BENSON 1>: EETT1 llHi»Wi||IM»Wli U i ||M ilil |H li| Wi Wi i(* il M»l >i|ii l lll> i ii WiiWl i i i l |il il i irjl |i W AGR . ^ ^m fork g'tatc Qfallege of l^gciculture At Qlornelt MntuecBtti} Jltljara. N. % S 495 B4 '^°'^"^" ^"'"ei'Sitv Library *9';;<;"IJ"'-e; a text for the school and th 3 1924 000 277 131 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000277131 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE A Text for the School and the Farm By O. H. BENSON UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SPECIALIST IN CHARGE OF CLUB PROJECTS and GEORGE HERBERT BETTS AUTHOR OF THE MIND AND ITS EDUCATION BETTER RURAL SCHOOLS. ETC. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS INDIANAPOLIS THE BOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY PUBLISHERS Copyright 1915 The Bobbs-Mer-Riix Company PRESS OF BF?AUNWORTH Sl CO. BOOKBINDERS AND PRiNT BROOKLYN, N. V. "I know of no pursuit in which more real and important service can be rendered to any country than improving its agriculture." George Washington AUTHORS' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgment is gratefully made to the Minister of Agriculture, Canada, for the illustration on page 209 ; the United States Department of Agriculture for the illustra- tions on pages 17, 40, 65, 68, 75, ■]•], 82, 85, 93, 105, 120, 125, 129, 147, 149, 151, 186, 189, 193, 194, 196, 198, 209, 213, 273, 278, 280, 284, 286, 298, 299, 303, 309, 317, 318, 321, 325, 328, 350, 352, 353, 355, 362, 364, 369, 397 ; the Poultry Department of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture, pages 357, 364, 366 ; the Kansas State College of Agriculture, pages 42, 45; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, page 173; the \\'ashington State College of Agriculture, page 339 ; the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, pages 15, 19, 28, 55, 123, 139, 243; the College of Agriculture of the Illinois State University, pages 233, 239, 320, 323 ; the College of Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin, pages 187, 190, 192, 195, 199; the College of Agriculture of the State University of Minnesota, pages 348, 372 ; the Col- lege of Agriculture of the University of Ohio, page 129; the Yakima Commercial Club of the State of Washington, pages 155, 182, 269, 338; the Crop Improvements Commit- tee, Board of Trade Building, Chicago, page 39 ; Wallace's Earmer, Des ]\Ioines, Iowa, page 393 ; the Agricultural De- partment of the International Harvester Company of Chi- cago, pages 51, 68, 89, 135, 137, 142, 144, 157; the James Alanufacturing Company, Eort Atkinson, \\'isconsin, pages 239, 246, 411; the DeLaval Separator Company of New York City, page 383 ; the Lehigh Portland Cement Com- pany, of Chicago, page 430; the Northern Pacific Railway, page 341 ; the Lloosier }ilanufacturing Company, New Castle, Indiana, page 380, and the David ^McKay Publish- ers, Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pa., pages 413, 414, 415- PREFACE The present volume attempts what has not yet been ac- complished in elementary texts on agriculture — the combin- ing of real practical information with concrete home and school projects to he carried out by the pupils. Agriculture, of all subjects, can not be taught from within a text-book. Nor, on the other hand, can it be well taught by the teacher who is not a specialist without a good text-book by means of which to unify the instruction and lead to an intelligent interest in the farm and its problems. Unless the pupils busy themselves with actual agricultural activities, the study becomes mere theory and of doubtful value. This text is a guide to concrete work and interest on the farm, in the garden and about the home. Yet the text is more than a laboratory guide. It gives a large amount of practical, scientific information wholly without technical terms. Further, this information is al- ways so immediately related to definite farm projects as to have meaning and application. Scientific facts and their use go hand in hand. Theory and practise are never divorced. The old maxim, "Learn to do by doing," is constantly fol- lowed, and the doing made natural and worth while to the child by being connected with his home interests. Hardly a day's assignment occurs in the book, therefore, that does not present some real project for the pupils to carr}' out in connection with the farm or home life. Nor are the problems set the child without the information or guidance necessary to their intelligent solution. The re- PREFACE quired facts, principles and descriptions are always at hand, and the problem or project made the means of teaching some valuable lesson in concrete form. The authors believe that the elementary features of agri- culture can be successfully taught without technicalities. It has been their aim to present a treatment so clear that chil- dren from fourteen to sixteen years of age could read and profit by it even without a teacher. They have also tried to make the subject-matter so vital and helpful that all who are interested in agriculture, even practical farmers, will care to read it, and desire to carry out its lessons in practise. Teachers will recognize and welcome the attempt to use the study of agriculture in bringing about a closer relation between the school and the home. Not only teachers, but county superintendents and agricultural agents will appre- ciate the many helpful suggestions concerning Demonstra- tion Days, Play Contests and Agricultural Club Projects; for these are coming to occupy an important place in agri- cultural education. The great amount of care given to make the lessons teachable through the outlining of many definite and practical laboratory, field and home projects will appeal to all who use the text, and save much time for the busy teacher. The authors gratefully render their acknowledgments for much cordial help received from the staffs of various state colleges of agriculture and the United States Department of Agriculture. Especially valuable have been the suggestions and material received from the colleges of agriculture of Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Ohio, New York, r^Iassa- chusetts, Alabama, Minnesota, Kansas and Nebraska. CONTENTS PART I. FARM CROPS I Corn Cultuee Corn the king of crops — The "corn belt" — The corn plant — Determining the stand — Stand in the home field — Corn enemies — Topics for investigation — Saving the seed — Types of corn — The selection bed — Corn judging with score-card — Testing the seed — Problems and experiments — Preparing seed for the planter — Seed bed and planting — Cultivating the corn — Plarvesting and storing — The silo — Uses of corn — Topics for investigation — Corn demonstrations — Corn play contests — Corn club projects. II Wheat 64 Bread the staff of life — Importance of wheat — The wheat states — Types of wheat — Topics for investigation — Growing the crop — Diseases and insect enemies — Treatment of fun- gous enemies — Treatment of insect enemies — Problems and experiments. III Oats 80 Importance of oats as a crop — The oats region — Types of oats — Problems and experiments — Raising the crop — Har- vesting and thrashing — Insect enemies and diseases — Topics for investigation — Wheat and oat demonstrations — Play contests — Club projects. IV The Potato . .98 Origin — Plant and tuber — Potatoes as a farm crop — The potato region — Growing the crop — Harvesting and storing potatoes — Seed selection — The "tuber-unit" method — Potato enemies — Problems and experiments — Potato demonstra- tions — Play contests — Potato clubs. V Forage Crops 113 The place of forage crops — Important grasses and le- gumes — Region and extent of forage crops — Uses to which the forage plants are put — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Club projects. CONTENTS— (Continued) CHAPTER PAGE VI The Clovers , .... 119 Wide use of the clovers — Red clover — Study of the plant — Value of red clover on the farm — Raising red clover — Seed bed and seeding — Good seed — Harvesting — Enemies and their control — Other kinds of clover — Problems for in- vestigation. VII Alfalfa 133 Study of plant — Distribution of alfalfa — Alfalfa as a forage crop — As a renewer of the soil — Successful raising of alfalfa — Harvesting — Enemies — Topics for investigation. VIII Other Legumes 146 The cow-pea — Cow-peas as forage — As a soil renewer — The vetches — Varieties — Uses — Soy-beans — Uses and culti- vation — Feeding value — The peanut. IX Meadows and Pastures ........ 154 Importance of meadows and pastures — Requirements of a meadow — Meadow grasses and legumes — ?\Iixtures for meadows — Care of meadows — Problems for investigation — Pastures — Requirements — Seed mixtures — Care. PART 11. HORTICULTURE X The Vegetable Garden ........ 16S Importance of garden — Location and soil — Plan — Table of planting and maturing — Garden culture — The hotbed — Insect enemies — Other enem.ies — Problems and experiments — Garden demonstrations — Play contests — Club and canning projects. XI The Fruit Garden 180 Profits and satisfaction — Soil and location — Plan — A vari- ety list — Care of fruit garden — Enemies and their treatment — Spraying — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Play contests — Fruit clubs. XII The Tomato 201 Importance of the tomato — Varieties — Raising the crop — Pruning and staking — Harvesting and marketing — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Play contests — Clubs. CONTENTS— (Continued) CHATTER PAGE XIII Garden and Orchard Sprays 208 Indispensable in successful gardening — Bordeaux mixture — Use — Lime-sulphur — How made and used — Arsenate of lead — Mixing and applying — Paris green — Kerosene emul- sion — How made and used — Resin-lime mixture. XIV Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables . . . 217 Value of home canned foods — Recipes for home canning — Time table for canning — Canning outfits. PART HI. THE SOIL XV Nature of Soil 225 Origin of soil — Nature of soil — Organic matter — Texture and its effects — Structure of soils — Structure and tilth — Erosion — Problems and experiments. XVI Soil Fertility and Plant Growth 236 Plant food and soil fertility — Loss of fertility — Maintain- ing fertility — Barnyard manure as a fertilizer — Preventing loss from manure — Application to soil — Green manuring — Commercial fertilizers — Use of lime on soils — Crop rota- tion and fertility. XVII Soil Moisture 251 Forms of soil water — Capacity of soils for capillary water — Tillage and soil water — Soil drainage — Surface and tile drains — Soil demonstrations — Problems and experiments — Soil play contests — Club work. PART IV. FARM ANIMALS XVIII Farm Animals and Agriculture 265 Work animals — Animals that supply food — Other animal products — Topics for investigation. XIX Cattle 272 Dairy cattle — Profitable and unprofitable cows — The dairy type — Selecting dairy cows by milk tests — Dairy breeds — Feeding for milk production — Producing clean milk — Beef breeds — Judging cattle — Tuberculosis in cattle — Experi- ments and problems — Demonstrations with cattle — Play contests — Club projects. CONTENT S— ( Continued) CHAPTER PAGE XX Horses 296 The horse-raising states — Classes of horses — Breeds — Judging horses — Common defects of horses — Care and training — Feeding: worlv rations — Topics for investigation — Demonstrations with horses — Play contests — Club projects. XXI Swine 315 Pork region — Breeds of hogs — Care hog houses — Feeding : balanced rations — Diseases — Prevention and treatment of cholera — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Play contests — Club projects. XXII Sheep 336 Importance on farm — Breeds of sheep — Feeding: rations — Experiments and problems — Demonstrations — Play con- tests — Club work. XXIII Poultry 346 Importance on farm — Extent of industry — Breeds of chickens — Producing chickens — He}is and incubators — Test- ing eggs — Feeding chickens — Producing and marketing eggs — Housing poultry — Poultry diseases — Topics for investiga- tion — Poultry demonstrations — Play contests — Club projects. PART V. FARM ECOXO:\nCS XXIV Farm and FIo.me Management 375 Planning' the farm — Administration of farms — Farm accounts — Important rules — Ten commandments of agricul- ture — Topics for investigation — The farm house — Other farm buildings. XXV The Home Grounds and Wood Lot .... 389 Beautifying the home grounds — Trees — The lawn — The farm wood lot — Tree enemies — Problems and experiments — Demonstrations — Play contests — Tree and grounds club. XXVI The County Agricultural Agent .... 401 Work of the county agent — Financial support — The county agent and the school — How to make use of the county agent. CONTENTS— (Continued) CHAPTER PAGE XXVII Farm Implements and Mechanics .... 408 Importance of implements and tools — Farm mechanics — Use of cement — Shop work — Rope tying and splicing — Problems and experiments — Play contests — Club projects. XXXVIII Road Building and ]\Iaintenance .... 420 Importance of good roads — Types of roads — Location of a road — Qualities making a good road — Construction of earth roads — Jilaintenance — Topics for investigation — Road demonstrations — Road clubs. XXIX Birds and Other Insect Destroyers .... 432 Birds and their food — Birds helpful to agriculture — Harmful birds — Protecting birds — Topics for investigation — Other insect destroyers. XXX Miscellaneous Information 441 How to remove stains — Location of colleges of agricul- ture and experiment stations — Distance apart for planting fruits and vegetables — Quantity of seed per acre for planting. To the Teacher i Index xv AGRICULTURE ■a a a o AGRICULTURE PART I. FARM CROPS CHAPTER I CORN CULTURE CORN is king' of farm crops. Tlie value of the corn crop is almost equal to that of cotton, wheat and oats combined, and totals more than a billion dollars annually. We feed our stock upon corn, eat it for our own food and use it in many other ways. The welfare and prosperity of millions of people are dependent on securing a good crop of corn. Three-fourths of the corn crop of the world is grown in the United States. Each year we produce more than 2,500,000,000 bushels. Should we load this enormous crop into wagons, fifty bushels to the load, and allow twenty feet for each wagon and team, the line would reach about eight times around the earth at the equator. Taking the whole country together, the average yield of corn per acre is slightly less than thirty bushels. The states best adapted to corn raising are Illinois, Iowa, Ne- braska, jMissouri, Kansas, Indiana and Ohio. These seven states, which are called the "corn belt" of the United States, raise nearly half of all the world's corn. In them the yield is somewhat over forty bushels to the acre. This is a much smaller crop tiian could be raised if the soil were enriched, and greater care and skill used in growing the crop. A 1 2 AGRICULTURE large number of corn club boys in different states have pro- duced as much as one hundred fifty bushels from an acre, and not a few in the southern states have raised more than two hundred bushels. One of the things we shall try to learn in this book is how to raise a larger crop of corn from our fields. 1. The Corn Plant Corn belongs to the grass family ; that is, it is a member of the same group of plants as timothy, wheat, rye, or blue- grass. In order to study the corn plant itself, each of the class will secure from a near-by field, or bring from home, a com- plete stalk of corn, taking care to save as much of the root as possible. Then use the text as a help in studying the plant. The roots. — Examining the roots, do y^ou find them tough and fibrous, or tender ? Do the roots branch, or is there a central tap root? At earing time the roots of a vigorous plant may extend down several feet, and spread out so that they meet the roots from other hills. The ground of a corn-field may thus be completely filled with roots. In dry seasons the roots strike deeper than in wet seasons. Wh)' ? Would you expect the roots to run deeper in a black porous soil, or in a hard clay subsoil? Are there roots branching from the lower one or two joints of the stalk, thus starting from above the top of the ground ? Roots growing in this way are called brace roots. They act like the guy ropes of a tent pole, and hold the stalk erect in the winds. If these are broken oft by close plow- ing, or destroyed by worms, the corn is easily blown down. The stem. — How long is the stem? What is its girth just above the root? How many leaves has it? From where do these start? How are they attached? Are the A good stand of corn. The yield was 105 bushels to the acre. The boy tested the seed. 4 AGRICULTURE edges of the blades longer than the center? What proof have you ? The length of the stem varies with different varieties of corn, and because of differences in the season or the soil. The range is from two or three feet to fifteen or twenty feet. The stem is divided by joints called nodes; the sections be- tween these joints are called intcrnodcs. Is the stem round, or flattened ? Cut the stem across and note the structure. Unlike most other grasses, corn is not hollow. The spongy substance with which the hard outside shell is filled is called pith. The threads found run- ning lengthwise through the pith add greatly to the strength of the stalk. The leaves. — The leaves are important in the growth of the plant, since in them the plant food is worked over and assimilated, and through them the respiration, or breath- ing, of the plant is done. The leaves are large, and hence have to stand much tugging in the wind. Are they stronger because of their sheath-like form of attachment ? Will they tear as easily in a strong wind if the outer edges are slight- ly longer than the center? Large vigorous leaves indicate a healthy plant. In very dry weather, the leaves curl up from the edges. This is a useful habit, since the leaf when thus rolled up does not lose so much moisture as when fully open. Tassel and silk. — Strip the husk carefully from an ear in the milk stage, without injuring the silks. How many silks are there ? Where are the silks attached to the ear? While tassel and silk are borne on different parts of the plant, yet it takes both together to make the complete flower of the corn and produce the ear. The tassel repre- sents the male part, and the silk the female part of the flower. The work of the tassel is to produce pollen. This sifts CORN CULTURE 5 off in fine grains just as the corn is silking. A particle of pollen lodges on the tip of a silk, and a growth is carried through the center of the tiny thread to its root, where the kernel forms. The pollen in this way fcrtili.ccs the silks, one silk for each kernel of corn. If for any reason no fertilization occurs, no kernels will be formed. The pollen grains are very light, and may be carried by the wind for many rods, thus fertilizing the silks of other plants than their own. This is called cross-fcrtillzation. The reason different varieties of corn planted in near-by fields mix is because the pollen is carried from one field to the other. Have you ever seen an ear with part of the kernels white and the rest red, or yellow? How is this to be ex- plained? A small patch of pop-corn planted near field corn turned out to be badly mixed, although the seed used was pure. How do you account for the mixture? 2. Dctcnninhig the Stand In order to raise a full yield of corn we must first of all have a good stand. Corn is usually planted in rows about three and a half feet apart each waj'. On good com land three stalks seem to make the best hill. It is plain that if the hills have but one or two stalks each, or if whole hills are frequently missing, there can not be a full crop. Importance of a good stand. — Farmers often lose much of their labor and a large amount of money because of a poor stand of corn. It requires as much work to pre- pare the ground and cultivate the corn for half or two- thirds of a stand as if every hill was present and had its three stalks. How is it with the farms in your own neighborhood? With your father's farm? What kind of a stand do the 6 AGRICULTURE corn-iields sho\\' ? The best wa}- to answer this question is to go out into the fields and count the hills. This is the way the scientist works ; he makes sure, and does not guess. We will therefore determine the stand on several plots se- lected from different parts of a field of corn and discover whether the farmer is losing labor and money because the stand is imperfect. Preparing for field study. — Before going out to the field rule off four forms like the following in your note- book, each square to represent a hill of corn: 3. Record of Stand of Corn PLOT NO. Counting stand in the field. — Now go to a near-by field and select what appears to be an average plot of corn, ten hills square. Go through the plot carefully, counting the stalks in each hill, and recording the number in the proper CORN CULTURE 7 square on your record sheet. Plills having more than three stalks are to be recorded as having only three, as three stalks to the hill make the best stand on average soil, if planted three and one-half feet each way. Having completed the count on this plot, select three other plots in different parts of the field, count the hills and make the record in your note-book for each plot sepa- rately. We are now ready to estimate the stand for the entire field. To do this, we shall need to work out the following problems, keeping the results in our note-books : 1. If every hill had three stalks, how many stalks would there be on each plot ? How many on all four plots? 2. How man}' hills in each of the plots had three stalks ? Two stalks ? One stalk ? No stalk ? How many stalks altogether in each of the plots ? In all the plots combined ? 3. What percentage of a perfect stand do all four plots average? If the entire field averages as good a stand as the plots, what percentage of a stand has it? 4. How many acres in the entire field ? How many acres did the farmer plow and tend which, because of an imperfect stand, raised no corn ? 5. What will this field probably yield to the acre? Suppose the ears would still average the same size, what would it yield with a perfect stand ? At the market price of corn, what difference in value would this make per acre? For the whole field? Counting stand in home fields. — After having made this study, you will naturally want to know about your home fields of corn. Therefore prepare other record sheets in your note-books, and count the stand on four difTerent plots of your father's corn, making careful records as you did in the first study. Then work out the five problems for the home field as you did for the field studied at school. Show the results to your father, and talk with him about 8 AGRICULTURE tlie cause of the imperfect stand. Also compare your re- sults with the stand found in the home fields of other mem- bers of the class, and see if you can discover what produces the difTerences in stand. Barring bad weather at planting time, worms and other pests, at least a ninety-five per cent, stand should alwaj's be secured. Barren stalks and suckers. — ^Merely having the right number of stalks in the field does not insure a crop, however. These stalks must bear ears. There are two classes of stalks that are of no use, barren stalks and suckers. Strong and vigorous-looking stalks may be barren. Bar- renness may be caused by weak seed, injuries to the roots bv worms or insects, diseases, poor soil, drought, or too thick planting. Suckers are but branches from the parent stalks, and have no root of their own. They are worse than useless, for they seldom bear ears, and are but a drain on the stalk which supports them. Suckers are caused by thin planting, especially in rich heavy land. There are also some strains of corn which, through heredity, are likely to grow suckers. Seed from sucker-bearing stalks should not be planted. Counting barren stalks and suckers. — We shall now determine the percentage of barren stalks and suckers in a field. Take either the plots already counted for stand or new ones, and go over them, counting the ears. Make a record sheet of squares as before. In these squares record (1) the number of stalks that has two ears, (2) that has one ear, ^3) that has no ear. Do this for each of four plots ten hills square. Summing Up Ri:srr/rs 1. What percentage of the stalks bears two ears? One ear? 2. W^hat percentage of stalks is barren? If this per- centage holds for the entire field, how much is the yield CORN CULTURE 9 reduced per acre, supposing the field as it now stands will yield forty bushels ? 3. What percentage of the stalks bears suckers? How many of the suckers had ears? 4. What do you judge was the cause of the barren stalks? Of the suckers? 4. Corn Enemies Plants, like animals, are subject to certain diseases. Corn is usually a healthy plant, and not alTected by as many diseases as some of the other crops. The most seri- ous enemies of corn are various insects, such as the corn- root worm, the corn-root aphis or louse, the cutworm, the ear worm ; and such animals as gophers, scjuirrels and birds. The corn-root worm. — This pest is responsible, over a large area of the country, for greater loss to the corn crop than any other cause except poor seed, and often probably inflicts more damage than all other insects put together. It has been estimated that its damage in the corn belt alone exceeds 200,000,000 bushels annually. Because the root worm is very small and does its work under grovmd, it is seldom seen, and probably could not be identified by many farmers to whom it has caused thousands of dollars of loss. It is present in some degree in almost every corn- field. At full size the root worm is about one-third inch in length, and as large around as a pin. It is whitish in color, with its head and the first segment of its body brown. The root worm hatches in June or early July, and reaches its full growth by the first of August. Soon after this it goes into the pupa state, and in a few days comes out a small green beetle. This beetle lays the eggs, which remain in the ground over winter and hatch the next generation of root worms the following spring. As soon as the ^oung worms are hatched out thev enter / \ ) \>u ;MM£. CORN CULTURE 11 the roots of the growing corn, burrowing back and forth just under the outside covering. Half a dozen worms are sometimes found in the one root, and as many as two hun- dred in a single hill. The worm destroys the tender part of the root, which turns brown and rots ofif, leaving only the stubs of roots. As a result, the stalk of corn is deprived of its means of securing moisture and nourishment. It seems to stand still instead of making a vigorous growth, and fires badly during the dry weather of July and August. It is easily blown over, especially after a rain when the ground is soft. The yield is greatly reduced, and the ears are light and chaffy; many stalks are barren. The growth of the plant is retarded, and the crop is later in maturing. There is no way of stopping these pests once they begin on a field of corn. But the remedy is simple for the next year — wherever possible plant the field to some other crop. For this will leave the young worms with no food, and they will all die. The field can then be planted to corn again, and should be free from root worms for at least the first year. Usually corn should not be raised for more than two years in succession on the same field. Es- pecially if the corn goes down in spots in August, and if the roots show the working of these worms, should com not follow the next season. If proper rotation of crops is practised, there will be little or no loss from the root worm. The corn-root aphis or louse. — Second to the root worm, the worst enemy of corn is the corn-root aphis. This is a small louse, no larger than the head of a pin, and of a bluish-green color. These lice are found in groups on the roots of corn, from which they suck the juices intended for the growth of the plant. The corn-root aphis is always found accompanied by ants. Indeed, it is the ants which carry the lice to the 12 AGRICULTURE com roots, or to the roots of certain weeds after the corn roots have become hard. The ants take this care of the aphis because it gives out a sweet substance called "honey dew," upon which the ants feed. The presence of mam- ants in the corn-field, especially ant-holes in the hill, is a sign of the root aphis. The worst damage by the aphis is done while the corn is very young. The lice sometimes destroy the roots even before the plant comes up. The effect of their work on the corn roots causes the plant to turn yellow and take on a sickly appearance. If they are very severe in their attack, the tips of the leaves become purplish, and the stem reddish in color. The yield of the crop is greatly reduced, and its ripening delayed. Rotation of crops is one of the surest remedies against this pest. Harrozviiig the field before the corn comes tip, or while it is small, interferes with the work of the ants, and hence checks the ravages of the aphis. Keeping the fields clean of weeds is also necessary, since the lice thrive on the roots of such plants as smartweed and foxtail. Cutworms. — Cutworms do little damage except on sod land which has been in meadow or pasture for a num ber of years. They are a grayish-brown color, and grow to an inch or more in length. Cutworms work at night, cutting the young stalk of corn ofi" just at the surface of the ground. One remedy for cutworms is the fall plowing of sod, thus exposing the insects to the freezing of winter. This will greatly reduce their number. A shorter rotation of crops, leaving the field in sod but one or two years, will also tend to destroy the cutworms. Wireworms. — Wireworms also make their home in sod, and hence are worst in newly broken ground. They CORN CULTURE 13 are the larvae of the click-beetle, whose eggs are laid in meadows and pastures in the fall. They hatch out as small reddish-brown worms in the early spring. The worms at- tack the sprouting kernel, and also bore holes through the )'Oung plant. Fall plowing and rotation of crops are the best remedies against the wireworm. The corn ear worm. — The worm is usually found working in the tips of corn ears. It attacks not only corn, but cotton and many other plants. The corn ear worm Ii\'es through the winter in the pupa stage, and comes out in the spring as a moth. There are several broods each season, but only the last does any great damage to the corn. The harm done by the ear worm is not great, except to sweet corn intended for can- ning. There is no certain remedy known, though fall plowing is thought to reduce their number. Smut. — The most common disease affecting corn is smut. The smut masses seen on growing corn are pro- duced by a small parasitic plant which lives on the juices of the corn plant. Smut spores, corresponding to seeds, live over winter in the soil, or may be distributed in manure spread on the field, or may even be blown consid- erable distances from other fields. The slimy black masses of smut are found on the stalk, leaves, tassel, or ear. Since smut must live off the strength of its host, it is evident that the corn plant is weakened and the yield reduced by the presence of this disease. There is no efifective remedy for corn smut, though the burning of smut balls, keeping it from the manure used on the field, and the rotation of crops all tend to control it. Tones FOR iNVESXrCATION 1. The corn-root worm of the North can be found a'. 14 AGRICULTURE work only from late June to early August. During late August and September the worm is found only in the beetle stage. Go into a corn-iield and secure several of these beetles. They are green, and about twice the size of a pin- head. Learn to recognize the insect at sight. 2. If possible secure a number of the pupae of the corn- root worm. About the middle of August they can be found in great numbers around the roots of corn in a field where the worms have been at work. Keep the pupae in warm moist soil in a box covered with netting or glass and watch for the beetles to come out. 3. Find hills of corn which have suffered from the corn-root worm. How do you discover where they have been at work? Does the hill pull up easily as compared with a good hill? What is the condition of the ear? 4. Observe several fields that have been in corn for a number of years in succession. Do they show signs of the root worm? Compare with fields on which a rotation of crops has been grown. 5. Secure several ears of corn in which the ear worm has been working. How does the worm proceed in its attack? Make a study of the worm, and become able to identify it at sight. Would you want to eat canned sweet corn from a field which had suffered from these worms ? 6. Secure samples of corn smut affecting (1) the ear, (2) the tassel, (3) the stem, (4) the leaves. Does the stalk look healthy? Is the ear good? After the smut ball is dry, note the fine powder which flies from it. This is the spores which reproduce the plant for next year. 7. If possible, secure samples of the corn-root aphis, the cutworm and the wireworm. Learn to identify all these accurately and quickly. 8. Other such enemies to be noted are : the corn moth or caterpillar, the stalk borer, the white grub and the corn bill bug. If possible, secure specimens of these, learn to identify them, tell how they damage the crop and how to exterminate them. 5. Saz'iiig the Seed The first care if we would secure a good stand of corn is the seed, ^^^e must have seed that will grow and show Gathering seed before it freezes. The difference between good seed and poor seed. Each picture shows the yield froro one acre in adjoining fields. Upper pic- ture, poor seed: yield, 22.S bushels: marketable, 73.9%; nub- bins, 26.1% ; seed. none. Lower picture, good seed : yield, GG.5 bushels; marketable, 86,7%; nubbins, 6.3%; seed, 1%. 16 _..,_..,„..„. ,^ AGRICULTURE strong vitality. Most of tlie poor stands wliich we discov- ered in the fields we have just been studying no doubt came from seed that either failed to germinate, or else threw out plants so weak that they were unable to live through the cold damp weather of early spring. The loss from poor seed. — The loss from the planting of poor seed is enormous. There are more than one hun- dred million acres of corn planted every year in the United States. This recjuires some sixteen million bushels of seed. Hut of these sixteen million bushels, it has been estimated by government experts that three million bushels fail to grow or produce barren stalks. Think of planting three million bushels of worthless seed corn each }ear ! Let us see what this great waste means. The average yield of corn to the acre in the United States is slightly under thirty bushels, or only one small ear to the hill. For, counting 3,556 hills to the acre, one ten-ounce ear to the hill would yield almost thirty-two bushels to the acre ; and an ear weighing onh- ten ounces is little more than a nubbin. Our farmers are therefore averaging but one small ear to the hill in all their corn-fields. If they should increase the stand and improve the corn so that from each hill they get two medium-sized cars, each weigh- ing twelve and one-half ounces, the yield will be eighty bushels to the acre instead of thirty bushels. Will it not pay to select good seed? When seed corn should be gathered. — There is no more important work on the farm than the selection and care of seed corn for the next crop. Freezing before it is fully dry almost always injures the seed so that it either will fail to sprout, or else will produce a weak plant. Seed corn should therefore be gathered as early in the fall as it is well ripened. The time for saving seed in the "corn belt" is from September twentieth to October tenth. n =ti H <^ 1) i: Illustration of tbe 5"ielcl of corn per acre, allowlns a sinsle stalk for each hill of 3% feet. (A) 28.S hushels; (B) 30 bushels; (0) 40 bushels; (D) 45 bushels; (E) 50 bushels. Stringing seed corn, — the first step. The second step. The string completed. 18 AGRICULTURE How to gather seed corn. — Securing good seed re- quires that seed corn shall be gathered from the field be- fore the general crop is harvested. The proper way to se- lect seed corn is to pass through the best parts of the field, row by row, with a sack slung over the shoulder, examin- ing each promising-looking ear from a good stalk and full hill, and taking the ear if it proves acceptable. This looks like a good deal of work, but when it is remembered that twelve to fifteen ears will plant an acre, and that the dif- ference between a yield of thirty bushels or of sixty bush- els to the acre may result from having good seed, it is well worth the time. From three to five bushels a day may be selected in this way — enough to plant from twenty-five to forty acres of next season's crop. The right kind of seed hill. — In selecting ears for seed it is important to take into account all the surround- ings of the plant. It is plain that ears grown on stalks which stand but one in a hill, or next to missing hills, have a better chance to grow large than those from full hills. A large ear grown under such favorable conditions might not produce so well as somewhat smaller ears grown un- der less favorable conditions. We want to be sure that the ear is good size because of something in the nature of the ear itself, rather than from what has happened to it while growing. Mature good ears from hills having three stalks are desirable, for this condition promises a good yield. The stalk should be sturdy, not too tall, and have plenty of broad full leaves. Curing the seed. — Caring for the seed after it is picked is as important as its selection. The great thing in caring for seed corn just picked from the field is to give it a chance to dr}' thoroughly. To do this, it must be where it can get plenty of circulating air. The ears should not touch one another, for then they will not dry evenly. Seed Seed coni bung up to dry. Auutlier luelliud uf dryiuj; seeil corn. 20 AGRICULTURE corn should therefore never be stacked in piles or thrown into a crib after it is gathered, but should be hung up in some open place sheltered from the direct sun, if the weather is still hot, and from all rain or other forms of moisture. One of the simplest and best ways to hang seed corn is by stringing it. By this method each string con- tains a dozen ears — almost enough to plant an acre. To hang corn in this way, cut a string of binding twine twelve feet long, and tie the ends together, thus forming a loop. One person should operate the string, and another handle the ears. Place the first ear in the strings, and pass one end of the loop through the other end, tightening down to the ear. Place the next ear in the same way, and keep on until the string has all been taken up. Hang the stringer of ears up in a uniformly dr}- place and it will need no more attention until time comes for testing the seed. This plan should be followed after each day's picking, not even allowing the corn to lie over night before being hung to dry. Another plan of drying out seed corn is to lay the ears side by side on shelves, where there is free circulation of air, and where mice and rats can not reach the corn. Where this plan is followed, the shelves should be made of slats, and not of solid boards, so as to allow the air to get to all parts of the ear. Hanging the ears by tying a part of the husks works well, but takes more time, and also takes up more room than to use the twine loop for hanging a dozen ears in one string. Still another method is to drive ten-penny finishing nails four inches apart in a post, sticking the butt of the ear on the nail. 6. Types of Corn There are altogether seven different types of corn. These are: (1) pod corn, (2j soft corn, (3) sweet corn, (4) CORN CULTURE 21 pop-corn, (5) Kafir corn, (6) flint corn, and (7) dent corn. Pod corn. — Most of those who will study this book have ne\'er seen pod corn grown. It has a thin husk around each separate kernel. This t}pe of corn is of interest cliiefly because it is thought to be the oldest type, from which all other types have developed. The chaff or scale at the base of the kernels of our common varieties is probably a rem- nant of the kernel husk of the old pod corn. Pod corn will grow in almost any temperate region. Soft corn. — Soft corn, like pod corn, is not grown as a staple crop in the United States. This is the Moiidamiii of the American Indians, and was favored by them because it was very easily ground. Its softness is caused by the fact that its endosperm is all of soft white starch, wholly lacking the horny starch of the other types. Little of this type is grown except in the South. Sweet com. — Sweet corn is widely grown for human food. It is used green as "roasting-ears," and is canned while green and kept in this state for almost any length of time. Sweet corn does not produce so large a yield as some other kinds, and hence is not grown for feeding stock. It is grown throughout the corn territory. Pop-corn. — Pop-corn is distinguished for the hardness of its kernel. It is just the opposite of soft corn, and has an endosperm nearly all of hard horny starch. When the kernels are heated and the moisture in them expands, an explosion occurs which we call popping. Pop-corn can be raised in all parts of the corn region. Kafir com. — P.otanically Kafir is not really a member of the corn family, but belongs to the sorghums. For agricultural purposes, however, Kafir may be considered a type of corn. Its medium-sized seeds grow in a cyHn- drical or oblong head instead of on an ear. Kafir is grown 22 AGRICULTURE in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest. It is a good substitute for corn in the ration of all farm animals. Flint corn. — Flint corn is the prevailing type yet raised in Xew England and in New York. It is to be rec- ognized by the long slender ear, and by the hard flinty ker- nel, which contains a large amount of horny starch. Flint corn does not require so long a season as dent corn, and hence is preferred in northern regions where there is dan- ger of the crop being caught by the frost before it is ripe. As earlier varieties of dent corn are being developed, they are displacing flint corn in many regions. Dent corn. — This is the principal corn raised in the great corn producing regions of the United States. In fact it supplies the greater part of the world's corn crop. It is called dent corn because the soft starch of the crown shrinks slightly in ripening, thus causing a depression in the top of the kernel. It is the type grown almost ex- clusively for feeding stock, and all the commercial corn products, such as glucose, starch, sirup, etc., are made from it. Dent corn has two varieties: (1) single ear, or One ear to the stalk, as grown in the corn belt; and (2) prolific, or many ears to the stalk, as grown in the South. Types and varieties. — Each different type of corn may have many zvrieties. As a matter of fact, however, the types that are most grown have the largest number of vari- eties, or strains. Varieties of corn are produced in three different ways: (1) by selecting some exceptional or pe- culiar ear, and using it for seed, picking out for seed each year the ears most nearly like the original parent ear until the variety is established; (2) by cross breeding; and (3) by selecting each year for planting the best ears, — the earliest ears, the largest ears, the best shaped ears, or ears that possess whatever quality is wanted in the new variety. If this same quality is selected year after year, the variety An illiistriitiou of tbe prolific corn common in tbe sontLiern states. It will grow 2 to 8 ears of corn on each stalk. It requires a subtropical climate, copious rainfall and a long season. Types of corn. (1) pod corn; (2) tbree strains of flint corn; (3) two strains of sweet corn; (4) two strains of pop-corn; (5) two strains of dent corn. 24 AGRICULTURE will after a time have a tendency to "breed true" ; that is, all to be like the ears selected for seed. Selecting the best variety. — Dififerent varieties are suited for different climates and for different soils. It is therefore important in selecting a variety of corn to know whether it is adapted to the conditions under which it is to be raised. Topics for Investigation 1. How many of the seven different types of corn have you ever seen ? How many are grown in your region ? (Be sure to distinguish type from variety.) 2. Bring to school a sample of as many different types as you can find. What three can you easily secure if you live in the IMiddle West? What ones can you secure if you live in New England ? If you live in Oklahoma or Alabama ? 3. Examine these different types for the size of the ear; for the shape; for the shape of kernel; for color; for proportion of corn to cob ; for the parts of the kernel. 4. Is the corn raised on your father's farm a true variety, or is it mixed? If true, what is the variety? 5. How many varieties of corn do j'ou know? Join with your classmates in making as large a collection of sam- ples of dififerent varieties as can be found in the neighbor- hood. Comparing these ears for the different cjualities by which ears are judged, what are the differences you note? W'hich seems to you the best variety? Does it yield best? Does it ripen ? Does it have good feeding and selling qual- ities ? 7. Raising Seed in a Selection Bed The first step necessary in improving corn is to improve the seed. Not only must we make sure that the corn se- lected for seed will grow, but it must be as nearly perfect in every way as possible. For heredity works in plants as well as in animals. We select the best stock for breeding ; we should do the same in choosing the seed we plant. Good, strong, well-formed ears will tend to produce corn of the CORN CULTURE 25 same kind, while small, irregular, or weak ears will breed the characteristics of their kind. Choosing the selection bed. — So important is the mat- ter of the very best corn for seed, that many farmers are now usin"- what is called the selection bed for the raising of A sauiiile of ciiru sliowiiiL; good tip ends. seed. The selection Ixd should be a choice plot of ground of from one to three acres, depending on the size of the farm. This plot is specially prepared, planted with the choicest seed, tested for growth and vitality, and is given the best of care. The selection bed should be by itself if you want pure 26 AGRICULTURE seed. It may be a part of the general field, if located at the south or southwest side, so that the prevailing summer winds may carry the pollen to all parts of the plot, and even to the remainder of the field. This plot should never be placed where it will receive the pollen from some neigh- boring field of diflferent variety, of mixed, or poor grade corn. Care at tasseling time. — At tasseling time the selec- tion bed requires special attention. As already explained, this is because the tassel, which is the male flower of the corn, bears the pollen necessary to fertilize the silk, which is the female flower. There is one silk for each kernel. The silk has to be fertilized by a single grain of pollen fall- ing upon it. If pollen from a difl^erent variety of corn fer- tilizes the silks, the result is a mixed breed. If the pollen comes from weak or faulty stalks, the ears formed are im- perfect, or the stalk may remain barren. In the selection bed, as in the remainder of the field, there will be found weak stalks, barren stalks and suckers, all of which may bear tassels, and hence produce pollen. But the pollen from these faulty stalks should not be allowed to fertilize the ear-bearing stalks. To prevent this, it is necessary to go into the selection bed when the first tassels begin to appear, and cut out all the faulty stalks, so that their pollen may do no damage. This is a very important matter in raising good seed, and should never be neg- lected. ^^^eak parentage in corn, as in stock, should be pre- vented. Taking seed from selection bed. — The same care should be observed in selecting seed from the selection bed as from the general field. Each year the choicest and strong- est ears should be used in planting the selection bed. In this way, almost any variety of corn can be improved, and much larger and better yields obtained. CORN CULTURE 27 Home-grown seed the best. — As a rule, home-grown seed is best, provided it is carefully selected, and kept improving from year to year. It takes corn shipped in from another region several years to adapt itself to the new condi- tions so that it will do as well as in its home place. Corn does not "run out," as many farmers believe, but is run out by farmers who are careless in the selection of seed. Topics for Investigation 1. Has your father ever used the selection bed, or "seed patch" for the raising of his seed corn ? How many of the farmers in your neighborhood so use it ? 2. Good seed corn from a favorite variety sells at from two dollars to as much as ten dollars a bushel. Sup- pose that you should plant a selection bed of two acres, and secure sixty bushels per acre, one-third of which is suit- able for seed. If cribbed corn is worth fifty cents a bushel, and seed corn three dollars, what is the return from the two acres? How much greater is the return than if the corn had all been sold for feed ? All corn club boys and ambitious farmers should raise seed corn of the improved strains. 3. Talk with your father about planting a seed club acre next year, and allowing you to manage it, select the seed, and care for the patch at tasseling time. About how manv ears would be required to plant a three-acre bed ? Have you satisfactory seed from which to select for the bed, or would you have to secure seed from a neighbor? What variety does your father favor? What are the other varieties that might be considered? 8. Corn Judging ivith Score-Card What qualities, together, make a good ear of corn? We are now ready for a somewhat more careful study of the ear to answer this question. For this purpose we shall judge a sample of ten ears by the use of the score-card. The score-card requires that we grade the ear on each of A three-stalli hill with six good ears of Silver King, ou an Iowa farm. Boys and girls briuging com to school for judging and testing in a Cook County rural school. CORN CULTURE 29 its different qualities, and then sum these markings all together for the final "standing"' or value of the ear. This method of judging corn is much more accurate and scientific than estimating the value of an ear in an off- hand way. It is the method used by most of the corn experts. All ears to be judged as if for seed. — Xo matter for what purpose corn is to be used, it is alwa^'s best to judge the ears as if they zvere intended for seed. This is because the ear that is best for seed is also best for every other pur- pose. The ear which would show best in an agricultural exhibit, the one which would be best for yield, or feeding, or any other use is the one which grades highest as a seed ear. Preparing the samples for judging. — To supply corn for judging with the score-card, each pupil will bring from home the best ten ears of corn he can find either in the field or the crib. There should be altogether as many as from five to ten sets of ten ears each. Each ear must be labeled or numbered so as to show ( 1) what set it belongs to, and (2) its number in the set. For this purpose prepare pieces of tough cardboard one-half inch square. Eor the first set of ten, label the ears Al, A2, A3 and so on. For the next set, label the ears Bl, B2, B3, etc. Do this way for each of the dift'erent sets, so that any ear can be placed in the set where it belongs. The labels can be tied to the ears, or can be attached to the butts by pushing a small nail through the card and into the butt of the ear. The sets can now be placed together on a table without danger of get- ting them mixed. The four qualities on which the ear is judged. — The score-card is arranged to judge the corn on four dift'erent qualities, each quality, if perfect, being counted as twenty- 30 AGRICULTURE five points, one hundred points therefore being a perfect score. The first great question about an ear is : Will it yield well ; has it a good constitution, so that it will do well even under unfavorable conditions ? The second question is : Will it ripen, and not get caught by the frost and so produce a crop of soft corn ? The third question is : Will it grozv, is it of good vitality, so that it will give a good stand, and strong plants ? The fourth question is : Does it show improvement ; that is, is it a clear type that will breed true, and not show mixed breeds? Let us study these four points a little more in detail, and then we shall be ready to score our samples according to the points of the score-card. (Sample score-cards should be secured for the class from the state agricultural college or the United States Department of Agriculture.) Will the ear yield? — The chief factors in the yield are the size of ear, depth of kernel, filling at tip and butt, and reasonably close set rows. The size of the ear must be adapted to the locality. ]\Iuch larger ears can be raised in Missouri, for example, than in Minnesota, because of the difference in length of season. Will the ear ripen? — In general, ears that have a large circumference are slower in ripening than slender ears. Long kernels also indicate late maturity, as do large, coarse, pithy cobs. Such characteristics are therefore not adapted to regions having short seasons. Will the ear grovs?? — In an ear of good vitality the grain is of a bright and cheerful appearance, and the germ and embryo of clear whitish color, somewhat shiny from the oil it contains. And discoloring or signs of molding indicate lack of vitality. Does the corn show improvement? — In corn that is improving instead of running- out. the color is clear and CORN CULTURE 31 free from mixture, true to the variety represented. Both ears and kernels should be constant in shape, and conform to the variety type. Hovi' to judge with the score-card. — Place your ten ear samples on the table with the butts toward you. Begin with ear number 1, and study each ear with great care, point by point, taking time to decide each grade mark. Put these down in the proper place on the score-card. Do not be afraid to mark off for defects. It takes a good ear to score ninety points when carefully graded. Finally, add together the marks for each ear given under each of the four grade points, and place the sum in the proper place in the summary on the score-card. Add these results for each ear. This will give you the final score for each ear of the set. Comparing scores. — After thus completing 3'our own sample of ten ears, exchange with one of your classmates, and score his sample, while he at the same time scores yours. Do this as carefully as the first set, without refer- ring to the grading given by the other person. When both have finished, compare the scores, and discuss the differ- ences in the markings. It is not to be expected that the scoring will agree in all particulars, but where there are wide difl:'erences, the reasons for each score given should be carefully gone over to correct any false judgment. 9. Testing the Seed Corn No seed corn should ever be planted that has not been tested ear by ear to see whether it will germinate, and pro- duce a strong growth. For, even if the seed is carefully selected and cared for, there are always some ears that will fail to grow, or else produce plants so weak as to be bar- ren or raise but worthless nubbins. The small ear grows iu uurtliern Minnesota aucl Kortli Dakota. The large ear grows In Illinois, Ohio, ludiaua, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska and Missouri. A good ear and u iJuor ear vi cum. CORN CULTURE 33 Since it takes but a dozen or fifteen ears to plant an acre, and since an acre of average ground should yield at least sixty bushels, each ear of seed represents from four to five bushels of crop. The farmer's time can be spent in no more profitable way than in making sure that every ear of seed corn planted is sure to grow. The testing should be done late in the winter, or in the early spring before the farm work opens. Preparing for testing. — Testing the seed corn costs practically nothing but a little time, care and attention. For, while there are several excellent seed-corn testers on the market, none is superior to one that can easily be made at home. The saii'dnst germination box may be prepared as fol- lows : Construct a box thirty inches square and four inches deep. Put some sawdust in a bag and soak it in warm water until it is well saturated. Fill the box half full of the sawdust, packing it well. Take a piece of good white cloth and rule it otT in two-and-one-half-inch squares, mak- ing one hundred squares in all, and numbering them from one to one hundred. Place the cloth on the sawdust so that there will be a margin of at least two inches between the sides of the box and the squares. Tack cloth to the edges of the box. Now take one hundred ears of the corn to be tested and lay them out in a row on a table or planks. Drive a nail into the table every tenth ear, separating the entire lot into ten groups of ten ears each. Number the ears from one to one hundred to correspond with the squares in the tester. This may be done by numbering the places on the edge of the table if care is taken not to change places with the ears. Making the test.^ — Remove one kernel from near the butt, one from near the middle, and one from near the tip of the ear ; turn the ear over and remove three kernels from 34 AGRICULTURE corresponding positions on the other side of the ear. These six kernels are to be placed, germ side up and tips all toward one side of the box, in the squares over the sawdust, those from ear No. 1 in square No. 1, and so on, until six ker- nels have been taken from each of the one hundred ears and placed in the tester. After the kernels are all in position, thus filling the one hundred squares, lay a piece of cloth over them, taking care not to disturb their positions. Sprinkle this cloth well with warm water. Now lay over this another cloth about twice the size of the box. Fill in on top about two inches of damp savifdust, packing it down very firmly. Then fold the edges of the cloth over the sawdust, covering it so that it will not dry out. The germination box is now ready to set away for the kernels to sprout. The box should be kept in a fairly warm place, and must not be allowed to freeze. The kernels should be allowed from six to eight days for sprouting, depending on the temperature. It is not enough that the germination has merely started ; it must be allowed to go on for some days to show whether the new plant has good vitality. The number of germination boxes required will depend on the amount of seed to be tested. Several can be used at the same time, stacking one on top of another as they are filled. The ears must, of course, remain in their orig- inal positions on the tables until the results of the test are determined. Reading the test. — At the end of the germination period the cover must be removed without disturbing the kernels. This can be done by carefully rolling up the top pad of sawdust in its cloth. The sprouts will be some two inches long, and may in some cases have grown through the first cloth covering. Seliool testing seed corn iu sawdust gevniinntioii Ixixes. Putting tbe rag dolls into a bucket, which is then wrapped iu old newspapers and kept m a safe place uutil the kernels of corn have sprouted. 