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ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell University Library 
 S 621.5.S3S34 
 
 Reclamation of coastal sand dunes in Eur 
 
 3 1924 000 299 887 
 
 W'Y. State College of 4?rlm»l*(if(i, 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N, Y, 
 
 Department of Forestry. 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000299887 
 
RECLAMATION OF COASTAL SAKD DUUBS 
 
 in 
 EUROPE AHD IH EASTERN UNITED STATES 
 
 fA report prepared as part of the requirements of work 
 in minor field of graduate study) 
 
 by 
 
 Francis Srant Schleioher, B.S. 
 
 May 31, 1917. 
 
Table of Contents 
 
 Page 
 
 Introductl on • 1 
 
 Reclamation of Sand Dune Areas in Europe ••.•••.• 3 
 
 Germany 4 
 
 Fixation of th.e Dunes on the Coast of 
 
 Jutland, Denmark 6 
 
 Dunes of Holland 8 
 
 Belgium 9 
 
 France 10 
 
 Landes and Dunes of Gascony ........... 11 
 
 Sand Dunes of Great Britain • 16 
 
 Plantings on the Littoral Dune (Sea face)... 18 
 
 Plantings on the Littoral Dune (Land face).. 18 
 
 Dune Laws and Begtilations 19 
 
 Heclamation of Band Dunes on the Atlantic Coast 
 
 of the United Stat es 20 
 
 Sand Dune s in Maine 21 
 
 Sand Dune Area of Massaohusetts • 22 
 
 Heclamation of Cape Cod Sand Dunes •••• 22 
 
 Mode of Deposition of Cape Cod Sands .. 23 
 
 Development of the Dune Range 24 
 
 Artificial Reclamation of the Cape Sands 26 
 
 Recent Work by the State 27 
 
 Preliminary Operations 27 
 
 Selecting and Transplanting the 
 
 Sets 27 
 
 Cost of Planting 28 
 
Pa^ e 
 
 Brush Layiiig 29 
 
 Effioienoy of Beach Grass for Sand 
 
 Binding 29 
 
 Necessity of Ultimate Reforestation .... 31 
 
 Long Island 32 
 
 Wind Deposits, Character and General 
 
 Distrihution 32 
 
 ]>anes of Napeague Beach 33 
 
 Dunes at Easthampton 34 
 
 Dunes of the Great South Beaches 34 
 
 Dunes at Sliinnecoc]^ Hills 35 
 
 Dunes of the North Coast 35 
 
 Dunes in the Interior of the Island .... 36 
 
 Control Measures of Long Island • 37 
 
 Coastal Plain and Dune Region of New Jersey,. 39 
 
 Cape Charle s Peninsula 42 
 
 Sand Dunes of Lewes , Delaware 43 
 
 Sand Dunes on the North Carolina Coast 46 
 
 Damage by Shifting Ssn ds S5 
 
 Cape Hatteras Forest •• 46 
 
 Cape Hatteras Sand Dune Area 48 
 
 The Fixation of the Sands 50 
 
 The Coastal Strip and Barrier Dune 57 
 
 Forestation 53 
 
 AdTisahility of the Project 55 
 
 Georgia •••.. 56 
 
 Florida 56 
 
Reolamatlon of Sand Dunes 
 
 Introduction 
 
 With the increase of pop^ation the demand for more 
 land for agricultural purposes has become more and more im- 
 portant. Part of this demand can he met by more intensive 
 cultivation but the larger part must be met by the reclamation 
 of hitherto uncultivable lands, Su«h lands as extensive 
 swamps, arid deserts, exposed, rocky mountain lands, and sand 
 dune areas can hardly be reclaimed by private endeavor. The 
 chief factor barring private enterprise is the shortness of 
 such endeavors. It is only the state that can work at re- 
 claiming areas where constant supervision and even perpetual 
 work is needed to hold the Sixces of nature in check. Govern- 
 ment enterprise has recovered the flooded lowlands of Holland, 
 the marshes of Scotland, portions of the arid deserts of the 
 Western United States, the deserts of Hungary, the exposed 
 slopes of the French lips and the sand dune areas of Gascogne, 
 This, after all private work had failed. 
 
 The reclamation of sand dune areas has always been 
 one of great importance. Immense areas of once fertile land 
 have been devastated and depopulated by the encroachment of 
 moving sands. The economic destructivfiness of these sands has 
 not been confined to those areas where they are constantly in 
 motion but has even threatened and destroyed large forests, 
 fertile, agricultural regions and river channels that are most 
 important. 
 
Where these sands have been fixed the work has "been 
 found to be a paying investment. The revenues derived from 
 the forests on these lands, the value of the land for recrea- 
 tion and the security of certain river channels have paid 
 many times over the work necessary to fix these dune areas. 
 
 In the development of this subject the methods used 
 in Europe will be reviewed first, since it is European 
 practices that have been followed in reclaiming our own sand 
 dune areas. 
 
Reolamatien of Sand Dune Areas In Europe 
 
 The sand dune area of Europe is, according to 
 Wessely*, divided into tixe following districts : 
 
 1, The German lowlands which extend from Holland along 
 the Horth Sea and along the Baltic to Russia. 
 
 2. The Danisl^-German islands which lie off Schleswig- 
 Holstein and Danish- Jutland. 
 
 3. The sand dune areas of Austria Hungary, especially 
 along the hanks of the Donau and in the Banat region, 
 
 4, The French, "Landes" of Gascogne. 
 
 5. The seashore dunes of Holland, Belgium, Denmark, 
 North Germany, Russia and the west coast of France, 
 
 6, The Baltic shores of Russia, 
 
 In order to fully cover these regions the methods 
 used in reclaiming dune areas typical of the various sections 
 will he fully discussed. 
 
 The general methods used in reclaiming the "Landes" 
 art typical of methods used in the other regions except for 
 modifications determined by local conditions. The methods 
 used in Jut^-fiuad are typical of those used in Denmark, Germany 
 and Holland along the sh6re bordering the Horth Sea and 
 Baltic. The methods used in Belgium are ty|)ical of those 
 used on the channel section of France and these methods will 
 he discussed in detail under their respective sections. 
 
 *"Der Buropaishhe Plugsand und seine Kultur," Josef Wessely, 
 Wien, 1873, 
 
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Grermany 
 
 The dime areas of Grermaay* occur chiefly on the 
 shores of Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Pommern, Posen and Prussia, 
 The ciaaraoteristics of this section are similar to those of 
 Priesland and Holland. The chief dune areas are, between 
 the mouths of the Elbe and the Oder, and along the Eurisohe 
 and Frische Wehmng. 
 
 The methods of reforestation of the dune areas were 
 early worked out on an organized basis. The methods used 
 were similar to those vised on the "Dunes of Gascony", Fore 
 dunes were first built up and planted and the land in the lee 
 forested, , The chief differences were in the character 
 of the plants used in this work." According to Hitchcock** 
 the dunes were controlled by plantings of "beach grass and 
 sand hedges and the trees used were, Pinus montana, laricio, 
 
 austriaoa, and sylvestris", A study of the cross-sections 
 
 # 
 of the wehrung ajt Misdroy and the Nehrung at Hidden will 
 
 illustrate clearly the manner in which this problem was handled, 
 
 * Josef Wessely "Der Europflische Flugsand", Wien, 1873, 
 
 **A.S, Hitchcock, U.S.D.A. in the Hat. t^eog. Magazine, 1904, 
 page 43. 
 
 # ''♦Bttnenbuch#, Dr. F,E. Solger, Stuttgart, 1910, 
 
The plants used in this woric were, Honokenya peploides, 
 Ammophlla arenaria, Hordeum arenarium, Eryngium martimirim, the 
 heather, the willows and the pines. 
 
 In Germany the attitude of the people has made 
 reclamation work «asy. The communities especially have aided 
 the government in a whole hearted manner. In Prussia the 
 land of the North German lowlands are largely held by large 
 land owners. The initial attempt at reclamation work on the 
 dunes were first made but the work was not done on a large 
 sce^le until the government aided them. The latter made 
 sufficient appropriations and laws to make the work of a per- 
 maaent nature. 
 
 The government took title to all the fore dune areas 
 smd placed them under a spearate administration of officers and 
 dune guards. The former have charge of the enforcement af tte 
 dune laws, planting plans, and administrative work, while the 
 latter watch the dunes and report any breaks in the cover etc. 
 If tMs occurs the local communities send men to repair the 
 dune and replant it. Violation of the dune laws are punish- 
 ed severely, an^ infractions being considered a "criminal" act. 
 No one is allowed to graze any stock on this land or on the 
 land immediately in the rear of the dune area. Trespassing 
 is also prohibited as is also the remd^ring of plants or the 
 digging of the soil. In order to give proper notice the area 
 is marked by large boundary pillars upon which printed warn- 
 ings are posted. 
 
 The problem of the reclamation of dune lands in 
 
6 
 
 Germany Is well under way and the success of the work is well 
 assured. Some of the dune plantations* are considered a 
 standard for such work 
 
 Fixation of the Dunes on the Coast of Jutland, Denmark* *. 
 
 Along the west coast of Jutland there were once 
 forests of pine and spruce. These forests were recklessly ex- 
 ploited and the result was a naked coast with seriously de- 
 pleted interior forests. The west winds then swept unob- 
 structed across the peninsula and dried out the soil, sweeping 
 away the hximus and exposing the mineral soil. 
 
 The impoverished soil could then support nothing but 
 heather which producing an acid humus, caused an underlying 
 hard-pan to form. The worst consequences resulted near the 
 coast. Here the sand was carried back three and even four 
 miles and wherever obstructions occurred a sand dune was 
 gradually formed by the sand accumulation. This was dojie 
 partly by the action of sand grasses which holding the sand in 
 place caused these mounds to grow even larger. These dunes 
 at last reached a size where the wind was too strong for the 
 grasses and moving dunes were formed which engulfed villages, 
 churches, etc., and buried large areas of fertile land. 
 
 *The plantations on the Kurische Uebrung are considered a stand- 
 ard for such work. See plates in the Hat. Geog. Hag. 1904, 
 p. 46. 
 
 **^ixation of Dunes on the Ooast of Jutland", W.2. Morrill, 
 For. Quarterly IX, No. 1, p. 62 ff. 
 
 ***Eie Forst Kultur in Jfltland. p. 167 - Aus dem Walde, 1879, 
 H. Burkhardt. 
 
From 1792 on, attempts were made in a more or less 
 unorganized way to overcome these dunes by planting beach graas 
 on them. It was not until 1857 that the government realized 
 that the planting of woody growth was necessary to fix the 
 dunes after the beach grass had done its best work. 
 
 In 1870 the Dune Department which had been formed in 
 1867 had gained enough experience to go at things in an organ- 
 ized manner. It had by this time determined what trees were 
 able to withstand strong, salt winds, a vigorous climate, and 
 the light soil. YJlth experience came also a sating in the 
 cost of methods. For example In 1853 the cost per acre for 
 the formation of a plantation was $70 and in 1878 it was ;i^20. 
 
 The methods used were as follows i 
 
 Heather was first planted in all the low spots and 
 the tops of high hills were removed to prevent strong winds. 
 The heather holds the sand in place until the beach grass can 
 take root. Ordinarily the beach grass was planted on the east 
 slope in rows parallel to the prevailing west wind. The wind 
 cuts off the tops of hills with more than a 20° slope and 
 sifts the sand over the grassy, east aspect where the beach 
 grass grows and holds this sand in place. 
 
 The beach grass is planted, three or four in a hole, 
 8" to 10" deep, made with a special spade. The distance be- 
 tween the holes is 6 inches to 9 inches and the rows are 12 
 inches apart. 
 
 Hedges, brush and barriers at water level are used 
 to help hold the sand and prevent the sand from accumulating too 
 
 rapidly. The hedges form an embankment covered with beach 
 
8 
 
 grass at the water's edge. To protect this harrier a set of 
 hedges are run out inithe water to protect the shore barrier 
 from erosion. The latter hedges are placed 7 yards apart 
 and the depth is only 4^ feet, and 1 foot wide. This acts as 
 a huffer to the waves. The cost of these hedges runs ahout 
 ^Oi a running yard. 
 
