -< 
 
 A Child of Nature. 
 God and the Man. 
 Martyrdom of Madeline 
 Love Me for Ever. 
 Annan Water. 
 FozgloTB Manor. 
 
 The New Abe ard. 
 Matt. I Ra:hel Dene. 
 Master of ths Mine. 
 The Heir oi Linne. 
 Woman and the Man. 
 Red and White Heather. 
 Lady Eilpatrlck. 
 
 ROB. BUCHANAN & HY. MURRAY. 
 
 The Charlatan. 
 
 By J. MITCHELL CHAPPLE. 
 The Ii^or Chord. 
 
 By HALL CAINE. 
 The Shadow of a Crime. I The Deemster. 
 A Son of Hagar. 
 
 By ANNE COATES. 
 Rie's'Dlary. 
 
 By WILKIE COLLINS. 
 
 Armadale. [AfterDark. 
 Mo Name. lAntonina 
 BaiU. I Hide and Seek. 
 The Dead Secret. 
 Queen of Hearts. 
 Hy Miscellanies. 
 The Woman In White. 
 The Moonstone. 
 Man and Wife, 
 Poor Miss Finch, 
 Mill or Mrs. 7 
 ^e NewjMagdaleiL 
 Toe Frozen Deep, 
 
 The Two Destinies. 
 The Law and the Lady. 
 The Haunted Hotel, 
 inie Fallen Leaves. 
 Jezebel's Daughter. 
 The Black Robe. 
 Heart and Science^ 
 ' I Say No.' 
 Little Novels. 
 The EvU Genius. 
 The Legacy of Calit. 
 A Rogue's Life, 
 Blind Love. 
 
 By MORT. & FRANCES COLLIN.^, 
 
 Transmigration. t From Midnight to Mid' 
 
 Blacksmith & Scholar. night. 
 
 The Village Comedy. | Tou Play me False. 
 
 By MACLAREN COBBAN. 
 The Red Sultan. | The Burden of Isabel. 
 
 By E. H. COOPER. 
 Gecffory Hamilton. 
 
 By V. CECIL COTES. 
 Two Girls on a Barge, 
 
 By G. EGBERT ORADDOCK. 
 
 His Vanished Star. 
 
 By H. N. CRELLIN. 
 
 Romances of the Old Seraglio. 
 
 By MATT CRIM. 
 
 The Adventures of a Fair Rebel. 
 
 By S. R. CROCKETT and others. 
 
 Tales of Our Coast. 
 
 CROKER. 
 
 The Real Lady Hilda. 
 
 Married or Single 7 
 
 Two Masters. 
 
 In theHlngdom of Serry 
 
 Interference. 
 
 A Third Person, 
 
 By B. M. 
 
 Diana Barrlngton. 
 Proper Pride. 
 A Family Likeness, 
 pretty Miss Neville. 
 A Bird of Passage. 
 'To Let.' I Mr.^ervls. 
 Village Tales & Jungle 
 Tragedies. 
 
 By WILLIAM CYPLES. 
 Hearts of Gold, 
 
 By ALPHONSE DAUDET. 
 
 The Evangelist ; 01-, Fort Salvation. 
 
 By H, COLEMAN DAVIDSON. 
 
 Mr. Sadler's Daughters. ' ' 
 
 By ERASMUS DAWSON. 
 
 The Fountain of Youth. 
 
 By JAMES DE MILLE. 
 
 A Castle in Spain. 
 
 By. J. LEITH DERWENT. 
 Our Lady of Tears. | Circe's Lovers. 
 
 By DICK DONOVAN. 
 Tracked to Doom. 1 The Mystery of Jamaica 
 
 Man from Manchester. | Terrace. 
 The Clironicles of Michael Danevitch. 
 
 By RICHARD DOWLING. 
 Old Corcoran's Money. 
 
 By A. CONAN DOYLE. 
 
 The Firm of Glrdlestone. 
 
 By S. JEANNETTE DUNCAN. 
 
 A Daughter of To-day. I Vernon's Aunt. 
 By G. MANVILLE FENN. 
 
 The New Mistress. I The Tiger Lily. 
 
 Witness to the Deed. | The White Virgin. 
 By PERCY FITZGERALD. 
 Fatal Zei'o. 
 
 By R. E. FRANCJLLON. 
 One by One. | Ropes of Saud. 
 
 A Dog and his Shadow. Jack Doyle's Daughter. 
 A Real Queen. I 
 
 Prefaced by Sir BARTLE FRERE. 
 Pandurang Han. _ 
 
 By PAUL GAULOT. 
 
 The Red Shirts. 
 
 By CHARLES GIBBON. 
 
 Robin, Gray. I Of High Degree. 
 
 Lovinc a Dream. | The Golden Shaft, 
 
 By E. GLANVILLE. 
 
 The Lost Ee&ess. j The Golden Rock. 
 
 A Fair Colonist. Tales from the Veld. 
 
 The Fosslcker. 1 
 
 By E. J. GOODMAN. 
 The Fate of Herbert Wayne. 
 
 By Rev. S. BARING GOULD 
 Red Spider. | Eve. 
 
 By CECIL GRIFFITH. 
 Corlnthia Marazi6n. 
 
iS t^HArfO & WlIsiDUS, ill ^t. Martin's Lai)6, LoniJoli, \V.£. 
 
 The Piccadilly {3/6) Novels— continued. 
 
 By SYDNEY QRUNDY. 
 The Da^ra of hts V&nltr. 
 
 By OWEN HALL. 
 Th6 Track of a Storm. I JetBam. 
 
 By THOMAS HARDY. 
 TTbder the Qreoiiwood Trea, 
 
 By BRET HARTE. 
 A W&lfoftheFlalnB. - - • ' 
 A Ward of the Ooldeu 
 Gate. [Springs. 
 