36 AGRICULTURE It is easy now to tell which are the good and which are the bad seed ears. An ear should be rejected if even one of the six kernels failed to sprout. For a loss of one out of six means sixteen and two-thirds per cent, of the crop gone if all ears were of this kind. Ears whose six kernels may all sprout, but which start weakly, should also be thrown out. For it is these weak plants that later turn out to be barren, or prove an easy prey to dry weather or some insect enemy. If only those ears are planted whose six kernels all produce strong vig- orous sprouts in the germination box, the greatest obstacle in the way of a perfect stand will have been removed. The "rag-doU" tester. — A verj' simple and effective tester is made of a strip of cloth and is called the "rag doll." To make this form of tester, use nine-inch strips of muslin five feet long. Draw a pencil line lengthwise down the middle of the strip, and draw cross lines every three inches, leaving about fifteen inches at each end of the strip with no lines. Number the spaces. Wet the cloth thoroughly, and place the kernels in the spaces as in the sawdust tester. Roll the strip up from either end, and tie a string around the roll. Now stand the roll, with the tips of the kernels down, in a bucket of tepid water for several hours. Place the roll in a box or under an inverted bucket so that the moisture will not dry out. Of course as many of these rolls may be used as are required for the amount of corn to be tested. Commercial testers. — Several forms of commercial testers are now available, and most of them are fairly satis- factory. There is little need, however, for buying testers when they can be so easily made at home, and when the home-made testers are so simple and eftective. Placing the kernels In the "rag-dull" tester. 38 AGRICULTURE Topics for Investigation Let the class join in making a germination box for the school as described in the text. Sawdust may be obtained from wood-piles, icehouses, or meat markets. 1. Each pupil will bring to school enough ears of seed corn so that the class will have one hundred ears for testing. 2. Arrange the ears as directed, numbering them from one to one hundred. Take six kernels from each ear and place them in the box. Make arrangements to keep the box reasonably warm. The "rag-doll" tester may be used by some of the class. Compare results from the two forms of tester. 3. At the end of a week uncover the box and read the test. How many ears had one kernel that did not grow? Two kernels ? Three kernels ? Four kernels ? Five ker- nels ? Six kernels ? 4. What would have been the percentage of stand if all the ears had been planted, and the germination in the field been equal to that of the box? It is estimated that to hire the labor for testing will cost about sixteen cents an acre. Would this pay? Compare this report w^ith your record from counting stand on page six. 5. How many ears will grow, but produce plants so weak that they will probably be barren or produce nubbins ? How many of the one hundred ears should be discarded as seed? 6. Tell your father about this test, and join with him in testing the home seed for the next crop. 10. Preparing Seed Corn for the Planter After testing the seed, the next step is to grade it for the planter. This means to divide the seed corn into lots according to the size of the kernels. It is impossible to secure a regular drop with the planter unless the kernels are of fairly uniform size. And no matter how good the seed, if one hill receives two kernels and the next four or five, the stand will be irregular and the crop reduced. CORN CULTURE 39 Grading seed corn. — The grading of seed corn can be done in the winter when general farm work is slack. It may well follow immediately after the testing, or even be carried on in connection with it. The first step in grading is to shell of¥ the bntts and tips by hand. The end kernels are ahyays more or less The blotter seed Lester. Au exeelleut lyiie fur seliou! use. irregular, and differ in size from the remainder of the ear. They should neyer be planted. The ears are then to be shelled, one at a time, and the kernels inspected to determine whether they are large or small ; if the variation is great, it will be well to have also a medium grade. As each ear is shelled, the seed is put into its proper grade ; when the shelling is completed, the supply of seed will therefore be in either two or three lots, based on the size of the kernels. All ears with exceptionally 40 AGRICULTURE large or exceptionall)' small kernels should be rejected, as they will fit neither grade. Hand picking the seed. — But even after the most care- ful grading by ears, there will still be a surprisinglv large number of irregular, broken, diseased, or imperfect ker- c c c cr^ - , Mm --mm Experiments slio\Yiug results of planting com at different depths. Diagram of kernel of corn. nels. To remove these, the corn should be spread out on a table, a few handfuls at a time, and all the imperfect ker- nels thrown out. Running the seed through a "sorter" saves time in the hand picking. The seed-corn sorter con- sists of a sieve with large oblong meshes. Caring for the shelled seed. — After the seed has been tested and graded it must be given good care to prevent CORN CULTURE 41 it from becoming damp and molding, or getting too dry as from artificial Iieat. It sliould be placed in sacks hold- ing not more than half a bushel each, and hung in a pro- tected place, such as an attic. The sacks should be labeled to show the grade that each contains. Testing the planter. — Before planting time, the planter should be carefully tested for each grade of seed, and the right size of plates determined. This is done by placing a cpiantity of each grade of seed in the planter boxes in succession, throwing the drop by hand, and keep- ing accurate count of the number of kernels dropped each time for at least a hundred hills. In well graded seed it should be possible to secure a drop of three kernels more than seventy-five per cent, of the time. Whether whatever variation there is should be chiefly in the direction of two, or of four, kernels will depend on the richness of the soil. If the seed has been carefully tested, the efl'ort should be to plant three kernels to the hill in just as many cases as possible. Tones FOR Investigation Let each member of the class bring to school a number of e'ars of corn suitable for seed so that the class will together have a lot of at least fifty ears. 1. Shell off the butts and tips, comparing the size of the kernels. Will the shape of the kernel have anything to do with the number the planter will drop to the hill ? 2. Shell all the ears, one at a time, dividing the kernels into three lots according to size. How many ears go into each grade? Are there any ears with kernels too large or too small for either grade? 3. Now let each pupil take a pint of shelled corn from each of the three grades and hand pick it. How many kernels are very small, irregular, or chaffy? How many broken? How many moldy or black at the tip? How many have you rejected from each lot? Count the good Com roots at time for last plowiii,!,'. The stalks are about 5 feet bijrli and stand IjiA feet apart. Note liow all tlie inter- veuing space is fllled with roots. CORN CULTURE ■ 43 kernels in each lot and figure the percentage rejected through hand picking. 4. If there is a corn planter near at hand, draw it to the school and test it for the drop on each of the different grades of seed, keeping count for at least one hundred hills on each side of the planter. What percentage of the time are you able to secure a drop of three kernels? 5. Mix together a few pints of the three grades in the proportion they bear in the whole amount shelled. Test the planter with this mixture, keeping track of the drop for one hundred hills on each side of the planter. AMiat do you conclude as to the wisdom of grading seed corn for the planter ? 11. The Seed Bed and Planting The roots of growing corn require, besides the nutrients of the soil, heat, air and moisture. Let any of these fall short, and the crop is injured. Loose soil absorbs both moisture and air better than hard soil. Loose soil also holds its moisture better than hard soil, since it does not favor such rapid evaporation. And, since evaporation is always accompanied by a loss of heat, hard soil loses heat more rapidly at night or during cold spells. The supply of heat, air and moisture therefore depends on having the soil loose and finely pulverized. How corn roots grow. — Corn roots grow by pushing the root tip out through the soil, drawing food from the tiny particles of earth, and drinking the film of water that surrounds each particle of soil. If the ground is hard or soggy, the root tips can not easily push through it, nor can they get enough air. If it is coarse and full of clods, the roots can not reach across the open places between the clods. In soil of this character roots also- sufi^er from lack of moisture, for they must be packed about by fine par- ticles in order to drink in the water. E\-en if the soil be so wet as to have water standing around the roots, they 44 • AGRICULTURE can not use water in this form. Indeed, water standing around the roots will injure them b}' keeping them too cold, and b}' shutting the air from them. Not until water is absorbed by millions of minute particles of fine soil is it ready for plant roots to drink. Preparing the seed bed. — Ground is plowed in order to loosen it. Fall plowing is usually best for corn. Fall plowed ground presents a rough surface which holds the snow better, and it also takes in and retains a larger supply of moisture. Fall plowing also has plenty of time to settle, so that it is in better condition for the crop than spring plowing, and allows earlier planting. Spring plowed ground, not having much time to settle, dries out more easily than ground plowed in the fall. Especially should sod land be plowed in the fall, so that the sod may have a chance to rot and settle down on the subsoil. There is also less danger from cutworms in fall plowed, sod land. Stubble ground should usually be plowed early, and sod late in the fall. Ground should not be plowed while it is wet, for most soils, if turned while wet, have a tendency to bake and form into clods that are hard to pulverize. Fall plowed ground should not be harrowed until spring, but should be disked or harrowed as soon as oats seeding is done. This will kill 3'oung weeds, and save the moisture from drying out. Spring plowing should usually be harrowed within a few hours after it is turned, for it is then much more easily pulverized than after it has dried. In very fine and mellow soil this may not be necessary, but many farmers harrow what they have plowed at the close of each half-day. Spring plowing should be disked and harrowed enough to press the loosened soil down on the furrow bottom, so that it will make good connection with the subsoil. This will do much to prevent drying out. In fact, it is impos- A well lu-eiiaroil seed bed. A poorly prepared seed bed. 46 AGRICULTURE sible to work spring plowing too much in this way. Aluch harrowing packs the soil thoroughly, makes a loose bed for the seed, and provides a fine mulch to prevent loss of moisture through evaporation. Thorough disking or har- rowing of fall plowing is necessary to loosen the soil and prepare the bed for the seed. Killing the weeds. — It is well to harrow just before planting, as this kills the sprouting weeds, and allows the corn to get started ahead of them. By far the easiest time to kill weeds is when they are just starting, and a few harrowings early in the season will save much trouble with weeds later on. From two to four harrowings, or their equivalent in disking, will usually pay on average fields. Time for planting. — Corn should be planted as early in the spring as the ground can be made ready and the soil is warm enough. The average date of planting varies from the eleventh of March in Florida to the twenty-sixth of May in Maine. The fiist two weeks of j\Iay are the corn- planting time in the states of the great middle region of the United States. The average air temperature at which corn is planted is about fifty-five degrees. The Indians had a rule that corn should be planted when the leaves of the maples were as large as squirrels' ears. Depth of planting. — A mistake is often made in plant- ing corn too deep. Some say that by planting deep they give the roots a deep setting. This, however, is not the case. For, no matter how deep the seed is planted, the roots adapt themselves to conditions. If the planting is too deep, the permanent roots finally start out nearer the surface, and time has been lost and energy wasted in com- pelling the plant to readjust itself. Corn should usually not be planted more than one and a half inches deep, and frequently not more than an inch. Especially in cold weather or in wet soils, should the plant- CORN CULTURE 47 ing be shallow. Careful experiments have been made by the agricultural colleges of manj- states as to the best depth for planting corn, and tliC}' have found that almost uni- versally the shallow planting is best. The only exception is for a very dry soil, or a dry season. Topics for Investigation 1. Have you seen corn planted in a seed bed that was hard and full of clods? Did the corn do well? Have you seen corn with water standing about the roots? How did the corn look ? What caused this appearance ? 2. What percentage of corn land in your neighborhood is plowed in the fall? Why is not more of it plowed in the fall? Ask your father about this. Which is the busier season, fall or spring? In which season is it necessary that the work be done at just such a time? 3. Have you seen ground plowed when it was wet? Did it bake in clods? Do the farmers you know harrow their spring plowing the day it is plowed ? Have you seen weeds get a good start ahead of the corn ? How can this be prevented ? 4. Have you seen spring plowing planted when the soil Vv'as so loose that the planter wheels settled several inches in the ground? What is the danger in planting a seed bed in this condition? What should be done to it? Suppose spring plowing has been rained on m.itil it is very hard. What is the best way to prepare a seed bed for planting ? 5. What is the earliest date of planting in )'our vicin- ity? The average date? The latest safe date for common varieties of corn ? 6. Make the following test to discover the best depth for planting corn : Put one inch of dirt in the bottom of a quart glass jar. On this, near the side, plant a kernel of corn, and cover it with an inch of dirt. On this layer plant another kernel, and so on until the lower kernel is covered with six inches of dirt, and the top with one inch. Place the kernels so that one will not be directly above another. Let the seeds sprout, and watch the growth for ten days. From 48 AGRICULTURE this experiment what do you conclude is the best depth ? Ask your father how deep he plants his corn. 12. Cultiz'ating the Corn Why corn needs to be cultivated. — Corn is to be cul- tivated after planting for three main purposes: (1) to kill the weeds, (2) to admit air to the roots, and (3) to pre- serve the moisture of the soil. From the time germination begins the growth of the plant must be unchecked if a full crop is to be secured. \Mien corn has become yellow and spindling from being choked by weeds, or from the baking of uncultivated soil around it, it is permanently injured and will never fully recover. Only the rich green color and sturdy stock of the rapidly growing plant give promise of a full yield. When to begin cultivation. — Cultivation should begin early. Under average conditions, two harrowings should be given before the corn comes up. This will keep the soil from baking, and keep the weeds down until the plants are large enough to cultivate. The time to kill weeds is just as they are starting. Let them once get well rooted, and they are hard to keep down. The spring tooth weeder is some- times used instead of the harrow for early cultivation. It is \'alual)le where there are many stones or ruls m the field. The shovel or disk cultivator should be started as soon as the corn is well up, so that the rows can be easily fol- lowed. Even if the weeds do not seem to be starting, they are surely taking root. Cultivation will also break up the crusted soil, and admit air to the growing roots. And this must be done or their growth will be checked. Methods of cultivation. — Four or five cultivations are usual!}' enough after the corn comes up, though this must depend on the character of the soil, the weeds and the CORN CULTURE 49 amount of moisture. The present tendency is toward shal- low cultivation, though this also must depend on whether the soil seems to pack heavily and become hard under- neath. If it does, the first should be of some depth. The important thing is not to break or injure the growing roots. For a broken root always means loss of vitality and food to the plant. From thirty or sixty days after planting, the roots have often spread so far that they meet between the rows, thus occupying all the ground. Especiallv is this true if the season has up to this time been rather wet. For in wet and loose soils the roots spread out near the surface, while in dry soil they spread less and run deeper into the ground. It is evident that deep cultivation after the roots are well spread is injurious. The old method of setting the shovels deep and "hilling up" the corn the last time through is no longer followed in scientific farming. The culti- vations should be shallow. Cultivation may continue with advantage up to the time the corn is tasseling if care is taken not to break the roots. In dry seasons this late cul- tivation is a very great advantage, because it keeps a loose soil mulch, which does much to prevent evaporation of the sub-surface moisture. Tones FOR Investigation 1. Examine three different farmers' corn-fields, and see if 3'ou can tell whether the last plowing was deep or sliallow. How can you tell ? Did they "hill up" ? Are the fields weedy? If so, what was the cause? 2. How many times docs your father cultivate his corn ? At what date does he lay it by ? Does haying get in the way of late cultivation of the corn? 3. Suppose that next season proves to be hot and dry. How should the corn in your vicinity be cultivated? Sup- pose the season should be wet. How, then, should the corn be cultivated? 50 AGRICULTURE 4. Why does keeping the soil pulverized and loose on top prevent loss of moisture? What causes the corn to look yellow and stunted when the ground becomes baked? 5. Suppose a careless boy covers up five hills out of everv hundred in plowing- a field of forty acres of corn. The crop vields thirtv-eight bushels to the acre. How much would it have vielded if he had covered up none? How much did his carelessness cost if corn is worth fifty cents a bushel? 13. Han'csting and Storing tlic Corn Corn is harvested in three principal ways: (1) it is husked from the standing stalks and the ears stored in cribs; (2) it is cut while partially green and either shocked in the field or stored in a silo; and (3) stock, especially hogs, are turned into the field to do the harvesting for them- selves. Field husking. — By far the greater part of the corn produced, especially in the great corn belt, is husked in the field from the standing stalks. This is the method used when corn is raised for the grain, and the fodder, or stover, is a secondary consideration. Field husking is the cheapest and quickest way of secur- ing the grain. In good corn, from sixty to more than one lunidred bushels a day can be gathered by one man with a team, at a cost of from three to four cents a bushel. ^la- chines for husking from the standing stalks are also in use on many large farms. Corn can be picked by a husking machine at the rate of from seven to eight acres a dav, and, where the acreage is large, at a cost per bushel slightlv less than for hand picking. Xo machine }'et invented does the husking as satisfactorily as by hand. The machine misses some ears, breaks others, shells off more or less corn, and pulls up or breaks many stalks. The corn-picking machine is not always a complete success. Yield from one acre raised by an Illinois, Douglas County, corn club boy, 150 bushels; three loads for market, one load of seed. Guru harvester at work. 52 AGRICULTURE One advantage of field husking is that the harvesting can be delayed until the fall rush with other crops is over. The ears should be well cured before being cribbed, or there is danger of molding. This is especially true if the fall and winter should happen to be warm and moist. Corn should be stored in well protected cribs. The use of rail or other forms of uncovered cribs is a source of great loss. The grain may seem to keep well during the winter in the open crib, but when shelled and sold to the elevators in the spring it often heats and spoils. This tends to reduce the price of corn, and has caused a preju- dice in European countries against American corn as a food. No rain or snow should reach the corn after it is cribbed, for it is sure to injure the quality of the grain. Harvesting by cutting. — In average corn the ear sup- plies about sixty-four per cent, of the food value and the plant thirty-six per cent. Thus the stover in a field is worth for feeding purposes more than half as much as the grain. If the corn is cut just as it is becoming well glazed the stover is worth from five to ten dollars a ton. The time for cutting corn depends on the use to which it is to be put. If the corn is grown chiefly for the grain, it should not be cut until the kernels are well dented and the husks partially dry. The stover will still make good feed if it is properly cared for. After a heavy frost, or after most of the leaves have become brown, the stover will not pay for the expense of cutting and feeding. Cut- ting while the corn is in the roasting-ear stage makes a more palatable stover, but the feeding value of the crop is considerably less than if cut in the glazing stage. The corn binder. — The corn binder is widely used in northern states. It works successfully in corn from five to nine feet high. In regions where the stalks grow from ten CORN CULTURE S3 to twelve feet in height, the binder does not meet with favor, since it is not yet built to handle corn of this size. On account of the expense of owning and operating a corn binder, it is doubtful whether it pays to purchase one unless at least twenty acres per season are to be cut. From seven to eight acres a day can be harvested with the corn binder, at a cost of about one dollar and a half an acre for cutting and shocking. The corn shocker. — ^The corn shocker cuts the corn and forms it into a shock carried on the machine. When the shock is completed it is tied by hand, and lifted from the machine b\' a crane and set on the ground. Froin four to five acres per day can be harvested with a shocker at a cost of about a dollar and ten cents an acre. Shocking the corn. — No matter how the corn is cut, it should be shocked so that it will stand erect and keep the fodder dry. Fallen and twisted shocks result in the loss of millions of dollars worth of stover, and not a small amount of grain as well. Shocks should be tied as soon as they are made, and then tightened in a week or ten days. Binding twine makes a convenient tie. The band should be within about two feet of the top, so that the shock may turn the rain. Fodder should not be left in the shock longer than nec- essary to become well cured. It should then be stored in ricks or barns. The practise of leaving shocks in the field over winter can not be too severely condemned. For the rains and wind destroy the most palatable and nutritious part of the plant and rob it of a large part of its food value. The silo. — The silo has come into general use on the best managed farms. Although it will preserve any green, succulent growth such as clover, sorghum, cabbage, sugar 54 AGRICULTURE beets, etc., the silo is employed almost wholly in this coun- try for the storing of corn without curing. For silage, the corn, when cut, should be ripened enough so that it has somewhat glazed, well-dented kernels, and the husks and leaves should have begun to die. If cut much earlier than this a great proportion of the feeding value of the crop will be lost. If cut much later, it will not pack well in the silo, nor be so palatable. Storing green corn in a silo is like canning fruit. In fact, the silo is nothing but a large jar, air tight except at the top. When the green silage is put in, it soon begins to decay, and thus generates a great deal of heat. This process uses up all the air in the silage, producing a large amount of carbon dioxide. Finally, the heat and the lack of air stop all decay, and the silage will keep for almost any length of time. Several inches of the silage on the top is certain to spoil, for it has sufficient air to keep up the decay. De- cay will also take place where there is any leakage of air through the walls of the silo. Advantages in use of silo. — There are many advan- tages in the use of the silo. Even the harder and coarser parts of the stover, because cut when green and shredded into small pieces, are eaten. Probably about double the feeding value can be taken from an acre of corn by putting it into a silo rather than by shocking and feeding it from the field. This will allow nearly twice as much stock to be kept on a farm by use of the silo. Animals also need such a laxative food as silage provides. Stock relish silage better than dry fodder, eat more of it, and thrive better on it. Cattle prefer it to clover hay, and eat it greedily even when fresh from good pasturage. Many farmers \\'ho make a business of dairying are coming to feed silage all through the summer as a supplement to HarvesLius curu by "lioLrgiug down.' AVell arrauged silos auj bams, 56 AGRICULTURE pasturage. This has been found to pay because of the increased supply of milk produced. Size of the silo. — The size of the silo must depend on the number of the herd to be fed from it. Silage exposed to the air decays rapidly, especially in warm weather. In order to avoid waste it is necessary to feed from one and one-half to two inches daily from the surface of the silage. If the herd is small or the silo too great in diameter, this is impossible. Owing to the closer packing, silage is better in quality as the depth increases. It is therefore better to build a silo of considerable height rather than low and of greater diameter. JModerate-sized silos are built from thirty to forty feet deep. Silos are now being constructed with a water-tank in the top into which water for house and barn use is pumped by a windmill. This gives the necessary pressure without the cost of building a tower for the tank. The following table shows the size of silos required for herds of different sizes (allows each cow forty pounds a day for one hundred eighty days) : Number of Estimated Capacity Silo Diameter Silo Height Cows in Tons in Feet in Feet 7 26 10 20 14 51 10 32 21 12, 12 32 27 101 14 32 33 119 16 30 43 155 16 36 54 196 18 id An average acre of corn will )ield from eight to twelve tons of silage. Hence, knowing the capacity of the silo in tons, it is easy to compute the acreage of corn required to fill it. Harvesting by "hogging dovyn." — Under certain con- ditions corn may be profitably harvested by "hogging down." CORN CULTURE 57 This means that at the proper time a drove of hogs are turned into the field and allowed to feed themselves upon the com. This method will work well only in cases where there is a drove of considerable number, and when the fields of corn are not too large. The field should be all cleaned up in from two to four weeks after the hogs are turned in, since rain and mud are likely to injure corn left too long on the ground. It has been found by farmers who have made careful tests of feeding corn in this way that more pork can be pro- duced per bushel of com when the hogs are allowed to feed themselves from the field than when they are hand fed. The labor of gathering and feeding the corn is also saved, and manure evenly distributed over the field. Fences are usually set up to divide the larger fields into small corn lots. Twenty-six-inch woven wire is suitable for this use. The wire is attached to well set, corner posts, and tightly stretched. It is then tied to the corn stalks for posts. This type of fence will last as long as is recjuired for clean- ing up the field. Topics for Investig,\tion 1. Good corn, if cut when glazing, should yield about ten tons of silage to the acre. A ton of silage occupies fifty cubic feet in the silo. If a silo is made to hold fifteen acres of corn, and is built thirty feet high, what must be its diameter? 2. If a cow requires forty pounds of silage a day, and the feeding season is one hundred and eighty days, how many tons must be stored for twenty-five cows? 3. If the corn yields twelve tons of silage to the acre, how many acres will be required for twenty-five cows ? 4. How many silos are there in your school district? Of what are they constructed? What height and diameter are they? Do any of them have a water-tank in the top? What did each of them cost? Draw a silo. 38 AGRICULTURE 5. If a boy in husking twenty acres of corn yielding fortv bushels to the acre averages missing the throw-board of tile wagon once out of each fifty throws, estimating one hundred throws or ears to a bushel, what is the value of the corn lost at fifty cents a bushel, supposing the stalks are sold to a neighbor ? 6. Either from observation or agricultural bulletins, gather facts and write a description of a corn harvester; of a corn shocker ; of a silo. 7. If a bushel of corn will produce ten pounds of pork, which is more profitable, to sell the corn or to feed it to hogs, providing pork is selling at seven cents a pound and corn at fifty cents a bushel ? What would be the difiference on one thousand bushels of corn? 14. The Uses of Corn Corn as human food. — Corn is a native of America. It was cultivated by the Indians before the coming of white men. Corn was the principal grain food used by the Indians and was also widely used by the early colonists. Its use as a human food has now spread throughout almost the entire world, but it is still most widely used in this country. Corn-meal is the principal food product derived from corn, but Iiominy, hulled corn, corn grits, flaked corn and other specially prepared breakfast foods are also eaten. Corn starch is also a common food product. The unripe ears are extensively used and the canning of green corn has become an important industry. Corn as food for animals. — By far the larger part of the corn crop is used, however, as food for animals. Corn is the basis of the great meat producing industry of the United States and along with grass constitutes the chief food of the animals used for meat. Farmers have found it more paying to fatten stock with corn and then sell the stock than to sell the corn itself. One reason for this is that it costs less to ship the meat produced by a bushel CORN CULTURE 59 of corn than to ship the corn itself to a central market. One bushel of corn will produce from ten to twelve pounds of pork, which can be shipped more cheaply than could the bushel of corn. Commercial uses of corn. — Besides its use as a food for man and beast, corn is employed in manufacturing some thirt}' or forty diiterent products. For example, from corn are made several different kinds of glucose used by refiners of table sirups, by bre\\'ers, by leather manufac- turers, by jelly makers, by fruit preservers, and by apothe- caries. Corn also produces four different kinds of crystal glucose used in making candies and two kinds of grape sugar used by brewers and tanners. From corn there is made a sugar used in the manufacture of ale and beer. The pearl starch used by cotton and paper mills is made from corn, as is powdered starch used b}' the manufac- turers of baking powder and by the cotton and paper mills. Florine used by flour mixers, and dextrins used in the mak- ing of white fabrics, paper boxes, and the manufacture of mucilage and glue come from corn. From corn there is also manufactured a substitute for rubber which is extensivelv used commercially. Corn is the chief source of the manufacture of all alcohol and whisky and is the cheapest material now a\'ailable for the making of denatured alcohol, which is used for heating, lighting and other commercial purposes. Uses of the corn stalk. — E\'en the corn stalk has numerous uses. For example, from its pith comes the cel- lulose used for packing in war-ships. The corn pith has the qualit}- of expanding when wet and hence will immediately swell and close any small hole in the vessel caused by the enemy's shot. Corn stalks are also used in the manufacture of paper pulp and in various kinds of stock foods. Corn cobs are used in the making of corks and pipes. A special 60 AGRICULTURE variet}' of corn with a large cob is raised in Missouri for the manufacture of pipes. It is estimated that approxi- mately fifty milhon bushels of corn are used annually for various corn products in addition to those intended as food for people and animals. The importance of corn as a food is increasing and sci- entists are discovering new ways of manufacturing or cooking it to make it both palatable and digestible. The very worst use that can be made of corn is to manufacture it into spirituous liquors since the use of alcohol as a beverage injures those who drink it and brings sorrow, dis- grace and poverty to the user. Topics fur Investigation 1. Teacher and class should join in making a collec- tion in small uniform bottles of all the different corn prod- ucts available that are used for the table. (Certain com- panies will supply samples of their products free of cost.) 2. In how many different forms is the corn ear, or grain, fed to stock in your vicinity ? In how many dift'erent forms is the stover fed? 3. How many of the different commercial products of corn have you ever seen ? What foods have you recently eaten in which one or more of these products was used? 4. Enumerate the uses to which you have seen the corn stalk and cob put. Soak some dry pith in water for a few minutes. What happens ? 5. How could you keep records or bookkeeping in con- nection with the corn crop? Make out a debit and credit book account covering a season's work on an acre of corn from planting to harvest. (See Fanners' Bulletin No. 511, "Farm Bookkeeping," and Farmers' Bulletin No. 572, "Farm Cost Accounting.") 6. Sketch a map of the United States and locate in this the corn states. Indicate by different colors the iirst, second and third best corn sections of the country. From the crop report bulletins secure the figures of the last year's corn crop and the average yield for each state for the year CORN CULTURE 61 as well as for the last ten years. Compare the yield of the last season with the yield of ten to twenty years ago. 15. Corn Demonstrations "Demonstrations" are now becoming common in agri- cultural work. The purpose of a demonstration is to teach others some definite and well-known truth. The agri- cultural experiment seeks to discover some truth concerning the work of the farm, while the demonstration seeks to show others how to put this truth into practise. Demonstrations by the school. — Such demonstrations as the following may be conducted by the school for s]jecial exercises, evening programs, club meetings, district, county or state fairs, or special farm festivals : 1. Demonstrations in making and preparation of a seed- corn test box, a rag-doll tester, and how to make the test. 2. Demonstrate how to make a seed tray, a seed drying rack, and how to hang or place the seed corn. 3. Seed corn stringing demonstration. 4. Field demonstrations in plowing, cultivation, seed selection, hand pollenizing, etc. 5. Home economics demonstration showing how to make corn food products, valuable dislies, liominy, corn mush, bread, etc. 16. Corn Play Contests Play contests are one of the most interesting means of learning certain facts connected with agriculture. The games and contests m connection with various farm activ- ities add interest, develop skill and furnish a great deal of real fun besides. Suitable play contests. — ^The teacher and pupils can organize such contests as the following in connection with the regular school activities, for the playgrounds at recess 62 AGRICULTURE or at public events, such as literary programs, fairs or fes- tivals : 1. Seed corn stringing contest. 2. Variety or strain naming contest. 3. Corn-bread baking contest. 4. Corn judging contest. 5. Corn guessing game. 6. Corn picking race. This picking race is handled something like the old-time potato race where you place the ears of corn from three to ten feet apart and the con- testants are to gather twenty-five ears of corn and place the same in a box or receptacle in the shortest time. 7. Corn husking contest. 8. Oral corn recipe giving contest to determine who can give the largest number of corn recipes in a stated time of five or ten minutes. All of these contests should be judged in general on speed, skill, condition of finished product, accuracy, etc. (See Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 104, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, ^Yashington, D. C, for further in- struction and score-cards on all corn contests.) 17. Corn. Club JJ'ork Three hundred thousand farm boys and girls are now enrolled in agricultural and home-economic clubs, most of which are connected with the schools. Club work is the performance of a definite farm, garden or home enter- prise, and is based on the best known farm and home prac- tises. Club work in connection with the school may con- sist of a number of enterprises, such as corn, garden, mar- ket garden, poultry, sugar beet, cotton, alfalfa and can- ning projects. The corn club. — One of the most interesting: club CORN CULTURE 63 projects is the growing of an acre of corn on a business basis. Bo\s and girls ranging in age from ten to nineteen are eligiljle and the pupils ma\- be divided into two classes, an iV class from ten to fifteen \'ears inclusive, and a B class from fifteen to nineteen. The basis of award for corn club work should be ; 1. Greatest yield per acre 30 2. Best showing of profit on investment 30 3. Best exliibit of ten acres 20 4. Crop report record and story of club work 20 Total score 100 Plan of work. — The following plan should govern the conduct of the work : It should be considered a legiti- mate means of extension service for the school, — a part of regular school work by which plants, soils, insects, plant diseases, crop management, labor income, farm manage- ment, etc., may be studied systeinaticallv for an entire crop- ping season. This necessitates making use of the district, state and national club leaders who always stand ready to help organize clubs and oversee the work. Report blanks. — Every club should have a crop report blank making a record of observations, receipts and ex- penses at the beginning of the season and another on which to make a complete report at the close of the season. These blanks are furnished free by the United States De- partment of Agriculture. Definite credit for this club work should be given in connection with the class work in agriculture and other related subjects in the school. CHAPTER II WHEAT BREAD IS the staff of life. Whatever else we may have on our tables, we usually have bread. It is so com- mon and necessary an article of food that we describe pov- erty by saying, "Not a crust of bread in the house," Yet the bread that you and I eat, wheat bread, is really a rather recent addition to the world's food. True, wheat has been known for many centuries, — so long that no one knows when or where it originated. But not until the last few generations has it been found possible to raise enough so that the great mass of people can have it daily for food. But even yet wheat as a common article of food is almost unknown in many nations. Probably more than half the people living in the world to-day have never tasted wheat bread such as we eat daily. Either wheat is not grown, or it costs more than other foods and can not be afforded by the common people. In its stead they eat rice, barley and other foods. 1. Importance of Wheat as a Crop The United States raises more wheat than any other nation, and approximately half as much as all Europe com- bined. We supply about one-fifth of all the wheat grown in the world. Our annual crop is nearly 700,000,000 bush- els, enough if loaded into cars to make two solid trains, one reaching from New York to San Francisco, and the other from Regina to New Orleans. 64 .a if a 66 AGRICULTURE The wheat belt of the United States. — The best wheat producing regions are in the Aliddle West and North. Kan- sas, North Dakota and ^linnesota produce not far from one-third of all the wheat grown in the United States. If to these we add the following twelve states, Nebraska, South Dakota, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, AVashington, Mis- souri, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, California, Michigan and Oregon, we shall have the fifteen states fliat produce more than four-fifths of all our wheat. The yield of wheat. — The average 3'ield of wheat for the entire country is about half what it is for corn, or four- teen bushels to the acre. The states that produce the largest amount of wheat are not necessarily the ones that show the largest yield per acre. Taking the average for ten years, the ten states producing the largest amount of wheat rank- in the following order in the yield per acre : Washington, first ; Nebraska, second ; Ohio, third ; Illinois, fourth ; Indi- ana, fifth ; Missouri, sixth ; JMinnesota, seventh ; Kansas, eighth ; South Dakota, ninth ; North Dakota, tenth. The average yield of wheat is gradually increasing, but all too slowly. With still better methods of farming and with better selection of seed and improvement of the soil much larger crops of wheat can be raised. And this means cheaper bread, and more profit in farming. 2. Types of Wheat "Wheat is classed as ivintcr wheat or spring wheat, de- pending on whether it is planted in the fall or the spring. It is also classed as hard or soft in accordance with the quality of the grain. There are three more or less distinct types of winter wheat, and three of spring wheat, as follows: 1. Soft winter wheat. 2. Semi-hard winter wheat. 3. Hard winter wheat. WHEAT 67 1. Soft spring wheat. 2. Hard spring wheat. 3. ilacaroni wheat. These types furnish a great many different varieties, so many that it would be a hopeless task to try to learn them all. The United States Department of Agriculture and the state experiment stations have tested as many as one thou- sand different varieties since 1895. Climate and type. — In general, the more humid climates produce the soft wheats and drier climates the hard wheats. The introduction of hard wheats has opened up vast western regions to wheat raising which were too dry for the soft varieties. Better flour is made from hard than from soft wheat, though a very excellent grade is made b)' mixing the two. Alacaroni wheat is the hardest type, and is chiefly used in the manufacture of macaroni, though some of this type is now being used for flour. Macaroni can not be successfully made from the soft wheats. Winter wheat. — Winter wheat is planted in the fall, lives through the winter, and ripens the following summer. It requires about one hundred days to mature after growing weather has come in the spring. About two-thirds of all the wheat grown in the United States is of winter varieties. In regions where winter wheat will withstand the extremes of temperature it is pre- ferred to spring varieties, since it (1) yields more, and (2) is more free from disease and from injury by the vari- ous insect pests. Kansas and Nebraska are the great centers for the hard winter varieties, while east of the Mississippi River the softer winter varieties are chiefly grown. More than sixty per cent, of all the winter wheat grown in the United States is raised in the states of Ivansas, Indiana, Nebraska, RED F/FE M/NN. BlufsTEM. Common varieties of wheat. PLirvestiiis wheat witli a modern binder. WHEAT 69 Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma and Texas. Spring wheat. — Spring wheat is adapted to localities where climatic conditions are not favorable to winter vari- eties. About one-third of our wheat comes from the spring- sowed crop. Most varieties of spring wheat recpiire from one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five days from the date of planting to mature. Minnesota, North Dakota and South Dakota are the ]irincipal spring wheat regions of the coiuitry. These three states sup]ily seventy per cent, of all the spring wheat grown in the United States. Topics for Investigation 1. What proportion of the tilled land of your vicinity is devoted to wheat? Is this proportion increasing or de- creasing ? 2. What t3'pe of wheat is chief!)' grown, winter or spring? Hard or soft? Do you know what are the chief varieties to be found in your neighborhood ? Are the vari- eties bearded or beardless ? 3. What is the average yield of wheat to the acre in your region? How does this compare with the yield for the state? (Consult your state agricultural college for the yield of the state.) 4. It is estimated by the United States Department of Agriculture that the average cost of producing an acre of ^^'heat in the United States is about eleven dollars, includ- ing rental or interest value of land. Talk with 3-our father about what the different items of expense cost in your vicinity (such as fertilizer, preparing land, seed, planting, harvesting, thrashing, marketing, rental). Make a detailed list of these expenses, and compare with the average cost for the country. 5. In similar manner figure what it costs to raise an acre of corn. Then find the market value of the grain from an acre of corn and from an acre of wheat, based on 70 AGRICULTURE the average yield for your vicinity. Which crop pays the better, and by how much per acre? 3. Grozcing the JVlicat Crop \Mieat grows best on virgin soil, or on land that has been renewed by means of clover, manure, or some other . form of fertilizer. The new regions opened up in the West at first produce large crops, but soon fail in yield if wheat is raised continuously without rotation with other crops. Preparing the seed bed. — Since wheat is one of the crops that can not be cultivated after planting, the seed bed should be prepared with especial care. The ground should be plowed, and then disked or harrowed until it is well packed and finely pulverized. The preparation for the fall and spring seeding is essentially the same. If the ground is new, the plowing may be shallow. The older soils require deeper plowing. Spring wheat is sometimes disked in on corn land with- out first plowing the ground. This, however, is a careless method of farming, and has been proved by careful experi- ments not to secure so large a yield as from plowed land. Selecting and preparing the seed. — As in the case of corn, the best seed for wheat is usually that grown near home. New varieties and seed grown at a distance should not be used for the general crop until carefully tested by agricultural experiment stations and found adapted to the locality. ^\'heat selected for seed should possess the following ciualities : (1) A plump bright grain of good wheat; (2) a stiff straw, able to withstand adverse weather; (3) a compact head, ripening early, and not easily shattered; (4) good bread qualities; and (5) ability to resist insect ene- mies and diseases. Once the type and variety selected for seed are decided WHEAT 71 upon, the wheat should be run through a fanning mill. This will select the heaviest and plumpest grains, as well as remove the seed of noxious weeds. If care is taken thus to secure the best of the crop for seed each year, there need be no fear of the seed "running out." On the contrary, the variety may actually be improved. Methods of planting. — The method formerly used in planting wheat was to sow it broadcast on the plowed ground, and then harrow it in. This is a very wasteful way of planting, however, since some of the wdieat fails to be covered, and is picked up by the birds ; some of it is cov- ered too shallow, and fails to secure good roots; and some of it is covered too deep, and grows imperfectly. The method now used in all successful farming is t > plant the wheat witli a drill. This sets the seed at a uni- form depth, and gives it a moist fine bed of soil. Nu- merous experiments have sho«'n that the best depth to plant wheat for average years is from one and a half to three inches. A\'heat, like corn, loses both time and strength by being planted too deep. Wherever possible, wheat should be drilled in rows run- ning east and west. In dry regions, the prevailing winds then blow snow and dirt into the drills instead of out of them, as is the case when the rows run north and south. In east-and-west rows the drill also tends to shade the roots of the plant, and so- protect them from the frecjuent thaw- ing and freezing which occur in the case of winter wheat when the sun shines directly into the drill. Because of these uses of the drill ridges, the ground should not be harrowed after the wheat is sown. Harvesting the wheat. — Except in the semi-arid re- gions of the West where practically no rain falls during the harvest season, wheat should be cut as soon as it is ripe enough. !\rany farmers allow their wheat to Isecome so 72 AGRICULTURE ripe as to shatter, and much loss results. It may be cut while the grain is still soft, so that it can be crushed between the thumb and finger. This will not injure the quality of the grain, and the straw will be of much greater value if cut slightly green. Early cutting also reduces the risk of storms. In regions where the grain can be allowed to stand with- out shattering until it has become fully ripe and dry, the cutting and thrashing are often accomplished in one process. This is done bv a combination harvester and thrasher drawn by from twenty to thirty horses, or by a tractor engine. Wheat cut with the harvester should be carefully shocked, usually in nine-bundle shocks, eight bundles stand- ing firmly on the ground in the form of a circle, and the ninth used for a cap-sheaf. Careless shocking is respon- sible for much loss from weathering. When the wheat is well dried in the shock, it should at once be thrashed, or else stacked in well-built stacks. \\'heat is too valuable to leave standing long in the field waiting for a thrashing machine. If once put in stacks, it should be allowed to stand for several weeks before thrashing in order that it may "pass through the sweat." 4. Diseases and Insect Enemies of Wheat \\'heat is the prey of many different diseases and insect enemies, which sometimes almost totally destroy the crop. Many of these are coming to be better understood, and rem- edies for them devised. Three principal diseases attacking wheat are scab, rust and smut. These are all caused by the growth of fungi on the wheat plant. A fungus is a tiny plant organism that grows upon some other plant, or on animal tissue, and draws its lining from its host. We call WHEAT 73 any organism that gets its living off anotlier organism in tliis way a parasite. Scab in wheat.- — Scab is tlie least common of the three A guod stand uf wlieat. raised by u Georgia club boy. diseases mentioned, yet it sometimes causes much loss in certain localities. It attacks the glumes, or chaff, which surround the kernels of wheat in the head. The entire head 74 AGRICULTURE is seldom destroyed, only a few of the glumes being af- fected. Scab results in a shrinkage of the kernels, and hence a reduction in the yield and an injury of the quality of the wheat. No cure has yet been discovered for wheat scab. A second crop of wheat should not follow wheat that has been affected with scab. If this is necessary, how- ever, the stubble of the first crop should be burned to de- stroy as much of the scab as possible. Rust in wheat. — Rust is one of the most serious en- emies of the wheat crop. It is nearly always present in so'me degree, and has at times almost wholly destroyed the crop over considerable areas. There are two kinds of rust, one attacking the leaves and the other the stems of the plants. The stem rust is much more destructive than the leaf rust. Rust ma)' in some cases live over winter on the old plants, and be ready to attack the new crop if wheat is again planted on the field. Wheat rust also lives on other plants, especially the barberry, and is spread from them by birds or insects to wheat-fields. Laws have been passed in some states requiring the destruction of barberry hedges because of their part in spreading rust. Moist seasons are more favorable to the ravages of rust than dry. Rust results in weakening the stem of the wheat plant, and reducing the size and quality of the grain. In some cases the heads even fail to fill, and the crop is a total failure. There is no known cure for rust, though cer- tain varieties of wheat are better able to resist it than others. The earlier varieties are usually safer than the later. Smut in wheat. — There are two kinds of smut that attack the wheat plant, loose smut and stinking smut. Loose smut usually destroys both the glumes and the kernels, leav- ing onlv the bare stem. Stinking smut grows inside the stinking smut of wl)e;it : smutted liead and smut Ijalls at riglit; sound laead and lieruels at left. 76 AGRICULTURE gimnes, ilestroying the kernel only, and taking its place. The spores from which stinking smut grows attach them- selves to the kernels of wheat, and are therefore often sown with the seed. This fact makes it possible to combat this type of smut by treating seed wheat in such a way as to kill any smut spores that may be present. One of the surest and cheapest ways of treating the seed for stinking smut is by the application of a solution of fonitaliii. One pint of forty per cent, formalin mi.xed in forty-five gallons of water will treat one hundred bushels of wheat. The wheat may be spread out thin on a tight lloor and sprinkled with the moisture, shoveling it over so that each grain is sure to become dampened. After it is well sprinkled the wheat should be covered with sacks or blankets to keep it from drying out too rap- idly. After a few hours, it may be spread out, or stirred, to hasten the drying in preparation for sowing. Ten pounds of copper sulphate dissolved in twenty-five gallons of water may be used instead of the formalin. Loose smut may be prevented by what is called the hot- zi'ater treatment of the seed. The wheat is put into sacks and immersed in tubs of water warmed to a temperature of one hundred and twenty degrees Fahrenheit. When the wheat has become thoroughly warmed, it is taken out, drained, and again dipped in water, this time heated to a temperature of one hundred and thirty-five degrees. The sacks ma)- now be dipped at once in cold water, which will serve to keep the kernels from swelling. The wheat should then be spread where it will dry quickly. The general use of these well tested remedies should make smut of rare occurrence. Chinch-bugs. — Chinch-bugs are among the worst of the insect enemies of wheat. The)- are easily recognized as a small dark-colored insect, with white wing covers. Loose smut of wlaeat. Soiiud head at left; different stages of smutted develoi)meiit at right. /S AGRICULTURE Chinch-bugs damage the wheat by sucking the sap from the plant, and thus checking its growth. The mature bugs hve over winter, lay their eggs in the spring, and the young are soon hatched out, showing at tirst a reddish color. Xo effective way of controlling chinch-bugs has yet been discovered. It is, however, helpful to burn the rub- bish of any infected field in the fall, as this will destroy large numbers of the bugs, and leave the remainder with- out hiding-places. The Hessian fly. — The Hessian Ry is a small, mos- c]uito-like insect that lays its eggs on the growing wheat. These eggs soon hatch, and the larvze begin at once to suck the juices from the young plant. One method of handling these pests is to turn under the first planting of wheat that has been attacked, and then sow another crop on the ground. This, however, is an ex- pensive method of getting rid of them. The burning of fields in the fall, fall plowing, and rotation of crops are all helpful in checking their ravages. Grasshoppers. — Grasshoppers are less to be dreaded now than in earlier years, though they occasionally do great damage to the wheat crop. The grasshopper lays its eggs in the summer, and they do not hatch until the following spring. It is possible greatly to reduce their number by late, deep fall plowing, which buries the eggs so deep that the young when hatched do not find their way to the surface. Poisonous sprays are also used to destroy the young hoppers. Topics for Investigation 1. If winter wheat has been sown in your neighbor- hood, visit two or more fields and note (1) whether the seed was sown broadcast or drilled, (2) the direction of the drill rows, and (3) the evenness of the stand. WHEAT 79 2. Make a collection of all the different types of wheat available, and learn to identify them, (1) from the grain, and (2) from the head and straw. 3. Obtain samples of unthrashed wheat, and search for leaf rust ; for stem rust. Compare the heads and kernels on the rusted stalks with those on healthy heads. 4. Find examples of stinking smut, of loose smut. What is the condition of the straw and grain in each case as compared with health}' plants ? 