 The tree species best adapted to dune planting are: 
 Pinus montana and Plcea alba of which 3 and 4 year transplants 
 are used. The latter thrives close to the beach where the 
 salt air would harm most species. Abies pectinata thrives 
 well on the north slopes of the dunes and In deep depressions. 
 The greater part of the dune is planted with Pinus montanfi 
 especially on the west slopes. The planting Is done in rows 
 12 feet apart and 6 feet between the plants. 
 
 Experiments with every evidence of success have 
 been made with Quercus pedunculata and sessiliflora, Fraxinus 
 excelsior, Betula alba and Alnus glutinosa upon moist ground. 
 Fagus sllvatlca has been used on high places. 
 
 The success of this work shows that ultimately the 
 southwestern part of Jutland will become forested once the 
 west coast has a complete forest belt to protect the interior. 
 The evil caused by previous generations will be eventually 
 
 corrected. 
 
 Dunes of Holland* 
 
 The dunes of Holland are very similar to those of the 
 
 ♦"Dikes of Holland" S.H. Matthes, U.3.G.S. - from an article in 
 the National Geog. Mag. # 12, 1901, p. 219. 
 
9 
 
 Uorth Sea Coast. They oocur principally about the mouth of 
 the Rhine and at Eatwyk and also near Domhurg in the Province 
 of Zealand. The latter are weU under control, the prohlem 
 of fixing the moving sands having been undertaken at an early 
 date. The dunes of the Rhine have migrated east a distance 
 of two miles in about eighteen centuries. In other places 
 this movement has been about .six to seven miles in the same 
 time. 
 
 The movement of these dunes has been permanently 
 stopped by the planting of a grass (Arundo arenacea) , or 
 "helm"a on the seaward side of the dune. The grass is plant- 
 ed by hand in tufts not quite two feet apart aligned in rows. 
 The grass penetrates the sand with its long roots and holds 
 it in place. This planting was done 8V©r a chain of dunes in 
 Holland of two hundred miles and varying in width of 400 
 yards to 3 miles. The elevation ranges from 60 - 200 feet 
 above sea level. In other places the forest growth has been 
 started on dunes further inland with gratifying results. 
 
 Belgium * 
 
 Sand dunes are found on nearly the whole Belgium 
 
 coast. In the neighborhood of Nieuport the dunes are nearly 
 
 1 mile in width and generally vary in height from 50 to 80 feet 
 
 although in one place they are 114 feet high. Towards Ostend 
 
 the dunes diminish in height, and almost disappear at Maria - 
 
 Zirke. Between Marla-tKirke and Ostend they are about 500 feet 
 
 wide. iforthward of Heyst they are about 900 feet wide, and 
 
 on the west side. of the Scheldt, about three-quarters of a mile 
 
 wide and from 50-80 feet high. 
 
 *Case, G.O. 1914 "Coast Sand Dunes, etc." 
 
10 
 
 Coast sand dunes in Belgium are usually fixed by- 
 means of marram grass and the "argoussier". The marram grass 
 is planted in tufts of 15 or 20 stems in quinounx order about 
 15 inches apart, March, April, and Hovemher are found to be 
 the best months for planting. The "argoussier" is indigenous 
 to Belgium and is a shrub with silver leaves. It is used to 
 make hedges on the flanks of the dunes and in exposed places 
 where it can stop the drift of the sand. 
 
 The dunes at Maria-Eirke and Middle-Kirke are pro- 
 tected by a sea wall on top of which is a roadway. The shore 
 is also protected by a long series of Case groynes. 
 
 It is stated that conifers have not grown satis- 
 factorily on this coast so other trees have been planted. 
 Plantations of ash, elder, balsam, birch, dwarf willow, maple 
 and various species of pine have been found the most success- 
 ful and are now used. 
 
 France * 
 
 The dune area of France is divided between the 
 Atlantic Coast line and the Channel coast line. The damage 
 done by the latter and the area covered is relatively smaLl 
 and has been easily tax: en care of. The former area bordering 
 
 *"Land and Dunes tff Gascony", by Collier Cobb in "Journal of 
 the Elisha Mitchell Society, 1910, 
 
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11 
 
 on the Bay of Biscay is best known as the "Landea des Gascogne", 
 It Is the reclamation of the dunes of this area that set the 
 standard and methods for all subsequent work. 
 
 " Landes and Dunes of Gas cony " 
 
 The best works on the Dunes of Gascony are: 
 
 "Les Landes des Gascogne", by M. Chambre lent, and "Les Landes et 
 
 Les Dunes de Gascogne", by M. Grand jean. 
 
 In the early part of this century, previous to 1857, 
 
 the condition of this flat triangular plain, known as the 
 
 "Landes", which is roughly boimded by the Bay of Biscay, the 
 
 river Ad our, and the river Garonne, and the Medoc, was in brief 
 
 as follows: "There were miles of marshy and almost treeless 
 
 wastes, covered mainly with a low, dense growth of herbage. 
 
 It was wet, unhealthy aAd sparsely settled. The few people 
 
 who lived there depended on their flocks. These the shepherds 
 
 took care of while on high stilts which enabled them to easily 
 
 time 
 cross the wet ground. Their spare /was spent in knitting 
 
 stockings. The conditions of the "Landes" was due to immense 
 sand dunes which arrayed themselves along the shore of the Bay 
 of Biscay. They moved inland, covered villages and occluded 
 inlets. The damage done by these moving sand dunes so in- 
 creased that the government officials studied the work, and 
 devised and executed plans, and now, thanks to de Villers, 
 Chambrelent and Bremontier, the pioneer workers, the" "Dunes 
 and Landes", are covered with a beautiful growth of maritime 
 pine. The region is now famous as a health resort, combinlfeng 
 "the beauties and pleasures of the sea shore with those of a 
 well managed forest extending almost to the edge of the ocean. 
 
IE 
 
 There are evidences that the "Dunes" were naturally, 
 originally fixed by forests. These forests were destroyed 
 by vandals and all attempts failed to stop these menacing 
 mountains of sand. In 1778 the talented engineer,, de Villers, 
 was sent to Arachon to form a military post. He saw at once 
 the necessity of fixing the sand and was, according to Grand- 
 jean, the first to establish the fact that the way to fix the 
 dunes *as by means of plantations of pines. He met with 
 troubles in his work and was finally sent back to the Island 
 of San Domingo. 
 
 In 1784, Bremontier*tC!gan the work and, it is said, 
 by using the result of de Villers labors, finally succeeded 
 in fixing the moving sands • 
 
 The methods used in fixing the dunes were as 
 follows : 
 
 A littoral dune was coistructed straight along the 
 shore from the mouth of the Gironde to Bayonne. This dune 
 was the secret of the success in the fixation of these shift- 
 ing sands. It is simply a bank of sand of certain dimensions 
 with a certain slope suited to the conditions of the locality. 
 This protecting or "littoral" dune is formed as follows : A 
 douiie fence**is constructed of brush or of palisades driven 
 into the sand. This stops the sand which comes from the 
 ocean. Soon a ridge of sand forms equal to the height of the 
 
 *Bremontier tells of a dune which advanced, in a violent 
 tempest, at the rate of 2 f|et in 3 hours. 
 
 **For diagrams see Plate 1 in the Appendix. 
 
IS 
 fence. A doutile fence is used as it gives breadth to the 
 dune and stops sand which blows through the fence on the ocean 
 side. As soon as the ridge of sand is formed as high as the 
 fence, the old fence is pulled up, or a new one is built on 
 top; and so on, until a dune of the desired height is formed 
 
 artificially. The proper height of a protective dune is 
 thirty-three feet. It should slope E5° (Gifford), 4° - 14° 
 (Collier Cobb), towards the sea but may be 60° (Bifford), 
 SQO (Collier Cobb), on the inland side. The dune must be 
 at least three hundred (300) feet from high water mark. After 
 the dune has reached its proper size, it is kept in shape by 
 the sea aarram'' (Psamma or Ammophila arenaria) or "beach 
 grass". This peculiar plant called the "gourbet" in France 
 is exclusively used in fixing the sand on the "littoral" dune. 
 It has long, much divided rhizomes and will grow well only 
 when covered with fresh sand. The dune must always be kept 
 in shape. If sand accumulates in any one spot in undue 
 amounts, a draft is formed, which may end in a breach in the 
 "littoral" dune. Guards are stationed along the dunes to 
 watch it closely and here and there in this long, straight 
 bank groups of men and women may be seen digging up "gourbet" 
 in places where it is too thick, and planting in other places 
 where it is needed. Constantly it is watched as many homes 
 and lives are dependent on it. 
 
 After the formation of the 'littoral' dune comes the 
 work of planting in its lee. The surface of the sand is 
 covered with brush arranged like slates on a roof, with a 
 shovel full of sand here and there to hold it down. Then the 
 
14 
 seeds of maritime pine (P. maritima) are sown, with the seeds 
 of other plants to shade the young pines. The pines usually 
 oome 4p well, and grow quickly although olose to the littoral 
 dune they are gnarled and stunted owing to the action of the 
 salt winds. Thus, the sands are fixed and although the 
 forests behind the littoral dxmes do not yield a large cash 
 income, they are of incalculable value to the people of 
 Sascony and on the whole to France. 
 
 The fixation of the dunes rendered possible the 
 work of M. Ohambrelent, which was the reclamation of the 
 Landes by drainage and planting. He first did some prelim- 
 inary work with his own private fund^and proved to an inter- 
 national jury that the work would be successful. The jury 
 was so impressed with this work that they recommended using 
 his methods on the whole region. In 1857 a law was passed 
 
 whereby the state and communes paid for this work. The 
 
 some of 
 
 latter paid for the work by sellings/the land after it was 
 improved. 
 
 This region was about 100 meters above sea level, 
 flat and sandy, and was underlain by a ferrugineous sandstone 
 which formed an impervious hard-pan. In summer it was a 
 burning sand waste and in winter an inundated swamp and be- 
 tween the two a period of pestilence. The country was 
 characterized by its sterility and unsalubrity, 
 
 A complete system of drainage ditches was dug and 
 plantations of Pinus maritima sown. This grew rapidly and 
 the roots penetrated and broke up the hard pan without any 
 great trouble. These trees relieved the sands of their 
 
15 
 
 excess moisture and so moderated oonditions as to change the 
 climate to a most sanitary and healthy one. There is now 
 an abundance of wood for household use and the turpentine 
 Industry supports many people. 
 
 The solution of this problem gives hopes for the 
 reclaiming of many similar situations. This is especially 
 true of the Atlantic Coast of the United States from 
 Delaware to Georgia. The climatic conditions here being 
 very similar to those of the "Landes". 
 
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16 
 Great Britain* 
 
 As In most countries bordering the sea. Great Britain 
 has a fringe of coast line which is sandy and contains many 
 sand dune areas. While on the continent such dune lands have 
 been largely reclaimed, little has been done in reclaiming 
 these lands in Great Britain, Consequently there are many 
 square miles of sand wastes and large belts of d\ines only 
 partially covered with vegetation. In other places erosion 
 is now taking place which could be cheaply protected by form- 
 ation of a littoral sand dune embankment. 
 
 In Qreat Britain there are many square miles of this 
 dune area which might be rendered productive, and in such 
 places, as the Culbln Sands, there are large sections of shi|fj» 
 Ing dunes which are a menace to the country, destroying as they 
 do in their inland march much fettile land and property. If 
 systematic work was undertaken there is no reason why these 
 sand deserts should not be reclaimed and even made productive 
 enough to give a revenue. 
 
 In other parts of the coast where erosion is taking 
 place the collection of inblown sand in the form of a pro- 
 tection dune might do much to prevent erosion at a slight cost. 
 The Dutch have fully realized the value of sand dune embank- 
 ments in their reclamation woik. 
 
 In Great Britain the dunes do not generally attain 
 
 *Gase, G.O.** - 1914 Coast Sand Dunes, etc. 
 
 **rhe author states that no book on this most Important sub- 
 ject has hJ*herto been published in Great Britain. 
 
16a 
 ao great a height as they do in other oountries. On the coast 
 of Horthumberland, the dunes which are often continuous for 
 miles, are generally about 150 yards wide, and the maximum 
 height is about 70 feet. Betweem Winterton and Waxham the 
 height varies from 30 to 50 feet. In the Southport district 
 where there are over 20 square miles of dunes, the height 
 varies from 20 to 80 feet and ±n some places the belt of dunes 
 is four miles wide. 
 