 A Sappho of Oreen 
 Col. Starbottle'B Client. 
 Susy. I Sally Dows. 
 Bell-Rlnger ot jSingerii 
 
 A VroUg&a of Jack 
 
 HiunUn'B. 
 Clarence. 
 Barker's Luck. 
 Devil's Ford, [celslor. 
 The Crusade of the ' £z- 
 Three Partners. 
 
 Tales of Trail and Town. 
 By JULIAN HAWTHORNE. 
 
 Beatrix Randolph. 
 
 David Poindexter's Dis- 
 appearance. 
 
 The Spectra of the 
 Camera, 
 
 Qarth. 
 
 £lllce Queutln. 
 
 fiebastian Strome, 
 
 Dnst. 
 
 Fortune's Fool. 
 
 By Sir A. HELPS. 
 
 Ivan de Biron. 
 
 By L HENDERSON. 
 
 Agatha Page. 
 
 By G. A. HENTV. 
 
 llnjuli the Juggler. I The Queen's Cap. 
 Dorothy's Double. 
 
 By JOHN HILL. 
 The Common Ancestor. 
 
 By Mrs. HUNQERFORD. 
 Lady Vemer's Flight. I Nora Crelna. 
 The Bed-House Mystery An Anzlous Moment. 
 The Three Graces. | April's Lady. 
 
 Professor's Experiment, i Peter's Wife. 
 A Point of Conscience. | 
 
 By Mrs. ALFRED HUNT. 
 The Leaden Casket. I Self-Condemned. 
 That Other Person. | Mrs. Juliet. 
 
 By C. J. CUTCLIFFE HYNE. 
 Honour of Thieves. 
 
 By R. ASHE KING. 
 A Drawn Game. 
 
 By EDMOND LEPELLETIER. 
 Madame Sans Gdne. 
 
 By HARRY LINDSAY. 
 Ehoda Roberts. 
 
 By HENRY W. LUCY. 
 Gideon Fleyce. 
 
 By E, LYNN LINTON. 
 
 Patricia KembaU, 
 Under which Lord? 
 ' My Love I ' | lone. 
 Paston Carew. 
 Sowing the Wind. 
 
 The Atonement of Leam 
 
 Dundas. 
 The World Well Lost. 
 The One Too Many. 
 Dulcle Everton. 
 
 By JUSTIN McCarthy. 
 
 A Fair Saxon. 
 
 Linlny Rochford. 
 
 Dear Lady Disdain. 
 
 Oamlola 
 
 Waterdale Neighhours. 
 
 My Enemy's Daughter. 
 
 Miss Misanthrope. 
 
 Donna Quixote. 
 
 Maid of Athens. 
 
 The Comet of a Season. 
 
 The Dictator. 
 
 Red Diamonds. 
 
 The Riddle Ring. 
 
 The Three Disgraces. 
 
 By JUSTIN H. McCARTHY. 
 
 A London Legend. j The Royal Christopher. 
 
 By GEORGE MACDONALD. 
 Heather and Snow. | Phantastes. 
 by PAUL & VICTOR MARGUERITTE 
 The Dlsaater. 
 
 By L. T, MEADE. 
 
 A Soldier of Fortune. I The Voice of the 
 
 In an Iron Grip. I Charmer. 
 
 By L. T. MEADE and CLIFFORD 
 
 HALIFAX, M.D. 
 
 Dr. Ramsey's Patient. 
 
 By LEONARD MERRICK, 
 
 This Stage of Fools. | Cynthia. 
 
 By BERTRAM MITFORD. 
 
 The Gnn-Bnnnor. I The King's Aasepal. 
 
 The Luck of Gerard Rensbaw Faunlng's 
 Rldgeley. [ Qnest. 
 
 By J. E. MUDDOCK. 
 
 Maid Marian and Robin Hood, 
 
 Basile the Jester. 
 
 By D. CHRISTIE MURRAY. 
 
 A Life's Atonement. 
 Josephls Goat. 
 Coals of Fire. 
 Old Blazer's Hero. 
 Val Strange. | Hearts. 
 A Model Father. 
 By the Gate of thd Sea. 
 A Bit of Human Nature. 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Young Loehlnvar. 
 
 Cynic Fortune. 
 The Way of the World. 
 BobMartin's Little Girl. 
 Time's Revenges. 
 A Wasted Crime. 
 In Direst Peril. 
 Mount Despair. 
 A Capful o' Kaiis. 
 Ta-es and Poems. 
 
 By MURRAY and HERMAN. 
 
 The Bishops' Bible. I Fanl Jones's Alias. 
 One Traveller Returns. | 
 
 By HUME NiSBET. 
 
 ' Bail Up r 
 
 By W, E. NORRIS, 
 Saint Ann's, [ Billy BeUev. 
 
 By G. OH NET. 
 
 A Weird Gift. 
 
 By Mrs. OLIPHANT- 
 The Sorceieai. 
 
 By OUIDA. 
 
 Held In Bondage. 
 
 Strathmore. 
 
 Chandos. 
 
 Under Two Flags. 
 
 Iilalla. [Gage. 
 
 Cecil Castlemalne 1 
 
 Tricotrin. | Puck. 
 
 Folle Farine. 
 
 A Dog of Flanders. 
 
 Fascarel. | gigna. 
 
 Princess Naprazine. 
 
 Ariadne. 
 
 Two Little Wooden 
 
 In a Winter City.. Shoes 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 Moths. I Ruffino. 
 
 Piplstrello. 
 
 A village Commune. 
 
 Bimbl. I Wanda. 
 
 Frescoes. | Otbmar. 
 
 In Maremma. 
 
 eyrlin. | Gullderoy. 
 
 Santa Barbara. 
 
 Two Offenders. 
 
 By MARGARET A. PAUL. 
 