5. Go out into fields of wheat and oats stubble and look under bunches of straw or rubbish for chinch-bugs. Bring specimens to school and examine them so that you can c[uickly identify them. 6. Secure a score-card for wlieat, and judge from twenty-five to one hundred grains of wheat. 7. What is the best method for the testing of wheat for vitality ? Look up instructions on the new blotter tester and a few of the commercial tray testers. Make a test of one hundred wheat seeds and judge for vitality, dividing the seed after germination into three classes, strong, weak and dead. 8. How would you keep a record or bookkeeping ac- count of a field of wheat? j\Iake out a debit and credit account covering a season's work with one acre of wheat. (See Fanners' Bulletins, 511 and 572.) 9. Sketch a map of the United States and locate the wheat producing states and sections. Insert the last cen- sus reports of wheat production for each state. Where are the leading wheat mills of the country? 10. Compare wheat bread with bread made from other products such as corn, rj-e, etc. What differences do you note ? 11. How much wheat is exported annually from this country ? How much wheat is imported ? 12. What foreign countries produce wheat? Locate them on the map. (See end of chapter on "Oats" for suggestions as to wheat demonstrations, play contests and club projects.) CHAPTER III OATS OATS are one of the world's most important grain crops, Though not so old as wheat, oats have been grown in Europe for centuries. They were brought to this country by the early settlers, and are now raised in every state. The United States produces about one-fourth of all the oats grown in the world. Oats are chiefly valuable as a food for animals, yet they are also widely used as a human food. 1. Importance of the Oats Crop Our oats crop is slightly more than a billion bushels a year, or a total yield of about one-third more than wheat. Because of the higher price of wheat, however, the value of the oats crop is only about half that of wheat. Among all farm crops, oats rank fifth in value, being surpassed only by corn, cotton, wheat and hay. The oats region. — The great oats producing region of the United States extends from New York and Pennsyl- vania westward to Nebraska, Kansas and the Dakotas. Each state in this great chain plants more than a million acres of oats annually. The following chart shows the thirteen states that pro- duce about four-fifths of all the oats raised in the United -States, with the per cent, of the total crop grown in each : 80 OATS SI Iowa ■ 15% Illinois ■ 14% Minnesota S'/o Wisconsin 6% Ohio • 6% Indiana • 5% North Dakota S'/o Nebraska 59o Michigan 4% Kansas ■ 4% New York 3% South Dakota i'/o Pennsylvania • 3% All others 19% The yield and profit. — The a\eragc }ie1d per acre throughout the United States is about thirty bushels. The highest yields are in the far Northwest, where the rainfall is heavy during the growing season, or where irrigation is used. Here the crop not uncommonly runs from one hun- dred to one hundred and twenty-five bushels to the acre, and sometimes reaches one hundred and fifty bushels. In the corn belt, oats are usually a less profitable crop than corn. The yield is less per acre, and the market price lower, while the cost of production is about the same. In Iowa or Illinois, the two leading states in the amount of oats produced, the cost of growing an acre of oats if we include the rental value of the land, will average from ten to twelve dollars. W'hen oats are thirty-five cents a bushel, it is evident that a crop of thirty bushels to the acre leaves no margin of profit. While oats do not pay so well as corn, it is necessary, nevertheless, to raise them, even in the corn region. For oats are needed, ( 1 ) to make possible the rotation of crops, and (2) as a food for stock, especially working horses. This crop, like corn and wheat, can easily be increased in Two types of oat heads; spreading or panicled on the left; side or horse-mane on the right. OATS 83 yield and profit by improving the soil and emplo_ving bet- ter methods of seed selection and tillage. It is not impos- sible to secure an average >'ield of from fiftj^ to seventy-five bushels to the acre throughout the oats region. 2. Types of Oafs Two general types or classes of oats are easily dis- tinguished — the spreading, or panicled, and the side-bearing or horsc-manc. The former has a spreading, bush-like head, branching from all sides of the central stem ; the latter carries the grains on short branches, all of which are attached to one side of the stem. Varieties for different regions. — It is impossible to tell how many different varieties of these two types exist. As in the case of wheat and corn, new varieties are being developed from year to year. Several hundred different varieties are now shown in the seed lists. In New England, the northern tier of states and the Rocky Mountain region, white oats of rather late-ma- turing, large-grained varieties are usually most successful. Examples of these varieties belonging to the spreading type are : Clydesdale, Big Four, Swedish Select and Lincoln ; of the horse-nume type, White Russian and Tartarian are well known. In the Missouri, Mississippi and Ohio River regions, extending as far south as Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Ten- nessee and Texas, and as far east as Ohio, small-grained, earlv, yellow varieties have proved the best. The Kherson, Silvermine, Big Four and Sixty Day are examples of these varieties. Successful fall seeding of oats is possible only in the southern states. For southern fall seeding. Winter Turf and Red Rustproof are the varieties most used. For spring 84 AGRICULTURE seeding in this region the Burt and Red Rustproof are sat- isfactory. Topics for Investigation 1. How many acres in your father's farm? How many acres are cultivated this year? How many acres in grass C D (A) Sixty Day. grain niedium-sizfil. slender, yellow; (P.) Hed I{nst|iro(if, srain large, plump, reddish-brown; (C) XortU Finnish lilack. grain nuHlinni-sized. plump, black; (D) Swedish Select, grains white, large and plump. land and pasture? How many acres in garden, orchard, lawn and barnyard? 2. How many acres are devoted (1) to corn; (2) to wheat; (3) to oats; (4) to other farm crops? What per- centage is the acreage of each crop to all the land culti- vated? To the whole farm? 3. Find how many acres altogether in the farms rep- resented by the pupils in the school. Then answer each of the four questions asked in number "2" for all these farms summed together. How do the percentages for each OATS 85 crop raised on your father's farm compare with the per- centages for tlie entire scliool district ? 4. What was the yield of oats per acre on your father's farm this year? What is the yield of corn? Learn the Two corcimon varieties of oats. market price of each grain, and figure the value per acre for each. Now ask your father to help you determine the cost of raising and harvesting an acre of each crop. Which is the more profitable crop, and by how much to the acre? 5. Which of the two types of oats is raised on your father's farm? What variety? 6. Make a collection of five or more dififerent varieties of oats, study the kernels, and the entire plant if possible, 86 AGRICULTURE and learn to identify quickly the chief varieties grown in your region. 3. Raising the Crop Oats are usually planted with less care than any other crop, ^\'here they follow corn in the rotation of crops, they are often sown broadcast on the corn land without previous cultivation or preparation of the ground. The field is then either disked or gone over with a cultivator and harrowed. This is a careless method of farming, and undoubtedly results in a diminished )'ield. Preparing the seed bed. — AA'hen oats are sown after corn the seed bed should be prepared by plowing or two thorough diskings before seeding. The oats may then be covered by harrowing. The corn stalks should be broken down before disking. This can easily be done by means of a heavy pole dragged broadside across the rows when the ground is frozen. A still better method is to cut the stalks with a corn cutter. If the growth of stalks and weeds is especially heavy on the field, it is best to rake and burn the rubbish to get it out of the way of cultivation. It sometimes may not be necessary to plow the ground for oats following a well cultivated crop. Especially is this true if the plowing can not be done in the fall. One of the things most necessary in growing oats is to get the seed into the ground as early as it can be worked in the spring. And the seeding can be done more quickly by disking than by plowing. There is little or no danger to oats from freezing after they are sown, and the seed will sprout and grow in a much colder temperature than that necessary for corn. Methods of seeding. — Oats are sown by two methods, (1) scattering the seed broadcast over the ground, and (2) drilUno;. The old method of broadcast seeding was to scat- OATS 87 ter the seed by hand from a sack slung over the shoulder. Alachines for seeding have been devised which can be at- tached to the end-gate of a wagon. The seeder is driven by one of the rear wheels of the wagon by means of a sprocket wheel and chain. Drillin"' usuallv results in a larger vield than broadcast End-gate seeder of broadcast seeding of grain. seeding. The drill plants the seed uniformly over the field and covers it well. The drilled crop comes up more evenly, and ripens more nearly at the same time than from broad- cast sowing. Less seed is required when the planting is done with the drill, since practically all the seed is covered and given a chance to grow. This is impossible with broad- cast seeding. 88 AGRICULTURE A mistake is often made in planting oats too deep. The ground is usually moist when the planting is done, and depth is not required to secure moisture to start growth. JNIany agricultural experiment stations have tested different depths of planting, and recommend about one inch as the best depth for most regions. Preparing the seed. — Seed oats should never be taken directl}' from the bin and sown, no matter how promising the grain looks. For oats ordinarily contain more dirt, weed seed and light grains than wheat. The seed should always be run through the fanning mill. The current of air blows out the light grains and much of the rubbish, and the smaller grains are removed by the sieves. This process of cleaning should generally exclude one-third or one-fourth of the oats run through the mill. If the seed is very light a still larger proportion will need to be rejected. Careful tests have shown that seed prepared in this way will j'ield several bushels to the acre more than if sown directly from the bin. j\Iany of the light grains fail to sprout, and most of those that grow produce weak plants that yield little or nothing. It will well pay every farmer to take time in the winter to prepare his seed oats. Improvement of the seed. — It is possible greatly to improve a variety of oats by careful selection of the seed. This may be done by going into the field just before the crop is harvested, and gathering, head by head, the strong- est, largest grained and best yielding plants, also giving preference to those that are freest from disease. From a peck to a bushel or more thus selected is thrashed out, the small, light or imperfect grains rejected, and the choice seed sown on a special seed plat to raise seed for the com- ing year's crop. Harvesting the crop. — Oats are harvested with the ';?, r,T^s^icrTOr»WMBB(!aww»!W 90 AGRICULTURE grain binder, the header, the mowing machine, and the combined harvester and thrasher. By far the greater part of our oats crop is cut with the binder. The best time for cutting oats is just as they are pass- ing out of the hard-dough stage of ripening. On account of the fact that they shatter rather easily wdien ripe, it may be necessary, especially if the acreage is large, to begin when the grain is passing out of the milk stage. Cutting too early leaves the grain slightly lighter and of a greenish color. The best method of shocking oats depends on the ripe- ness of the crop wdien harvested. If the oats are in the hard-dough stage when cut, they should be shocked in well built, round shocks. If the grain is green and the straw heavy or full of weeds, the long shock is better, since it allows freer curing. Either type of shock should be capped, except in regions where the winds are usually strong enough to blow a cap sheaf off, in which case it takes damage from lying on the ground. Thrashing. — Oats may be thrashed from the shock, or stacked and thrashed any time during the fall. A some- what better grade of oats is obtained by stacking and allow- ing the oats to "go through the sweat" before thrashing. The straw is also worth more for feed when the oats have cured in the stack. The custom followed by careless farmers of leaving grain standing for weeks in the shock exposed to the weather while waiting for the thrashing machine can not be too strongly condemned. A period of hot wet weather is almost certain to start the oats to molding, or sprouting in the shock. On the other hand, if the weather is very dry, the oats shatter, and many bushels are lost in handling. If the thrashing machine can not be secured as soon as the oats have dried sufficientlv to thrash, thev should be stacked OATS 91 in well-built round stacks so constructed as to turn the rains. 4. Insect Enemies and Diseases Oats are, on the whole, subject to fewer diseases, and the prev of fewer insects than wheat. The crop is, there- fore, less liable to total failure from these causes. Insect enemies. — Chinch-bugs attack oats, as well as wheat, though they usually do much less damage to oats than to wheat. They can be controlled only as already described in the case of wheat. In some seasons the army worm has caused much loss to oats, but usually not over extensive areas. There is no satisfactory method known of controlling its ravages. What is known as the green bug, a grain aphis, is one of the most prominent enemies of oats. Grasshoppers occa- sionally consume the greater part of the crop in relatively small areas. Diseases of oats. — The chief diseases attacking oats are rusts and smuts. These are of the same general char- acter as the rusts and smuts of wheat, fungous growths feeding on the growing plant. The rusts are of two chief types: (1) leaf rust, which is of a reddish-brown color, and attacks the leaves, and in some degree the stems, of oats shortly before ripening time; and (.?) stem rust, which is to be recognized as black spots appearing on the stems and leaves of oats just before they ripen. Stem rust is less common than leaf rust, but when present is far more injurious to the crop. The rusts are more serious as an enemy of oats in the South than in the North, appearing in the South almost every year, and greatly reducing the yield. Rust is far worse on moist hot sea- sons than on dry seasons. No sure cure has been discovered 92 AGRICULTURE for rust in oats, though some varieties are more able to resist its attack than others. Smut ordinarily causes more injury to oats than any other disease. It has been estimated that from two to three per cent, of the entire crop is destroyed every year by smut, causing a loss of from $6,000,000 to $10,000,000. The smut of oats is easily recognized a little time before the crop is ripe. Instead of the kernels are found small masses of smut dust which have taken the place of the grain. Sometimes these smut balls are covered by the chaff, much as the kernel should be, and other times the chaft' is lacking and the smut fully exposed. ^\'hile there are two kinds of smut in oats, both will yield to the same treatment. Smut may be wholly pre- vented b}" treating the seed with formalin, as described for the treatment of wheat. It will also be effectually pre- vented by the hot-water treatment. In either treatment the method is practically the same as for the seed wheat. With so simple and sure a remedy for smut, every farmer who lives in a smut region should treat his seed before sowing. It costs almost nothing, and may result in an in- crease of several bushels of oats to the acre. Topics for Investigation" 1. How did your father prepare the ground for oats last spring? Were they sown on corn land? If so, were the stalks broken down, or pastured close ? Was the ground disked before the oats were sown? If so, how many disk- ings? If more than one, was the second disking across the first, or by lapping ? Which is the better way ? How many harrowings did the oats receive? 2. At what date are oats usually sown in your region ? When does harvest begin ? How many da}'s, then, are re- f|uired for the crop to mature ? How much seed does your father use to the acre? Smut of oats: gimitted liend nt right: soured head at left. 94 AGRICULTURE 3. Collect samples of unthrashed oats, and examine (1) for each kind of rust; (2) for each kind of smut. If it is not possible to find unthrashed oats, examine straw for rust and evidences of smut. 4. Did rust or smut damage the crop in your region last season? Does your father treat his seed oats for smut? If so, by what method? Suppose your crop was reduced two per cent, by smut, how much did you lose per acre ? How much on the entire crop ? Would this not more than pay for treating the seed ? 5. Does your father always run his seed oats through a fanning mill to select the better grains and remove weed seed? How long will it take to run one hundred bushels through a fanning mill ? Suppose it results in an increase in yield of two bushels per acre, how much profit would there be from the cleaning? 6. Have you seen oats left in the shock until they were damaged, either by wet weather, or by shattering? About how much per acre does it cost to stack oats ? Sup- pose there is a loss of one bushel to the acre by allowing the grain to stand in the shock; will it pay to stack? (Con- sider also the better quality of grain and straw.) 7. Make out a debit and credit sheet showing the proper method of keeping an account with a crop of oats covering the entire season, beginning with plowing and closing with harvesting, thrashing and marketing of the oats. 8. Test one hundred grains of seed oats for vitality by the use of the rag-doll tester or blotter tester, and estimate the percentage of strong, weak and dead seed. From this base your estimate on the loss of crop if all the oats sown in your home field are of the same standard of vitality. 9. Secure a copy of a score-card for oats and judge twenty or thirty grains of oats. 10. Sketch a map of the United States and locate the oat producing states. From the last crop census record the number of bushels of oats produced in each state. What foreign countries produce oats ? OATS 95 5. Wheat and Oat Demonstrations 1. Demonstrate the making of a vitality test for wheat and oat seed. 2. The method of separating chaffy wheat or oats and weed seed from the better grade seed. 3. How wheat and oats may be used for the table. The girls can work out a number of recipes. 4. In the field demonstrate the proper method of seed- ing and, when equipment is available, the methods of pre- paring seed bed, disking, fertilizing, etc. 5. Demonstrate how to select individual wheat and oat heads for seed. 6. Wheat and Oat Play Contests Plan and carry out the following contest games : 1. Variety naming contest. 2. Wheat and oat judging contest. 3. Recipe giving contest. 4. Bread baking contest. 5. Oral descriptions by class members of a thrashing day at home. 7. Wheat or Oat Club Project A wheat or oat club makes an interesting method of studying the economic production of these cereals. The members of the club should arrange to grow from one to five acres, studying carefully the system of "follow-up" instruction provided by the managers of such clubs in your county and state, and keeping a complete record of all ob- servations, receipts and expenditures. The girls can grow a small plat, say one square rod, with a view to studying the life history of the plant, its cul- A club girl with her baking of bread. OATS 97 tural methods, and its use for food products. In connection with domestic-science work, tiie girls can prepare for ex- hibit purposes the various dislies possible from the oat and bake a loaf of wheat bread for the school -exhibit each month. This makes an interesting demonstration for Fri- day afternoon programs. The following basis of award may be used in connection with the club work : 1. Yield and quality of production 30 2. Net profit on investment 30 3. Exhibit of products (grain and prepared) 20 4. Crop records and story of work 20 Total Score 100 CHAPTER IV THE POTATO THE common white, or Irish, potato is a native of South America. It was brought to North America by the early Spanisla settlers. Potatoes are now so important an article of food in almost every country that little more than one-twentieth of the world's supply is grown in the United States. 1. The Potato Plant Secure, if possible, a complete potato plant, including the roots and tubers. What is the shape of the stem ? The nature of branching ? The type of leaves ? The flowers ? Do potatoes bear seed? Are potatoes raised from seed? Why not plant potato seed instead of the tubers? Are the tubers a part of the root system, or do the roots only bear the tubers as the stems of tomatoes bear the fruit ? Compare a potato plant and a tomato plant. The plant. — The potato plant varies from two to four or iive feet in height, though it does not show this great a height owing to its spreading habits of growth. The termi- nal clusters of flowers bear seeds, from which new varieties are often developed. For practical purposes the plant is re- produced from the tubers. Though both plant and roots die upon the ripening of the seed and tubers, the potato is a perennial through the tuber which reproduces the plant. Since the tubers are 98 THE POTATO 99 destro)-ed by freezing, they are harvested before frost. Potatoes are annuals in all regions where the soil freezes during the winter. Tubers. — Examine a tuber. Note the distribution of the "eyes." These contain the buds from which the new plants are produced. The end at which they are thickest is called the "seed" end, and the other the "stem" end. At which end is the tuber attached to the roots of the plant? Are some potatoes more deeply indented at the eyes, and more irregular in shape than others ? Which are more desirable for cooking? Why? Which have the bet- ter market demand ? Though there are hundreds of wild plants belonging to the same genus as potatoes, comparatively few of these are known as cultivated plants. Among the most closely related cultivated plants are the tomato and tobacco, which belong to the same family. 2. Potatoes as a Farm Crop After corn, cotton, hay, wheat and oats, potatoes are one of our most valuable crops. They are raised in every state, though the chief potato region consists of ten or fifteen northern states reaching from the Missouri River eastward to the Atlantic. More than three million acres are planted to potatoes in the United States each year. The annual crop is nearly three hundred and fifty million bushels, or about four bushels to every inhabitant. The potato region. — The following are the fifteen states which, according to federal statistics, produced the largest amount of potatoes for the period 1902-1911, to- gether with the percentage of the entire crop of the United States grown by each : 100 AGRICULTURE New York 12.02% Michigan 9. 7270 Wisconsin 9.72% Maine 7.60% Pennsylvania 6.47% Minnesota 5.71% Ohio 4.66% Iowa 3.93%' Illinois 3.39%. California 2.71 "« Colorado 2.33% New Jersey 2.30''^ Washington 2.18% Indiana 2.15% Nebraska 1.157c All others 24.35% The yield. — Potatoes, li'.ce other crops, vary greatly in yield owing to differences in the fertihty of the soil and the care taken in raising the crop. The average for the United States during the last ten-year period has been about ninety-six bushels to the acre. It is somewhat humiliating to know that, in spite of our improved machinery and scien- tific knowledge of the soil and plant diseases, we are now se- curing only about the same yield of potatoes that was pro- duced at the close of the Civil War. K.xjierts tell us that this yield can easily be doubled, with comijaratively .small expense and trouble. 3. Raising the Crop The soil. — Potatoes thrive best in a rich sandy loam containing a good supply of hinnus. Hard stiff soils o* heavy clay are not well adapted to potato raising. The best soil on the farm should be devoted to the potato field, both because potatoes demand a better soil than most other crops, and because the value of potatoes per acre is greater thrill almost any otlier common crop. THE POTATO 101 Ground that has recentl}' raised clover, alfalfa or some other legume is especially suited to potatoes. While barn- yard manure will greatly increase the yield, it will also favor the ravages of scab and other potato diseases, and so lower the quality of the crop. It is usually a mistake to plant potatoes on a freshly manured field. If manure is used, it is better to follow a heavy manuring with a crop of corn, and then plant potatoes for the next crop in suc- cession. Green manuring, that is, the plowing under of green crops such as clover or alfalfa, will add greatly to the yield. If the sod is old, it is usuall)- better to grow one crop of corn before potatoes are planted on the field. Com- mercial fertilizers can be used to advantage for potatoes on most soils. The seed bed. — Potatoes should have an especially well prepared seed bed. The plowing should be deeper than for most crops, since the seed is planted deeper and loose soil must be had for the roots and tubers. In average soils the plow should be set to a depth of not less than eight inches. The seed bed must be well pulverized and thoroughly packed. Usually not less than four harrowings and disk- ings are recjuired for the best results. Experiments have shown that the difference in yield caused by harrowing part of a field four times and the remainder of it but twice mav be as much as twenty per cent, of the crop in favor of the better preparation. The planting. — Potatoes should be planted not less than four inches deep. Less than this depth does not give room for the tubers to grow without protruding from the ground. This is sure to result in injury from sunburn. Most potato growers drill the seed, dropping single pieces of seed frorn twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. In 102 AGRICULTURE some regions potatoes are planted in cross rows like corn, with three cuts of seed to the hill. The date for planting differs in various regions, but the greater part of the crop in the northern states is planted during the last half of ]\Iay. From twelve to twenty bushels of seed are required for an acre, depending on how the tubers are cut for planting. AA'here crops of any consider- able size are raised, the dropping is usually done with a horse planter, some makes of which are arranged to dis- tribute commercial fertilizer at the same time. Cultivating the crop. — Potatoes demand good cultiva- tion. Harrowing should be begun before the potatoes come up. From one to two harrowings may be given after the plants appear. Throughout the growing season a fine soil mulch should at all times be maintained by means of fre- quent cultivation. Especially after a rain should the soil crust be broken. The cultivation should be rather shallow, and potatoes should not be hilled up as is so often done. Harvesting the crop. — AA'hen the vines have died the potatoes have stopped growing and the crop is ready to harvest. In the case of small fields, potatoes are often har- vested by being plowed out with an ordinary plow, the tubers being picked up bv hand, and the field afterward harrowed to uncover any that have been missed. In regions where potatoes are grown in large quanti- ties the digging is done with machines, several kinds of which are now on the market. The average machine will turn out about three acres in a day, and will require from five to ten pickers to keep up with it. Storing the crop. — In order to keep well, potatoes must be stored in a cool place. The house cellar is usu- all}" too warm for them, and they also give out an un- pleasant odor that permeates the house. A common type of vegetable cellar to be found on many farms is built THE POTATO 103 with concrete or stone walls, the excavation being made on a side hill. It is covered with a shingle roof, and has a board floor on a level with the ground at the upper side, thus making an excellent tool and machinery house over the space used for vegetables. 4. Improvement Throiigli Selection of Seed One of the first factors in successful potato growing is the securing of good seed. Without this, fertilit}' of soil and careful cultivation are largely wasted. Good seed will possess the following qualities : It must (1) be pure, that is, free from mixtures of varieties; (2) be taken from productive plants, or "hill selected"; (3) be iiiiiforni in size and shape; (4) be firm, and sound, not shrunken or decayed; (5) be entirely free from disease; (6) not zi'Iiolly mature when harvested; (7) have sprouts just showing at time of planting. It has been estimated by experts that attention to these points would add at least ten per cent, to the potato crop each year. This would mean an increase of nearly thirty- five million bushels, worth about $21,000,000 annually. Pure seed. — Mixed varieties present several disad- vantages in potato growing. The crop will not mature evenly. Thus, when the earlier variety has ripened and is ready for the market or table, the later one will have the potatoes just setting, and unfit for use. Mixed vari- eties do not cook evenly, and when baked or broiled to- gether some will be overdone before others have softened. General mixture of varieties in potatoes as in other crops tends to degeneration and running out of the breed. Seed from productive plants. — Seed should be taken only from the strongest and most productive plants, no matter what the variety. This can not be accomplished by 104 AGRICULTURE selecting seed from the potato bin, any more than the bcM seed corn can be selected from the crib or wagon. l"or a certain tuber may itself be of good size and look promis ing, but have come from a plant that produced but one or two potatoes, or that grew only one tuber of fair size, witli several culls. The most successful method of developing high-grade seed potatoes is what is called the tnbirr-iiiiit method. This consists of selecting from the seed bin a quantity of the most perfect tubers, each to weigh from six to eight ounces. These are cut for planting by splitting the tuber into four quarters, from seed end to stem end. The tuber-unit method. — The four pieces of each po- tato are planted in succession twelve inches apart in the row. A longer space is left between the sets of fours, thus mak- ing it possible to watch the outcome of each tuber by itself. Before the plants begin to die, careful inspection is made, and any mixtures, imperfect or weak plants are marked for rejection. Only the most promising and uniform are re- served for the selection of seed. \\'hen the crop is harvested, each set of four is dug by itself. A further selection is made by rejecting the total product if any one of the four plants has failed to pro- duce uniform, tlesirable tubers. The potatoes produced br- each set of four selected for seed are put into separate sacks and kept for further examination. Second season of tuber-unit planting. — Finally, the contents of each sack are inspected for the weight of mar- ketable and unmarketable tubers, and other desirable qual- ities of the type. From each of the fonr-iilant units the best ten tubers are to be selected for the next }ear's plant ing. This selected seed is planted the following }'car in the same way as the first season, thus gi\'ing fort^• plants to the unit instead of four. The product from the best forty- 1— ^' ^a 'P. ft p- ' aw ^ a 5 p J5 i ■ o 106 AGRICULTURE hill rows is kept for seed for the general crop for the fol- lowing year. By thus keeping a breeding plat for seed, po- tatoes can be greatly improved, and the yield much in- creased. The tuber-unit method can be rendered even more ef- fective by making the first selection from the field instead of the potato bin. This is done by going into the field before the vines begin to die and marking a number of the most vigorous and desirable plants. These are har- vested separately before wholly mature, and seed taken from the best hills. The practise of planting for seed the small and unmar- ketable potato culls can not be too strongly condemned. It lessens the yield, lowers the quality of the crop and causes the variety to deteriorate. Cutting seed potatoes. — Whether it pays better to cut potatoes for seed or plant the whole tuber has been much discussed. It is believed by many potato growers that under average conditions the yield will be greater when quarters are planted than when pieces with single eyes are used, and that halves will produce more than quarters. It is not sure that whole tubers will produce a larger yield than halves. The weight of experience seems to favor planting halves. Immature seed. — For vitality, high yield and good market quahties, potatoes intended for seed should be har- vested before entirely ripe (by hill selection) that is, be- fore the vines have died. Man_v experiments have shown that immature seed will produce a considerably higher yield than seed allowed to ripen before digging. Home-grov^'n seed not alv(/ays best. — Contrary to the rule with most farm crops, seed brought from another region often produces a better crop of potatoes than home- THE POTATO 107 grown seed. Especially is this true when northern grown potatoes are taken farther south. Not only is the yield increased, but the time recjuired for maturing is shortened by securing seed from colder regions. Great care should* be taken in importing seed tubers not to introduce new forms of potato diseases. 5. Potato Enemies Potatoes have many enemies, and the number seems to be increasing, owing to diseases being brought in from other countries. Scab. — Scab is one of the most wide-spread and de- structive of potato diseases. It causes a rough, pitted, scabby condition which may attack the tuber in patches, or extend over the entire surface. \A'hether scab is caused by a fungous growth or a species of soil bacteria is not certain. It is fortunate, however, that a very simple and eiTective remedy is known. This consists in treating seed potatoes before planting. There are several mixtures used for this purpose, the cheapest and most easily applied of which is a formalin solution. This is prepared by mixing one pint of formalin with thirty gallons of water. The seed potatoes are soaked in the solution for two hours, and then planted without allowing them to come into contact with bags or utensils in which scabby potatoes have been kept. Leaf, or early blight. — Leaf blight is another common potato disease. It attacks the leaves and stems, first show- ing about the time that the tubers begin to form. Its pres- ence may be detected by the presence of grayish brown spots on the leaves, the part of the leaf attacked soon be- coming hard and brittle. Within three or four weeks the leaves are all killed, and the stem is also affected. The tubers Club boy, and prize seed potatoes, sprouted enough for planting grv^ A. --t-SK- ^^'r An Iowa potato club boy and a part of bis crop. THE POTATO 109 grow but little after the leaves are first attacked ; hence the crop is ruined unless the bhght can be checked. The ravages of leaf blight can be almost if not wholly prevented by spraying the plants with the Bordeaux mixture (see page 208). This solution is applied with a spraying machine at the rate of about fifty gallons to the acre. From three to five sprayings during the season are required when leaf blight threatens. One pound of Paris green to the acre at the first spraying, and the same amount later in the season will also destroy the potato beetles, which often prove such a pest. Late blight, or rot. — The blotches and blackish streaks often seen running through tubers are caused by late blight, or potato rot. This disease first attacks the leaves and stems, causing them to soften and decay, pro- ducing a bad smelL Late blight often appears suddenly, and spreads through a field with great rapidity. A green, healthy-looking field may turn almost black in a day or two. The treatment for late blight is the same as for leaf blight, and should never be neglected in regions where blight is common. It is far better to begin tlie spraving before either form of bhght begins to appear, for this is the easiest time to prevent it. Topics for Investigation L What is the acreage of potatoes raised on your home farm this season? If you are not certain, go out and measure the field carefully. Com])are the acreage of each of the farms represented in the school. 2. What is the yield of your potatoes per acre? How does this compare with the other farms of your vicinity? With the state? With the United States? 3. Select two medium-sized potatoes, one regular, smooth and with shallow eyes, and the other irregular and with deep-set eyes. Weigh each. Pare both potatoes, as 110 AGRICULTURE nearly the same as possible. Now weigh the pared tubers. Which lost the larger percentage in paring ? Which is easier to pare ? Which looks more pleasing for the table ? Which would be the better to select for seed? 4. Bring a sample, of as many different varieties of tubers as can be found in your neighborhood. Learn to recognize the chief breed characteristics so as to identify the dift'erent varieties, such as Early Rose, Bliss Triumph, Early Ohio, Gold Coin, Burbank, Rural New Yorker, Walter Raleigh. What are the principal early varieties ? Late varieties ? Do you find mixtures in which it is impos- sible to determine the varieties ? 5. Select tubers of the same size from different vari- eties, such as Early Rose and Rural New Yorkers. At your homes try boiling them together. Do they cook in the same time ? Try baking, frying, etc. 6. How deep does your father plow the ground for po- tatoes? How deep does he plant? Does he use commer- cial fertilizers? Does he manure the field for potatoes? If so, is the crop scabby? 7. What plan is used in selecting seed for your potato crop ? Are culls ever used for seed ? Is there any more reason in using small potatoes for seed than in taking seed corn from nubbins ? 8. Suppose that seed potatoes are seventy-five cents a bushel, and that when quartered twelve bushels are re- quired to plant an acre ; also suppose that by planting halves instead of quarters the yield is increased twenty bushels per acre, and that the new crop sells at sixty cents a bushel. A\diicli way of cutting seed is best, and by how much an acre ? 9. Bring samples of potatoes affected by scab ; by rot. Study the effects of each on the tuber. Secure if possible samples of plants aft'ected by blight, and learn to identify the disease. What is the most troublesome potato disease in your region ? What is the remedy ? 10. After talking with your father about it, itemize the cost of raising an acre of potatoes. Compare this with the cost of producing an acre of corn ; an acre of wheat or oats. Now, taking the average yield of each crop, com- pare the profit of potato raising with that of other crops. THE POTATO 111 Would it not be possible to double the yield of potatoes per acre in your region ? How would you go at it ? 11. Illustrate how to keep a book account of an acre of potatoes from the preparation of the seed bed to the har- vesting and marketing of the products. Include items of expense in regard to yield, selection of seed potatoes, grad- ing, crating, marketing, and use of a special brand or label. 12. Make a map study of the United States, showing the location of the potato sections and insert the last cen- sus crop report on potato production in these states. 6. Potato Demonstrations 1. Demonstrate how to select seed potatoes from the hill. 2. How to prepare seed potatoes by cutting for seed. 3. How to manufacture potato starch out of culls and injured tubers. 4. How to grade and crate potatoes. 5. How to prepare potatoes in various ways for use in the home. 7. Potato Play Contests 1. Potato race. 2. Potato paring contest, based on time, skill and weight of peeling, using twelve uniform tubers. 3. Potato judging contest. 4. Variety naming contest. 5. Oral recipe contest. How to use the potato for home diet. 8. Potato Club Project One of the most interesting field or garden crop projects is in connection with the production and management of a plat of potatoes. This can be taken up uniformh- by both boys and girls, using not less than one-eighth acre as a basis. 112 AGRICULTURE The club. — The study and practise in the worii are to be based on the entire management of the club plat, includ- ing treatment for diseases and insects, grading, crating, mar- keting, manufacturing of potato starch, study of the life history and the relation of the potato to the various activ- ities and studies of the schoolroom. Club festival. — A potato club festival, covering all the interests of potato culture in the community, with the ex- hibits of both fresh and cooked products, lectures on potato culture, etc., can be made one of the big events of the fall term, to which all the patrons of the school can be invited. The Award. — The basis of award should be as follows : 1. Yield 30 2, Net profit on investment .. 30 3 Exhibit of products (fresh and cooked) 20 4. Crop report and story 20 Total Score 100 CHAPTER V FORAGE CROPS OUR study so far has dealt mostly with the cereals — the crops raised chiefly for their grain. We now come to study the distinct types of forage crops, or those grown for their leaves and stems, which are fed to stock. Besides serving them as food for animals, certain forage crops are of great value in enriching the soil and causing it to pro- duce larger yields of cereals. ^\'hen the forage plants are fed green by grazing, we call the crop pasture; if cut, and at once fed green without allowing time to cure, it is called a soiling crop. If the crop is cut and allowed to cure before feeding it, it is called hay, straw, fodder, or stover as the case may be. We have already noted that a forage crop, cut and stored so that it will keep green, is called silage or ensilage. 1. Important Forage Crops The most important forage crops may be divided into two broad classes, grasses and legumes. Grasses. — The grasses are among the most wide- spread and important of our plants. They include an al- most endless variety, many of which grow without culti- vation, or even special seeding, the seed being carried by the wind, birds and in many other ways. Among the most important grasses grown in the north- ern states are timothy, blue-grass, the millets and red-top. Common to the southern states are Bermuda grass, carpet grass, Lespedesa, Johnson grass, orchard grass and hrome- grass. 113 114 AGRICULTURE It must not be forgotten that our great cereals, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rice, rye, etc., also belong to the grass family. While there are so many varieties of grasses, they pos- sess certain characteristics in common. For example, prac- tically all grasses bear their seeds either (1) in a spike, like wheat, barley or timothy; or else (2) in a panicle, like oats or blue-grass. Most of the grasses have hollow stems, with nodes, or joints, dividing the stem into sections. Some of the grasses are annuals; that is, they make their growth, raise seed and die all in one season, as oats, corn, or wheat. Other grasses are perennials : they li\'e on from season to season without replanting, as timothy, blue-grass, or Bermuda grass. Legumes. — The legumes differ from grasses in that they bear their seeds in pods, like beans and peas. These pods vary in form from the close, nearly straight pod of the pea to the curled pod of alfalfa. AA'hen the seed is ripe, the pod splits open, and the seeds scatter. ]\Iost legumes branch more freely than grasses and also send •their roots more deeply into the soil. Some of the most important legumes are the clovers, alfalfa, soy-beans, cow-peas, the vetches, rape and the ordi- nary garden peas and beans. The legumes differ widely in their manner of growth, ranging all the way from small herbs like clover, to vari- ous vines, shrubs and even trees. Some of the legumes are annuals, some are biennials, and others perennials. 2. Importance of the Forage Crops Forage crops in the United States rank next in value after corn and cotton. The total acreage of improved pas- tures and harvested forage crops is considerably more than all the grain crops combined. FORAGE CROPS 115 The forage producing region. — The most important forage producing region of the United States is found in the nortli central states, reaching from Michigan and Ohio on the east to Kansas and Nebraska on the west. The last federal census shows the percentage of forage crops of the United States produced by each of the states of this region as follows : Iowa 8.05% New York 7.2o% Minnesota 6.22'/o Kansas 6.10% Nebraska 5,96% Wisconsin 5.15% Ohio 4.65% Illinois 4.48% California 4.45% Missouri — — • 4il'"<^ Pennsylvania 3.78% South Dakota 3.76% Michigan 3.74'/o Uses of grasses and legumes. — Grasses and legumes have two principal uses: (1) they supply the most impor- tant part of the food of farm animals, and (2) they aid in building up the soil, making it productive for other crops. They are also serviceable in saving the soil from washing and blowing. A great proportion of our cattle, horses, sheep and hogs are raised with forage as their chief food. Where good pasturage is available, little or no grain is fed to grow- ing stock, and often none even to milk cows. And when grain is used to fatten stock, or to give strength, as in the case of work horses, forage is required to supply the vol- atile oils as well as bulk and coarseness necessary to diges- tion. Both grasses and legumes tend to improve the soil. 116 AGRICULTURE Their decaying roots, stems and leaves form an important part of the soil, called hu]nus. This vegetable matter not only enriches the soil, but makes it lighter and more por- ous, so that air can better get to the roots of growing plants. It also favors proper drainage in damp soils. Legumes and the nitrogen of the soil. — Legumes, however, enrich the soil in a special way, and are widely cultivated for this purpose. In order to understand how legumes do their work of improving the soil, it must be known that plants demand certain foods from the soil. One of the most necessary plant foods is nitrogen. If this is lacking in the soil, the crop does not grow well, and the yield is reduced. For example, wheat takes much nitrogen from the soil ; this is the main reason why wheat can not be grown on the same land year after year. The nitrogen be- comes exhausted. The soil is "worn out." It is estimated that a twent\-bushel crop of wheat removes about thirty- five pounds of nitrogen from each acre. Nitrogen may be returned to the soil in several ways. One of the most common ways is by means of barnyard manure, which is rich in nitrogen. Another way is through commercial fertilizers, such as sodium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, or dried blood saved from slaughter-houses. But the amount of manure is limited, and the commercial fer- tilizers are expensive. And this is where the legumes come in to help. Legumes are able to gather nitrogen from the air and deposit it in the soil. There are millions of pounds of nitrogen in the atmos- phere resting on every acre of ground. But the plants can not make use of this nitrogen in the form in which it exists in the air. It has to be made over for them. This is accomplished by bacteria which have their homes in the tubercles or nodules found on the roots of leguminous plants. FOEAGE CROPS 117 In the small tubercles to be seen on the roots of clover, alfalfa, soy-beans or cow-peas are millions of bacteria, each able in the process of its own growth to take nitrogen from the air, change it into the form needed by growing plants, and leave it in the soil for the next crop. In this way the legume is able not only to secure its own growth, but to leave the soil richer through the action of its bac- teria friends. The raising of legumes is therefore one of the best and most economical ways of enriching the soil. So important is the group of legumes that a separate chapter will be given the most important ones. Topics for Investigation 1. What are the chief grasses used for pasturage in your neighborhood ? For hay ? For lawns ? 2. What are the principal legumes cultivated in your vicinity ? Which are annuals ? Which are perennials ? 3. Make a collection of the principal grasses found on your father's farm. Study their method of growth. Com- pare stems, leaves, roots, and method of seed bearing. 4. Make a similar collection and study of the com- mon legumes. 5. Secure the roots of clover, of alfalfa, of peas, beans and any other available legumes. Make a study of the tu- bercles, comparing size and number. The bacteria are too small to be seen except with a powerful microscope. The tubercles are most plentiful in the early part of the grow- ing season. 6. Illustrate how a bookkeeping record can be kept of the various types of forage crops, such as alfalfa, cow- peas, red and crimson clover, blue-grass, etc. 7. Make a study of the map, locate the principal for- age territories, and indicate the various types of grasses and forage crops that have been produced in the different sections. Indicate in each state the acreage allotted to each type of forage. 8. Indicate what kind of stock thrives best on certain forage crops, and tell why. 118 AGRICULTURE 3. Forage Dciiioiistrations 1. Demonstrate how to prepare and make exhibits oi the various t)-pes of grasses, legumes, plants, etc. 2. How to make a grass seed test. 3. The difference between a good and a poor grass seed head. 4. Show how grass seed should be sown and what con- stitutes a good stand. 5. Demonstrate how to make different things in con- nection with the forage crops, such as ha3'cocks, stacks, windrows, etc. 4. Forage Crop dub Project In many schools it \^•ill be practicable for bo}'S and girls to organize into clubs for the piurpose of growing and de- monstrating the possil)ilities of profitable farming in alfalfa, red clover, crimson clover, cow-peas, beans, etc. The age requirements should lie the same as in other clubs. The area of the plot should not be less than one acre and mav be more, depending on the size of the field available for club work. The award. — The basis of award should be : 1. Average yield per acre 30 2. Net profit on investment 30 3. Exhibit of products (hay and seed) 20 4. Crop report and story 20 Total score 100 For most localities the four most important forage crops in which to organize clubs would be alfalfa, clovers, cow- peas, and blue-grass sod for the lawn. CHAPTER VI THE CLOVERS C LOADERS are the most widely grown family of legumes among the farm crops. There are many different types of clover, such as red clover, white clover, alsike clover and crimson clover. By far the most important of these is the red clover, especially throughout the northeastern quarter of the United States. The great red-clover section reaches from Maine to A'irginia, and as far west as the Missouri River. Either alone, or mixed with grasses for ha}- and pastures, red clover claims from one-eighth to one-third of all the cultivated land throughout the eastern and north central states. It is now also being successfully grown in Montana, Washington, Oregon and in the far Southwest. 1. Tlic Rcd^Cloi'cr riant Red clover is so common a plant that it can usLiall\' be studied near at hand in the field. Every pupil should there- fore examine the growing plant, and bring a complete speci- men, including the root, to school for further reference. Also secure a plant of timothy, the grass that is commonly grown with red clover. Tones FOR Investigation Study of the red-clover plant. — Compare the clover and timothy plants (1) as to root systems, (2) stem and mode of branching, (3) mode of flowering and seed bear- ing. 119 .s^^. ■■^«6Sfe.-. A young red-clover plant, showing tlie cliaracteristiL- nodules on tile roots. THE CLOVERS 121 1. Which has the longer roots? Which will mal ,.^i»'\ '•.-7'-'.- . Sweet clover on an Iowa farm. 124 AGRICULTURE finely pulverized, but well packed. If sown on freshly plowed land, it is necessary to harrow until the ground be- comes firm, else a poor stand is sure to follow. The ground should be clean, as clover is not a good fighter of weeds. Red clover may be sown in the early spring on fields of winter wheat. In this case no preparation of the seed bed is required. The covering of the seed may be accomplished by weathering. A more certain way is to harrow the wheat after the clover has been sown, or even both before and after the seeding of the clover. This does not injure the wheat. Red clover is also often sown in the spring with oats as a nurse crop. Another common method of seeding red clover is in standing corn just following the last cultivation. This plan has worked successfully, especially in the New England states. If the crop of corn is heavy enough to shade the ground, or if the fall happens to be dry, a successful stand is uncertain. Time of soaring. — In the larger part of the red-clover region, it does not seem to matter greatly whether the clover is sown in the spring or tlie fall. Which time is better depends on the season. Young clover plants do not easily withstand drought. If a dry season follows the seeding, the stand will not succeed no matter when the planting is done. In spring seeding with a nurse crop of winter wheat, the clover should be sown at the earliest possible moment. If the ground is not to be harrowed to cover the seed, it may be sown on a late fall of snow. This gives the clover plants the advantage of a start before the moisture is out of the soil, and also before the nurse crop gets large enough to shade the young plants. If the seeding is done in the fall, the crop should be THE CLOVERS 125 sown early enough that the clover plants attain a growth of from four to six inches before freezing weather comes i1 2 J CulAoAAoiM # ^- A~ ' !5LumV)'& leWWA, , i La(ii^btkntn\> qua>^ei-s mustard I f 7W\d S , ! cavrot L- W m c '■' 11 S Seeds of red clover aud comuion im- purities. CVpvev- ,9TLe\d doaoer dodder ButkVvDvi\ on. Otherwise they mav not be able to live through the winter, especially in the northern states. Seeding after August fifteenth is unsafe in the northern states. 126 AGRICULTURE Clover seed. — A great deal of the trouble found in securing a good stand of red clover comes from poor seed. Good red-clover seed should (1) be plump, and not shriv- eled; (2) look bright instead of dull; (3) vary in color from violet to light yellow, but not be a dull brown ; (4) show individual seeds medium to large size; (5) be free from all weed seed and rubbish ; ( 6 ) be free from what is calletl "hard" seed. By hard seed is meant grains whose seed coat is such that the seed absorbs moisture but slowly and hence may not germinate for several weeks or even months. The seed of very new varieties may contain as much as fifty to sixty per cent, of hard seed. As is the case with most other farm crops, it is safer to secure clover seed from near home than from a distance. In this way one may be sure that the variety is adapted to the vicinitv, and that the seed does not contain noxious weeds and other impurities. Cleaning red-clover seed. — Or(linar_y red-clover seed contains many different kinds of weed seeds. Some of these look enough like clover grains that they may pass unnoticed. Sowing clover mi.xed with weeds not only reduces the stand of clover, but compels the clover to divide its moisture and food with its worst enemies, besides ren- dering the ground foul for other crops. Screening red-clover seed through a sieve with twenty meshes to the inch will remove all the smaller weed seeds, while retaining the medium-sized and larger clover grains. Seeds of wild carrot, ragweed, thistles, buckthorn, wild chickory, and several other weeds bearing large seeds are not removed in this way. Clover seed should first of all be selected from a field that is as free as possible from weeds. Even then,' screening will pav, however, for the removal of the smaller clover and weed seeds. THE CLOVERS 127 4. Harvesting the Red-Clover Crop Red clover should be cut for hay just as it is past full bloom. If cut much earlier than this the entire food value of the plant is not obtained ; if it is allowed to stand too long the leaves begin to fall, and the stems become dry and stiff. If the second crop is to be cut for seed, it may be necessary to cut the first somewhat early. The care of clover hay. — In stacking or mowing the hay in a barn, the important thing is to avoid exposure to the weather, or becoming dry enough so that the leaves crumble and are lost. Eor the leaves of red clover, while they are only about forty per cent, of the weight of the plant, contain almost two-thirds of the protein of the whole plant. Clover hay that has become too dry is also very dusty, and not so good for feed. Red-clover hay does not shed rain so well as the grass hays, and should therefore be stored in a barn where pos- sible. If it must be put in stacks, these shoidd be built with the greatest care, keeping the middle of the stack full and well tramped. The top should be covered with canvas, or with a coating of grass or straw. Care must be taken not to put red clover into the barn or stack when it is damp from dew or rain, as it has a tend- ency to heat. This heating not only damages the hay, but not infrequently sets fire to the stack or barn and burns it down. Harvesting red clover for seed. — Red-clover seed is usually secured from the second crop of the season, the first being harvested for hay. The clover is cut either with a mower or a special header, and run through a clover huller. By special adjustment an ordinarv thrashing ma- chine may be used for hulling the seed. Clover straw still possesses good feeding value after the seed is removed. 