 In several places the mouths of rivers have been 
 diverted several miles along the coast, At Christ Church, 
 Hampshire, the sand drift is in an easterly direction, and 
 an embankment has been formed across the estuary of the river 
 Avon. Its continued growth has caused the river mouth to be 
 moved along shore some distance in an easterly direction. 
 
 The estuary of the river Exe is partly closed by a 
 sand embankment known as the "Warren". This sand dpit was form- 
 ed by the prevalent eastward drift of the sand. If these 
 dunes wexe Jprgached by the sea, the anchorage known as the 
 "Warren/ would be destroyed and the Port of Exeter irreparably 
 damaged. In fact this spit has been found so vital that the 
 Great 'Vestem Railroad has constructed a sea wall, .groynes, and 
 ar.dune embankment on it. Another similar locality is at 
 Heacham, Norfolk. 
 
 Plantings have been made in many places along the 
 shore. Longitudinal and cross-wind screens have been built 
 to collect sand, and marran grass planted, at Carnarvon, at 
 the southern entrance to Menai otraits, Pembrey Harbor 
 Carmarthen, at St. Andrew's Harbor, Scotland and between 
 Pagham and Bognor on the Sussex Coast. At St. Andrew's Pinus 
 
17 
 maritlma was planted. 
 
 One great problem on this coast was to prevent 
 erosion. This was done by the construction of grojrnea. Ihe 
 object of the groynes was to prevent erosion and to build up 
 the fore shore by sausing the currents to deposit the fine 
 material held in suspension. 
 
 In designing a system of groyning care was taken 
 not to dlfert the currents running parallel to the shore either 
 
 by making the groynes too high or too low or other than at 
 
 otirrent. 
 
 right angles to the maiji/ If the groynes are more than three 
 feet high irregular accumulations, if any, takes place, !Phe 
 distance apart is best that of the distance between high and 
 low water levels. The direction is usually best when at 
 right angles to the shore and extending from high v.t.ter mark 
 as far seaward as possible. Cement groynes have been found 
 the best as they are easy to make and permanent. 
 
 In some places where the storm erosion was great a 
 facing was constructed. This was usually of cement and ex- 
 tended from the high water mark to the level where plant life 
 grows. In some eeantries, especially Holland this facing ex- 
 tends over a mile along the shore where the storm erosion is 
 the greatest. It is only during storms that the waves beat 
 on this facing. 
 
 Back of this the usual methods of forming a littoral 
 dune are used. This area is planted with grasses and then 
 with forest growth. The methods as used on the "Landes" are 
 followed except that the following growth is used : 
 
18 
 Plantings on the Littoral Dtme (Sea face) 
 
 As a rule it is impossible to attempt to plant trees 
 
 on the littoral dune owing to the salt spray of the waves and 
 
 the strong sea winds. The sand grasses most suitable for use 
 
 on the littoral d^jjies are : ilarram grass (Ammophila arenaria) , 
 
 Baltic Marram grass (Ammophila baltlca) , Sea Lyme grass 
 
 B 
 
 (Elymus arenaricus) , sand sedge (Cclrex arenaria) , sea couch 
 
 grass (Triticum jxmceum) , etc. 
 
 Plantings on the Littoral Dune (Land face) 
 
 fimong the shrubs suitable for growing on the land 
 side of the littoraL dune are: Sand willow (Salix repens) , 
 sea buckthorn (HippophaS rhamnoides) , tea tree (Lycium 
 barbarum), tamarisk (Tamariz anglica) . 
 
 The trees most used for planting on the dunes are : 
 the Black austrian pine (Pinus austrlaca) » Scotch pine 
 (Pinus sylvestris) , the Corsican pine. Maritime pine (P. 
 maritima) , Scotch fir, and the Sand willow (Salix repens). 
 
 In the most exposed parts the black Austrian pines 
 have done the best and should be the only trees planted on the 
 sea side adjoining the protection dune. In less exposed places 
 the Corsican pines have been £ound the most useful kind of 
 plant, this variety having the advantage that rabbits will not 
 destroy them. The Scotch pines were found to be successful 
 but the sea pines (P. maritima) were found to bush and so are 
 now discarded. The cost of planting these trees in the lee 
 of the littoral dune was found to run to about 7 pounds 10 
 shillings per acre in favorable situations. 
 
19 
 
 Dmie Laws aM Eegulationa 
 
 In the reign of Queen Elizabeth an aot was passed to 
 prohibit the destruction and to encourage the cultivation of 
 vegetation on sand dunes. Another aot was passed in 1741 to 
 prevent the cutting of marram grass on the sand hills of 
 Scotland and the northwest coast of England, A penalty of 
 20s was imposed on those who, without proper authority, but 
 the same on the hills or banks of the northwest coast of 
 England and later this aot was extended to Cumberland. 
 
 However, these laws applied only to limited lo- 
 calities and did not protect the whole coastline as they 
 should have done. Even at the present time there are Qnly 
 local laws to prevent the destruction of the grasses on the 
 littoral dune. These are effectual in but gew places and 
 where they have been enforced have resulted in the dunes 
 being covered with vegetation. In order to afforest the dunes 
 laws should be passed prohibiting grazing on the littoral 
 dunes and the land in their lee. Then with the formation of 
 a Dune Department, with proper authority, as in France, the 
 dunes would cease in time to be a serious problem. 
 
20 
 
 Reolamatlon of Sand Dunes on the Atlantic Coast of the 
 
 United States . 
 
 According to Hitchcock* the chief areas of shift- 
 ing dunes to he found along the Atlantic Coast are on Cape 
 Cod in the vicinity of Provincetown, southern New Jersey, 
 near Avalon and Btone Harbor, Cape Henry, Yirginia, Gape 
 Henlopen, near L«wes,, Delaware, and less extensive though 
 quite trouhlesome dunes at Currituck, Horth Carolina, Isle 
 of Palms near Chariest own. South Carolina and Tybee Island 
 near Savannah, Greorgia. 
 
 J. Wayland Yaughadf^Di rector of the U.S. Seol. 
 Survey in a personal letter gives the following information 
 in regard to dune formations on the Atlantic Coast: "There 
 is a good development of actually moving dunes, at least in 
 places, along the coast of South Carolina, in H©rry County, 
 and a fairly good development of dunes, in the vicinity of 
 Charlestown, South Carolina, on Sullivan Island. The occurrence 
 of dunes on the Georgia Coast is mentioned in "Geologic 
 Survey of Georgia", Bui. #26, p. S7 and in U.S. Geol. Survey 
 Water Supply paper #341, pp. 36 and 37. There are dunes on 
 the east coast of Florida, in the vicinity of Hobe Sound. 
 An account of the latter is found in U.S. Geol. Survey Water 
 Supply paper #319. I do not know of any published account 
 
 *"Bont rolling Sand Dunes in the U.S. and Europe" by A. S. 
 Hitchcock, U.S.D.A., Nat. Geog. Mag. 1904, p. 43. 
 
 ♦♦According to Prof. Harris of Cornell University Mr. Vaughn 
 is the authority on Atlantic Coastal conditions. 
 
Fi3-6. 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 tjii+Ze TJeacl, 
 
 J7 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 /-liicxvrTic OceQi/v 
 
 Ve.s^ 
 
 bVoVN 
 
 
 Vict 
 
 ^ollo-t. S ^cL-^e 2.0, 
 
21 
 
 of the dunes along the coast of South Carolina. Of course, 
 you know of the superb development of sand dunes between 
 Oape Henry and Virginia Beach, just east of Norfolk, Va." 
 
 The section where the most important work has been 
 done is on Gape God near Provincetown. This section is 
 discussed fully as being the basis for similar operations on 
 other sections along the coast. 
 
 Sand Dunes in Maine 
 
 There is little Information about sand dunes in 
 Maine. In only one locality are they of any importance and 
 the data on this locality are very meager. 
 
 *Stone gives the account as presented in substance 
 below :- 
 
 "Drifting sands of the 'ordinary' type are very 
 common in Maine, especially in the western half of the state. 
 These sands are partly of marine, partly of fresh water 
 deposition. All the large rivers of Maine, except the 
 Penobscot, covered large areas with sand near where they 
 emptied into the sea during the Ohamplain epoch, the sea at 
 that time being, as is well known, somewhat more than two 
 hundred feet above its present level. Of these river 
 valleys, that of the Androscoggin is preeminent for its 
 dunes. One can travel in a carriage along this river 
 from Brunswick to the Hew Hampshire line at Gilead and view 
 dunes almost continuously for an hour at a time. In Wayne, 
 
 * "Wind Action in Maine" by Geo. H. Stone, Silliman's 
 Journal, 1889, p. ISS. 
 
Fv9 7. 
 
 C a^e C od\ 
 
 
 3l)'^'»^« rV^eo. o^ C4.ye. Coc\. 
 
 •Ste 'V\o.\& .'-Jt. !^„^ ■=!.eV^xx, 
 
 Follow^S, p ex g « ^\, 
 
£2 
 
 within the last forty years, the sand has drifted eastward 
 one-half to one mile and up the slope of a hill 250 feet 
 high and is now descending the slope. In places some of 
 the dunes must have traveled two miles or more from their 
 original river valley. Often a hillside is covered with 
 pine where one would most naturally find deciduous trees. 
 Investigations have shown that dunes have passed over this 
 hill leaving a sand covering over the till on which the 
 pines have grown," 
 
 Although there are little or no other data on this 
 subject the general conditions inferred, i.e., slow dune 
 movement, and rapid pine growth, seem to indicate that the 
 balance of natural conditions in Maine are unfavorable to 
 traveling dunes. 
 
 Sand Dune Area of Massachusetts . 
 
 Outside of the Cape Cod region there are no dune 
 areas of importance in Massachusetts. It is this area 
 which has claimed the attention of the Commonwealth in re- 
 gard to dune reclamation for over a century. 
 
 Reclamation of Gape Cod Sand Dunes* 
 
 Gape God Harbor** has been a most Important harbor 
 especially for fishing and for a convenient anchorage for 
 many vessels during storms. It has also been used as a 
 naval base. 
 
 ♦"Reclamation of Gape Cod Sand Dunes" by J.M. Westgate, 
 Asst. in sand binding work. 
 
 **See Plates in Appendix. 
 
23 
 
 At one time this neok was covered with forests 
 hut with their removal the sands formed dunes which are 
 moved by every strong wind. These sands in moving have 
 covered over what little tlmher remained, filled in parts 
 of the harbor and have threatened many little villages. 
 To overcome these dunes has been a problem which the local, 
 state and federal government have worked at for years and 
 we have a record of beach grass plantations established over 
 two hundred years ago. 
 
 Mode of Deposition of Gape Sands .- The arm of 
 the Gape extending around Gape God Bay consists of glacial 
 deposits, with the exception of about ten square miles which 
 is composed entirely of post glacial sand which has sub- 
 sequently been washed aroimd the head of the Gape from the 
 south ^ enclosing the harbor within a sickle shaped sand 
 bank. 
 
 The adkdltlon of sand to the extremity of the Gape 
 apparently takes place in the form of successive bars, 
 which are built up off the north shore and added to the 8ape 
 by deposition in the neck of the channels lying to the 
 east and south forming successive "race runs" (Plate 2) 
 which are being gradually filled in by tide and wind de- 
 posits. The sand cast up by the waves on one of these new 
 beaches is dried and blown inland, forming a beach ridge 
 or fore dune and eventually a dune range, which, protected 
 by succeeding deposits ultimately becomes covered by the 
 forest and associated vegetation. 
 
 The above facts are supported by the construction 
 
S4 
 
 of the neck and character of the dimes. 
 
 With this method of deposition it follows that the 
 necessity for sand fixation will never cease unless the sand 
 supply from the shore drift heoomes exhausted. However, the 
 process of sand accumulation is so comparatively slow as to 
 be of little importance when compared with the more serious 
 conditions incident to the extensive areas of sand dunes 
 only partially reclaimed. 
 
 Development of the Dune Hang;e .- It is probable 
 that each of the seven dune ridges which constitute the 
 greater portion of the extremity of the Cape was developed 
 in a similar manner, from the successive beach ridges and 
 ensuing fore dunes, by the accumulation of the saads blown 
 up from the beaches. As will be noticed later the vege- 
 tation plays an important part in tMs dune formation. 
 