 Gentle and Simple, 
 
 By JAMES PAYN. 
 
 ' ' High Spirits. 
 
 Lost BIr Massingberd. 
 Less Black than We're 
 
 Fainted. 
 A Confidential Agent. 
 A Grape from a Thorn. 
 In Fenland Privation. 
 The Mystery of Mir- 
 By Proxy. [bridge. 
 The Canon's Ward. 
 Walter's Word. 
 
 Under One Roof. 
 Glow-worm Takes. 
 The Talk of the Town. 
 Holiday Tasks.- 
 For Cash Ovly. 
 The Burnt Million. 
 The Word and the Will. 
 Sunny Stories. 
 A Trying Patient. 
 
 By WILL PAYNE. 
 
 Jerry the Dreamer. 
 
 By Mrs. CAMPBELL PRAED. 
 
 Outlaw and Lawmaker. I Mi>b. Tregaskiss. 
 Christina Chard. | 
 
 By E. C. PRICE. 
 
 'Valontina. | Foreigners. | Mrs. Lancaster s Rival. 
 
 By RICHARD PRYCE. 
 Miss Maxwell's Aifections. 
 
 By CHARLES READE. 
 
 Peg Woffliigton ; and 
 
 Christie Johnstone. 
 Hard Gash. 
 Cloister ft the Hearth. 
 Never Too Late to Mend 
 The Course of True 
 
 Love Never Did Run 
 
 Smooth ; and Single- 
 heart andDoubleface. 
 Autobiography of a 
 
 Thief; Jack of all 
 
 Tiades; A Hero and 
 
 a Martyr ; and The 
 
 Waftdering Heir. 
 Griffith Gaunt. 
 
 By Mrs. J. H. RIDDELL. 
 
 Weird Stfirles. 
 
 By AMELIE RIVES. 
 
 Barbara Denng. 
 
 By F. W. ROBINSON. 
 
 The Bands oS Justice. | Wunaa In the Dark. 
 
 Love Me Little, Love 
 
 Me Long. 
 The Double Marriage. 
 Foul Play. 
 Put Yourself in His 
 
 Place. 
 A Terrible Temptation. 
 A Simpleton. 
 A Woman-Hatcr. 
 The Jilt, & otlicrStoi'ics ; 
 & Good Stories of Man 
 and other Animals. 
 A Perilous Secret. 
 Readlana ; and Sibl* 
 
 Characters. 
 
CHAttO & WiNBUS, iti St. Maftift'5 Uiie, Lohdon, W.d 
 
 20 
 
 The Piccadilly (3/6) Novels — continued. 
 
 By W. CLARK RUSSELL, 
 Hound the Oallay Fire. My Shfuinate Ic 
 In the Middle Watch. 
 
 My Shipmate Louise. 
 Aloue onWldeWlds Sea. 
 The Phantom Death. 
 Is He the Man 7 
 Good Ship 'Mohock.' 
 The Convict Ship. 
 Hfeart of Oak. 
 The Tale of the Ten. 
 The LaBt Entry. 
 
 Oa the Fo'k-ile Head. 
 A Voyiuts to the Cape. 
 Book fof the Hammock. 
 Mytteryof 'Ocean Star' 
 Tlie Bnmance of Jenny 
 
 HarlowB. 
 An Ocean Tragedy, 
 
 By DORA RUSSELL. 
 
 A Country Sweetheart. | The Drift of Fate. 
 
 By BAYLE ST. JOHN. 
 A Levantine Family. 
 
 By ADELINE SERGEANT. 
 
 Dr. Endkott's Experiment. 
 
 By MAWLEY SMART. 
 
 without Love or Licence. I The Outsider. 
 
 The Master of BathkeUy. Beatrice ft Benedick. 
 
 Lang Odds. I A Racine Rubber. 
 
 By T. W. SPEIGHT, 
 
 A Secret of the Sea. I Thn Master of Trenance. 
 The Orey Monk. | A Minion of the Moon. 
 
 By ALAN ST. AUBYN. 
 A Fellow of Trinity, In Face of the World. 
 The Junior Dean. Orchard Damercl. 
 
 Mafltnr of St.Benedlct'i. The Tremlett Diamonds. 
 To hli Own Master. 
 
 By JOHN STAFFORD. 
 Dorli and I. 
 
 By RICCARDO STEPHENS. 
 The Cruciform Mark. 
 
 By R. A. STERNDALE. 
 The Afghan Knife. 
 
 By R. LOUIS STEVENSON. 
 The Suicide Club. 
 
 By BERTHA THOMAS. 
 Proud Maleie. I The VloUn-Plarer. 
 By ANTHONY TROLLOPE. 
 The Way we Live Now. I Scarboroagh'e Family, 
 f rau Frohmann. | The LandLeaKuers 
 By FRANCES E. TROLLOPE. 
 Like Ships upon the I Anne Furness. 
 Sea. I Mabel's Progresi. 
 
 By IVAN TURGENIEFF, &c. 
 
 Stories ft-om Foreign Noveliats. 
 
 By MARK TWAIN. 
 
 Tom Sawyer. Detective. 
 Pndd'nhead Wilson. 
 The Glided Age. 
 Fi'luce and the Paupef> 
 Life on the Mlsslaalppl. 
 The Adventnrefl of 
 
 Huckleberry Finn. 
 A Yankee at the Court 
 
 of Hung Arthur. 
 Stolen Wnite Elephant. 
 £1.000,01)0 Banknote. 
 
 Mark Twoltt* Choice 
 
 Works. 
 Mark Twain's Library 
 
 of Humour. 
 The Innocents Abroad. 
 Roughing It ; and The 
 
 Innocents at Home. 
 A Tramp Abroad. 
 ^'heAmerlcan Claimant. 
 AdventnresTomSawyer 
 Tom Sawyer Abroad. 
 