128 AGRICULTURE 5. The Enemies of Red Clover In the starting of the clover crop, the two principal ene- mies to be encountered are drought and hard winters. A stand not infrequently fails from one or the other of these natural causes, which can not be guarded against, except to sow the crop at proper times, and according to proper meth- ods of seeding. Red clover is so valuable, however, that an occasional failure to secure a stand should only spur the farmer to try for better success. Insect enemies. — \"arious insects seem to find red clover highly palatable, and hence feed upon it. Yet only a few of these do the crop any great damage. One of the worst of these pests is a small species of beetle known as the clover root-borer. This beetle is of a brownish color, and grows about one-sixth of an inch in length. The larvje of this insect attack the roots of the clover, usually during the second year of the crop. They have done the most damage in regions east of the IMissis- sippi River, especially in Michigan, Indiana and Ohio. The only remedy so far found is to plow the damaged field as soon as the hay is removed. The larvje are then without food and soon die, leaving the field free of their kind for a future crop. The seed-bearing qualities of red clover are often seri- ously damaged by the clover-seed chalcis fly. This is an insect shaped like a wasp, and about the size of a seed of red clover. Just before the clover seed begins to harden this fly lays its eggs in the growing seed. As the larvae develop they use the seed for food, entirely destroying it by the time they secure their growth. The chalcis flv is respon- sible for much of the poor yield of clover seed. It is one of the worst clover crop pests in the United States. It is thought that light pasturing in the early spring, or even Effect on clover seed of the clialcis fly. Stages in development of red-clover seed: (a) flower; (b) immature seed vessel ; (c) flower ripe; (d) ma- ture seed vessel ; ( e ) seed. Second crop of red clover nearly ready to cut for seed, first crop yielded 2% tons to the acre. The 130 AGRICULTURE mowing the clover soon after it starts will do much to reduce the danger. Clover has at least one enemy that works after the crop is stacked or mowed; this is the clover-hay zvorin. It usually works in the bottom of the stack or mow, eating the softer portions of the plant, but also damaging the feeding qualities of the hay by its excrement and a web that it leaves. Sahing the hay near the bottom of the stack or movv' will do much toward stopping the work of this pest. AMiile the botanists tell us that red clover is a perennial, it is seldom able to maintain a stand for more than three or four 3'ears, when it must be re-seeded. Red clover is usuallv followed by a grain crop before clover is again grown. 6. Other Types of Clover None of the other clovers compare with red clover in their general value to the northern and central farms. Vet a few other types are of great importance in other sections. White clover. — A\'hite clover is well known over most of the red-clover region. It differs in its manner of growth from red clo\"er, being of a creeping habit, and therefore not well adapted to use as a hay crop. White clover is very hardy, and will often work its way into a pasture with- out seeding, the seeds being carried by winds and the birds. It makes an excellent pasture grass, and is also often used in lawn mixtures. Alsike clover. — Alsike clover is named from a town in Sweden, where it is said to have originated. It resem- bles red clover but is of a finer, more delicate t)'pe, and therefore does not yield so well. While red clover will produce two crops each season, alsike clover will grow but one. This clover is especially suited to wet heavy soil THK CLOVERS 131 which will not grow red clover, and in such regions proves a vahmble crop. Crimson clover. — This clover, whose cultural methods are similar to those of red clover, differs from the other clovers in being an annual. It is a relatively new crop, having recentl_\- 1ieen brought to this country from Europe. It is grown chiefly in tlie southeastern part of the United States, where it assumes the same importance that red clover has farther north. Crimson clover does not demand so rich a soil as red clover or alfalfa, but is of great im- portance in the southeast and southwest of the United States. Topics for Investic.\tion 1. How many acres of red clo\-cr are now growing on your father's farm? Make a comjiarison for all the farms represented in the school. What other legumes are raised at your home? Is the red clover grown alone, or with timothy ? 2. How long have your father's clover-fields been down ? Ask your father whether red clover that has been down two or three years begins to die out? What is the oldest field of red clover in the vicinity? 3. Secure several samples of red-clover seed. These may be taken from the supply intended for sowing, or from the barn floor where red clover is fed. Study these sam- ples with reference to the (jualities named in the text for clover seed. What proportion of the seed turns out to be weed seed instead of clover? Can you identify the dif- ferent weeds represented ? 4. Make a seed tester out of two plates and pieces of Canton flannel. Place one hundred seeds of red clover be- tween the plates, dampen the cloth and keep warm for four or five days. How many of the seeds have sprouted ? What percentage failed to grow? Is it probable that some of the seeds were "hard'' ? 5. If red-clover seed such as you tested is selling at eight dollars a bushel, what would the good seed in your sample really cost the purchaser ? Would a farmer better 132 AGRICULTURE pay nine dollars a bushel for pure seed, ninety-five per cent, of which will grow, or seven dollars a bushel for dirty seed, seventy-five per cent, of which will grow ? Have in mind also the fact that the farmer can not afford to sow weed seed with his clover. A\'ill it pay to test the red- clover seed before planting? 6. Secure specimen plants and samples of seeds of all the other clovers to be found in your region. Learn to identify both plant and seed. CHAPTER VII ALFALFA 1. The Alfalfa Plant FIRST of all secure, if possible, samples of growing alfalfa plants. Go into the field and dig up several plants of different sizes, one year old, two years old, and three years old. Try to obtain the entire root system of at least one good-sized plant. This may be hard to do, as the roots usually extend from eight to ten feet down in the soil, and under favorable conditions more than twice this depth. Study of the alfalfa plant. — Study the plant, noting the mode of branching, the s)stem of leaves, the method of flowering, and the arrangement of seeds and pods. Look for the tubercles on the roots. These are most plentiful in the spring. Later in the season they fall off and decay in the soil. If the roots are pulled up roughly, the nodules will be stripped off and remain in the ground. The indi- vidual bacteria can not be seen except with a powerful mi- croscope. Topics for Investigation 1. How many cuttings to the season are made of alfalfa? How many of clover? Of timothy? 2. What is the average cutting of alfalfa to the acre? Of clover? Of timothy? Compare, then, the total crop for the season of the three kinds of forage? 3. What is the market value of alfalfa per ton? Of clover? Of timothy? Compare the value per acre for feed- ing purposes of each of the three hay crops. 133 134 AGRICULTURE 4. What does it cost to produce an acre of alfalfa and harvest it? Of clover? Of timothy? Find which is the most profitable crop based on market value of hay. (It must, however, be taken into account that alfalfa is of greatest value in renewing the soil.) 2. The Groicing of Alfalfa Alfalfa is one of the oldest plants known. It was known in Greece five hundred 3-ears B. C., and raised in England before Columbus discovered America. It has been known in this country for more than a century, but only recently has it become of anv great importance as a farm crop. And even }-et, its value is Init little understood, and the methods of its growth are not generally known. Acreage of alfalfa. — At present barely one-tenth as many acres are devoted to alfalfa as to clover and tim- othy, and one-ninth as many as are put in wheat. "We have twenty acres in corn tc> every acre in alfalfa. Yet the amount of land devoted to alfalfa is increasing every year, and it will soon become one of our principal forage crops. The alfalfa region. — The alfalfa region of the United States at present lies principally west of the Mississippi River. C)ut of about fi\'e million acres of alfalfa raised in the entire country, Kansas grows one mikion acres, or one- fifth of the crop. Alfalfa is especially adapted to dry soils and climates, and is therefore of the greatest value in the semi-arid re- gions of the West. Utah, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho and other western states are using alfalfa to make fertile many acres of soil almost barren for other crops. The great corn belt states are admirably adapted to the raising of alfalfa, but have as yet done little with it. Eor example, the following are the ranks of these states in the production of alfalfa in the United States : Ohio, nine- ALFALFA 135 teenth ; Iowa, twentieth; Kentucky, twenty-first; Illinois, twenty-second : Wisconsin, twenty-third ; Indiana, twenty- fourth, and Michigan, twenty-ninth. Comparison of corn and alfalfa roots, showing why alfalfa is a drought resister. 3. Alfalfa as Forage for Stock Alfalfa is the most valuable forage crop known for the feeding of most kinds of farm animals. Like clover, it contains a high degree of that most important ele- ment of food, protein, which goes to make both bone and muscle. With such forage as timothy, corn, stover, or straw 136 AGRICULTURE fed to stock, protein must be supplied in the form of bran, or some other such feed. Alfalfa serves the same purpose, and is much cheaper to produce. Feeding value of alfalfa. — The following table shows the feeding- value of eight dilTerent kinds of feed, based on the digestible nutrient material in each : (Fanners' Bul- letin, 339. These figures are only relative, since prices vary from year to year.) Value Value Feed per ton Feed per ton Green alfalfa $7.00 Timothy hay $9.00 Green clover 5.96 Covi'-pea hay 19.76 .\lfalfa hay 20,16 Wheat bran 22.80 Clover hay 14.12 Shelled corn 20.16 It is seen that the feeding value of alfalfa hay is more than double that of timothy. It is almost equal to wheat bran, and just equal to shelled corn. Alfalfa has an addi- tional value for feeding stock because it is highly palatable to almost every farm animal, even to poultry and hogs. Bran costs an average of about twenty dollars a ton ; to raise alfalfa hay costs an average of about five dollars a ton. Why not grozv the protein needed by the farm animals instead of buying it ? As farmers learn more of the value of alfalfa this is what they will do. 4. /llfalfa as a Reiiezver of the Soil Alfalfa is probably the best of the legumes as a soil renewer. The bacteria which grow in the root tubercle are able to take the nitrogen directl)' from the air and add it to the soil in such form that it can be used by other crops. The deep rooting system of the alfalfa plant also enables it to bring other minerals from the lower layers of the soil, de- positing them near the surface where other plants can use them. The generous roots add much humus to the soil. ALFALFA 137 In Colorado, Nebraska and Wyoming, farmers have found that almost double the yield of grain is produced from the same fields after thev have been in alfalfa for sev- Examining the tubercles on alfalfa roots in a southeru field. eral years. Even greater results have been experienced in the South in the yield of cotton crops that have followed alfalfa. Alfalfa can be used in the same way throughout the corn region to improve the soil for other crops. Besides being one of the cheapest and most effective means known of restoring certain elements to worn soil, it is also a crop 138 AGRICULTURE which is in itself more profitable than almost any other crop that can be raised. 5. Raising the Crop Soil requirements for alfalfa. — It is especially im- portant in raising alfalfa that soil naturally wet shall be ^School cliildieii iu Cuuk L'uuuty, IJliuuis, suidyiug tbe reiutiou of alfalfa to corn growing. well drained. "While alfalfa requires much moisture in growing, it will not stand the dampness of undralned soils. If submerged with water it will quickly die. In heavy damp soil there is also likely to be more acid than is good for the alfalfa plant. Before sowing alfalfa it is, therefore, best to test the soil for acid. This can easily be done by taking a little of the soil when damp and plac- ALFALFA 139 ing it upon blue litinus paper. If the paper turns to a pink color it indicates the presence of acid, and the soil An alfalfa plant several years old. Note the generous root system and the size of the plant. should then have an application of lime to counteract tlrj acid. 140 AGRICULTURE Starting alfalfa. — If proper methods are used it should be no harder to start alfalfa than clover. First of all, the seed must be most carefully selected, and should be tested before sowing. This can easily be done by means of a liome-made tester, as in the case of clover. Particularly should the seed be free from all noxious weeds or other impurities. For weeds are among the worst enemies of alfalfa. In some parts of the country the alfalfa crop is completely killed out of certain fields in a few years by tlie increase of weeds. The seed bed should be more carefully prepared than for almost any other farm crop. After plowing it must be harrowed so thoroughly as to pack it well and leave a fine mulch on top. If the seed bed can be prepared some time ahead of the sowing so as to give an opportunity for several harrowings so much the better. The seeding may be done either broadcast or with a drill. It has been found best in most parts of the country not to sow alfalfa with a nurse crop, since the nurse crop deprives the young alfalfa plants of moisture, nourishment and light. It is of great advantage to manure the field before seeding to alfalfa. Inoculating the soil. — It is usually best to inoculate the soil before sowing alfalfa. This means to put into the soil some of the bacteria which inhabit the root nodules. Almost any soil suitable for alfalfa has some of these bac- teria to begin with, so that alfalfa may often be started without inoculation. But where the supply of bacteria is very small, and where the soil is poor it will pay to inocu- late. This may easily be accomplished by gathering the sur- face soil from a field on which alfalfa has been raised, and scattering it at the rate of one hundred to five hundred pounds to the acre over the field to be sown. Similar results can be had by gathering soil in which sweet clover so commonlv found along the roadsides has ALFALFA 141 been growing. Care must be taken in gathering and scat- tering the soil not to allow it to be exposed to sunlight, as this will kill the bacteria. It is better therefore to secure the soil and spread it over the new field on cloudy daj's or in the late evening. The alfalfa seed should be sown immediately and harrowed in so that the bacteria may be covered, and be thus secure from the sunlight. Time for seeding. — Late summer has been found the best time for seeding alfalfa in the East and the South, while in the West spring seeding is the rule. Spring seeding has also been found to work better in Minnesota, Wisconsin and the Dakotas. No general rule as to the time of seed- ing can, however, be given. The chief thing necessary is to seed as long as possible before the time of year that will be hardest on the plants. In the North this recjuires spring or early summer seeding in order that the plants may get sufficient growth before freezing to withstand the winter. Alfalfa plants less than six inches high do not ordinarily live well through the hard northern winters. In some regions there is trouble in getting the plants started before drought comes on to check their growth. Throughout the corn belt late summer seeding should us- ually be practised. Alfalfa sown during August and the first week of September will have the best chance through- out this region. 6. Hari'csting the Crop Time for cutting. — Alfalfa makes the best hay if cut while in early bloom. A better means of determining the time for cutting is, however, to watch the start of the new shoots from the base of the plant. These shoots make the growth for the succeeding crop. When they are from one to two inches in length is the best time to harvest. In this way the new growth goes on without interruption. 142 AGRICULTURE If the cutting takes place much earlier than this, there is a loss of growing time in waiting for the new shoots to develop. If, on the other hand, the cutting is delayed until these shoots are too long, the mower will clip them off and they must begin all over again, thus delaying the next crop. Usually it is possible to secure three cuttings of alfalfa in the corn region and as many as eight, ten or even twelve in Side delivery raker In tm alfalfa Held, .yielding two tuns to the acre on second cutting. some of the irrigated regions of the West. It is evident that if the greatest number of cuttings is to be secured each crop must be cut as soon as it is ready in order to let the next get properly started. Handling the hay. — Alfalfa, like clover, should be harvested so that the hay may reach the barn or stack with the least possible amount of handling or exposure to the weather. The alfalfa leaves contain a large proportion of ALFALFA 143 the food value of the plant, and are easily crumbled and lost if the hay gets too dry. Probably the best plan is to cock the hay when the stems are about half dry, stacking it when moisture no longer shows as a wisp of the plant is twisted by the finger. Li regions where frequent rains are the rule during the hay- ing season, it pays to have haycock covers consisting of squares of muslin to the corners of which weights are at- tached, or pins to thrust into the hay or the ground. 7. Enemies of ^ilfalfa Weed enemies. — Undoubtedlv weeds are the worst enemies of alfalfa in most parts of the country. This is particularly true throughout the West and Southwest. Among the weed enemies are -Leitch-grass, crab-grass in the West, blue-grass and foxtail throughout the Aliddle West and the barleys in the far West. Cultivation with the spring-tooth harrow or disk is the best means of killing most of the weeds. An especially troublesome weed among alfalfa is dodder. Dodder is a plant which twines itself about the alfalfa seed- lings, soon attaching its threadlike stems firmly to the alfalfa plant. The dodder stem then withers awav near the ground and the dodder continues to live as a parasite on the alfalfa. It is almost impossible to exterminate dodder when it has once secured a foothold in an alfalfa field. Turning sheep into the field to graze is one remedy for this pest. Another is to cut the alfalfa very low or even remove it entirely on any spots in the field wdiere dodder starts. Insect enemies. — Alfalfa does not have so wide a range of insect enemies as some of the other farm plants. The alfalfa weevil and grasshoppers are probably the worst A six-wceks-oUl field of alfalfu in !Xortli Dakota. Alfalfa curing under cover. ALFALFA 145 enemies of this kind, particularl_v in the regions of the West. It has been found that disking an alfalfa field late in the fall in the northern states and mid-winter in southern states exposes the weevil and grasshopper young to freez- ing and the attacks of birds, and thus reduces their number. Topics for Investigatlon L How many acres of alfalfa are grown on each farm represented in the school? How long has alfalfa been raised in the vicinity ? Why is not more grown, since it is one of the most profitable crops known? 2. Out of one hundred successful alfalfa growers in the corn belt, eighty-five testified that they had planted according to the following program : Manured the ground, fall plowed, summer fallowed the next season (surface cultivated without crop), limed, inoculated, seeded about August first. Make an inquiry among the alfalfa growers in your vicinity. How many did all these things? Which did they omit, if any? How did they succeed? 3. Collect samples of field soil taken several inches be- low the surface from each of the farms represented in the school. Moisten the soil, roll it into a ball, cut the ball into halves, and place between the halves a piece of litmus paper, leaving it a few moments. Does it turn pink? H so, this is an indication of acid or sour condition of the soil. What treatment should an acid soil receive before being sown to alfalfa? 4. n there is no alfalfa grown on your father's farm, talk with him about the crop, and join with him in starting a small field. Would your field need liming? Would you know where to secure soil for inoculating? If there is no alfalfa near, is there not sweet clover along the roadside? CHAPTER VIII OTHER LEGUMES WHILE red clover and alfalfa are the most important leguminous plants for large portions of the United States, there are several other legumes that deserve attention. Chief among these are the cozv-pea, grown chieflv in the South; the vetches, the soy-bean, the peanut field beans and peas, and several others of lesser importance. These are pro- duced (1) for forage, (2) for soil renovation, and (3) for their seeds. 1. The Cozv-pea The cow-pea is to the South what red clover and alfalfa are to the West and North. It grows successfull)' on almost any kind of soil found in the cotton belt, and its cultiva- tion is being rapidly extended throughout this region. The plant. — The cow-pea was but recently introduced into this country, coming from China. The plant resem- bles the ordinary garden bean in appearance and manner of growth. It reaches a height of from one to nearly five feet. The smaller varieties stand nearly erect, the taller varieties spreading out vine-like on the ground. The leaves are broad, and grow in clusters of three. The flowers resemble those of the garden pea, and are greenish-yellow in color. The pods, which are cylindrical in shape, grow from two to some seven inches in length. The roots, which penetrate deeply into the soil, bear tuber- cles, \\hich are the home of nitrogen-gathering 1iacteria. 146 The cow-pea. 148 AGRICULTURE Cow-peas as forage. — Co\v-pcas, when harvested for hay, )aeld from two to three tons to the acre. The feed- ing value of cow-pea hay is fully equal to that of red clover, and nearly equal to alfalfa or wheat bran. It has been found a better forage feed for working animals in the South than grass hay. It is rich in protein, and therefore an ac- ceptable substitute for corn or cottonseed-meal in the fat- tening of stock. Since the cow-pea is an annual, it does not lend itself to the making of permanent meadows or pastures as does alfalfa. Cow-peas sowed in corn are profitabl)^ used as pas- turage for hogs, the gain in weight being in some cases more than twice as fast with a mixed feed of cow-peas and corn as when corn alone is fed. Cattle also do well on a pasturage of cow-peas. Bloating is likely to occur, how- ever, if grazing is allowed when the cow-peas are wet. The cow-pea as a soil renovator. — The cow-pea im- proves the soil in two ways : ( 1 ) like other legumes, it is able through its root bacteria to gather nitrogen from the air and transfer it to the soil ; and (2) its many roots, coarse stubble and stems, especially when the latter are plowed under as green manure, add much humus to the soil, making it more porous. In many parts of the South cow-peas are coming to be largely used in crop rotation with cotton the principal crop. The field is planted to cotton either two or three years in succession, then a crop of corn and cow-peas grown, and then a return to cotton. In Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Alabama and other states of this region, cow-peas are being successfully used in rotation with wheat and oats. An in- crease of from fifty to more than one hundred per cent, in other crops following cow-peas is not uncommon. Hairy vetcb. 150 AGRICULTURE 2. The I'ctchcs ^ The vetches are another group of legumes, grown most extensively on the Pacific Coast, less commonly in the South, and hardlv at all in the Xorth. Although more than one hundred different varieties of vetch are known, but two are commonly grown in the United States, common vetch and hairy vetch. Common vetch. — Common vetch is an annual, closely resembling the garden pea. Its stems are very slender, and grow from three to five feet or more in length. There are many different varieties of common vetch, of which the gray-seeded is most commonly grown in this country. Low temperatures are fatal to common vetch ; it can not be successfully raised in regions where the thermometer goes lower than about fifteen degrees Fahrenheit. Since the vetches have a long weak stem, they are usually planted with a crop of small grain to support them. Con:mon vetch is largely grown for hav in the extreme West, where it is sown in the fall with wheat or oats. In the South, oats, rye or barley often are grown with vetch. Hairy vetch. — Hairy vetch is much more hardy than common vetch, and may be raised in almost any portion of the United States. It finds its greatest use in supplying a legume for forage and improving the soil where red clover or alfalfa does not succeed, or where a short rotation crop is desired. Hairy vetch has great power to resist drought, and does well on a sandy soil. It will also thrive on a soil so alkaline that most legumes refuse to grow on it. 3. Soy-Bcans Soy-beans are native to Asia, where they have been grown from time immemorial. In China, India and Japan, llfot ui' a teoy-betiu, sliuwing bLicteria-iuhubiLeJ tuburflfd 152 AGRICULTURE some two hundred varieties are cultivated for human food, furnishing a staple article of diet in many regions. They have not proved palatable to Americans, however, and are raised in this country chiefly as a forage crop. Where red clover or alfalfa can be successfully grown, soy-beans will have little place, since they are less profitable. They are especially adapted to the cotton belt, however, and to the southern portion of the corn belt. Since soy- beans are drought resistant, they also grow well in the semi- arid regions of the West. They have as yet made little headway as a crop in this region because of the ravages of the rabbits, which find their foliage a savory delicacy. Feeding value. — The soy-bean has as great feeding value for stock as alfalfa, and is worth more than cotton- seed-meal as a food for hogs, sheep or cattle. The straw, after all the grain has been removed, is as valuable as tim- othy hay, and even more palatable to most farm animals. Like other legumes, the soy-bean adds to the fertility of the soil in which it grows, and therefore possesses a double value to the farmer. 4. Tlic Peanut Peanuts are grown in this country chiefly in the south Atlantic region. The plant produces stems from one to two and one-half feet in length. It has rather small leaves, growing three in a cluster. After flowering, the stems pen- etrate into the soil, where the pods or nuts are produced be- neath the surface. Uses of peanuts. — Peanuts are produced largely for their use as human food. Besides the roasted nuts sold on nearly every street corner, large quantities are made into peanut butter, oil, etc. The vines make an excellent forage for stock. Certain varieties are grown in the South ex- clusivelv as forage for hogs. OTHER LEGUMES 153 Topics for Investigation 1. Secure if possible a complete specimen of each of the legumes described in the chapter. If they are not grown in your vicinity, write your agricultural college as to how they may be obtained. Study each different plant, and learn to identify it. 2. Secure seed of each of the legumes discussed. Learn to identify the seed. Plant in the school garden or at home, and watch the development of the plant. 3. Which of these legumes could be grown in your region ? Would they be profitable ? Talk with your father about this. If they would not pay, is it because of unfa- vorable climate, unsuitable soil, or liecause more profit- able legumes can be grown? If you are not sure on any of these points, write your agricultural college. CHAPTER IX MEADOWS AND PASTURES ALTHOUGH meadows and pastures claim more than half of all the farm land of the United States, they re- ceive far less attention than any other part of the farm. About one-fourth of the acreage from which hav is harvested is native wild meadow : this is chiefly located in the newer portions of the West. Pastures are often used from year to year with no care taken to improve them. Yet in many cases meadows and pastures well repay the time and expense nec- essary to make them more productive. 1. J\Ieado-Li's Requirements of a meadow, — IMeadows are commonly used for a double purpose — the production of hay, and providing the rotation of crops required to maintain the fertility of the soil. It is necessary therefore to select such plants for the meadow as will serve both of these ends. This is possiljle with our wide range of grasses and legumes from which to choose,. Meadow plants should possess the following qualities : (1) yield well; (2) be palatable; (3) tend to improve the soil ; (4) grow strong and thick enough to keep down the weeds; (5) produce an even firm sod free from high tufts or bunches. The surface of the meadow should be smooth and free from obstructions that will interfere with the harvesting of the hay crop. • 154 MEADOWS AND PASTURES 155 Meadow grasses and legumes. — J\Iost of our meadows are mixtures of grasses, or of grasses with legumes. Al- falfa seems to thrive best alone, but most meadow plants grow well in company with some other variet_y. Red or crimson clover and timothy, for example, are commonly found growing together. Several advantages come from planting mixed meadows: the different plants draw their nourishment from various Two iirotit;ilile western iudustries — daii-yiui,' ami truil-i'aisiuy (Washiugtou). depths of the soil, thus using its full strength more com- pletely and increasing the yield of hay ; mixtures accommo- date themselves to peculiarities of seasons, sometimes one grass and sometimes another thriving better ; mixed forage provides variety for stock, making the feed more palatable and aft"ording a wider range of food elements. When hay is raised for market instead of being fed on the farm, however, it is often best to devote the meadow to one plant alone, tluis producing wdiat is called a "pure" 156 AGRICULTURE hay. Timothy is the favorite meadow grass for pure hay, and leads the market in all the great hay-buying centers. For working horses, timothy is thought by many to be su- perior to clover or to mixed forage. Pure red clover or alfalfa is often desired for fattening stock. Meadow mixtures. — The mixture to be used in seed- ing a meadow wiU depend on tlie climate, soil and use to which the forage is to be put. Red clover and timothy are the most common mixture found throughout the north- ern states, the proportion of seed used being about three- fifths timothy and two-fifths clover. For damp undrained soil, alsike clover is substituted for red clover, or mixed with it. A very common mixture for average soils is the following amounts per acre : Timothy 15 pounds Red clover 6 " Alsike clover 4 " This combination will produce about a half-and-half mix- ture of hay the first year, with timothy predominating the second year, and pure timothy thereafter. On very wet soils, red-top may be substituted for the red clover. If the soil is also strong in acid, it is best to omit both clovers, and use the red-top with the timothy. In southern regions, where clover, alfalfa and timothy are not successful in meadows, Johnson grass is the leading meadow plant, with red-top frequently used as a mixture. Brome-grass is important in many regions of the North- west. Care of meadows. — Under our system of rotation of crops meadows are usually not left down more than from two to four years, with sometimes a year or two of pastur- ing before the sod is broken up for other crops. Most of our meadows are therefore new, and must be constantly remade. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 157 One of the chief enemies of meadows is weeds. They not only hinder the newly seeded meadow from getting- a good start, but injure the value of hay, reducing the mar- ket price. If allowed to grow in the meadow from year to year, the weeds will also leave the soil foul for the crops that follow when the meadow is again tilled. stacking by Uieaiis of niudeni macliiuei'y saves iiiuuli lalior. It is no uncommon sight to see meadows grown up with ragweed, dock, smartweed, foxtail and other weed pests. If weeds appear after the crop of hay has been harvested, they should not be allowed to go to seed, but should be cut down with the mower while in bloom. Spring seeded meadows should not be pastured the fol- lowing fall even if the plants look thriving. This is sure to reduce the yield of hay the following season, and may cause the plants to winter kill by exposing the roots. The 158 AGRICULTURE aftennath, or second growth, on older meadows may be pastured, though it does not pay to feed them close. Es- pecially should new meadows not be trampled by stock while wet. Permanent meadows. — Many meadows are located on wet ground, or on soil that for some reason is not cropped. In other cases there is neglect to rotate the meadow land with the remainder of the fields in the crop series. It is often found that meadows that are thus left for a number of years have a tendency tc^ "run out." The }'ield of hay on almost any meadow left without attention for several years decreases from one-third to one- half. Weeds begin to appear, and patches here and there become thin or die out. The less desirable grasses crowd out the better ones. Such a meadow is highly unprofitable. If tillable, it should be plowed up and put into other crops. If not, it should be improved and its quality kept up. It is not hard to keep permanent meadows in a state of high production, but it requires some labor and expense. The following treatment will do much to keep permanent meadows in good condition: (1) No weeds are to be al- lowed to go to seed: (2) if the soil is run down, the field should be manured or other fertilizer used on it: (3) the soil should be loosened and the sod-bound condition relieved by disking ; (4) fresh pure grass seed should be scattered, especially over thin or weedy places. Topics for Investigation 1. What proportion of your father's farm is in mead- ow ? In pasture ? Compare with all the farms represented in the school. 2. How many different meadows on your home farm? l-low long has each been down? Which are the more suc- cessful, the older or the newer ones? MEADOWS AND PASTURES 159 3. Make a collection of the different meadow plants produced on your home meadows. How many different kinds of grasses ? How many legumes ? Do you find any grasses that were not sown, but which have come in of their own accord? Learn to identify each different grass and its seed in j^our meadows. 4. Make a collection of the most troublesome weeds found in your meadows. Learn to identify both plants and seeds. How many farmers in your region cut down the weeds on their meadows to keep them from going to seed ? 5. Go out into some meadow near by and examine it for the five qualities specified for meadows. What was the yield per acre ? Is red-top as palatable for stock as tim- othy ? As clover ? Does timothy improve the soil ? 6. Exaniine some meadow just seeded. Identify the plants. Is the stand good? Is the field free from weeds? Is it reasonably smooth ? 7. Are there any old meadows near at hand that are run down? If so, what do they need to improve them? How much do they yield? What is the Cjuality of the hay produced ? 2. Pastures More improved farm land is devoted to pastures than to any cultivated crop. Pasturage supplies the greater pro- portion of the feed for the production of milk, butter, beef, mutton and wool and is an important factor in the produc- tion of pork. The annual value of our pasturage is more than that of any other crop raised. Requirements of a pasture. — Pastures should possess in general the same qualities as meadovi's. They should (1) yield well; (2) have such grasses as will start early and continue to grow late; (3) be palatable and nutritious to stock; (4) form a firm tough sod that will stand tramp- ling; (5) have fine rather than coarse grasses; and (6) be free from weeds. Pasture grasses and legumes. — The best meadow grasses are not always the best pasture grasses. For ex- 160 AGRICULTURE ample, timothy, the queen of hay grasses, is too coarse when used alone for the best pasture grass, and does not stand trampling so well as some ot^ers. Pastures should usually be made of a mixture of plants. This will provide some varieties that start earlier than others, root at different depths, adjust themselves to various kinds of seasons, supply variety for stock, and endure longer Killing bay iu the West directly from the lueuduw. without running out. Pasture mixtures should contain a much greater variety than meadow mixtures. Pasture mixtures. — Over the greater portion of the United States north of the cotton belt and the region west of the Missouri River, Kentucky blue-grass and white clover are the most common and valuable pasture grasses. No mat- ter what mixture is sown, one or both of these grasses is sure soon to make its appearance, and graduallv force most other grasses out. When blue-grass and white clover have taken possesion of a pasture they grow reasonably well to- gether, though in some seasons one of them will predomi- nate, and again the other. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 161 Throughout the South, Bermuda grass is the chief pas- ture plant, though it is commonly mixed with Rhodes grass for dr)- soils and witli orchard grass for wet regions. Red-top is successful on wet heav)' soil. l"or starting a pasture on good land in northern regions, a mixture may be made of something like the following proportions : Timoth}' 10 pounds Red clover 3 " Alsike clover 2 " White clover 2 Kentucky blue-grass 3 Brome-grass 2 Meadow fescue 2 " Orchard grass 2 This will make sufficient seed for one acre. If the pas- ture is on ver)' wet, undrained land, the red clover may be omitted and red-top substituted in its stead. Even though timothy will soon be driven out by blue-grass and white clover, it should head the mixture as it roots more quickly than the others, and acts as a cover while the slower grasses are getting started. Care of pastures. — If permanent pastures are to be kept up to a high state of efficiency they demand even more care than meadows. On fairly good soils, pastures do not usually require manuring, though a light coat of manure will increase the yield of any pasture. Nearly every pasture needs the as- sistance of a mower to keep down the weeds. This is be- cause stock do not find most weeds palatable, and so eat the grass, leaving the weeds to flourish. Many pastures are thickly sprinkled with weeds which not only rob the soil but prevent cattle from eating the grass growing 162 AGRICULTURE close to their roots, thus adding to the waste. Weeds should be cut from the pasture each year before they bear seed. Grazing stock not only reject the weeds for the more palatable grass, but also have their preference among grasses. All have noted that the uplands in a pasture are grazed close, while low wet areas are hardly touched. In many cases the low parts of a pasture are almost wasted, because the red-top and other wet-soil grasses are less palatable than the blue-grass and clovers which thrive only on well drained soil. Such marshy places should be drained ; the better pasture grasses will then soon take possession. Pastures, like meadows, may become sod-bound. Almost any old pasture can be improved by disking or cultivating with a knife-toothed harrow. Vv'hen this is done, fresh grass seed should be scattered on thin places, or a desirable new variety added to the plants already established. After being grazed, pastures grow better if they have a rest from trampling and cropping. It is therefore best to have two pastures, using them alternately, instead of feeding the one continuously throughout the season. Such an arrangement usually requires only the expense of a par- tition fence, which the increased yield from the pasture will well repay. Topics for Investigation 1. What is the age of the different pastures on your father's farm ? What is the predominating grass ? What other grasses are in the mixture? 2. Is there a pasture near by consisting of both upland and marsh land? If so, which is the more closely cropped? Secure samples of the grass from each part ; what grass predominates in each case ? Would it not pay to drain the wet portion ? IMEADOAVS AND PASTURES 163 3. Make a study of the pastures represented at the school for the weeds growing in them. What proportion of the pastures may be called weedy? What weeds predom- inate ? Are they ever mowed ? 4. How many of the farmers in your vicinity follow the plan of dividing their pasture, so that the one part may rest while the other is being used? If this is not done at your home, figure the cost of running a division fence so that it would be possible. Talk with your father about the cost of the fence. 5. Are any of the pastures in your region ever disked to loosen the sod? Is new seed ever sown on them? Do you think any of them are sod-bound. How can you tell? 6. What is the cost per rod of laying field tile in your vicinity? Investigate any wet areas on your home pasture where the grass is rejected by the stock', and determine how many rods of drainage would be required to make the soil tillable. Suppose draining would double the feeding value of such an area, would the drain pay good interest on its cost ? Figure this all out and talk with your father about it. PART 11. HORTICULTURE CHAPTER X THE VEGETABLE GARDEN THE plan of ever}* farm, village or suburban house should include a good vegetable garden to supply the home table. Not only are vegetables a highly necessary food, but they are much more palatable when taken from the garden fresh as needed instead of bought in a market. Nor is a well stocked market easily available to most of our homes. Hence, unless the home raises its own supply of vegetables, those who surround the table are likely to suffer from lack of variety and the absence of certain food qual- ities required for health. Without vegetables the table is also more expensive because of requiring more of the high priced foods such as meats and bread. The vegetable garden can be made the most profitable part of a farm. Half an acre of ground planted to a suit- able variety of garden crops v/iW, if properly cared for, yield over one hundred dollars' worth of vegetables each season for the family table. This is from ten to twenty times what the same amount of ground in farm crops will produce. Although the garden requires considerable atten- tion, the labor demanded is not great compared with the returns in profits, good health and human efficiency. 165 166 AGRICULTURE Tones FOR Investigation 1. ^Measure your home garden and find the amount of space devoted to vegetables this season. Make a com- parison with other members of the class. Compute the average size of vegetable gardens for the neighborhood. 2. Make a list of all the different vegetables raised in your home garden this year. How many different kinds ? What proportion of the space was devoted to each? Com- pare the number of different l^inds and the proportion of each with the garden plan shown on page 170. 1. Location and Soil The location. — There is a double advantage in having the vegetable garden near the house : the vegetables can then be taken from the soil as needed, without loss of time ; and spare moments free from other work or chores can be given to the care of the garden. Where the soil is suitable it is best to have the garden only a few rods from the kitchen door. The soil. — Most vegetables require a well drained soil. Ground on which the water stands after a rain is not adapted to garden use. A slight slope to the south and east will favor the early maturing of the crops. 2. Plan of the Vegetable Garden The vegetable garden should be carefully planned be- fore time to begin planting, and a diagram made allotting to each crop its location and proper amount of space. This will save time in putting in the crop and insure a better arrangement. The plan. — A well planned garden provides (1) for a succession of crops supplying the table with fresh vegeta- bles from early spring to late fall, with storage varieties for winter use. This can be accomplished by selecting a THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 167 reasonably wide range of crops and successive plantings of certain kinds. (2 ) Tlie right proportion of space should be allowed for each vegetable, depending on the tastes of tlie family and allowing for the canning of a supply for home use. As a result of careless planning an over-supply of one vegeta- ble often results in waste, while some other crop runs short. Jlenilievs of Xiitiimnl JlMvket Garden Oub iiaukiiig fresh vege- tables for i)arcel-]iiist shipnieiit. (3) The crops should be arrangetl in the order of their time of planting, so that the planting can begin at one side of the garden in the early spring, and proceed across until all are in. This arrangement saves much labor in culti- vation W'ithout interfering with crops already planted. (4) If the cultivation is to be done with horse imple- ments, as it should be in all larger gardens, the rows should 168 AGRICULTURE run the long way, and a turf turning ground be left at each end. It also pa)'s to place in each row plants that re- quire the same kind of cultivation and that mature in about the same time so that together they will get out of the way of later plantings. The boy witli a lioe. Buck-yard ^'ardouiug. The arrangement, shown, which will, of course, need to be modified to meet personal requirements, presents a seasonal order of planting. In the latitude of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska the first ten rows can be planted about April first ; rows eleven to fourteen, inclusive, the last week in April ; and the remainder about May fifteenth. Planting time and maturity. — The time required for growth and the date of planting the common garden vegeta- bles recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture are as follows: THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 169 Kind of VeuETA1!LE Asparagus Ecans, bush Beans, pole Dccts Brussels sprouts Cabbage, early Cabbage, late Carrots Cauliflower Celery Corn, sweet Cucumbers Eggplant French endive Horseradish Lettuce Melon, mnskmelon Melon, watermelon Onions, seed Onion,sets Peas Peppers Potatoes, Irish Pumpkins Radishes Rhubarb, plants Salsify Squash, bush Squash, late Swiss chard Tomatoes Turnips Time of South Fall ur early spring Feb. to Apr. (Aug. to Sept.) Late spring Feb. to Apr. (Aug. to Sept.) Jan. to July Oct. to Dec. June and July Mar. Apr. Sept. Jan. Feb. June Aug. to Oct. Feb. to Apr. Feb. Mch. Sept. Feb. to Apr. Aug. to Oct. Early spring Sept. to Mar. Feb. to Apr. Mar. to May Oct. to Mar. Early spring Sept. to Apr. Early spring Jan. to Apr. April and Maj' Sept. to Apr. FLAKTING iS'ORTU Early spring Apr. to July Keady for use after flanting 1 to 3 years 40 to 65 days May and June 50 to 80 days Apr. to Aug. 60 to 80 days Spring Spring Feb. to Apr. Dec. to Mar. Aug. to Oct. May and June Mar. and Apr. Iilay and June Apr. to June Apr. to June ]\Iay and June May to July Apr. to July Apr. and May May to June Early spring March to Sept, Apr. to June May and June Apr. and May Fall, Feb. to May March to June A'lay and June March to June May to July ]\L-irch to Sept. Fall or spring Early spring April to June April to June Apr. to Aug. May and June April (July) 90 to 120 days 90 to 130 days 90 to 130 days 75 to 110 days 100 to 130 days 120 to 150 days 60 to 100 days 60 to 80 days 100 to 140 days 100 to 130 days 1 to 2 years 60 to 90 days 120 to ISO days 100 to 120 days 130 to 150 days 90 to 120 days 40 to 80 days 100 to 140 days 80 to 140 days 100 to 140 days 20 to 40 days 1 to 3 years 120 to 180 days 60 to 80 days 120 to 160 days 60 to 80 days inOto 140 days 60 to 80 days 170 AGRICULTURE The following plan of a garden ninety feet wide and two himdred and fort}- feet long suggests how" to carry out the principles just stated ; 1 Asparagus o Rhubarb o Horseradish- 2 Parsnips o Parslc}' ri Carrots 3 Onions - 4 Early Bcets-_o Swiss Chard o Salsif}' S__Lettuce ( fol. b_v ceIer3-)_o_ Radishes (ccl. )_o_Onion sets (follow by celery) 6 Early Turnips (fol. by ceI.)-0_Spinach (cel.)-O-Onion sets (follow by celery) 7 Early Peas (follow by celery') o String beans (eel.) 8 Early potatoes (followed by turnips) 9 Early potatoes (followed by turnips) 10 Ear!}- potatoes (followed by turnips) 11 Later plantings of peas 12 Earlj- cabbage o Cauliflower o- Brussels sprouts- 13 Summer cabbage o String beans 14 Early sweet corn 15 Tomatoes 16 , Lima beans 'i Peppers 17 Late cabbages 18 Late sweet corn 19 Late sweet corn 20x X X X X @ (ff (2 @ X X X X X (5' (S (O; (5} (5) @ (3) X X X X X 21x X X X X fij. (Ji (n ((?■ X X X .X X f5 @ @ @ @ @ @ -^ -"^ -^ ^ X Cucumbers Earlj- Late Watermelons Muskmelons 22x xxxx(a(a.'(a'(gxxxxx(a'@(?5(a;@(a)(a)xxxxx Squash Squash 23x xxxx(a^@{a(g)xxxxx(f?@(a'@(aJ("ing by simply dissolving from four to eight ounces in fifty gallons of water. The standard formula, however, is : 4 ounces of Paris green. % pound of lime. SO gallons of water. The lime is to be slaked and mixed with the water. The ^•."ly.*^ Cro]) fi'diu fiiur sprayed pencil trees; cue basket of scabby fruit at tlie left; tbe remainder sound. Crop from four nusprayed peach trees. Sound fruit In three baskets at left; tbe remainder scabby. 214 AGRICULTURE Paris green is mixed to paste form in a small quantity of water, and then added to the water. Use. — Paris green may be used in combination with the Bordeaux mixture, but not with Hme-sulphur. ^\'hen mixing it with Bordeaux, the Paris green sliould be com- bined with the diluted lime before it is brought in contact with the copper sulphate. 5. Kerosene Emulsion- Kerosene is one of the best of contact insecticides. A small particle of it on any part of the body means certain death to any insect. Pure kerosene, however, will injure most plants, and hence must be used in a mixture. The best of these is what is known as kerosene emulsion. Composition. — The formula for the mixture commonh- used is: % pound hard laundry soap shaved fine. 1 gallon of soft water. 2 gallons of kerosene. Making the emulsion. — One of the advantages in the use of this spray is the ease with which it can be made. Dissolve the soap in one gallon of boiling water ; remove from the stove and at once add two gallons of kerosene. Stir while cooling until a soft, butter-like mass is obtained. Dilute one part of this stock solution with ten or twelve parts of water as needed for spraying. Use. — Kerosene emulsion may be used on all kinds of tender foliage without injury. It will control the vari- ous kinds of plant lice, slugs, etc. 6. TIic Resin-Lime Mixture One of the difficulties in using many of the insecticides and fungicides is that they do not adhere well to the smooth foliage of the plants. The resin-lime mixture is often used GARDEN AND ORCHARD SPRAYS 215 in combination with other compounds to insure their stick- ing to the ]ilants until they have done their work. Composition. — The formula employed is : 5 pounds of pulverized resin. 1 pound of concentrated lie. 1 pint of iish or some other animal oil. 5 gallons of water. This mixture is the stock solution, which is still further diluted as used. Making the mixture. — The oil, resin and one gallon of cold water are to be put into an iron kettle and heated until the resin softens. Add the lime and stir well. Then add four gallons of hot water and boil until a little mi.xed with cold water gives a clear amber-colored liquid. Add water to make up for what has boiled away, making five gallons of the compound. Use. — This spray, Ijesides causing other mixtures to adhere to the foliage of plants, is itself an excellent contact insecticide. Its principal effect is through making 'a smoth- ering coating over the body of the insect. It is used in some regions as a dormant wash for the control of scale insects, ^^d^en used with Paris green or Bordeaux, two gallons of resin-lime compound are mi.xed with eight gal- lons of water, and this added to forty gallons of the spray. Tones FOR Investig.vtion 1. Copper sulphate costs from seven to ten cents a pound, and lime, when bought in small quantities, about fifteen cents a pound. What, then, should be the outlay in making fifty gallons of Bordeaux mixture? What would it cost for material to spray ten apple trees averaging a twenty-five- foot spread ? 2. Under the direction of the teacher and with great care in handling both before and after mixing, let the class 216 AGRICULTURE join in making up a Bordeaux mixture, substituting one ounce for each pound of the ingredients in the formula, and a corresponding amount of water. What is the color of the compound ? Will it keep indefinitely if covered to save evap- oration? 3. Make a lime-sulphur mixture, reducing the amounts as before to one ounce for each pound of ingredients. 4. Make up a kerosene emulsion, using one pint of kerosene and a corresponding amount of other ingredients. 5. Secure catalogs describing spraying machines, ex- amine the different makes, and decide which is best for the use 3'ou would require in your home garden and or- chard. If uncertain write your state agricultural college about it. CHAPTER XIV HOME CANNING OF FRUITS AND VEGE- TABLES IT is both practicable and economical to can the surplus vegetables, fruit, sweet corn, greens and other such prod- ucts that commonly go to waste in the orchard, field and garden. 1. Home Canned Products and the Table When the farm home has learned to can its svirplus fresh food products, then the family can have a balanced ration every day in the year, and the cost of living will be greatly reduced. Home canned foods. — The average farm family should plan to have for table use from the home-canned supply one quart of vegetables, one quart of fruit and one quart of greejis for every day in the year when these foods are not available in the garden. The ration based on these foods and supplemented by meats is better balanced and less expensive than one based on meats with a scarcity of fruits and vegetables. Such a system will have a tendency to cut down both the doctor's bills and the grocery bills, and will furnish a more palatable diet. The elimination of waste. — The importance of home canning is still more fully realized when we stop to con- sider that in most states probably one-half of all the fruit and vegetables raised are allowed to go to waste. They are not needed for immediate consumption, and methods of grading, crating and marketing are not understood. Home canning will save all of this waste. 217 218 AGRICULTURE Successful canning not difficult. — By following simple recipes and time-tables for sterilization, e\en children can successfully can anything that grows in tlie garden, field or orchard. Once canned the product has a money value, and is as standard in the market as sugar or nails. Canning fruits. — The list of receipts and time-tables given in this chapter are made to be used in connection with the usual home canning utensils, and with four distinct types of canning outfits. Such outfits are not expensive. They can be bought all the way from eighty-nine cents up to twenty dollars, depending on type and size. All kinds of glass jars, bottles and tin cans commonly used in the old methods of canning can be used with these newer devices, (Write for Fanners' Bulletin 521 and other circulars of instruction on canning, for description of canning outfits, and full directions for their use.) 2. Canning Recipes for Fruits and Vegetables These recipes have been carefully planned and tested by experts, and should be followed with great care if the best results are to be obtained. Tomatoes. — Grade for ripeness, size and quality. Scald to loosen skins. Dip in cold water ; remove skins ; pack whole. Fill with tomatoes only and add 1 level tea- spoonful salt to each quart. Place rubber and partially seal. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize thirty-two minutes in hot- water bath, twenty-two minutes in water-seal outfit, fifteen minutes under five pounds of steam, or ten minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten co^'ers, and invert to cool. Strawberries. — 1. Can fresh, sound berries same day picked. Hull (twist berries off hull) ; place in strainer, pour water over to cleanse. Pack in jar or tin without crushing. Pour hot sirup over berries to top. Place rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize sixteen Canning: in tlie liome liitelieu. Two types of canning onftits: (a) the water seal; (b) tlic steam pressure type, used by a Utali canning club girl. 220 AGRICULTURE minutes in hot-water bath, 6 minutes under 5 pounds of steam, 10 minutes in water-seal outfit, or 4 minutes in pressure cooker. (Sirup: V/z qts. sugar to 1 qt. water, boiled to medium thick.) Strawberries. — 2. Same as above except sirup. Sirup : Crush berries for 1 quart natural juice, add 1 qt. sugar, boil to medium thick sirup. Add as in No. 1. Strawberries. — Sun preserves. Select ripe, firm ber- ries. Pick and preserve same day. Hull and rinse as in No. 1. Place in shallow platter in single layer; sprinkle sugar over them ; pour over them 40-degree sirup (same as No. 1 boiled thicker). Cover with glass dish or window pane. Allow to cook in hot sun 6 to 10 hours. Pack in glasses, jars, or cups; tie paper over tops. (Paraffin or sealing wax.) Keep in cool dry place. Carrots, parsnips, sweet potatoes, etc. — Scald from 1 to 5 minutes in boiling water. Plunge in cold water. Re- move skins ; pack whole or sliced ; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful salt to each quart. Place rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process V/i hours in hot-water bath, 1 hour, IS minutes in water seal, 1 hour under 5 pounds of steam, or 30 minutes in pressure cooker. Eggplant. — Scald 5 minutes in slightly salt boiling water ; plunge in cold water ; remove skins. Slice cross- wise and pack; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful of salt to each pint. Place rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tin tins.) Process 1 hour in hot-water bath, 50 minutes in water-seal outfit, 45 minutes in steam pressure, or 30 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, and invert to cool. Sweet corn, on the cob. — Blanch in boiling water 10 minutes, plunge quickly in cold water. Pack, alternating butts and tips ; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful cf salt to each quart. Place rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process 180 to 240 minutes in hot-water bath, lyA hours water-seal outfit, 60 minutes under 5 pounds of steam, or 45 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, invert and cool. Sweet corn, off the cob. — Same as above, except cut HOME CANNING 221 from cob after blanching. Pack and fill jars with boiling- water, adding 1 level teaspoonful salt to each pint. Pro- ceed as above. Peas, beans, etc. — Blanch 5 minutes in boiling water ; plunge in cold water. Pack and add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful salt to each pint. Place rubber and top and partially tighten top. (Cap and tip tins.) Process l)j hours in hot-water bath, 1 hour in water-seal, 1 hour under 5 pounds of steam, or 35 minutes in pressure cooker. Chards, beets, turnips, etc.^Scald 1 to 6 minutes in boiling water ; plunge in cold water, remove skins. Slice and pack ; add boiling water and 1 level teaspoonful salt for eacli pint. Place rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process lyz hours in hot-water bath, 1)4 hours in water-seal, 1 hour under 5 pounds of steam, or 40 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, and invert to cool. Greens, (spinach, dandelion, mustard, beet tops, etc.) — Blanch in boiling water 5 minutes, plunge in cold water. Cut ready for table use. Process 20 minutes in open ket- tle to shrink ; season with slice of bacon or chips of dried beef for each pint. Pack, add hot water and a little salt to each (juart. Place rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process 60 minutes in hot-water bath or water-seal outfit, 40 minutes under 5 pounds of steam, 30 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove, tighten covers, and invert to cool. It is always advisable to cook the greens a short time before packing in order to reduce the bulk. Windfall apples. — For the canning of whole apples select firm, not over-ripe apples. A great difference in the canned products will be noted in the different varieties of apples. The recipe is intended for firm and preferablv tart varieties. Some varieties will require less time and some more. Experience will teach adjustment of time. Remove blemished, cut out core. Blanch for 5 minutes in boiling water ; plunge in cold water. Pack in tin cans or glass jars and add just a little very thin sirup. IMace rubber and top and partially tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Process 20 minutes in hot-water bath, 15 minutes in water- 222 AGRICULTURE seal, 10 minutes in steam pressure uutfit, or 4 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, and invert to cool. Windfall apples for pie falling. — Peel and core. Slice : scald 1 minute in boiling- water ; plunge in cold water. Pack in glass or tin, and add about one teacupful of hot, thin sirup to each quart. Place rubber and top, partiallv tighten. (Cap and tip tins.) Sterilize 16 minutes in hot- water bath, 12 minutes in water-seal outfit, 10 minutes un- der 5 pounds of steam, or 4 minutes in pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, invert to cool. Blanching. — After blanching plunge in cold water and pack quickly."' 1. Blanch peas, beans, etc., 5 minutes. 2. Blanch corn on cob, 5 to 15 minutes. 3. Blanch pumpkin, squash, mangoes, about 5 minutes. 4. Blanch okra. cabbage, sweet potatoes, 5 miinites. 5. Blanch asparagus, spinach, kale, etc., 5 to 10 minutes. 6. Blanch rhubarb, beet tops, etc., 1 to 3 minutes. 7. Blanch or scald beets, carrots, turnips, etc., 6 min- utes. 8. Scald tomatoes, plums, pears, etc., 1 to 2 minutes. 9. Scald peaches, apricots, 1 to 2 minutes. Reasons. — Scalding: (T) To remove skins without loss of pulp: (2) to eliminate objectionable acids; (3) to arrest flow of coloring matter. Blanching. — (Ij To eliminate objectionable acids; (2) to set coloring matter; (3) to make texture firm for ster- ilization. Cold Dip. — (1) To separate skin from pulp; (2) to set color bodies; (3) to render packing easier. 3. Time Table for Home Caiinnig of Foods To be followed in the use of the four different types of portable home canners. For altitudes of 4,000 feet or more above sea level, add about 20 per cent, or 25 per cent, more time to this schedule. * Cook greens, caliliage, chard, etc., about 20 minutes before packing to reduce bulk. HOME CAXNIXG 222 Time Schedule for Canninn Products to be Canncil. '^ t- d 1/ ?9 ct ■*-> P^S ;-! d* m . t- Sh (V o m *^ 1 I^ m r-l (0 O (H O o CJ ■ ^ 1 ?^., aJiC

