\Si> Jtate College of afsriculturc ^t Cornell ©ntbersitp I.i6rarj> Cornell University Library SB 608.L3M15 The larch disease and the present condit 3 1924 002 923 906 The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002923906 THE LARCH DISEASE THE PRESENT CONDITION URCH PLANTATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN BY CHAELES M'INTOSH HAKDKX AHCHITECT, I.ANDSCAf£ SARDENBB, AND GENERAL PBOJECTOB OY IB1PK0VKMENT8 i: K9TATE5 AND DOUAINd; ASSOCIATE OF THE LIKNAAN SOCIETY, UEMBEK Oy THE JIORTICIJLTURAL SOCIETIES OK J^NDON, CAI.BDONIAN MAaSACUUSETTS, SIIE7VIBLD, ETC. ETC. ETC. WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLX S&hO? THE LAEOH DISEASE. The larch tree, upon which so much dependence has been placed by landed proprietors during upwards of a century, appears now to be, in the majority of situa- tions in this country, in a state of decay. This being an admitted feet, and one in which landed proprietors are deeply interested, we deem the import- ance of the subject' sufficient apology for offering the following remarks on the presumed causes of the pre- sent state of this valuable tree, and its probable ultimate extinction in this country. The most opposite yiews have been held by different authorities as to the cause of disease in the larch. Among these may. be mentioned — degeneracy in the seed ; too wet and stagnant soils and subsoils ; want of sufficient moisture at the roots ; soils and subsoils surcharged with oxide of iron, or other deleterious mineral matters ; microscopic fungi ; insects ; unge- A 2 THE LAECH DISEASE. nial climate ; atmospheric influences ; and bad man- agement. These have all by turns been charged as the source of the disease, and most or all of them, no doubt, con- tribute their share to those disastrous results from which most landed proprietors are at present suifer- ing, and which threaten to become a rural calamity. It must, however, be admitted that, after the most careful investigation, the action of these causes, in many cases, remains very obscure ; and hence the great variety of opinions that have been advanced on the subject. Instead, therefore, of confining ourselves to our own individual opinion, we have condensed those of above fifty highly respectable authorities, who have expressed their views according to the circumstances in which this disease has come under their observation. An opinion has been advanced that the larch, not being a tree indigenous to Britain, is degenerating in consequence of change of climate. This is deemed a very untenable argument by some, who adduce the cases of the sycamore and the horse and Spanish chestnuts, some of which have flourished in this country for more than seven centuries. It should, however, be borne in mind, that the very aged specimens of those trees are aU found growing in situations the best adapted to insure longevity, both as regards soil and shelter, having all been planted near monastic or baronial residences ; and that no such specimens are to be met with where the soil is not congenial to them. Besides, there is a great constitutional difference between such THE LARCH DISEASE. 3 trees and those of the natural order Coniferse, to which the larch belongs. The former have the power of renewing slich portions of their structure as may be- come injured by accident — nay, even of renewing them- selves entirely from the root, should the whole body perish; while coniferous trees have no such power. Where larches were raised from seed taken from healthy trees, and placed in equally favourable circumstances — as those at Dunkeld, Monzie, Craigdarroch, Kirkconnel, &c. — there is a probability that they may, if no accident overtake them, arrive at something like their natural period of existence ; indeed, they are already approach- ing the period assigned them by Wildenow, who states the natural duration or life existence of the larch at from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years. This, however, shows us that the larch, even in its natural habitats, is, compared with many other species, by no means a long-lived tree. What, then, we may ask, has become of all the other larch trees planted at the same time with these, to say nothing of those that are known to have been culti- vated nearly a century earlier? Parkinson, in the "Corollary to his Orchard," states that the tree was cultivated in England so early as 1629 ; and as he describes the flowers "to be very beautifuU and de- lectable, being of an excellent fine crimson colour," we thus identify the Larix communis, flo. rubra, or red-r flowering larch of the present day. Miller, in the third edition of his Gardener's Dictionary, describes the larch a? " thriving best when planted upon an elevated 4 THE LAECH DISEASE. situation." He notices the white and red flowering varieties, remarking that the former do not seem to be so vigorous as the latter. It is rather singular that, in treating on their cultivation, he should recommend that, " if any of them incline their heads downwards, to thrust a small stake into the ground, and to fasten their heads upright thereto ; for if they are suffered to grow on one side while young, they are rarely to be reduced to an upright figure again." And further, he says, " you must observe to train their heads upright, and not suffer them to grow awry, which they are naturally too much inclined to do." Thus they seem to have been, soon after their first introduction, dis- posed to droop their leading shoots, just as the deodar does with us at present. Is this to be regarded as a sign of constitutional weakness, or a symptom that deterioration had taken place in consequence of their removal from their natural climate to one in some respect or other less suitable to them? or was it, as is more likely, the result of these trees having been originated from home-produced seed taken from trees in an unhealthy state, as must have been the case with trees grown in the rich soil and impure atmosphere of a London garden ? Por he states, in Gardener's Dictionary, edition 1731, that the larch " was common in English gardens, and that some trees at Wimbledon produced annually a great quantity of cones." From these, and from trees similarly situ- ated, the earliest supplies of seeds were obtained by the London nurserymen ; for Miller states, "that in 1759 THE LARCH DISEASE. 5 the larch had become plentiful in the English nurseries." As rarities, a rich soil would almost certainly be selected for the trees ; and this, combined with the murky at- , mosphere of Wimbledon even in those days, would enfeeble them, and bring on premature old age, — one unvarying sign of which is the' production of abund- ance of cones. From such sources were our early supplies of larch trees and seeds derived ; and although it may be stated, in opposition to the inference we have just drawn, that the old trees at Dunkeld and Monzie were thus obtained, yet of this we have no certain proof, for the opinion is as strong in favour of those trees having been brought direct from Switzerland, as that they were brought from London by Mr Menzies of Migeny. * The transition from a primitive soil and the clear atmosphere of its native alpiae habitats, to the rich soil and murky atmosphere of the London gardens, could not fail of producing a very considerable effect on the constitution of the larch. It is therefore ques- tionable whether we did not start the cultivation of the larch at the very outset upon false principles. We are not of those who hold that species wear out in consequence of a long series of reproductions by seed, or even by artificial propagation ; but we believe that every species of plant may be sooner or later enfeebled, deteriorated, and even ultimately killed, by bad or careless management. We believe, also, that there is a certain analogy existing between the vege- table and animal kingdoms, in so far that, if attention 6 THE LARCH DISEASE. be not paid to maintain the purity of the stock, de- crepitude in constitutional vigour, and ultimately loss of the subject, whether animal or vegetable, will ensue. The introduction of the larch into Scotland has been variously stated— viz., at Blair-Drummond, by Lord Kames, in 1734 ; at Dunkeld, by James Duke of Atholl, according to popular opinion, in 1727, but more cor- rectly in 1 738, at which period, also, those at Monzie were planted ; while Sir James Nasmyth is said to have received this tree from Switzerland at his seat, Dawick, Peeblesshire, in 1725. If so, these last were the first larches introduced into Scotland. Amongst the earliest planters of the larch in Eng- land we may mention the Bishop of Llandaff, who in 1787-8 planted 45,500 on the high grounds near Ambleside, Westmoreland ; John Sneyd, Esq., who planted 13,000 in Staffordshire between 1784-6, and 11,000 more in 1795; W. Mellersh, Esq. of Blyth, 47,500 ; Joseph Corolishar, Esq. of Hodsock Park, 27,400 in the same year ; Eichard Slater Milnes, Esq., near Ferrybridge, Yorkshire, 200,000 ; Mr George Wright of Gildingwells, in the same county, 11,573 in the same year ; Thomas White, Esq. of West Retford, in Nottinghamshire, 13,000 about the year 1789 ; the Eev. T. Whitticar, at Holme, in Lancashire, 64,135 in 1791 ; and Thomas Gaitskill, Esq. of Braithwait, Cumberland, 43,300 in the same year. Amongst Scotch planters during the above period, of course James Duke of Atholl takes precedence; but no very satisfactory account can be given as to the THE LARCH DISEASE. 7 number, further than it is known that he planted, between 1738 and 1759, 1928 trees, and during his lifetime he planted 15,573 acres, which consumed above 27,431,600 trees. The Earl of Fife planted, prior to the close of the last century, 181,813 larch on his Morayshire estates, and many Scotch proprietors planted largely, of whom we have no accurate account. Above, however, we have twelve individuals planting upwards of 28,000,000 of larch between the years 1759 and 1800 — ^namely, in the space of forty-one years; and it is not unreasonable to assume that even this great number was not the fourth part of the larch planted in Britain during the same period. Out of this 28,000,000 and upwards, and at the end of only one hundred years (little raore than half the natural term of its existence), have we fifty trees in a living state ? We know only of a very few. The larch, therefore, has not hitherto shown itself a long-lived tree in this country. In the ordinary circumstances in which we find it, it decays before its natm-al period of maturity arrives. We shall not here refer to the value of the larch as a timber tree for the purposes of naval or domestic architecture, further than to remark that there are pur- poses for which it can never be put on an equality with English oak in the 'former case, or Baltic pine in the latter, even had it continued in a healthy state. It is no doubt occasionally used by some architects in house- )3uilding, where large unwrought timbers are required, as in roofing, joisting, &c. But even for this purpose the trees should be of from fifty to one hundred years' 8 THE LARCH DISEASE. growth ; and even in these it is important that no symptom of disease should exist, for the fungoid, or what is called the dry-rot attacks, are much more likely to be encouraged in the dead than in the living tree. It is a weU-known fact that a diseased plank of larch has communicated the fungoid disease to the adjoining timbers, and caused the destruction of the whole fabric ; and cases have occurred where whole roofs have had to be removed in consequence of the warping of the timber by the heat of the sun transmitted through the slates. As regards application to domestic architecture, as a substitute for Baltic pine, unless for buildings intended for a temporary purpose, or those of an infe- rior description, such as cottages, agricultural offices, and the like, it is quite a faUacy to suppose it economi- cal. On this point architects entertain but one opinion. The extra expense of working it, and the time and labour bestowed in attempting to prepare it by season- ing, even presuming it growing on the proprietor's own estate, are admitted greatly to exceed the expense of the carriage, under all ordinary circumstances, of the best Baltic piue from the nearest seaport. Por internal furnishings, and the other departments of the joiner, the larch is whoUy unfit, in consequence of its great tendency to warp, and the expense of working. It is no doubt a useful tree for fencing, coal-pit props, telegraph poles, hop poles, and, when it attains a suf- ficient size, for railway -sleepers, because it is easily converted to such purposes, little or no labour being required upon them ; and, when sound, its durability is THE LARCH DISEASE. 9 a recommendation. But when we see so many planta- tions, sometimes of great extent, in all parts of the country, and of all ages and sizes, out of which scarcely one tree in three is found in a sound state, we are forced to conclude that, under its present treatment and con- dition, it is a tree upon which by far too much reliance has been placed, and that if its cultivation is continued to the extent it is, the consequences to landed proprie- tors will be most disastrous. The popularity of the larch was no doubt first occasioned by the experiment made by the Duke of AthoU, who, in 1819-20, induced the Admiralty to build the frigate which still bears his name. She has, however, undergone so many repairs since she was built, that it is very questionable if any of the original timbers remain, and therefore she cannot be taken as a fair cri- terion of durability or fitness of purpose of the wood. The dockyard authorities at Woolwich long ago reported the unsuitability of larch timber for shipbuilding ; and hence, although it is sometimes used in inferior mer- chantmen and boat-buUding, no vessel of war has been buUt of it since. It is this unsuitability, and not, as has been recently stated, " that trees of sufficient size for shipbuilding have of late been found so subject to rot as to make them altogether ineligible for the pur- -pose," which has led to its abandonment in the national dockyards. We may here state, as bearing on this subject, that the first experiment made in using this timber iu ship- building in Britain occurred so early as 1809, when 10 THE LARCH DISEASE. one of the original trees at Dunkeld was felled, measur- ing 147 cubic feet, and was sent to Woolwicli dockyard, and used in the repair of the Serapis store-ship. At the time the Atholl frigate was building, the then enter- prising firm of Messrs Sime & Co. of Leith purchased one of the five original Dunkeld trees, containing 168 cubic feet, at the price of 3s. per cubic foot, or upwards of ^£'25 for the tree, along with some others of a less size, wherewith to build the Simon Taylor, West-Indiaman, which was unfortunately lost during her first voyage. A third ship, a brig of 171 tons, was built at Perth, from the Dunkeld trees, and called- the Larch. But it was more especially the praiseworthy example of the Duke of Atholl in planting so many thousand acres upon his Dunkeld and Atholl properties, towards the latter end of the last century and beginning of the present, that led to the almost universal planting of this tree, with a view to profitable returns. Our hopes are, however, now blighted, and that at a time when a very unlocked - for demand arose for the consumption of this timber, a demand which never could have been anticipated by its most sanguine advocates — namely, its application as railway- sleepers. The consumption of it for these would have been greater than that of all the other purposes for which it is used put together. The loss, therefore, to landed proprietors, particularly those having large tracts of land linfit for almost any other purpose than the growth of wood, is THE LAKCH DISEASE. 11 incalculably great. This will be understood when we state that there are many properties in Scotland, and those comparatively poor ones, having larch timber fit for or growing into use, should it escape the disease, of the value of from ^10,000 to ^20,000 sterling. Having, during the greater part of the last fifty years, had a good deal to do in planting larch, and of late years with the disposal of it as a timber tree, and hav- ing had opportunities of watching its progress both in England and Scotland, ia most soils and in most situa- tions, we have long since come to the conviction that it is a tree of so doubtful a character, as at present reared and managed, that we recommend those pro- prietors who do us the honour of consulting us profes- sionally, to plant it sparingly, unless they can with certainty obtain plants from seed taken from trees arrived at their full development, and stiU in a healthy and vigorous state ; that greater attention be paid to the nature of the soU they are to be planted in ; that a thorough reform in their whole mode of cultivation be adopted ; and that, failing these conditions, they should look out for a more durable and less treacherous substitute. That the decay in the health of the larch, in what- ever form it may appear, has not arisen from any na- tural change in the constitution of the tree itself, as asserted by some, is a fact borne out by physiological science ; its present debilitated and unhealthy condition is owing to mismanagement. Our present object is to 12 THE LARCH DISEASE. endeavour to determine in what this mismanagement consists ; and, in order tp present our remarks in the clearer form, we shall arrange them under the foUowiag heads : — I. Total neglect in procuring seed from healthy and fully-developed trees. II. Planting on soils and in situations unsuited to the nature of the trees. III. Want of sufficient drainage in waterlogged land. IV. Too thick planting, neglect of thinning, and in- judicious pruning. V. Planting in ground on which a previous crop of larch, Scotch fir, or other coniferous trees, has been grown. VI. Pampering young trees in rich soils in nurseries, with a view to their attaining a large size within the least possible time. VII. The attacks of game, and browsing of cattle and sheep. VIII. The period at which the disease attacks them. IX. The accidental misfortunes they are Hable to, such as the attacks of insects, parasitic fungi, late spring-frosts, diseases in the hark, dying away of the branches, &o., &c. THE LAECH DISEASE. 13 I. — TOTAL KEGLECT IN PEOCXJEING SEED PEOM HEALTHY AND EULLY-DEVELOPED TEEES. It is singular, although so much has been written on the diseased state of the larch, that so little allusion has been made to this, in our opinion, the first and not the least important part of the question. Cultivators well know the importance of a healthy, vigorous, and carefully- selected stock, from which to obtain seed, when they wish to maintain the integrity or secure the improvement of the progeny. The tur- nip-grower selects the best-formed bulbs to plant for seed, the cabbage-grower the strongest plants ; neither, if they wish to continue a superior variety, gather their seeds indiscriminately. The florist is even more particu- lar in endeavouring to continue a favourite flower ; and our best stock-masters incur almost fabulous expense in procuring the very best animals, for a similar reason. Is it not evident that the .same care should be taken with the larch, if we wish to improve it, or even to retain it in a healthy state ? Some of the nurserymen who rear these trees from seed, no doubt profess to do so ; but the public demands something more than mere profession. Undoubted blame attaches to selling trees warranted to be from a healthy stock, when the seller knows well that he cannot tell whether the seed was collected from healthy or unhealthy trees — from the 14 THE LARCH DISEASE; worst or the best varieties ; for at best lie has only the bare assertion, and that not often asked, of the itinerant seed-gatherers, who are often women and children, and whose only care is to fill their bags with cones, knowing how unlikely it is that any question wUl be asked as to what trees the cones were taken from. The pub- lic should, however, know that a nurseryman, selling under such a warranty, renders himself liable by law to whatever damages the purchaser may sustain, just as he is liable to the fanner or gardener for selling him a bag of inferior or spurious turnip or other seed. Unfor- tunately, in the case of trees, the evil is not detected for years, while in that of farm or garden plants it shows itself within, at most, a few months ; and the difficulty and expense of securing a conviction in the case of tree seeds is such as to afford endless chances for the nurseryman to escape. On the other hand, we do not ascribe the whole blame of this evil to the nurseryman ; planters and proprietors themselves are equally and often more at fault in this matter. The rage nowadays for cheap forest-trees, and cheap planting by contract, has very much to do with the case. Many gentlemen run from one nursery to another to see where they can purchase their trees cheapest, and who will contract to furnish and plant per acre at the lowest figure. Where such a course is followed, it shifts the responsibility in a great measure from the nurseryman ; the purchaser renders himself to all intents liable for the consequences, as he buys his plants as he sees them growing in the nursery, just THE LAHCH DISEASE. IS as he would buy a yard of cloth as he sees and feels it on the draper's counter. These contracts are entered into at a price so low that no respectal?le contractor can afford to send men capable of doing the work well, and hence he has to employ such men as he can procure in the neighbourhood, many of whom never planted a tree in their lives before. We know respectable nurserymen who will not enter into such contracts. The consequence of this penny-wise and pound-fool- ish practice is, that the honest man in the trade is put on an equal footing with his less scrupulous neighbour. He is compelled to sell cheap, or starve, because if he does not he loses his business ; and therefore to meet this cheap selling he must purchase his raw material at the lowest possible cost, and he must also manufac- ture his goods in the cheapest way possible. He there- fore ceases to be at all particular about where, or from whom, the seed is purchased ; the one requisite is that it be cheap. The seed-collector, again, knows that stunted and half-dead trees produce the greatest quan- tity of seed, and are also by far the most accessible, and with such he is quite contented. Here begins the mischief — cheap trees and an unhealthy progeny. It is a fortunate circumstance that in this indiscrim- iaate mode of collecting the seed, there are some chances of a portion being got from healthy trees ; and as good, bad, and indifferent are so thoroughly mixed during the manipulations of cleaning, a certain per-centage of healthy trees find their way to our plantations : for even in very bad cases a few healthy trees may be found, 16 THE LAECH DISEASE. although surrounded by others in the most diseased state. It is not absolutely impossible to get healthy larch seed of native growth, but certainly not to the amount at present annually sown. This seed is to be collected from those few healthy plantations of aged trees which are known to exist ; but the cones from such trees are ■ not only difficult, but even dangerous, of collection. Healthy trees produce few cones compared with un- healthy ones ; and, as a consequence, healthy seed can only be procured at a vastly increased price, compared with that paid for such inferior seed as we have spoken of. Cheap trees and a healthy stock are things quite incompatible. So long as seedling larch are sold at from Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. per 1000, and two years' transplanted at 15s., no great hope can be entertained that much attention will be paid to procuring genuine seed. Such prices would not pay ; nor is it to be supposed that any sane nurseryman will become so patriotic as to go to the expense and trouble of procuring better seed than the present without adequate remuneration. As regards the expense to the proprietor of more carefully selected seed, even were he to pay three times the present price for his trees, if they are judiciously managed, one-third of the present number planted per acre would be found quite sufficient. The low price of larch leads most people to plant them by far too thick ; and once planted, if not thinned by hares and rabbits, they are allowed to grow up to the evident destruction THE LARCH DISEASE. 17 of each other ; this, in many cases, laying the founda- tion of the rot and other diseases. An opinion is pretty prevalent that larch seed from the Tyrol is exempt from disease ; nay, that it is a superior variety. This is a fallacy. Not that healthy trees do not exist in the Tyrol, as well as in every other part of Europe, where this tree is found in an indigenous state ; but we also know that unhealthy and debilitated trees are too common, although we are not aware that the rot disease occurs amongst them ; and, moreover, the same careless mode of collecting the seed exists there, and perhaps to as great an extent as at home. Eegarding identification, Professor Lindley, in answer to a correspondent in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 1843, p. 216, says, " We are persuaded that all the sorts of European larch are identical, and that those who go to the Tyrol for what they may just as well get at home, are only spending time and money in a pursuit with- out an object." Indeed, it is well known that trees reared from Tyrolese seed are more liable to suffer from our late spring-frosts, which is one of the causes of disease, than those reared from seed- of native growth. The following very sensible remarks on the neces- sity of procuring larch seed from healthy parents are given by Mr Brown in Forester, 2d edit. p. 219 : " In collecting the seed of the larch, great care should be taken not to gather it from diseased trees ; nor should it be gathered from trees of a small size, for the very B 18 THE LAECH DISEASE. fact of small larch trees having seed upon them, is enough to point out that they are not of sound con- stitution. The seed of the larch, as well as aU other trees, should be gathered from trees of large size, and known to be sound in constitution. "Were this point more attended to, that disease in the larch termed the rot might in a great measure, in future, be prevented ; for it is well known that, if the parent be diseased, the seed of that parent will be in degree diseased also. Moreover, as the most diseased trees generally bear the greatest quantity of seed, the seed-gatherers, who col- lect it for nurserymen by the bushel, will be most ready to take it where it is most plenty, and wiU of course pay them best. In order to prevent this, nur- serymen ought to give a fair salary to a man in whom they can place confidence, who shall superintend the gathering of all the larch seed ; and he should be, at the same time, a man who is likely to know a healthy from an unhealthy tree." " No tree, in a healthy rapid-growing state, is ever found to produce seed till it has arrived at a consider- able age and size. I would say that any forest tree bearing much seed under forty years of age, is not likely, ultimately, to arrive at anything approaching a valuable size." — (Beown.) Vegetable physiologists have clearly demonstrated all this, and plainly tell us that " the health of a seed- ling depends on that of the seed. Under no circum- stance will unhealthy seed yield vigorous offspring in the first generation ; this is proved every day by THE LARCH DISEASE. 