 By C. C. FRASER-TYTLER. 
 
 Mistress Judith. 
 
 By SARAH TYTLER. 
 
 Lady Bell. I The Macdomld Lass. 
 
 Burled Diamonds. The Wltch-Wlfe. 
 
 The Blackhall Ohosta. i 
 
 By ALLEN UPWARD. 
 The Queen against Owen I The Prince of Balklstan. 
 
 By E. A. viZETELLY. 
 
 The Scorpion : A Romance of Spain. 
 
 By CY WARMAN. 
 
 The Express Messenger, 
 
 By WILLIAM WESTALL. 
 
 Sons of Belial. 
 
 By ATHA WESTBURY. 
 
 The Shadow of BUton Fembrook. 
 By C. J. WILLS. 
 
 An Easy-going Fellow. 
 
 By JOHN STRANGE WINTER. 
 
 Cavalry Life and Regimental Legends. 
 A Soldier's Chl)di-en. 
 
 By MARGARET WYNMAN. 
 My Flirtations. 
 
 By E 
 The DownfaU. 
 The Dream. 
 Dr. Pascal. 
 
 Money. | Lourdes. 
 By 
 
 A yineteenth Century Miracle. 
 
 ZOLA. 
 
 The Fat and the Thin. 
 His Excellency. 
 The Dram-Shop. 
 Rome. I Paris. 
 
 2. Z." 
 
 CHEAP EDITIONS OF POPULAR NOVELS. 
 
 Post 8vo, illustrated boards, 2s. each. 
 
 By ARTEMUS WARD. 
 
 Artemus Ward Complete. 
 
 By EDMOND ABOUT. 
 
 The Fellah. 
 
 By HAMILTON AIDE- 
 
 Carr of Carrlyon. | Confidences. 
 
 By Mrs. ALEXANDER. 
 
 Hald. Wife or Widow? | Valerie's Fate. 
 BUnd Fate. 
 
 By GRANT ALLEN. 
 
 Phlllstia. 
 
 Strange Stories. 
 
 Babvlon. 
 
 For Malmie's Sake, 
 
 In all Shades. 
 
 The Beckoning Hand. 
 
 The Devil's Die. 
 
 The Tents of Shem. 
 
 The Great Taboo. 
 Dumaresq's Daughter. 
 Duchess of Powyaland. 
 Blood Royal. [piece- 
 Ivan Greet's Master. 
 The Scallywag. 
 This Mortal Ooil. 
 At Market Value. 
 
 By E. LESTER ARNOLD. 
 
 Phra the Fbmuician, 
 
 BY PRANK BARRETT. 
 
 Fettered for Life. 
 Little Lady Linton. 
 Butween Life A Death. 
 The Sin of Olga Zassou- 
 
 Uch. 
 Folly Morrison. 
 Ueut. BamabM. 
 HoMst Davit. 
 
 A FrodlKal'B Progress. 
 Found Guilty. 
 A Recoiling Vengeance. 
 For Love andHononr. 
 John Ford; and Bis 
 
 Helpmate. 
 The Woman of the Iron 
 . Bracelets, 
 
 By SHELSLEY BEAUCHAMP. 
 Grantley Grange. 
 By Sir W._ BESANT and J, RICE. 
 
 tdy- Money Mortlboy 
 
 Uttle G&l. 
 With Harp and Crown. 
 This Son of Vulcan. 
 The Golden Butterfly. 
 The Monks of Thelema. 
 
 By Cella's Arbour. 
 Chaplain of the Fleet. 
 The Seamy Side. 
 The Case of Mr. Lucraf t. 
 In Trafalgar's Bay. 
 The Ten Years' Tenant. 
 
 By Sir WALTER BESANT 
 
 All Sorts and Condi- 
 tions of Men. 
 
 The Captains' Room. 
 
 All in a Garden Fair. 
 
 Dorothy Forster, 
 
 Uncle Jack. 
 
 The World Went Very 
 Well Then. 
 
 Children of Qlbeon. 
 
 Herr Panlns. 
 
 For Faith and Freedom. 
 
 To Call Her Mine. 
 The Bell of St. Paul's. 
 The Holy Rose. 
 Armoreiof Lyoneise. 
 S.Eatherine Bby Tower 
 Verbena Cameula Ste- 
 
 phanotis. 
 The Ivory Gate. 
 The Rebel Queen. 
 Beyond the Dreams of 
 
 Avarice. 
 
 By A, 
 
 In the Midst of Life. 
 
 By FREDERICK BOYLE, 
 Camp Notes, 
 Savage Life. 
 
 BY BRET HARTE. 
 
 Callfomlan Stories. 
 
 Gabriel Com'oy. 
 
 The Lnck of Soaring 
 
 Camp. 
 An Helreii of Bed Dog. 
 
 Chronicles of No man's 
 Land. 
 
 Flip. 1 Man^a. 
 
 A Phyllis 0/ the Sierrai. 
 A Waif of the Plains. 
 A Ward of the Ooldea 
 Gate. 
 
30 
 
 CHAfTO & WiNbUS, III ^f. Martin*s Lane, Lotid^otl, W.fi. 
 
 Two-Shilling Novez.s— continued. 
 
 By HAROLD BRYDGES. 
 Uncle Sam at Home. 
 
 By ROBERT BUCHANAN, 
 
 The Martyrdom of Ma- 
 deline. 
 The Slew Abelard. 
 Matt. 
 
 The Heir of Llnne. 
 Womau and the Man. 
 Kachel Seno. 
 
 Shadow of the Sword, 
 A Child of Natare. 
 God and the Man. 
 love Me for Ever. 
 Foxglove Manor, 
 fbe Master of the Mine. 
 Annan Water. 
 
 By BUCHANAN and MURRAY. 
 The Charlatan. 
 