7 The first of these ten plant elements, carbon, is supplied in the form of carbon dioxid by the atmosphere, and hence forms no part of the soil's fertility. Hydrogen and oxygen, which are the elements that compose water, are taken up by the plant directly from the water of the soil. The next four of the list, calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur, are found in practically all soils in C[uantities sufficient for ordi- nary plant growth. The fertility of the soil therefore de- pends chiefly on the supply of the last three, nitrogen, phos- phorus and potassium. Rich or fertile soils are those that contain an abundance of these three elements. Every crop removes some amount of each of the seven elements supplied by the soil ; but since calcium, magnesium, iron and sulphur are practically inex- haustible, they do not have to be replaced in order to main- tain the soil's fertility. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas- sium, however, must constantly be returned to the soil if it is not to become exhausted and the crops reduced. Like the strength of a chain is measured by its weakest link, so the fertility of the soil is measured by the plant element of which it has the least. Danger of loss of fertility. — One of our chief agricul- tural problems is to maintain the fertilit\- of the soil. We must all live from its products, no matter what our occupa- tion. Most of the tillable land of the United States is now occupied. Our people must be fed from this land ; there is no other source of supply. This means that we should not only keep up the fertil- ity of the soil, but actually increase it as time goes on. It is estimated that our population is increasing five times as fast as our food supply. This fact explains in part, at least, the high cost of living. Much land, particularly in the East and South, has been rendered almost valueless through careless methods of 238 AGRICULTURE farming which have robbed the soil of its nitrogen, phos- phorus and potassium. Farms located within a hundred miles of the great eastern markets have recently been bought for from ten dollars to twenty dollars an acre, when middle western land is selling for one hundred dollars to two hundred dollars an acre. IMuch of this eastern land was originally as good as the western, and would be worth three hundred dollars an acre if it had been properly farmed to conserve its fertility. There are three principal methods of maintaining the fertility of the soil or increasing it when it has run down. These are: (1) manuring, either with barnyard manure or by plowing under such plants as clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, or some other green crop; (2) using commercial fertilisers; (3) rotation of crops. 2. Barnyard Manure as a Fertiliser One of the best evidences of careful farming and good management is a well kept and well used manure heap. Manure should no more be wasted than any other farm product. The value of barnyard manure. — Barnyard manure is rich in all three of the elements in which the soil is likely to run short — nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. It has been estimated by experts that if animals are kept in stalls or pens throughout the year, given a reasonable amount of litter for bedding and all the manure saved, the annual value of the manure from each animal will be : horses or mules, twenty-seven dollars ; cattle, twenty dollars ; hogs, eight dollars ; sheep, two dollars. Differently stated, the value of the manure produced during the seven winter months on a farm keeping four horses, twenty cows, fifty sheep and ten hogs would be at least two hundred and fifty dollars. These FieUl showing the effect ou legumes of proper treatment of the soil. On the left, manure was used ; on the right, limestone, rock-phosphate aud manure. The wroug way to handle barnyard manures. 240 AGRICULTURE figures are based on the cost of an equal amount of com- mercial fertilizer. It is true that not all the fertility taken from the soil by farm crops can be returned by using the manure from the feeding of crops, but the greater part of it can be. The manurial value of different farm products, based on the cost of commercial fertilizers, is shown in the following table: {Fanners' Bulletin 193, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Value of fertilizer in ton Phosphoric Product Nitrogen acid Potash Total Meadow hay $ 3.47 $ 0.57 $ 1.06 $ 5.10 Clover hay 6.83 Wheat bran 8.35 Linseed meal 17.87 Cottonseed meal 23.06 Wheat 6.38 Oats 6.21 Corn 5.62 We see from the above table that the farmer who sells a ton of meadow hay loses from his farm, fertilizer that would cost about five dollars if purchased in commercial form. If he sells clover hay, he loses almost as much value in fertilizer as his hay brings him. If he pay twenty dol- lars a ton for wheat bran he gets over thirteen dollars' worth of fertilizer, leaving the feeding cost only seven dollars. Of course it is evident that these values will not be ob- tained from the feeding of farm crops unless the manure is carefully saved and properly used. Not only has manure great chemical value because of supplying the elements needed in plant growth, but it has bacteriological value as well. For manure contains an enormous number of bac- .78 1.46 9.07 3.82 1.14 13.31 2.25 .99 21.11 3.96 1.17 28.16 1.11 .42 7.91 .87 .35 7.43 .83 .30 6.75 SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 241 teria, man}- of which aid in plant growth. Attention has already been called to the fact that the addition of manure improves the physical condition of the soil, making it more porous, and increasing the supply of humus. Preventing loss from manure. — Loss of fertilizing qualities from manure is due principally to two causes : ( 1 ) fermentation, or heating, which reduces the supply of nitro- gen ; and (2) zvcathcring, or leaching from rains, in which, all the valuable elements suffer. The fermentation of manure is caused by two different kinds of bacteria, one of which works near the outside of the heap where there is air, and one farther in where the air is excluded. A certain degree of fermentation is neces- sary to the best rotting of the manure, yet overheating, or the "fire-fanging"' so common in horse and sheep manure, greatly reduces its value. The rapidity of fermentation can be controlled in part by packing. If the heap is too loosely built, the air-working bacteria become active, the heat grows intense and nitrogen and humus-making material are lost. If, on the other hand, the heap is packed too closely, the decomposition is slow and the manure does not have the best effect when spread on the soil. Frequent sprinkling with water will aid in checking too rapid fermentation. Great loss is suffered from leaching when manure is ex- posed to the weather. It has been found that six months' leaching of horse manure reduces its value fully one-half. The remedy lies in collecting manure under cover, so that it is not exposed to rains. It should also be provided with a water-proof floor for the heap, so that the liquid parts, which are fully as valuable as the solid, may not drain away into the soil. The profits from open-yard, badly leached inanure are so small as hardly to pay for spreading it on 242 AGRICULTURE the field. It is a careless, shiftless method of fanning that allows this great waste, which is so easily prevented. The application of manure. — For heavy soils, which need to be made porous l)y the addition of vegetable matter, it is well to spread manure on the field fresh from the stalls without waiting for it to rot. It should not, however, be allowed to lie long before being plowed under, as much of its strength is lost in this way. For all lighter soils, and especially such as have a tendency to dry out, the manure should be rotted before being applied. The practise of throwing the manure in heaps on the field and later spreading it is a mistake. For here also the leaching takes place. Some of the best elements of the manure are drained into the ground immediately under the heap, and some are lost by passing oft' in the air. The most economical and satisfactory method of spreading man- ure is by use of the manure spreader. This machine saves labor, and distributes the manure more evenly than is pos- sible by hand. The amount of manure to be used will depend on the strength of the manure and the condition of the soil. Five tons to the acre is a light application, ten or twelve tons average, and twenty tons a heavy application. 3. Green Manurhig As already suggested, the returning of the barnyard manure to the soil, no matter how skilfully done, is not enough to maintain the fertility. Our soils are everywhere being gradually worn out. One of the most successful methods of supplementing barnyard manure is by green manuring. Meaning of green manuring. — By green manuring is meant plowing under any green crop for the purpose of im- SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 243 proving the soil. Green manures improve the soil both by adding- to its fertility and bettering its physical condition. If the soil is light and sandy, green manure prevents it from (Irj'ing out. On heavy clay soil green manure has quite the opposite effect, because of admitting the air, loosening the soil, and improving its drainage. Ilo.gs in cIiiviT. After imsturiiiii under as green roanure. this elover will be turned Green manure crops. — For most purposes the best green manure crops are the nitrogen gatherers already dis- cussed — the clovers, alfalfa, cow-peas, soy-beans, the vetches and other legumes. R}-e, buckwheat, rape and turnips are among other crops used as green manures. This group, however, lacks the ad\'antage of gathering nitrogen. 4. Commercial rcrti!i::ers Although proper systems of manuring and rotation of crops will insure fertility on naturally good soil for many 244 AGRICULTURE years, the land will finally become exhausted under such treatment. This is for the simple reason that the crops re- move from the soil each year more of the elements neces- sary to their growth than are returned to it. The deficiency must finally be made up if permanent fertility is to be main- tained. This is accomplished by supplementing manuring and rotation with what are called the commercial fertilisers. Increased use of commercial fertilizers. — Commercial fertilizers have long been used in a small way, but it is only recently that they are coming to be employed on a large scale. The farmers of the United States are now paying out considerably more than $100,000,000 a year for such fertilizers. There are at present more than five hundred manufacturers selling the various fertilizing products. Since, as we have seen, only three of the elements neces- sary to plant production are likely to run short, commercial fertilizers are commonly limited to these three — nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Commercial nitrogen fertilizers. — Nitrogen is the most expensive of the three essential fertilizers. Commer- cial nitrogen fertilizer is sold chiefly in three dififerent forms: (1) nitrate of soda (Chile saltpeter) ; (2) sulphate of ammonia, which is a by-product of the manufacture of coke and gas; and (3) dried blood, ground or steamed bone, or other animal products from packing houses. The nitrogen fertilizers cost from fifteen to fifty cents a pound. Instead of depending on them the intelligent farmer will therefore use every effort to maintain the supply of nitrogen in his soil through the nitrogen-fixing legumes, occasionally plowing under a crop of clover, alfalfa, cow- peas, vetches, or soy-beans. Where these can be grown successfully, there will be little need to buy nitrogen ; it can be obtained from the seventy million pounds of free nitro- gen in the atmospliere above each acre. SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROAVTH 245 Commercial phosphorus fertilizers. — Phosphorus fer- tihzers are supphed commercially in the form (1) of the bones of aiiiiiials killed at tlie slaughter-houses; (2) of min- eral deposits in phosphate rock, immense beds of which are found in Tennessee, South Carolina, Florida, Wyoming, LTtah, Idaho and Montana; and (3) of slag from the fur- naces where certain ores containing phosphorus are smelted. Bone phosphate is sold either as ground bone, which is raw bone ground up ; or bone meal, which is made by grind- ing after the bones have been steamed under high pressure to remove the fats and oils. Jilineral phosphate is sold in two forms, (1) that first treated wdth sulphuric acid, and (2) the natural rock finely ground. The first form has the advantage of being more immediately available for plant use. The second form is considerably less expensive and, when mixed with organic matter like some form of manure, proves equally as valu- able as the more expensive compound. Commercial potassium fertilizers. — Potassium fertil- izers are available in several commercial forms, none of which is produced in large quantity in this country. The potash mines of Germany are the chief source of supply. The crude potash may be used on the soil directly as mined, or it may be made into more concentrated form. It is sold commercially as a fertilizer (1) as muriate of pot- ash, (2) as saltpeter of potash, and (3) as kainit. Since this product has to be imported it is naturally more expensive than if produced at home. From one hundred to two hun- dred pounds to the acre, applied at intervals of from one to three years, will, however, usually prove sufficient to keep up the supply. The application of commercial fertilizers. — Because commercial fertilizers are so e.xpensive, and also for the reason that the application of a fertilizer when it is not 246 AGRICULTURE needed may do positive harm, the advice of your county agricultural agent or some other agricultural expert should be sought before purchasing. An expert, after a survey of The better way. Manure carrier and spreader. your soil, will be able not only to suggest the best kind for local needs, but also the amount that should be used. 5. Tlie Use of Lime on Soils Lime can hardly be called a fertilizer, since it does not contain any of the elements in which the soil is generally lacking. Yet because of its action on certain other elements of the soil it is necessary to plant production. When lime does not already exist in the soil it must be added in com- mercial form if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. The purpose of lime is to cure the soil of its acid condition. Acid soils. — All soils have a tendency to become sour, or acid. This acidity comes about in several different ways : in the decav of organic matter in the soil, certain acids are SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 247 produced ; hence the soils rich in Iiumus are hkely to be acid. Plant roots give off acid in the process of their growth, and this acid remains in the soil. The action of the nitrifying bacteria also adds to the acidity of the soil. Heav_y, non-porous clay soils which do not allow the en- trance of fresh air are usually sour. The degree of acidity of soils can be judged (1) by the refusal of certain plants to grozv in them; for example, the legumes will not thrive in acid soils, and the failure of clover or alfalfa to do well should arouse a suspicion of too much acid. (2) The presence of such zceeds as sheep-sorrel, horsetail rush, corn spurry, and wood horsetail indicate acid. (3) Blue litiniis paper turns red when placed in co:> tact with a soil containing acid. Liming acid soils. — Lime is a certain remedy for acid soils. In some regions, especially where limestone abounds, the natural supply of lime in the soil is sufficient to overcome the surplus acid. In other regions, lime needs to be applied in commercial form. This is the only cure for acid soil within reach of the farmer. Nearly all prairie soil is in some degree acid, especially on slopes where leaching of the soil has carried away the original deposits of lime, and wherever large supplies of humus have formed from the decay of organic matter. Thousands of acres of acid land would well repay the cost of liming by increased yields. Many farmers now look on liming as a regular and necessary requirement. Of course lime should not be applied unless needed, but the tests are so simple that this is easily determined. Forms of lime used. — Lime is available for applica- tion to the soil in several forms: (1) Quicklime, or lime ready for use in making plaster, when finely ground ma}- be applied at the rate of about one ton to the acre. (2) Air- slacked lime, or ordinary lime that has been exposed to the 248 AGRICULTURE air, is an excellent form, and may be applied at the rate of two or more tons to the acre. (3) Ground or finely crushed limestone direct from the quarries is widely used in regions where it is easily obtainable. From one to two tons to the acre will usually correct the aciditv. The form of lime to be used will depend chiefly on which is most easily available and cheapest. The amount required is determined by the degree of acidity in the soil. 6. Crop Rotation and Fertility The rotation of crops can not properly be said to in- crease the fertility of the soil. For every crop removes from the soil some quantity of each of the elements required for plant growth. Certain advantages come from rotation, however, which at least save the rapid soil exhaustion re- sulting from growing one crop continuously. Rotation also brings increased yields. In this sense a proper rotation may have the same effect as the application of a fertilizer, though it can never serve as a substitute. What is meant by rotation of crops. — By rotation of crops is meant a regular order follozvcd for a period of years, and alternating on different fields. If this order is hit-and- miss, or the result of whim or chance, it can not be called a rotation. Rotations may be planned on a two-year, three- year, four-year, or any other cycle. What is accomplished by rotation. — Rotation of crops improves the physical condition of the soil. Grasses and legumes have a larger supply of roots than most cereals, and so increase the organic matter. Different crops send their roots to different depths, and so use new portions of the soil. The cultivation of inter-tilled crops clears the soil of weeds, and opens it up to air and moisture. Rotation also aids in destroying insects and other ene- SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT GROWTH 249 niics of plants, as we have already seen. The pests that attack one kind of crop die out when another crop is raised on the field. The growing of the nitrogen-gathering legumes on ever}' part of the farm in succession is allowed by rota- tion, thus saving the necessity of buying commercial nitro- gen fertilizers. The crops to use in a rotation. — It is evident that no universal standard rotation can be prescribed. Both the par- ticular crops and the order must be decided by local con- ditions and requirements. The rotation is usually based on some one principal crop, the other crops being arranged to favor this. For example, corn is the basis of rotation in the states constituting the "corn belt.'' A five-year rota- tion with corn occupying about forty per cent, of the farm might be something as follows : Tear Field A Field B Field C Field D Field B First Corn Corn Oats Clover Pasture Second Corn Oats Clover Pasture Corn Third Oats Clover Pasture Corn Corn Fourth Clover Pasture Corn Corn Oats Fifth Pasture Corn Corn Oats Clover First Corn Corn Oats Clover Pasture It will be noted that this arrangement provides for two fields of corn each year, and one field each of oats, clover, and pasture. Of course other crops might be inserted in the rotation. With alfalfa in the rotation, a longer cycle is needed, since it does not pa}' to plow alfalfa up so soon after planting. Topics for Ixvestig.vtion 1. Has the yield of the principal crops increased or decreased in your region within the last ten or twenty years ? To make sure of this, ask your father, or some one who has farmed in the vicinity for some time. 2. Are there run-down farms in the neighborhood? If so, is the land naturally poor, or has it been depleted by 250 AGRICULTURE single cropping or poor methods of farming? Learn the histor}- of ah such farms as accurately as possible, with ref- erence to cropping, rotation, manuring, and so on. 3. Based on the figures given in section two, what was the approximate value of the manure produced on }'0ur home farm last year? (See p. 240.) 4. What care is given to saving the manure on your home farm ? Is it collected under cover ? Does it ever "fire-fang"? Is there a water-tight floor under the heap? How closely is the manure gathered up from the yards? What is the method of distributing it on the fields ? How many loads are used to the acre ? 5. How much hay, oats, corn and other farm products were sold from your home farm last year ? What was the approximate manurial value loss to the farm? 6. What commercial fertilizers are used in your re- gion ? In what form is the fertilizer applied ? What is the quantity used per acre? The cost? To what extent is green manuring employed ? What crops are chiefly used ? What is meant by a "5-8-7" commercial fertilizer? 7. To make the litmus-paper test for acid in soils, take a small piece of blue litmus paper and place it between pieces of thoroughly dampened soil, pressing the soil close and leaving it in contact with the paper for five minutes. If the paper turns red, the soil is acid and needs lime. Secure samples of soil taken at a depth of six inches from several diiTerent parts of your farm, including both upland and lowland areas, and make the litmus-paper test. 8. Draw a diagram of your home farm showing the different fields. Now work out several dift'erent crop rota- tions based on your principal crop, and taking into account the necessity for growing some legume for improving the soil. Compare with the rotations suggested by other mem- bers of the class. CHAPTER XVII SOIL MOISTURE WATER is as necessary to the growth of plants as fer- tile soil. All the food taken by plants from the soil must first be dissolved in water. The tiny root-tips suck in this food-laden water which circulates to every part of the plant, producing its growth. The amount of water required by a growing crop is enor- mous. For every pound of dry matter made by the plant, from three hundred to eight hundred pounds of water must be drawn in by its roots and circulate through it. To pro- duce a ton of dry hay on an acre of ground demands that approximately five hundred tons of water be pumped by the grass stalks from the soil. When the soil lacks water, plants are cut off from both necessary food and drink. 1. Forms of Soil JJ'atcr Gravitational water. — Soil that is thoroughly satur- ated contains a certain amount of free water that will drain off if there is some outlet. That is, the force of grav- ity pulls it down through the soil ; hence its name, free, or gravitational water. To watch how this works, place some soil in a funnel closed with a stopper. Pour water over the soil until it is completely soaked. Then remove the stopper and allow what will of the water to drain off. All the water that thus escapes is free, or gravitational water. Plants can not use gravitational water for their supply. 251 252 AGRICULTURE This is to say that they can not grow in a soaked soil "Wa- ter-logged" soil excludes air from the roots, and the plants soon suffer for want of oxygen. Standing water also keeps the roots of most plants too cold for good growth. Hence the necessity of conditions that will allow the soil to drain readily after rains, so that the free water may escape. Capillary water. — Soils will not drain entirely dry. After your funnel of earth has lost all the water that will run from it, it is still wet. This wetness is caused by what is called capillary water. Capillary water exists in the form of thin films around the soil particles and in the spaces between them, as de- scribed in an earlier chapter. Each separate particle is sur- rounded by its own film, while larger films bind the separate particles together in granules. Since the particles of a given weight of soil of fine texture present a larger surface area than the particles of a soil of coarse texture, it is evident that the finer the soil the greater the amount of capillary water required to make up the films. Plant growth and capillary water. — It is the capillary water of the soil that plants use in their growth. Their root tips come in contact with the water films surrounding the soil particles and drink this water in. One of the first requisites of a good crop soil, therefore, is its ability to act as a reservoir for a large amount of capillary water. 2. Capacity of Soils of Capillary IVater Soils differ greatly in their capacity for capillary water. This can easily be shown by a simple experiment. Bake a pint of sand and a pint of clay until all the water is dried out ; then place the samples in separate funnels over the lower end of which is tied a piece of cheese cloth. Now slowly pour water from a graduate over each soil until the SOIL MOISTURE 253 water begins to drip from the bottom of the funnel Note carefully how much water was required in each case. Soil texture and capillary water. — Because of the fineness of their texture, clay and silt soils have much greater capacity for capillary water than sandy or gravelly soils. Under average field conditions the difference in the amount of capillary water held in the first two feet of fully saturated soil is about as follows : Sandy loam soil will hold S inches of water Clay loam soil will hold 7j/j " " Muck soil will hold 12i< TIlis is to say that it would require a sheet of water five inches deep to supply the capillary water for the first two feet of saturated sandy soil ; a sheet of water seven and one- half inches deep for the first two feet of saturated clav soil ; and a sheet twelve and one-half inches deep for the first two feet of saturated muck soil. Drawing ground water by capillarity. — A very simple experiment will test the capacity of dift'erent soils for draw- ing capillary water from below. Take four glass tubes at least one inch in diameter and from fifteen to twenty inches long, or four chimneys from student-lamps, and arrange them suspended in a rack. Tie over the lower end of each a piece of cheese-cloth. Fill the tubes with soils of different texture, from fine clay to coarse sand. Place a pan beneath the tubes, and pour water into it until the water stands half an inch above the bottom of the tubes. Now watch the wa- ter rise in the different soils. Keep accurate track of the time required, and of the height reached in each. What are )'Our conclusions? Humus and capillary water. — The capacity of any soil for holding capillary water is greatly increased by the presence of decaying organic matter. It has been care- 254 AGRICULTURE fully estimated that one ton of humus will absorb two tons of water and give it up as needed by growing plants. 3. Tillage and Soil Water One of the chief problems of agriculture is to conserve the capillary water of the soil and make it available for plant growth. Capillary water is removed from the soil in two ways, (1) by evaporation, and (2) by being absorbed by the roots of growing plants. What is lost by evapora- tion is wasted so far as crops are concerned. Tillage for conserving capillary moisture. — All loos- ening of the soil increases its absorbing power, and thus causes rain to soak into the ground instead of running off the top. The deeper the plowing the greater this effect will be. Fall plowing, by opening the soil for the absorption of the winter snows, adds to the amount of soil water. The most effective tillage for conserving capillary water, however, is the frequent cultivation during the growing sea- son which results in a fine soil mulch over the surface. To see the truth of this, make the following experiment : Effect of a soil mulch. — Fill two glasses nearly full of the same soil ; if the soil is dry, add an equal amount of water to each, making the soil fairly damp, but not soaked ; firm them equally by striking the glass gently down on the table. Now put a half inch of fine, dry road dust over the top of one, leaving the other without covering. Set the two glasses side by side, and note the time it requires for each to dry out by losing its capillary water through evapora- tion. The fine mulch made by frequent harrowings and culti- vatings has precisely the same effect on our fields. In dry regions summer fallowing is used for the purpose of col- lecting a supply of capillary water. Whatever rain falls is The right kiuQ of auulcli for moisture conservation is granular — that is, the dirt should not be pulverized too finely. The wrong kind of mulch. The ground is almost dust. Such mulch blows away easily. X. ^^^-. i^:-;>?.| / \i pp^^^^^\ y ^-^ ^JV> /«-^ ■ -•■ '"^.-^ "^^J^- ^^^, Ijg^ H tt • ' J. The granular mulch rained up- on and left standing for a number of days. Observe that the ground is cracking and that moisture is escaping through these cracks. The crust can be easily broken. Dust mulch rained upon and left standing in the hot sun. Note that the crust has cracked, and that the moist- ure is escaping very rajiidly. It is impossible to work up this seed bed properly. 256 AGRICULTURE saved by keeping the surface covered with a fine soil mulch, and what moisture is drawn up toward the surface from the ground water by capillary attraction is also conserved for the crop that is to follow. 4. Soil Drainage Necessary as water is to plants, however, much of our soil needs drainage to rid it of an oversupply of free or gravitational water. There are some eighty million acres of marsh lands in the United States. The greater part of this waste territory would make excellent farm land if properly drained. But perhaps fully as important is the occasional small piece of wet ground on farms now under tillage. In cer- tain regions there is hardly a farm that does not have its low marshy places where crops drown out in wet times, or which are allowed to lie without cultivation. In nearly all cases this land could be made the er[ual of the remainder of the farm by drainage and a little care. Surface drainage. — Surface drainage is never so thorough and satisfactory as underdrainage, yet it will often improve conditions enough to pay. By surface drainage is meant the opening of runs or ditches to allow the escape of surface water that otherwise would stand on the soil, flood over lower ground, or percolate down to add to the gravitational water already in the subsoil. Low ground is sometimes plowed in narrow strips, the frequent dead furrows allowing surface drainage. If there is a slight slope and the furrows can open freely at the end, this will prove of great benefit. Where such simple drain- age will not serve, it is sometimes necessary to construct open ditches, though these should give way to underdrain- age when this is possible. For underdrainage is under most Undisked stubble plowed. Ob- Disked stubble plowed. The serve that the ground is turned up In lumps; that there are open spaces at the bottom of the furrow which prevent the close compact- ness of the lower portion of the turned furrow with the soil beneath. mulch formed by the disk harrow fills up the open spaces at the bottom of the furrow, thereby forming a close conection with the sub- surface. This illustration represents the This illustration represents the field above treated with a pegtooth harrow after plow- ing. The surface is in com- Ijaratively good condition, but the bottom is not compact. field above harrowed with pegtooth harrow. The air spaces are still at the bottom of the furrow. 258 AGRICULTURE conditions a more successful way of removing the water, and it saves much loss of ground and the cutting up of fields. Making surface drains. — Surface runs which are only required to remove surplus water during ilood seasons may be made one and one-half feet deep and ten feet wide at the top at a cost of about twenty-five cents a rod, using a road grader for the excavating. Such shallow runs are often seeded, and the edges leveled off and cultivated, thus avoid- ing waste of land. Open ditches of this kind are often de- sirable in connection with underdrainage. They also serve as an eaves-trough to prevent flood water of surrounding uplands from entering lower areas. Deeper ditches are required when the main drain is to receive the discharge of lateral drains. The size and depth will depend on the territory to be drained, and the fall of the ditch. In the Middle West, open ditches, many of them miles in length, are being constructed, each farm served paying its share of the expense. Open lateral ditches or underground tile then empty into this main drain. Under average conditions, the cost of opening a ditch seven feet deep and twenty feet wide at the top by means of a dredging machine is about one thousand dollars a mile. Underdrainage. — Underdrainage has the advantage of carrying off the ground water to any desired depth. This is an important matter in the growth of most crops. For where the level of ground water is near the surface, plants will not strike their roots deep in the soil, but spread them out near the top. This leaves the crop at the mercy of drought later in the season, when ';he upper layers of soil dry out. Deep rooting is also necessary to make full use of the plant food of the soil. Tile underdrains. — Burnt clay and cement arc the materials chiefly used for underdrains in most regions. SOIL MOISTURE 259 These materials are made into eylindcrs from three to thir- ty-six inches in diameter, and frcmi twelve to thirty inches in lenyth. For lateral drains, tiles four or five inches in diameter are most used. The main outlet drain usually recjuires tiles from eight to twelve inches. Placing the drains. — Moderately heav}- clay soils re- quire laterals about four rods apart to carry off the rainfdl. If the subsoil is sandy, the laterals may be as much as eight rods apart. Sometimes the marshiness of a piece of ground is caused by seepage leading to it from some higher area. In this case, there should be a line of tile at the edge of the lower ground to receive the seepage. Several lines of parallel drains are more economical than one central line into which diagonal laterals run. This is because with parallel drains there is less area receiving double drainage. Several parallel lines can often be car- ried into one line of larger tile, and all discharge through the same outlet, thus saving trouble and expense. Depth of tile. — Tile should be placed deep enough that the level of ground water will not stand too near the surface, and yet not too deep to carry off the gravita- tional water without allowing it to stay too long in the soil. In clay subsoil the most common depth is al)out three feet. In partially sandy subsoils, the depth may be four feet. All tile meant to catch seepage should be as deep as four feet. Gradient, or fall. — The larger tiles may be laid with a fall of an inch to one hundred feet. Laterals should have from two to three times this much fall. Lines for catching seepage should have still greater slo])C ; as much as five inches to one hundred feet, if this is possible. Cost of tiling. — The cost of tiling will, of course, vary with the size of tile used, the depth it is laid, and the character of the soil. The average cost under middle west- ern conditions is about as shown in the following table : 260 AGRICULTURE Depth tile is laid jf tile 3 feet 4 feet 5 feet 6 feet 4 inch S .30 5 inch .35 6 inch .40 8 inch .45 10 inch .50 12 inch .55 .50 $ .80 $1.25 ..■)3 .85 1.30 .60 .90 1.38 .65 .95 1.40 .70 1.00 1.45 .75 1.05 1.50 Topics for Ixvestig.\tiox 1. Is there any ground on your home farm too wet or marshy for cropping successfully? If so, measure care- fully the amount of land in such areas. Do anv patches break the regularity of cultivated fields? How much land is practically wasted as far as any return in crops is con- cerned ? 2. "What is the vahie of your fann per acre ? AA'hat is its rental value per acre? AMiat is the value of all the land lost by being too wet to cultivate? \\hat is its rental value? Have _vou any land under cultivation that is too wet at times to produce good crops ? What do you esti- mate is the loss? 3. Draw a diagram of any pieces of marsh land on your home farm, showing the outlet for drainage and the distance the drain would have to run in each case. Are there any places where a shallow run would serve ? Have you any low ground troubled with rain floods from higher land? If so, could a shallow ditch be made to serve as an eaves- trough to save the flooding ? 4. Taking the cost of tile drainage as shown in the table, figure what it would cost to tile out wet places on your farm, using four-inch tile for parallels laid four rods apart. The parallels are to connect across the lower end with a six-inch line, and this is to empty into the nearest available ditch or stream. Would it pay to put in tile on your home farm ? 5. By digging down in several different places on your SOIL MOISTURE 261 farm, see whether you can discover the level of ground water. Have )'ou ever seen water gather in the bottom of a post hole ? What does this indicate ? 6. Study the texture of the soil in your school yard, and compute the approximate weight of the capillary water contained in the first two feet of its depth when the soil is well saturated. 7. Show how you can make a soil survey of your father's farm by the use of the soil auger and a diagram of the farm, inrlicating the top soil, subsoil, elevations, low- lands, and drainage possibilities. 8. Upon an outline sketch of the United States indi- cate the various regions of distinct t)-pes of soil, such as the black loam, sandy loam, clav loam, mountain silt, lime- stone, and other types of soil representative of a region. 5. Soil Demonstrations In connection with the study of tiie soil there is abun- dant opportunity to make some very interesting demonstra- tions which will also have direct application to the manage- ment of the soil on the farm or in the garden. 1. Show how to determine the kind and depth of soil of any particular spot. 2. Show how to test the soil for acidity. Show two methods if possible. 3. By the use of a tumbler of muddy water and the application of a httle lime, show the value of lime to soils. 4. Demonstrate the value of shallow cultivation for the conservation of moisture in soils by the use of loaf-sugar and powdered sugar, a solid or well packed ])iece of earth and a dust mulch placed on top. Apply water to each at the bottom. 5. Demonstrate how to test the capillarity of soils. 6. Demonstrate by the use of various types of soil and the same kind of seed the relations of types of soil to the germination of seed and its subseciuent plant growth. 262 AGRICULTURE 7. Show by demonstration how legumes tend to con- serve the fertihty of the soil. 8. Show by the use of different types of soil their re- spective merits in the conservation of moisture. 6. Soil Play Contest 1. Soil type naming contest. 2. Soil analysis contest. 3. Soil guessing games. 4. Soil sample getting contest. 5. Stone naming contest, in which samples of ^'arious types of native stones are placed before the contestants and the one who can name the largest number in a given time is to be judged the winner. 7. Soil Fciiility Club Projects The object of this club project is to organize the boys and girls into a cooperative group for the purpose of build- ing up the soil fertility of a community. The pupils should pledge themselves to manage at least one acre of land dur- ing the season with the idea of not only making a net profit on the investment for the season, but of starting and carry- ing on a three to five-year rotation of crops with a dis- tinct plan of growing leguminous crops such as clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, etc. This kind of a club project can be easilv combined with the other club work outlined in con- nection with corn, small grains and forage crops. Combined club projects. — The project may also con- template the raising of some live stock such as a thorough- bred pig, a baby beef, a pen of chickens, or any other live stock which rightfull}- belongs to the economy of the farm. Club members in this project should keep a definite record with a view to showing the bookkeeping account and records SOIL MOISTURE 263 including observations, receipts and expenditures, not only for the first }'ear, but for the entire period of three or four )'ears covering a rotation scheme for the upbuilding of the soil. Club membership. — This particular club work should be maintained for the members of the agricultural class and should not be open to the boys and girls who are, as a rule, too young to appreciate and undertake properly this line of work. The teacher, in cooperation with the county superintendent and county agricultural agent, may assist in making up a definite three or four-year rotation plan which can be uniformly followed by all members of the club. The basis of award for a soil fertility club may be as follows : 1. The plan and management of rotation 20 2. The average j'ield per acre 20 3. The net profit on investment 20 4. The fertile condition of tlie soil at the end of a three or four-year period 20 5. Soil and crop records, story and soil chart of work 20 Total score 100 PART IV. FARM ANIMALS CHArTER XVIII FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE FARM animals form one of the most important sources of wealtli in the nation. The five most important groups of animals, ranked according to their market value, are horses, cattle, hogs, mules and sheep. If these animals should all be sold, they would bring the enormous sum of nearly six billion dollars, or sixtv dollars for every man, woman and child in the United States. 1. Work Animals Farm animals serve several important uses : ( 1 ) they provide food for man, (2) they work for him, and (3) they supply various useful products. The total market value of the working animals, horses and mules, is slightly greater than that of the food producing group, cattle, sheep and hogs. Using animals for work. — Centuries ago man had not yet domesticated the animals and trained them to \vork for him. Since the uses of steam and electricity had not been discovered, all labor had to be done by men themselves. The implements used for cultivating the soil were all crude and ineffective, and could only be operated by hand. It 265 266 AGRICULTURE then required much more time and effort to secure a living by agriculture than it does now. One of the greatest lines of progress in America has been the substitution of animal power for man power in doing farm work. In this we are far ahead of most other nations, even those of Europe. For example, we have in the United States almost twenty-five million horses, or ap- proximately one to every four persons. In France, one horse has to serve ten people ; in Germany, thirteen, and in Great Britain, twenty-six. Saving in time by work of animals. — The use of work animals has resulted in great saving of time. It has been estimated that in 1830 each bushel of wheat grown in the United States required three hours of a man's time ; it now requires less than ten minutes. In 1850 it took a man four and one-half hours on an average to grow, harvest and shell a bushel of corn ; it now requires less than forty min- utes. The greater part of this saving has come through the use of improved farm machinery drawn by horses or mules. Where the peasants of European countries use shovels, hoes, scythes or other primitive implements, we employ gang-plows, disk harrows and self-binders. The great sav- ing in human energy and time growing out of this dif- ference is seen when it is remembered that one horse hitched to modern machinery can do the work of at least ten men with hand tools. Many an American boy with his four- horse team is therefore accomplishing the labor of forty European peasants with their hand work and poor tools ! The animals used for work. — Among the various ani- mals that men have trained to work for them are horses, cattle, mules, buffalo, reindeer, camels, dogs and elephants. No animals, except horses, mules and cattle, have ever been extensively used for farm work in this country. The use of oxen for work has now been almost wholly discontinued. FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE 267 During recent years, horses and mules have found a com- petitor in the automobile and the traction-engine. Thousands of farmers now own their cars, and the gasoline tractor is a common sight on many of the larger western farms. In spite of these facts, however, the number of horses and mules on our farms is constantly increasing, and the mar- ket for them is growing better and more uniform. The price of work animals is consirlerablv higher than it was when automobiles and traction-engines began to come into use. Horses will always have an important place in the economy of the farm. 2. Animals That Supply Food Meat and other animal products form a very important part of our food supply. Even vegetarians, who are op- posed to the eating of flesh, depend largely on such foods as butter, eggs and milk. Meat as food. — A great proportion of all our farm crops goes to the feeding of meat producing animals. The most progressive nations of the world are those that in ad- dition to fruit and vegetables for the diet make much use of their domestic animals in supplying food prod- ucts. ]\Ieat is a more expensive food than grains and vege- tables, and people of the poorer classes can not afford to eat it. Millions of those living in oriental countries seldom taste meat in any form. Lack of nutrition and a balanced ration are shown in absence of ambition and enterprise. According to careful estimates the food supply in American homes is divided among the different foods in approximately the following proportions (Farmers' Bulletin 391): Meats and poultry 16% Dairy products 18% 268 AGRICULTURE Cereals and their products 31% Vegetables and fruits 25% All other foods 10% It is therefore seen that we derive more than one-third of all our food in this country from animals, either by con- suming their flesh or other products from them, such as milk, butter, cheese, etc. Animals used for meat. — The animals whose flesh is chiefly used for food are cattle, hogs and sheep. So great has the industry of preparing their flesh for food become, tliat every city has its great stock-yards and slaughter- houses, where hundreds of thousands of animals are killed every year. Cold storage vaults are provided in which meats can be kept at a temperature below freezing for months at a time. iMuch of the meat that is now used on the farms is first shipped to the city packing houses for slaughter, and then bought back from retail dealers as needed, in the form of bacon, ham, canned or dried beef, or as fresh meats shipped in refrigerator cars. Many small towns also have their local slaughter-houses, where animals purchased from the farms are killed for home consumption. Other food products from animals. — The other food products from aniinal life, such as milk, butter, eggs and cheese, are even inore iinportant. Milk and eggs contain more of the different food elements needed by the human body than any other foods ; and butter is as necessary as meat. The dairy and poultry industries are therefore among the most important connected with agriculture. Milk and butter are shipped to the cities in refrigerator cars or special trains. Hundreds of creameries are operated to save time for the farmer and insure him greater profit. Many train- loads of eggs and butter are collected during the summer FARM ANIMALS AND AGRICULTURE 269 months and put in cold storage and kept for the winter supply. 3. Other Animal Products The farm animals are useful in other ways than doing work and providing food for man. Many practical neces- sities are supplied by them. A in'uruisiug family. Leather. — The skins of all the common farm animals are saved for leather. Cattle, horses, sheep and even pigs, contribute to the making of our shoes, gloves, mittens, har- nesses, saddles, cushions and many other articles in com- mon use. Wool. — Sheep furnish one of the most valuable cloth- ing materials known. ]\Iany sheep ranches are maintained 270 AGRICULTURE chiefly for the fleeces, mutton being of secondary consid- eration. More than thirty-eight million sheep annually give up their wool in the United States for the making of cloth- ing and other articles for the household. Other products. — We owe many other articles of common use to some form of animal product. Our brushes are made from bristles. Buttons are cut from bone. Gelatin and glue are both animal products. Many soaps are made from animal parts not suitable for meat. Blood and bone, as we have already seen, are used for fertilizers. So com- pletely are all parts of slaughtered animals saved for some useful purpose that it is said nothing is lost of the pig when it is killed, except the "squeal." It is estimated that the value for fertilizing purposes of the manure of all farm animals in the United States, if properly saved and applied to the soil, would annually reach the stupendous amount of more than two billion dollars. Topics for Investigation 1. Make a careful list of all animals belonging on your home farm. Have your father help estimate what each one is worth, and compute the value of all live stock, and find the annual interest on this amount at six per cent. 2. How many bushels of corn were raised on your farm last year? On the basis of the time required for pro- ducing a bushel of corn in 1850, how many days of nine hours each would have been required to produce this crop with machinery then in use? Make the same computation with the wheat raised on your farm, comparing with the time required to produce a bushel in 1830. 3. Talk with your mother, and see whether you can es- timate what proportion of the food used on your table comes from each of the classes shown in section two. 4. Make an investigation by reading and inquiring among people of the amount of meat, butter, eggs and milk used by the farming class in England, Germany, FARM ANIMALS AND AGRTCULTURK 271 France, Spain, Russia, China. Compare with our own country. 5. Is there any countr)^ where the buffalo is now used as a work animal ? The elephant ? The camel ? Where are reindeer used, and for what purpose? What are the differ- ent lines of work in which dogs are employed? 6. Show on the map of the United States the most important regions for the production of the various types of domestic animals, such as the horse, dairy and beef cat- tle, the sheep, the hog and the goat. Consult the last census report with reference to increase or decrease of farm animals in the various states. CHAPTER XIX CATTLE CATTLE rank second only to horses in market value in the United States. Our farms support some twenty- two million dairy cows, or one to approximately every four people. Li addition, there are about thirty-seven million other cattle, chiefly calves and beef stock. The value of each of these two great groups is about the same, nearly a billion dollars, or almost two billion dollars for the ^vhole. 1. Dairy Cattle Dairying is one of the leading American industries. Each of six states, Wisconsin, Xew York, Iowa, JMinnesota, Illinois and Texas, has more than a million dairy cows, and four other states, Pennsylvania, Ohio, ^lichigan and ]\Iis- souri, have more than three-quarters of a million each. These ten states supply fifty-three per cent, of all our dairy cattle. The following chart shows the percentage of all the farm dairy cows of the United States found in each of these ten leading dairy states : Wisconsin 7.3% Kew York 7.1% Iowa 6.S''/'o Minnesota 5. 5% Illinois 5.0% Texas S.0% Pennsylvania 4.6% Ohio 4.2% ^Michigan 3.9% Missouri 3.8% 272 CATTLE 273 Profitable and unprofitable cows. — WHiether a dairy herd yields a profit or a loss depends first of all on the milk and butter-fat producing qualities of the individual cows. A poor cow may require as much feed as a good one, and de- mands as much labor and attention. It has been estimated that one-third of the dairy cows in the United States are kept at an actual loss. Twice A champion Herefoi'd. every day, therefore, there are milked some seven million cows, mere "boarders," that not on!}- return no profit, but use up the profit from good cows. How many cows of this kind are kept on )-our farm ? Profit differences in herds. — It is estimated that the skim-milk, calf and manure from a dairy cow are worth the cost of caring for her. This leaves the milk to bal- ance against the value of the feed. The diilerence 274 AGRICULTURE between the best and the poorest cow in ahnost an)' herd is surprising. This difference is well shown in the fol- lowing record of fifteen cows for one year in an Illinois herd : i\o. Lb. Lb. I'er cent. cow milk fat fat rrollt Loss 1 1204 49 4.07 $27.52 2 1236 50 4.05 27.20 3 2944 88 2.99 15.17 4 2597 91 3.50 15.38 5 2548 98 3.85 13.18 6 2475 99 4.00 13.18 7 2569 105 4.09 10.98 8 3164 117 3.70 8.37 9 2829 123 4.34 8.67 10 3380 149 4.41 1.58 11 4582 158 3.45 $1.41 12 4146 174 4.20 3.41 13 4103 177 4.31 5.41 14 4993 191 3.82 8.40 15 4435 200 4.51 10.21 $28.84 $141.23 28.84 Loss $112.39 Av. 3147 124 3.94 ^ 7.49 Difference in profit between Ijest and poorest cow, $37.73 This was an exceptionally poor herd, so poor that it lost the owner $112.39 for the year— an average loss of $7.49 per cow. Either of the two poorest cows lost almost as much as the best five made their owner. Even the best cow of this herd is poor enough, but there is a diiTerence CATTLE 275 of $37. r3 in the year's record between tlie best and the poorest. 