19 what comes from grain debilitated by age. And there cannot be found a gardener, of any large experience, who does not know that seedlings will exhibit every diversity of constitution from health to decrepitude." — {Theory of Horticultwre, p. 474) " It is a general rule that seedlings take after their parents, an v/n- healthy mother producing a diseased offspring, and a vigorous parent yielding a healthy progeny, in all their minute gradations and modifications." — (Ihid?) '■' When seeds are freely produced, it is not altogether a subject of indifference in what way they are saved, if it is desired that their progeny shall be the most per- fect that can be obtained. Weak seeds produce weak plants, and therefore recqurse should be had, in all de%p.te cases, to artificial means for gaining seminal vig(?ur. The energy of the vital principle in a seed may be, undoubtedly, increased by abstracting neigh- ' bouring fruits, by improving the general health of the parent plant by a full exposure of it to light, and by prolonging the period of maturation as much as is consistent with the health of the fruit." — {Ihid. p. 243.) The rationale of this, when applied to the purpose of securing a healthy progeny on the larch, or indeed on any other forest tree, is to collect the seeds from the healthiest and most vigorous trees, which have few cones, choosing such trees as stand thinly on the ground, or those on the exterior side of plantations, and allowing the seeds to be fully ripened before gathering. As the larch, when of large size, is in general felled 20 THE LAECH DISEASE, during winter, at which time the seed is ripe, a con- siderable supply of good seed may be very conveniently procured when the trees are down, as at that time their healthy or unhealthy state can be more readily ascer- tained than while they are still growing. But the older and larger the trees are, even in this case, the more likely is the seed to be in a healthy state. The larch, from being so long and so very exten- sively multiplied by seed, has, like the Scots fir, run into many varieties, whose chief distinguishing cha- racters consist in the colour of their flowers, and to some extent in the habit of the tree. The former varies from a bright red to a pure white, with all the intermediate gradations of colour. Of these, the red- flowered is the most common in Scotland, in the case of our oldest trees, and is considered to be the best and hardiest, although, perhaps, not the most rapid in growth. The pure white variety is said by some to be identical with the larch of the Tyrol, and is found to be much more tender, a fact pointed out so long ago as the days of MiUer (vide p. 4). In habit the tree varies from an elegant conical form to the decidedly pendulous, and even prostrate, with many intermediate forms. By the process of natural hybridising,* we have no doubt, varieties arise much more predisposed to disease * A true hybrid is a cross between two species, but the term is often applied to crosses between mere varieties, races, or sub-species. The latter sort of crosses have been occasionally denominated sub-hybrids in order to avoid confusion, and in such a light is the term hybridising, as made use of above, to be understood. THE LAKCH DISEASE. 21 than others. Besides the American larch, Larix Ame- ricana, which is considered a true species, noticed also so early as the time of Miller as a worthless tree, we have nine varieties of our common sorts recognised by botanists, most of which are of inferior quality to the original species, besides no one can tell how many more, all more or less playing their part in contam- inating our original and best variety. Regarding the necessity of procuring healthy seed, our respected friend Mr Edward Sang, the Nestor of Scots nurserymen and arboriculturists, observes in Planter's Calendar, p. 245 : " In every case, seeds of aU sorts should be collected from the most promising and healthy trees of their kind. Plants, like animals, in some measure convey to their progeny their appear- ance and habits, whether good or bad. Therefore, although a tree have an abundance of apparently per- fect seeds, if it be either visibly diseased, or be an ill- formed plant, not a seed should be collected from it." Mr Grigor of Forres, than whom we have no higher practical authority, like ourselves places much import- ance in collecting the seeds only from healthy, free- growing trees : such, he says, yield the largest cones, the largest seeds, and the strongest seedling plants. The late M. de Candolle of Geneva remarks— but it should be observed that he knew nothing of the rot disease, it not having come under his notice in the Swiss forests : " As to the choice of seeds, I am not one of those who attach great importance to it ; hut it cannot ie denied that trees grown from seeds taken 22 THE LAKCH DISEASE. from diseased trees must he more liable to these same diseases: therefore, you would do well to get your seeds from the Alps. In choosing these seeds, care should be taken to ascertain how they have been gathered. They assure me that in the Tyrol they place the cones near the fire to make them open ; conse- quently they are too much dried, which alters their quality. Those gathered in the Valais are generally opened by the heat of the sun,' or over a slow fire, and they are considered better." Too much kiln-drying no doubt injures Scotch-grown seed in the way M. de Candolle describes, and there is no doubt that seeds so treated must be considerably deteriorated in constitu- tional vitality. All the larches in our forests are only diflTerent forms of the same species, with the exception oi Larix Ameri- cana. The varieties identified by botanists are the fol- lowing : — 1. Larix communis ; 2. L. laxa ; 3. L. com- pacta; 4^. L. pendula ; 5. L.flore-ruhra; Q.L.flore- alha; 7. L. Siherica; 8. L. dahurica, and 9. L. interme- dia. The two last are worthless. The 7th, or Siberian, or Eussian, introduced from Archangel, is altogether a coarser-growing tree than the 1st or 2d : it is of much slower growth, and becomes so early excited in spring as to render it liable to be injured by frost : gathering seeds from it should therefore be avoided. The 6th is the larch from the Tyrol, already noticed. The 5th is an excellent variety, abounding in the Dunkeld and Bahndalloch plantations, and elsewhere. The trees should be marked whUe in flower, to distinguish them THE LAKCH DISEASE. 23 at t^ie time of seed-gathering. The 4th is a native of the Tyrolese Alps, more curious than useful, known by the pendulous habit of its branches. The 3d is very similar in habit to the 1st, but its branches are very brittle, or easily broken from the trunk, which is a decided disadvantage. The 2d differs little from the 1st in habit, unless while young, when it can be easily distinguished from all the others, even while in the nursery-lines, by its more rapid growth, more horizon- tal and less crowded branches, and by the darker green or somewhat glaucous colour of the leaves. From this it appears that Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are the most proper from which to gather seed. As in the case of the Scots fir, of which there are several varieties botanically described, and sub-varieties almost without end, so there are no doubt varieties and sub-varieties of the larch; andthese are continually in- creasing in number, by that natural law which often creates varieties in the offspring, notwithstanding the seeds from which they have originated may have been produced in the same fruit or cone ; and also by the hybridising of one variety with another. Thus, from seed produced between No. 1, the common larch, L. communis, and Nos. 8 and 9, L. dahurica and L. in- termedia, both very inferior trees, may we not reason- ably expect a deterioration in the quality of the off- spring? And again, a cross between L. flore-rubra, our best red larch, and L. Siberica, or Archangel larch, growing in the same plantation, and also a very inferior tree, must be expected to produce a progeny of which 24 THE LAECH DISEASE. all shall not be equal in value to the former parent. Many will take after the latter and more worthless, and probably the majority may partake of the qualities of both in a greater or lesser degree. From all this it must clearly appear that we have a very mongrel breed of larch at present existing in many of our plantations : it therefore behoves us to use all possible precautions in choosing the trees from which our supplies of seed are to be taken. More attention has been paid to preserving the natural purity of the Scots fir than the larch, and hence we find the former comparatively exempt from disease, even when growing along with the latter. That a constitu- tional difference exists between the true Highland or red pine, Pinus horizontalis, and the low-country or white-wooded pine, P. vulgaris, is notorious ; and this difference is not the least affected by soil or situation ; for the latter, when planted in the Highland districts, and grown in the vicinity of ■v^oods composed of the red variety, and although it has attained a considerable size and age, is still in quality no better than when grown in the Lowlands, even when in apparently the same kind of soil, and in situations as elevated above the sea, and as far removed from it, as its Highland kinsman. It is therefore erroneous to attribute, as some do, the difference in quality of the timber of these two trees to the difference of soil and situation. The true red pine, which is, ia all probability, the aboriginal tree of Scotland, and once abounded in the Lowlands as well as the Highlands, but which, being there more THE LARCH DISEASE. 25 in the way of agricultural improvement, or perhaps of warlike operations, became almost exterminated, is found to thrive in the low country as well as in the Highlands, if allowed to remain till it comes to matu- rity. The low-country or white-wooded pine was in- troduced from Canada ; and it is well known that Canadian pine timber is very inferior to the pine of the Baltic, which is the produce of the P. horizontalis, our Highland pine, and, indeed, is inferior to the same tree grown in Britain, when of mature age. They are evi- dently very distinct varieties, but not, botanically speak- ing, distinct species. The odium would be removed from our pine plantations, were the Canadian or Low- land variety entirely exterminated from them. The larch, in its native habitats, so far as is known, has undergone no material deterioration, beyond the accidental circumstances natural to all trees. And hence it may be supposed that there would be no difiS- culty in procuring an entirely new stock, by importing seed from the native forests. This has long ago been done, and nevertheless the trees from such seeds are found to be as liable to disease as those of our Own growth, if not more so. It has already been observed, that, as they become earlier excited in spring than those of the red variety produced at home, they are more liable to suffer from spring frosts, particularly when planted on the southern slopes of hills. They are considered also to be of more rapid gi-owth, another circumstance which renders them more susceptible to the rot disease, as most authorities agree that fast- 26 THE LAECH DISEASE. growing trees are so, and there is no doubt of the cor- rectness of these conclusions. Besides the carelessness displayed in collecting seed from healthy and unhealthy trees indiscriminately, climate no doubt has its share in lessening the vigour of the larch, as it evidently has in the case of other coniferous trees. All plants demand a peculiar cli- mate — that is to say, a peculiar combination of tem- perature, moisture, light, and atmospheric pressure — in order to arrive at perfection ; and if these are not accorded them in the required proportions or degrees, nothing is more certain than that disease will ensue, and ultimately death. It is, therefore, for us to con- sider how far we place the larch in Britain upon an equal footing, as regards these conditions, with those it enjoys in its native place of growth. Let us see how it is with other trees of the same natural order, in respect to change of climate. The stone pine, Pinus pinea, is a large tree in the south of Europe, forming a trunk 30 to 40 feet in height clear of branches : but although introduced to Britain so long ago as 15 48, with us it only forms a large bush, rarely exceeding 30 feet to the top of its branches. The Weymouth pine, Pinus strobus, attains the height of 80 to 100 feet, and is considered the larg- est of all Canadian pines, while in Britain it is seldom found in a healthy state at the age of twenty years. The American larch, Larix Americana, introduced in 1 739, according to Michaux, attains the height of 80 to 100 feet in North America, from Newfoundland to THE LAECH DISEASE. 27 Virginia, whUe in Britain it can only be considered as a curious ornamental tree of small growth. The hem- lock spruce, Abies Canadiensis, introduced in 1736, attains on the highest mountains in Canada the height of from 60 to 90 feet, while in Britain it is in general little better than a large shrub. The balm of Gilead fir, Picea halsamea, attains the height of from 30 to 40 feet in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Alleghany Moun- tains ; and although introduced to Britain in 1696, seldom attains a tree size, often dying off when only a few feet in height. Each generation of these is becom- ing more unhealthy, and less likely to become valuable timber trees, than its predecessor, from the absence of one or aU of the conditions above stated, aggravated by rearing them from seeds taken from diseased parents. n. — PLANTING THE LAECH ON SOILS AND IN SITUATIONS UNSUITED TO ITS NATUEB. Next to the importance of procuring trees reared from seeds taken from healthy and vigorous parents, is the choice of soU and situation for the future planta- tions. These are matters which have hitherto been too little attended to, the larch being generally considered to be of so hardy a nature as to be capable of growing where no other timber tree, even the native fir of our own country, is expected to live. In the Arboretwn 28 THE LARCH DISEASE. Britannicum it is most erroneously stated that the larch will grow at an altitude of 1800 feet, while it limits the Scotch fir to 900 feet. Had this order been reversed, it would have been much nearer the truth. Not only does too great an altitude affect the larch, but excessive exposure to the fury of the wind is equally fatal to it. The opinions we quote on the nature of soils are no doubt important in a practical point of view. Even the nicer manipulations of chemical analysis, could such be effected, which is next to impossible, upon so extensive a field, and under such variety of circum- stances, might be of less value than a strict examina- tion into the mechanical conditions of the soils to be planted. Of one thing we are certain, that the larch will not prosper in soils constantly saturated with wet, or in those abounding in oxide of iron ; while such as are incumbent on the primitive geological formations are those upon which it is found to be most successfully grown. As regards situation, the largest and oldest specimens in Britain are to be found at or near the base of hUls, and in sheltered ravines, not on their summits ; in comparatively sheltered, and not in very exposed localities. Millions of larches have been planted at altitudes and in .exposures at which they never will attain a useful size. The best larch timber hitherto produced in Britain has been grown under 500 feet above the sea. At a greater altitude, no doubt, it arrives at a size fit for fencing, pit props, and many other inferior purposes ; but trees of large size cannot THE LARCH DISEASE. 29 be expected at a much greater height, unless in corries or glens protected from the fury of stormy winds. No doubt, as our modern forests extend in size, the larch may be found ta succeed at greater 'heights than at present, in consequence of the shelter they will naturally afford, and that shelter improving the climate of the locality. " The quality of the wood of the larch is much affected by the nature of the soil and situation upon which it is grown. I find that larch growing upon a rich loamy soil, and on a rather sheltered site, do not produce nearly such durable timber as trees grown on a more exposed site, and poorer soil. Our best and healthiest larch-wood is growing upon decayed rock, or what may be termed stone rubbish. As to soil the larch is not particular, but the roots must be in a soil through which the water has a clear passage, having a good descent for the water that may fall upon it, either naturally or by weU-made drains, as is particularly exemplified in the case of larches growing on all moun- tain-slopes, where there is a constant descent of water from the higher to the lower- grounds." — (Beown's Forester, p. 220.) " Seeing some remarks on the larch, where the opin- ions seem to incline to the belief that a wet subsoil is the cause of this tree rotting at the heart, I beg to state what I know of this tree in this quarter ■" (Stone- haven). " First, When planted on very dry and very sandy land, it begins to rot after fifteen or twenty years, and to the extent of one-half or more of the number. Second, When on the sides of steep hills, 30 THE LARCH DISEASE. although wet at some seasons, we rarely find any of them rotten — say one in one hundred. Third, "When growing in low situations, by the sides of rivulets, a rotten one is rare indeed ; but if there be any stagnant water, it kiUs them in the course of a very few years. Fourth, If we wish the trees to become timber, then we give them as much room as we would give to any hardwood tree : we allow the branches to luxuriate on every side, just as they please. Fifth, If they are wanted for poles, then we plant thickly, never taking out any but those that are killed by their neighbours overtopping'them."- — (DoOLTY, in Gard. Ghron., 1843, p. 573.) " My experience leads me to conclude that the rot disease is caused by a deficiency rather than by an excess of moisture at the roots : at least I know that the disease is prevalent in the dry sandy heaths tiU lately so common in Cheshire and the neighbouring counties ; and I am told it does not occur among the larches planted on the sides of slaty mountains, where moisture is very abundant." — (George Strickland, Idem, 1834, p. 542.) " The larch will grow rapidly upon almost any soU, and in any situation, for the first twenty or thirty years ; but it is only in a clear dry atmosphere, on a cold-bottomed soil, somewhat moist on the surface, that its timber is brought to perfection. In plains, and near the sea, it grows rapidly for thirty or thirty-five years ; but when felled in such situations, the wood is found ■rotten at the heart." — {Arboretum Britannicum.) THE LARCH DISEASE. 31 " The result, as far as I know, of all the information we have on the subject of the larch-rot is this, that all de- scriptions of soU, wet or dry, are liable to it. Is not this our own fault ? how do we grow it ? Generally speaking, the poorest land is planted with larch, and that thickly, and kept thick. Is this not over-cropping ? Have we any right to expect a maximum result of larch, or any other timber tree, from such a process? I conceive our mismanagement is the real reason of our failures. To grow sound larch to 40 cubic feet and upwards, let it have as good a situation as to soil as you can give it : plant thinly, mixed with non-resinous trees, and let it always have plenty of room." — (Hazel, in Gard. Chron., 1853, p. 84.) " The larch does not ask for a rich soil, — gravel, or even the purest sand, will' do perfectly well for its sup- port. All it demands is, a soil so far loose as to be easily penetrated by its roots. Nay, what is perhaps a little extraordinary, we know it is fully as well pleased to be deprived of the surface-soil altogether. Sir J. Montgomerie Cunningham has made very extensive larch -plantations on his property of Pemess, on the banks of the Findhorn, on land which had the turf sur- face removed for' the purpose of building hovels and turf-dykes. After this ground had been some time planted, he was surprised to find that the trees, which happened to be planted where the turf had been com- pletely removed, throve not only twice as well, but ten times as well, as those which had their lot fixed in the middle of the heath from where the turf had not 32 THE lAKCH DISEASE. been removed." — (Sir Thomas Dick Latjdee's edition of Gilpin, vol. i. p. 151.) " The larch appears to be impatient of drought ; hence I suppose, when planted over a subsoil of chalky or porous sandstone, it becomes diseased and heart- rotten, not from any pernicious quality in the soil, but simply from the want of a sufficient supply of mois- ture."— (P. P. P., in Gard. Chron., 1853, p. 84.) " In Switzerland the larch is found in the highest perfection in soil composed of the debris of calcareous rocks, as well as in granite, schistose, and argillaceous soils, attaining there an age of one hundred and fifty to two hundred years." — (Kasthoiter.) The larch is only a shallow-rooting tree on soils where its roots are prevented from descending in con- sequence of rock or hard moorland, but in such situa- tions its roots extend to a great distance horizontally, and under such conditions the trees grow slowly, rarely attaining a large size, and in consequence of slow growth arrive early at all the state of perfection the timber is capable of attaining ; and although they may be free from disease, and constituted for durability, their small size limits their use to very subordinate pur- poses. Even in pure drift-sa,i:id, and when of consider- able depth, and even close to the sea, the larch is found to prosper, as exemplified in the sands of Culbin, In Morayshire ; and even where the surface is ever chang- ing by the influence of the winds. And in the plant- ations along the Moray Pirth, particularly those of Mr Grant of Glenmoriston, elevated only from 1 2 to THE LARCH DISEASE. 33 30 feet above tidal mark, they are as yet in appa- rently a healthy state. But in aU those cases there is no stagnant water at their roots. Depth of mode- rately dry soil seems, therefore, essential to them, as much as shallow over-dry or shallow over-wet soil is injurious to them. " Having planted many thousand larches upon the estate of Closeburn, Dumfriesshire, upon sandy soil, with a subsoil of gravel or red sandstone, and also upon slaty rock, I have found a large proportion of the larches upon the sandy soil begin to decay at the roots in the course of ten or twelve years ; and at the age of thirty or forty the decay is found to extend three or four feet up the stem of the tree. The larch planted on the sides of hills, composed of greywackfe or slaty rock, I have always found to succeed best, and not at all liable to the disease which affects them when grow- ing upon a sandy soil, which I consider too dry for the healthy state of the tree. The opinion I entertained, that a sandy soil was not congenial to the larch, was completely confirmed by observations which I made during a tour through Switzerland. In the valleys in that country not a larch tree is to be seen, the spruce being the prevailing tree on limestone and sandstone, which are the common subsoils in the lower parts of that country ; and it was not until I came to the slaty mountains that I observed the larch tree growing upon the sides of the hills. The larch is not found to thrive well when grown upon limestone or chalky soils. " In a plantation near Ferrybridge, in Yorkshire c 34 THE LARCH DISEASE. upon a magnesian subsoil, I found the larch tree liable to a similar disease in the heart-wood, rrom my own experience, I should say that larch trees, when grown upon sandy soUs, should be cut down by the time they have arrived at forty years, ' less than half the age required to attain perfection ;' and although the larch is found not to arrive at a great age in a healthy state, yet I consider it a profitable tree to plant on sandy soils, as it becomes useful, when twelve or fourteen years old, for fencing purposes ; and if allowed to stand tOl it is forty years old, it becomes useful for roofing and fiooring farmhouses." — {The late Sir Chaeles Mentbath, in Gard. Chron., 1843, p. 573.) The failure of the larch on the Closeburn property, particularly on the red-sandstone-formation parts of it, we are well aware of. This corroborates the opinion of Sir W. Jardine (vide p. 35), and seems to be the case not only throughout Annandale, as he has stated, but also through the greater part of Nithsdale, in which Closeburn is situated. It is now twenty years since we told the Duke of Buccleuch that the larches on his extensive estates in Nithsdale would turn out a failure, and that prediction has long ago been con- firmed. Perhaps no proprietor in the Lowlands has planted anything Uke the number of larches His Grace has done ; and it is now matter of fact, that he is cut- ting down the larch over the greater part of that exten- sive property, and replanting the ground with other trees as substitutes. The red-sandstone formation fol- lows the course of the Nith along its whole-length. THE LARCH DISEASE. 