 By>HALL, CAINE. 
 The Shadow of a Crime. I The Deemster. 
 A Son of Eagar. | 
 
 By Commander CAMERON. 
 
 The Ctdiso of the 'Black Prince.' 
 
 By HAYDEN CARRUTH. 
 
 The AdTentnrcs of Jonea. 
 
 By AUSTIN CLARE. 
 
 For the Xove of a Lass. 
 
 By Mrs ARCHER CUVE. 
 
 Paul FetToU. 
 
 Why Paul PerroU Killed his Wife. 
 
 By MACLAREN COBBAN. 
 The Cure of Souls. | The F^ed Sultan. 
 
 By C. ALLSTON COLLINS. 
 
 The Bar Siniitter. 
 
 By MORT. & FRANCES COLLINS, 
 
 Sweet Anne Page. 
 TranBmi{fration. 
 Fiom Midnight to Mid 
 
 night. 
 A Fl2ht with Fortune. 
 
 By WILKIE COLLINS 
 
 Sweet and Twenty. 
 The Village Comedy. 
 Tou Play me False. 
 Blacksmith and Scholar 
 Prances. 
 
 Armadale. ] AfterQark: 
 
 No Name. 
 
 Antonlna. 
 
 Basil. 
 
 Hide and Seek. 
 
 The Bead Secret. 
 
 Queen of Hearts. 
 
 Miss or Mrs. ? 
 
 The New Magdalen. 
 
 I'he Frozen Deep. 
 
 The Law and the Lady 
 
 The Two Destinies. 
 
 The Haunted Hotel. 
 
 A Rogue's Life. 
 
 By M. J. COLQUHOUN. 
 
 Every Xnch a Soldier. 
 
 By DUTTON COOK. 
 
 Leo. I Paul Foster's Daughter. 
 
 By C. EGBERT CRADDOCK. 
 The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains, 
 By MATT CRIM. 
 
 The Adventures of a Fair Behel. 
 
 By B. M. CROKER. 
 
 BNeviUe. " " ■' "■■ 
 
 My Miscellanies. 
 The Woman in White. 
 The Moonstone. 
 Man and Wife. 
 Poor Miss Finch. 
 The Fallen Leaves. 
 Jezebel's Daucrhter. 
 The Slack Rone. 
 Heart and Science. 
 MSayNol' 
 The Evil Genius, 
 Little Novels. 
 Legacy of Cain. 
 Blind Love. 
 
 A Fanilly LlkeneaB. 
 Tillage Tales and Jungle 
 
 Tragedies. 
 Two Masters. - 
 Mr. Jervis. 
 
 Pretty Miss 
 Diana Barrlngton. 
 'To Let.' 
 
 A Bird of Passage. 
 Froper Pride, 
 
 By W. CVPLES, 
 
 Hearts of Gold. 
 
 By ALPHONSE DAUDET, 
 
 The Evangelist ; or, Port Salvation. 
 
 By ERASMUS DAWSON. 
 
 The Fountain of Youth. 
 
 By JAMES DE MILLE. 
 
 A Castle in Spain. 
 
 By J. LEITH DERWENT. 
 
 Our Lady of Tears. | Circe's Lovers, 
 
 Bke 
 
 ^ Py, CHARLES DICKENS. 
 
 tit&es oy lloz. 
 
 By DICK DONOVAN. 
 
 The Man-Hunter. 
 Tracked and Taken. 
 Caught at Last t 
 Wanted I 
 Who Poisonod Hetty 
 
 Duncan 7 
 Man from Manchester. 
 ADetective'6 Triumpbc 
 
 In the Gi-ip of the Ldw, 
 From Information R«- 
 
 ceiv^d. 
 Tracked to Doom. 
 Link hy Link 
 Saspiclon Aroueed. 
 Darl£ Deeds. 
 Eiddles Head. 
 
 The Mystery of Jamaica Terrace. 
 
 By Mrs. ANNIE EDWARDES. 
 
 A Point of Honour. | Archie Lovell. 
 
 By M. BETHAM-EDWARDS. 
 
 Felicia. | Kitty. 
 
 By EDWARD EGQLESTON. 
 
 Roxy. 
 
 By G. MANVILLE FENN. 
 
 The Nev/ Mistress. | The Tiger Lllv. 
 
 Witness to the Deed. { The White Virgin. 
 
 By PERCY FITZGERALD. 
 
 Bella Donna. ~ 
 
 Never Forgotten. 
 
 Polly. 
 
 Fatal Zero. 
 
 By P. FITZGI 
 
 strange Secrets, 
 
 Second Mrs. Tlllctsou. 
 Seventy - five Brooke 
 
 Street. 
 The Lady of Brantome 
 
 RALD and others. 
 
 By ALBANY DE FONBLANQUE. 
 
 Filthy Lucre. 
 
 By R. f 
 
 Olympla. 
 One by One. 
 A Real Queen. 
 Queen Cophetua. 
 
 FRANCILLON. 
 
 King or Knave? 
 Romances of the Law. 
 Ropes of Sand. 
 A Dog and hla Shadow. 
 
 By HAROLD FREDERIC 
 
 Seth's Brother's Wife. I The Lawton Girl. 
 
 Prefaced by Sir BARTLE FRERE. 
 
 Paudurang Han. 
 
 By EDWARD GARRETT, 
 
 The Capel Girls. 
 
 By GILBERT GAUL, 
 
 A Strange Manuscript. 
 
 By CHARLES GIBBON. 
 
 Eohin Gray, 
 
 Fancy Free. 
 
 For Lack of Gold. 
 
 What will World Say 7 
 
 In Love and War. 
 
 For the King. 
 
 In Pastures Green. 
 
 Queen of the Meadow. 
 
 A Heart's Problem. 
 