2. Selecting Dairy Co-vs According to Ty['e Dairy cows may be selected by two different methods : (1) keeping a record of the amount of milk produced, with the percentage of butter-fat it contains; and {2) judging whether the cow conforms to the physical type known as good dairy stock. The first of these is the only absolutely sure method. The second is also of great value, for cows are often bought without any possibility of learning their milk record. Every farmer should, ther'^fore, know the points of a good dairy cow. The dairy type of cov^r. — Dairj^ cattle and beef cattle present two rather distinct types as to form, or build, and appearance. In general, the frame of the beef animal is the shape capable of taking on the largest amount of flesh, while that of the dairy cow is adapted to the production of milk. Both types must be good eaters, for only the food above the amount recjuired for maintaining the body can go to the production of either beef or milk. The good dairy cow is spare of flesh, for the surplus food must be turned into milk instead of fat. She appears somewhat loose-jointed, but the muscles are well developed. The coat is smooth and soft, the e^'es are bright, and the dis- position is wide-awake and active. The jaw is strong, the stomach and other organs of digestion are capacious. The circulatory sj^stem needs size and strength, as it must supply abundance of material for the production of milk. The udder is well shaped and large. Shape of the dairy cow. — The typical dairy cow has what is called a ■:^'edge conformation, or shape. The body outline, whether viewed from side, top, or front, roughly resembles a wedge. 276 AGRICULTURE The side wedge has its base in a line formed by the depth of the bod}^ through tlie hips to tlie lower extremity of the udder, with the point of the wedge at the head. The top wedge has its base in a line across the width of the hips, and its point at the withers. The front wedge has its base 1 Muzrlfl 8 Neck 15. Blhs 22. Thighs •?■ Jaw .0 Withers 16. Barrel 23. Hind legB 10 Sboulders 17. 24. Udder ■i. rorehcad 11 Fore legs 18. Hlpe 25. Teat 8 h Eyes 12 Crops 10. Rnmp Pin booea 26. Milk TeloB n, Eaia 13 OhBEt 20. 27. Mtlk vellB 7. Throat 14 _Back ^^^■. -TaU Parts of a dairy cow. Note the wetlge-like form. in a line across the lloor of the chest, and its point at the top of the withers. It is readily seen that the shape given the body by these three wedge conformations allows a generous amount of room for the digestive and circulatory systems and the ndder. This form does not, however, give a frame capable of taking on a large amount of flesh, and is therefore not adapted to beef cattle. CATTLE 277 3. Judging the Dair\ Cozv Various score-cards are in use for the judging of dairy cows. Judging by use of the score-card trains in accurate observation and judgment, and shows the relative value of the different points. Secure a score-card from your state college of agriculture or the United States Department of Agriculture and learn to use it in judging cattle. 4. Selecting the Dairy Cozi' by Milk Tests The profit from a dairy cow depends on two factors, (1) the amount of milk produced, and (2) the percentage of butter-fat in the milk. The first of these Cjuestions can be determined by weighing the milk ; the second, by testing the milk with the Babcock milk test. Testing the milk of different cows. — In order to de- termine the record of each cow of the herd, the milk must be weighed and tested regularly throughout the season. The testing and weighing may be done daily, though this fre- quent a test is hardly necessary for practical farm purposes. A plan followed by many farmers is to weigh the milk daily, and test the butter-fat of both night's milk and iiioriiing's ■milk once a month. Making the Babcock test for butter-fat. — It is not the ciuantity of milk alone that determines the value of a cow. Practicall)' all milk and cream now sold from the farm for butter-making purposes are paid for, not by weight or bulk, but b}' the amount of butter-fat thev contain. The purpose of the ISabcock test is to measure the percentage of butter-fat in milk. Every dairy farm should regularly use this test. The materials for making the Babcock test are (1) a hand-power centrifugal tester; (2) two or more milk test- bottles ; (3) a pipette to measure the milk ; (4) a small glass 278 AGRICULTURE measure for acid; (5) sulphuric acid with specific gravity of 1.82; (6) hot water. The necessary apparatus can he bought for about five dollars, though a fuller ecjuipment may cost as much as twenty dollars. Full directions for making the test come with each set of apparatus. Steps in the Babcock test. — The Babcock test is not difficult to make, nor does it require much time. Yet great A Galloway prize winner. care must be taken if the results are to be trustworthy. The following are the steps required in making the test : 1. Stir the milk thorouglily before taking tlie sample. 2. Fill the pipette to the height shown by the marl;. 3. Empty the pipette into the test-bottle, blowing to drive all the milk out. 4. Fill the acid measure to the mark shown with sulphuric acid, and add to the test-bottle. 5. Shake the bottle to mix the milk and acid thoroughly'. CATTLE 279 6. Place the bottles in the machine, and whirl five minntes. 7. Add hot water to each bottle until filled to bottom of neck, and whirl one minute. 8. Add more hot water to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the marks on the neck of the bottle, and whirl one minute. 9. Read the per cent, of fat in the neck of the bottle; this indicates the ciuality of the milk. 10. Empty the test bottles and wash. The percentage of butter-fat otight to he not less than three and five-tenths, and should range up to five or occa- sionally even six in the milk of the better cows. 5. Dairy Breeds Dairymen are not agreed as to the type of cow that is most profitaljle. Some prefer what they call a "general- purpose cow," combining as far as possible the qualities of both dairy and beef breeds. Such animals are usually of large fraine, take on flesh readily, and so are easily con- verted into beef when this is more profitable than milking. Other dairymen select the pure dairy breeds, preferring to get their profit out of the milk produced, rather than from the beef. Which is the better plan will depend on local conditions and demands. Choosing the dairy breed. — It is impossible to select any one breed of dairy cattle as the best under all condi- tions. Some are noted for producing large ciuantities of milk, and others for producing milk rich in butter-fat. Some do best when allowed a wide range for foraging, and others when they are kept close and fed high. Some give a large flow of milk for a short season, and others a smaller flow for a longer time. The dairyman should decide what par- ticular qualities are best adapted to his needs, and then select the breed that will meet these needs. Leading dairy breeds. — Among the best-known "Banastine Belle de Kol," a cliamiiion Holsteiu cow with a record of l.O.jS.S-l pounds of biitter-fnt in 3G5 days. The 1914 dairy champion of the United States. "May Pdlrua," a Guernsey, ilcr record for 305 days was 19,039.5 pounds of milk and 1,050.50 pounds of butter-fat- 280 CATTLE 281 breeds of dairy cattle are the Holstein, or Holstein-Friesian, as they are officially named ; the Jersey ; the Guernsey ; and the Ayrshire. Tlie Shorthorns are also a favorite class, combining in large degree both dairy and beef qualities. Records kept for one year in various experiment stations of the United States Department of Agriculture sliow the fol- lowing average ratings as milk producers of the first four of these breeds in the station herds : Breed Pounds of millc Per cent, of foit Pounds of fat Per cent, total solids Holstein Jersey .__ 8699 5508 3.45 5.14 4.9S 3.85 300 283 274 252 12.99 14.2 Guernsey Ayrshire ._„ 5509 ._- 6533 14.2 12.98 A\'erage _. .__ 6562.25 4.355 277.25 13.5925 6. Feeding Dair\ Coivs Just as the soil must contain the food elements needed in the growtli of the plant, so the dairy cow's rations must contain the elements required to produce luilk and tipbuild the body. If proper food is not supplied, either the aiuount of milk or its quality will be sure to suffer. Only three different food elements, or nutrients, are likely to run short in the ordinary rations of the cow; these are (1) protein, (2) earbohydrate, and (3) fat. Protein. — Protein is required in the animal bod}' for the making of all muscular parts, blood and connective tissue. It supplies nearly one-third of the solid part of milk, going to form the curd and albumen. It is fortunate that the nitrogenous plants sO' valuable in building up the soil are also rich in protein. Alfalfa, clover, cow-peas, soy-beans, the vetches and other legumes are therefore desirable as a part of the dairy ration. Bran, 282 AGRICULTURE linseed meal, cottonseed-meal, gluten feed and oats are also rich in protein. Protein should make up approximately one- sixth of the cows ration during the milking season; no other food can take its place. It is the most expensive part of the ration, and should be secured as far as possible from home-grown legumes. Carbohydrates. — The carbohj-drates are necessary to supply energy, heat and fat for the animal bod_v, and sugar and fat in the milk. All the common grains are rich in carbohydrates, which are the cheapest nutrient of the cow's rations. Among the more common carbohydrate feeds are corn, corn silage, corn stover, oats straw, millet hay, sugar beets and dried beet pulp. Timothy hay should not form a part of the dairy ration, as it has few of the elements re- quired in producing milk. Fat. — Fat is used for practically the same purposes as the carboh)"drates in maintaining the body and produc- ing milk. It is contained in some degree in all feeds, though in smaller quantities than carbohydrates, and in more concentrated form. It has been found that one pound of fat will serve the same purpose in the dairy ration as two and one-fourth pounds of carbohydrates. The balanced ration. — By a balanced ration is meant a ration which contains the right digestible proportion of each kind of nutrient demanded by the animal. The term nutritive ratio is used when speaking of the relation of pro- tein to carboln'drate and fat in the ration. The nutritive ratio of the dairy ration is 1:6; this is to say, one part of digestible protein to six parts of carbohydrates and fat com- bined. The following tables show several balanced and economical rations for dairy cows :* *{Purdiie Ext. Bill. No. 21..^ CATTLE 283 Ration I, Ration II. Corn silage 30 pounds Sugar beets 25 pounds Cow-pea hay __ 10 " Alfalfa hay 10 Corn stover 2 " Corn stover S Corn 6 " Corn S " Cottonseed-meal 1.5 " Dried brewers' grains 5 " Ration III. Ration IV. Clover hay 18 pounds Corn silage 30 pounds Corn 5 " Canadian pea and Wheat bran or oat hay 10 " oats 6 " Oats 5 " Cottonseed-meal 1 " Gluten feed 4 " It must be remembered that, no matter what the feeds used to supply the protein, carbohydrate atTd fat, there must also be a certain amount of roughage in the ration. All browsing or grazing animals require bulky feed, and can not thrive on concentrated material alone. 7. Producing Clean Milk Milk is perfectly clean as it comes from the cow. It is easily tainted, however, either by filth that may fall into the pail during the milking, or from dirt_\- utensils. Dirty milk makes dissatisfied customers, endangers the health of users, especially children, hastens souring, makes a lower grade of butter, and indicates shiftlessness and low stand- ards of dairying. The cow barn. — The cow barn should be constructed for the coinfort, cleanliness and hygiene of its occupants. It should be well ventilated and have plenty of light. The floor should be of some hard material, preferably cement, and water-tight. The stalls should be the. right length for the cows, and have a shallow gutter at the rear with slope ScspIvf-e'lS*^ of Hood Farrn 189748 ' ^ LswELL Mass A clinmiiioii .Tevsey cow with a butter-fat record of 000.14 pounds iu 3G5 days. A champion .'^llortIlo^n cow, a seueral purpose breed adapted both to beef and uiilli production. CATTLE 285 enough toward one end to permit drainage. Instead of a feed manger in front, there should be a hquid-tight trough, also with a slight slope, that it may be \vashed out. All floors should be kept thoroughly waslied by means of a hose and stiff brushes. Cleanliness in milking. — Before the milking is begun, both the cow and the milker should be clean. If the cow is dusty, the dust should be well brushed out. The udder should be wiped clean, washed, or spiDuged off, as may be required. The milker's hands should be freshly cleansed, as it is almost impossible to keep the milk from touching them. Special suits should be kept for milking, and should be frequently washed. The practise of putting on old, greasy and unwashed clothes, simply to save soiling other garments while milking, is too filthy to be permitted in any dairy. All utensils should be kept in a perfectly clean place, and well scalded once each day. A careful anal)'sis of the dirt contained in milk shows about nine-tenths of it to be cow manure. The other tenth is hair from the cow, dirt from the cow or thj milker, par- ticles of the feed used, and disease germs from the cow or hands of the milker. No dair}-man should ask a consumer to eat such an array of filth as this. Straining the milk. — ]\Iuch of the dirt that gets into the milk can not be strained out, since it fully dissolves and will pass through the strainer as easily as the milk itself. A good strainer will, however, remove a considerable por- tion of the insoluble matter. A wire mesh strainer should never be used. The strainer should be cone-shaped, with gauze and absorbent cotton forming the outlet. One thickness of the cotton is placed between four thicknesses of gauze, two on each side, and held in place by a ring which fits over the edges and at- taches it to the bottom of the receptacle. The cotton should 286 AGRICULTURE be destroyed after each straining, and never used a second time. The adtlitional expense for this type of strainer is slight, and should keep no progressive dairyman from us- ing it. Cooling the milk. — After cleanliness, the next essen- tial to good care of milk is quick cooling. So important is quick cooling to prevent souring of milk and keep it in Aiiclienbrain Brown Kate 4tli, Ayrshire cow with a 305-day butter-fat record of 017. G pounds. good condition that a higher price is often paid for milk properly cooled than for uncooled milk. For the best results some form of cooling apparatus is necessary. Various machines for this purpose can be had for from ten to twenty-five dollars. An average of about five cents' worth of ice is required for each hundred pounds of milk during the warm inonths. ^lilk should be cooled dovi-n to fortv-five degrees in a few minutes of time. CATTLE . 287 8. Beef Breeds Larger profit can be secured from dairy than from beef cattle with the same amount of feed, but dairy animals re- quire a much greater amount of labor and a more costly equipment. The work necessary to care for fifteen or twenty dairy cows will be sufficient to tend two hundred beef animals. Properly managed, the raising and feeding of cattle for beef can be made highly profitable. The beef-producing type. — Beef and dairy cattle difi^er widely in their type. For the production of beef, the animal must be able to use a large proportion of its food in the putting on of flesh ; it must also have a form capable of holding a large amount of muscle and fat. The beef animal should have a conformation that (1) favors the production and carrying of flesh; (2) supplies the best proportion of good cuts of meat on the block ; (3) indicates good constitution and feeding capacity. The form of beef animals. — Instead of the wedge con- formation of the dairy cow, beef cattle should in their shape present a series of rectangles ; that is, they should be "blocky." The body is reasonably long, and deep, with short sturdy legs. The whole form presents a plump, full- shaped appearance. The back is broad and straight, with ribs well arched to give breadth to the body. The quarters are well filled and thick. The skin is pliable, rather thick, and the coat smooth and glossy. Judging beef cattle vidth the score-card. — Because of the difference in type between dairy and beef cattle, it is best to use separate score-cards in judging them. Secure a score-card from your state college of agriculture or the United States Department of Agriculture. After studying it and judging one or more animals under the direction of the teacher, each member of the class should judge several o a a a CATTLE 289 beef animals from the home herd, asking his father to help in the judging. Beef breeds. — Among the chief breeds of beef cattle in the United States are Shorthorns, or Durhams, Herefords, Aberdeen-Angus, and Galloways. Several different breeds have also developed a polled, or hornless, type. Except for the lack of horns, the polled breeds closely resemble the par- ent breed from which they were derived. Feeding beef cattle. — Eeeding grain and roughage to beef cattle is a more profitable way to market them than to sell them off the farm. In this wav the fertility of the soil is also conserved, and better crops produced. The fattening ration for cattle is slightly different from the dairy ration, the nutrient ratio for beef being 1 : 7, as against 1 : 6 for milk production. This is to say, that the fattening animal should have a balanced ration consisting of one part protein food for every seven parts of carbohy- drates and fats. 9. Tuberculosis in Cattle Tuberculosis is a common disease among cattle. It is more common among dairy cattle than beef cattle. This is probably because dairy cows are kept to a greater age than beef cattle, and are more closely confined in barns. The effects of tuberculosis in a dairy herd are (1) lowered milk production and final loss of the tuberculous animal by death, and (2) danger of giving the disease to people, especially children, who use the milk. Prevalence of tuberculosis in herds. — There is no way of telling the exact number of cattle affected by tuber- culosis, as comparatively few herds are examined for the disease. It is not uncommon to find as high as seventy to eighty per cent, of the cows in a herd diseased, some with 290 AGRICULTURE the disease just starting, otliers with it well along, and still others in the last stages. Since tuberculosis is contagious, it is evident that when it once gets started in a herd it is hard to stamp out. The tuberculin test. — It is impossible to make certain of the presence or absence of tuberculosis in a herd by any set of symptoms. The only sure way is by the tuberculin test. This test is required by law of all dairy herds in a number of states. Experts have shown that tuberculin, if properly used, will reveal the presence of tuberculosis in at least ninety-eight per cent, of the cases. Tuberculin is a fluid in which tubercle germs have been grown, but from which they have all been removed. This fluid is injected with a hypodermic needle under the skin of all the animals of a herd which is being tested. It will not injure well animals nor give them the disease. Animals that have tuberculosis reveal this fact by a feverish condi- tion which arises from eight to twelve hours after the tu- berculin is administered. Well animals show no such re- action. Suppressing tuberculosis in cattle. — Little can be done in the way of treatment to cure tuberculosis in cattle. Those that have contracted it in a mild form often recover. Animals found to be well advanced with the disease should at once be slaughtered. All diseased stock should be sep- arated from well animals, and kept in difl^erent barns and pastures. The milk from mildly diseased cows may be used, pro- viding it is first carefully pasteuriced. To pasteurize milk, it is kept at a temperature of one hundred and forty-nine degrees for twenty minutes, or one hundred and seventy- six degrees for five minutes. This heating is sufficient to kill the germs of the tuberculosis. CATTLE 291 Topics for Investigation 1. Are the cattle on your home farm of dairy breed, beef breed, or "general purpose'' breed? Talk with your father and learn the lineage of each of your milk cows. Are they "blooded," "grade," or "scrub" stock? Is your herd being "selected" toward any pure breed? 2. Is the milk produced by your cows weighed and tested for butter-fat? If so, how does the record of the herd compare with the herds referred to in the chap- ter? If no tests are being made, talk with your father about getting the apparatus for the Babcock test. After making the test under the direction of the teacher, bring samples of milk from home and make the test for several of your cows with the school tester. 3. Weigh the milk produced by each of your cows for a week, keeping a careful record. Now have your father help you estimate what each cow will produce during one year, taking into account the length of time each one milks, and the changes due to season, etc. 4. Weigh carefully the feed that is regularly gi\'en one of your cows for one day. Compare with the sample rations shown in the chapter. Are you feeding a balanced ration? If not, in which nutrient is it short? What should be done ? 5. Make a careful study of the distinguishing marks of each of the chief dair}' breeds, and learn to identify dif- ferent breeds at sight. 6. Consider the conditions of your home dairy barn. Has it plenty of light? Is it well ventilated? Are the stalls the right length for the cows ? Is the floor tight ? Are the rear gutter and the feed trough of a good type? Is the barn clean? Does it smell bad? 7. What steps are taken in your dairy toward cleaning the cows each time before milking? Do the cows get soiled from the stalls ? Are the milkers' hands washed before milking? What kind of a strainer do you use? Is your milk clean when it is ready for cooling. 8. Has your state a law requiring the tuberculin test for dairy lierds? Has your father's herd had the test? 292 AGRICULTURE If so, how often is the test appHed? With what results? Have you any cows with a cough? With coats that look rough and dead? Are any of your cows losing in flesh or amount of milk without seeming cause? Have any of them lumps in their udders? All these things are sjmptoms of tuberculosis. 9. Write an essay on how to improve dairy conditions and profits in your region. 10. Show how to keep a book account with the cattle interests of the farm. 11. Indicate on the map of the United States the dairy and beef producing sections. Consult the last census report and insert in each state the amount of beef and dairy pro- duction. 10. Demonstrations as Related to Cattle 1. Demonstrate how to make a butter-fat test with a milk-testing machine. 2. Demonstrate by the use of the blackboard or chart a good and a poor dairy type of cattle. 3. Show by drawing or chart a good type of beef cat- tle. Diagram the beef unit so as to show the various grades of meat. 4. Show how to keep a record of the Eabcock test for butter-fat for five cows. 5. Demonstrate how to cool milk and cream. Other demonstrations can be carried on in connection with the cattle industry, such as butter making, cheese mak- ing, showing the use of milk in various kinds of food, pas- teurizing milk, cleaning cows, mixing various types of feed and making tuberculin tests. 11. Cattle Play Contests 1. Cattle judging contest. 2. Breed naming contest. 3. Record keeping contest. 294 AGRICULTURE 4. Milking contest. 5. Story writing contest on "Origin and History of Cattle" and other kindred subjects. 12. Cattle Club Projects There are three very practical and interesting club projects possible in connection with this subject. The first and most important perhaps is the dairy club, where club members agree to test for butter-fat a certain number of dairy cows or the entire herd on their father's farm. The basis of award may be as follows : 1. Number of cows tested 30 2. Records and helpful deductions 30 3. Skill in making test, shown in demonstration 20 4. Essay "How To Make the Test, Its Importance to Dairy Farmers" 20 Total score 100 The baby beef club project. — The object of this pro- ject is to encourage the production of beef cattle and to teach the proper methods of management and feeding of beef stock so as to secure the maximum returns for money, time and energy expended. The baby beef club member should be required to take a calf at a certain age, a yearling, or two-year-old, and care for it, keeping a record of all ex- penditures, daily rations, and cost of feed for six months or a year, with a view to showing maximum results from the management for the beef market. It is advisable as far as possible to have members grow their own feed, or at least a part of it, and to keep an accurate account of the cost of production of this feed as applied to the baby beef club project work. The basis of award may be as follows: CATTLE 295 1. Condition of beef at end of period, judged I^y score-card of beef standard cattle 30 2. Net profit and cost of production 30 3. Records and story on tbe club project 20 4. Selection of breed for beef purposes 20 Total score 100 Dairy record club project. — The object of this club project is first to teach methods of keeping accurate rec- ords of cost of management, feed, pastures, and milk pro- duction for each individual cow in the dairy herd, and to teach through these records the difference between a prof- itable dairy cow and a "boarder.'' It is possible to combine the dairy herd club project with the butter-fat testing work. The basis of award in this particular club project may be : 1. Number of cows of which complete records were kept 30 2. Condition of records, neatness, accuracy, etc 30 3. Conclusions and valuable recommendations 20 4. Oral or written discussion of "How I Ivept My Rec- ords" .' 20 Total score 100 CHAPTER XX HORSES [ORE than twent)- million horses are to be found on the farms of the United States. These horses on the farms alone are worth the enormous sum of two and a quarter billion dollars, or more than all our cattle, both dairy and beef. The raising of horses is therefore one of the leading industries connected with agriculture. 1. The Leading Horse Raising States Slightly more than fift}--t\vo per cent, of all the horses found on the farms of this countr}- are raised in the follow- ing ten states: Iowa, Illinois, Texas, Kansas, Missouri, Ne- braska, Ohio, Indiana, ^Minnesota and Oklahoma. The farms of Iowa and Illinois support appro.ximatel}- one and one-half million horses for each state: Texas, Kansas, ^lissouri and Nebraska have more than a million each, and Cdiio, Indiana, Alinnesota and Oklahoma, more than three-fourths of a million each. Proportion supplied by each state. — The proportion of all the horses found on our farms \\-hich is supplied by each of these ten leading horse states is shon'u in the fob lowing chart : Iowa 7.05% Illinois 7.07o Te.xas 5. 5'^° Kansas 5.0% Missouri 5.0% Nebrask-/, 5.07o Ohio 4.4% Indiana 4.2% Minnesota 4.1% Oklahoma 3.7% 296 HORSES 297 Horses are adapted to a wide range of climates, and can be successfully produced in every state. The market for horses is good and, under skilful management, they can be be raised with profit on almost all farms. 1. Make a list of all the horses on your farm, and have your father help you estimate the value of each. Now compare the value of your horses with the value of your cattle ; your hogs ; ^-our sheep. 2. After each member of the class has made the com- putation asked in No. 1, put all the results together and make similar comparisons for the value of different farm stock for all farms represented. Compare the relative val- ues of horces, cattle and hogs for your region with the rela- tive values of these animals for the entire country, taking the necessary irgures from the respective chapters of this book. 2. Classes of Horses Class and grade. — Regardless of breed, horses are classed in the markets according to the uses to which they are suited. The different classes are : draft horses, chunks, TC'ffp-ow horses, carriage horses, road horses, saddle horses and panics. Animals are graded within each class as choice, good, mcdiuni, common and inferior. The class to which a horse belongs depends on (1) weight, (2) height, and (3) conformation, or build, and (4) quality. Draft horses. — To be in the draft class a horse in good flesh must weigh from one thousand six hundred pounds to more than a ton. The height ranges from 15-2 to 17-3 hands. The form of draft horses is broad, com- pact and rugged, with legs short as compared with the depth of the body. This build brings the weight close to the ground, where it can exert the greatest power in draw- ing a load. Draft horses are used largely for city teaming, for logo^ino- and the like. 298 AGRICULTURE Chunks. — The form of this class of horses is indicated by their name. Chunks are lieavy-set, sliort legged, com- pactly built horses, of lighter weight than draft horses. Their weight varies from eight hundred pounds among the lightest of the southern chunks to one thousand five hundred and fifty pounds in the North and East. The height is from A iiuir of draft Iiorses. 15 to 15-3 liands. The typical farm horse belongs to the chunk class. Wagon horses. — AA'agon horses are required to com- bine weight with action and endurance. Cit}- delivery and express, fire and artillery horses are selected from this class. They must have sound feet ; strong clean legs ; broad deep chests ; and show good constitution and quality. Their weight is from one thousand and fifty pounds to one thou- A fine type of draft horse. A good riair of cliuuks, aDd tbeir offspring by pure-bred sires. 300 AGRICULTURE sand seven hundred pounds; and their height from 15 to 17-2 hands. Carriage horses. — The carriage, or heavy harness, class are required to have good action, a fair amount of speed, and to be of a pleasing, styhsli form and carriage. The head should be small, and yell-set, on a long arching neck. The body should be smooth and rounded, the back short and well coupled, vith a long level croup, and the A good tPiun of heavy carriage lior^ies, showing tiue character and action. hindquarters strong and well developed. The height ranges from 14-1 to 16-2 hands, and the weight from nine hundred pounds to one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds. The carriage class suppl}- the coach, park and cab horses. Road horses. — Road or light harness horses are lighter in build, more angular in form, and possess better action than the carriage class. They must liave good speed, life and qualit}-. They are used for light and fancy driving, and for racing. Their weight is from nine hundred to one HORSES 301 thousand one hundred and fifty pounds, and their height rruni 14-3 to 16 hands. Saddle horses. — Saddle horses are built lor ease of action, strength and snreness of foot. They are also rc- ciuired to have mettle, coupled with a good disposition and intelligence. The withers are high and thin, and the shoul- ders olilinu.e. The hack must be sliort, well muscled, and A good saddle liiir.se. strongly coupled, and the gait eas}-. The height runs from fourteen hands for polo ponies to si.xteen hands for hunters or cavalry horses. The weight may vary from eight hun- dred and fift}- to one thousand two hundred and fifty pounds. Ponies. — Ponies are chiefly used for children, and must therefore first of all have good dispositions. To be in the pony class, the height must be under fourteen hands. 302 AGRICULTURE The body is deep and well rounded, the legs and neck are short, the croup is level, and the quarters are strong and well developed. These different classes of horses often merge into one another so that it is difficult to tell in which of two classes a certain animal belongs. For market purposes it pays to breed for well marked classes, as these always bring higher prices than mixed stock. 1. Study each horse on your home farm, and decide the class to which it belongs. If the type, is not clearly marked in any case, decide what two classes it resembles. 2. Also grade each horse as choice, good, medium, com- mon, or inferior in its class. Remember that to be "choice" the animal must be entirely sound, in good condition, and possess in the highest degree the ideal qualities of its class. The "inferior" grade is the very worst of its class. The other grades lie in between these two extremes. 3. Breeds of Horses While the breed to which a horse belongs has little bearing on its market value if the class marks are strong and the grade high, yet the only way to secure class and grade is by pure breeding. Millions of dollars are being- lost by American farmers every year through the breed- ing of grade or scrub horses. The value of breeding. — An excellent illustration of the difference in market value between pure-bred and grade- bred horses is shown in the case of Wisconsin horses (Bui. 186, Wis. Ag. Exp. Sta.) : Average value (jf horses l)y ages 4 to 6 months 1 year 2 years 3 years 4j'cars From pure-bred sircs__-$78.77 $132.84 $196.84 $218.00 $3(J3.00 From grade sires 51.25 85.00 127.50 156.45 200.20 Difference in fa\or of pure-bred sires 27.52 47.84 59.34 61.55 102.80 HORSES 303 This table is very convincing when it is remembered that it costs no more in care and feed to raise a well-bred horse than a scrub. The farmer who uses only pure-bred sires for his breeding will get almost fifty dollars more for his colts as yearlings than if he uses grade sires, while if he A typical I'ercbei'ou. does not sell until the colt has reached maturity he will receive at least one hundred dollars more. If pure-bred dams are also used, the difference will be greater still. Will it not pay well to "breed up" our horses ? Draft breeds. — The chief breeds of draft horses in the United States have been imported from Europe. The fa- vorite of these is the Perchcron, which comes from Erance. 304 AGRICULTURE The Percherons have good spirit, are strong-boned, and have sound feed. They show good action, have a liigh degree of intelligence, and respond well to training. The Clydesdales come from Scotland. They are longer in build than Percherons, have smaller bodies, and less rug- Typical of tUe Amei'ieau trutter breed. ged constitutions. They are strongly marked by a heavy growth of hair on the lower part of the leg, especialU' at the fetlock. For use in wet and muddy times this excess of hair is a disadvantage, since it is hard to keep dry and clean. The Belgians come to us from Belgium, and the English HORSES 305 Shires from England. Both are excellent breeds, though they have not yet come into the favor enjoyed by the Per- cherons, or even the Clydesdales. It is chieilv from the heavier breeds that come all our draft horses, chunks, wagon horses, and carriage, or heavy harness horses. A comparatively small proportion of horses in any of these classes is as yet pure bred, most being a cross with grade or common stock. The lighter breeds. — Relatively few farmers have undertaken the raising of the lighter and speedier breeds of horses. This has been left to special breeders and stock farms that make a specialty of horses. The heavier breeds are better adapted to the farm, since the dams can then be used for general farm work, and thus serve a double pur- pose and thereby add to the profit. Among the lighter breeds raised in this country, the English Hackney, the French Coach, and the German Coach are the favorites for the carriage class. For lighter road use the breeds most favored are the Ainerican Trotter, the American Saddle horse and the English Thoroughbred. 4. Judging Horses The horse is to many people the most interesting animal on the farm. The satisfaction and profit from horse raising- depend very largely on the breed, class and grade. For these reasons all who are interested in farm animals should learn to judge horses readily and accurately. The score-card. — Before undertaking to use the score- card in actual judging, the pupil must become thoroughly familiar with all its points, understanding fully the re- quirements for a perfect score under any point. With this ideal in mind, the animal is to be examined, and the score put down on the card. Do not be afraid to mark off for 306 AGRICULTURE all bad points. It takes a good animal to grade eighty per cent, when marked by an expert judge, and an exceptional one to grade ninety per cent. Judges do not usually mark closer than one-fourth per cent, on any point. 5. Common Defects and Unsoundness in Horses Any defect or unsoundness lowers the value of a horse. All who have to do with horses should be able to identify the more common faults, and know their causes. (See Pur- due Circular, Xo. 29.) Defects of head, eyes and ears — 1. Poll evil; sore on top of head, caused by bruises. 2. Blindness; eitlier with or without defects of ej'eball. 3. "Blue-eyed"; a peculiar bluish color, may indicate blind- ness. 4. Over-mobile ears; showing viciousness or blindness. 5. Immobile ears; showing deafness or lockjaw. Defects of the mouth — 1. Nose discharge; indicating catarrh, glanders, diseased molars. 2. Bit sores, showing tender mouth, or abuse. 3. Diseased molars; affect health and interfere with eating. 4. "Parrot" mouth; upper jaw too long, front teeth project over lower. 5. Undershot jaw; lower jaw short; front teeth do not meet. 6. Clipped tongue; tip cut off to prevent lolling. Defects of neck, withers and shoulders — 1. Neck sores; caused by collar wear on top of neck. 2. Fistula; running sore on withers on shoulders. 3. Collar sores and boils; dirty and ill-fitting collars. Defects of feet and legs — 1. Shoe boil; sore at elbow from injury by shoe while lying down; also sore from harness band. 2. Splint; (describe.) 3. Broken knee; bent backward from injury. 4. Buck knee; bent forward from stiftcning of tendons. 5. Capped knee; (what is meant?) 6. Greased heel; sores which refuse to heal. HORSES 307 7. Scratches; sores under fetlocks from filth or dampness. 8. Windgalls; pufifs around fetlock joint from hard driving or standing on hard floors. 9. Cocked ankles; ankles bent forward from misuse. 10. Navicular disease; contracted foot, favored in action. 11. Toe cracks; transverse checks across the hoof. 12. Quarter racks; split in hoof extending up to heel. 13. Corns; (what? v.diere?) (describe catise.) 14. Thrush. 15. Knocked-down hip; one hip lower than the other from blow. 16. Spavin; either bog, or bone, indicating sprain or injury. 17. Thorough-pin; (describe cause.) 18. Curb; enlargement at back of hock from sprain. General defects — 1. St. Vitus's Dance; twitching of muscles. 2. Crampness; tendency for muscles to cramp. 3. Stringhalt ; one or both hind feet lifted too high. 4. Roaring; a wheezing, roaring sound in breathing; from bad wind. 5. Heaves; spasmodic breathing. Vices — 1. Cribbing; habit of biting mangers, posts, etc., caused by teeth trouble. 2. Windsucking; habit of biting, and at the same time suck- ing in air. 3. Halter pulling; habit of pulling back when tied. 4. Biting; vicious tendency to bite people or other horses. 5. Balking; refusing to move when commanded. 6. Rolling in stall ; likely to become "cast" and cause in- jury. 7. Kicking; showing vicious temper. 8. Striking; with front feet to injure attendant. 6. The Care of Horses The horse is the most intelligent and companionable of the farm animals. It quickly shows the effects of ill treat- ment or lack of care and, on the other hand, easily responds to training and good usage. 308 AGRICULTURE Unsoundness due to ill usuage. — Not a few of the defects common to horses should be blamed to their own- ers or users. For example, poll evil is frequently caused by striking the head against a door or stall beam that is too low. Bit sores indicate either a careless or a cruel driver, or a bit unsuited to the horse on which it is used. Neck and shoulder sores seldom occur if the collar is a good fit, and if kept clean. Fistula on withers on shoulders comes from collar bruises. Szv^eeuy is the result of a wrench or strain, often due to ill-fitting collars. In similar way, splints, spaz'ins, curbs, thorough-pins and other injindes to the legs are often caused by excessive driv- ing or pulling, especially of young horses. jMisshapen knees and ankles are an evidence of hard usage. Greased heel, thrush and scratches come from damp and filthy stalls. Roaring is the result of driving until the wind is "broken'' ; heaves usually come from eating dusty feed; cribbing is a sign of the neglect of teeth that need attention. The effect of training. — The vices which reduce the value of many horses and make them unpleasant to handle are usually due fully as much to training as disposition. Halter pulling commonly begins in the colt being frightened and made to break loose when tied, or else being tied with an old and easily broken halter that encourages pulling on it. Balking often indicates lack of intelligence and patience on the part of the trainer fully as much as stubbornness on the part of the horse. Biting may be started by teas- ing ; and kicking often has its beginning in fright from something loose about the harness or vehicle before the colt is well broken. Treatment of horses. — The horse should be treated with kindness and firmness. The driver who strikes or jerks because of his anger or petulance deserves the con- HORSES 309 tempt of all lovers of animal life, and should not be en- trusted with horses. One who will work a team in the heat and dust and then allow them to stand over night with- out cleaning- shows either lack of intelligence about horses or cruelt}-. To drive a team until they are sweaty and then allow them to stand in a cold wind unblanketed reveals not only heartlessness but bad business management. The horse can not be taught like a person. Therefore, A horse ni.irUet, good demand. .stiowiiig ti tji't' of Loi'se for wLiich there is a only one single word of command should ever be used for the same act. Jl^Iwa should always mean an immediate and dead stop ; back should mean to step backward, and not merely to stop. Some one signal alone should be used to start, and the horse never allowed to start without this sig- nal. Care in such simple points as these would result in much better broken and safer horses. 310 AGRICULTURE 7. Feeding Horses The feeding of farm work horses is a different prol:i- lem from the feeding of most other farm stock. This is because the horse is fed for n'ork, while other animals are fed for meat, milk, eggs and so on. The ration for horses. — The ordinary farm ration for working horses is some form of hay for roughage, and one or more cereals, such as oats or corn. The particular kind of hay fed is not important, so that it is in good con- dition and free from dust. If dusty hay must be used, it should be sprinkled with water as it is fed. Horses seem to find timothy hay more palatable than most other kinds, but red clover, alfalfa, meadow fescue and other meadow grasses have been found satisfactory. It is thought that less grain is necessary to keep up the weight of horses at hard work when alfalfa is fed instead of some other hay. Grain ration for farm horses. — Oats are the choice of the cereals for horses wherever thev are obtainable. The_\' are relished better than most grains, and seem especially suited to the horse as a nutrient. Horses fed on oats also seem to show better mettle than those fed on other grains. In the corn producing region corn is usually a more economical feed for horses than oats, and has therefore come into finite general use as a part of the ration. Corn and alfalfa hay make a satisfactory ration, at least for a limited time, and are cheaper than oats and timothy hay. A very satisfactory and rather heavy daily ration for a horse weighing from one thousand two hundred to one thousand three hundred pounds, and en'iployed at general farm labor is : 7% pounds of whole corn. 7% pounds of whole oats. 1 pound of oil meal. 3 pounds of wheat bran. HORSES 311 7% pounds of timothy hay. 7% pounds of clover hay. Other rations that have been proved satisfactory by ex- periment are as follows : 1. Corn, 6 pounds; gluten feed, 6 pounds; bran, 2 pounds; timothy haj-, 10 pounds. 2. Corn, S pounds; bran, 7 pounds; timotliy hay, 10 pounds. 3. Oats, 6 pounds; corn, 4 pounds; bran, 2 pounds; hay, 12 pounds. These rations are the amount (hat should be fed dail\' to a horse weighing from one thousand two hundred to one thousand three hundred, pounds when at work. Larger horses should receive more, and smaller horses less, accord- ing to weight. It is also to be noted that some horses re- quire more feed than others of the same weight. How to feed. — For horses with good teeth it is not essential whether the gram is ground or fed whole, except that the same amount will yield somewhat more nourisli- ment if ground. This difference may sometimes be as mucli as one per cent, in favor of ground feed. On days wdien work horses are allowed to stand idle the amount of grain should be reduced about one-half. If the idleness contin- ues beyond three or four days, the amount of grain ma\ gradually be increased, but should not reach the full work ration. Most of the hay should be fed at night and in the morn- ing, as there is not time at noon to secure the necessar\ notirishment from roughage. The noon feed of grain niav be slightly heavier than that for night or morning. About twice as long is required for horses to eat ground grain fed dry as when it is dampened. Watering horses. — Much prejudice exists concerning the best time for watering horses, some preferring to water before feeding, and others after. Careful experiments have 312 AGRICULTURE shown that the time of watering is not highly important. If horses come from the field thirsty, it is reasonable to suppose that they will relish their meal better if they have had a drink. If the feed consists largely of dry roughage it also seems best to water before feeding. Whatever sys- tem is adopted should be followed regularly, as changing about often injures the appetite or produces some other de- rangement. Horses should never be given a large amount of water when highly heated from working or driving. Tones FOR IXVESTIGATION 1. What breeds of horses are favored in your region? Let each student find out just what breeds are represented in the horses on his home farm, with the percentage of pure-bred blood in each animal. Sum up the results for the entire district. 2. If it costs fifteen dollars more to sire from pure-bred than grade horses, what would be the net gain by using pure-bred rather than grade sires in raising for market two teams and selling them at four years of age on the basis shi;wn in the table on page 302 ? 3. After studying the score-card for judging draft horses and judging one or more animals under the direc- tion of the teacher, judge independently at least two other horses, having your work tested and criticized by the teacher or other competent judge. 4. [Master thoroughly the list of defects common to horses, and then watch for an example of each on dif- ferent animals until you have learned to identif\- anv un- soundness at sight. Examine carefully each horse at your home for unsoundness. 5. Write a detailed account of the care that should be given a working team each day, including stall, feeding, watering, cleaning, blanketing, and so on. 6. Weigh the ordinary daily ration fed one of your working horses and compare with the rations suggested in HORSES 313 the chapter. At current prices, just what does it cost a day to feed one of your work horses ? 7. Show how to keep a bookkeeping record of the cost of keeping, feeding, and use of a team of heavy draft horses for farm ]nirposes, covering a period of six months through the working season. 8. Show upon the map of the United States the ap- proximate number of horses in eaclr state. Secure records from the last census report on horses. Where were the wild horses originally found ? Where are horses now raised on ranges? 8. Demonstrations IVith the Horse 1. Demonstrate how to halter-break a colt. 2. The proper method of judging a horse. 3. Show how to handle a buggy horse ; harness, hitch and start. 4. Demonstrate the proper method of mounting a sad- dle horse, with and without the saddle. 5. The proper method of currying a horse, training the mane, and tying up the tail for muddy roads. 6. Demonstrate miscellaneous interests in horseman- ship. In this particular case contestants may be allowed to bring their own horses and demonstrate values and tricks such as prompt obedience to master's command, and pe- culiar and valuable traits of their animals. 7. Demonstrate the practical rope knots and splicings of especial value in the handling of horses, such as the hal- ter-hitch, clove-hitch, slipknot and timber-hitch. 8. Demonstrate how to harness and hitch a team to a double wagon. All of the above demonstrations should not only show skill, accuracy and speed, but kindness in the handling of the animals. 314 AGRICULTURE 9. The Horse Play Contests 1. Horse mounting contest, judged by skill, largest number of mountings in five minutes and showing of kind- ness to animal in mounting. 2. Horse judging contest, driving contest in single, double, or four-horse team. 3. Oral stor\-, giving the life history of the horse. 4. Essay writing contest on the subject: "The Horse and Its Relation to Agriculture." 5. Recipe and remedy giving contest, showing the proper methods of treatment for unsoundness, defects, blem- ishes and vices of the horse. 6. Description and recognition of defects and blemishes with causes. 10. Colt Club Project The object of organizing a colt club is to get boys and girls interested in the raising and proper management of colts as an economic factor on the farm. The work should cover a period of not less than twelve months in the man- agement, feeding and keeping of records of a colt. The basis of award should be as follows : 1. Management shown by training of colt 25 2. The cost of keeping 25 3. Condition of the colt or horse 25 4. Story of "My Year's Work with the Colt" 25 Total score ICX) CHAPTER XXi SWINE HOGS outrank every other farm animal in number in the United States, and are exceeded in value only by horses and cattle. There are more than sixty million hogs on our farms, or nearly two porkers for every three of the population. The aggregate market value of swine is about two-thirds that of dairy cattle, and not far from equal to the value of beef cattle. American farmers own more than six hundred million dollars' worth of hogs. 1. The Pork Prodiiciiii!; Ivcgion A large proportion of our hogs is produced in the states forming the curn belt. This is natural, since corn is one of the cheapest and best grains for raising pork. Many other regions can grow hogs as successfully as the corn states, however, and the industry is spreading. Hogs in the South. — Southern farmers have not yet entered very largely upon the raising of hogs, though they can probably be produced fully as cheaply in the South as the North. The southern people consume more meat per capita than the people of any other section. Millions of pounds of fresh meats are annually shipped to southern markets from northern and western farms. This means a double loss to the South, hence the importance of a more general study of the swine industry. For money is paid out for what could well be raised at home, and a most prof- itable industry is thus omitted from the farms. 315 316 AGRICULTURE The leading states in hog production. — Sixty per cent. of all our pork is raised in ten states. In the order of their importance in pork production these states are : Iowa, Illi- nois, jMissouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, Texas, Wisconsin, Georgia. The percentage each of these supplies of all hogs produced in the United States is shown in the following chart : Iowa 13.4% Illinois 7.5% ^Missouri 6.7% Nebraska 6.2% Indiana 6.1% Ohio S.l^/o Kansas 4.3% Te.xas 4.1% Wisconsin i.i% Georgia 3.1% The number of swine in these states runs from about two million in Georgia to nine million in Iowa. 2. Breeds of Hogs j\Iany of our important breeds of cattle and horses orig- inated in Europe, but we have ourselves developed nearly all our chief breeds of hogs. The breeds most favored in the United States are Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Ches- ter-White and Berkshire. The Berkshire, the only imported breed, came from England. Other less well-known breeds are the Yorkshire, Cheshire, Suffolk, Hampshire and Essex. Poland-China. — Poland-China has long been a favorite breed of hogs, especially in the corn states. They are black in color, with irregular white markings on almost every part of the body. The ears are drooping. The Poland- Chinas make a rapid growth, and reach good size. They are rather small of bone, and not so good foragers as some SWINE 517 other breeds. Some fault has been found witli them for not producing larger litters. Duroc-Jersey. — The Duroc-Jerseys are easily recog- nized b)' their reddish color. They are one of the most prolific and vigorous breeds, somewhat slow in develop- ing, and strong of frame. Their bones are large, and A flue DiU'OC-Jersey now. they reach good size and weight. They have large droop- ing ears, are good foragers, and thrive well on pasturage, or when following a herd of fattening cattle. Chester-White. — The Chester-White breed are of large frame, rather slow in maturing, and possess good constitutions. They are white without markings, and have drooping ears. They are raised more in New England than in the corn region. A Cliestei'-Wliite sow in show condition. A Bf rUshire. SWINE 319 Berkshire. — Berkshires resemble the Poland-China breed in color and markings, being black with white mark- ings. They may be distinguished by their erect ears. They have a compact frame, are good feeders, and make a quicker growth than most other breeds. The Berkshire has long been a favorite breed, especially throughout the Middle West. 3. The Care of Hogs Pigs are not so cleanly in their habits as some other farm animals. This seems to make many farmers think that it does not matter how they are kept. Nothing could be a greater mistake. Hogs thrive only under hygienic condi- tions of feeding and housing. JMilhons of dollars are thrown away every year by faihire to give hogs the care they re- quire. Need of good housing. — Plogs are the most poorly housed of any farm animal. Any kind of place is thought good enough for them on many farms. Yet hogs are far more sensitive to cold than horses or cattle, which have thick coats to protect them, while the hog has almost none. Hogs lie down more than most animals, and need a better bed. They live close to the ground, and easily breathe in dust and impurities. They need sunshine more than do horses and cattle, yet little is provided for them. Hogs take cold very easily. Little pigs, especially, need to be kept warm, dry and away from drafts, if they are not to have their growth checked, or even lose their lives by catching cold. Neglect of these simple rules indicates shift- less farming, and causes great loss. Hog-houses. — Every farm that makes a business of raising pigs will find a well-built hog-house a paying invest- ment. The most economical and convenient hog-house has a row of pens along each side of a central alley which, in 320 AGRICULTURE larger buildings, should be wide enough to drive through. This allows the hauling in of straw lor bedding, and corn or slops for feeding, thereby saving much labor. It also provides for the easy removing of manure. The separate pens should be from five to eight feet wide and from eight to twelve feet long, depending on the use to be made of them. Pens for brood sows need not be larger Au L'XCL'lleiit type uf Llog-llOU^^e willi uutduur iieus. than five or six by eight feet. If feeding is to be done in the pens they should be larger, or, better still, the partitions should be remo\-able. The floor mav be of cement, though for farrowing sows a temporary board floor should be laid over the ceuient, because of the coldness of a cement floor. Woven wire stretched o\-er the top of the ground to pre- vent rooting is sometimes used as a floor. Such a floor is likely to be either dusty or wet, however. Board floors are expensive and drafty if up off the ground. They also liar- SWINE 321 bor rats, which not infrequently kill young pigs. A dou- ble trough may supply each pair of pens. Young pigs should have their own troughs outside the main pens. RACK FOR FEEDING HAY TO HOGS Lighting and ventilating hog-houses. — It is not un- common to find hog-houses that cost several thousand dol- lars built almost without windows or other means of admit- ting light, air and sunshine. Other houses are built with windows in unfavorable positions, so that the sunlight can 322 AGRICULTURE not fall on the floor of the pens where it is needed by the pigs. The hog-house should run east and west, so that it ma\- have one full side exposed to the sun. This arrangement will necessitate having one row of pens along the north side. In order to get sunlight into the north pens, the "broken roof" style of building is used. Care must be taken to place both upper and lower windows at such a height that the sunlight will reach the floor during the winter and early spring months, which are the farrowing season. To do this, the angle of the sun, say in February and March, and the width of the building must be carefully com- puted. At the latitude of southern Iowa, or central Illinois, Indiana, Ohio and Nebraska, the tops of the upper win- dows of a hog-house twenty feet wide should be ten and one-half feet from the ground. If the north pens are eight feet long, and the alley is four feet wide, the sunshine will just reach the back line of the pens at ten o'clock and at two o'clock on the first of ]March. Care to such details will save the lives of many young pigs farrowed in the early spring. Individual hog cots. — Many hog raisers are now pro- viding two types of hog-houses, the large permanent house for farrowing purposes, and the small individual cot for the sows and their litters as soon as the latter are old enough to be put out-of-doors. The individual cots may be scattered about the lot or pasture, and moved as often as necessary to keep the quarters clean. For winter service the cots can be collected side by side in a sheltered place, banked and used for sleeping quarters. The feeding floor. — The use of a sanitar^• feeding floor should be much more common than it is. It is a great waste of grain to scatter it in the mud or dust of a dirt yard. This mode of feeding is also injurious to the health of the pigs, for it compels them to breathe in a great SA¥INE 323 amount of dust and to eat impurities in order to get the grain. The effect is seen in such diseases as "thumps" and "wheezes," and in the greater hability to colds, tuberculosis and other troubles. The best feeding floor is made of concrete, slightly raised above the level of the ground, if made outside the hog-house, Iii(liviilu:il liii;4 cut, oil riuiuei'^, so tliat U cau lie drawn Irom lilaee to [ilace. and sloping slightly so that it can easily be washed oft. Such a IliMjr is not expensive, and will pay for itself many times over in the feeding of hogs. 4. Feeding Hogs Hogs are probably the best money makers on the farm, if properly handled. The same amount of feed will produce a greater value of pork than any other meat. The returns also come in sooner than with most other farm animals. 