35 and along that tract of country the larch does not thrive. In a lateral direction to the south and west, this formation ceases about Penpont ; beyond which, the larch, unless where it has been planted in very ex- posed places, as the braes of Maxwelltown, in undrained lands abounding in oxide of iron, or otherwise ne- glected, thrives in general well, so far as soil is con- cerned. The slaty lands of Closebum are consider- ably elevated, and out of the range of the cold damp fogs to which the lower part of the valley is exposed, and they have, besides, the advantage of partial irri- gation, from the drainage of the higher grounds above them. " Worn-out garden-ground, or soil rich in humus, is especially unsuitable for larch, and all organic manurial applications next to certain death to it. On the other hand, lime in moderate quantities is, if not beneficial, not prejudicial to it." — (Anon.) " The larch is soon lost when planted upon soil hav- ing a substratum of red sandstone under it. In the Vale of Annan, wherever the sloping banks have a sub- stratum of this rock, or one composed of a sort of red sandstone, shingle, or gravel, the outward decay of the tree is visible at from fifteen to twenty-five years of age. The internal disease commences sooner, accord- ing to the depth of the upper soU, in the centre of the trunk, at the root, in the wood being of a darker colour, extending up the stem, untU. the lower part of it becomes entirely deprived of vegetation, and assumes a tough and corky appearance. This extends to the 36 THE LARCH DISEASE. whole plant, which gradually decays and dies. On the same soU the oak grows and thrives welL" — (Sir W. Jaebinb, in Notes to White's Natwral History of Selborne.) " I am satisfied that the decay generally begins at the roots, which strike downwards, wherever they are killed by meeting with a subsoil, either full of water, or which (like pure chalk) does not agree with them. I have traced the decay from the root to the stem both in larch and spruce trees. At the same time, I believe that the overcrowding of the trees in a plantation, whereby the side - branches are killed, very much increases the evil, inasmuch as the wood does not become properly matured : less heart-wood is made than ought to be, and it is consequently less able to resist decay." — (C. W. Steickland, iq Gard. Chron., 1853, p. 54.) " It unfortuna,tely happens for the soU doctrine, that in every plantation of fifty to seventy years' standing,'' (this was written in 1833), " the great proportion of the trees are not pumped ; and when one was pumped, another within four feet of it, on being felled, is found quite sound. What difference could here exist in the soU, when the roots of the one must have been inter- woven with those of the other ? I am far from doubt- ing that soU not congenial to the larch may constitute one of the destructive causes, when circumstances may have connected it with others ; but that it is the sole, or even the chief cause, does not appear ; for either on a bad soil they must be all pumped, or on a good soil THE LARCH DISEASE. 37 they must be all sound, which is not the case." — (MuNEO, in Gard. Mag., 1833, p. 555.) It is not an improbable supposition that in soils and situations most favourable to the growth of the larch, where healthy and unhealthy trees occur, which we find so often to be the case, the former may be from seeds taken from healthy trees, and the latter from those more or less diseased, and the proportion in either case may be governed by the number of each being greater or less in the stock from which the seed has been taken. It is rare, if ever, a plantation is found, be the soil and situation ever so favourable, where no diseased larch exists ; and it is equally rare to find a plantation, even where the soil is indifferent, where 710 healthy trees are to be found. Hence we must look to some cause, in addition to that of soU or situation, for the presence of disease ; and it appears to us that the evil in such cases may be traced to the seed being taken from unhealthy trees, or to its being injured during the process of extracting it from the cones. In plantations where all are diseased, the case is dif- ferent, and the effect may in all probability, if properly investigated, be traced to some one or more of the other causes referred to in these pages. " Certain soils and situations are requisite for the full development of the larch ; yet they excel most others in their adaptation to circumstances, and some- ■ times succeed well in very opposite soils and situations. The larch seems to prefer alluvial earths, or deep, rich, gravelly lands ; yet it will grow in almost every de- 38 THE LARCH DISEASE. scription of poor soil, and may sometimes be seen luxuriant on a shallow moor, or even on the nearly naked rock. In some districts, however, comparatively young trees of it, and even whole plantations, acquire a premature old age, or canker, and perish ; and on undrained, retentive clays, adhesive loam and springy gravel in particular." — (A. Patterson, in Oard. Ghron. 1853, p. 68.) Not only are very dry soUs, but even very dry summers, conducive to the decay of the heart. Trees planted by the late Mr Gorrie in 1805 had their an- nular layers from that time up to 1807 — that is, three years — amounting to four decimal parts of an inch. The deposit in 1808 was 0.15, in 1809, 0.20, and in the three following seasons, about 0.3 of an inch each year. Por 1813, the annular deposit mea- sures only 0.15 of an inch ; this was a dry season. Up to this period, all the central layers are sound ; but the disease in an inveterate state begins to en- croach inwards from the four following annular layers, which are all around quite rotten. In 1820, the wood was of a diseased colour, but firm : in 1823, the annular layer, like all those in healthy larch trees of that year, was larger than the rest : from 1826 the annular layers became very narrow, leading me to infer that in that very dry season the disease had commenced. In examining the roots, I found several decayed into a soft spongy substance, within from four to ten inches of the surface ; the other roots were apparently healthy. The tap-root (for each had a sort THE LARCH DISEASE. 39 of descending root from below tlie centre) was sound ; but on cutting it across, the heart appeared of a livid unwholesome - looking red, indicating approaching decay. Mr Gorrie's experience in reference to the period at which the larch arrives at maturity led him to the conclusion that this was much influenced by the soil upon which it is grown ; and he states, that where the soil was a strong deep black loam, approaching to clay, trees measuring from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter near the ground were approximating to early maturity, the red wood appearing in many of them of a dark colour, and extending to within one or two inches of the outside, apparently, he remarks, having nearly arrived at that period when the heart- wood, not receiving new matter, might be said " to live no longer," yet it was such as is denominated sound wood by joiners. These trees were thirty years old. They were consequently ripe at that age, and to have kept them longer would have been a certain loss. This age may be taken as the minimum period when the larch attains maturity, but, of course, not its full magnitude of size. Pontey, so early as 1809, remarks, " There is much need of clear ideas of the nature of the soil upon which the larch will ultimately succeed ; for, as hitherto, it has been planted indiscriminately on most soils, and failed generally on some, and partially on others ; there is, therefore, some danger of its cultivation being discouraged. Why this plant should faU on 40 THE LAKCH DISEASE. lands deep, rich, and good, -where it had previously- grown well, while it has continued to flourish on soils every way inferior, seems extremely difficult to account for : the fact, however, is obvious ; and therefore we may safely pronounce it an unsafe speculation to plant the tree on stiff, humid, or deep rich soils, except they be of a calcareous nature. " Black moorish or heath soil, in some parts of York- shire, is certainly unfavourable to the tree, although the surface-soil differs in depth as much as from five to fifteen inches. The subsoil is generally such as the plant will thrive in, and is in some places of con- siderable depth, and hence it is in that that the trees usually grow well from the first ; while such as are planted on the surface-soil only, never make much progress tUl the roots have penetrated through it. It should be observed, that although the subsoil is all of the same colour (a reddish sort of sand), and full of loose stones, it differs greatly in quality ; where the stones are few, the larch succeeds best ; where they are more abundant, there the plants thrive so much the worse." — {Profitable Planter, p. 117-) " Dry-rot will not attack timber produced in the natural forest, for there nature has planted the trees in the soils best suited to their constitutions, and such as will keep them in health. Soils that have long been under tillage will not in one instance out of ten produce sound and durable timber." — (Mr Hart, in Highland Soc. Trans., vol. iv. New Series, p. 398.) This opinion, so far as regards planting larch- on THE LABCH DISEASE. 41 ground that had been under tillage, coincides with that expressed to us last year by a gentleman in Dumfriesshire — one who pays great attention to his plantations, which are very extensive, and consist of a great variety of soils and exposures. If proprietors, instead of being led away by the plausible representa- tions of ignorant or interested parties, would make a good use of their own eyes and see what trees succeed and what do not upon their estates, or those in the vicinity similarly circumstanced, we would hear and see much less of failures in our plantations. Not that we would discourage the trial of other trees than those that are found to prosper ; experiments must be tried in this as in all other forms of cultivation. But there is a wide difference between making a limited experiment and jumping to a conclusion upon a large one. It is the height of folly to replant land over and over again with the same sort of tree that has failed to succeed, be that tree what it may. The trees them- selves are the best judges of the soU and situation most conducive to their welfare ; and hence we find localities where the larch prospers to a satisfactory extent, and others where it either refuses to grow, or drags out an existence for twenty or thirty years, and then totally fails. We were lately called upon to examine the state of a property in Perthshire, and found that the proprietor had ordered a large stock of larch and spruce firs from a neighbouring nursery, with the view of planting them this season. Now it happened that upon the 42 THE LARCH DISEASE. whole of that property there was not a healthy larch or spruce growing. In so bad a state were they that we had no hesitation in recommending the whole to be grubbed up, — a suggestion the proprietor at once agreed to, when their state was pointed out to him. But what was to be done with the larch and spruce ordered, became a question, to which we had no hesi- tation in replying— advise the nurseryman, who is a highly respectable man, that you have been recom- mended to plant Scots and silver firs and hardwood, as they are the trees best suited to the place, and he will as cheerfully supply you with them as he would with the others. This has been done, and we have no doubt to the satisfaction of the nurseryman, and the evident advantage of the proprietor. " The larch flourishes in soils of very opposite qualities, from the dry and sandy to that which is wet and clayey ; but in the presence of springs, or a mois- ture in the soil, it is absolutely necessary that the water" (stagnant T) " have a free exit. Although frequently fine specimens are to be met with on flats of sandy loam or clayey gravel, and on various other qualities of soil, yet it is on the declivities, along the slopes of ravines, on the shattered debris, and the disturbed soil of the land-slip or avalanche, that the tree is found to luxuriate in the greatest vigour. In stagnant moisture accumulated by a mossy or clayey surface, or on a substratum of till or ferruginous gravel, it becomes stunted and full of disease. But a ready discharge of moisture in the soil must also be accom- THE LAEGH DISEASE. 43 panied ■with a free circulation of the atmosphere. It affects a cool and elevated situation with a cloudless sky ; therefore, in all low and sheltered situations, the tree should have sufficient space for the full develop- ment of its foilage. In our experience, the larch is inferior to the native pine for producing timber at a great altitude. The failure of larch, however, in many such situations, not unfrequently arises from the sur-, face-soil at great altitudes being composed of too pure a peat soil, which is less adapted to the larch than for the native tree." — (Mr Grigor, in Morton's Cyclo- pedia.) " The larch has been planted too indiscriminately, upon all kinds of soil, without having due respect to the nature of the tree ; for the larch, as well as every other tree, is influenced by a natural law, which restricts it to particular states of soil, in order to develop itself fully and perfectly ; and from neglect of this the disease now so prevalent has originated. Wherever the larch is found thriving well, it must be growing in a soil and circumstances agreeable to its constitution ; and wherever it is not thriving, these must be unfavourable to it. Therefore, in our further inquiries as to the cause of the rot in the larch, we must first ascertain the nature of the circumstances which affect the tree in both cases." — (Brown's Forester, p. 408.) Mr Sang, so early as 1812, describes the rot as existing in the larches planted on the rich and warm banks in the park at Raith. These trees had increased 44 THE LAECH DISEASE; to a large ske in a short period ; but out of nearly a thousand instances there was scarcely one in which the hearts were not beginning to rot ; while larches of the same age, which had been planted on the same estate, in apparently less favourable soils and climates, and had not grown so rapidly, were as sound and firm in the heart as could be desired. And on low sheltered land, on two adjoining properties, a large proportion of the trees exhibited the same symptoms of disease. That venerable authority observes, " Those cases would appear to say, that the soU and climate for producing larch timber to the greatest perfection is not that in which the plants make the most rapid progress. It further appears that a certain elevation of situation and inferiority of soil are necessary for producing this timber in perfection. Trees that make very rapid progress in growth are necessarily soft in texture, from the dilatation of their pores, and the superabundance of juices carried into them ; hence the fibre of the wood becomes very liable to corrup- tion." — {Planters' Calendar, p. 59.) It will not even in the best soils, and apparently the most favourable situations, grow up to perfection ; and in such, in many cases, after making rapid progress for thirty years, and showing no external symptom of disease, will be found, when felled, to be rotten at the heart, even over a large tract of country. Neither the fertile plains of England nor most of the lowlands of Scotland are adapted to the full development of the larch, as the elements most condu- THE LAKCH DISEASE, 45 cive to its prosperity are awanting — namely, a some- what elevated situation, a primitive soU, a subsoil admitting of a free discharge of stagnant water, and a clear and bracing atmosphere. It appears to be the opinion of some that there is no such disease in the Tyrolese forests. M. de Can- doUe states, in reply to queries put to him by the editor of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, "that although he had formerly traversed large forests com- posed of larches, and in very different situations, yet " he "had never observed the diseases which attack those trees in this country. Moreover," he says, " we can even name the larch as the tree which is less liable to disease than any other." From all his observations, he is inclined to think that the cause of the disease in our larches must be sought for in some difference existing in the physical nature or in the culture of our trees. He does not think that the soil should have a very marked influence, for the larch is not particular about the soil it grows in, and seems only to fear extremes. Marshy grounds, he observes, are the only ones it essentially dreads. It may grow in a soU composed of stones and gravel, but it does not flourish in too strong a soU, and amongst too hard pebbles. Light and sandy soils do not suit it in the climate of Switzer- land, which is subject to long droughts during summer ; but if the sand is moderately damp, the larch grows weU in it. The magnificent plantations of larches at Moritzbourg, near Dresden, he gives in proof of this ; where the soil is almost pure sand, and not marshy, but 46 THE LAECH DISEASE. moderately moistened by the filtrations from large ponds in the neighbourhood. It does not, he remarks, grow well on soils where pine flourishes, because the latter like hard and dry soils, which the larch does not. The elevation above the sea, he continues, may have more influence on the phenomena than the soil, but only in an indirect manner ; and he is inclined to think that larches can grow at a lower height in the climate of Switzerland, where the air is pure and the atmosphere less damp, than in Britain. " Amongst aU the general circumstances which have an effect on vegetation, that which appears " to M. de CandoUe " most necessary for the larch is, that it has at the same time its roots in a soil habitually but moderately damp, and its top exposed to the direct rays of the sun, so that the evaporation pf water and the decomposition of carbonic acid may go on with activity. These trees generally thrive on the declivities of our (Swiss) moun- tains, seldom on flat places ; because on declivities there is always a little dampness in the earth coming from the summit, and, at the same time, the trees, on account of the inequality of their bases, have more space at their tops, and are better exposed to the light ; whereas flat places are often too dry, and the trees, being all of the same height, overshadow each other. Amongst declivities, those which are connected with summits covered with perpetual snow are those where larches grow best ; because there they grow slowly, and are continually watered, and, at the same time, their tops are well exposed to the sun. Declivities THE LAECH DISEASE. 47 and, in general, elevated countries, suit larch best, because the action of the light is more intense than in the low countries. Yet the larch succeeds well enough only a little elevated above the level of the sea, provided the atmosphere be not obscured by fogs and constant cloudiness. " If the larch seems to like to have its roots in a soil moderately damp, it likes also to avoid the dampness of the atmosphere. On that account it grows ill near lakes, rivers, and under the shade of rocks, even in countries where it grows best. The constant dryness of the air of the Alps is one of the causes which make it prosper there. The dampness of the air tends to diminish the evaporation of the leaves, so necessary to that tree. The want of sufficiently intense light, owing to the obliquity of the solar rays, and to the opacity of the atmosphere, and the ever-damp state of the latter, all appear" to M. de Candolle " permanent causes which, in Britain, must predispose the larches to a state of watery ple- thora, which is probably the cause of the destruction remarked in the heart of the wood." M. de CandoUe has no doubt that the elevated parts of Britain are more suitable than the lower, provided the ground be neither too dry nor too hard, and, of course, not marshy. Also, that our declivities would do better than summits, and particularly if the tops of the mountains are covered with turf and marshes, the 'declivities below which would be the best. In Swit- zerland, it is observed that the larch grows better in those parts exposed to the north than to the south. 48 THE LAKCH DISEASE. The difference is sometimes so striking, that in the valleys parallel to the equator it is not rare to see all the side to the north covered with larches, and none at all on the south. He is inclined to believe that this arises from the irregularity of the spring, which causes the buds of the larches to be too precocious in the southern declivities, and consequently they are fre- quently frozen. The great majority of the woods on the Dormont property in Dumfriesshire are growing on soils, practi- cally speaking, rather dry than moist, and having, for the most part, a considerable fall from the higher to the lower groimds. The soU, of course,, extending over so large a surface, is variable, consisting of peat on a clay bottom, moderately rich light alluvial deposit, gravelly and sandy soUs, and light soU on a pervious substratum ; yet in all of these the larch is so com- pletely a failure, from fifty years down to twelve or fifteen, that the proprietor, who takes a great interest in his woods, and understands their management better than most men in his station, has come to the resolu- tion of removing the whole, and is at present replant- ing the ground with other trees. So deceptive are the larches on this property, that many of those having all the appearance of health, when cut down, are found quite decayed at the heart, while some that have all the external appearance of being diseased are found com- paratively sound. All other trees, with the exception of the spruce, are in a most prosperous state, particu- larly oaks. These woods, we should state, have been THE LAEOH DISEASE. 49 properly thinned and protected. ^ One plantation, on the banks of the Annan, is on a limestone base ; the red - sandstone formation is, however, found in the neighbourhood. The larch at Eachan House, Peeblesshire, are growing along with Scotch firs on poor moorish land, on a sub- stratum of coarse gravel, by no means wet — rather dry — yet they are in excellent condition ; . but they are trees of from eighty to ninety years' growth. They have not grown- fast, and their timber is, in conse- quence, excellent in quality. The young larches on the hill-sides, upon a calcareous base, are thriving exceed- ingly as yet, but they have not been planted a dozen of years. The larches on the Dunbamie property, Perthshire, the soil being a rich argillaceous or originally alluvial one, are in the last stage of decay. They are at pre- sent, at our suggestion, being removed ; not a tree of those we saw grubbed up had a healthy root Those which descended deepest were in a saponaceous state, and the trees retained their position merely in conse- quence of surface roots, which were barely covered. All other trees, with the exception of the spruce, are in a thriving condition, particularly oaks and sUver firs. The climate is genial, being in the fertile vale of lower Strathearn, and within seventy feet of the tidal level of the Tay. On the property of Naughton, Fifeshire, within one mile of the Pirth of Tay, the whole of the larch was in such a diseased state, that two years ago we sold the D 50 THE LARCH DISEASE. greater part of them. They were from forty to twenty years' growth. The soil is various, chiefly resting on trap-rock, in no case surcharged with water, and in moderate elevations. Mr James Ewin, a most respect- able and extensive tiinber-merchant, who purchased the whole of the last year's sale, informs us that a very considerable proportion of the trees were so rotten at the heart as to be even unfit for coal-pit props, and that he .disposed of them for fuel and temporary fencing purposes. There is a property in Dumfriesshire upon which we sold last year upwards of £2000 worth of larch, vary- ing in age from twenty-five to fifty years, excepting about 250 very fine trees, seventy to eighty years planted, 'The majority of the former were going fast, and many had become decayed at the centre, while the 250 old ones were in as excellent a state as could be wished. Fifty of these wei;e growing on a steep dry bank, apparently formed when the turnpike road was made, many years ago. The majority of the remaining two hundred were growing on deep, rather strong soil (on the opposite side of the road), rich on the surface in vegetable matter, and in many places so surcharged with water, the original drains having long been al- lowed to become choked up, that a man would have sunk to the knees ; yet in these, again, the quality of the timber was excellent. On the same property there had been 1000 larch, from ninety to an hundred years' growth, sold four years ago, not one of which was in the least decayed, and the roots seem still to THE LAKCH DiSBASE. 51 be as fresh as if they were attached to the trunks- These last grew upon a very dry bank with a consider- able fall, but no doubt derived considerable advantage during spring from the drainings of the higher ground behind them. Both soU and situation, on most parts of this property, seem eminently calculated for the growth of larch timber, as some of the largest speci- mens produced in Scotland have formerly been grown upon it, and its larch, which has arrived at the above ages, will bear comparison with any in Britain. Not- withstanding this, the trees from ten years up to fifty are very generally iu as diseased a state as almost any in the country. The extreme altitude at which the larch has, m many instances, been planted in Britain, accounts for its stunted and diseased condition in many places, and the want of shelter from rocks or higher grounds has a like fatal effect upon it. The fine larches in the forests of Moritzbourg and of Tharanz, near Dresden, are only 238 feet above the level of the sea. The fine old spe- cimens at Dunkeld stand in a sheltered place only forty feet above the river Tay, and 130 feet above the level of the sea. The largest Monzie and Craig- darroch larches are much about the same altitude, and are also well sheltered by surrounding high grounds. The sown larch forests in the Vosges, and the natural ones in Dauphiny, are at very trifling altitudes above the sea ; but there the air is pure and the atmosphere less damp than in Britain, where, to avoid dampness and hoar-frosts, a greater altitude should no doubt be 52 THE LARCH DISEASE. accorded them. There are, however, limits to this, as any one conversant in the matter may see in hills planted from bottom to top. For although the ground be. planted during the same year, the trees decrease in size as they rise in elevation, large trees occurring at the base, while mere scrubs occupy the summits. Nor is the larch the tree that ascends the highest on the Alps, the Scotch fir occupying much higher eleva- tions than any other tree. The fine specimens of larch planted at Ballindalloch Castle in Strathspey, in 1767, stand about thirty feet above the river, and about 400 feet above the sea-level. The gigantic larches at Monymusk are only 340 feet above the sea, and fifteen miles distant from it. The large larch at Kirkconnel is within half a mile of the estuary of the Nith firth, and not twenty feet above the tidal level The large larches at Brahan Castle, Tillifour, "Westhall, Altyre, Logic, and Darnaway, are probably within 300 feet of the sea-level, and those at Gordon Castle considerably less. Most of these trees exceed a century in age, and from such as these we would say healthy seeds would be procured. In attempting to grow the larch at very high alti- tudes, and in exposed places, such as the summits of hills unprotected by rocks, or still higher grounds, they must be kept in large masses, so as to shelter each other. Small plantations and narrow belts, under such circumstances, need not be attempted with any reason- able expectation of remuneration. Admitting even THE LAECH DISEASE. 