 The Dead Heart. 
 
 In Honour Bound. 
 Flower of the Forest. 
 The Braes of Yarrow, 
 The Golden Shaft. 
 Of High Degree. 
 By Mead and Stream, 
 Loving a Dream, 
 A Hard Knot. 
 Heart's Delight, 
 Blood-Monoy. 
 
 By WILLIAM GILBERT. ' 
 
 Dr. Austin's Gueata. I The Wizard of 
 James Duke. \ Mountain. 
 
 By ERNEST GLANVILLE. 
 
 The Lost Heiress. I The Foasicker. 
 
 A Fair Colonist. | 
 
 By Rev. S. BARING GOULD. 
 
 Red Spider. ] Lve. 
 
 By HENRY GREVILLE. 
 
 A Noble woman. | Nlkanor. 
 
 By CECIL GRIFFITH, 
 
 Corinthla Marazion. 
 
 By SYDNEY GRUNDY. 
 
 The Days of hla Vanity. 
 
 By JOHN HABBERTON, 
 
 Bmeton's Bayon. | Conutry Luck. 
 
 E^ ANDREW HALLIDAY, 
 
 Every day Papers. 
 
 By THOMAS HARDY. 
 
 Vn^der the Qreenwood Ti'ee, 
 
CHATTO & WINDUS, in St. Martin's Lane, London, W.C. 
 
 3< 
 
 Two-Shillikg T!iQV els— continued. 
 By JULIAN HAWTHORNE. 
 
 Beatrix Sandolph. 
 
 Love— or a ITame. 
 
 David Foindexter'a Sis- 
 appearance. 
 
 The Bpectre of the 
 Camera. 
 
 Garth. 
 
 Ellice Qnentin. 
 
 Fortune's Fool. 
 
 HlsE Cadogna. 
 
 Behastiau Strome, 
 
 Dust. 
 
 By Sir ARTHUR HELPS. 
 Ivan do Biron. 
 
 By a. A. HENTY. 
 Knjub the Juggler. 
 
 By HENRY HERMAN. 
 A Leading Lady. 
 
 By HEADON HILL, 
 
 Zambra the Dotective. 
 
 By JOHN HILL. 
 TreaHon Felony. 
 
 By Mrs. CASHEL HOEY. 
 
 The Lover'z Greed. 
 
 By Mrs. GEORQE HOOPER. 
 
 The HonsB ot Kaby, 
 
 By TIOHP HOPKINS. 
 
 Twixt Love and Duty. 
 
 By Mrs. HUNGERFORD. 
 
 A SEaldeu all Forlorn. Lady Verner's Flight 
 In Durance Vile. The Bod House Mystei y 
 
 Marvel, The Three Graces 
 
 A Mental Struggle. trnsatlBfactory Lover. 
 
 A Modern Circe. Lady Fatty. 
 
 By Mrs. ALFRED HUNT. 
 Thomicroft'5 Model. I SeU-Condemued. 
 Tiiibt Other Ferson. | The Leaden Casket. 
 
 By JEAN INGELOW. 
 Fated to be Free. 
 
 By WM. JAMESON. 
 My Dead SeU. 
 
 By HARRIETT JAY. 
 The Dark Colleen. ] Queen of Connaught. 
 
 By MARK KERSHAW. 
 Colonial Facts and' Fictions. 
 
 By R. ASHE KING. 
 
 A Drawn Game. I Paesion's Slare. 
 
 ' The Wealing of the Bell BaiTy: 
 Green,' | 
 
 ByEDMOND LEPELLETIER. 
 
 Madame Sans-Gene. 
 
 By JOHN LEYS. 
 
 The Lindsays. 
 
 By E, LYNN LINTON 
 
 Patricia KembaU. 
 The Woirld Well Lost, 
 Under which Lord ? 
 Fasten Carew. 
 'My Lover 
 lone. 
 
 By HENRY W 
 Gideon Fleyce. 
 
 By JUSTIN 
 Dear Lady Disdain. 
 Waterdale Neighbours. 
 My Enemy's Daughter. 
 A Fair Saxon. 
 Linley Kochford. 
 MlEs Misanthrope. 
 
 By HUGH MACCOLL. 
 Mr. Stranger's Sealed Packet. 
 
 By GEORGE MACDONALD. 
 Heather and Snow. 
 
 By AGNES MACDONELL. 
 Quaker Cousins. 
 
 By KATHARINE S. MACQUOID. 
 The Evil Eye. | tost Rose. 
 
 By W. H. MALLOCK. 
 A Kcmance-of the Kine- 1 The Kew Republic. 
 'teenth Century. 1 
 
 The Atonement of Learn 
 
 Dundas. 
 With a Silken Thread. 
 Kebel of the Family. 
 Sowing the Wind. 
 The One Too Many. 
 "' LUCY. 
 
 MCCARTHY. 
 
 Camiola. 
 , Donna Quixote. 
 Maid of Athens. 
 . The Comet of a Season. 
 The Dl&tator. 
 Bed Diamonds. 
 
 By J. MASTERMAN. 
 
 Half-a-dozen Daughters. 
 
 By BRANDER MATTHEWS 
 A Secret of the Sea. 
 
 By L. T. MEADE. 
 A Soldier of Fortune. 
 
 By LEONARD MERRICK. 
 The Man who was Good. 
 
 By JEAN MIDDLEMASS. 
 Tonch and Go. | Mr. Dorlllion. 
 
 By Mrs. MOLESWORTH. 
 Hathercourt Kectory. 
 
 By J. E. MUDDOCK. 
 Stories Weird and Won- 1 From the Bosom of the 
 
 derful. Deep. 
 
 The Dead Man's Secret. | 
 
 By_D. CHRISTIE MURRAY. 
 
 By the Gate of the Sea. 
 