324 AGRICULTURE Aloney invested in hogs can be turned rapidly, as pigs are marketable when eight months old. The yearl)' sales from a herd of hogs should be from two to four times the orig- inal investment. ]\Iuch of the profit depends on intelli- gent feeding. The feeding of pigs requires the consideration of three stages in their development, ( 1 j from farrowing to wean- ing, (2) from weaning to fattening, and (3) fattening for market. Feeding young pigs. — Little pigs do not need any food other than their mother's milk for the first two or three weeks of their life. When they have reached this age, they will begin to nibble on shelled corn. A little of this should be fed them in a place outside the pen. By the time thev are from three to four weeks old, they may be fed a small amount of skim-milk, in wdiich has been mixed a little ground feed, such as shorts. They should have a trough of their own where it can not be reached by the mother. The amount of mixed feeds and shelled corn given small pigs may be increased till the}- are ten weeks old, when they should be weaned. When they are deprived of their moth- er's milk, which up to weaning time supplies the basis of their nourishment, it is very important that they be fed a ration capable of producing the most rapid growth and best health. Feeding pigs after weaning. — At the time tif weaning, the feed should not be greatly changed, except to increase the amount, until the pigs have become accustomed to the loss of the mother's milk. If pasture is available, the quan- tity of corn may be increased. If the pigs must be kept in a dr^• lot, a larger proportion of soft feeds should be used. It is to be remembered that the purj^ise in feeding pigs SWINE 325 from the age of two months up to the age of six or seven months is not to^ fatten them, but to cause them to grow large frames and develop good constitutions. If the)' are fattened too earl)% it stops their growth, and reduces their vitality, thereby making it unprofitable to continue feeding them up to full maturitv. A K 1 tyiie ijf feecliug ]ieu for sui.-ill piss. Pasturage for growing pigs. — Growing hogs, there- fore, require muscle and bone making food, instead of a ration that will fatten them. They need exercise to pro- mote their growth, and give them strong vigorous frames for the taking on of fat. For these reasons, pasturage SWINE 327 the necessary food elements than any other food. The fol- lowing are suggested as rations suitable for growing hogs that have, in addition, access to good pasturage : 1. Corn, 60%; shorts, 30%; tankage, 10%; or 2. Corn, one-third; wheat, one-third; oats, one-third, ground; or 3. Corn, one-half; shorts, one-half; or 4. Corn, 60%; shorts, 20%; linseed-oil meal, 20%'; or 5. Corn, one-third; milk, two-thirds. It has been shown by careful tests that if pigs must be fed in dry lots, ration one, consisting of corn sixty per cent., shorts thirty per cent, and tankage ten per cent., will produce double the gain that can be secured from corn alone. Fattening hogs. — Pigs should be ready for fatten- ing by the time they are from six to six and one-half months old. When fattening begins, the ration should have a much larger proportion of corn. In fact, hogs may be profitably fattened on corn alone, through the addition of milk to the ration pays. While being fed for fattening, the hog does not require the amount of exercise needed during the growing period. It is not best, however, to shut feeders up in a close pen, for a certain amount of exercise is necessary to keep the hog in a healthy condition and good appetite. Snapped corn is preferable to husked ears on account of the greater amount of work demanded of the hog, and the slower eating required. Where the fields can be properly fenced off, the best of all ways to feed corn to hogs is to allow them to do their own harvesting. This method of feeding, called "hogging down" corn, gives the hogs about the right amount of exercise, allows them to eat whenever they desire, and saves the farmer the labor of husking, hauling and feeding. The same amount of corn will also produce more pork, 328 AGRICULTURE 5. Diseases Affecting Hogs Young pigs are not particularly liable to any one dis- ease, but easily fall prey to trotibles arising from improper care. Cold, wet, dirty pens cause the death of many new- farrowed pigs. Dusty floors, filthy mud-holes and un- cleaned troughs are always harmful. Exposure to extreme cold or to burning heat is sure to tell in loss of health or weight. It is safe to say that half the troubles attacking These two hogs were litter umtes. The Uirge one was owned and raised by the club boy, receiving good care and a balanced ration. The small one, owned by the boy's father, had poor care and a narrow ration. the younger pigs, at least, could be saved by providing them with more sanitary surroundings. Thumps. — This is a disease that manifests itself in a spasmodic manner of breathing, which suggests the name. It is usually a digestive trouble caused by over-feeding and lack of exercise. Certain worms ma)' also cause thumps. The best preventative of thumps, which most often attack SWINE 329 3-oung- hogs, is plent}' of pasture with green feed. The treatment for thumps is to reduce the amount of feed, give a la.\ative, and make sure that the pigs get exercise. Scours. — Scours, or too great laxness in the digestive tract, are caused in young pigs Ijy overfeeding, a feverish condition of the mother sow, soured feeds, dirty troughs, or some other insanitary condition connected witli their feeding. The first step in appl_\-ing a remedy is to iind and remove the cause. If the trouble continues, each pig may he given a few drops of laudanum. Worms. — A\'orms are a source of great trouble in raising pigs. Through rooting in the dirt, and being fed on dirt floors, young pigs pick up certain kinds of worms which continue to live in their digestive organs. Pigs never thrive when afflicted with worms. The coat shows rough, growth is hindered, the general health affected, and a large proportion of the feed wasted. A simple remedy is to give one teaspoonful of turpentine to sixty or eighty pounds of hog, and repeat the dose in three days. Another remedy is five grains of santonin combined with three grains of calomel for each sixty or eighty pounds of hog. This should be followed by an effective physic. Whatever the remedy employed, the pigs should be star\'ed for twelve hours before being dosed. Lice. — i\Iany hogs are lousy. The lice can easily be detected b_\- looking between the legs or liehind the ears. Hogs suffering with lice will make a slower growth and fatten less easily than clean hogs. So important is this matter that many hog raisers provide as a part of their erjuipment a dipping tank, in which some form of crude oil or coal tar is used as a bath. Where the dipping tank is not available, or in the case of young pigs, the remedy should be sprayed or rubbed on. Tuberculosis. — Hogs, like various other animals, are 330 AGRICULTURE subject to tuberculosis. ;\Ian}- hogs have this disease in some form. Its effects are seen in a stoppage of growth, a general run-down appearance, loss of appetite, and in some cases, death. Because hogs are kept so short a time, and tuberculosis is so slow a disease, there is comparatively Parts of a hog A. Snout K. Back S. I-Inrk I!. lOye L. Loin T. Hind leg C. F;i ce M. Side V. Fore tlank D. E;u- X. Tail V. Foot R. Jowl O. Rump w . Pasterns P. Neck P. Breast X. Dew claw (;. Fore 1 eg Q. Hind flank Y. Stifle H . Shoulder R. Ham Z. Belly 1. Chest line little loss owing to deaths from tuberculosis. But many animals when slaughtered are found to be unfit for food be- cause of the disease. Tuberculosis is caught either from diseased pigs, or from drinking the milk of tubercular cows. It is probable that most of the tuberculosis in swine comes from the latter SWINE 331 cause. Man}' hog raisers now pasteurize the milk hcfore feeding it to the pigs. This is the only sure preventative against tubercular milk. Hog cholera. — By far the worse disease scourge af- fecting hogs is cholera. It not infrequently wipes out en- tire herds within a few weeks. The average yearly loss from hog cholera in Indiana is estimated at three million dollars. In one single "cholera j'ear" Iowa lost at least twenty million dollars from this cause. Other states sufifer in like proportion. It is, therefore, of the highest import- ance that the causes of cholera, and the modes of prevention be well understood. Hog cholera is a germ sickness caught bv infection from hogs that have the disease. It is not necessary for well animals to come in direct contact with cholera hogs in order to catch the infection. The germs may be carried by dogs ; by pigeons, crows, or other birds that alight in the hog lot to pick up grain ; by men who have tramped through a lot where cholera hogs have been ; by new stock brought into the herd ; and by streams that have become infected. When hog cholera is in the region, therefore, it is necessary to observe every precaution to keep infection away from the herd. Effects of cholera. — The disease is so marked in its symptoms that it is not hard to distinguish from most other hog sicknesses. In hog cholera, the lymphatic glands, lungs, intestines, kidneys and liver are highly inflamed. Red blotches appear on the skin. Appetite is lost, the gait be- comes staggering, the eyes inflamed. Not infrequently bleeding at the nose and vomiting occur. The temperature is usually from one hundred and seven to one hundred and eight degrees Fahrenheit. The first ones of the herd to be stricken commonly die within a few davs : those that take the disease later may live for several weeks, or even recover. 332 AGRICULTURE Treatment. — Xo absolute cure has been discovered for hog cholera. Nearly all animals that take the disease usually die. A method of pre\-enting well herds from contracting cholera has, however, been discovered. This is to give well hogs anti-cholera serum ; or, in effect, vaccinate them, as is done with people for smallpox and diphtheria. The hog cholera serum is secured by drawing blood from I had serum. I wish I bad. a hog which has first been rendered immune to cholera, cither bv having had the disease or being given a special treatment for the purpose of immunizing, and then having had cholera germs injected into his veins. Each animal of the herd to be treated is given by hypodermic injection a certain quantity of this serum in accordance with its size. If the treatment is successful, it will immunize the herd against cholera for several -weeks. When the serum is given to well herds, a cholera hog is sometimes brought among them, or its carcass even fed them, at the time the treatment is given. This method is thought to make the immunitv more certain. SWINE 333 Success of the serum treatment. — The success of the serum treatment is still questioned Ii)' many. It seems rea- sonably certain, however, that where failure has followed its use, it was because the serum was improperly prepared or not skilfully administered. Various experiment stations have found that there is a loss of only about ten per cent, of the hogs treated in herds already infected, and of onl\ one or two per cent, in well herds where the serum treat- ment has been carefully used. The manufacture of serum by the state, or official inspection of its manufacture by pri- vate plants, will make its use as a cholera preventative still more effective. Xo one is justified in failing- to treat his herd with the serum when hog cholera threatens. Topics for Investigation 1. JMake a census of all the hogs on your home farm, classifying them into the following groups: brood sows, suckling pigs, young shoats, and fattening hogs. Have your father help you estimate the value of each group, and compute the value of all. 2. Wdiat dilTerent breeds are represented on ^-our farm ? Are the breeds pure or mixed ? 3. At what time of the year are the pigs farrowed ? At what age are they weaned ? At what age is fattening started? Are your 3-oung pigs allowed the range of a pas- ture? If so, what is the grass used? What feed is used in addition ? 4. Is attention given on your home farm to feeding hogs a balanced ration ? If so, wdiat are the feeds used ? What is the ration used for fattening? 5. If, when pigs are allowed to "hog down" corn it takes eight pounds of corn to produce one pound of pork, but requires ten pounds of corn to make a pound of pork when the corn is fed in a pen, wdiat will be the difference in the value of the corn fed twenty hogs while they are making an average gain of seventy-five pounds each, corn being worth fifty-five cents a bushel? 334 AGRICULTURE 6. Have you any hogs that do not seem to be thriving? If so, can you judge what is the matter? Do thev cough? Do they lack appetite? Do they look rough coated, and run down ? Is it likely that they have tuberculosis ? That they have worms ? Have they the thumps ? 7. Examine several hogs out of your herd for the pres- ence of lice. Are your hogs ever treated for lice? \\'hy is it that lousy hogs never thrive well ? 8. Compare all the different types of hog-houses used in 3-our neighborhood. How many are clean, light, well ventilated, and have the windows so placed that the pens receive the sunlight during the spring farrowing season? 9. Discuss the value of the cholera serum as a pre- ventative for hog cholera. How would you proceed to g:t state and government help for the care of hogs if any of them showed symptoms of hog cholera ? What are some of the symptoms ? 10. Show how to keep a book account of a pen of pigs, five in number, for a season of six months. The items should include labor costs, feed and equipment. 11. Show upon the map the relative standing of the hog states of the Union. Has there been a falling off or an increase in hog production during the last ten years? Refer to the last census report of the United States De- partment of Agriculture. 6. Demonstrations 1. Demonstrate upon the blackboard or with paste- board or paper, how to make a hog-house ; also a hog pen with feeding floor; then make a miniature outfit for the club festival or school fair. 2. How best to move hogs from place to place. AA'ould you drive, lead, or coax them ? 3. Demonstrate by diagram the proper divisions of a hog for the butcher's meat block. 4. Demonstrate the proper method for the vaccination of hogs for hog cholera. (Consult Farmers' Bulletin No. 379.) SWINE 335 5. How to make feeding and watering troughs for hog pens, in a simple inexpensive way. 7. ria\i Contests 1. Catching a greased pig, with the "greased" left out. 2. Naming and giving five characteristics of each of the various t\'pes or breeds of hogs. 3. Spelling contest, in which words relating to the hog industry are used. 4. Essay writing contest on one or more of the follow- ing subjects : "The Origin of the Hog" ; "The Care and Feeding of Hogs" ; "Treatment for Diseases of Hogs." 5. Drawing contest of hogs, hog pens, equipment, etc. 8. Pig Club Project The pig club work can easily be combined with the corn or grain club. Each club member takes thoroughbred pigs to raise in connection with the corn or grain crop, keeping, of course, separate records of each interest and charging against the hog all grain or other feed, from the club acre. Careful records of observation, receipts and expenditures should be kept in connection with the pig club \\OTk and the project should co\'er at least twelve months of work. The basis of award in this particular project should be as follows : 1. The exhibit of the hog and relation to its purpo.se judged by score-card 25 2. Average gain per day or month 25 3. Net profit and cost of production 25 4. Records and story on "How I Raised My Hog" 25 Total score 100 CHArTER XXII SHEEP THE raising of sheep has never received the attention it deserves in most regions. There are at present only a little more than fiftv million sheep on the farms of the United States. Almost sixty per cent, of our sheep are found in ten states, seven of which are in the far "West, one in the South, and only two in the middle and eastern states. Ac- cording to their importance in sheep raising, these states are: ]\Iontana, Wyoming, Ohio, Xew ilexico, Idaho, Ore- gon, California, Michigan, Texas and Utah. Other middle western states having important sheep interests are ]\Iis- souri, Indiana, Kentucky', Iowa and Illinois. 1. Importance of Sheep on the Farm Sheep could be raised with good profit on thousands of farms where they are now unknown. They are among the most hardy of the domestic animals, and will thrive in al- most every part of the country. Sheep as foragers. — Sheep ha^e no ecpial among the farm animals as foragers, Thev will eat a wide range of roughage, much of which is not available for other stock. Certain weeds not palatable to most animals arc eaten by sheep, and they therefore aid in keeping pastures, meadows and fields clean. Sheep will graze steep hillsides not acces- sible to horses or cattle, and will feed oil' of the foliage and twigs of brushland pastures. They find a good living 336 SHEEP 337 on stubble-fields, and will clean up the waste leaves, husks and stalks of corn-fields, being able to thrive in fields where cattle and horses have gleaned all that they can well find. Sheep can therefore obtain a considerable part of their liv- ing from material that would otherwise go to waste. tjlieep grazing iu Washington. Sheep require little labor. — Comparatively little labor is required in caring for sheep. In order to maintain the fertility of the soil, we need to raise more stock on our farms. Half a dozen sheep will produce as much income 3,3 a dairy cowj and demand much less labor for their care. 338 AGRICULTURE Their heavy coats enable sheep to hve in relatively open sheds in the winter, providing they are kept dry. The cost of shelter is therefore low. One of the chief practical difficulties in sheep raising is that the fences suitable for horses and cattle will not hold sheep. The present tendency, however, is to build closer fences, so that fields will be available for both hogs and sheep. In some regions serious loss of sheep occurs from vicious dogs, wolves and coyotes. Sheep-killing dogs should be relentlessly shot. Sheep bring quick returns. — Sheep are almost as good as poultr}' for quick returns. For ordinary farm purposes breeds are usually selected to produce both wool and mut- ton. In this way a double yield can be secured — fleeces from all the flock, and either lambs or mutton in addition. It is estimated that the fleece from good sheep should pay for their feed, thereby leaving the lambs raised or the mutton produced as profit. Lambs are ready for market at from seven to twelve months of age, thus allowing the money invested in them to be turned quickly. 2. Breeds of Sheep Sheep, like cattle, are kept for two purposes. Just as cattle include both the beef and the dairy breeds, so sheep comprise mutfoii breeds and merino, or zvool, breeds. Mutton breeds. — Mutton breeds of sheep correspond to beef breeds of cattle — their forms must be such as to yield the best results on the butcher's block, and they must be able to change their feed profitably into mutton. Mutton breeds are divided into two classes in accordance with the length of their wool: (1) medium z^vol, or down type, of which there are eight difTerent breeds; and (2) loii'r zi.'Ool, of which there are three breeds. SHEEP 339 Medium wool breeds — Shropshire Southdown Oxford Hampshire Dorset-Horn Clieviot Tunis Long wool breeds — Leicester Cotswold Lincoln SUeep yniziu,^', typical of wojiteru states. The mutton breeds are more commonly used for the gen- eral purposes of the farmer than are the breeds that are classified as merino. Merino breeds. — The merino breeds of sheep corre- spond to the dairy breeds of cattle. The build is more angular than that of the mutton breeds, and the general form such as to give the largest surface for the attach- ment of fleece. On the pure wool breeds the skin often hangs in folds on certain parts of the body, thus increasing 340 AGRICULTURE the area for the growth of wool. The three chief merino breeds are : American Alerino Delaine Merino Rambouillet Market classes of sheep. — AMiolly regardless of breed, market demands divide sheep into three groups or classes. These are ( 1 ) fat, or mutton sheep, or those ready for slaughter ; if the animals are less than one year old, thev are called lambs; (2) feeders, or animals ready to be fat- tened; and (3) breeders. 3. Feeding Sheep A\'hat has been said about the ability of sheep to forage for a great part of their food must not be understood to mean that it does not matter what sheep are given to eat. For sheep are exactly like all other animals in requiring the right proportion of nutritive elements in their food. Lacking a proper ration, they will be checked in growth, delayed in fattening, or short on the quantity and quality of wool. Feeding ewes kept for breeding. — Ewes that are to produce lambs in the spring may be fed through the winter on a cheaper ration than that required for the feeders. The ewes need more of the muscle-forming, and less of the fat- producing foods. Their rations may therefore consist more largely of roughage, and less of grains than for the fat- tening lambs. For breeding ewes weighing from one hundred and twent}--five to one hundred and fifty pounds, the following dail\' rations have been tested by the ^Minnesota Experiment Station and have been found to be economical and satis- factorv : SHEEP 341 Ration No. 1. 3.S pounds of corn stover. 2.0 pounds of roots. .4 pounds of oats or shelled Ration No. 2. 2. pounds of clover hay. 1.4 pounds of corn stover. .4 pounds of oats and corn mi.xcd. Moutaua sheep ready fur sliipmeut. Feeding for market. — The ration for fattening re- quires a larger proportion of fat.s and carl)oh\drates than the ones just described. It has also been found that lambs fatten best with a mixture of succulent food along with the usual roughage and grain. The Cornell Uni\-ersity Experiment ."station lias tried extensive experiments in fattening different lots of lambs 342 AGRICULTURE during- a period of one hundred and ten days. Each of the following rations served fift}- lambs for one day : Ration No. 1. Ration No. 2. 60 pounds of silage. SO pounds of mixed hay. 35 pounds of corn. 13 pounds of oats. 5 pounds of brewer's grain. 65 pounds of mixed hay. 35 pounds of corn. IS pounds of oats. 5 pounds of brewer's grains. Ration No. 3. Ration No. 4. 65 pounds of mixed hay. 10 pounds of corn. 20 pounds of brewer's grains. 20 pounds of gluten. 5 pounds of oats. 60 pounds of silage. 50 poimds of mixed hay. 10 pounds of corn. 20 pounds of brewer's grains. 20 pounds of gluten. S pounds of oats. It should be understood in studying these rations that at the beginning of the feeding period a larger proportion of roughage and a smaller proportion of grain were fed. By the end of the one-hundred-and-ten-dav period this propor- tion had been reversed. The rations as given are the daily average for the whole tiine. The actual amount of nutrients is the same for each of these four rations, }-et the results differ considerably both as to cost and the amount of fat produced, as is shown by the following comparisons : Ration Average gain per sheep in 110 days Cost per pound of gain 22.7 pounds 15.7 18.9 25.1 10.6 cents 15.9 " 13.2 " 9.6 " It will be noted that the most rapid gains, and at the lowest cost per pound were from the rations that contained SHEEP 343 silage. It is also seen that the lowest gain, and at the highest cost per pound, was from ration No. 2, where all succulent food was lacking, and most of the grain ration consisted of corn and oats. Topics for Investigation 1. Make a study of the sheep raising industry in your vicinity, determining (1) how many sheep are kept, (2) what breeds are most used, (3) whether mutton or wool is depended on for the chief source of profit, and (4j what method of feeding and housing is principally followed. 2. Which would probably add more labor on your farm, increasing your dairy herd by five cows, or keeping a flock of thirty sheep? How would the profits probably compare? What is the basis for your judgment? 3. Suppose the cost of the nutrients making up the fattening rations shown on page 342 was as follows : Hay, ten dollars a ton ; silage, two dollars and fifty cents a ton ; corn, sixty-five cents a bushel ; oats, forty-five cents a bushel; distiller's grains, thirty dollars a ton; gluten, twent3'-five dollars a ton. Figure what it cost to feed fifty lambs with each ration for one hundred and ten days. 4. After judging one or more sheep under the direction of the teacher, judge several animals independentl)', and then have your markings criticized and corrected. 5. Write an argument of three hmidred words showing why sheep raising should be extended as an industry in your neighborhood and county. 6. Show how to keep a record of labor costs, pasture rent, feed and shearing of ten sheep. 7. Indicate on the map of the United States the sheep areas and the approximate number of sheep in each state as shown by the last census report. 8. Enumerate in your note-book the various products supplied by sheep. 4. Sheep Demonstrations 1. Demonstrate the proper method of shearing sheep. 2. Show how to make a balanced ration for sheep for the month of January in your locality. 344 AGRICULTURE 3. Demonstrate how to judge the sheep. Use drawing, photograph or chart. 4. Demonstrate how to judge a lamb for mutton pur- poses. Use an animal in this case if possible. 5. Show how to judge sheep for wool purposes. Use the animal in this case. 5. Sheep Play Contests 1. Breed naming contests. 2. Wool fabric judging contest. A number of small pieces of various kinds of wool cloth, mixed with half wool and half cotton pieces, and some cotton pieces can be placed before the pupils with a view to teaching them how to distinguish between all-wool, part-wool, or cotton goods. 3. Essay writing contest on "The Life History of Sheep." 4. Sheep judging contest. 5. Five-minute extemporaneous speaking contest. In this contest have club members obtain all kinds of informa- tion with a view to making a speech either for or against the production of sheep on the average farm of the community. The object of this is to have them use the information ol^- tained from the text, investigations, etc., and apply this to their own farming conditions. 6. Sheep Club Projects There are two practical club projects in connection with this line of work : The mutton production club, and the wool production cluli. Mutton production club. — In connection with this club ]iroject the members are to take from one to a dozen spring lambs and care for them, keeping a record for a definite period of time, with a view to preparing them for SHEEP 345 the mutton market. The basis of award for this project ma\' be : 1. Net profit or cost of production 30 2. Condition of lamb, judged by score-card 30 3. Records of cost of labor, feeding, etc 20 4. Story of "iiow to Produce Good Mutton" 20 Total score 100 Wool production club. — This ma}- consist of talking care of one or more sheep for a }-ear's time, and may require tlie cIuId member to select the sheep on the Iwsis of liigh wool proiluction. Keep records and accounts of labor and feed, as well as wool receipts. The net proiit on investment is to come from the returns from the wool rather than the nuitton. The basis of award may be: 1. Net profit or cost of production 30 2. Condition and quality of wool produced 31) 3. Exhiliit of samples of wool 20 4. Records and story of "How to Produce lli,gh-,grade Wool Economically" 20 Total score 100 CHAPTER XXIII POULTRY THE raising of poultry is considered of ratlier incidental importance on most farms. A few chickens are kept for supplying the table with fresh eggs and an occasional fowl. Perhaps a flock of turkeys, ducks or geese are added for the sake of variety. Little attention is usually given to the possibilitjr of large profits from the sale of eggs and poultry. Yet, in spite of this somewdiat hapihazard method ot treating the poultrv industry, its aggregate returns are ver^- large. For more than f\\e and one-half million farms have a flock of chickens or other fowl. In addition, not a few people in villages and towns keep enough fo\\d for home use. 1. Take a census of all the fowls on your home farm, dividing into chickens, ducks, geese, etc. 2. How man\- of each class are in their first year ; sec- ond _\'ear ; third )'ear, etc.? 3. Carefully estimate the value of each class of fowls, and compute the value of all. 1. Distribution of Poultry Production Nearly five hundred million fowds are kept on the farms in our population. Considerably more than one and one- half billion dozen eggs are [iroduced annuall}'. This is enough to supply every man, woman and child with fifteen 346 POULTRY 347 dozen eggs each year. The vakie of the eggs is in excess of three hunch-ed milhon dollars a year, or sufficient to pay about three-fourths of the running expenses of all our public schools. The fowls themselves are worth above two hundred million dollars. The ten leading poultry states. — Ten states supply about fifty-four per cent, of all the eggs we produce. These states are Missouri, Iowa, Ohio, Illinois, Kansas, Indiana, Texas, Pennsylvania, New York and Michigan. The percentage of the entire egg crop produced by each of these ten states is as follows : Missouri 7.0% Iowa 6.9Vo Ohio 6.3% Illinois 6.37o Kansas S.l'f Indiana 5.1% Texas 4.9% Pennsyl\-ania 4.7% New York 4.6% Michigan 3.8% 2. Poultry Raising as a Farm Industry There are several good reasons why the raising of poul- try should occupy a mure important place than it now does on most of our farms. Increasing demands for eggs and poultry. — Eggs form one of the most necessary and palatable articles of food. A\'ith improved methods of shipping and cold storage they have increasingly become a staple on almost every table, city as well as country. The prices are high, a dozen of eggs bringing the farmer about as much as a pound of butter. The demand for fowl as a supplement to other kinds of meat has also greatly increased, and there is now 348 AGRICULTURE a ready market throughout the year for all kinds of poultry suitable for the table. Low cost of feeding poultry. — A fair-sized flock of poultry can be kept on the farm with but little expense for feed. This is because fowl will gather up the greater part of their living from material that would otherwise be wasted. Scattered grain from the feed lots ; undigested grain from farm animals ; weed and grass seeds ; grass and various A year's product of au average beu and a average beu laid TO eggs, tlie good lieu 2'S.i eg: ;uod lieu. Tlie green plants about the barn lots, worms, bugs, grassjioppers and other insect pests form a large part of the diet of farm poultry during most of the }'ear. The labor of caring for poultry is light. — The labor connected with poultry raising is much lighter than with other farm animals. Much of the work is suited to the strength and interest of children, and gives the training in responsibility which every child needs. \\'ith a little over- POULTRY 349 sight, children of from ten to eighteen years can successfully take ahnost entire charge of poultry raising and make it highly profitable. This has jjeen fully demonstrated in many boys' and girls" poultry clubs in nearly every state. Quick profits are realized. — The profits from a well managed flock of chickens are not only liberal and certain, but quick. Chickens are ready for market within a few months from the time they are hatched, and hens are at their best as layers during the first and second years of their life. And the eggs afford a continuous source of income to meet the expense of any feed or other supplies that are bought, or to add to the bank account. Almost all farm boys and girls could become expert chicken raisers and, by making arrangements with their parents to receive a share of the income from the flock, earn their own money for clothes, books, schooling, travel or vifhatever else they may desire. 3. Breeds of Chickens According to experts there are one hundred and four standard varieties of chickens raised in the United States. There are many other varieties not sufficiently developed to be called standard. For practical purposes the standard varieties may all be grouped in four classes : ( 1 ) General purpose breeds ; (2) meat or table breeds; (3) egg breeds; (4) ornamental breeds. General purpose breeds. — The general purpose breeds are the result of an attempt to comliine egg-laying with good table qualities. The favorites of these breeds are: Plymouth Rocks, Barred, White and Buff. Wyandottes, Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black, etc. Javas, Black and Mottled. Dominiques. Rose-comb. Rhode Island Reds, Single-comb and Rose-comb. Barred Plyiuoutli Itocks. 0^ jj^ ^(^\ A .^4 S ^m ■^ pr ^R "^^IcZ^P^ 'i=^'*^i3*^''-'i^^«^ W^^^ wm^ if\lr*"^^^--% =^^» ^^^^^ ^•^^ ^/ -"^^^^^^^ ;: vb^^lSS&S^ £.^%|tdHHp :fm^^i ^*^'J^ 1^., Siuyle-comb Eliode Island Reds. POULTRY 351 Buckeyes, Pea-comb. Orpingtons, Buff, Black and White. Houdans, Mottled. Meat breeds. — The meat, or table, breeds are chiefly raised for the large markets. They must be of good shape and size, quick growers and ready fatteners. The principal breeds of this class are : Brahmas, Light and Dark. Cochins, Buff, Partridge, White and Black. Langshans, Black and White. Dorkings, White, Silver-gray and Colored. Indians, White Game. Egg breeds. — The prime consideration in the egg breeds is that they shall be good layers, begin laying young, and continue for a considerable period of time. The chief breeds are : Leghorns, Brown, Buff, White, Black, etc. Minorcas, Black and White. Spanish, White-faced Black. Andalusians, Blue. Anconas, Mottled. Hamburgs, Gold and Silver Spangled, White and Black. Redcaps, Rose-comb. Ornamental breeds. — The ornamental breeds are not important for practical farm purposes. Some of the favor- ites of these breeds are : Polish, White-crested Black, Golden, Silver, W'hite, Golden. Crevecoeurs, Black. La Fleche, Black. Bantams. Games. It is best not to mi.x breeds of chickens. First one should decide what class is desired, whether egg, meat, or general Single-comb Buff Orpingtons. Blacli Laugslians. POULTRY 353 purpose. Then a pure breed of this class should be selected, and the strain kept free from mixture with other breeds. 1. Are the chickens on your farm pure bred, grade, or scrub? What breed or breeds do j'ou use? Is this an egg, table or general purpose breed? 2. ^^'hat steps could be taken to improve the breed? " ^ it T^ ^ Light Brabmas. Would this not pa\? Do egg or table breeds return most profit under farm conditions ? 4. Produclnz Chickens A successful hatch depends ( 1 ) on securing fertile un- injured eggs, and (2) on proper incubation. Eggs for hatching. — Heredity has its effect in fowl as well as other animals. The eggs for hatching should there- fore come from the choicest and most vigorous members 354 AGRICULTURE of the flock. The best plan is to separate from the main flock a sufficient number of desirable hens to produce the eggs required for setting. These can be kept b}' them- selves until the hatching season is over. In order that eggs may hatch at all they must be fertile. The)' are made fertile by the presence of a male bird in the ilock during the laying season. One male should be supplied for every ten or twelve hens. Since one-half of the heredity of the entire flock is dependent on the male bird, he should be pure bred, the best of his kind, young and vigorous. Care of eggs before setting. — Eggs should be fresh when they are set, never more than two weeks old, and better if not more than a few days from the nest. They should be kept rather cool, a sviitable temperature being between fifty and sixty degrees Fahrenheit. Eggs that have been badly chilled will not hatch. It is necessary, therefore, that eggs intended for hatching shall be gathered at fre- quent intervals during cold weather. jNIany poultry men think it is best to turn the eggs over every day or so during the time they are stored before setting. They should never be jarred or shaken. Hatching with the hen. — Eggs may be successfully hatched either with a hen or an incubator. If the hatch is not to consist of more than from one hundred to two hun- dred chicks, and if the hens come of a breed of good setters, it is doubtful whether it pays to use an incubator. Only quiet, motherly hens of good disposition should be used for setting. The nest should be made of a box from fourteen to sixteen inches square, and six inches deep. Four inches of earth should be placed in the box, hollowed slight- ly, and covered with chaft' or straw. The broody hen should be removed to the nest at night and given a few china eggs POULTRY 355 for a day or two to make sure that she is in earnest about sitting. From thirteen to fifteen eggs may then be given her for the hatch. It is well to dust both hen and nest with insect powder to destroy vermin. The sitting hen should be well fed on such grains as corn, wheat, or oats, have A home-made egg tester. plenty of fresh water, and be let ofif the nest a short time each dav for exercise and a dust bath. 356 AGRICULTURE Hatching with the incubator. — Although there are many different makes of incubators, they aU supply the heat necessary for hatching by one of two methods, either hot air, or hot z^'otcr. All of the standard makes will be found satisfactor}-, though the hot-air type seems less likely to get out of order. Success with the incubator depends much more on the operator than the machine. For unless the temperature and ventilation are kept right, the eggs properly turned, and other necessary conditions met, the hatch is sure to fail. The directions supplied with the machine must be faith- fully followed, else one need not hope for success. Testing for infertile eggs. — About the sixth day after setting the eggs should be tested and the infertile ones re- moved. The testing may be done by placing a small lamp or a lantern in a box through one side of which just oppo- site the light a hole has been ctit somewhat smaller than an egg. The testing should be done in the dark, preferably at night. The egg is held against the opening in front of the light. As the light shines through, the infertile eggs will appear clear, while the fertile egg will show a network of threads leading out from a center, and floating about as the egg is turned. If a number of hens were set at the same time, and many infertile eggs are found, one hen may be released, or given a new supply, and the fertile eggs distributed among the others. Care of newly hatched chicks. — The chicks first hatched from a setting should be removed from the nest in about twenty-four hours. If they are not, they will begin to leave the nest themselves, and the hen is likely to desert the nest before all the eggs are hatched. The chicks must be kept warm and comfortable until the mother is ready for them. POULTRY 357 When the hatching is done in an incnljator, the chicks are left for t\vent}--fonr hours after hatching and then re- moved to the Ijrooder, wliich must he at a temperature of from ninety to ninety-five degrees Fahrenheit. By the time the chicks are a month old the brooder may be brought gradually down to seventy degrees. 1. Is an)' care taken in raising chickens on your farm toward selecting eggs from the best hens for setting? Is care taken to use onljr the best male birds? 2. Draw a plan for a suitable nest for a sitting hen, showing covered runwav. A well-arrauged Interior, showiug uests and feeding equipment. 3. Do you make the test for infertile eggs after the hens have been set about a week ? How do you tell whether the egg has started to hatch? 5. Fcedint; Chickens Feeding young chickens. — For the first forty-eight 358 AGRICULTURE hours after hatching the young chick needs no feed of any kind. Nature had provided for this period by having the yolk of the egg absorbed into the abdomen of the chick just before it is hatched. This food must be used up before the chick is ready for more. The first food given the chicks may be stale bread soaked in milk and squeezed dry; hard boiled eggs chopped fine, shell and all ; or cracked corn, wheat or oats. A good grain ration for chicks is made of equal parts of cracked corn, cracked wheat and cut oats fed five times a day. An excel- lent supplementary ration to hasten growth is the follow- ing: Bran, ten pounds; shorts, ten pounds; cornmeal, five pounds ; meat scraps, five pounds ; charcoal, two and one- half pounds. This mixture may either be fed wet or dry. Plenty of sour milk will add greatly to the effectiveness of the ration. Green foods should also be supplied from the first. Feeding laying hens. — Hens, like other animals, do best on a ration balanced to meet their needs. There is no one best ration, since the necessary food elements can be obtained from many different sources. It is certain, how- ever, that fowls require grain, meat, or milk, mill feeds such as shorts, or bran, green foods, sharp grit, shell and water. The following is recommended as a well balanced lay- ing ration, though wheat may be left out and more corn and oats added, or milk supplied instead of the meat scraps. {Purdue Extension Bulletin, 10.) Grain Dry Masii 10 pounds of corn. 10 pounds of wheat. 5 pounds of oats. 5 pounds of bran. 5 pounds of shorts. 3% pounds of meat scraps. The grain is fed in a litter of straw night and morning, POULTRY 359 and the mash left before the fowls the greater part of the day. Green food, grit and shell are, of course, added to this ration. Feeding chickens for fattening. — Chickens should be speciall}- fattened for market. Not only is weight added, but the quality of the meat greatly improved bv fattening, and a higher price obtained. When nnfattencd chickens are selling at ten cents, the same fowls when fattened will bring fifteen cents in the city markets. Both the pen and the crate method of fattening are used. Pen fattening rerjuires less time and attention than crate fattening. The fattening pen should be kept darkened ex- cept at feeding time, in order that the chickens may remain c]uiet. A suitable ration is fed at regular intervals, and in as large quantities as the fowls will eat in from twenty to thirt\' minutes. Crate feeding. — More rapid fattening is possible b}? placing from six to nine chickens in a crate. The fowls are given a regular ration, and kept from all exercise. About two weeks is the average time recjuired for fattening. An excellent fattening ration may be compounded as follows : 10 pounds of cornmeal. 5 pounds of shorts. S pounds of ground oats. 40 pounds of buttermilk. Cramming. — Ponltrymen who make a business of fat- tening for city markets often use the erammiiuj swstem of feeding. This method is based on the fact that chickens will not eat so much as they can assimilate and use in mak- ing fat. The fowl is taken from the pen or crate and held while soft food is pressed down the throat into the crop, or passed into the crop by means of a tube attached to a cramming machine. This forcible feeding will considerably ha.sten the fattening process. 360 AGRICULTURE 6. Producing and J\Iarkctiug Eggs Properly handled eggs are the most profitable part of the poultr}- business on the farm. It is therefore well to study the conditions necessary to the largest production of eggs. The number of eggs produced by a flock depends (1) on the breed, whether of the laying, or meat, type; (2) on the feed, wdiether it consists of a balanced ration con- taining the elements required by the egg; and (3) the housing and care. Profitable layers. — There is a great difference in the laying qualities not only of different breeds, but also of individual hens. An average grade or scrub hen will lay about seventy-five eggs in a year; a high-class hen of a lay- ing breed, more than two hundred. These two hens eat the same amount of food, take the same amount of room, and require the same amount of care. The one hardly pays for her keep, the other yields a handsome profit. It will pay every farmer to weed out the poor laj'ers from his flock, and fill their places with productive hens. Age and egg production. — Young hens are the best layers. Only in the case of exceptional layers should hens be kept after they are two years old. Hens that have passed their second year will continue laying and produce a fair numlaer of eggs, but younger hens will produce more eggs, and should therefore take the place of the older ones. Pullets should, begin laying in the fall of their first year. In order that they may do this, it is necessary to have them hatched out early in the preceding spring, preferably not later than ^larch or April. They should then lay through- out the winter, and be at their best the following summer. The quality of eggs. — Eggs are rated commercially according to size as extras when the}- weight from twenty-six to twenty-eight ounces to the dozen : as firsts when they weigh from twenty-four to twenty-six ounces to the dozen ; POULTRY 361 and as seconds when they weigh less than twenty-four ounces. In some places eggs are now sold by weight. For these reasons the size is of great importance. To command the highest price, eggs should also be uni- form in shape and color, the shell smooth and free from spots, and clean without having been washed. Tested with the candler the air cell should be no larger than a dime, thus indicating freshness ; the contents must appear opaque, the yolks barely visible, and free from any discoloring ; the white must show thick and compact, the yolk not floating about. 1. Make a candler test as described in the text, and learn to tell fresh from stale eggs ; fertile from infertile. 2. Score the eggs collected for several days from your farm hens. How many extras; firsts; seconds? ITow many were dirty ? What was the average score ? Effect of infertility on quality. — No eggs except those intended for hatching should be fertile. This is because infertile eggs keep much longer and in better flavor than fertile eggs. If a fertile egg is allowed to stand in a warm temperature for two or three days it begins to develop blood-rings ; that is, it begins to hatch. This process is sure to go on during the marketing and shipping, thus greatly reducing the value of the eggs. The infertile egg is free from all this difficulty, and will keep fresh much longer. It is estimated that the loss from allowing eggs to be- come fertilized is more than fifteen million dollars annually in the United States. All male birds should therefore be kept awa)^ from la_ving hens when the eggs are to be used or sold. This will have no effect on the number of eggs pro- duced. Rules for egg production. — The following rules for egg production are given by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture : PRODUCE INFERTILE EGGS a^ ^ PREN'ENT LOSS FROM BAD EGGS T\,c U, 10 Ihc inmr-i^ ^t th-; Unil«J Suic from b^-i nr.-llv-J* J [Tcducmg and handling c^gJtiMliinalMiol $45,000,000 nnnu.liy, IT IS ALSO ESTIMATED THAT $15,0iW,0iH) OF THIS LOSS fS DUE TO BLOOD RINGS. Ek'-^k- dflUr of tklt ioii fiom Mood nn^i h dnc-tllv prfier,I..L!,- on th- f;irn>. B!i>xJ lin^i -irf a c^il.iin slags of irhkli drvefoiimftni in iKc c^g Heal dttvelofii the grtm unLi! it tKcoraei a blood fin;!. (Sf^ rijurc' 4, b. and «.) ' Bli>jd ting' of lh?i-? [.icmiM should quickly cutivjnce one ilwl ijn: initrliliT c£5 i- ihf qiiaiily epg; ibtrtcloiL', prwiucc il, by trnnjiing ihs ihellock. andieali/EmjtcmineylorbpilT-i t-gu:. The .r;n-A-'i.iI c! iht idjIp biidi has .ibiolulr;!' RULES I jVr- ck:; fti pruv.dr , fiaoJiins itir-ir fxiuim ; !. Kecpli,-n^-l. 2. Galfi^.lhc -i: 3-. K~-p rhf c^r^.., ,1, a ^ojl, div n-jin t 4 \UrUl iV r^i;-, al ks.| hvlcc ., w,- 5. S.ll, h\\,-:, L-<,nlinr ,i)t m^te Li>d; n.r-i f,^ ^-.^r V/.,i,i,-!tor NOTICE n on tbn L-.irp of (y-ulliy tir,d ^'-^-i nuj- be lud b>- wiil '! Animal lndLi>[j)-. U 5. Dcpaitracnl o[ ApricuIlL • Fertile aud iufertile eggs. POULTRY 363 1. Keep the nests clean; provide one nest for each four hens. 2. Gather the eggs twice daily. 3. Keep the eggs in a cool dry room or cellar. 4. Market the eggs at least twice a week. 5. Market, kill or confine all male birds as soon as the hatching season is over. 7. Housing the Poultry There are almost as many different st3-les of pouItr_y houses as dwelhng houses. The exact form of the poultry house is not important, though some types are more pleas- ing in appearance and less expensive than others. Every state agricultural college has plans for poultry houses adapted to the region and will be glad to supply these to citizens of the state. No matter what the style, however, certain fundamental reqtiirements should be met by all poultry houses. Drainage. — Poultry are especially sensitive to unhy- gienic surroundings. Impurities arising from ground sat- urated with unclean seepage, and dampness coming from undrained soil are sure to injure the fowls. The poultry house should be built on well drained ground. Drain tile should be used to carry the water away if necessary. Room. — In many instances a flock of chickens are crowded into a space far too small for them, and the owner then wonders why they do not thriAre well or lay eggs. The amount of floor space should be from four to five square feet for each bird. If there is free access to a shel- tered yard, somewhat less than this may serve, but better sell part of the flock than overcrowd them in small pens. Ventilation. — Chickens require far more air accord- ing to their weight than larger animals. Confinement in close, ill-smelling rooms is certain to lower their vitality, bring on diseases, and interfere with laying. In climates Brood coops set on clean fresh ground. Tbis Hock is in little danger of disease. A practical lieu house for the farm. POULTRY 365 where the poultr)- house can not have an open front, two or more sashes should be covered with mushn instead of being glazed, and hung on hinges so that the window may be thrown open in good weather. In bad weather the sash may be closed and yet admit sufficient air. Drafts should never strike chickens either while they are on the roost or the floor. Sunlight. — Sunlight is the best of disinfectants. The poultry house should front the south, and have a reason- able number of glazed windows besides the muslin sashes. Too much glass makes the house excessively hot in the summer and very cold in the winter : too little glass leaves the quarters dark and gloomy, hinders the chickens in feed- ing, and encourages disease. Freedom from dampness. — When frost gathers heav- ily inside the poultr)- house in cold weather it shows too great a degree of dampness. This may come from the ground floor, or lack of ventilation and sunlight. If a soil floor is used, there should first be filled in several inches of broken rock. On top of this may be placed a coating of cinders, and over the cinders a layer of soil. The soil floor at its best is hard to keep clean, dry and free from odors. Cement makes an excellent floor, as it can easil)- be washed. Over the cement should be spread an inch or two of straw or hay. Comfortable roosts. — Fowls spend much time on the roosts. It is therefore important that the roosts be com- fortable. Roosts mav be made from two-by-two-inch stuff, rounded on the upper edges ; they should be placed about two and one-half feet from the floor. Eight inches below the roosts should be a removable board or floor to catch the droppings. Nests. — One nest should be supplied for every four hens. The nests may be built in a series along the side. 366 AGRICULTURE just under the eaves if these are not too high. Hens lay best in a secluded place. The nests should therefore be covered, and sufficiently enclosed to make them partially dark. Openings through the outer wall large enough to admit the hand into the nests will allow the gathering of the eggs without entering the building. Care must be taken, however, to provide a way to close these holes so that drafts mav not strike the nests. Colony bouses nnd runs for clucks. Colony houses. — Colony houses are small buildings intended for from fifteen to twenty-five fowls, and are movable. They may be constructed on the same plan as the larger building, and are placed on sills or runners so that that may be dragged from place to place with a team. Poultrymen who use colony houses move them frequently, thus securing better hygienic conditions. The colony house is especially desirable for hens with broods of chickens. Many large poultr)' raisers use both the permanent building and the colony house for their flocks. POULTRY " 367 8. Poultry Diseases The poultrymaii's aim should be to prevent diseases rather than cure them in his flock. h"or a fowl sick with any serious disease is hard to treat, and should usually be killed at once to save time in caring for it and the danger of infecting others. Sanitation in the poultry yard. — Chickens are subject to a number of diseases that depend chiefly on lack of cleanliness around the premises. Lice and various para- sitic mites attack little chicks or older fowls alike. Fre- quent whitewashing of the poultrv house, cashing the roosts with kerosene, and spraying with kerosene emulsion such as is used for fruit trees, are some of the preventatives for these pests. A simple and effective lice powder is made of one pint of tobacco dust mixed with two quarts of fine road dust. Sul- phur may be used in i.)lace of the tobacco dust, and finely sifted hard coal ashes in place of the road dust. The soil of a poultry )-ard should occasionallv be spra}-cd with kerosene emulsion, or coated with whitewash after all refuse has been removed. If the ground is plowed or s])aded late in the fall and allowed to freeze during the winter man\- para- sites and disease germs will be deslro)-ed. White diarrhea. — This is a disease affecting young chicks within the first four days of their life. They are most subject to attack the first twenty-four hours, and im- mune after ninety-six hours. The disease is caused by a bacterium found in the egg laid by a hen that carries the germs in her body. It may also be caught by contagion from chicks that have the disease, or from contact with in- cubators where the germs have lodged. There is no suc- cessful remedy. A good measure of prevention is to keep incubators, brooders and all feeding utensils disinfected. 368 AGRICULTURE Gapes. — Gapes is another disease attacking 3roung chicks. It is caused by a small worm picked up from the soil. The worms attach themselves to the inner walls of the windpipe, where they draw their food from the blood of the chick, thereby weakening it, and also clogging the passage so that the chick gasps for breath. Here again prevention is a question of sanitation. If the soil is free of the worms, there will be no gapes in the chickens. It is well, therefore, to keep the young chicks on clean new ground on which former broods have not been raised. Cholera. — Several different kinds of germs commonly found in the intestines of chickens may, under certain con- ditions, cause diseases known as cholera. True chicken cholera is caused only by one particular germ, however. Cholera is contracted by contact with fowls sick with the disease, by germs carried by new birds brought into the flock, by germs brought by wild birds that alight in the poul- try yard, or dogs or other animals that roam from place to place. It does not pay to try to cure fowls that have contracted the disease. It is best to kill them at once, burning or deeply burying the bodies. Care should all center on pre- vention. First of all, the flock must have sanitary sur- roundings — good air, sunshine, quarters that are dry and clean, and should have suitable food. The poultry house and yard must be frequently disin- fected. New fowls brought into the flock must be kept by themselves for a week to make sure they do not carry in- fection. Stray animals should be shut from the chicken yard. The careful following of these simple precautions will greatly lessen the danger from chicken cholera. Roup. — This is but another name for a kind of con- tagious catarrh among poultry which closely resembles in- POULTRY 369 fluenza, or grippe, in man. Roup is thought to be contracted only by contact \vith infected birds. It attacks the mem- FOINl^S The parts of a chicken. branes of the eye, mouth and throat, causing inflammation and a sticky discharge. Tlie disease is accompanied by high fever. Roup may be brought into the flocl< by newly 370 AGRICULTURE purchased birds, by fowls that have been taken to poultry shows, or by pigeons or other wild birds. Roup is one of few poultry diseases that may be suc- cessfully treated. The sick fowl should be separated from the flock and given a warm, dry, well-ventilated place. All the affected parts should be washed with some antiseptic mixture. This may be done with a spray, or by plunging the head into the liquid wash. The following are suitable washes : 1. Buric acid, 1 ounce; water, 1 cjuart, or 2. Pcnnanganate of potasli, 1 dram; water, 1 quart, or 3. Peroxide or hydrogen 1 ounce; water, 3 ounces. Topics for Investigation 1. Taking into account both what the chickens on your farm are fed and what they pick up, make a list of what goes into the ration of your flock. Compare with the ra- tions given in the chapter. Is any element lacking in what your chickens are getting? 2. Estimate as carefully as you can the value of the feed given your chickens in one year ; now estimate the value of the eggs and meat yielded bv your flock. What do you conclude? Would it pay to keep a strict account of the expense and income of your flock for several months or a year, so you would know how you are coming out? 3. Estimate as closely as you can the number of eggs produced in a year by your flock. How many eggs does this average per hen ? Is this a good average ? 