53 that the trees were to attain, at 1800 feet elevation, a large and useful size, Hby what means are they to be removed, where no road exists, and where the expense of making a road a mile or two in length would almost exceed the value of the trees themselves ? We once found it expedient to make a present of the thinnings of a large larch planta;tion, under similar circumstances, to a once celebrated wire-fencing firm, upon condition that they would cut and remove the trees. The cutting went on well enough, but when the removal commenced — which was done by dragging them with horses over a very rough and broken moor, down, to the nearest thing in shape of a road, about a mile distant — it was found that the expense of this part of the operation was in itself more than the trees were worth, besides having to cart them twelve miles to a railway station. Hundreds of the trees were con- sequently left in the wood to rot. If this was the case with small fencing-wood, what would it have been had the trees arrived at " a large and useful size " — say a load each (forty cubic feet) ? Planting such lands may be all very well for ornament or shelter — that is to say, if a hill-top planted with spiry-topped larches is more ornamental than the hill was in its natural state — ^but, as a profitable specula- tion, it is absurd. We have met with only one writer on arboriculture ' who recommends planting the larch, with an assurance that it will attain " a large and valuable size," at up- 54 THE LARCH DISEASE. wards of 1700 feet ; but how such " large and valu- able " trees are to be transported, he leaves to succeed- ing generations to discover. Sir UvedaJe Price repiarks, that where plantations consist entirely of larches, from the multitude of their sharp points, the whole coimtry appears en Mri'sson, and has much the same degree of resemblance to natural scenery as one of the old military plans, with scattered platoons of spearmen, has to a print after Claude or Poussin. in. — WANT OF SUFFICIENT DEAINAGE IN WATER- LOGGED LAND. Professor Lindley, whose opinions every one iater- ested in matters of this kind must hold in respect, seems some years ago to have come to the conclusion that too much water at the roots is the cause of this disease. Other highly respectable observers have, however, come to a somewhat different conclusion, in so far as they admit of the advantage of a sort of subterranean irrigation at certain seasons ; yet all very properly object to a constant state of stagnant saturation at the roots. The Professor's views are these I " We know that the disease was most common in low stiff clay lands, where larch grows for a few years with great luxuriance ; that it is also frequent in THE LAECBT DISEASE. 55 mossy springy places, even on hill -sides, if means are not taken to carry the water continually away ; and that on hills it is chiefly near the bottom, where water collects, that the trees suffer most. As to dry sandy heaths often producing the disease, that is by no means irreconcilable with the view we have expressed, because such places may be a mere layer of sand spread over a hard pan keeping down water, but through which the roots of trees can penetrate ; or those places may be basins fiUed with water at the time when the trees are making their growth, although they become dry after- wards. " Is it not probable, in the case of the larch, that the wood receives from heavy, damp, or spongy land more water than the leaves can carry off; that this water then collects among the tissue, and brings on decay, and that the decay is immediately succeeded by crops of fungus spawn, which spreads rapidly round the centre, where it first appears, as fungus spawn always does? To us this seems a satisfactpry solu- tion of the problem. If this be so, the remedy for the larch rot is thorough-drainage. To remove super- fluous moisture is to do away with the cause which first induces decay and prepares the wood for the inroads of fungi ; and it is this proceeding that we must recommend to all who are suffering from what seems to be becoming a rural calamity." — {Gardeners' Chronicle, 1851, p. 387.) The same authority, at p. 435, further remarks : " It is admitted that in wet situations the rot is most prevalent, and that larch, 56 THE LARCH DISEASE. when planted there, has no chance of escape from the disease. Cases have been mentioned where this malady has appeared elsewhere than in the roots, and where trees have been growing on dry hill-sides. A storm which loosens and breaks the roots, a hailstorm when the shoots are pushing, imprudent thinning, have been pointed out as other causes, and, we believe, with per- fect justice. Whatever shall produce decay in the tissues wUl favour the appearance of dry-rot fungi : dry-rot fungi rapidly increase a mischief which might be unimportant in their absence. Wet situations invariably bring on incipient decay, and more espe- cially favour the progress of dry-rot fungi ; therefore, wet situations are necessarily among the principal causes of the dry-rot in larch. Of course, we do not deny that disease, to be followed by the rot, may appear in situations apparently most favourable to the growth of the larch. Disease occasionally attacks living things under aU circumstances. Cholera prevails in low damp places near putrefying matter, and there it is said to be most malignant ; but we know that it also appears in high dry places, amidst an atmosphere not impure. The first is the rule, the last the exception. So it is with the larch : the rot attacks it invariably in ill- drained places ; there the malady is inevitable. Eot also attacks it in weU-drained places, and there the malady is accidental" Admitting, as we do, the absolute necessity of pre- venting stagnant water at the roots, which is certain destruction to all trees not absolute ac[uatics, we must THE LABCH DISEASE. W take care, at th,e same time, to guard against an oppo- site extreme. The sensible remarks of " Doolty " {vide p. 29), and of other authorities we have quoted, coupled with our own experience, confirm us in the opinion, that not only is too dry and too hard a soil injurious to the larch, but even land through which water does not percolate, particularly during that period in spring when the young wood is making its growth, is less favourable to the healthy existence of the larch than soils where this subterranean watering takes place. The conditions of the soil we take to be most favour- able are a naturally moderately dry, friable, lightish loam, upon a gentle incline, and where water from the melting snow, or the discharge of winter -existing springs, or surface drainage from the higher grounds above, passes freely through it, supplying the roots with nutriment at the very time they require it most, namely, when they begin to become excited, and dur- ing the short period the young wood is making. In such cases, it should be kept in view that these sup- plies of water gradually cease after the snow has melted, and the evaporation has dried up the winter springs and surface drainage, and, consequently, about the time the young wood is nearly formed and begin- ning to solidify. The elaboration of the sap goes slowly on, and during the period of the ripening of the wood, the soil at the roots has become compara- tively dry, hastening the ripening of the wood, and preparing it to withstand the severity of winter. We have chosen a sloping smface for our illustration, be- 58 THE LARCH DISEASE. cause it is the best of all positions for the larch to be placed in ; but even on level surfaces, and on soils not retentive of water in excess, the same operation goes on, if ia a less degree, the greater ■warmth of the situ- ation abstracting the extra humidity by evaporation. This is one of the causes why our finest larches are found on the sloping sides and near the base of hills. " I have been led to form an opinion that the dis- ease is caused by the want of moisture. Any one who has observed the larch in its native habitats, on the flanks of a Swiss mountain, might recollect that such situations commonly abound in moisture, and are as different as possible from the dry sandy commons on which it is so commonly planted ia England." — (B. B. B.) The late Mr Archibald Grorrie, than whom there was no more accurate observer in arboricultural matters, has left us the results of the following very interesting experiment made on larch trees of from twenty-two to twenty-eight years' standing: — "The soil being a strong black loam about fourteen inches deep, on a bottom of rotten whinstone or greenstone, observed that the annular growth of the first four years after planting was 0.11 of an inch each ; the year follow- ing they increased to 0.26 ; the following being a wet, cold, and late season, the increase was only 0.3 ; the next, 0.4 ; the next year, during which sixteen inches of rain fell at Annat, the annular layers of wood mea- sured 0.5, or half an inch. The fall of rain is here noticed, because it is well known that a scanty or a THE LAKCH DISEASE. 59 Kberal supply of moistwre during the growing season is invariably followed, in healthy-growing larches, by a deposit corresponding in width. The average fall of rain during the vegetating season of the three follow- ing years was thirteen inches each year, and the ave- rage annual deposit of wood for each of these years is 0.22 of an inch. In the year 1823, which was the following one, the rainfall during the summer months was twenty -one inches, with a very low tempera- ture. The increase of wood me3,sured half an inch. In the year 1824-25, the rain for the same period was thirteen inches in each year, and in each of these years the increase of wood measured 0.3 of an inch. In 1826 the rainfall during the summer months was only seven inches, and the same amount during those of winter. The annular layer' of wood for this year only measured 0.2 of an inch. " During the vegetating season of the four following years the fall of rain averaged 18^ inches annually ; and the annual deposit for each of the years averaged 0.37 of an inch: Hitherto all seems to have gone on well, and up to 1830 the trees seem to have been in a healthy state ; but although the rains were moderate in 1831-32-33, the annual deposit of each of these years measures only 0.14 of an inch, giving reason to suppose that the tree had become affected by the disease in 1830. The rot appears to have commenced on the south and east sides of the tree, and to have spread irregularly in that direction be- tween the annular layers of 1832-33. All the layers 60 THE LAECH DISEASE. were found sound up to 1823. The trees stood from twenty to thirty feet apart, and were not pruned, but allowed to t3,ke their natural shape." Mr Gorrie's remarks show that a liberal supply of moisture during the gromng season is invariably followed, in healthy young larch, by a corresponding increase in the width of the annular rings, or layers of wood. The successful cultivation of the Arau- caria imbricata in the Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, is attributed to the ample supply of water given them both by the late and the present Messrs M'Nab, during the growing season, the natural soil being a light porous sand, so that no saturation at their roots can take place. " Of course, all land to be planted ought to be well drained, but I am not aware that this is more neces- sary for larch than for other timber trees. I have cut down unsound larch on land which I knew was dry ; I have had sound larch grovsdng on land that would hardly bear my weight ; and I have seen unsound larch on like land." — (J. H., in Oard. Chron., 1851, p. 405.) The land on which the unsound larch grew, al- though dry on the surface, may have had a wet sub- soil ; that on which the sound larch grew could certainly not have been always in such a state. We have seen large larch standing on such wet soil, but they had made their growth while the land had been in a much drier state, and had merely continued to exist for some years after the drains had been allowed THE LARCH DISEASE. 61 to become choked up from neglect. The trees had ceased to increase much in size, and will no doubt sooner or later die of saturation. Admitting damp to be the cause of the decay in the roots, which after- wards ascends into the trunk, some years are required before the effects are discovered in the tree. " Few things, however, are more prejudicial than soil con- stantly saturated with water ; partly in consequence of an over-supply of moisture, partly from its im- mediate action on the tender tissues of the roots, and partly from decomposition, due to its constant pre- sence existing in such a degree that the water is imbibed in a state unfit for healthy growth, but more ' than all to the low state of temperature which is Uept up at the very point where the exigencies of a certain degree of heat are greatest. This alone is the cause of many a disease, and, in combination with other inequalities, perhaps the most fruitful source of evil." — (J. M. Berkeley, in Morton's Cyclopedia) " Certain soUs and situations" are requisite for the full development of the larch, as well as for all other trees, " yet they excel most other trees in their adaptation to circumstances, and sometimes succeed well in very opposite soils and situations. The larch seems to prefer a poor soil and a moderately dry bottom ; but opposed , to this we have the case of the large larches at Monzie, next to those at Dunkeld by far the largest and oldest in Britain, growing in a rich soil in front of the garden, on the margin of a stagnant fish-pond, and within a few feet of its water : 62 THE LAECH DISEASE. the tips of the branches and the roots, when I last saw them, only a few years ago, were bathing freely in the water." — (C.) In both cases the subsoil is a pervious gravel mixed with pretty large, apparently water-worn stones, so that no stagnation could take place, at least as regards those at Dunkeld ; and it is probable that the banks of the pond at Monzie are puddled to keep in the water, so that those roots only have constant access to it which have penetrated the puddle, and this of course on one side only. " The dry-rot is commonly caused by too much water about the roots in winter. Every tree growing nathraUy in a suitable soil and climate, secrets certain pecuHar gums and resins of an antiseptic character, which glue together the fibres of which the annular layers are chiefly composed — hardening in time, and amalgamating with them. These secretions are suffi- cient to preserve the tree from premature decay ; but when a mountain tree is planted in a swamp, or one from a hot or dry climate is removed to a situation cold and wet, those conservative principles are not sufficiently elaborated to enable the tissue to with- stand the imdermining agencies of the air, water, and inclement weather, of which probably water is the most injurious ; soddening the roots during their period of rest, and in time dissolving that conservative cement which had been previously stored up. This dissolution I have always found to commence at the root, and then fine interstices are left between the THE LAECH DISEASE. 63 concentric layers, into which, a white mycelium pene- trates, and no doubt expedites the disintegration of the tissue. What this mycelium is it may be diffi- cult to decide, but it is reasonable to suppose that it belongs to one of those fungi to which the tree is most commonly subject." — (F. J. Graham, in Oard. Chron., 1851, p. 405.) " Having planted and paid much attention to the growth of larch in Devonshire, I have been surprised to find symptoms of decay after a growth of thirty years, and some younger, both iu damp and dry situa- tions. One beautiful plantation in particular, planted on a dry slaty bank at Lifton Park, near Launces- ton, and which has made great growth, though quite healthy in appearance, shows unmistakable signs of decay when cut down."^(OLD Sue., in Gard. Chron., 1851, p. 439.) " I cannot attribute" the rot in the larch " to the effect of bad drainage. I have larch in various situa- tions and in two different soils, and I find the tim- ber rotten in many instances in both the soils in question. Some are growing on the sloping side of a limestone hill, eminently favourable for the growth of all sorts of trees, except those that require a deep soil. The hill faces the south. Another plantation grows on a deep sand of a warm nature, over a stratum of coal. The situation is a hUl-side facing the north : I need not say there is no want of drainage here. The only assignable cause of the decay consists ia the fact, that the larches are inter- 64 THE LAECH DISEASE. mixed with Scots firs, ard that too thickly."— (B. P.) The latter is quite sufficient cause in itself. " I have for some years observed with interest some plantations growing on the Wolds (chalk) near the east coast of Yorkshire. The chalk rock is extremely dry ; indeed, no draining could make it more so. The soil upon it is in many places on the liill- sides very thin, but what there is, is often of a clayey nature, and might be somewhat retentive of wet. The plantations grew in various situations, and on considerable variety of soil, and extended over land where alluvial beds of sand and clay of some depth overlie the chalk, none of which are drained ; in aU these plantations I have found the larch, of from thirty to forty years old, liable to be rotten in the middle, for several feet from the ground, but they are worst where nearest to the chalk, and where the soil is thinnest. " On the Wolds, I believe that the larch plantations of from thirty to forty years of age, where the soil on the chalk is thin, are almost universally rotten at the heart. In the larch it is not unusual to see in the summer a considerable number of the smaller branches dead, while those that are living make healthy and vigorous shoots. This I have been accustomed to attribute to late frosts or cold winds when the leaves first appear. In the plantations where the larch is unsound, the heart-wood appears to be very imper- fectly matured ; trees of twenty-five years' growth sometimes show scarcely any of the red wood, and THE LARCH DISEASE. 65 •what there is, is very irregular. The spruce in those plantations are going Hke the larch, while the Scotch, fir, although quite sound, do not thrive in general, making little or no heart-wood, and not unfrequently die at from twenty to forty years' growth ; while the silver fir is invariably quite sound, especially in wet places, and attains a large size, and grows very vigorously." — (C. W. Stkickland, in Gard. Chron., 1851, p. 501.) The larch does not succeed on the chalk formation. The clayey nature of the surface-soil, and its retaining wet, is quite sufficient of itself to account for the want of success. The failure of the smaller branches may be partially owing to late spring-frosts and cold winds, as the growths are made so late in the season as to ■prevent their being properly ripened in autumn, or the heart-wood matured. Trees so circumstanced are eminently predisposed to disease. Nature here teaches an excellent lesson ; the silver fir growing vigorously, and to a large size, while the larch, spruce, and Scotch fir almost refuse to grow: why not, therefore, plant the ground with the silver fir? " The roots of the larch trees growing on the iron- stone hiUs," — that is, on mounds of blackish shale, taken out of ironstone pits, — "are not exposed to much wet, but, on the contrary, are rather dry. The trees grow on little hUls, composed of what is called bind, which is brought up with the ironstone, and remains on the surface after the pits are filled up. It takes some years to decompose before it is fit for grow- E G6 THE LAKCH DISEASE. ing trees, and ultimately becomes something like a strong blue clay. Beech and Spanish chestnuts thrive pretty well on it, but firs do badly, and larch is subject to the rot. Between the hills, where the trees grow in the natural soil, they are not subject to the disease, although the land is in some places wet and springy.'' — (Mr Henderson of Wentworth, in Oard. Chron., 1851, p. 435.) This very intelligent reporter is in- duced to> think that, so far as the Wentworth trees axe concerned, a wet bottom is not the cause of the dis- ease, but rather some injurious quality in the soil itself, On the other hand, Dr Lindley, in refening to this case, observes, " that disease may appear where land is thought to be well drained." But he doubts, and we think with some reason, " whether stiff blue clay, ne- cessarily very retentive of moisture, however dry it may become in autumn, can be otherwise than wet in the early part of the year, when the larch is making its growth, and when, therefore, the mischief is done." We do not think any serious mischief can arise from the presence of water at the roots during the time the larch, if otherwise healthy, is making its growth, unless it be stagnant water, which is always colder than spring or rain water. From the nature of the soU, " a stiff blue clay," it is probable that it is never dry, the water having displaced the air, and that, under such circumstances, the want of air at the roots may be the cause more than the actual presence of excess of water. But again, Mr Henderson states that the trees growing in the natural soil between the hills, THE LAECH DISEASE. 67 or mounds rather, althougli in " some places wet and springy," are not subject to the disease. " A ferruginous crust or subsoil, which retains water, is generally found to produce diseased larch timber^ During winter, when the tree is in a dormant state, its smaU. fibres retain life in stagnant water for a considerable time ; but in the months of August and September, the season at which floods frequently occur, stagnant water has been known to rot the weakest fibres in the course of two days. The small fibres of the roots, being next to dormant during winter, may appear to be alive. It is more probable they have been killed, although appearing to be alive." We cannot see how stagnant water can well remain about the roots during floods — we could anticipate the reverse ; nor can we see any cause why they should rot off in so short a time as two days. " Excessive moisture is thus calculated to commence the disease in woods standing on retentive subsoil, where it is imperfectly drained. The rot is sometimes to be met with in young trees of the size of prop-wood, produced on the finest description of larch soU, and where no timber formerly stood ; but these trees are generally found to be such as have been injured by being overcrowded in the plantation. Like some other kinds of surface^ rooting trees, the larch has a natural tendency to get diseased in the trunk, and requires careful treatment to be kept in a sound state. The xot :prevails so ex-' tensively on some estates that the landowners are de-- terred from j)lanting the tree; while on other estates. 68 THE LAECH DISEASE. where the tree is grown in great numbers, such as Ballindalloeh in Morayshire, no case of this disease as yet has occurred." — (Mr Geigoe, in Morton! s Cyclo- pedia.) " In all cases of healthy larch-plantations, where the timber has attained a large size, and is sound iu quar lity, we find them growing upon a soil through which the water that may fall upon it can pass away freely ; as, for instance, upon the slopes of hills, and even in hoUows, upon a strong clay soil, but where there is proper drainage for the passage of the superfluous water : and I have even cut down larch timber, of large size and sound quality, growing upon a light sandy moss two feet deep, which rested upon stiff clay. In this case the moss was drained, and the water passed freely through the light soU. In short, I have found good larch growing upon almost all varieties of soil ; but I never found it upon one which had not a con- tinual circulation of water passing through it, either naturally or by artificial drainage. On the other handj in aU cases of diseased larch-plantations, where the trees have become stunted and rotten in the hearts prematurely, we shall find that the soil has either been badly drained or not drained at all." — (Brown's For-' ester, p. 410.) . All retentive subsoils should be drained, which will not only remove the superfluous water, but along with it a large amount of the oxide of iron, which cements the sandy matter, and renders it impervious to water. Where the rot disease prevails on a property, the sooner THE LAECH DISEASE. 