 As soon as the sand deposited by the waves is blown 
 up to a point beyond the action of the tides the beach grass, 
 associated with the typical strand vegetation, spreads 
 rapidly over the surface and retards the movement of the re- 
 sulting beach ridge. As the sand accumulations continue, 
 the ridge becomes a fore dune. The beach grass pushes its 
 way up through the accumulating sand by the formation of new 
 root stocks, thus keeping the ever increasing area ofasand 
 comparatively well covered, sitoeihe gradual addition of sand 
 constitutes one of the esseatlal conditions for the ideal 
 growth of the grass. The fore dune continues to rise and 
 other species of plants come in but ultimately a height is 
 reached where the unbroken winds on this exposed land are 
 
25 
 sufficient to prevent the vegetation from holding the sand. 
 At this stage the long fore dune becomes a dune range and 
 begins to move inland, covering the preexi stent vegetation in 
 its path. The movement continues until the dune ridge is 
 sufficiently removed from the unbroken force of the ocean 
 winds to permit the formation of a dense vegetative grotrbh 
 sufficiently dense to prevent its movement. The forested 
 condition ultimately dominates. 
 
 The beach ridge may be formed from sand accumula- 
 tions from the waves or it may develop from a sand bar which 
 becomes attached to the mainland. 
 
 Of the seven dune ranges constituting the body of 
 the extremity of the Cape, only the inner four are at present 
 forested. These are badly distorted, but were probably 
 formed as has just been indicated, as the changes through 
 wind and human action have not entirely destroyed the traces 
 of their formation. These ranges are covered with a growth 
 of pine and oak, with an occasional beech in favored loca- 
 tions. The outer three ranges are covered with scattered 
 growths of beach grass. The depressions between the ranges 
 are characterized by wild or partially reclaimed cranberry 
 Dogs and the associated vegetation. It is probable that 
 all of these ranges except the outer one, were at one time 
 ^©rested, and have been brought to their present unstable 
 condition in historic times. 
 
 Two of these causes*, fires and grazing have been 
 
 *"Forest Legislation in America prior to March 4, 1?89" by 
 J.P Kinney, Bui. 370, Cornell Ag. Exp. Sta. 1916, p. 397. 
 In this bulletin the author shows the historical develop- 
 ment of legislation in the control of these dunes. The laws 
 were directed towards overcoming the evil effects caused by 
 fires ajid by grazing. 
 
26 
 practioally wiped out through, protective legislation. 
 
 Artif ioial Reclamation of the Cape Sands .- The 
 devastated sand areas of the extremity of tne Cape are known 
 as "Province lands" and are owned by tne state. It is here 
 that the greatest amount of work has been done to overcome 
 the moving sand dunes. With the fixation of the dunes in 
 this area the remaining land should in time reforest itself 
 provided grazing and fires are prevented from doing damage. 
 
 Early plantings were begun by the State in 1826 and 
 consisted of an extensive and systematic attempt to reclaim 
 land by the use of beach grass. The operations covered 
 twenty-eight years and in cost aggregated $36,350. The 
 amount of good and actual success of this work can not be 
 determined. The greatest successes were in building up a 
 break caused by the sea at East Harbor, and the growing of 
 beach grass on the bxilksheads. The latter caused the sand 
 to accumulate and protect the harbor from the sea. The fact 
 that two-thirds of the non-forested areas were covered with 
 beach grass at the end of the last centiprgb indicates that the 
 plantings may have had quite a lasting effect. 
 
 The chief criticism of these operations was that 
 the plantings were too much confined to high places where 
 they were blown off and that the beach grass was not 
 supplemented by plantations of shrubs and trees*. 
 
 *See Hollick A, "Geol. & Bot. Notes" Cape Cod and Chipp Island. 
 Bui. U.y. Bot. Garden. 2:381 - 407. 
 
27 
 Recent Work by the State 
 
 Preliminary Operations .- It was not until 1892 
 that real organized work was done in reclaming the dunes. At 
 this time the state relinquished its rights to the land with- 
 in and immediately adjoining the city of Provinoetovm, leaving 
 but 3,290 acres under state control of which approximately 
 2,000 were noni-f ©rested. 
 
 In this work there was expended during 10 ^ears 
 ending January 1, 1904, the sum of $31,929 of which |10,950 
 was spent in planting beach grass, and $6,011 in the intro- 
 duction of woody growth. 
 
 At first the three great dunes on the north shore 
 of the Cape v/ere bare ajid were marching on the city and 
 harbor at the rate of fifteen feet a year. These were 
 planted with shrubs and tree seedlings. The result was that 
 heavy winter gales uprooted some and killed the rest by the 
 blasts of sand. 
 
 The next season beach grass was planted to supple- 
 ment the new woody growth. This planting was done both in 
 fall and in spring, it being found out that there is com- 
 paratively no difference in results from using either plant- 
 ing season. 
 
 Selecting and Transplanting the Sets *- The plants 
 selected for transplanting are vigorous and well rooted and 
 this usually means two-year old stock. 
 
 When setting out the grass it is customary for two 
 
 *See plates in Appendix. 
 
S8 
 men to work together. Q?he one with a shovel inserts it 
 deeply into the sand as far as the foot can force it. A back- 
 ward pull of the handle loo seas the sand at the bottom of 
 the hole, while a forward thrust produces an opening behind 
 the shovel sufficient to accommodate the plant, which is 
 placed in the hold by the second man. The shovel is with- 
 drawn and the sand trampled about the plant. The shovel is 
 next inserted about a distance of 20" from the first, and 
 all is ready for the next, set. By this method of planting 
 two men can set 600 plants per hour. 
 
 Cost of Planting ,- The cost of planting depends 
 upon the thicloaess at which the grass must be set. On more 
 exposed areas requiring thick setting five men procuring 
 sets, two teamsters, 8 planters working 9 hours per day are 
 able to cover an acre in two days. With wages at $2.00 
 per day the cost is about $65 per acre. This is with abun- 
 dant planting material not more than a mile away. On the 
 more thinly planted areas the cost for 279 acres, covered 
 with grass was $50 per acre. 
 
 The plantings of the first two years were made in 
 rows ranging from 12-18 inches apart with the plants 12" or 
 less in the row. This, however, has been found less satis- 
 factory than irregular planting as the wind sweeps the sand 
 down the row. At present the plants are set about 20" 
 apart but this is not necessary except on exposed areas. 
 The thinner spacing gives more root area for the sets, and 
 this helps maintain the vigor of the transplants. Also the 
 extra cost of thick planting is not justified. It has been 
 
29 
 
 the custom to protect the plantings with lateral brush 
 hedges. The larger branches are set vertically in the 
 ground at intervals of 2 - 3 feet and the interstices f il]e d 
 with smaller brush. These hedges protect the plants from 
 wind erosion and catch large quantities of sand. 
 
 In some areas the small and isolated elevations 
 have been covered at considerablp expense with grass. This 
 has been thought to be an unnecessary procedure as the wind 
 levels these elevations, furnishing a gradual accumulation 
 of sand over plantings on lower levels which increases the 
 vigor of these plantations. 
 
 Brush laying .- In laying brush the best method 
 has been found to be one of uniformly laying brush over the 
 plantings. The brush holds down the sand and while it 
 makes a condition not best for the growbig of beach grass, it 
 survives and by the time the brush decays has prepared the 
 way for succeeding vegetation. The laying of brush has been 
 carried on extensively on roadways through the dunes. The 
 total area thus covered has been about 15 acres at the cost 
 of $25.00 per acre. The addition of leaves, humus, etc. 
 is beneficial although not a necessity. 
 
 Efficiency of Beach Grass for Sand Binding .- Al- 
 though many countries have tried other grasses, the beach 
 grass (Ammophila arenaria) has no rival in this work. The 
 long, tough, flexible leaves of the beach grass enable it to 
 endure the action of the wind with little detriment. A 
 bunch of dead grass will stand two seasons of wind action 
 
30 
 without being destroyed. The root stocks penetrate the 
 sand, tending to hold it together and the leaves tend to 
 accumulate sand. 
 
 Beach grass usually requires a gradual accumula- 
 tion of sand over its crown to become effective. In fact 
 a healthy growth of beach grass can thri^ where the 
 sand is not more than a foot a year. In places where the 
 sand accumulation is deficient the growth of beach grass 
 deteriorates soon. 
 
 The necessity of sand accumulation lies in the 
 fact that it induces the development of new root stocks by the 
 old plant and thus occupies an unused portion of the sahd 
 which presents such a dearth of food salts that these are 
 soon depleted and the deterioration noted must soon ensue 
 unless new acres of sand are made tributary. Furthermore, 
 there is no power of downward growth of root stocks, and the 
 root system is very limited, often but two nodes. 
 
 Another reason for the deterioration noted above 
 may be the fact that a single set of the grass is not of 
 indefinite existence, and unless induced to increase vege- 
 tatively, loses its vigor. 
 
 At Poplar Branch, North Carolina, the beach grass 
 has increased in vigor since the plantations were estab- 
 lished. This is apparently due to the fact that the plant- 
 ings were made sufficiently apart ( 4 feet) to allow most 
 of the sand to drift through the plantation and thus enable 
 each set to receive a small amount of sand. With this 
 thinner planting we have a great deal lower cost - as low as 
 
 ^ft.nn ndT Acre. 
 
31 
 
 Ueoesslty of Ultimate Reforestation .- The marked 
 deterioration of beach grass shows the need for introducing 
 woody growth over the dune areas. The various native or 
 imported woods should he set out among the grass as soon 
 as it is planted, as the first year's protection by the 
 grass is the best and not too long to give the shrub or 
 tree a chance to get a good rootage. 
 
 It seems it is necessary to start such a shrub 
 or bush as the bayberry (Myrioa oarolinensis) . This is 
 not injured by unfavorable condition and seedlings of pine 
 and oaks may be safely introduced among the bushes. 
 
 The successful species for such work are com- 
 paratively few in number. Of the pines, pitch pine 
 (PinuB rigida) , Austrian pine fPinus laricio) and Scotch 
 pine (?inus sylvestris), are successful. The pitch pine 
 is used most extensively as it grows in adjacent forests 
 and the seeds are the easiest to obtain. The black 
 locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia) and black alder (Alnus 
 glutinosa) have been found most satisfactory and will be 
 introduced over large areas. The bayberry has f orro d 
 the bulk of the pioneer plantings of woody growth, and used 
 in connection with the beach grass appears to be the only 
 necessary forerunner of the pines. 
 
 This work has been highly successful and has 
 resulted in the building up of the whole area. Cranberry 
 bogs have been improved and strawberry growing has 
 developed. However, the land never has been of agricul- 
 tural value and probably never will. 
 
f=A^,8. 
 
 SV 
 
 a\uj> 1 vv. ■ 
 
 J- S ( Q v^ c\ , 
 
 *F oVl ola3 s ifo-^e 3>1 
 
32 
 The chief value of the reclamation of these dunes 
 
 is in protecting the harbor. 
 
 For other purposes the work could well be contin- 
 ued for a marine parlc and as a Hummer resort. Especially 
 
 since the work of protecting the harbor will give ideal re- 
 sort conditions this offers great possibilities. The 
 successful development of the Golden Gate Park of San 
 Francisco has demonstrated the possibilities of such sand 
 tracts when reclaimed. 
 
 Long Island * ** 
 
 Wind Deposits. Character and General Distribution 
 
 Although not covering extensive areas or reaching 
 heights so great as those of some other localities along the 
 Atlantic Coast, the dunes of Long Island are at many points 
 a conspicuous local feature. 
 
 The dunes in process of formation at the present 
 time, with few exceptions, are limited to the immediate 
 vicinity of the beaches. At Easthampton, however, dune 
 sands occur for a distance of 1^ miles from the shore, and 
 there is also a considerable area in the interior of the 
 Island, betweem Patchogue and Port Jefferson, where windl 
 action has been active in the past and is observed locally 
 even at the present time. 
 
 *The Geology of Long Island, K.Y.. by Myron L. Puller, U.S.6.S. 
 Prof, paper # 82. 
 