 A Bit of Human Nature, 
 
 First Person Singular. 
 
 Bob Martin's Little Girl 
 
 Time's Bovenges. 
 
 A Wasted Crime. 
 
 In Direst Peril. 
 
 Mount Despair. 
 By MURRAY and HERMAN. 
 One Traveller Returns. I The Bishops' Bible, 
 Paul Jones's Alias. | 
 
 By HENRY MURRAY. 
 
 A Game of Bluff. | A Song of Sixpence, 
 
 By HUME NISBET. 
 
 ' Bail Up I ' "I Dr.Bernard St. Vlacen . 
 
 By W. E. N0RRI5. 
 
 Saint Ann's. 
 
 By ALICE O'HANLON. 
 
 The Unforeseen. | Chance ? or Fate ? 
 
 By GEaRGES OHNET. 
 Dr. Eameau. I A Woii-d Gift. 
 
 A- Last Love. | 
 
 By Mrs. OLIPHANT. 
 Whiteladles. I Tbe Greatest Heiress in 
 
 The Primrose Path. I England. 
 
 By Mrs. ROBERT O'REILLY. 
 
 Phoebe's Fortunes. 
 
 By OUIDA. 
 
 A Mod^ Father. 
 
 Joseph's Coat. 
 
 Coals of Fire. 
 
 Val Strange. I Hearts. 
 
 Old Blazer Hero. 
 
 The Way of the World, 
 
 Cynic Fortune. 
 
 A Life's Atonement. 
 
 Held in Bondage. 
 
 Strathmore. 
 
 ChandoS. 
 
 Idalia. 
 
 Under Two Tlags. 
 
 Cecil Oastlemainc'sGage 
 
 Tricotrin. 
 
 Puck. 
 
 Folle Farine. 
 
 A Dog of Flanders. 
 
 Fascarel. 
 
 Signa. 
 
 Princess Napraxine. 
 
 In a Winter City. 
 
 Ariadne. 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 Two Lit. Wooden Shoes. 
 Moths. 
 Bimbi. 
 Pipistrello. 
 A Village Commune. 
 Wanda. 
 Othmar 
 Frescoes. 
 In Maremma. 
 Guilderoy. 
 Ruifino. 
 Bjnrlin, 
 
 Santa Bavbara. 
 Two Ggenders. 
 Ouida's Wisdom, Wit, 
 and Pathos. 
 
 By MARGARET AGNES PAUL. 
 
 Gentle and Simple. 
 
 By EDGAR A. POE. 
 
 The Mystery of Marie Roget. 
 
 By IVlrs. CAMPBELL PRAED. 
 
 The Romance of a Station. 
 The Soul of Countess Adrian. 
 Outlaw and Lawmaker. 
 (KiriBtina Chard. 
 
 By E. C. PRICE. 
 
 Vaientlna. I Mrs. Lancaster's Rival. 
 
 Tha Foreignersi | Gerald. 
 
 By J^ICHARD PRYCE. 
 
 Miss Maxwell's Affections, 
 
33 
 
 CHATTO & WINDUS, in St. Martin's Lane. London. WiC. 
 
 Two-Shilling Novels— cowitKHerf. 
 By JAMES PAYN. 
 
 Be&ttnck's Tator. 
 
 Marphy'8 Master. 
 
 A Coanty Family. 
 
 At Her Mercy. 
 
 Cecll'i Tryst. 
 
 The ClyflardB of Clyffe. 
 
 The Foster Brothers. 
 
 Found Dead. 
 
 The Best of Husbands. 
 
 Walter's Word 
 
 Ralvei. 
 
 Fallen Fortunes. 
 
 Humoroos Stories. 
 
 £200 Reward. 
 
 A Marine Residence. 
 
 Mirk Abbey 
 
 By Proxy. 
 
 Under One Roof. 
 
 Hlsh Spirits. 
 
 Canyon's Year, 
 
 From Exile. 
 
 For Cash Only. 
 
 Kit. 
 
 The Canon's Waid. 
 
 The Talk of the Town. 
 Holiday Tasks. 
 A Perfect Treasure. 
 What He Cost Her. 
 A Confidential Agent. 
 Glow-worm Tales. 
 The Burnt Million. 
 Bunny Stories. 
 Lost Sir Masamgberd. 
 A Woman's Vengeance. 
 The Family Scsroegrace. 
 Gwendoline's Harveet. 
 Like Father, tike Son. 
 Married Beneath Him. 
 Not Wooed, but Won. 
 Less Black than We're 
 
 Fainted. 
 Some Private Views. 
 A Grape from a Thorn. 
 The Mystery of Mir- 
 
 bridge. 
 The Word and the Will. 
 A Prince of the Blood. 
 A Trying Patient. 
 
 By CHARLES READE. 
 
 It Is Never Too Late to 
 
 Mend. 
 Christie Johnstone. 
 The Double Marriage. 
 Fut Yourself in His 
 
 Place 
 IiOve Me Little, Love 
 
 Me Long. 
 The Cloister and the 
 
 Hearth. 
 The Conrse of True 
 
 Love. 
 The JUt. 
 The Autobiography of 
 
 a Thief. 
 
 By Mrs. J, 
 Weird Stories. 
 Fairy Water. 
 Eer Mother's Darling. 
 The Prince of Wales's 
 
 Garden Party. 
 
 A Terrible Temptation. 
 Foul Play. 
 
 The Wandering Heir. 
 Hard Cash. 
 
 Singleheartand Double- 
 Good Btorios of Man and 
 
 other Animals. 
 Peg Wofflngton. 
 Qrffflth Gaunt. 
 A Perilous Secret. 
 A Simpleton. 
 Readlana. 
 A Woman-Hater. 
 
 H- RIDDELL. 
 
 The Uninhabited House. 
 The Mystery in Palace 
 
 Gardens. 
 The Nun's Curse. 
 Idle Tales. 
 