69 it is cleared of larch, and replanted with such trees as are naturally suited to the soU and circumstances, the better. It is great folly to persist in planting any tree where it is evident it will not attain maturity. There is nothing, surely, so fascinating in the larch, over many other trees, whether we consider it in a pictorial or in a utilitarian point of view, as to induce reasonable people to persist in planting it where ex- perience has clearly shown it wiU not thrive ; nor is its value over many other trees so great as to warrant any extraordinary expense being gone to, in attempt- ing its cultivation under doubtful circumstances. Mr G-rigor, although himself an extensive nurseryman and cultivator of forest trees, speaks the truth when he says that landlords are deterred from planting this tree. Where natural circumstances are favourable, as . at Ballindalloch Castle, and some other localities, let it be planted to any extent ; but in those where it has been found by experience to be unsuitable, it is folly to persist in the attempt. Of the propriety of draining all land suspected of a damp subsoil there can be no doubt ; and not only should all land, to be planted with larch be efficiently drained previous to planting, but the older plantations require to be kept dry, to secure the prosperity of the -trees. Indeed, old trees require it more than young ones, as their roots reach to a greater depth ; and when We see the trees in a sickly state, our first suspicion generally is, that it arises from too great a quantity of stagnant moisture, and in nine cases out of ten this 70 THE LAKCH DISEASE. proves to be the case. In all cases, therefore, wherei the health and vigour of the trees are an object, let the original drains be kept cleared out, and rather deep- ened than allowed to choke up, and let new ones be made where required. This should not be delayed iintil the trees assume a sickly appearance, for in most cases this only shows that the evil is already done, and then draining will be of little use. IV. — TOO thick: planting, neglect op thinning, AND injudicious PRUNING. On these poiats we have the following opinions : — " This decay of the wood is much aggravated when the larches are planted thick, so as to expose a small portion of their foKage to the sun, and to retain among the lower branches an atmosphere surcharged witli moisture." — {Arboretum Britannicum, p. 1056.) " The larch should have, at all stages of its growth, the free and healthy use of all its branches ; or, in other words, it should be planted thin, kept thin, and never pruned except it is absolutely necessary in order to prevent dead knots." — (J. H., in Gard. Chfon., 1851, p. 405.) " I have no doubt that the larch will go rotten at the heart when its branches have never been interfered with, on soil that is unsuitable to it. Some larches •THE LAECH DISEASE. 71' were blown down here that were rotten, and evidently not from want of room ; one especially, which had branches quite to the ground, and had, I believe, never been touched by another tree. At the same time, I believe that the overcrowding of the trees in a planta- tion, whereby the side branches are killed, very much increases the evil, inasmuch as the wood does not be- come properly matured, less heart-wood is made than ought to be, and it is consequently less able to resist decay." — (0. W. Strickland, idem, 1853, p. 54.) " With respect to larch trees, through every stage of growth it is necessary to keep up an equilibrium in the different sources through which the trees derive their nourishment. There is a plantation of larch in ChUl- ingham Park, upwards of fifty years old, on a high situation, with a western aspect, and about thirty acres in extent. The soil in general is good. This planta- tion had always been sparingly thiimed, the average height of the trees being nearly sixty feet, straight and well-proportioned in the boles. They were free from branches for more than two-thirds of the tree in height, many having only a few branches near the top. I have seen a material difference in the timber when cut. When we wanted a sound tree, we always chose one with a proportion of side-branches on it, which was as certain to be sound as those which were far more like to be cleaner in the grain, at least in appearance. Decay was in general confined to trees which were reft (cleared) of their side-branches, except near the top, and found about midway between the heart- 72 THE LARCH DISEASE. and the bark, sometimes only in two or three of the annular rings of wood, and extending round about a quarter of the tree ; in others it was in two or three distinct places unconnected — that is, not meeting, with several of the annual rings affected. I have always found, when I traced these diseased parts downwards, decayed roots corresponding with them on the same side of the tree. Now none of these trees were ever pruned, but were suffered to grow close. Those that were better furnished with side-branches were the largest, stUl increasing in thickness annually, whUe the others are at a stand-stOl, or rather on the decKne. I think this is another proof against pruning firs, when the trees in this plantation were divested of their side- branches, without either axe or saw, and also without losing any sap, which would certainly have been the case if they had been pruned ; and still those trees, in- stead of surpassing others which had a proportionable number of side-branches on them, fall considerably short in bulk of timber, and also die sooner off the ground. The timber of trees that are much pruned is always affected more or less in proportion to the size ^ of the branches. To rear plantations of larch and Scotch-fir timber, the best method is to plant them thinly at first, and then gradually thin them so as to keep a moderate amount of side-branches to nourish the tree. Keep the trees close enough to keep the side-branches small, but stUl keep a sufficient number alive, and the small branches will die off tier after tier, as the trees close around, without injury to the THE LAEOH DISEASE,' tS timber in after years. The trees having attained an altitude corresponding with the nature of the soil and situation, do not think of forcing them to grow taller by suffering them to stand thick, but still continue thinning them by degrees, till each tree stands clear of its neighbour, so as to have sufficient room to form a top in proportion to the tree as it increases in size." — (J. Maeshall, in Gard. Journal, 1851, p. 164.) ■ "May not the sole cause of the failure in the larch arise from the too crowded state of plantations, where- by the atmospheric air is prevented from circulating freely among the branches, thereby impeding the free action of the functions of the leaves; the latter com- municating their disorder to the roots, disease must inevitably follow ; and although the first perceptible symptoms proceed from them, or were observed in the roots, yet the first great natural cause of the evil might be traced to the leaves." — (A. Patterson, in Qard. Ohron., 1853, p. 85.) Pruning larches at any age has been found exceed- ingly injurious. It is the custom of some foresters to remove a few of the under branches at each thinning, so that by the third or fourth thinning the stems are cleared to about the height of a man from the ground. At the distance of only about fifty yards from where this practice was followed, a clump of larch of the same age happened to stand, which was never pruned : these latter are now about one-third taUer than the average height of those in the plantation that was pruned, and are of a much healthier appearance ; which is believed- 74 THE LARCH DISEASE. to be entirely owing to their being allowed to retain their branches. Mr EUiot, the forester under whose care both plantations were, was of opinion that the removal of the branches caused such a loss of resin as to induce a debilitated state in the trees, causing them to make short annual gi'owths, and' to assume a gouty appearance at the base of the boles, which, from tapering suddenly upwards, do not contain so much timber as those whose taper is more gradual. He says : " I have seen larch trees, when sawn into pales for fences, with cavities so full of resin as to render them of little use. These resinous cavities would never have been there, from the quality of the soil on which they grew, if the trees had not received unnatural treat-- ment." Foresters recognise two varieties of larch — ^namely, the red or pink flowering, and the white flowering, and these are denominated by them white and red larcL The latter is deemed superior to the former, and is said to be easily recognised by joiners accustomed to work in larch timber, even when it is cut up into scantlings. If this is so, as these presumed varieties can be so easily distinguished while in flower, it would be weU, in , thinning plantations, to mark the white or pale variety while in flower, so that it may be cut out at the proper time of thinning. The season for thinning, as weU as the extent to which it should be carried, are both very important points in regard to the health of the trees left. In warm, sheltered situations the opera- tion may commence in autumn as soon as the leaves THE LARCH DISEASE. 7S have fallen. If deferred till late in spring, when the buds and foliage have expanded, great damalge may be done to the trees left, by having their young and ten- der shoots and foliage injured by the falling of the other trees : an injury that the trifling value of the bark can never repay, presuming they are of a size worth peeling. In cold and exposed situations, thin- ning should be sparingly done, even should it be annually performed, as thinning too much at once, at any season, removes the necessary shelter too sud-: denly, and allows the cold air to act most injuriously upon the trees, particularly if done in spring, when it is tantamount in its effects to a severe spring frost Pruning larch is a very dangerous expedient. The Lindleyan dictum is perhaps the, safest — namely, to " thin judiciously, and prune not at all." It often, however, happens in neglected larch-plantations, that a number of smaU, totally dead, twiggy branches are found upon the lower portion of the trunk : the removal of these, not by cutting, but by rubbing or breaking them off, can do no harm to the tree, but wiU be of gi'eat advantage, by allowing the air to circulate more freely through the plantation, as well as giving it a more orderly appearance. " When a plantation is newly opened up by thin- ning, the trees which possess top branches only seldom escape from having their roots injured by the influence ■of wind. In such cases, the movements perceptible on the surface during a hurricane, indicate the strain to which the roots are subjected. The injury they sus- t6 THE LAKCH DISEASE. tain is followed by decay, and no doubt this is an ex- tensive source of rot in larch timber." — (Mr Grigoe.) Both Mr Sang and the first Earl of Haddington (who wrote the first book on planting in Scotland, 1787) advocate the pruning system, but the latter only to a limited extent. In a foot-note in Planters' Calendar he says, " We know a gentleman who re- moved five or six tier of branches from a number of larches, from fifteen to eighteen feet high ; and although it is now three seasons since it was done, the trees still exhibit a pallid and sickly appearance, and probably they will never resume their wonted vigour. Those in the same plantation which escaped the fury of the pruner, are as green and vigorous as could be desired." " In thriving woods, if properly thinned, very little pruning will be necessary, while the thinning must be regulated by the situation and growth of the trees. It is in general much too long deferred, and, ■when com- menced, too much is done at once. Thinning ought to be begun within a very few years after planting, and go on yearly untQ the wood has arrived at matu- rity. This, however, is an immediate expense, with only a prospective return. Thus proprietors are in- duced to wait until the thinnings become available, to the great injury of the trees that remain." — (Mr Thom- son, of Banchory, in Highland Soc. Trans., vol. vi. New Series, p. 293.) " The difi'erence in the wood in crowded and pro- perly thinned plantations, depends in a great measure on the growth and exposure of the leaves. Wood THE LARCH DISEASE. 77 grows more rapidly, and the zones or circles are larger, when there is free exposure. Hence the necessity of judicious planting, if we wish to have good timber. In the case of forest trees, if properly planted and thinnisd, no pruning is required, except the removal of dead or decaying branches. When large branches are lopped ofi", injury is done ; and in the case of forest trees a snag is left, which gives rise to the formation of a knot in the wood, and frequently, from the expos- ure of a large wound, the weather causes decay in the wood." — (Balfoue, in Glass-Book of Botany.) The formation of wood depends mainly on the func- tions of the leaves being carried on properly, and this can only be effected by exposure to air and light. In thick plantations, it is only in the trees next the outside, or where clearances have been accidentally or purposely made in the interior, where the leaves and branches are freely formed, that the wood and roots are properly developed. When a tree is fully exposed to air and light ofi one side only, it is frequently found that the woody zones are on that side largest. It has been recommended by some foresters to thin the larch plantations periodically, say every fifth year. This, however, is not a rule capable of general applica- tion ; for while it might be proper enough to do so in warm, sheltered situations, it would be extremely iaju- . dicious to do the same in plantations at a high alti- tude, as any thinning to be useful in the one case to give room to the trees during the next period, would expose those on the other too much to the action of 78 THE LAECH DISEASE. wind and cold. The best mode of thinning is to go over the plantations biennially; and at planting, if timber be the object in view, to, plant thinner than is the present practice. " The most probable way of avoiding this disease, so far as it depends on situation, is by early and con- stantly-repeated thinning, to secure, as far as possible, a complete and uninterrupted exposure of the whole foliage to light and air, in which case, as trees are not affected till they are eight or nine years old, the evil win most probably be prevented. If there is not a proper circulation of air or exposure to light, the juices wiU not be properly elaborated, especially with a plant with such small leaves, and which, therefore, present so small a surface to the action of the surrounding ele- ments ; and, in consequence, the tree will not have its tissues properly solidified, but far too great a portion of water wUl be present, and the wood, therefore, sub- ject to decay." — (The Eev. M. J. Beekeley, in Mor- ton's Cyclopedia) The injurious practice of too thick planting was first [brought into notice by the late Duke of Atholl, and his opinion is strikingly confirmed by the observations of the late M. de Candolle. This high authority says : "I think your plantations of larches are too close. You seem generally to plant them at the distance of three or four feet from each other. It is much closer than with us ; and I think you would do well at least to double or even treble that distance. Air 'and light woidd penetrate better into the forests, and would correct the THE LARCH DISEASE. 79 defects which I attribute to the want of evaporation, and the decomposition of carbonic acid. You should not certainly place the joung and yet small larches at the distance of ten feet, but you should keep them close in their youth, then thin them gradually, so as to bring them to the distance of ten feet when twenty years old." — ^To this opinion we most cordially subscribe. V. — PLANTING LAECH ON LAND ON WHICH A PREVIOUS CROP OP CONIFEROUS OR OTHER TREES HAS BEEN GROWN, AND PLANTING THEM ALONG WITH SCOTCH FIRS AND DECIDUOUS TREES. The former of these is contrary to all good cultiva- tion, the latter a matter of very considerable doubt. The following opinions have been advanced : — " Larches planted on ground recently cropped with Scotch firs become diseased in consequence of the rot- ting of the roots of the firs, forming at least one power- ful agent in promoting this disease." — (Arch. Goerie, Gard. Mag., vol. Ivi. p. .544.) " I believe that there are two conditions essential to the growth of sound larch ; the first and principal one is, that the larch should never be planted mixed with Scotch firs, or on land that has previously borne a crop of larch, Scotch or any other kind of fir." — (A.B.) 8,0 THE LAKCH DISEASE. This is not the case, as regards the first conditioh, if all other circumstances be favourable, unless one or both be too crowded. It may be a wise precaution, in cases where there is doubt of the larch succeeding, to plant in this mixed manner ; for if the one show symptoms of decay, it can be removed gradually, and the other left for the principal crop, if deemed superior in value. Under other circumstances, it will be better to keep them separate. " I have noticed the following facts respecting the growth of larch : It is never sound when in close neighbourhood with Scotch fir, except when young. I have planted larch where larch and Scotch fir had grown before, and in both instances I shall have a wood of oaks and birch, which I did not plant, instead of larch, which I did." — (Hazel, in Gard. Chron., 1853, p. 118.) This is just what might have been expected. It is seldom that two crops of the same kind of timber can be successfully raised on the same land. " It is a great mistake to imagine that larch, when in close neighbourhood with Scotch fir, is never sound. The best larch I ever saw grew amongst Scotch firs. Hazel says he is likely to have a wood of oak and birch which he did not plant, instead of one of larch which he did. A practical lesson may be learned firom this. The crop should be changed. It is seldom that two crops of the same kind of timber can be success- fully raised on the same land."— (Peactical, in Gard. Chron., 1853, p. 1.) THE LARCH DISEASE. 81 " Where larch has been planted on ground already filled with old roots and the chips of former fellings, which, as they decay, ^.re infested with spawn, which passes thence to the living roots of the young trees, the disease is beyond doubt peculiarly virulent. Unfortu- nately these or similar conditions too frequently exist, where larch is planted even on a large scale. In tracts covered with ling (common heath), it is obvious that there must be considerable damage from this cause, and it is probable that larch is seldom planted where it can be entirely free from risk." — (The Eev. M. J. Berkeley, in Gard. Chron., 1859, p. 1015.) This is quite a new theory. The greater part of the larch plantations in Scotland have been planted on land more or less covered with ling (common heath), and were we to discard such land, where else would we plant it ? If the opinion expressed in the latter part of the sentence be correct, then it would appear that the less larch planted the better. Some of our best larch- plantations have unquestionably been planted on land upon which heath has grown in the utmost luxuriance. The same writer gives a striking instance of the evil of old roots, even of non-resinous trees, communicating disease to Conifers, as having recently occurred at Kew. Two deodars were planted, one of which succeeded admirably, but the other, though to all appearance enjoying similar conditions, was less vigorous, and after a time was evidently diseased. — " Its roots were, therefore, carefully examined, and it was found that a portion was covered with the threads of spawn pro- F 82 THE LAKCH DISEASE. ceeding from the decaying roots of a cherry-tree which formerly occupied the place. The affected parts were cut off, and the old cherry-roots grubbed up, and the tree is now thriving, and apparently not likely to suffer any farther inconvenience.'' " In situations where soil and exposure bring the larch into leaf early in the season, it should always be interspersed among other trees ; but, under any circumstances, the tree is in general found to thrive better in a mixed plantation, than in a plantation •composed purely of the species. It grows well when associated with the Scotch pine ; but the best speci- idens of rapidly-grown larch timber are generally to be met with when interspersed with oak, which is late in the development of its foliage, and, drawing its nourishment from a considerable depth in the soil, affords advantages to the larch beyond any other tree." — (Mr Geigoe, in Morton's Cyclopedia.) If shelter is the object of this mixed planting, then we think the larch can derive none from the oak, as the former towers in height greatly above it, exposing its tops as much to spring frosts and cutting winds in early situations as if it stood alone, or in a plantation of its own species. The soU in which the oak flourishes best is far too rich for the larch to attain a great age in. No doubt the oak draws its chief nourishment from a greater depth than the larch penetrates to, and thus far favours the recommendation, but, we think, no farther. " The rot is said to happen where larch has been THE LARCH DISEASE. 83' planted after a crop of Scotch firs ; afid if so, it would prove that the matter deposited by the roots of the firs was hurtful to the larch : but we find only one tree here and there affected in this way, while those next to them are perfectly sound. I must say, however, that we have not yet observed any case of it, except where Scotch fir had grown before. The most annoying fea- ture of this disease is, that we have n"t been able to detect aiiy external mark of it whatever ; so that, in thinning a plantation, we run the risk of cutting out the healthy and leaving the diseased. Nor do we find that being too thick or too thin, a damp or a dry situ- ation, has any influence upon it." — (Mr Thomson, of Banchory, in Highland Soc. Trans., vol. vi.. New Series, p. 294.) . The last sentence in this paragraph is diametrically opposed to general opinion. ^' The disease has always been found to prevail most, in larch plantations formed on ground which had pre- . viously yielded timber. The decaying roots, and the fungus which accompanies them, tend to injure the roots of several sorts of forest . trees. In this respect the > larch is by far the most sensitive ; but instances have . occurred of two-year-old oaks having been killed by the white fibrous matter, or spawn, from rotting wood, cutting off the tap-roots of the plants." — (Mr Geigoe, in Morton's Cyclopedia.) ' "In some cases, however, it should seem that the disease arises from an actual infection. It is usual to plant larch after Scotch fir, and in such cases the larch.. 84 THE LAECH DISEASE. is almost uniformly unsound, plants of the same date, on similar ground, where no fir had been previously- planted, being perfectly free from disease. It is be- lieved that in these cases the dead roots of the fir, coming in contact with the living roots of the larch, communicate the principle of decay, according to the well-known law of gangrenous matter readily propa- gating disease." — (Eev. M. J. Berkeley.) " It is notorious that an orchard will not immedi- ately succeed upon the site of an old orchard of the same kind of fruit ; a vrall border, in which fruit-trees have been long grown, becomes at last insensible to manure, and requires to be renewed." — (Lindlet's Theory of Horticulture?) " I have always found larch trees to succeed bet- ter, when growing among hardwood trees, than when growing by themselves or among other firs, even al- though planted upon soil in the same state in both cases. The cause of this I conceive to be, that the roots of the hardwood, from their penetrating deeper into the earth than those of the fir, have a tendency to divide the soU, and open it up for the more ready cir- culation of the water through it. It is, indeed, well known that the roots of the hardwood trees will pene- trate through the stiffest soil, and considerably break up and improve it to the depth of about two feet ; and when the trees are of any considerable age, with their larger roots spreading far and wide, I have often seen the water running along the beds of such roots in con- siderable quantities, showing that they acted as con- THE LARCH DISEASE. 