 **Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol VIII, 1876, p, 357. 
 
33 
 
 The dune sands consist almost entirely of fine 
 quartz grains, well rounded and often mixed with heavier 
 magnetite granules. The dunes generally rest on a hlacJIc 
 loamy soil zone, if they are of recent formation, or on a 
 brownish, oxidized zone from which the organic matter has 
 been leached, if they are among the older dunes. 
 
 Dunes at Mapeague Beach 
 
 Napeague Beach and vicinity constitute the most 
 conspicuous dune area on the Island. Five miles long and 
 two miles wide it comprises little but irregular sand heaps 
 from 10 to 30 feet or more in height, between which are many 
 small marshes fed by fresh waters caught by the dunes. 
 Leading westward from Napeague Harbor is a large, fresh 
 water marsh, half a mile wide, lying between the dunes of 
 Napeague Beach on the South and the Promised Land on the 
 Worth. The dunes reach their greatest development just 
 east of the harbor, where they have an elevation of 100 feet. 
 It is possible, however, that a part of this height is due 
 to the underlying strata. The dunes of Uapeague Beach have 
 derived their materials from the shore wash from the east; 
 those east of Napeague Harbor seem to have been mainly 
 supplied from the same source with little additions from the 
 north side, their accumulation taking place mainly under the 
 action of Southwest winds. The dunes of Promised Land are 
 from a similar source. The big marsh between the dime area 
 does not seem to have been crossed and it is possible that 
 very little of the material has come from the south. 
 
34 
 Dunes of Easthampton 
 
 In the main the dunes of the south shore are con- 
 fined to a narrow fringe along the beach, hut at Easthampton 
 the drifting sands have gone in one or two cases as far as 
 1-^ miles inland or as fait as the railroad. The sandy- 
 character of tne roads probably has extended considerably 
 notth of the railroad and westward to and beyond Georgica Pond , 
 although this is not conspicuously shown by the topography- 
 Bast and west of the ^9\m the dune structure is very notice- 
 able. G?his area, however, is now being covered vi th 
 summer residences, and the dunes are largely under control. 
 
 Dunes of the Great South Beaches 
 
 The barren beaches which extend along the south 
 coast for nearly 90 miles are lined throughout their length 
 by more or less strongly developed dunes, generally 16 - 2© 
 feet in height. Along the inside of tne outer beach, the 
 dunes form a rather imiform and continuous though somewhat 
 notched ridge some 20 feet in height and extending for miles 
 along the shore. On th6 inside of this barrier there is 
 also very commonly a second ridge, which, however, is lower 
 and less continuous than the outer one. Between the two 
 there is generally an area of lower and flatter dunes among 
 which are scattered knobs; many rise to a height of 20 - 30> 
 feet. Between these ridges or among the lower intermediate 
 dunes many fresh water marshed are found. Some of these 
 merge with the salt marshes which line the inside of the 
 barrier. The finest dune^ development is found on Fire 
 
35 
 
 Island and Rockaway Beaches, although the latter, as well as 
 the dunes on Coney Island, have been much modified hy human 
 agency. 
 
 Dunes at Shinneoock Hills 
 
 The Shinnecock Hills are composed of the Manhasset 
 formation in which, in this area, sand predominates. In the 
 past this sand has often been taken up by the winds to feaan 
 dunes, and to this action a part of the irregular surface 
 topography of the hills is due. A hundred years ago much of 
 the surface was composed of drifting sands, but no* the sands 
 are mostly under control although a little drifting still 
 takes place. 
 
 Dunes of the Uorth Coast 
 
 Practically every bluff section along Long Island 
 Sound shows a layer of dune sand at the top, and some small 
 valleys are filled with it, as near the Woodhull Landing, 
 northeast of Miller Place. Usually this sand is only 2-5 
 fedt deep, but some of the dunes are conspicuous hills from 
 50 - 100 feet high. They all rest on an old soil zone mark- 
 ing the horizon of the original surface. 
 
 On this side of the Island the dunes are best 
 developed between Baiting Hollow and Horthville, north of 
 River head, where they form a high and nearly continuous ridge 
 more than 8 miles long. The great mass of the ridge in this 
 vicinity is composed of sand resting on the Manhasset terrace. 
 Many parts of the dune ridge are very old, so that the humus 
 of the under luing soil zones has been entirely leached out. 
 
36 
 Much of its surface is covered with forest- Some arable land 
 
 has been covered and one farm near Baiting Hollow lost 130 
 
 acres between 1846 aaid 1886. This dune, however, is now 
 
 mostly covered with small tree growth. 
 
 Another important dune area is near Southhold, 
 
 where the shore back of the beach is lined with dunes of 
 
 moderate size. Though more or less covered with trees the 
 
 sand is still blowing. There are several fresh water marshes 
 
 among the dunes and a pond is enclosed between the drifting 
 
 sand and the bluffs. 
 
 Dunes in the Interior of the Island . 
 
 In the western half of Long Island th&re is little 
 indication of dune formation and these do not present any 
 problem in regard to control. 
 
 From Coram eastward dune sands are common both on 
 the plains and moraines. The part of the moraine south of 
 Riverhead and southwest, south and southeast of Sag Harbor, 
 is especially cnaracterized by such sands. In most cases 
 they were formed before the region was forested. 
 
 Very large areas of similar sandy surfaces lie 
 north and northwest of Jfatchogue and between Patchogue and 
 the morainal ridge. 
 
 The moraine and plains south of it are covered 
 with forest or brush and few evidences of wind action are to^ 
 be seen. At the north base of the ridge near Selden, how- 
 ever, and at points eastward to Coram, westward to and be- 
 yond New Village and northward one-half way towards Terryville, 
 not only does the surface consist of fine sand but in 1908 
 
many spots free from trees and almost free from vegetation 
 showed a subdued dune topography. It is believed that this 
 region was onoe forested and protected from winds, as the 
 dunes would he much more strongly developed. The oppor- 
 tunity for present wind action to arise is thought to have 
 been given by the destruction of the forests and the vegetable 
 mold of the soil by fires that have repeatedly passed over 
 the region. What the ultimate results will be can not be 
 foretold for the conditions appear to be nicely balanced. 
 If fires can be kept out, vegetation will soon cover the burns 
 and restore the forest? to its supposed former, unbroken 
 state. 
 
 Control Measures on Long Island 
 
 The dune formation near Basthampton is well under 
 control. This is due to the vicinity being a popular summer 
 resort and the building up of these dunes and planting has 
 eliminated tne dunes from being a problem for reforestation. 
 
 This is also true of Napeague Beach although there 
 are but few estates in this vicinity. It is, however, prob- 
 able that the near future will see a big shipping terminal 
 at Fort Pond Bay with the building of storage and other houses 
 on this dune area. 
 
 The dunes of the Great South Beaches is hardly a 
 problem for reforestation. Coney Island is well built up and 
 the dunes have been covered with a great variety of plants. 
 
 The dunes of Fire Island Beach have been much modi- 
 fied by human agency. However, the land is so cheap and 
 the damage from moving sands so little that it would not pay 
 
38 
 to reforest this land. 
 
 Tiie dunes of the Shinnecook Hills are almost a 
 thing of the past, I have been over all of this section and 
 have seen nothing but huge golf links, millionaire residences 
 and homes. HVhat were once sand dunes are not covered with 
 feather and red cedar. This section is being rapidly plant- 
 ed by private enterprise. 
 
 The dunes of the north coast are limited and are 
 rapidly being covered with forest growth. This is largely 
 due to the prevention of forest fires through cooperation of 
 the counties and Long Island Hailroads. 
 
 The dunes in the interior of the Island present the 
 same problem as to control. Preverb the forest fires and the 
 sandy surface is quickly covered with scrub oak, red cedar 
 and especially pitch pine, besides a variegated vegetable 
 growth. 
 
 In all, the dunes on Long Island are of minor im- 
 portance and are being overcome by private enterprise and 
 settlement. The prevention of forest fires for a number of 
 years will result in this area being covered with tree growth. 
 
 For actual work in reforestation the use of pitch 
 pine would be sidvisable as it is naturally adapted to the 
 climatic conditions and can withstand the frequent groxmd 
 fires as no other tree can. 
 
p"'^ ^. 
 
 
 
 V*) 5> ^<^"5'i. SQ 
 
39 
 
 Coastal Plain and Dune Region of Kew Jersey* 
 
 The wooded zone of southern Hew Jersey, which is 
 known as "The Pines", has some sharp contrasts between its 
 coBrse. sandy soils, covered by the pitch pine, almost ex- 
 clusively, its white cedar swamps, and its mixed swamp lands. 
 The size of the holdings is large, running to tens of thous- 
 ands of acres. The averages of fires and severe cuttings 
 have left scarcely any large timber. The frequency of 
 forest fires have left large areas of dry, sandy soil cover- 
 ed with little more than scrub oak and pitch pine. The 
 care of the forest on the whole is practically of no value 
 in promoting better growth. 
 
 However if this area especially near the coast 
 should be denuded of forest cover by successive fires this 
 sandy district will become a forbidding waste of shifting 
 sand, blown hither and thither by varying winds. Some- 
 thing of this kind may already be seen in many old clearings, 
 notably near Manumuskin creek In Cumberland County, where 
 the sand is piled up in great shifting dunes. The mild 
 winter climate of the region, which deserves its increasing 
 popularity, will undoubtedly be most unfavorably affected, 
 for it is due in no small measure to the shelter afforded by 
 the pines against the cold west and northwest winds. 
 
 In a survey of the northern coniferous area the 
 common pitch pine (P. rlglda) and the hemlock pine (P. 
 vlrginiana) was found to be common especially on upland sites. 
 
 ♦Forestal and Silvicultural Prospects of the Coastal Plains of 
 w«™ .V^<^o^ johnGifford, 1899. 
 
40 
 
 Going farther south and east towards Bridge ton and Millville 
 the pltoh pine was found to be more numerous. Going toward 
 the western limit of the coniferous area, near Maurice Elver, 
 P. vlrginlana supplants P. rlglda to a large extent. This 
 shows the natural possibilities of the species for the site. 
 
 The forest fires on the Coastal Plain of ISTew Jersey 
 lave a most serious effect on forest reproduction. It is only 
 the persistent sprouting of the burned pitch pines that allows 
 of hope for the future in regard to pine growth in New Jersey. 
 The soil becomes so diy and bare that seed reproduction is 
 very difficult. 
 
 The original timber of the greater part of South- 
 eastern New Jersey was pine which occurred in heavy growth. 
 The poorer soils were probably occupied by pitch pine and the 
 better soils by shortleaf pine. Besides forest fires the 
 pines have to overcome a deficiency of moisture and a hard 
 subsoil which the roots find difficulty in penetrating. 
 
 Along the seashore the only predominant sand dune 
 area is at Holly Beach and Anglesea although near Asbury Park 
 and its environments buried forests in recent sea beach de- 
 posits have been found. Prom Lakewood through the heart of 
 the coniferous zone the chief trees are : P. rlglda, P. 
 echlnata, Q. alba, and Q. velutina. Sometimes other mix- 
 tures are foxmd to prevail in special localities. 
 
 Plnus rlglda is exceedingly abundant in the conifer- 
 ous zone where it often forms the bulk of arboreal vegetation 
 over large areas. It is the characteristic pine of the 
 coniferous zone. P. vlrginlana is found in scattered groups 
 
41 
 
 throughout the whole coniferous zone. P. eehinata is not 
 
 very abtmdant in this zone hut with the preceding species may 
 be considered characteristic especially in the marl belt. 
 
 The Ocastal Plain of Hew Jersey is the northern 
 extremity of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Its area is about 
 2,500 square miles. The climate is greatly similar to that 
 of western Europe and it enjoys the rain and shilie of Italy. 
 The zone in which it falls is known as the Carolinian and 
 is largely forestal. 
 
 Throughout the entire mainland of this region very 
 light sandy soils prevail although clays, gravels, and loams 
 are often found. In spite of a hard subsoil, drainage is 
 good, A part of this area Is noted for its unsalubrity and. 
 the pineries of the Jersey plains are proverbial for their 
 poor soil, with little vegetable growth due to repeated fires, 
 irevent these fires and the region will become covered with 
 tree growth especially mixed woods "xltlx oaks. 
 