 By AMELIB RIVES. 
 
 Barbara Derlng. 
 
 By P- AV. ROBINSON. 
 
 Women are Strange. | The Hands of Justice. 
 
 By JAMES RUNCIMAN. 
 Skippers and Shellbacks. | Schools and Scholars, 
 Grace Balm^gn's Sweetheart. 
 
 By W. CLARK RUSSELL 
 
 Bound the Galley Fire. 
 
 On the Fo'k'sle Head. 
 
 In the Middle Watch. 
 
 A Voyage to the Cu>e. 
 
 A Book for the Ham- 
 mock. 
 
 The Mystery of the 
 ' Ocean Star.' 
 
 By DORA RUSSELL. 
 
 A Conntry Sweetheart. 
 By GEORGE AUGUSTUS SALA. 
 
 Gaslight and Daylight. 
 
 By GEORGE R. SIMS, 
 
 The Romance of Jenny 
 Harlowe. 
 
 An Ocean Tragedy. 
 
 My Shipmate Louise. 
 
 Alone on Wide Wide Sea. 
 
 The Good Ship 'Mo- 
 hock.' 
 
 The Phantom Death. 
 
 The Ring o' Bells, 
 Mary Jane's Memoirs, 
 Mary Jane Married. 
 Tales of Today. 
 Dramas of Life. 
 Tinkletop's Crime. 
 
 My Two Wives. 
 
 Zeph. 
 
 Memoirs of a Landlady. 
 
 Scenes from the Show. 
 
 The 10 Commandments. 
 
 Dagonot Abroad. 
 
 By A , 
 
 A Match in the Dark. 
 
 By HAWLEY SMART. 
 
 Without Love or Licence. 
 The Flnngep. 
 Beatrice and Benedick. 
 
 SPEIGHT, 
 
 Back to Life. 
 
 The LondwatsrTragedy, 
 
 Burgos Romance. 
 
 Quittance in Full. 
 
 A Husband from the Sea 
 
 By T. W. 
 
 The Mysteries of Heron 
 
 Dyke. 
 The Golden Hoop. 
 Hoodwinked. 
 By Devious Ways. 
 
 By ALAN ST. AUBYN. 
 
 A Fellow 01 Trinity. I To His Of/a Master. 
 The Junior Dean. Orchard Damerel. 
 
 Master of St.B3aedIct'B ] Inthe Faceof theWorld. 
 
 By R. A. STERNDALE. 
 
 The Afghan Enlfe. 
 
 By R. LOUIS STEVENSON. 
 New Arabian Nights. 
 
 By BERTHA THOMAS. 
 Cresflida. I The Violin Player. 
 
 Frond Maisle. | 
 
 By WALTER THORNBURY. 
 Tales for the Marines. | Old Stories Retold. 
 By T. ADOLPHUS TROLLOPE. 
 
 Diamond Cut Diamond. 
 
 By F. ELEANOR TROLLOPE. 
 
 Like Ships upon the I Anne Furness. 
 Sea. I Mabel's Progress. 
 
 By ANTHONY TROLLOPE. 
 Fran Frohmann. The Laud- Leaguers. 
 
 Marlon Fay. The American Senator. 
 
 Kept in the Dark. Mr. Scarljorough's 
 
 John Cal^ate. Family. 
 
 The Way We Live Now. GoldenLionof Granpere 
 
 By J. T, TROV/BRIDGE. 
 
 Fam ell's Folly, 
 
 By IVAN TURQENIEFF. &c. 
 
 Stories from Foreign Novelists. 
 
 By MARK TWAIN. 
 
 A Pleasure Trip on the 
 
 Continent. 
 The Gilded Age. 
 Huckleberry Finn. 
 MarkTtrain'B Sketches. 
 Tom Sawyer. 
 A Tramp Abroad. 
 Stolen VSrhite Elephant. 
 
 By C. C. FRASER-TYTLER. 
 
 Mistress Jndith. 
 
 By SARAH TYTLER. 
 
 The Bride's Pass; ~* 
 
 Life on the MlsslBStppl. 
 The Prince and tne 
 
 Pauper. 
 A Yankee at the Co^irt 
 
 of King Arthur. 
 The £1,000,000 Bank^ 
 
 Note. 
 
 The Hugueuot Family. 
 The Blackhall Ghostc. 
 What SheCameThroueh 
 Beauty and the Beast, 
 Oltoyenne Jaqnellne. 
 
 Burled Diamonds. 
 
 St. MunKO'a City. 
 Lady Beu. 
 Noblesse Oblige. 
 Disappeared. 
 
 By ALLEN UPWARD. 
 
 The Queen against Owen. [ Prince of Balklstan. 
 ' God Save the Queen I ' 
 
 By AARON WATSON and LILLIAS 
 
 WASSERMANN. 
 
 The Marquis of Carabas. 
 
 By WILLIAM WESTALL. 
 
 Trust-Money. ' 
 
 By Mrs. F. H. WILLIAMSON. 
 
 A ChUd Widow. 
 
 By J. S. WINTER. 
 
 Cavalry Life. | Regimental Legends, 
 
 By H. F. WOOD. 
 The Passenger from Scotland Yard. 
 The Englishman of the Rue Cain. 
 
 By CELIA PARKER WOOLLEV. 
 
 Rachel Armstrong ; or. Love and Theolo^. 
 
 By EDMUND YATES. 
 
 The Forlorn Hope. I Castaway. 
 
 Land at Last. | 
 
 By L ZANGWILL. 
 
 Ghetto Tragedies. 
 
 OGDEN, SMALE AND 
 
IMMMIMMfiMMDMiil 
 
 - - vi^i^ it-mmu tttattt m n nt ifmi »H »»«iff »rl ft f