85 ductors for the water through the soil. It is to- this that I attribute the superior health of such trees found growing amongst hardwood, as compared with those among their own species upon the same quality of ground." — (Beown, in Forester, p. 411.) There is no doubt that larch trees will prosper when planted amongst hardwood trees, and so far the roots of the latter perform the duty of drainers, in the man- ner here spoken of. We have no sympathy, however, with such mixed plantations. The hardwoods are deni- zens of the low, flat, and fertile plains ; the larch is only in place when located on elevated ground, upon a primitive formation, and enjoying a clear and pure atmosphere. Its spiry tops associate ill with the more graceful outlines of hardwood trees. As a park tree it is intolerable, producing the most complete monotony of outline. Such hardwood trees as the oak vary in outline in every tree, but there can be but one form in pointed larches. " On that account,'' Sir Uvedale Price remarks, " wherever ornament is the aim, great care ought to be taken that the general outline be round and full, and only partially broken by" pointed trees, like the larch, and that too many of these should not rise above the other. Now, wherever larches are mixed, even in a small proportion, over the plantation, the quickness of their growth, their pointed tops, and the peculiarity of their colour, make them so conspi- cuous that the whole wood seems to consist of no- thing else." It will be found more profitable, and far more effective, when growing among rocks and irregular 86 THE LARCH DISEASE surfaces", and especially on the steep sides of hills, where its form and the direction of its growth har- monise with the broken ground, and particularly with pointed rocky summits. VI. — PAMPEEING YOUNG TREES, IN EICH SOILS, IN NUESEIUES, WITH A VIEW 'JO THEIE ATTAINING A LAEGE SIZE WITHIN THE LEAST POSSIBLE TIME. According to Dr Schleiden, plants in a high state of cultivation are all more or less in a condition predis- posed to disease. " There is an unnatural and excessive development of particular structures, or particular sub- stances ; and the equilibrium being thus destroyed, the plants are liable to suffer from injurious external influ- ences. The general morbid condition produced by culti- vation is heightened into specific predisposition to dis- ease, when the conditions of cultivation are opposed too strongly or too suddenly to those of nature." Hence, larch trees reared from seed, and highly stimidated for two or three years in the rich soil of a nursery, are, reasoning from analogy, much more predisposed to disease than such as are reared in poorer soil, or less sheltered situations ; and hence we find health and vigour in such trees as spring up naturally from seed, such as the self-sown larch and Scots firs, &c., met THE LAECn DISEASE; 87 with in the vicinity of old plantations from which the seeds came. Manure, in every shape, is highly injurious to young larch in the nursery. Mr Grigor, a highly respectable nurseryman at Forres, instances a case where " A few cart-loads of manure, composed chiefly of sawdust/^ killed several hundreds of thousands of seedling larch plants in one season, and rendered the ground unsuit- able for that crop for many years." The transition which happens to young larch reared in rich fine soils, in some nurseries, when removed to very poor soil and exposed situations, cannot fail of giving them a very considerable check, and conse- quently may be supposed to predispose them to dis- ease. The venerable Mr Edward Sang expresses a some- what similar opinion to that of Mr Grigor above quoted. He says, in Planter's Calendar, p. 21 : "It wiU rarely happen that nursery-ground will be natu- rally too rich for general purposes, excepting in situa- tions where the soU is a collection of rich earthy par- ticles and putrescent animal matter. Many acres of nursery-ground are of this nature, and they are cer^ tainly more fit Tor growing kitchen vegetables than for raising young plants for the bleak forest." Land rather of a light sandy nature, and not over rich, is well known to be better adapted for the forma- tion of roots than a stronger and richer soil ; and as the number and condition of the roots of all forest as well as of other trees are of more consequence to their 88 THE LARCH DISEASE. future success than the mere appearance of their stem and branches, this matter should not be overlooked. Kennedy, in Treatise on Planting and Gardening, 2d edit. p. 21, vol. ii, recommends a slight compost in preference to dung, " as it will have all the advan- tage of keeping the ground in good heart, and will cause none of those pernicious misfortunes to young trees that dung is very Uable to do." On the other hand, Boutcher says he " found from repeated experiments the bad effects of committing young and tender seedlings to a poor soil ; and insists on the absolute necessity of their being nursed in a generous soil, in order to promote that vigorous' growth which alone can enable them to struggle with the in- conveniences they may be subjected to at a. later period." "S. H.," author of a Practical Treatise on Plant- ing, says he has known firs transplanted from a poor nursery, "which, though they continued to grow, evinced for many years the injury they sustained in the early part of theii' growth. Let not the planter," he continues, " be afraid of making his nursery rich by any strong manure he can procure. I should," he says, " wish my nursery to be rich enough to produce celery without dung, and deep enough for liquorice." Were we purchasing forest trees, we would certainly pass by this gentleman's nursery establishment, believ- ing with Dr Schleiden that plants forced into a high state of cultivation in their youth, are more predisposed to disease than such as are less artificially stimulated. THE LARCH DISEASE. 89 Young trees grown in excessive rich soil become ex- ceedingly liable to have their intercellular passages over-gorged with juices of too thick a consistency ; the vegetative powers become excited beyond their natural limits, and the consequence is, that either a natural issue is formed for carrying off the superabundant matter, which not unfrequently forms a nidus favour- able for the production of destructive parasites, or the whole plant becomes gouty and unhealthy. Til. — THE ATTACKS OF GAME, AND THE BEOWSINO OF CATTLE AND SHEEP. These, although not directly the cause of the prevail- ing rot-disease in the larch, nevertheless indirectly tend greatly to the destruction of the trees. The mischief occasioned by hares, rabbits, roes, and field-mice, both in barking the young trees and also destroying their leading shoots and main side-branches, is sufficiently well known. To provide to some extent against this, excessively thick planting is had recourse to, which of itself, as has been already ^shown, is no doubt one of the causes of heart-rot. Besides, it very considerably increases the original expense of the formation of plan- tations, often to double of what they might be planted for. The browsing of cattle and sheep is equally inju- rious ; and in the case of older trees, the rubbing of the 90 THE LARCH DISEASE. animals against the trunks leases a greasy matter on the bark, which, closing up the pores of respiration, is often fatal to the trees, and always more or less inju- rious to them. Too thick planting is often permitted on the plea of forming cover for game, and to this very absurd cause may in most cases be traced the evil of deferring thinning until the trees have sustained their first and often fatal constitutional check. These are evils the proprietor has in his own hands the power of checking. The exclusion of cattle and sheep can always be effected by properly constructed fences, but the attacks of hares, rabbits, and mice — the greater evU — can only be completely effected by the ex- termination of the two latter, and the reduction of the former to within reasonable bounds. As the spring and winter are the seasons when hares do most mis- chief to young trees, the only practicable remedy we have ever found — and we know it to be effectual— is to scatter, once or twice a-week, the prunings of such de- ciduous trees as the liine, ash, elm,, willow, poplar, laburnum, &c., through the young plantations most frequented by the hares. They prefer these, u-hen cut and scattered about, to coniferous trees, and it will often be found that they will, if sufficiently supplied with them, do little injury to the larch. On high grounds, where black game abound, although exceedingly de- structive to the Scots fir, they seldom attack the larch, at least to any serious extent, and squirrels are less destructive to larch than to pines and non-resinous trees. THE LARCH DISEASE. 91 VIII.— THE PERIOD AT WHICH DISEASE ATTACKS THE LAHCH. The larch, like every other tree, is liable to disease from its earliest infancy ; evt^n in nurseries they are not always healthy. " I have known," Mr Brown observes, " an instance of diseased trees from a nursery being the cause of propagating the same disease through several plantations in the neighbourhood. In asserting this, however, I do not mean to say that any respectable nurseryman would be guilty of sending diseased trees to any of his customers ; but I do mean to say that every planter, previous to making a purchase, should go and visit the nursery, and judge for himself." We have frequently observed in nurseries young laiches, both one and two years transplanted, having their lower side- , branches browned, as if scalded, and after a t'me losing their leaves, the upper shoots being slightly affected, and also the leader for a few inches upwards ; while many of the plan s die, and aU have a sickly appear- ance. This is evidently incipient disease ; what becomes of the plants afterwards we know not, as Ihey disappear from the nurseries generally during the following winter or spring. If, therefore, the trees in this young state be attacked by disease, it is only natural to suppose that they will carry it with them to wherever they are to be planted ; and the check which they, in common 92 THE LARCH DISEASE, ■with all other plants, experience when removed from the sheltered and richer soil of a garden or nursery to a poorer soil and much more exposed situation, will rather hasten than retard, much less remove, the disease, whatever it may be. And if that disease be infectious, as stated above by Mr Brown, not only will the planta- tion iu course of formation be diseased, but the conti- guous plantations, of whatever age they may be, will run a great risk of being destroyed by the infection. The Kev. M. J. Berkeley states another form by which disease is communicated by infection — namely, when the living roots of the larch come in contact with the dead roots of firs of a previous crop. Contagious dis- ease is well known to exist ia the vegetable kingdom as well as in the animal. It is now upwards of fifty years since symptoms of disease became apparent in the larch, at least to the extent of exciting anxiety. The first we observed vras the attacks of an insect, somewhat resembling the well- known American blight which infests apple-trees, but considerably smaller. This insect was nearly globose, soft and blackish, partially covered with a short white cottony-like substance, probably the Adelges laricis of Yallot They were so numerous as to give the affected trees somewhat the appearance of being sUghtly covered vrith snow : they attacked the leading and young shoots, and committed considerable havoc among young plan- tations of larch in the south of England, particularly at Stratton Park, near Winchester, where we then re- sided. The late Duke of Portland described the attack THE LARCH DISEASE. 93' of the A delges laricis as occurring in l^is woods at Welbeck so early as 1802, but remarks that it only- occurred in low damp situations, and in such situations many of the trees were killed; but its effects were not very serious. The Adelges laricis is seldom found on trees in a healthy state, but most generally on trees in con- fined woods and low situations, where much humidity exists, accompanied with want of ventilation. Wet seasons also tend to its increase. It also appears after severe frosts in spring, or early in summer. No prac- ticable cure has been discovered beyond using the best means to promote the health of the trees, which chiefly consists in draining the ground and thinning the trees. Mr Sang mentions this insect, under the name of Coccus larixea, as appearing in Fifeshire so early as 1785, and again in 1800, 1801, and 1802, being, in opposi- tion to what is said above, three very dry and warm summers, when it appeared in a most alarming manner. As insects seldom attack trees in a healthy and vig- orous state, we may venture to conclude that the sap of those trees had become vitiated so as to afford proper food for insects ; their presence may therefore be con- sidered more as the effect than the cause ; the disease owed its existence to other causes, whatever they may have been. The larch became diseased at Stratton at an early period, probably on account of its being grown on a chalky soil, although upon some of the highest ground in the park. The same species of insect abounds in many of our young larch-plantations in various parts 94 THE LAECH DISEASE. of the kingdom at tlie present day. The larch is, how- ever, less I able to the destructive operations of insects than many of the other coniferous trees. . The next and more dreaded disease, because its pro- gress is going on w thin the tree unseen and unsus- pected, is the decay of the timber at the heart, known by the various designations of pumping, piping, dry-rot, heart-ror, internal decay, &c. The trees often attain some size and age (although instances have occurred of its attacking youni; trees imder fifteen years' growth, and Mr Webster states its appearance iji trees about the thickness of a gun barrel — vide Appendix) before this disease becomes sufficiently developed to create alarm, and it may go on undiscovered irntil the tree is cut down ; and when once a tree is attacked, it is inevitably ruined. The Kev. M. -T. Berkeley has, in Gardeners' Chronicle, 1859, p. 1015, thrown considerable light on the cause of this disease. The following is th*^ substance of his- very inieresting communication " Up to a certain stage nothing can in general be more promsing and satisfac- tory than the grow.h of the larch ; but just about the timn the ;rees are large enough for railway-sleepers, they begin to show unhealthy symptoms in the foliage ; and in the course of a few years, the centre, which is penetrated by the spawn of fungi in the form of white films or threads, becomes soft and perishes, till at last nothing remains sound excejt the younger growth of the last ten years, or it may be less. In every such case we believe tliat the evil has commenced with the THE XAEOH DISEASE; 95 roots, spreading up from thence to the layers of wood immediately surrounding the pith. It has not, indeed, been accurately ascertained to what espe(?.ial fungus the spawn which infests the roots and timber of the larch belongs, but we have reason to believe that in many instances it is the barren state of Polyporus destructor, a fungus, at: the name implies, of very injurious influ- ence, though other species probably have thwr share in the mischief. In instan- es of decay like this, the ■spawn seldcm makes i' s way completely through the iealthy rings of wood which surround it, and till it gets free access to the ijuter air no fructification is produced, without which it is scarcely possible to re^ -cognise fungi." The same very accurate and highly respectable author- ity farther states an instance in which the mycelium of a species of peziza (P. calycdna) has been found pene* trating through the bark .if the larch. " In a small plantation, most of the trees t>f which are young, nearly aL are more or less attacked on stem and branch with the peziza; but they do not, when cut down, appear to be at aU decayed, and the roots seem healthy. The bark, however, on which the peziza is seated is dead, and the oart of the stem corresponding with it depressed as if the growth of the tree had been for some time checked. A s in most affections of the bark in conifers, there is a flow of tur^oentine, on which a minute verru- caria is developed, but without true firuit, and therefore not readi.y determinable. The spawn apparently leads (directly from the wood, and the cups of the peziza 9G THE LAKCH DISEASE. burst completely through the crust of the lichen. It is not supposed that the peziza is really the cause of the ordinary larch-rot, but the fact is well worth attention and accurate study on the spot. The peziza is extremely common on the larch and other conifers, and may be found on almost every branch which has been left on the ground after thinning, vary- ing greatly in size according to the thickness of the branch, and its consequent powers of affording nutri- ment ; but whether its sporidia are introduced into the affected parts before or after death is uncertain. It is very possible that larch trees may be largely impreg- nated with spawn, which waits merely for some external accident that may facilitate its progress towards the sur- face, and consequently its appearance on the trunks may have arisen from some previous affection of the bark, in the primary production of which it had no part. Whatever this may have been, the existing ap- pearances are not difficult to account for. A small- portion of the bark suffers from some unknown cause, and in consequence the secreting surface, whether of the bark or wood, beneath it, dies ; no fresh layers of wood are in consequence deposited : the disease spreads for a certain extent ; resin is poured out, the healthy bark beyond the dead patch stO increases in thickness, as does the surrounding wood, and the consequence is a depression on the stem corresponding with the extent of dead bark above. The spawn of the fungus has now decayed tissues on which it can work with ease, which at length give way, and the proper fruit is produced, THE LA.KCH DISEASE. 97 indicating the existence of spawn within, whose pre- sence otherwise might not have been expected." Another form of fungoid disease has been described by Mr Berkeley, in the work last quoted, as recently found attacking larch trees growing on artificial mounds, no way in want of draining, at Wentworth Hall, York- shire (vide p. 65) : " The disease in this case, indeed, does not seem, as in many cases, to commence at the roots, but in the centre of the trunk. The wood in the decayed portion is mottled with little white spots, which often run in longitudinal lines, though seldom so confluent as not to retain something of their original form, which is, however, sometimes obliterated. These spots do not consist, as might at first be supposed, of mere mycelium, but of the tissues of the plant, which are bleached and shining ; and whether woody tissue, medullary rays, or dotted tubes, they are as completely separated from each other as if the connecting matter had been dissolved by some chemical substance. Though a common lens fails to detect anything like fungus threads, a very attentive examination exhibits extremely minute filaments, which are evidently of fungus origin, both in the interior and on the surface of the tissue, but in general so obscure as to require great caution before coming to a positive decision." Mr Berkeley labours under a very great mistake when he supposes that the larch only begins to show symptoms of disease about the time the trees are fit for raUway-sleepers. Nor do we think he has shown a practical knowledge of the subject when he says, " The G 9 a THE LAECH DISEASE, disease is occasioned by the spawn of fangi existing in the soil, and generated where either larch, some other trees," or even ling {common heath), " had previously grown." No one admits more readily than we do the impropriety of planting larch, or indeed any other kind of tree, on ground which has recently produced a crop of a similar kind ; and that for these general reasons, — namely, the dread of the spawn of fungi, the presence of the eggs of insects, and the exhaustion of the chemical constituents of the soU. No doiibt the spawn of the fungi, which Mr Berkeley believes to be that of Polyporus destructor, may exist in the soil where larch trees previously had grown ; but how comes the spawn of this particular fungi into ,soil which has never, in the memory of man, produced trees of any sort, or even ling; in land that has either been under cultiva- tion, in pasture, or of so rocky or stony a nature as much of the surface planted with larch is, and on which even ling did not exist ; or in soils dug out of mines, tunnels, deep railway-cuttings, and similar excavations, upon which no vegetation had existed for thousands of, years ? Still, on such soils does the disease occur. If heath-clad lands are thus unfit for larch, where else is it to be planted ? Nine-tenths of the area at present covered with larch were, and in many cases still are, covered with heath, and disease is no worse there than in other places. If the fungoid disease be really derived from the soil, may it not be worth inquiring how far this may be owing to the soil of the nursery in which the teees THE LABCH DISEASE. 99 have been reared ? Many nursery soils do carry sucli crops much oftener in succession than may be exactly consistent with the best system of cultivation. In regard to the period when the disease makes its appearance, there is no uniform rule. Lately/ in com- pany with Mr Baty, the very intelligent forester to Sir James Graham of Netherby, we pointed out oiie form of disease to a most respectable nurseryman, who was showing us a large stock of as fine larch as any person could wish to see in a nursery. The plants were what is called two years' seedlings two years transplanted. Disease in one form was on many of them, and we suppose, from the appearance of seem^ ingly dried-up small protuberances on the stems (p,nd branches; that they may have been the remains of the Peziza calycina, noticed in the case of Sir William G. Trevelyan's trees by Mr Berkeley in his very interr esting paper above referred to. Be this as it may, on removing the dried-up pro- tuberances with the point of a penknife, we found the wood brown and seemingly dead under it, and this appearance extended a considerable way up the stem and branches. It may be here remarked, that on tak- ing up the trees to examine what kind of roots they had, we were struck with the rather unusual quantity of a whitish spawn-like matter attached to the roots, and in the soil around them, similar in appearance, at least, to that often found in very dry vegetable mould. May not this have been the spawn of Peziza calycina? and if such, may it not have become developed, and, 100 THE LARCH DISEASE. in dying away, have caused the small protuberances referred to, and which may have been generated in the soil previously cropped with Scots fir, or probably larch ? May not the seeds of this fungus have been car- ried through the air from wherever the parent fungus had come to maturity, and, finding a proper nidus either in the soil or the previous crop, or on the bark of the present crop of larch trees, have developed itself on them, and, .finding its way into the soU, have there formed the mycelium-like matter ? This does not, however, affect Mr Berkeley's opinion as regards the way in which the spawn of Polyporus de- structor, or any other fungus, finds its way into the intg;rior of the trees, but tends so far to show that there may be more than one, or even several species of fungi, engaged in the destruction of the larch. Trees, by reason of constitutional debility, become in a fit state whereon fungi would take up their abode, for it is seldom that trees in a healthy state are subject to fungoid attacks. Mr Berkeley is rather mistaken in stating the time and appearance of the disease. Apart from the case just referred to, he may be assured that in many cases the foliage becomes brown, the young branches die, and the whole tree assumes the appearance of having been scalded with hot water, and not a few of the trees die outright, from the height of from three to four feet • up to twenty or thirty and upwards, many of such trees being rotten at the heart. ,. Even this sickly appearance is no certain criterion THE LABCH DISEASE. 101 of the piping, or internal decay. Even the external appearance of rapid growth, or the increase in bulk of- trunk by measurement, is no certain rule that the tree is sound at the heart ; for it will often be found, on felling a tree quite rotteii internally, that it has been making thicker annular layers than another close by it, which may be quite sound. Nor is the healthy smooth appearance of the bark to be depended on either, this being more an indication of rapidity in growth than of soundness of timber. It would be well if the piping, pumping, or internal decay in the timber did not take place till the trees are nearly fit for rail- way-sleepers, as asserted by Mr Berkeley; because prior to that they could be used for coal-pit props and fencing, two purposes which pay better than any other, because the crop comes off early, say at one-fourth the age it is fit for sleepers. The stage in the growth of larch between that of being fit for coal -props and fencing, and that of being fit for sleepers, is its least valuable period. Poles that wiU measure three inches in diameter at the top end, and from six feet in length upwards, find a ready market, and those that will cut into sleepers nine to ten inches in breadth can also be well sold ; while the intermediate stages, being too small for the one purpose, and too large to be advan tageously used for the other, are always sold at a very great loss. Indeed, few people cut down trees between those sizes if they can avoid it. My profession calls me over the greater part of Scot- land and much of England, and my observations lead 102 THE LABCH DISEASE. to the conclusion that, generally speaking, there are few larch plantations under fifty years' growth that are wholly exempt from this disease, and that its virulence is somewhat in proportion from that age of the trees downwards. There are no doubt exceptions to this rule, but they are few indeed. Many plantations, but not all, above seventy years' growth are comparatively healthy ; and in those from eighty to one hundred years little or no disease is found, except that arising from old age. Such trees having arrived at their fuU matu- rity, and obeying a universal law in nature, cease after a time to grow, and begin to decay, some sooner than others, according to the circumstances they have been grown under. One of the originally introduced trees, known to have been planted 130 years, was blown down about five years ago at Monzie, and was sound and perfect in every respect. Its companion is still in a very healthy and vigorous state, although both grew on the edge of a pond in front of the garden, and not many feet dis- tant from the water, their roots, no doubt, deriving moisture from that source. The larch, like all other trees, attains its full maturity sooner or later, according as the soU and situation is favourable to its growth, but in order to this they must be exempt from parental disease. If so, they will be found to have attained, in this country at least, their greatest value for the pur- poses of the joiner when from ninety to one hundred years old ; because not till then has the timber arrived at a state of maturity fit for his purpose. At an earlier THE LARCH DISEASE. 