 East of this plain along the shore we have many salt 
 marshes. Protecting these are long barriers of beaches or 
 sea islands. These beaches which are separated from each 
 other by Inlets through which the tide sweeps swiftly are often 
 famous for their summer resort colonies. 
 
 When the tide is out the sand dries and is easily 
 blown by the wind into sand hills. Any small object which 
 stops the wind may start a dune. However, changes in the 
 direction of the wind often blows these dunes into the sea. 
 
 A great deal of the land on these islands is owned 
 by private parties and in many places extremely valuable. 
 But here and there are wild, shifting dunes. At Avalon 
 
4S 
 
 there is on Seven mile beach a huge dune caused hy a forest 
 which it is slowly but surely engulfing. This dune begins 
 just at high water mark and extends inland rising gradually 
 inland until its top is just even with the tops of the trees, 
 
 This dune like others is not dispersed as the for- 
 est protects it from the west winds. Open up large sec- 
 tions of the forest and this dune if not disappearing would 
 at least remain stationary and become fixed by the rapidly 
 growing vegetation. 
 
 These Jersey dunes are not dangerous although threat- 
 ening in some places. In fact they have a charm of their 
 own, but which are being rapidly destroyed as the dunes be- 
 come the sites of fashionable summer resorts. 
 
 In south Jersey the smooth-bark pine should, be- 
 cause of its greater value and desirability, be encouraged. 
 Where this does not grow best, pitch pine should be grown, 
 etc. 
 
 Oape Charles ieninaula 
 
 South of Hew Jersey on the peninsula* between the 
 Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, the forest litter of the 
 pineries Is an Industry in Itself. This demand for the pine 
 needles or "pine chat" is so commercially valuable that the 
 forest has been taken care of. This has impressed upon the 
 natives the value of the forest and has eliminated forest 
 fires. 
 
 *John Gifford, "Forestal and Silvicultural Prospects of the 
 Coastal Plain of Hew Jersey". 
 
F^\ .10. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^oUo^^ ^"^"^^ H-X, 
 
40 
 
 The soil being composed of a light sand is dune 
 like in character especially along the shore to which the 
 pines grow close. However, it is only in a few places 
 that the shifting sands have killed any of thepLnes. 
 
 The natives recognize the value of the forest in 
 giving them a source of income beslfes acting as windbreaks 
 for their truck patches, which seem to alternate with their 
 pineries. The pine areas due to economic conditions are 
 well kept and thrifty and need no government supervision. 
 
 Sand Dunes of Lewes. Delaware * 
 
 It may be stated in advance that, while the con- 
 splBuous change in the surface has been most marked towards 
 Gape Henlopen, the marshes between the Breakwater and the 
 mouth of Lewes Greek, has been slowly rising; that whereas 
 these giouths were at one time regularly flooded, this 
 rarely occurs now. South of the Breakwater, about one- 
 fourth of a mile inland, one encounters a mass of pure shore 
 sand, probably in Its greatest depth, one hundred feet deep, 
 becoming on the north, south and west, less and less deep un- 
 til one reaches nearly sea level. On the top of this ridge 
 the limbs of dead and burled forest trees protrude. On the 
 northern slope they become less and less abundant until one 
 reaches marsh level. Horth of this, towards the water's 
 edge a second growth of trees is seen appearing. On the 
 
 *By Prof. J. T. Eothrook, Proc. Acad. Uat. Bel. of Phil,, 1889 
 
44 
 southern slope there Is a forest of Plnus rigida which is 
 
 being constantly encoached upon. 
 
 Indeed, at present, one may there see trees in no 
 way surrounded or even endangered by sand. A few yards to 
 the notth there Is the face of the advancing sand hill, 
 where one finds pines in all stages of burial and with un- 
 known numbers totally buried. 
 
 The force at work here is plain enough. The wind 
 from the north and northeast drives the sand to the hill-top 
 and when it reaches the crest, gravity carries it down the 
 southern declivity. The forests are buried, killed, stripped 
 of their foliage and the dune moves on covering new plant 
 life. However, w^ile the ground is being lost to the forest 
 and to the hay makers in the south or west, there is a gain 
 in the north. Here the marshes are filled and a second 
 forest growth has started on them. 
 
 To one familiar with the dunes of Gape God, the 
 absence of wild rose, blue berries, beach plums, etc. seems 
 peculiar at Lewes. They illustrate further that we have 
 near this city the same forces at work that devastated the 
 ^Landes" of France. These dunes and trees suggest the 
 remedies that may be taken which restored those wastes to 
 France. ?/hile Pinus pinaster (Soland), or maritime pine 
 was used to make a seaward barrier, we here can safely depend 
 upon pinus rigida or the pitch pine which is growing at lewes 
 to safely accomplish this same result. 
 
 "Indeed from Massachusetts south to Lewes, here 
 and there, in sight of the sea aAd on a most sandy soil this 
 tree is flourishing, almost as well as it does on the rocky 
 
F.<s, \L 
 
 \^;) willow 
 
 
 Vi9a^ 
 
 li,-f.W. 
 
 
 
 '»• dape Loo t^ o*^^ 
 
 
 ^o\.lo«i^ oiv.Q«, Ht't'. 
 
45 
 hillsides in the interior of Pennsylvania." 
 
 Sand Dunes on the Horth Carolina Coast* . 
 
 This part of the North Carolina ooast between Cape 
 Hatteras and the wooded area, about 6 miles west of Beaufort 
 Inlet is more or less typical of the whole Worth Carolina 
 Coast.** The section described further is, however, the 
 only part where protective measures need be taken at the 
 present time. 
 
 Damage by Shifting Sands 
 
 In this region there is considerable evidence of 
 marked changes with incomparatively recent times. Within 
 the memory of many inhabitants'^ the banks along the coast 
 
 * Report on an examination of the sand banks along the Horth 
 Carolina Coast by J. F. Bond, U.S. Forest Service Biennial 
 Report of the State Beol. Sur. of North Carolina, 1907-08. 
 
 ** Collier Cobb in the Nat. Geog. Mag. Vol. XVII, No. 6, 1906, 
 "Where the Wind does its Work", makes the following state- 
 ment :- 
 
 "The dunes are best adapted along the Currituck Banks 
 from Virginia to the Kill Devil Hills. Hatteras Island 
 was covered with forests In 1860 and with the removal of 
 timber, dunes were formed which are at present filling in 
 the shore of Paflilico Sound. The reforestation of this 
 island would make the land a sub-tropical garden with 
 early vegetation and game. The Bogue Baiik forests grow 
 down to the water's edge thus preventing the formation of 
 sand dunes." 
 
 # Collier Cobb in the Nat. Geog. Mag. No. 19, 1908, p. 509: 
 
 "Some Human Habitations" - gives in excellent idea 
 of the character of the people of the banks and of these 
 conditions xmder which they live. 
 
46 
 
 were covered with forests. At present, however, the for- 
 ests occur at only two points. Immediately west of Cape 
 Hatteras are approximately Z500 acres covered principally with 
 loblolly pine. Recent estimates show this stand to hold 
 approximately 2000 M. b.f. This stand is only of medium 
 quality. Near the western end of the Shackleford Banks are 
 a few hundred acres of forest composed almost entirely of 
 red juniper. Both of these forests are being exploited. 
 
 The entire area between these points is barren and 
 unproductive. Only in one or two places where there are small 
 villages is there any attempt at tillage. Sand more or 
 less fixed in the form of dome shaped dunes extends from the 
 ocean to the sounds. The damage here is complete and the 
 improvement of the area as a whole is practically impossible. 
 
 There are two localities on the area where protec- 
 tive measures would prove a decided benefit. At the south- 
 eastern and southern part of the woodland near Gape Hatteras 
 the blowing sand is rapidly encroaching upon and destroying 
 the forest while at Beaufort Inlet the surface sand is being 
 blown into Gore Sound, and, through the destruction of the 
 beach, the width of the inlet is perceptibly increasing. The 
 problem of arresting the damage at these two points is dis- 
 cussed in detail below. 
 
 Gape Hatteras Forest 
 
 Along the entire southern and western edges of the 
 forest west of Gape Hatteras a considerable area of woodland 
 is being buried and destroyed by blowing sand. As stated 
 
47 
 
 above this timber is valtiable and in addition the occurrence 
 of the forest makes this locality by far the most desirable 
 residential section of the banks. It is simply a question of 
 a rather limited time, however, when the encroachment of 
 shifting sands, together with destructive logging will com- 
 plete the permanent denudation of the area. 
 
 The greatest difficulty to be encountered in the 
 treatment of this area is that the land is private property and 
 therefore can scarcely be controlled by legislative action. 
 Apparently nothing can be done, except in an advisory manner 
 to prevent further exploitation. Fortunately, however, the 
 logging operations were begun at the sound side of the 
 forest and farthest remote from the area being encroached 
 upon by the sand and hence the out over area will have a 
 chance to reforest naturally before the removal of the timber 
 immediately in the lea of the approaching sand dune. The 
 large amount of loblolly pine in the stand makes reproduc- 
 tion certain with a minimum of protection. It is certain 
 hpwever, that the greatest factor in the destruction of the 
 original Stand has been careless lumbering. 
 
 The destruction resulting from logging has been 
 made permanent by unrestricted grazing. Cattle, sheep, 
 goats and hogs have had free range and the damage from these 
 sources can not be over-estimated. Hogs are the greatest 
 menace, and a single hog, practically valueless, will root 
 out large areas of sand binding grasses along the beach. 
 Cattle and sheep complete the destruction by eating the roots 
 of the up-rooted grass. The sand thus liberated is carried 
 
48 
 away by the wind and a "■blow-out" results. This "blow-out" 
 constantly enlarges until the damage becomes general and 
 large areas are affected, Ihe total value of the stock be- 
 tween Cape Hatterafl. and Hatteras Inlet is no more than $1000. 
 The stock is all inbred and the hogs are unfit for consump- 
 tion as meat as they feed on carrion fish. 
 
 It is strongly recommended that suoh stock be 
 eliminated from this area by act of Legislature, Without 
 such protection all measures for the control of the shifting 
 sand will be useless. At present the destruction is so 
 great that live oak reproduction whiigh is naturally abundant 
 is missing and even pine reproduction is very seriously 
 damaged. 
 
 The sand-dune area which is encroaching on the 
 forest lies to the south and east of the woodland. Beginning 
 at a point two miles east of Greed's Hill Life Saving Station 
 it extends westward four and one-half miles and beyond the 
 wooded area where the sand extends entirely across the banks 
 to the sound. A description of this area and certain 
 recoBmendatlons appear below. 
 
 Gape Hatteras Sand Dune Area 
 
 The moving sand of the dune area between the forest 
 and the oceas has already covered up and destroyed the growth 
 for about one-half mile inland. At the western end of the 
 dune the sand gradually slopes into a low, marshy area which 
 extends to the Durant's Life Saving Station, where a small 
 body of live-oik occurs. To the south of this woodland i« 
 a long, narrow sand dune and to the west a low, wash-flat 
 
49 
 extends to Hatteras Inlet where there are a few mound like 
 dunes near the beaoh. 
 
 It is only the dunes south and west of the Gape 
 Hatteras forest which are further discussed since the dunes 
 to the west can do practically no further damage. Over 
 this area the sand is constantly moving in a northeast 
 direction. The surface Is practically bare of vegetation 
 and such vegetation as does spring up is Immediately des- 
 troyed by the stock. 
 
 The direction of the movement of the dunes is un- 
 doubtedly influenced by the forest growth which shelters 
 the area from the northerly winds. From the south the 
 winds have interrupted sweep, and, in consectuence , the sand 
 is carried by these winds in a northerly direction. The 
 prevailing winds during the different seasons have a greater 
 or less Influence on the direction taken by the dunes. In 
 summer the dry sands are carried by the prevailing southerly 
 winds while in winter the moist sand is not so easily 
 carried by the prevailing northerly winds. The result is 
 that even where the winds have full sweep In both directions 
 the general movement of the dunes is toward the north. 
 
 At the northern end of the sand the dunes terminate 
 abruptly at the edge of the woods. Here there is a high 
 dune rising gradually to a height of about 25 feet. To the 
 leeward the slope of the dune is fully 35° which seems to 
 be as steep as sand will remain at rest. 
 