4. If the average egg production from your flock is low, what is the cause: breed, age, care, or feeding? What would need to be done to improve the record? How many hens have you more than two years old ? 5. Suppose you have for market fifty chickens that, without special fattening, will average five pounds each, and will bring ten cents a pound. Now also suppose that by two weeks of crate or close-yard feeding aqu can in- crease the average weight one pound for each bird, and get POULTRY 371 fifteen cents a pound for the lot. If the feed used is just balanced b}' the increase in weight, what would be the gain from fattening? 6. Select several fertile and several infertile eggs, and place them where they will keep at a temperature of eighty to ninetv degrees ; examine with the candler after twenty- four hours ; after forty-eight hours ; after seventy-two hours: after ninety-six hours. What do you conclude as to the keeping Cjualities of fertile eggs, and of infertile eggs ? 7. Make a drawing of your farm poultry house, show- ing all doors, windows, roosts, dropping boards, nests, etc. How does the building compare with the rec]uirements given in the chapter? What needs to be done? 8. Talk with your father and mother about allowing you to take charge of a part or all of the chickens for a season, sharing the income. Then study all the helps you can find, and make a record for 3'ourself and high profits for both. 9. Show proper methods of keeping poultry records. Include in the items, cost of labor, feed, marketing, parcel- post cases, egg production, receipts from spring settings of eggs, cold storage costs, and poultry equipment. 10. Show on the map of the United States the poultry sections, and indicate the poultry production both in number of poultry of various kinds and the egg production, as shown in the last census report. 9. Poultry Demonstrations 1. Demonstrate how to make ecjuipment of various kinds, such as water and feeding troughs, colony house, trap nests. 2. Demonstrate how to test eggs bv candling, using a pasteboard box and a lamp. 3. How to pack eggs to ship by parcel-post and for cold storage. 4. How to operate an incubator. 5. How to handle a sitting hen. 372 AGRICULTURE 10. Poultry Play Contests 1. Egg race, conducted on the same plan as potato race. 2. 3. 4. .S. Poultry judging contests. Use score-card. Egg scoring contest. Use commercial score-card. Breed variety naming contest. Drawing contest. In this contest all kinds of equip- A Minnesotn club boy witb bis flo5t interesting little book on rope knotting and splicing is one publislied by David McKay, Pliiladelphia. 50 cents. A nnml)cr of tlie drawings licre sbown are taken by per- mission of tbe company from this set. ! ^ I u ^k A still more kuots. 416 AGRICULTURE Principles of knot tying. — Certain principles apply to the t)ing of all knots. The efficiency of the knot does not depend on the number of turns or hitches, but on the position of the "nip." The bend or hitch must be so formed that the part of the rope under strain 7iips securely some portion of the knot, either against itself or the object to which it is attached. The nip of each different knot should be studied. Rope materials. — While a large part of our rope and cordage is made of hemp, many other materials are now coming to enter into their manufacture. The coil rope is made from cocoanut fiber, which is used because it is so light and pliable. This rope is useful for warps, rocket lines, life-buoy lines, nets, etc. IManila grass is adapted to the construction of coarse ropes and hawsers requiring great strength and hard wear, and where tar can not be used on the rope. Strips of hides are used for ropes where great strength and pliability with small diameter are needed. Cotton is employed for ropes and cordage used for fancy work of all kinds. Wire is used for rope making whenever very great strength is needed, as in connection with dredging machinery, suspension bridge cables and the like. Rope making. — Yams are formed by twisting the hemp right-handed, while the "strands" are made by twist- ing or laying up the yarns left-handed, and the rol^e by laying it up in strands right-handed. Three small ropes laid up left-handed form a cable-laid rope. Four-stranded ropes are laid rovmd a heart. In using hemp for rope mak- ing, great care should be exercised not to twist the hemp more than necessary, as this weakens the rope. A three- stranded rope will bear a greater strain in comparison to its size than any other rope of the same material. This ac- FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MECHANICS 417 counts for the fact that most of our rope is made of three strands. Cahle-laid and four-stranded ropes are as a rule about one-fifth weaker. Topics for Investigation 1. Make a Hst of all vour farm machinery and esti- mate the value. Talk with }'0ur father and determine the annual expense of this machinery in deterioration and inter- est on the investment. How is )Our machinery housed? Is it kept in good repair ? 2. Make a similar list of all your shop tools. Have you all that are needed for the up-keep of your farm buildings and machinery ? 3. Make a list of all the knots you have ever seen used on the farm. Tie all these knots. AVhat other knots would be serviceable? Learn to tie other useful knots from the pictures shown in this chapter. 4. If }'ou wanted to draw a plank from the ground up to the gable window of a barn by use of a rope, what knot would you use ? Think of several other such uses for knots and show the knots to be employed. 5. J\Iake a rope halter for a horse or calf. Show how to tip a halter rope. 6. Locate on a map of the world the places where the different rope materials are produced. Make a collec- tion of all the different kinds of rope available, and tell of what they are made. 4. Ro[>c Play Contests \. Knot naming contest. 2. Rope judging contest. 3. Knot tying and splicing contest, to see who can tic and name accurately the largest number of rope knots in a period of ten minutes. Contest to be judged on skill, ac- curacy and number of knots tied. 4. Rope spelling contest, to be conducted from the list 418 AGRICULTURE of woi'ds used in connection with roi^e, cordage and splic- ing work, with the object of making pupils familiar with the terms. S. Knot drawing contest. 5. Rope Club Projects It is possible to organize a group of boys into a rope club with a view to the mastery of rope tying, splicing, IJiilie kuuttiug cuntest. cordage work, etc. The requirements should be to study in connection with geography the various fibers used, such as hemp, cotton and cocoanut. The method of production of the plants, a stud_\' of uses of rope, and their practical appli- cation to farm and home mechanics should be taken up. The basis of award of a club project of this sort may be as follows : 1. Knowledge of origin, development and methods of manu- facture in the rope industry 20 FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MECHANICS 419 2. Ability to name and tell the nse of knots and splicings 20 3. Exhibit of knots and splicings named and mounted on board. (Use (luarter-inch rope.) 20 4. Skill shown by actual test in the tying and naming of rope knots 20 5. Written story of "Rope Tying and Splicing as Related to Farm Mechanics" 20 Total score 100 CHAPTER XXVIII ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE GOOD public roads are a prime necessity to successful agriculture and rural development. They add to the pleasure, profit and convenience of the farm. 1. Importance of Public Roads There are in the United States about two million two hundred thousand miles of roads. Of this immense stretch of public highway, two million miles are classed as cartli roads. This is to say that we have enough earth roads to circle the globe eighty times at the equator. Good roads and prosperity. — A study of history shows that every great and prosperous nation has built a good system of public roads, while primitive and unpro- gressive peoples are satisfied with poor roads. In our own country we find the most prosperous and progressive communities are those that are giving attention to their roads. Need for good roads. — Because good roads allow the farmer to haul his produce to market at a minimum of ex- pense in time and energy, he can make more profit out of his crops and stock. And the prosperity of the farmer tends to increase the prosperity of all business men and lower the cost of living to consumers. The success of the rural schools also depends much on improved roads. Es- pecially is this true where the schools are being consoli- dated and the pupils transported to the school by the dis- 420 ^:^"ri^. :'^'- ' An cai'lh rodtl that ueeds iiuin'oviiiy Tile suine road iiuin-uved. 422 AGRICULTURE trict. Rural mail delivery and the extension of the parcel- post s\stem further demand the improvement of countrj' roads. And, not least important, the making of country life interesting and attractive rests in no small degree on good roads, for they allow rural people easily to travel about the community for social or business purposes. Growing movement for good roads. — In nearly every part of the United States there is at present a growing interest in good roads. New laws are being passed and millions of money appropriated to improve our roads. Com- mercial clubs, business concerns and other organizations are working together to encourage road building. And farm- ers are coming to demand improved roads for teaming and automobiles. 2. Types of Roads Roads are generally considered under the following t}'pes : (1) earth roads, (2) sand clay roads, (3) gravel roads, (4) macadam roads, (5) bituminous macadam roads, (6) brick roads, and (7) concrete roads. The discussion in this chapter will be confined to the earth roads, since these are the most necessary and practical study for the public schools. Earth roads. — A chain is no stronger than its weak- est link ; so, also, a road is no better than its poorest part. This means that the heaviest load that can be drawn over a public highway is the load that can be drawn up the steepest hill, through the worst ruts or mud-holes, or over the deepest stretch of sand. Hence the importance of low- ering or going around the hill, and eliminating the mud- holes, ruts and stretches of sand. 3. The Location of a Road Public roads should, as far as possible, be located in straight lines. In hilly or mountainous regions, however, y-^- TXTT-'TT- -.i ^X-L,!-, J-,-J-r"v Cross Scc!'''c'-' Roman f?o.7:^ (Appicn i'Sy). "S^b^^^tsi&i Crrss ^er.-f-'on French Road (^or^on Me'^hocf), previous to 1775. r^^^^§m^M^^^^Msmmr^mMmS[) Cross Section ofire-zouqucf Road, ni5. mim^u.^.. -..-. ^ . ^i^ "^^ t.r-nssS^c/'Or? Telfora f^oa^ m^O Cross Sscfior: Macadam Road, I£I6, Crpss Secfion of A^odern Macoc/om(^'i^Ksac/7i.'?GrfsJ Ro3/j with Vshopsd foundation. Cross Secfion of Moj^ern Macadam Road. Cruss-aectious of difreront tyiics of voinX^. 424 AGRICULTURE this rule must often gi\'e way to avoid the climbing' of too heavy grades. Straightness and grade. — To lift a ton one foot high requires two thousand foot-tons of energy. On a road sur- face requiring one hundred pounds traction per ton, the same energy would roll the ton a horizontal distance of twenty feet. As far as the actual amount of energy used is concerned, therefore, to save one foot of grade, or up-hill Eartli ro:id in Kausas. clinil), the road may be lengthened twenty feet. Public road grades should avoid a rise of more than six feet in a distance of one hundred feet. The hills should be cut down and the material used to fill in the hollows or else the road relocated to go around the hill and to avoid the steep grades. The necessity of sunlight. — Every road bed should have at least six hours of sunlight each day. Brush, trees or hedges that interfere with this requirement should be cleared away or sufficiently thinned out. On the other hand, ROAD r.UILniXG AND MAINTENANCE 42: suitable trees, shrul.ibery, grass, vines and flowers should be encouraged along the roadway, as they add both to the beauty of the road and the value of farms. Drainage. — As a rule the only ditches needed for the proper drainage of the road can be made by the road grader. Deeper ditches are necessary where the adjoining land is low and level. In the building of culverts care should be taken to make them large enough to handle the overflow. They must also be sufficiently durable to resist the spring Concrete road near Detroit. freshets and not be injured by the maximum flow caused by storm water. They should have sufficient slope so that the wash «-ill keep them clean. All the spillwavs should be pa\'ed, if necessary, and the outlet and inlet protected by suitable head and wing walls. 4. The Construction of Earth Roads Shaping the road bed. — Earth roads should not be made too wide. Twenty-four to thirty feet is sufficient un- less the road is to be macadamized or otherwise permanently 426 AGRICULTURE improved. All roads should be properly crowned or rounded in order to aid them in disposing quickdy of sur- face water. An earth road twenty-four feet wide should not be less than six inches nor more than twelve inches higher at the center than at each of the borders. The total fall from center to side should be about an inch to the foot. The work of construction. — The earth roads can best be crowned and ditched by a reversible road grader. The use of picks, shovels, scoops and plows should be avoided. One road machine with sufficient power and a good opera- tor will do the work of a large number of men and do it much better. Graders as a rule should be used when the soil is damp. This will make the soil pack well while dry- ing. If it is worked when dry and hard it takes more power to draw the machine and in addition the drv earth and dust will absorb and retain moisture and soon develop ruts. All clods, sod, weeds and vegetable matter should be removed. 5. Maintenance of Earth Roads Necessity of constant care. — The greatest problem of earth road building is that of maintenance, and any earth road which carries a great deal of traffic requires almost constant attention. Repairs should be made when needed. A few days spent upon the road at different times through- out the year will accomplish a great deal. It is a serious mistake to devote all of the time in road building to a par- ticular season, leaving the road without care the remainder of the year. j\Iost communities need a few men and teams spending their entire time in keeping roads in repair. Dragging earth roads. — One of the most useful de- vices for the maintenance of public earth roads is the split- log drag. This works with great efficiency on both earth and gravel roads. To obtain the best results the roads ROAD BUILDING AXD MAIXTENANCE 427 should be dragged once each wa)- after e\'ery heavy rain. This must be done while the soil is moist but not sticky. It is not necessary to employ the direct supervision of skilled engineers for the maintenance and repair of earth and gravel roads, providing the rules and suggestions they lay down are carefullv and intelligently followed. A dif- Tlie siilit-log- drag at work on au Iowa road. ficult piece of construction or fixing of grades should, how- ever, always be carried out under the supervision of an expert. Topics for Tnvestig.vtion 1. \A'hat is the prevailing type of road in your local- itv ? How man)' miles of public roads in your school dis- trict? In your county? 2. What roads do you know which climb steep hills? Can you devise a method by which you can measure the 428 AGRICULTURE grade of the incline, and find liow many feet rise to each one hundred feet ? 3. How many split-log drags in your school district? What road machinery is owned by the township or road district? 4. Under what management is the care of roads in your locality? Name the road officials of your district and county. Give a statement of the road laws of your state. 5. \Miat different materials are used in constructing bridges, culverts and road drainage systems in your local- ity? A\'hich seems to be the most satisfactory? 6. Do an}- transcontinental or state highways pass through your state? If so, locate them on a state map and name them. 7. h'or whom was the macadam road named? Describe how such a road is built. 8. Look up the story of each of the following men and learn what he did to help the cause of good roads: Pierre- Marie Fresaguet, J. L. MacAdam, Thomas Tilford, Eli Whitney Blake. 6. Demonstrations Many of the demonstrations should be conducted out on the public highway and when possible under the supervi- sion or direction of the road supervisor, commissioner or expert. 1. Demonstrate how to make a split-log drag, either full size or miniature. 2. Demonstrate by mepr.s of drawing, paper or wood construction, the various types of drainage used in road building. 3. Show how properly to crown a road. 4. Demonstrate how to repair a rut in a permanent roadwaw 5. Demonstrate by drawing a roadway showing cor- rect pers[5ecti\"e, crowning, drainage, etc. A good macadam road. Eitiuuiuous macadam road in New Jersey. 430 AHRTCULTURF. 7. Koad Play Contests Road dragging contest. Split-log drag making contest. Road drawing contest. Essay writing contest on subjects relating to .roads. Spelling and drawing contests, as related to the and interests of road work. A conrrete l)ridge. This type of stiaictuve slioukT rejilnce tlie old woodeu bridge. 8. Road Club Projects Permanent road building as a rule is not the work of hoys and girls. But the building, maintenance and repair of common earth and gravel roads is c|uite within the reach of the boys ranging in age from twelve to nineteen. Two different road projects are suited to club work. One project is known as the "School Road Dragging Club,'' in which the pupils, under the leadership of the teacher and with the ach'ice of the road officer, take charge of one mile of public highway near the schoolhouse, keep- ing it well dragged and in repair for the season. A second project permits individual pupils to take charge of one mile of road in front of the homestead, keei)ing it carefully dragged and in good re|)air during the summer. ROAD BUILDING AND MAINTENANCE 431 Awards. — The basis of award in either of these ckib projects may be as follows : 1. General improvement in road during period of club pro- ject, based upon trueness, alignment, regularity and clearness of ditches, amount and shape of crown, bet- terment of surface and drainage IS 2. General condition cf improved section at end of club project period with reference to clearness of ditches, waterways, trueness, and shape of borders, freedom from ruts and depressions, smoothness, compactness, regularity of width IS 3. Economy of methods used, based on ten cents per hour for time of horse, and ten cents per hour for mcmlier IS 4. Written report and story of "The l-ioad Work of the Sea- son" IS 5. Faithfulness of maintenance during club project period with reference to freedom of flow in ditches and waterways, repair of borders and washes, rapidity of drying out and hardening after rains, and the regular- ity and systematic use of the si:>lit-log drag 40 Total score lUO The authors are indebted to Mr. Maurice O. Eldridge, of the office of Good Roads, Washington, D. C, for aljle assistance in the preparation of this chapter, and tn the office of Public Roads for photographs used. CHAPTER XXIX BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS THE farmer is greatly assisted in his war against the insects that prey on crops, orchards and gardens by birds and other creatures that use these pests for food. Every farm boy and girl should learn the most useful of these small friends and protect them in every way. 1. Birds and Their Food Whether certain birds are helpful or harmful to the farmer depends almost wholly on what the bird eats. If its diet consists chiefly of farm grains and domestic fruits, or if the bird kills other useful birds, it is an enemy ; if, on the other hand, its food is made up mainly of harmful bugs, beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars and worms, it should be counted as a friend. It is also to be remembered that many birds that eat grain or fruit as a part of their diet may kill enough noxious insects in return to pay far more than for damage they do. Besides devouring insects, many species of birds eat immense cjuantities of weed seed, thus reducing the weed crop of the next season. Food of some common birds. — The United States Department of Agriculture has examined the stomachs of many birds to determine the nature of their food, and thus discover their relation to agriculture : The quail or bobwhite eats weed seed, potato beetles, squash beetles, the boll-weevil, chinch-bug, grasshoppers, cutworms, etc. 432 A favorite food of the birds. 434 AGRICULTURE Aloiij-ning doves live principally on weed seed, with a small proportion of waste grain. Cuckoos live chiefly on caterpillars, grasshoppers, beetles, moths and other harmful insects. The red-headed woodpecker makes three-quarters of his diet consist of harmful insects, and most of the rest of weed seed and wild fruit. The night hawk is especially fond of flying ants, but also eats grasshoppers, beetles and bugs. Bank szvallozvs and barn sivaUows live almost entirely on flies, various species of flying beetles, ants and weevils. The grosbeaks are among the most useful of our birds. They are particularly fond of potato beetles, and have done much to rid the farmers of this pest. They also eat other harmful insects. The barn ozd lives principally on mice, rats and rab- bits. While he captures an occasional chicken, he does far more good than harm and should be protected. The crozv is usually looked upon as a thief and a rob- ber. There is no doubt that the crow does pull up young corn, rob birds' nests and occasionally kill chickens. Yet the crow is so fond of beetles, grasshoppers, bugs and other crop enemies that his virtues exceed his vices and he should be counted as a friend. Other useful birds. — It will not be necessary to ex- tend this list, which might be made to include scores of birds that join with the farmer in his efforts to rid the crops of insect pests. Among the many species that should be encouraged and protected are : meadowlark, house wren, song sparrow, oriole, scissor-tail fly catcher, mocking-bird, blue jay, red-winged blackbird, cardinal, red-headed wood- pecker, killdeer, screech owl, robin, bluebird, snow bird, warbler, kinglet. In general, the birds are the farmer's friends and deserve his good will. Tile hairy aud downy woodpeckers. The lueadowlark. BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS 437 Harmful birds. — A few species of birds do mucli more harm than good and therefore do not merit protection. The English sparroiv has been declared a pest and should be exterminated. While in some regions it eats a certain proportion of weed seed and harmful insects, on the whole its diet consists of orchard fruits, young garden vegetables and field grains, especially wheat. It also eats the eggs and attacks the young of a score of useful birds, thus re- ducing their number. Campaigns of extermination have been waged against the English sparrow in various parts of the country. The house finch and the sapsuckcr also do sufficient dam- age that they have no claim to the farmer's good will or protection. 2. Other Enemies of Ilarnifiil Insects aiul Animals Besides birds a number of other creatures, most of them so lowly as all but to escape observation, are good friends of the farmer. The toad. — The common ugly toad, which we often either avoid or kick out of our path, deserves better treat- ment. Its food consists of flies, caterpillars, cutvi'orms, June-bugs and other harmful insects. The horned lizard fancies almost the same bill of fare and joins with the toad to protect our gardens. Snakes. — The small snakes common to most regions are entirely harmless, and live on our enemies, such as mice, various beetles and weevils. It is therefore a mis- take to kill them. 3. Protecting Our Friends Boys and girls should make a study of the life and habits of the humble friends who do their best to rid our fields and gardens of their enemies, and should always en- courage and protect them. Tlie yelluw-bellied sapsucker. BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT DESTROYERS 439 Attracting the birds. — Bird houses consisting of small boxes roofed over, cans open at one end, or other suitable receptacles placed in trees or on posts in secluded places will do much to attract certain birds. When deep snow covers the ground in winter, hiding the seeds and other food, it will pay well to scatter a little grain each day where the non-migrating birds will find it. English sparrows, male and female. How to treat a friend. — Bird hunting should not be with a gun, but with a camera, field glass or alert eyes for the purpose of becoming acquainted with our feathered friends. Birds' nests should never be disturbed, the eggs handled or the young worried during nesting time. The fashion which decorates hats with the plumage of birds. 440 AGRICULTURE thus requiring their destruction, should be severely con- demned. We should even come to look upon toads, lizards, snakes and frogs as our friends and treat them well. Topics for Investigation 1. Make a list of the birds you are able to identify at sight. Do you know the nesting habits of each of these? 2. Make a list of all the birds' eggs you are able to identify. Dp you know the hatching time of each ? 3. Secure a copy of Fanners' Bulletins Nos. 54 and 506, and make a table of the food of each of the common birds of your locality. 4. What birds remain over winter in your region? What ones migrate and where do thev winter? 5. Watch for toads, lizards and snakes and observe their feeding habits. 6. Keep a lookout for birds you do not recognize, and find out their names and habits. CHAPTER XXX • MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 1. Hoiv to Remove Stains Iron rust. — Apply salt and lemon juice to the damp- ened spots. Place in the sun or near the fire. Then rinse or wash thoroughly. Fruit stains. — Pour over stained cloth, boiling water, letting it fall a distance of four or five feet, or wring article out of cold water and leave out-of-doors over a cold night. Blood stains. — All fresh blood stains can be easily rubbed out after soaking in cold or tepid water. After the blood has been dried, use javelle water or peroxide of hydrogen. Kerosene is sometimes used with success. Paint spots. — Use equal parts of ammonia and turpen- tine. \\'ash or rub until clean. Grass stains. — Remove grass stains by the use of alcohol, naphtha soap, or ammonia and water. Ink. — The commercial ink eradicator will remove ink stains from all white goods. If used on colored goods it will probably bleach or remove color. Another practical recipe is to wet the spot with warm water and sapolio, rub or polish between the hands, wash in a solution of hydro- chloric acid and rinse in ammonia water. Mildew. — Mix equal parts of soap and starch, half as much common salt, and juice of half a lemon. Spread over the spots and lay garment upon the grass until the stain disappears. Perspiration. — Soak in cold water, wash with borax and spread garment to dry in sunlight. Under-arm stains 441 442 AGRICULTURE usually require an acid such as a weak solution of muriatic acid. Burned cooking utensils. — To clean granite ware where mixtures have been burned on the surface, fill con- tainer half full of water, add good soap, washing powder, or baking soda. Bring water to a boiling point and scrub with a small brush. Tea, coffee or cocoa. — Wash with cold water, pour glycerine over spots and let stand for a few hours. Then wash with cold water and hard soap. If stains are fresh, pour over the stains boiling water from a height of four or live feet, after soaking. Tar or wagon grease. — Use cold soap-suds. Pit stains. — Grease with lard before using soap and water. Turpentine will usually remove the stains if other remedies fail. 2. Location of Colleges of Agriculture, Extension Depart- ments and Experiment Stations Letters addressed to any of these institutions, request- ing information on agriculture or home economics subjects will be answered with courtesy. Llelp will be rendered or farm bulletins supplied when possible. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 443 Collr.,ix.' <^tf KxtrnsiuTi ExpcriniiMit STATE Aj,n'icullun.' lK-[.arluu'iit yiuliun Alubamu AliIjulu Auburn Aiilmrn Union town {Sub.) Tuskegee (negro) Arizona Tucson 'J'ueson Tucson Arkansas Fayettuvillc I-'ayel fovilk' FayettevIIIe CaLiforDia Berkeley Berkeley Berkeley Colorado Fort Collins Fort Collins Fort Collins Connecticut Storrs Storrs Storrs New HaTen Dela-n-iire Newark Newark Newark Florida Gainesville ("iaincsville Gainesville Georicia Athens Athens Experiment Hawaii Honoluln Honolulu Honolulu Idaho Mmscow Buise Mnscow Illinois T^rhana T'rbana T^rbana Indiana Lafayette Lafayett.' Lafayette Iciwa Ames Ames Anics Kansas Manhattan .^ranliatlan Manhattan Kentnrky - Lexington Lrxinsti.ii Lexington Louisiana Baton Roultc Baton Rnu-r Baton Rouge New Orleans New Orli_-ans Anlmrn Park fbreh.) Calhoun (branch ) Crowley (branch) Maine OroDO Oronn Orono Maryland College Fark College Park College Park Massachusetts Amherst Amherst Amherst Mlcliigan East Lansin- ^'^^^ Lansing K,,^t Lansing Minnesota St. Paul ^^"- r-^ul st_ p^yj Mississippi Asrie. Collar -\gvic. Cnib.-r. Agric. College Missnnrl Columbia Colnmtua Columbia Mi.intana Bozenian BozHinan Bozeman Nebraska Lincoln , Lincoln Lincoln Nevada Reno ^'t-nn j^^,,^^ New Hampshire--- Durham Purham Durham New .Terser New Brunswick--. New Brunswick — xcw Brunswick New Mexico State College State College state College New York Ithaca Ithaca Ithaca Geneva North Carniina 'VTcst Raleigh West Ralei^^h Wost Raleigh Ni.rth Daknia ALrric C^Ile-r Agric. Colh--c. Agric. College Ohio Cnlumbns Columbus Wnostor Oklahoma SHllwater Stillwater Stiilwater Oregon Cdrvallis Corvallis Corvnllis Pennsylvania Slate College State C-ilie-e State College Porto Rico Mayagnez >Layagnez Mayaguez Rio Piedras fSub.) South Carolina Clemsnn Civile tre Clemson College--. Clemson College Soutfi Dak'. la Brookings Brookings Brookings Tennessee Knoxville Knoxville Knoxville Texas College Station College Station College Station T''tah Lotron Logan Logan Vermont Burlington Burlington Burlington Virginia Blacksburir Black-sburg Blacksbnrg Hampton Hampton (negro). Norfolk (branch) Washington Pullman Pullman Pullman West Virginia Morgan town Morgantowu Morgantown Wisconsin Madison Madison Madison Wyoming Laramie Laramlo r>aramle 444 AGRICULTURE 3. Distances Apart for Planting Fruits and J^egciables Feet Feet Apples 30.0-40.0 Cabbage 2.0- 3.0 Apricots 15.0-20.0 Carrot .5- 2.0 Cherries 15.0-25.0 Corn, sweet 3.0- 3.5 Oranges 25.0-30.0 Celery 3.0- 4.0 Peaches 15.0-20.0 Lettuce .5- 2.0 Pears 20.0-30.0 Onion 1.5- 2.0 Plums 15.0-20.0 Parsley 1.0- 2.0 Quinces 10.0-12.0 Peas 1.0- 3.0 Blackberries 4.5- 7.0 Potato 2.5- 3.0 Currants 4.0- 4.5 Radish 1.0- 1.5 Raspberries 3.5- 5.0 Salsify .5- 2.0 Strawberries 1.0- 4.0 Squash and pumpkin 6,0- 8.0 Asparagus 2.0- 4.0 Turnip .5- 2.0 Beans, bush and pole 1.0- 4.0 Tomato 3.0- 4.0 Beets .5- 2.0 4. Quantity of Seed per Acre and Legal Weights per Bushel Seed Weight per acre per bu. Alfalfa 30 lbs. 60 lbs. Barley 8 to 10 pks. 48 lbs.* Blue-grass 20 to 25 lbs. 14 lbs. Buckwheat 3 to 5 pks. 48 lbs.* Clover 10 to 15 lbs. 60 lbs.* Corn, shelled, check row 6 to 8 qts. 60 11)S. Corn, ensilage 10 qts. Cotton, upland 4 to 8 pks. 32 lbs.* Cow-pea 4 to 7 pks. 60 lbs. Oats 2 to 3 bu. 32 lbs. Potato 6 to 18 bu. 60 lbs.* Rye 3 to 8 pks. 56 lbs.* Timothy 10 to 20 lbs. 45 lbs.* Wheat 6 to 9 pks. 60 lbs. *Varies in a few states. THE END TO THE TEACHER TO THE TEACHER 1. Tlic Point of I'iciv SUCCESSFUL teaching of agriculture, more than that of any other subject, depends on the spirit and methods of the teacher. Agricnhure is so thoroughly concrete a subject that only a small part of it can be effectively taught by text- book and in class room without the assistance of field and farm. The teacher of agriculture must remember first of all that there is no real agriculture in the text-book. The place of the text. — Real agriculture is out in the fields, gardens and pastures, and among the herds and flocks of the farm. The text-book can only serve as a guide to point the way, showing the pupil what to look for, and teaching him to understand what he finds as he meets the problems of preparing the soil, planting and tilling the crop, or feeding and caring for the stock. Agriculture can therefore not be taught from the text alone, no matter how complete or well arranged it may be, nor how generous the illustrations. The text-book is very important in class room and laboratory, but it must be supplemented by the immediate interests of the farm. 2. Public School Extension Work This point of view suggests a method for connecting the work of the school with the home. The children should actually do the things they study about. For a number of years the colleges of agriculture have been engaging in (i) ii TO THE TEACHER various forms of extension work, with a view to offering the services of the educational institution to those who can not go to college. The time has come when the public school should also oft'er some such form of extension serv- ice reaching the homes of its patrons. Plans for extension projects. — Agricultural extension work can be carried out by the public schools according to two different plans: (1) the setting of certain definite home or farm "projects," or specific pieces of work, to be carried out by the individual pupils as a part of the course in agriculture; or (2) the organization of agricultural clubs, which provide for group, or coordinated, work of specified nature, usually in conjunction with state or national club organizations. In either case a certain amount of school credit should be allowed for home and club work satisfactorily done. Agricultural club projects. — The United States De- partment of Agriculture has undertaken the organization of boys' and girls' clubs in every state in the Union, and, wherever possible, works in connection with the public schools. Government experts, state club managers, county agricultural agents and the state agricultural colleges all stand ready to help organize, promote and direct these clubs. The teacher of agriculture will find the club a great incentive to pupils, and an invaluable adjunct to text-book and class-room Avork. Through the club it is possible to translate book and laboratory information into real action in the field, with the herds, and in the home. Agricultural club work will also do much to bridge the gap that has so long existed between the home and the school. The number of club projects. — The club idea must not, however, be overdone. It is possible to start so many projects that none of them can be well supervised or sue- TO THE TEACT-TER iii cessfull_v carried out. Probabl}' no school should encour- age the formation of more than two different club projects for the same season. Club work is outlined with almost every chapter in this text, but not with the expectation that any school will organize at one time all the clubs suggested. The teacher, with the cooperation of county, state or national agricultural clul:) leaders, should select for boys the project of greatest agricultural significance and value to the community, and for the girls the project of greatest economic and social value to the community home life. Every rural school, especially, should have two such club projects. This plan will carrv the benefits of the school to the homes, and offer the bovs and girls real interests in agriculture and home economics not only for the school year, but for the summer vacation as well. 3. Equipment for TcacJiiiif; Agriculture The amount and nature of the equipment recjuired for the teaching of agriculture will depend largely on the time allotted to the study, the age and grade of the pupils, and the scope of the work undertaken. But every school, no matter how small or elementary, must have certain neces- sary equipment if the work is to be most successful. Much of this material can be made b_v the pupils in the school, if they are properly directed. Tables and cabinets. — It is essential to ha^-e suitable taljlc space so as to permit study or demonstration in a group. This will be much more satisfactory than under- taking to do the work from the individual desks of the pupils. For successful class work the pupils should always be seated together for observation and instruction, and there must be room for the display and distribution of ma- terial to be used by the entire class. Adequate cupboard or cabinet space for the storing of material and specimens is iv TO THE TEACHER important. These may be separate pieces, or built perma- nently in or against the wall. They should be mouse-proof, otherwise the specimens are likely to be destroyed. The upper section of the cabinet may be of glass and the lower doors of wood. The doors should be locked throughout the night and the vacation periods. 4. Individual Equipment A few pieces of litmus paper. Small glass vials for the selection of weed seeds and samples of soil. Two pieces of quarter-inch hemp rope for use in the study of the relation of the rope to agriculture. A few blotter testers, a rag-doll tester, and at home, a box seed-corn tester. Seed racks and seed trays used for drying and exhib- iting purposes. A small thermometer for the testing of temperatures of water, soil, etc. A few simple garden tools like hoes, rakes, small hand spades, potato fork, etc. Most of the garden tools can, of course, be supplied from the home to be used both at home and at school. Some simple carpenter tools for use in the making of model hen houses, feed and watering troughs, single-trees, seed boxes, cold-frames, etc. 5. General Equipment for the School Seed trays, seed-testing equipment, soil capillarity tubes, a set of large-mouthed bottles for exhibits of types of soil, a similar set for exhibits of seeds, a Babcock milk tester, canning equipment, a few miniatvire models of farm machin- ery. When room has been provided and funds are available TO THE TEACHER v regular farm machinery, cream separators, fanning mills, etc., will be of great value in the teaching of the various subjects of agriculture. 6. Laboratory Material A great deal of the material for instruction can be ob- tained as needed from the homes, and jidjoining farms and fields. It is not possible, however, to make the course in agriculture follow the seasons exactly, and some material therefore needs to be stored for class use. Other material may not be easily found when required. Samples of still other products may not be available in the region, and should be kept for comparison. Samples of soils. — Samples of all the different va- rieties of soils to be found in the region should be collected and kept in laboratory bottles, jars or common fruit jars. These samples should include soils rich in humus, clays, sands, lava, and soils in which organic matter is lacking. Each sample should be labeled, telling the type represented and where obtained. Specimens of cereal plants and grains. — Samples of all the common cereal grains, including the different local varieties, should be collected and stored in wide-mouthed bottles. These will serve for comparison with samples brought by the pupils from their farm crops. Specimens of the cereal plants should also be collected and stored when the crop is ripening. This will allow the class to study the different types and varieties of wheat, oats, etc., and to identify each from the plant, even if the study can not be taken up when the crops are available in the fields. It is also desirable to make a collection of types or varieties not common to the region and use them for comparison. The state agricultural college can usually help in securing such a collection. vi TO THE TEACHER Specimens of grasses and legumes. — A complete col- lection of the native grasses and legumes should be made in every school. The pupils will delight in helping in this work, which may be made one of the most valuable parts of their instruction. Wherever possible the roots should be saved with the stem, so that the entire plant wall be represented. The specimens should be clearly labeled and tied in bunches or attached to pieces of cardboard. It is not intended that these dried samples shall be used for study instead of the growing plant, but they are often useful for occasional illustration when there is no time to collect the new material. Thev also serve as a standard for identifica- tion of specimens brought by the pupils to the school. The list should include the chief varieties grown in other sec- tions of the country. Specimens of weeds. — A collection of the noxious weeds of the region should be made and labels attached. Here again the class ma)^ be used in making the collection of all specimens that are available at the time school is in session or even during vacation. A collection of weed seeds should be saved in bottles like those used for the cereals. Pu])ils should become able to identifv at sight both the weed plant and its seed, and should know the habits of growth, the injury done crops and the method of eradication. Specimens of injurious insects and worms. — The in- sect pests common to the region should be collected and preserved for study by attaching them to cardboard by means of laljoratory pins or other device. The school should have a C}"anide insect bottle for killing specimens, and insect cases for preserving them. Each specimen should be clearly labeled and the time of its appearance and disappearance given. These specimens will then serve as a guide for the class in making their own collection, or TO THE TEvVCHER vii identifying tlie insects at work. The proper place to study insects is, of com'se, in the field in connection with the soil and plant life whenever they are available. Specimens of woods. — A collection of native woods is one of the most interesting and easy to make. Every pupil will be glad to take part in the work. Samples of the leaves should also be collected and preserved. Such a collection will supply the basis for a study of trees, and should result in each pupil being able to identify native trees at sight, either by their leaves or wood and habits of growth. Pupils should not he permitted to destroy useful plants for the sake of school specimens. 7. Method of Instruction It is not possible or desirable in this place to give de- tailed discussion as to the methods of teaching agriculture. Certain broad and fundamental principles may, however, be stated. Seeking knowledge at first hand. — From the very first day, the pupils should be made to feel that the study of agriculture is the study of the actual problems of the farm — crops, soils, animals, and all else that goes to make up the life of the farm. To "get a lesson," is therefore not to commit to memory what the text may say on a certain subject, but to use the text-book and all other available helps to master fully the problem at hand in the study of an ear of corn, the preparation of the seed bed, the fertiliz- ing of a field, or the feeding and management of a flock or herd. Use of the text-book. — The text-book is arranged to give as natural and interesting an approach as possible to each chapter or topic. There is hardly a text-book lesson for a single day which does not provide for some practical home and field study in connection with the subject under viii TO THE TEACHER consideration. The lesson assignment should usually first l)e studied from the text, the field, laboratory or home work on the topic then being taken up. The topics for iiii'cstigation and the questions throughout the text should alzi-a\s be zivrked out fully and thoroughly. In many in- stances the teacher "will desire to add questions or topics to supplement those of the book. Only in such practical ways can the work be made interesting and vital. Use of note-books. — The pupils should be provided with note-books of uniform size. In these should be kept a record of all demonstrations, experiments, field trips and excursions and observations. Elere should also be worked out all the exercises and problems rec[uired in the text, and those assigned by the teacher. Drawings, diagrams, tables or any other matter brought into the course should find their way , into the note-book. Pictures of farm animals, crops, machines, farm buildings and the like, should be as- sembled and form a part of the record of the course. Every note-book should be neat and well kept, and ar- ranged in a businesslike manner. Correlation with other subjects. — Agriculture may well be made in many schools to serve as the basis of corre- lation with other subjjects. JMuch of the arithmetic can be taught more efficientlv and naturally from the lessons in agriculture than in any other way. Language work, including composition and letter-writing, can be related to much of the work of the agriculture course. Industrial geography is suggested by every chapter in the text. Free- hand and mechanical drawing, manual training and domes- tic science all connect easily and naturally with the lessons and problems of the course. Connection with home work. — Constant reference is made in the text to the crops, gardens, stock, soil and other interests found on the farm or at home. This is not by TO THE TEACHER ix accident. The purpose is to make the study of agricukure interesting and helpful by connecting it immediately with the homes. The teacher who will faithfully carry out this concrete method of instruction will find growing in his pu- pils a firm and abiding enthusiasm in the subject never to be hoped for in mere text-book study. The great purpose and the highest success is to get the lessons of the text translated into life and action. The work on agricultural projects assigned in connection with the course should, as far as possible, be done under the guidance of the teacher and should receive school credit. Demonstrations and experiments. — The diiference between demonstrations and experiments should be clearly understood by the class. The idea in an experiment is to investigate, discover or verify some truth. In a demon- stration some well-known truth is illustrated, shown or demonstrated to others, with the purpose of convincing them of its merits and leading them to adopt it in practise. 8. Seasonal Order of Study Seasonal order impossible in text. — It is wholly im- possible to arrange any text on agriculture so that the top- ics will follow the seasons throughout the year. If this could be done it would make the teacher's work much sim- pler and easier. But seasonal variations do not come at the same time in dift'erent regions, nor does the order of the crops and gardens follow the arrangement of the school year. Order to be based on crop sequence. — Because of these facts, it must be left to the teacher to select such an order from the text as best fits the crops and seasons of his region. It is not necessary that the chapters be taken in succession as they occur. For northern schools opening in the late summer, the corn chapter undoubtedly will be best for X TO THE TEACHER a beginning. The potato chapter should be taken up before the crop is harvested if possible. It may be referred to again at planting time in the spring. The garden chapters should be studied during the late winter or early spring, and again referred to as the planting, spraying or tillage is under consideration. The teacher need not be afraid even to divide a chapter, using a part at two or more different seasons if this seems best. For example, the field study of corn should be begun in the fall with the ripening crop, but the testing and grading of seed corn should be reserved for winter study. The greater part of the study of farm animals can be successfully carried on during the winter, though certain of the features should be taken up in the fall or spring. Some of the work on soils can also be utilized for winter study. Actual field study and demonstrations will, of course, be carried on when the ground is not frozen. The great point is to base the lessons on the immediate activities of the farm during just as much of the year as possible, making the assignments from the text conform to the seasonal or- der of the locality. 9. Reference Material Every school where agriculture is taught should be stocked with a number of standard texts on each of the divisions of the subject. The library should contain a standard cyclopedia of agriculture. It is also desirable to have the Agricultural Year Book of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, and the Census Reports that deal with the subject of agriculture. Arrangements can be made for the receipt of the current crop reports. Government publications. — The United States De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, is in position to give help to all citizens on the subject of agriculture, TO THE TEACHER xi A large number of Fanners' Bulletins, circulars, reports and special instructions on almost every conceivable agricul- tural or home economics subject, can be secured by address- ing the Secretarv of Agriculture. Alost of the publications are free and are intended for the use of the public. This material makes a very necessarv and helpful supplement to the text-book, and should be constantly referred to. It is well to provide some library or filing arrangement to con- tain such material, so that it can be properly classified and cared for. State agricultural colleges and experiment stations. — Every state has its agricultural institution. These colleges publish a great deal of valuable material on the agricultural problems of their respective states. In most cases the ma- terial is free to all citizens of the state, and should be freely drawn upon for school use. A list of the agricultural col- leges and experiment stations will be found in the chapter on "Miscellaneous Information." INDEX INDEX Alfalfa, as forage, 135 as soil renewer, 136 chapter on, 133 chief region of, 134 enemies of, 143 feeding value of, 136 harvesting of, 141 soil requirements for, 138 study of plant, 133 Animals, farm and agriculture, 265 farm, section on, 265 food supplying, 267 products of, 269 work of farm, 265 Ants, 11 Aphis, corn root, 1 1 Arsf.natic of Lead Spray, 21 1 r.ABCOCK, steps in test, 278 test for butter fat, 277 Bacteria, nitrifying, 117 Beef, breeds of cattle, 287 feeding cattle, 289 (XV) xvi INDEX Birds, and their food, 432 chapter on, 43- harmful, . 437 methods of protecting, 437 useful varieties of, 434 Blotter Seed Testers, 39 Bordeaux Mixture, 208 Bread, 64 Canning Fruits and \'egetables, chapter on, 217 recipes for, 218 time table for, 222 Cattle, beef, breeds of, 287 chapter on, 272 club projects, 294 dairy, 272 feeding beef, 289 play contests with, 292 tuberculosis in, 289 Chickens, breeds of, 349 chapter on, 346 diseases of, 367 feeding for eggs, 358 feeding of, 357 houses for, 363 the raising of, 353 CiiiNCii-CuGS, 76 Clovers, The, alsike, 130 as forage, 121 INDEX xvii Clovers, The (Continued). as soil renewer, 122 chapter on, 119 crimson, 131 enemies of red, 128 harvesting of, 127 impurities of seed, 126 red-clover plant, ■ 119 successful growing of, 125 Club Wokk, cattle, 294 corn, 62 forage, 118 fruit garden, 199 hogs, 335 horses, 314 potato. 111 poultry, 372 roads, 430 sheep, 344 soil, 262 tomato, 207 vegetable garden, 177 CoMMERCLVL Seed Tkster, 36 Corn, barren stalks, g binder, S2 chapter on, 1 club work, 62, cultivation of, 48 demonstrations, 61 depth of planting, 46 ear worms, 13 enemies of, 9 xviii INDEX Corn (Continued') . for silo, 53 grading seed, i9 harvesting and storing, 50 judging, 27 plant, 2 play contests, 61 preparing seed for planter, . 2)'ts root aphis, 11 roots and moisture, 43 root worm, 9 seed bed, . 43 seed saving, 14 seed selection bed, 24 seed testing box, 33 shocker, the, ^i smut, 13 stand of, 5 stover, value of, 52 suckers, 8 testing seed, 31 time for gathering seed, 16 time for planting, 46 types of, 20 uses of, 51^ uses of stalk, 59 varieties of, 22 yield of, 1 County Agent, and the school, 404 financial support of, 403 the agricultural, 401 INDEX xix Cow, dairy type of, 275 feeding of dairy, 281 judging the dairy, '2j7 milk tests of the, 277 Cow-Peas, as forage, 148 as soil renovator, 148 plant, 146 Crops, forage, 113 rotation of, 12 Cutworms, 12 Dairy, breeds, 279 profitable and unprofitable cows, 273 types of cows, 275 Demonstrations, cattle, 292 corn, 61 forage, 118 fruit garden, 195 hogs, 334 horses, 313 potato. 111 poultry, 371 roads, 4?8 sheep, 344 soil, 261 tomato, 206 vegetable garden, 177 XX INDEX Drainage, cost of, 260 surface, 256 under, 258 Eggs, for hatching. 353 producing and marketing, 360 rules for production of. 361 Farm, administration of. 377 and home management, 375 buildings for the, 386 implements and mechanics, chapter on, 408 selecting and planning, 375 the home. 384 Farm Economics, section on, 375 Fertilization of Plants, 5 Fertilizers, CoMiiERCiAL, 243 Forage Crops, chapter on. 113 club project. lis importance of. 114 region of. 115 Fungicides, 208 Garden, The Fruit, care of. 183 club projects. 199 demonstrations. 195 enemies of. 185 INDEX xxi Garden, The Fruit (Continued). plan of, 180 play contests, ■ 197 pruning of, 184 soil and location for, 180 spraying, 188 varieties in, 181 Garden, The Vegetable, chapter on, 165 clubs, 177 cultivation of, 171 demonstrations, 177 insect enemies of, 174 location and soil for, 166 plan for, 170 planting time, 168 play contests, 177 Grasses, for meadows, 155 for pastures, 160 uses of, 155 varieties of, 113 Grasshoppers, 78 Harvesting, alfalfa crop, 141 by "hogging down" corn, 56 red-clover crop, 127 the corn crop, 50 the potato crop, 102 the wheat crop, 71 with corn binder, 52 Hessian Fly, The, 78 xxii INDEX Hogs, balanced ration for, 326 breeds of, 316 care of, 319 chapter on, 315 chief region for, 315 club projects, 335 demonstrations with, 334 diseases of, 328 feeding, 323 houses, 319 play contests, 335 prevention of cholera in, 332 Home, and farm management, 375 beautif_ving the grounds, 389 grounds and wood lot, 389 Horses, breeds of, 302 care of, 307 chapter on, 296 classes of, 297 clubs, 314 defects of, 306 demonstrations with, 313 feeding of, 310 judging of, 305 leading states for, 296 play contests, 314 Horticulture, section on, 165 Hotbed, The, 171 Humus, 227 INDEX xxiii ImTLIiMRNTS, farm and mechanics, chapter on, 408 Inoculation, of soil for alfalfa, 140 Insecticides, 208 Kerosene Emulsion, 214 Legumi'.s, chapter on, 146 for meadows, 155 for pastures, 1-"''-' uses of, 115 varieties of, 11"! Lime, use of on soils, 246 Lime Sulphur Spray, 210 Manure, application of, 242 barnyard, 238 green, 242 preventing loss from, 241 Meadows, care of, 156 chapter on, 154 grasses for, 155 permanent, 158 requirements of, 154 seed mixtures for, , 156 Milk, cooling of, 286 producing clean, 283 tests for the dairy cow, 277 xxiv INDEX Nitrogen, commercial fertilizers, 243 gathering bacteria, 117 Note-Books, records in, 7 Oats, Chapter on, 80 Paris Green Spray, 212 Pastures, 159 care of, 161 grasses for, 160 mixtures of seed for, 160 requirements of, 159 Peanut, The, uses of, 152 PtiosPHORus Fertilizers, 245 Planter, grading seed for, 38 testing the, 41 Play Contests, cattle, 292 corn, 61 fruit garden, 197 hogs, 335 horses, 314 potato, 1 1 1 poultry, 372 roads, 430 sheep, 344 soil, 262 tomato, 206 vegetable garden, 177 INDEX XXV Pollen, 4, 26 Potassium Fertilizkrs, 245 Potatoes, as a farm crop, 99 chapter on, 98 cutting the seed, 106 clubs. 111 demonstrations, 111 enemies, 107 play contests, 111 region, 99 selection of seed, 103 soil and seed bed for, 100 storing of, 102 the plant, 98 Poultry, chapter on, 346 clubs, 372 demonstrations, 371 diseases of, 367 housing of, 363 increasing demands, 347 leading states for, 347 play contests, 372 Pruning, of fruit trees, 184 tomatoes, 202 "Rag-Doll" Seed Tester, 36 Ration, balanced for dairy cows, 282 balanced for hogs, 326 for fattening chickens, 359 xxvi INDEX Ration {Coiitiniicd). for laying hens, , 358 for sheep, 341 Resin Lime Spray, 214 Roads, chapter on, 420 construction of earth, 425 chib projects, 430 demonstrations with, 428 importance of public, 420 location of, 422 maintenance of earth, 426 play contests, 430 types of, 422 Rope-Tying, 412 Rotation of Crops, . 12 and fertility, 248 plan for, 249 Rust, wheat, 74 Saudust Seed Testers, 33 Scab, in wheat, 73 potato, 107 Seed, bed and planting, 43 bed for wheat, > ' 70 care of shelled, 40 cleaning red clover, 126 curing of corn, 18 cutting potato, 106 germination box, 33 grading for planter, 39 INDEX xxvii Seed (Continued). loss from poor, 16 mixtures for meadows, 156 saving of, 14 selecting wheat, ' 70 selection bed, 24 selection of potato, 103 testing, 31 various testers for, 36 Seed Bed, preparing the, 44 Sheep, agricultural importance of, 336 breeds of, 338 chapter on, 336 club projects, 344 demonstrations, 343 feeding of, 340 play contests, 344 Shocker, the corn, 53 Silo, The, 53 Smut, . corn, 13 treatment for wheat, 76 Soil, acid and liming, 247 barnyard manure and, 238 capacity of for water, 252 chapter on, . 225 club projects, 262 cultivation of, 102 demonstrations, 261 drainage, 256 xxviii INDEX Soil {Continued). erosion of, 232 fertility and legumes, 122 fertility of, 236 forms of water in, 251 for potatoes, 100 inoculation for alfalfa, 140 moisture, chapter on, 251 organic matter in, 227 origin of, 225 play contests, ' 262 requirements for alfalfa, 138 structure of, 230 texture of, 228 tillage and water, 254 Soy-Beans, feeding value of, 152 Spraying, machines for, 191 mixtures for, 208 of fruit gardens, 188 tomatoes, 204 Stover, Corn, 52 Tilth of Soils, 231 Tomato, The, as a garden crop, 201 chapter on, 201 club project, 207 culture, 202 demonstrations with, 206 harvesting and marketing, 204 play contests, 206 INDEX xxix Tomato, The {Continued). pruning and staking, 202 varieties of, 202 Tuberculosis, in cattle, 289 in hogs, 330 suppressing in cattle, 290 tuberculin test for, 290 Tubers, 99 Vegetables, enemies of, 174 garden, 165 transplanting of, 171 Vetch, common, 150 hairy, 150 types of, 150 Water, capillary, 252 gravitational, 251 Weeds, " as enemies of alfalfa, 143 killing in corn-field, 46 soil and tillage, 254 Wheat, chapter on, 64 diseases and enemies of, 72 harvesting, 71 importance of, 64 planting, 71 seed bed for, 70 XXX INDEX Wheat (Continued). selecting seed, 70 spring, 69 types of, 66 winter, 67 WiREWORMS, 22 Wood Lot, chapter on, 389 enemies of, 396 the farm, 392 Worms, corn root, Q