103 period they will be fit for inferior purposes, sucli as roofing and joisting ; and for raUway-sleepers, when three or four sleepers from three to four inches in thicknessy and from nine to ten inches in breadth, can be cut out of the first nine feet of trunk ; from two to three from the next nine feet ; and from two to one from the third cut upwards, the remainder of the top coming in for other purposes : at that age and size they will be found to be the most valuable to the pro- prietor. ' IX. — THE ACCIDENTAL MISFORTUNES THE LAECH IS LIABLE TO. The larch, in common with aU other trees, is Hable to many accidental misfortunes. The principal of these are, the attacks of insects, parasitic fungi, late spring- frosts, disease in the bark, atmospheric changes, &c. " I have frequently witnessed, when a plantation has been formed altogether of larch, that after the age of twenty-five or thirty years the root has gone to decay, for which I can assign no other reason than that the ground becomes overcharged with vegetable matter of its own production, which may not always be essential to promote vegetation ; but if imparted in a greater quantity than the plant can absorb, may 104 THE LAECH DISEASE. have a tendency (like other stimulants when too strong) to produce premature decay. Whereas, if consistently mixed with other descriptions of trees, they will mutu- ally absorb the unnecessary surplus of what is disen- gaged from each other, and not necessary for their individual growth." — (J. Elliot, in Gardeners' Jour- nal, 1851, p. 164) Neither the deposit of vegetable matter, nor what is called the excrementitious matter thrown off by the roots, can be the cause as here suggested. At the a,ge of twenty-five to thirty years the roots have more probably penetrated to a wet or uncongenial " sub- soil, and although they may have existed for a time under such circumstances, must at last give way. Decay in general does not take place suddenly ; it takes, in some cases, several years for the roots to get so deep, and some more before their functions become so deranged as to show very marked effects on the tree itself. We find also that the larch, even when planted in the mixed manner, is not more exempt from the rot than when grown in plantations com- posed entirely of itself. " Is there no ground ioi supposing that an ex- cessive annual deposit of alburnum has some hand in the matter of decay 1 If we examine a tree that is pumped, we find it is the growth of the first ten or fifteen years that has given way ; and generally the decay extends to that side of the tree upon which the rings are broadest ; while the outer rings, that have been formed of less extensive deposits, are quite THE LAKCH DISEASE; 105 sound. This circumstance comes with, considerable force against the opinion that the sole cause is the soil ; for if this were the fact, how is it that the. attack is not aU over the tree at once ? But no : it is in general confined to the growth of the first ten or fifteen years, and to nearly as many feet up from the root, leaving the outer rings sound, until age brings about that natural decay to which every vegetable body is liable." — (MuNKO, in Oard. Mag., p. 555.) The excessive annual deposit of alburnum is occa- sioned by the trees being planted in too rich a soil. We find it is not always at the centre of the tree that rot or pumping takes place, sometimes in parts at a greater or less distance from the centre, as shown by Mr Webster (yide Appendix), and also by Mr Grigor of Forres, who says : " Old trees, when cut- down, are frequently found to be extensively diseased where the centre and many of the first-formed rings of wood are perfectly sound. This, however, is not uniformly the case ; but as the circumstance occurs, it shows that the disease had not existed in the young plant, nor arisen in consequence of the treatment bestowed on it during the first stages of its growth." The decay appearing first in the broadest rings, and less in the narrow ones, or more matured wood, shows the disease to be communicated by or through the larger descending roots, which have penett'p.ted beyond the surface-soil; and it is frequently observed that the decayed spots in the trunk have a most intimate con- nection with such roots, and such roots themselves 106 THE LARCH DISEASE. become ultiniately a mass of fetid ■ saponaceous-like matter. The narrow and sound rings are produced with a more limited supply of food, and that princi- pally, if not entirely, from the few surface-roots and the air they breathe ; for it should be kept in mind that plants derive a considerable amount of their nourishment from the air through their leaves, as well as directly through their roots. The nourishment they receive from the two latter sources being of a more wholesome description, may continue the tree in existence for many years after the whole of the heart-wood has become decayed, as instanced in so many trees of several centuries' growth, which continue to live after the formations of previous centuries have completely disappeared. " Most writers lay the fault to the soil, and this supposition is in a great measure correct, if cUmate be taken in conjunction with it. When larch and spruce firs are young, they grow often rapidly, and the wood formed at that period is very porous both in trunk and roots. As the tree advances in age, the supply for their growth is less, from the soil being greatly exhausted, and often from the trees not being thinned out in proper time. The outer case of wood then formed is less porous, and becomes in time too compact to admit air to the early formed wood within. This latter being of a coarse grain, the dry-rot begins to infect it in the same manner as it attacks wood which has been painted in a green state, the paint excluding the au" from the inside wood The decay THE LARCH DISEASE. 107 in trees goes on more or less rapidly, according to the grain of the wood. It ascends the trunk, and makes its way along the roots. As the disease advances, the sap collected in the fibres passes with difficulty through the decayed conductors to the trunk, and the trees, become sickly, although the small roots and fibres, where the sap accumulates, be healthy. As a further proof that decay proceeds from too quick a growth, the trees that have grown beside decayed ones, but happened to grow slowly, have been found sound ; and it may often be observed in trees partly decayed, that it is the quick growths in the trunk that are rotten. It is a common observation, that a tree has got down to a soil which it does not Hke. If the soil were at fault, the wood grown, there would be bad;^ whereas in reality it is the best. The error lies in the supposition that the decay proceeds from age, soil, and climate; but its foundation is already laid in the youth of the tree. It is a well-known fact, that trees growing in a cold, barren situation are always sound Their growths are small, and the wood in consequence is durable. The remedy requu-ed for the evil requires very little reflection. Let larch be planted in poor soil, resembling as nearly as possible that of their original native region, and if possible on elevated situations ; and let them be properly thinned out whUe young, to admit air freely around them._ The further they are from the desired soil and situa- tion the greater attention must be paid to this im- portant point, so that the growth of the trees may 108 THE LAECH DISEASK. not be accelerated by too much wanntL If tbe rot proceeds not from the exclusion of air from the heart of the tree; by the great closeness of grain of the ex- ternal wood, there can, at least, be no doubt that the seeds of decay are first sown by too rapid growtL" — (J. WiGHTON, in Gard,. Chron., 1843, p. 542.) AH resinous trees, especially the larch, suffer con- siderably from the sudden changes of the weather during the summer season, which cause them to ex- ude a gummy matter, and this partly robs the tree of its nourishment. The lashing of the branches against each other by stormy winds, while the leaves are young and tender, is much more injurious to the larch than is generally supposed ; and this evil is increased ia proportion to the exposed nature of the situation. Larches planted along the sky-line of even a moderately elevated hUl are very subject to this evil ; and the higher the altitude the more it is evident. Even thin, narrow belts of larch stretching across a level plain, and this in low and warm places, suffer from this cause almost as much as from any other. The larch may be denominated a gregarious tree, and to thrive well it must be grown in large masses ; for notwithstanding its being an alpine tree, it is rarely found except in the great chasms or gullies of the mountain-sides, not near t heir_ s ummits, but in places where some d^ree of skelter is aflor&ed it by huge rocky prominences, or some other such defence. In nature, trees are never found indiscriminately scattered, but the various genera and species are THE LARCH DISEASE. 109 always associated in larger or smaller masses or groups I -^the association being doubtless influenced by climate, ' soil, shelter, moisture, but often by circi;imstances not | easily recognised. " One fact seems to be universally admitted, namely, that the disease commences at the roots, and proceeds upwards. May it not be inferred that the larch, like most others of the fir tribe, has not the power, like most hard woods, of reproducing either young roots or young shoots, when these receive any considerable check ; that any particular injury done to those, par- ticularly to the roots, either from the effects of drought, moisture, or insects destroyiug the functions of the leaves, and thereby retarding the returning flow of proper sap to the roots and other parts of the tree, or any other cause whatever, must at first weaken the whole plant, and render it less able to exist under repeated attacks arising from the same or other causes?" — (A. Patterson, in Qard. Chron., 1853, p. 88.) The larch often assumes the appearance of old age, and to some persons the appearance of decay, when only from thirty to forty years' growth. Nevertheless, such trees are often found quite sound at the heart, and fit for any purpose to which their dimensions are suited. They indicate all the. maturity they ever will attain, by the tops of their branches dying, the foliage assuming a sickly yellow hue, and their bark becoming dry, hard, and corky ; and when cut down, the wood wiU be found ripened to within a very small distance 110 THE LAECH DISEASE; from the bark. This early maturity is not the effect of the prevailing disease, but of a deficiency of food either through their roots or leaves. As their life-functions have ceased, the sooner such trees are felled the better. There is another form of disease prevalent in many parts of the country, which assumes somewhat the appearance of gum and canker in fruit-trees ; first one branch gives way, and then another, and at the points of union of such branches with the trunk a blackish liquid issues ; the ascent of the sap seems to be impeded, and the alburnum is dispersed in rather large quantities on each side of the affected part, which gives the trunk a very gouty appearance, and ultimately the tree sickens and dies. Another authority describes this disease as first appearing like a small blister, from which a little stream of resin trickles down ; it eats in deeper and deeper every year, tUl the tree dies. It appears, from the state of the trees when cut down, to arise from a superabundance of resin. It seems most common in very dry soils. This is known as the ulcerous disease. The disease called " bark or hide bound " is very frequently found to exist where the larch has been planted at too great an altitude, where growing on the outside of exposed plantations, where planted on some very poor soUs, or too dry ones, and where in situations that are too much exposed to cold evaporat- ing winds, and too near the sea; and it also some^ times arises from too severe pruning, or even ovejr- thinning. The cause is the same in aU these cases, THE LASCH DISEASE. Ill excepting those in too poor or too dry soils — namely, a suspension of the sap-flow, or so diminished a supply of it, on account of the drying cold and evaporating action of the atmosphere, that the foliage is unable to draw a sufficient supply of food from the roots ; the sap-vessels become collapsed, and the bark adheres to the trunk, becoming hard, dry, and corkJike. In the case of too poor or too dry a soU, the trees suffer from starvation, the soil being deficient in the pro- per amount of pabulum necessary for their susten- ance. The sooner trees so circumstanced are cut down the better. The remedy applied to deciduous trees, namely, what is called scoring— that is, making a Iout gitudinal incision down the bark — cannot be safely practised on coniferous trees. The larch is subject, in cold, damp, and high situ- ations, and also in damp and overcrowded plantations, to be infested with various species of cr3rptogamic para- sites ; of these the Cenomyce rangiferina, Alectoria juhata, Ramalina fraxinia, R. farinacea, JJsnea bar- bata, Parmelia perlata, are amongst the most com- mon. In all wet districts these are very common; while in dry ones they seldom appear, unless the land is very wet and the trees much too crowded. Drain- ing the ground, and thinning so as to admit a suffi- cient circulation of air, are the necessary precautions. The premature production of cones is a certain indi- cation of want of health, and of sufficient constitutional vigour to warrant the tree's arriving at anything like a useful size. It is also one of the most certain symp-r 112 THE LARCH 'DISEASE. toms that disease has made considerable progress ia the tree. No larch tree in the full vigour of health, and in the rapid formation of timber, will bear cones profusely until it has arrived at something like matu- rity. The period at which this maturity is attained depends on circumstances, such as the soil and situation in which the tree is growiag. In the most favourable soils and situations for the full • development of the tree, and in the absence of paternal disease, few cones will be formed while in a young state. Afterwards it will produce cones in greater quantities as its life draws towards a conclusion, but never in such profu- sion as in a tree in an unhealthy state. In less con- genial soUs and situations the tree will come into a cone-bearing state sooner ; but this only indicates its approaching dissolution, and points out the propriety of its removal. From such trees no seed should be gathered, if a healthy progeny is the object in view. "The larch is subject to an atmospheric blight, which has been observed to some extent for many years, and which of late has fallen with great severity. It occurs at various periods when the tree is in leaf, but most frequently about the end of July or beginning of August. It blasts the foliage, giving it a yellowish tinge or ripened appearance, particularly the oldest leaves ; those recently expanded appearing only slightly affected, except in severe cases. Its effects are frequently ascribed to frost ; but it commonly occurs during warm weather, when the thermometer indicates a high tem- perature. Its effects become evident the following THE LARCH DISEASE. 113 season, by want of foliage, and numerous dead branches throughout the tree." — (Mr Geigok, in Morton's Cyclo- pedia.) For this malady there . appears to be no re- medy within the power of man. It has, however, been much less severe on trees upon a northern exposure than on such as stand more exposed to the sun. The state of the atmosphere at the time of the attack is close and muggy, with scarcely any movement in the air. We have also remarked that this occurs on level tracts of ground more generally than on sloping banks or on hiU-sides. The iusect which is most injurious to the larch is the spruce -pine weevil, Curculio (Hylobius) ahietis, Gurculio pini of Linn., figured in The Booh of the Garden, fig. 232, and described at p. 535, vol. ii., of same work. This beetle frequently attacks newly- planted larch, or such as are sickly. It operates by stripping off the bark, and often scooping out the buds of the leading shoots. The favourite resort of these beetles are those spots where pines were felled, and where the roots and branches are allowed to remain ; although they are found at times, when they have in- creased very much, in other places, such as young plantations, or ground not previously cropped with firs, on account of their power of flight. They pass the winter in the felled trees, or in the left roots, and are found in spring on the lower branches of the young trees, that are covered with grass and moss. These beetles collect in such places in July and August, at the time of laying their eggs, in great numbers. Of H 114 THE LAECH DISEASE. their continuance in the larva state nothing is distinctly known: they seem, however, to pass the winter un- changed. Prom observations made at Airdrie and other places, it appears that they attack the young trees in greatest numbers when they have been planted on ground formerly carrying the same kind of crop, and from which the old roots have not been removed. An instance is recorded in the Gardeners' Chronicle of a plantation in Eoss-shire, of ten acres extent, " that was planted with two years' transplanted larch, spruce, and common fir, upon ground which had been newly cleared of fir timber. The larah plants were aU destroyed by this weevil, which commenced its opera- tions at the root, and stripped every plant of the bark up to the summit ; but some larches in the same field, and about nine years' old and twelve feet in height, remained untouched, as well as about 100 acres of larch in the neighbourhood, which were planted about fourteen years previous, and immediately after an old fir wood had been cut down." We make this quotation to show that the rule is not in all cases the same, but in too many it is so to a fearful ex- tent. "No degree of cold can injure the larch during winter, but few trees are more sensitive of the slight- est touch of frost while in foliage. On southern expo- sures, along the warm slopes of steep mountains, it is a very precarious tree. The fine weather which frequently occurs in the end of March and beginning of April, readUy brings trees in such situations into THE LAEOH DISEASE. 115 full leaf, to be blighted by a succeeding frost, from the effects of which they are very slow in recovering, and sometimes die. One of the largest plantations ever formed in Strathspey lately died, to a great extent, from this cause, along the southern slopes, a few years after the trees were inserted. On the flats or level grounds of the same plantation the casualty was only perceptible, while on the northern declivities the plants were exempt from injury." — (Mr Geigoe, in Morton's Cyclopedia.) Two of the greatest enemies to the larch are whoUy beyond our control — viz. late spring-frosts after the trees have begun to grow, and a wet autumn inducing them to grow too long, and preventing the wood ripening before winter frosts set in. Plantations hav- ing a northern exposure, on account of the plants not becoming excited too early, suffer much less in this way than those having an easterly or southerly expo- sure. This was very strikingly exempKfied a few years ago, before so many of the larch trees were cut down on that hill called the Knock of Crieff, the southern side belonging to the Perntower property, and the northern to that of Monzie. Not only did the former exhibit disease in the foliage and young shoots, but such trees as we saw prostrated were in many cases diseased at the heart, while scarcely one was observed to be so on the northern side. "Dry-rot may be traced, in the first instance, to some alteration in the woody tissue produced by mois- ture, or other, causes, and the subsequent develop:* 116 THE LARCH DISEASE. ment of a fungus, which spreads its mycelium through the texture, and produces rapid disorganisation. Trees growing on wet or ill-drained soil are subject to rot. The more abimdant the alburnum or sap-wood, the more liable are trees to decay. The disease which has recently attacked the larch is attributed by some to the roots reaching ungenial soU, and to the production of dry-rot. This rot in the larch begins in the heart- wood near the root, and it spreads outwards, layer after layer crumbling like sawdust. Among the crumbling mass is to be found in abundance the my- celium of some fungus. When the rot has reached the alburnum, a thick leathery white formation appears between the bark and the wood, which formation is identical with the appearances connected with dry-rot. In dry-rot the decay takes place, in the first instance, in the contents of the woody tubes, and thus a suitable soU is supplied for the spores of fungi, such as Meru- lius lacrymans arvastator, and. Polyporus destructor. When these plants begin to grow, they spread their mycelium with great rapidity. The spawn of the dry- rot fungus deprives the woody tubes of their contents for the purpose of getting the nourishment it requires, and the wood loses its consistency and toughness, the walls of the tubes becoming brittle and ruptured." — (Balfoue's Text-Book of Botany.) Few attempts have been made to arrest the progress of heart-rot in trees while in a living state. That of Boucheiie is the most feasible, but certainly less appli- cable to coniferous trees than to others. " In a grow- THE LARCH DISEASE. IIT irig tree he made a large opening in the lower part of the trunk, sawiag out a portion of the stem so as to allow the tree to be supported only by two narrow portions of the wood on each side ; then, by putting a waterproof bag around the stem below this large transverse opening, so that he could insert the fluid into it, he found that he could cause the tree to absorb rapidly a large quantity of solutions of pyrolignite of iron and of chloride of lime." — (Professor Balfoue, in Glass-Book of Botany^ Boucherie says that a poplar, ninety-two feet high, absorbed in six days nearly sixty- six gallons of a solution of pyrolignite of iron. Solu-' tions of acetate of lead and corrosive sublimate were also tried by the same experimenter ; chloride of zinc by Sir W. Burnett, and creosote by Mr Bethell. How- ever useful these may be in the preservation of timber after the trees are felled, they cannot be practically em- ployed to any useful extent upon living trees. Two of our correspondents — Mr Doughty and Mr Baty — ^inform us that the ulcerous disease occurred in the plantations at Drumlanrig Castle, and also at Netherby Hall, exactly at the same period — ^namely, in 1845, a year remarkable for atmospheric epidemics ; the potato disease, for example. The former informs us that "the first appearance of the ulcerous disease at Drumlanrig was in the spring of 1845 — the ther- miometer ranging from 19° to 79°, night and day, with little variation, for ten weeks or more after the larch had partially expanded its leaves." If it should, be found that this phenomenon was of general occurrence, 118 THE LAECH DISEASE. then it might lead us to the belief that the disease is more the effect of atmospheric action than may be at present supposed. The ulcerous disease and heart-rot sue two very distinct maladies — the former may be said to be external, while the latter is internal — and not merely forms of the same disease ; and they owe their existence to very different causes : the former, no doubt, in a great measure to atmospheric influences, as stated by Mr Doughty, and also to too low a general temperature, in consequence of being planted at too great altitudes ; for in such it is of frequent occurrence, 'and in too exposed places even at much lower eleva- tions. Soil also, in certain districts, produces similar effects ; and hence we find it so virulent throughout the whole of Annandale and Nithsdale, the lower parts of Tweeddale, Teviotdale, &c., aU of which are of the red-sand character. The heart-rot is no doubt, in many cases, propa- gated by infection, by seminal degeneracy, atmospheric influences, uncongenial soils of various conditions, but most especially on the red - sandstone formation, as clearly stated by Sir WiUiam Jardine, and other au- thorities we have adduced. This opinion is also strengthened by a remark made to us the other day by Mr M'Alpin Lenny, of Dalswinton, "that there are few healthy krch-trees in Nithsdale." This gentleman speaks from sad experience ; and no one travelling between Melrose and Hawick can fail to be convinced of the same, as it would be a difficult matter to point out one larch in a thousand that has the least appear- THE LAKCH DISEASE. 119 ance of being in a healthy state. I^'otwithstanding the mass of evidence we have before us, all proving most incontestably the precarious state of the larch as at present existing, still there is so wide a range between many of those opinions, as to render it a matter of no small difficulty to arrive at any general conclusion as to the' primary cause. Of certain causes, however, there can be no doubt, and if these are conceded, the limits of the question become considerably narrowed. 1st. We take these to be, degeneracy in a large proportion of the present stock, arising from their being the oflFspring of diseased parents. 2d. That larch will not long continue in a pros- perous state when planted on the red-sandstone forma- tion. 3d. That, to attain its largest and most useful size, a clear bright atmosphere, at a moderate elevation, sloping rather than flat surfaces, sufficient ventilation to admit of the leaves performing their proper functions, neither too wet nor too^dry a soil, are conditions essen- tially necessary. 4th. Conditions to be avoided : Never plant larch on ground recently cleared of a crop of any coniferous tree. Keep within reasonable limits of altitude : do not prune. Parasitic fungi, and cryptogamic algae, are the effect, and not the cause, of heart disease. The attacks of insects are seldom serious ; they are more the effect of disease arising from some derangement in the system 120 THE LARCH DISEASE. of the plant, than the cause of it. Blighting or appa- rent scorching of the foliage during summer we have no control over. The effects of spring frosts may be greatly prevented by avoiding planting in too low and damp situations, or near stagnant pools or sluggish rivers — all of which attract frost more than higher and drier situations do. If these conditions were adopted, and care taken to procure seed from healthy, vigorous trees of mature age (at whatever cost), we have little reason to doubt that a new generation of larch would arise, as free from the present disease as those out of which those magnificent specimens were taken which once were the glory and pride of our native country. APPENDIX. With a view of obtaining a greater amount of practical opinions regarding the state of the larch plantations in other localities than those already given, we addressed the following queries to several of our arboricultural friends and timber- merchants. The following are some of the most important replies received : — Query 1st. — Does the larch-rot prevail in your plan- tations ? Do you think it worse in young trees, say from thirty to fifty years' growth, than in trees of much greater age? Answer 1st. — " In the various estates on which I have bought wood, I find disease amongst larches to a greater or less extent, and consider it is greater in trees under than above fifty years' growth." — (James Ewbn, timber- merchant, Forfar.) 2d. — " There were a good many of the larch on the top of Craigwood badly gone with rot, and some in Yellow Craig also ; these being the only lots I have as yet cut on the Craigdarroch property. There were none of the did larch but was quite sound, either in my purchase or that of Mr Martin. I think the old larch would be about seventy years old." — (.James Donaldson, timber- merchant, Dairy, Castle-Douglas.) 122 APPENDIX. 3d. — " In the plantations on both the Airlie and Cor- tachy Castle estates, the disease in the larch (dry-rot) is quite common, and mostly in the younger plantations under fifty years' growth. We have several healthy old trees, which have apparently had plenty of room to de- velop themselves in a natural form." — (W. 0. Lamond, Cortachy Castle, Kirriemuir.)' 