 The advance of these dunes is relatively rapid as 
 there are numerous living tops of trees protruding from the 
 sand considerably to the windward of the crest of the leeward 
 
dune. 
 
 To control and fix these dunes will require careful 
 treatment and an expense entirely disproportionate to the 
 value of the reclaimed land and the forest lands in the lee. 
 So long as present conditions in regard to law and ownership 
 of the area exist, protective measures are impossihle. In 
 the addition to the enactment of stock laws as recommended 
 above, it is recommended that the state purchase a strip of 
 the forest land in the lee of the dunes not less than 500 and 
 preferably 1000 feet wide and extending along the whole 
 forested area. When this has been done the active measures 
 looking to the control of the sands may be put into effect. 
 
 The Fixation of the Sands 
 
 The permanent reclamation of the sand waste depends 
 
 upon two things. 
 
 1. Since the source of supply of the sand is inex- 
 haustible, a barrier must be provided near the beach to pre- 
 vent nev.- supplies of sand which are brought up by the surf 
 from being blown inland. 
 
 2. The loose moving sand in the lee of this barrier 
 must be permanently fixed by growing forests. 
 
 The success of all work relative to the satisfac- 
 tory growth of the trees and consequent binding of the sand 
 depends upon the barrier and past experience has established 
 that this barrier is most satisfactory, if it consists of a 
 littoral dune of proper height built up by sand which is 
 arrested by means of mechanical obstructions and held in 
 place by suitable sand-binding grasses. It should be built 
 
 50 
 
51 
 
 np parallel to the shore line and not nearer than 100 feet to 
 
 high water mark. 
 
 When the work of fixation Is complete, the entire 
 area, with the exception of the strip between the barrier 
 dune and the shore line, will be covered by a forest. The 
 strip to the windward of the barrier must be held in place 
 by the planting of grass. When the forest has been estab- 
 lished it should be cared for according to usual forest 
 practice. 
 
 It will be impossible to establish a forest direct- 
 ly upon the drifting sand either by the sowing the seed or 
 by setting out young trees, since the blowing sand either 
 uncovers the seed or buries it too tooddeeply, while in the 
 case of planted trees the sand cuts the leaves and bark or 
 buries the plant. It will therefore be necessary to hold 
 the sand in place by some mechanical covering until the trees 
 have develpped and form a natural cover. 
 
 The work of fixation is thus divided into two 
 stages. 1. Preliminary, holding the sand in place, (2) 
 Permanent, establishing a forest. Upon the coast strip the 
 work never proceeds beyond the first stage and the mainten- 
 ance of a grass cover will require constant care. 
 
 The Coastal Strip and Barrier Dune 
 
 The coasir strip and barrier dune should be handled 
 in such a way that the surface of the strip may not jeopardize 
 the Btability of the dune. It is pbvious that the first 
 work is the proper formation pf the dune. This is done by 
 rapidly accumulating blowing sand so as to form a long ridge. 
 
52 
 Far this purpose palisade fences arranged in a double row iix 
 feet apart are used. Eaoh fence should be made of inch 
 boards 6" wide and 5' long, driven about 2' into the sand. The 
 tops of the fences should be of equal height and the palings 
 Should be four inches apart. Suth an arrangement of fences 
 allows the wind to pass through but reduces its velocity and 
 hence sand is deposited within and on both sides. 
 
 As the sand accumulates to the top of the fences, 
 the palings should be raised, and, when the dune has reached 
 a height of 30 feet, sea oats (Uniola paniculata) should be 
 planted 3 feet apart, alternating in rows 3' apart, parallel 
 to the crest of the dune. The grass should be planted on 
 both sides of the dune and gradually extending to the windward 
 until the dune attains a fairly permanent form with a gradual 
 
 slope to the windward, while on the leeward side the slope 
 
 be Q 
 
 should/ approximately 30 . The successive steps in the form- 
 ation of the barrier dune is shown in a series of diagrams in 
 the appendix. 
 
 The barrier dune when completed, will protect the 
 area in the lee but will require constant care to keep it in 
 proper condition. Every precaution should be taken to pre- 
 vent a break in the dune and if such occurs it must be repaired 
 immediately since the wind will constantly enlarge such open- 
 ings. A "break" may be repaired by the simple expedient of 
 piling brush on the surface of the "blow-out" and, when the 
 sand has filled into its former level, by replanting the grass 
 as before. The main care should be to maintain a good grass 
 cover over the dune and coast strip. When the grass has become 
 
53 
 too thin In one plaoe. plants needed should be taken from areas 
 
 where it is thicker than necessary- 
 
 Forestation 
 
 The area in the lee of the littoral dime must be 
 planted in forest trees* to acoomplish permanent fixation. 
 Local conditions and geographical position of the area to be 
 planted are such that proven methods developed in extensive 
 work of this character in Europe may be adapted to this 
 prbjeOt. 
 
 It has been established that the most certain method 
 of securing a forest cover on waste sand is by direct sowing 
 ' ' of the seed, provided that suitable species** are available 
 for use in the locality and also that the sand be temporarily 
 fixed TOatil the young trees are well established. Upon the 
 formation of the barrier dunes the sands in the leo will be 
 comparatively free from the action of the wind, since the dune 
 will protect the area from the southerly winds, while the for- 
 est will serve as a windbreak to the north. 
 
 Loblolly pine , a rapid growing species which pro- 
 duces valuable timber, grows throughout the banks. Although 
 owing to the exposed situation, the quality of timber produced 
 can not equal that of the forests of the mainland, this tree 
 
 ♦Oollier Cobb in an article in the Sat. Seog. Mag. lo. 17, 
 1906 entitled "Where the Wind does its Work", states : 
 
 "The author planted loblolly on the back of a dune and 
 covered the area with brush. The resulting reforestation of 
 several acres was highly successful." 
 
 **Ashe. BuUetia #24, ,19X5. 
 
 # Ashe, H. Car. Geog. ana fie. Survey 1914, p. 145. 
 
54 
 Is by far the most desirable oommeroial species on the banks. 
 
 The proper method of sowing the seed can be deter- 
 mined only by experiment. 
 
 Two Methods are suggested, the second to be used only 
 when It has been olenrly demonstrated that the first is not 
 feasible. 1, Sowing the seed directly on the surface. 2. 
 Sowing the seed after the sand has been temporarily fixed by 
 a light covering of brush. 
 
 At the western end of the shore dune, on a strip 
 500 feet wide and extending from the dune to the forest, lob- 
 lolly pine should be sown at the rate of 12 pounds per acre. 
 The seed should be sown directly on the surface of the sand 
 without any site preparation. Although there is good reason 
 to count on favorable results there are disadvantages to it. 
 Large amounts of seed will be destroyed by birds unless coated 
 with red lead previous to sowing. Again some of the seed will 
 be blown away and some buried too deeply under the sand. The 
 efficiency of the littoral dune and forest in stopping the 
 wind can only be determined by experiment. If the sw«ep of 
 this wind can not be stopped direct sowing will be impossible. 
 In this cast the ground should be strewn with binsh laid in 
 rows parallel to the barrier dune and the seed sown as before. 
 
 Such a method although more expensive than the first 
 will insure success. The brush should be allowed to remain 
 until the young trees are established and the year following 
 the sowings should be removed in order not to interfere with 
 the young seedling's growth. 
 
 Brush can be obtained from the nearby forest. Myrtle, 
 
55 
 red bay, yaupon or similar material may be used. Slash 
 Gollected after lumbering may also be trimmed for use. 
 
 The forest in the immediate lea of the sands, whose 
 purchase has been recommended should be carefully conserved. 
 Absolutely no cuttings should be permitted untii a dune forest 
 has been firmly established. 
 
 The expense of fixing the stand can only be approxi- 
 mated. There is no data to show the length of time needed 
 to establish a barrier dune. The longer it takes to e stablish 
 this dune the greater the cost. The cost of forestation 
 however, can be approximated and will vary from $25 - $40 per 
 acre depending upon the method used. Seed of loblolly pine 
 are quoted at |4,00 per pound but could be obtained cheaper 
 at contract prices. Material needed for palisade construction 
 in building up the dune represents a cost of at least $2000, 
 The cost of maintenance can not be predicted, 
 
 Grrass planting on the coast strip and littoral dune 
 will be expensive and cost at least $500 exclusive of mainten- 
 ance. The entire cost of the work of fixation exclusive of 
 any expense necessary in the acquisition of the lands, will 
 reach at least $40,000, 
 
 Greneral Advisability of the Project 
 
 The work of fixing the sand will serve to accomplish 
 the perpetuity of the only forest remaining on the banks above 
 Beaufort Inlet junless prompt measures are taken this forest 
 will be destroyed. The lands will then become a waste similar 
 to the rest of the bank. The cost of the work, however, is 
 large and it is doubted if the property protected is worth the 
 
Fi°,,i^- 
 
 -S-t> ■ 
 
 Gs; e orv-^ V o^ 
 
 
 F6T^Vte^v\d ivi£^ 
 
 ~y^i bT\ cVo- 
 
 
 C eft's "V Li\^« 
 
 c 
 
 r^ e.tiv-^ V ' 
 
 Fo\l 
 
 Ov^ S 
 
 f ^3- 
 
 ■s-^~ 
 
66 
 
 oost. 
 
 Aside from the intrinsic value of the property, it 
 must be considered that a considerable population will be 
 seriously affected if this area is allowed to become a waste. 
 These people are entitled to protection by the state and the 
 preceding methods are the cheapest for satisfactory results. 
 
 If this work is undertaken it is suggested that the 
 plans used in France be followed and that competent officials 
 be placed in charge of this area and that they carry out in 
 detail the general plans advocated. 
 
 Georgia* 
 
 Owing to recent and still continuing submergence the 
 coast is very irregular and contains many sea islands. These 
 are sand covered and some of them exhibit sand dunes which, 
 however, "Nowhere reach magnitude." The tree growth is chiefly 
 ooii5>osea. cf palmetto and live oaks.** Large accumulations of 
 sand appear in the form of dimes SO - 40 feet high on the east 
 side of Flint River near Albany t Their maximum height above 
 the river is about 100 feet. The sands were probably accumu- 
 lated during the early Plustocene period and changes in con- 
 ditions have prevented further growth. They are of no import- 
 ance as they do not damage and are easily reforested. 
 
 Florida 
 Sand dunes and ridges are common especially along 
 
 *U.S.Gr.S. Water supply paper #341 entitled "Underground water of 
 the Coastal Plain of Ga." by L.W. Stephenson & J.O. Vealch,p,36, 
 **Bul.26 Prelim. Rept. on the Geol. of the Coastal Plain of |a. 
 
 by Veatch & Stephenson, p. 37. 
 # U.S.G.3. Water Supply Paper #319 Geol. & Underground waters of 
 
 Fla. by G. G. Matson & Sam. Sanford, p/ 30. 
 
57 
 
 the southern edge of the uplands, but few of them are more 
 than a few feet in height. Wind blown sand probably occurs 
 more wide spread than is shown by the surface topography. 
 "The heavy precipitation, together with the abundant vegeta- 
 tion prevents the development of extensive dunes". "The not- 
 able feature of the dunes of southern Florida is their 
 quiescence". These lands when cut of their timber are 
 valuable for raising pine apples, and although bare the sands 
 are but little moved by the prevailing winds. 
 
 In his letter, T. Way land Vau^a mentions the dunes 
 near Hobe Sotuad. On page 98 of this same bulletin there is 
 an account of the dunes of this section. 
 
 "A notwworthy succession of dune ridges extends in 
 an approximately north - northwest direction from two miles 
 north of the dune on which stands Jupiter Lighthouse on the 
 north side of Jupiter Inlet to and past Hobe Sound Station 
 of the Florida East Coast Railway. Just beyond this the 
 belt veers to the westward and dies away inside of three 
 miles. Just back of the station the summit of the dune is 
 63 feet above sea level. Back of Jupiter lighthouse there 
 is one 45 feet high near Palm Beach and other isolated dunes 
 may be seen on the Coast Survey Maps near the east side of 
 Lake Osbourne on Pine Island. 
 
58 
 
 BlTallograTahy 
 
 Ashe, W. W. 
 1897 
 
 Baiiey, L.H. 
 1907 
 
 Bond, J.F, 
 1907-08 
 
 Bonsteel 
 1903 
 
 Bowman , I . 
 1911 
 
 Brown, J.C, 
 1878 
 
 Burkiiflrdt, H. 
 1877 
 
 Burfchardt, H. 
 1879 
 
 Canadian Forestry 
 Journal, 1905 
 
 Case, 6.0. 
 1914 (London) 
 
 Chambrelent, M. 
 1887 
 
 Cobb, Collier 
 1906 
 
 Cobb, Collier 
 1910 
 
 "Forests of North Carolina", N.C. Geol. 
 and Boon. Survey, p. 138. 
 
 "Cyclop, of Amer. Agr. N.Y., 40: 35, 
 
 "Report on the Exam, of Sand Banks on 
 the N.Carolina Coast. Biennial Report 
 N.C. Geol. & Boon. Survey. 
 
 "Soil Survey of Long Island", U.S, 
 Bureau of Soils. 
 
 "Forest Physiography" p. 504. 
 
 "Pine Plantations on the Sand Wastes" 
 of France". 
 
 "Zur Zultur des Flugsandes- Aus dem 
 Walde." 
 
 "Die Forst Zultur in Jutland, Aus 
 Walde", p. 167. 
 
 No. I, p. 187 - 184. 
 
 "Coast Sand Dunes, Sandspits aid Sard 
 Wastes". 
 
 "Les Landes des Gasgogne." 
 
 "Where the Wind does its Work", Nat. 
 Geog. Mag. Vol. XVII, No. 6. 
 
 ^iLandes and Dunes of Gasoony" Hournal 
 Elisha Mitchea.1 Soc. 
 
59 
 
 Cotb, Collier 
 1908 
 
 Fernow, B.E, 
 1913 
 
 Free, E.E, 
 1911 
 
 Fuller, Myron 
 1914 
 
 Gerhardt, P. 
 1900 
 
 Gifford, ^ohn, 
 1899 
 
 Grandjean, C, 
 1897 
 
 Hitohcock, A.S. 
 1914 
 
 1904 
 
 Marsh G.B. 
 
 Mohr, 0, 
 
 Muller 
 1857 
 
 Pratt, J.H. 
 1908 
 
 1877 
 
 "Some Human Habitations", Hat. Geog, 
 #19, p. 509. 
 
 "History of Forestry", p. 225. 
 
 "The Movement of Soil Material by the 
 Wind" U.S. Bur. of Soils #68. 
 
 "Geol. of Long Island" Prof. P^ er #82, 
 U.S.G.S. 
 
 "Handbuch des deutsches Dtinenbaues" 
 pp. 150-170. 
 
 "Forestal and Silvicultxiral Prospects of 
 the Coastal Plain of Hew Jersey Forests, 
 p. 233-318. 
 
 "landes et Dunes de Gascogne" 
 
 "Methods used in the Control of Sand 
 Dunes"^ U.S. Bur. of Plant Industry 
 Bui. 57. 
 
 "Controlling Sand Dunes in the United 
 States and Europe", Nat. Geog. Mag. p. 43 
 
 "The Earth as Modified by Human Agency" 
 pp. 656 - 567. 
 
 "Timber Pines of the Southern U.S." F.S. 
 F.S. Bui. 13, page 115. 
 
 "Das Buch der Pflanzenwelt", Vol. 1, p. 
 16. 
 
 "Journ. of Elisha Mitchell Soc." 24:125- 
 138. 
 
 "Report of Forest Invest." U.S.D.A. #17 
 p. 69. 
 
60 
 
 Rothroolc, J.T. 
 1889 
 
 Sanford, F.H. 
 1916 
 
 Scribuer & Lams on 
 1898 
 
 SchlicKh, W. 
 1895 
 
 Sohultz, 
 
 1903 (Berlin) 
 
 Solger, F.E, 
 1910 
 
 Stephenson & Veatch 
 
 Stunts, S.C, 
 1911 
 
 Teatch, J.O, 
 
 Vermeule, CO. 
 1898 
 
 Wessely, J. 
 1873 
 
 Westgate, J.M. 
 1904 
 
 Ion, H. 
 1906 
 
 "Sand Dunes of Iiewes, Delaware", Proo. 
 Phil. Aoad. Sci. 
 
 "Michigan Shifting Sands, their con- 
 trol and better utilization," Mich. 
 Ag. College. 
 
 "U.S. Ag. Yr. Book" p. 405 
 
 "Forest Protection", Vol. IV, p. 524 
 
 "Handhuch der Sesetz gehung in Preussen 
 und dem deutschen i^eich" 
 
 "Dtlnenbuoh . Stuttgar*" 
 
 "U.S. Geol. Sur. V/ater Supply Paper 
 # 341", U.S.G.S. 
 
 "Bihliograph on Wind Movement, etc." 
 U.S. Bur. of Soils, Bui. 68. 
 
 "Geol. Sur. of GaU Bui. 26, p. 37. 
 
 "Report on Forestry in northern N.J. ", 
 Annual Report State Geologist, p. 97. 
 
 "Der Buropfiische Flugsand und seine 
 Zultur, Wein." 
 
 "Reclamation of Ihe Cape Cod Sand Dunes, 
 Bur. PI. Industry, Bui. 65. 
 
 "Loblolly Pine, U.S.F.S. Bui. 64"' 
 
 * This bulletin gives an extended bibliography on sand dune 
 formation, plant life, and control, besides that on general 
 wind movement. 
 
N. C. GEOLOGICAL AXD ECONOMIC SURVEY 
 
 PLATE Q. 
 
 F/^ , 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 mmmmmMMM. 
 
 Fig.Z 
 
 Fig. ■?■ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ..iT.t 
 
 Fig.S 
 
 iO-? 
 
 hJ- i^'- )j 
 
 J I 
 
 z^';?- 6. 
 
 DIAGRAMS EXPLAINING PROGRtSSIVE STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF BARRIER DUNE 
 
 When ihe dune has assumed the form illustrated by Fig. 4, grass is planted, and by extending the area planted towards the 
 shore (to the left) the subsequent fotm ot the dune is influenced. 
 
Bui. 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 PlateDI. 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 O 
 
p\A^e 3 
 
 PLATES 
 
 37 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate I. (Frontispiece.) Map of the sand areas inclosing Oape Cod Harbor. The 
 30-foot contour lines indicate roughly the topography and general outlines of the 
 seven dune ranges which constitute the larger portion of the sand areas surround- 
 ing the harbor. The outer three nonforested dune ranges have been covered 
 with beach grass and are indicated in black. 
 
 Plate II. Fig. 1.— Beach grass forming protective beach ridge. The grass is shown 
 to extend to within the limit of wave action during the winter storms. Its 
 peculiar habit of sending out rootstocks when buried enables it to keep the ever- 
 increasing sand deposits well covered. The gradual accumulations of sand inci- 
 dent to these depositing ridges form the ideal conditions for the thrifty growth 
 of this grass. The beach ridge indicated has increased 20 feet in height during 
 the past twenty years. The beach grass has been the chief factor in accumulat- 
 ing the sands necessary for the strengthening of this portion of the sand areas 
 protecting the harbor. Fig. 2. — Beach grass, showing method of vegetative 
 propagation. Beach grass is efficient in the natural reclamation processes owing 
 to the method of rapid vegetative propagation from rootstocks, which enables 
 scattered individuals to soon cover the drifting sands with a sufficient growth to 
 prevent the sand movement. 
 
 Plate III. Fig. 1. — Set of beach grass suitable for transplanting. The set shows two ' 
 nodes of the rootstock with attached rootlets. Two-year-old stock is most desi.'"' 
 able for transplanting. The method of hand pulling is practiced througho/^* 
 these areas. Fig. 2. — Transplanting beach grass. The gently sloping sand aral^ 
 are covered with beach grass in the manner indicated. The brows of the hills ' 
 are covered immediately with bayberry transplanted from the adjoining timbered 
 areas. The steeper slopes are often reduced to an angle of 25 degrees or less 
 before the planting is begun. 
 
 Plate IV. Fig. 1. — Lee slope of a sand dune showing the manner in which the 
 advancing dune buries forests lying in its path. Fig. 2. — General view of the 
 grass plantations, looking south. Native growth in foreground. In the back- 
 ground the transplanted beach-grass area adjoins the sands not yet covered. 
 Bayberry bushes have been introduced upon the crests of the dunes. Before 
 these areas were covered with the grass, the dunes were encroaching upon the 
 forest and city shown in the distance. 
 
 Plate V. Fig. 1.— Bayberry bushes without grass protection. The presence of 
 bushes alone is not sufficient to prevent the shifting of the sand. The large size 
 of the sand grains is indicated in the foreground. Fig. 2. — Bayberry bushes with 
 grass protection. The deterioration of the grass is evident but its duration is 
 sufficient to enable the introduced woody growth to become self-protecting. 
 The grass was planted in 1898 and the bayberry a year subsequently. 
 
 Plate VI. Fig. 1. — Wind erosion of nonprotected sand. The brush line in the center 
 marks the eastward extension of the beach grass plantings of 1898. The amount 
 of sand erosion by the wind since the grass was introduced is clearly indicated 
 on the eroded sand areas at the left where it appears that at least 15 feet of sand 
 have been removed. Fig. 2. — Protecting a- road through the dunes. The brush 
 lines, logs, and bushes form an efficient protection to the sides of the cut. The 
 roadbed consists of brush overlaid with turf sods obtained from the neighbor- 
 ing forest. 
 
 38 
 
 
 
p (A^e 3 
 
 Bui. 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agiiculture. 
 
 Plate II. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Beach Grass Forming Protective Beach Ridqe. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Beach Grass, Showing Method of Vegetative Propagation. 
 
P\'*Ve 3 
 
 Bui. 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Set of Beach Grass Suitable for Transplanting. 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Transplanting Beach Grass. 
 
Fl^Ve 3 
 
 Bui 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. rf Agriculture. 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 ■¥'^-.. 
 
 FiQ. 1.— Sand Dunes Burying Forest. 
 
 rtf^AawiTKiBj'^ » ■ 
 
 Fig. 2.— Beach Grass Plantations— General View. 
 
1=1<*^« 3. 
 
 Bui. 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 #^ 
 
 Fig. 1.— Bayberry Bushes Without Grass Protection. 
 
 -^■xjf - 
 
 * ■^ J j^ ^ '^yi, 
 
 %>'^ 
 
 ^ ■ Sw i^. , ■-*■ Byre-- .^BfcV. .* '''ifl /' 'T* 
 
 k: Jli- 
 
 "■■■ W 
 
 FiQ. 2.— Bayberry Bushes with Grass Protection. 
 
p)4>-« 3 
 
 Bui. 65, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
 Plate VI. 
 
 Id 
 
 Fig. 1.— Wind Erosion of Nonprotected Sand. 
 
 mJ. '^''C'^rf^l'' 1 ■'-»^*|«^^W|I% 
 
 Fig. 2.— Protecting a Road Through the Dunes. 
 
7^iq,fe a-. 
 
 Fig. 3. The point of higli water, or the point where the wind catches the sand. The 
 bank of sand is here well planted to beach grass, and must be followed by tree planting. A 
 disturbance or break in this grass cover, made by a foot trail or wagon wheels, is suflaclent 
 to make a wind path for the sand which may develop rapidly into a traveling dune. 
 
 Fig 4 Photograph o£ Ammophylla arenaria Link, commonly known as Marram or Beach 
 Grass' and considered to be the best of the sand binders. 
 
1 i i 
 
 ■ "^ ' • d--.» fi » i • i 
 
 fl 6 ^. A ',1 *^ * "^ * * • A 
 
 
 i-" ^'^i ' "^1 ". 'J ^ "^j V'' •*! -a . ,. 
 
 Fig. 15. Diagram of Shelter Belt Method. 
 
 a. Barrier ot rubbisli and waste 
 
 b. Beach grass planting. 
 Willow cutting* 
 
 d. 
 
 e. i, ^ 
 
 f. Contour lines. 
 
 Poplar cuttings, or rooted sets. 
 Conifer planting. 
 
 TV<vVe S- 
 
 Fig. 5. Break over top of a wooded dune caused by a road which led from the water 
 edge to the top. Wind soon caused the destruction here shown. This dune is burying an 
 orchard. 
 
 Typical established dune with the cover breaking down. 
 
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