4th. — " The rot is found in larch trees in all stages of their growth, to a considerable extent, in the plantations here, from the thickness of a gun-barrel to the largest size. Unless it is in patches where soil and situation are unsuited, it is more observed in trees above thirty to forty years' growth than under." — (John Webster, Gordon Cas- tle, Fochabers.) 5th. — ■" The dry-rot, or decay at the heart, in the larch, is making its appearance in some of Sir James Graham's plantations. I find it to prevail mostly at from thirty- five to forty-five years' growth, and on. very light land on a gravelly siibsoil. I have also observed, in trees of sixty years' growth, a portion of the centre, three inches in dia- meter, entirely rotten for twelve feet in length. This occurred on good dry land lying on a bed of red free- stone." — (W. M. Batt, head forester at Netherby Hall.) 6th. — " The disease exists to a great extent in certain places. The internal rot differs from the larch disease : the latter, an ulcerous disease, is seen here on all larch trees, from two years old to sixty and upwards : it is worse from five to fifteen years of age. In many cases, trees between these ages, and even above, have been entirely destroyed."— (D. Doughty, head forester to the Duke of Buccleuch on the Queensberry estates.) Query 2d. — At what age of tree does the disease appear, and what are its first symptoms ? Answer 1st. — " The rot may be often detected at an early age, by cutting down the trees, say from six to APPENDIX. 123 seven years after planting." — (Mr Waddeelby, Kirkoud- brightshire.) 2d. — " I have seen disease in situations unsuited for the larch in trees under six feet in height. Its first appear- ance is shortness of growth, and an early tendency to pro- duce cones." — (J. Webster.) 3d.—" Its first symptoms appear in the timber about twenty-five years of age, by fogging of the bark, and decay at top of tree and the extremity of its branches." — (James EWEN.) 4th. — " I cannot, from my own experience, say how early disease occurs. In thick neglected plantations I have seen it at the age of say twenty to twenty-five years." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 5th. — " The disease, I observe, has generally made its appearance on the trees at from eight to ten years of age — (this year I have observed them on trees threeyears old, . in nursery-ground, for the first time). Its first symptoms are discoloured spots on the bark, which extend to three or four inches in diameter on the stem of the tree, resembling a canker or ring-worm. It also affects the branches so much that they die, and in most cases the tree itself. In cutting into one of those diseased spots, I find the disease to spring from the core of the tree" — (our correspondent alludes here to the ulcerous disease, and observes) — " and my opinion is, that the larch is now weak in its constitution, caused, I am afraid] from want of care and attention being paid to gathering the seed from good healthy trees." — (W. M. Batt.) Query 3d. — Is the disease found to exist on very dry or only on very wet lands — that is, in soils deficient in drainage ? Answer 1st.—" The larch luxuriates on dry stony soils ; a wet cold subsoil shortens its life more than rot." — (Mr Waddeelby.) 124 APPENDIX. 2d. — " It is certainly much worse here (Gordon Castle), upon very dry soils, than on moist (unless on ground actually requiring draining), and more particularly if the bottom or subsoil is very dry." — (J. Webstee.) 3d. — " The rot is found on very dry, or only on very wet land — that is, soil deficient in drainage ; also in dry shingle or gravelly land, but much less on medium moist soils." — (James Ewen.) 4th. — "The rot is worst on very dryland sloping steeply towards the south and west. I have never seen larch thrive on land deficient in drainage." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 5th. — " The disease in our plantations exists.and pre- vails with more virulence on dry land than on wet. Where it has proved most destructive, and where I have had all the larch to out down entirely, was on light dry land, lying on limestone, and particularly red-sandstone rock. It has also been very severe on black-topped land ap- proaching to peat-moss. All our moorlands, where wet, are drained from ten to twelve yards apart, the drains being open cuts two feet deep, and two to two and a-half feet wide at the top. The disease is on all our larch from ten to forty years' growth. Larch above that age has no ap- pearance of disease as yet." — (W. M. Baty.) Query 4th. — Is it healthy on deep loamy soils, and in sheltered situations ? Answer 1st. — " I consider it healthy on deep loamy soil, well sheltered." — (J. Ewen.) 2d. — " It keeps healthy to a greater age on deep loam, especially if a sandy loam, and well sheltered from high winds, its branches being very brittle when old." — (J. Webster.) Query 5th. — Is it healthy on poor moorland, where scarcely any heath or other vegetation occurs? Is it healthy where heath grows strong ? APPENDIS. 125 Answer 1st. — " The larch grows particularly well on moorland, and amongst strong heath it luxuriates." — (Mr Wadderlet.) 2d. — " The larch is not healthy on poor moorland, where scarcely heath or other vegetation exists. Where heath grows strong, the larch is in general found healthy." — (James Ewen.) 3d. — " I have not seen the larch succeed as a crop on such soils, yet on the Sidlaw Hills, where larch and Scots fir were planted nearly alternately, the larch alone remains, and on dry spots with a northern exposure. In hollows where heath grew very strong, if drained, larch grows freely."— (W. 0. Lamond.) 4th. — " The larch succeeds on moorland with a cool or clayey bottom, but very badly on a looser and gravelly bottom, or subsoil." — (J. Webster.) 5th. — " It is pretty healthy on moorland, but, of course, of much slower growth, owing to the inferiority of the soil, and the exposure of the- situation. It is in good condition where heath has grown strong ; and as the trees advance in age and size, they destroy the heath from the surface of such land." — (W. M. Baty.) 6th. — " Of the two, the larch grows better on land ■where heath has been strong, if the subsoil is good, and the land not mossy." — (D. Doughty.) 7th. — " Larch, I find, thrives well where heath grows strong : it afibrds the best of shelter to them while young, both from rabbits and hares, and also partially shades them from the sun during their first year, when their roots are not in full action." — (James Walker.) Query 6th. — Is the larch diseased when planted on land that has yielded a previous crop of larch, Scots firs, or other trees ? Answer 1st. — " It will not do to plant larch where a crop of the same kind of tree has been just taken from, 126 APPENDIX. at least for three or four years after. Of this I have had experieuoe ; but it does well- to plant after various kinds of hardwood. I do not approve of planting larch in this locality (Castle-Douglas) in the spring : plants generally do- best when planted in autumn." — (James Donaldson.) 2d. — " To plant young larch where old larch has been grown is a bad practice; but I have seen it do nicely where Soots or other firs had been grown." — (Mr Wad- DBRLBY.) 3d. — " It grows freely after a crop of Scots firs ; but I have had no experience of its growing after a crop of its own species." — (J. Webster.) 4th. — " Except where the land had been trenched, I seldom or ever saw larch thrive when planted where trees had been previously grown." — (Jambs Ewen.) 5th.^ — " On good loamy soils I have seen a second crop of larch growing well. The young plants, during the first, second, and third years, are apt to be attacked by an insect — (not having seen specimens of this insect, we presume it to be Curculio (Hylohius) abietis, already described) — that barks them near the base of the year's growth. My experience only refers to trees about eight years planted. I would prefer a mixture of deciduous trees to a crop of larch alone." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 6th. — " They do not grow so well when planted on ground where a crop of firs has been cut from." — (D. Doughty.) 7th. — " The larch, when planted on land the following year that has yielded a crop of larch and Scots fir, is diseased. I have known an experiment made on a piece of woodland of this description, and the first year three parts of the trees died ; it was replanted the second year, and one-half died ; and in the third year it was made up again, and there was still a failure of about one-fourth. The general opinion in this part (Longton) is, that such woodlands should be pastured for three years before APPENDIX. 127 replanting. This allows time for the decomposition of the resin (or whatever other deleterious matter may be in the old fir roots, and which poisons the soil) j this impure soil affects the fibres of the young tree roots. The bark becomes black and hide-bound, and the trees are also very liable to the ravages of insects. I am confident proprie- tors would be considerable gainers by allowing such old woodland to rest during three years before replanting." — (W. M. Baty.) Query 7th. — Is the larch healthier on steepish banks, in gullies, where water occcuionally runs over the roots 1 Answer 1st. — " If the soU is porous, it grows freely ; the trees on the shaded banks grow most luxuriantly." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 2d. — " The larch is generally healthy on steepish banks, in dens or gullies, where water occasionally runs over the roots." — (J. EwEN.) 3d. — " It grows well on steep banks, and water running moderately, or rather occasionally, over the roots, does no harm, but rather good." — (Mr Wadderlet.) •ith. — " It does well on steep banks and in gullies, where a stream runs ovet a part of its roots constantly. In such situations we have cut some of our largest and sound- est trees." — (J. Webster.) 5th. — " Although the larch is unhealthy in low and marshy grounds, it will thrive where water runs over its roots occasionally." — (D. Doughty.) 6th. — " The larch is on this estate (Netherby) very healthy on steep banks and in deep ravines, the soil in such situations, in most cases, being good and pure, owing to the quick and rapid descent of water from their roots." — (W. M. Baty.) 7th. — " The soundest and best quality of larch in my purchase was those in the steep bank on Crookham farm, where the springs and land-drains discharged their water 128 APPENDIX. during winter. The trees were quite sound of shakes and rot, very different from those in the adjoining plantation, where the soil was comparatively dry, but the trees were much more exposed to the wind. Those on the high ground above the farm have turned out a bad lot, being much affected by the ulcerous disease, which I take to be caused by their high and cold situation." — (W. Eichaeds.) Query 8th. — On what soil and subsoil is the larch most healthy 1 Answer 1st. — " I find the larch most healthy on good sharp land, and unhealthy on gravel and poor land." — (J. EWEN.) 2d. — " Deepish soil on a porous subsoil." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 3d. — " I have found it freest from disease on a deep sandy loam with a cool clay subsoil. On the edge of a large fir plantation, where a considerable portion of the trees were larch of large size, and grown on soil as above, it was found, when thrown down, to be quite free from rot." — (J. Webstbb.) 4th. — " The larch is most healthy here on a deep soU and clayey subsoil, and on alluvial deposits. The larch roots often descend to a great depth. I have seen a very fine one, one hundred feet high, which was blown down, and whose roots had grown five feet perpendicular into the earth."— (W. M. Batt.) Query 9th. — On what soil and subsoil is it most un- healthy 1 Answer 1st. — " On thin gravelly soil, and loam contain- ing oxide of iron, and a very dry subsoil." — (J. Webster.) 2d. — " On thin mossy soil, with an impervious subsoil, sloping to the south and west, at a high altitude." — (W. 0. Lamond.) APPENDIX. 129 3d. — " On cold till, freestone (red sandstone), and clay subsoils." — (D. Doughty.) 4th. — " Invariably unhealthy on red-sandstone soils." — (Petbe M'Adam.) Query 10th. — At what altitude above the sea does the larch begin to fail to be a profitable tree ? Answer 1st. — " My experience does not warrant me in answering this ; but I suppose it would depend upon its distance from the sea." — (J. Webstbk.) 2d. — " In this district (Castle-Douglas) about 400 feet." — (Mr Waddeelet.) 3d. — " Much depends on the surrounding shelter : in dens or gullies of good soil, perhaps the summit of the Sidlaw Hills is not too high. On a hill exposed on all sides, and of indifferent soil, 300 feet above the surround- ing level may be its limit ; say 600 feet above the level of the sea."^(W. 0. Lamond.) 4th. — " On the property of Murray AUan^ Esq. of Glen- feochan, on the west coast of Argyllshire, the larch attains a good size at from 300 to nearly 400 feet above the sea, but refuses to grow at 600 feet." — (John Staeporth, Esq.) 5th. — " Trees on low flat ground, and on hill-sides, 700 or 800 feet high, are diseased." — (D. Doughty.) 6th. — " It is scarcely possible to say at what exact alti- tude above the sea the larch would not exist, if onco planted, but mere existence and attaining a profitable size are widely different. It will grow to a size fit for pit-props, inferior fencing, and broom handles, at a height of some- thing less than 1000 feet. With me it only attains what I call a profitable timber size at less than half of that height ; but much depends on the sitaation as to what natural shelter it receives from rocks or higher grounds. I was induced, some years ago, at the suggestion of a wood professor, to plant a hill with larch and Scots fir at a re- 130 APPENDIX. puted altitude of 800 feet: the Scots, my forester reports, are thriving, and I believe they are the true Higliland variety — at least they were purchased as such ; but the larch have nearly all disappeared. Rabbits are not to blame, for I believe there are none on the property, and I am sorry to say hares are so few in number that they could not have caused the damage." — (J. W. B., Argyll- shire.) 7th. — " The larch will grow to be useful for coal-props at an altitude of 1500 feet above the level of the sea, but is of course more stunted in its growth." — (W. M. Batt.) QMery 11th. — What is the age of the oldest trees you know of in your locality, and what condition are they in? Answer 1st. — ^"The largest tree here (Gordon Castle) is 12 feet 9 inches in circumference at 4 feet from the ground; still healthy in appearance, and growing freely; sheltered, and on a deep sandy loam and clay subsoil." — (J. Webster.) 2d. — " The oldest trees I know of are at Glammis Castle, about ninety years, very fresh and healthy," — (J. EwE>f.) 3d. " Eighty years, sound and healthy." — (Mr Wad- deelet.) 4th. — " The age of our oldest larch here is from seventy to eighty years, and they are in pretty good condition, some of them containing eighty cubic feet. Apparently these trees are healthy, but they are now beginning to throw out very heavy branches and assuming a broad top, indi- cating that they have reached their height, or nearly so.'' — (W. M. Baty.) Qu,ery 12th. — Do you observe any difference in the health of the trees raised from the Tyrol and from British grown seeds ? ATimer 1st. — "The only difference that I have noticed is, that the Tyrolese variety is the earliest, shedding its leaves • APPENDIX. 131 first, and generally distinguished by this circumstance while in the nursery-beds." — (J. Webster.) 2d. — " The Tyrolese variety, so far as I can see, is to be preferred, the trees being more luxuriant in growth." — (Mr Waddeeley.) Q,uery 13th.— Do you think seed gathered from diseased , and unhealthy trees produces diseased progeny ; and do you think there is sufficient attention paid to this % Answer 1st. — " The disease, or at least the health, of the larch is very often affected in this way." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 2d. — -" I consider there is a great want of care in collect- ing seeds — at all events, in this part of the country. As the seed-merchants pay the gatherers by the quantity brought in, and as quantity, not quality, is the inducement, much bad seed is thereby put into the market ; the diseased trees being more cut down, and the cones readier got at by the gatherers. I should think bad seed must produce diseased progeny." — (James Ewbn.) 3d. — " I am of opinion there is a deal of disease caused by taking seed from diseased trees." — (James Donaldson.) 4th. — " I have had no proof of this, but I should consider that less depends upon the state of the tree the seed is gathered from, than upon the chemical constituents of the soil on which the trees are afterwards planted. Indeed, so far as my experience goes, I am under the conviction that the origin of the rot results from local causes." — (J. Webstbe.) 5th. — " Certainly the constitution of the tree is weak- ened thereby." — (D. Doughty.) 6th. — " My belief is that it is mainly from this cause that so much disease now prevails amongst the larch; the tree has thereby become weakened in its constitution, no care or attention is paid to gathering the seeds from healthy or unhealthy trees. A diseased tree cannot produce good seed, consequently from that seed we cannot expect a healthy or vigorous offspring. The seed should be gath- 132 APPENDIX. ered only when it is fully matured, and from the most healthy-looking trees, which may easily be known by the small number of cones they produce. This may lead to more expense, and enhance the value of the plants, but there is no reasonable, perhaps I may add no physio- logical doubt, but that the most beneficial results would arise from a more careful selection of seed from a healthy stock."— (W. M. Batt.) 7th. — " There may be more reasons than one for the disease which in many places has committed such ravages among larch woods, but I would hold that the foremost which ascribes the cause to bad seed. I am familiar with the fact you refer to, of stunted diseased trees, ere they die, running to seed. I have frequently seen such trees covered with cones, and, being dwarfed by disease, they were most easily accessible to the cone-gatherer, whose object they served admirably by giving them the largest amount of cones at the least possible trouble. That the trees raised fr'om such seeds would be more subject to disease than trees grown from seeds gathered from fine healthy specimens, I have no manner of doubt." — (Isaac A^^^EES0N, Maryfield.) Query 14th. — Do you think neglect of thinning, prun- ing, or injudicious thinning, is in any way the cause of the rot disease ? Answer 1st. — " I think that thick planting to induce a very quick growth is one of the main causes of disease, prolonged, no doubt, by delaying thinning too long, say to twelve or fifteen years. In such cases there is ten chances to one they will be found at this period to show symptoms of rot, or pumping ; and although the trees may continue to grow, nevertheless the evidence of the rot will be clear, and if not checked by giving room, it will get worse. I think pruning in all cases improper, unless in the case of rival tops." — (Mr Wadderley.) APPENDIX. 133 2d. — " Want of timely and judicious thinning no doubt hastens disease, but I do not think causes it."— (J. Web- STBE.) 3d. — " In most of the diseased plantations I have ex- amined, I am convinced I can trace the disease to some of the following causes : neglect of thinning in due time, injudicious thinning afterwards, want of proper drainage before planting, or neglect of scouring the drains, and thus causing stagnant water." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 4th. — " I do not think injudicious thinning will pro- duce the rot disease; it no doubt injures the growth of the trees, if not done very gradually and carefully."— (James EWBN.) 5th. — " I do not think neglect of thinning or pruning is the cause of disease, as I have particularly noticed larch trees growing in open places quite as much diseased as those growing one yard asunder. I am, however, a great advocate for thinning: it is very essential to the health of the tree that it should have a free circiilation of air and light, which are two of the main-springs of its future welfare. It allows the tree to develop itself to the greatest magnitude, and to be of the utmost value to the proprietor. By judicious thinning, -a superfluous number of comparatively worthless trees is removed, which leaves a greater amount of unexhausted nourish- ment in the soil for the remaining crop to flourish upon. I do not recommend pruning larch, or any other of the fir tribe."— (W. M. Batt.) Query 15th. — Do you think pampering the trees in rich soils in nurseries is detrimental to the larch ? Answer 1st.—" If young trees are pampered in rich and sheltered nurseries, when they are transplanted into a worse soil and cold situation I think it must be detrimental to them." — (Jambs Ewen.) 2d. — " I have no doubt of this, if planted on poor, in- 134 APPENDIX. different soils. If in a corresponding good soil, no bad effect can ensue." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 3d. — " I do not think that disease can be traced to the nursery-grounds ; indeed, if such were the case, whole tracts of plantations would exhibit the effects, without- reference to soil or anything else." — (J. Webster.) 4th. — " I do not think the raising young trees on rich nursery soil in any way detrimental to their planting out for good. I am of opinion that the raising of forest trees generally should be on good strong clean land, and of an average degree of richness." — (W. M. Batt.) Qaery 16th. — Have the chemical constituents of the soil anything to do in causing the rot disease ? Answer 1st. — " The soils that larch thrives in are so various, that I can only answer this query by stating my belief that situation is of far greater importance than soil. I think the larch has been greatly destroyed by frosts in spring, as I find it has gone most where it has been planted in early situations, where the sap has begun to run when the late frosts come in the spring." — (Mr Wadderley.) 2d. — " I am under the conviction that the chemical con- stituents of the soil, and more especially the subsoil, yhich has a tendency to become very dry in dry warm summers, have more to do in laying the germs of disease than any- thing 1 know of I have invariably found the central and first-formed coats rotten under the diseased or rotten part in the stem. It very frequently is the case that the rot is not found in the centre, but in detached spots through the dark woody parts, known by the term spird. I had a sample only a few weeks ago of this description, in a tree of about 2^ feet in diameter, the disease here showing itself in two rotted spots about 6 inches from the centre, and four other darkened ones that showed the wood to be tainted and the disease begun. This tree was not, how- ever, uprooted, but I have no doubt, had it been done, the APPENDIX. , 135 roots under these dark spots would have been found de- cayed. The evil had just shown itself, and begun to work upwards. The decay evidently begins at the roots first, afterwards drying up those cellular tissues immediately connected with them."-;— (J. Webster.) 3d. — " I cannot pass an opinion on this. There are certain soils I would plant with other pines than larch, and expect a more profitable return." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 4th. — " I think the chemical constituents of the soil will have a certain effect in causing disease, but I cannot say how." — (J. EwBsr.) 5th. — " I do not think the chemical constituents of the soil have anything to do with causing the present disease in the larch."— (W. M. Baty.) 6th. " I dare not answer this query, trees being much diseased in such a variety of places. In one place, situa- tion appears to invite it — in sheltered nooks, cold subsoil, on freestone, on clay, on gravel, in sand, and even on more elevated ground, on greywackfe, and on whinstone. It is a puzzle to account for it." — (D. Doughty.) Query 17th. — Is the larch more diseased when growing amongst firs, or other trees, than when grown alone 1 Answer 1st. — " I have in general found disease worse in larch when grown amongst firs and diflFerent other trees, than when grown alone." — (J. Ewen.) 2d. — " Some of the healthiest specimens of larch here (Cortachy Castle) have grown partly alone, in sheltered situations, or on a bank of good soil mixed with deciduous trees, subsoil a sandy clay." — (W. 0. Lamond.) 3d. — " Put aside taste and convenience, which I fancy to be the only objections, other natural laws observed, the larch grows beautifully mixed with deciduous trees." — (Mr Waddeeley.) 4th. — " I do not find any difi'erence in larch growing amongst firs, or any other trees in plantations, so long as 136 APPENDIX. they are judiciously thinned, and the situation suitable. I have seen large tracts of fir plantations die off in a simi- lar manner to the larch, at upwards of forty years' growth. I was called upon to examine a large one two years ago, part of which had been planted with larch and Scots firs simultaneously ; both had grown to the height of 45 feet, and stems at the ground of only from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. The soil on which they grew was a light hazel loam, and the subsoil consisted of light sand and loam, evidently containing a large portion of oxide of iron. Being on an elevated piece of ground, with a gentle slope on all sides, no surface-water could lodge. The soil, in my opinion, containing these chemical ingredients, lacked moisture to support the roots that penetrated downwards, and which roots were all rotten. At some distance in the same plantation, where the soil appeared the same, but much more moist, the trees were gi-owing perfectly healthy." — (J. Websteb.) 5th. — " Growing it amongst Scots firs does not exempt the larch from disease." — (D. Doughty.) 6th. — " I do not perceive any difference in the disease in larch, whether growing amongst Scots firs or not. We have it growing alone and mixed, and there is no apparent difference."— (W. M. Baty.) PRINTED ET WlLLIAil BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBOfiGH. MESSES BLACKWOOD & SONS' PUBLICATIONS. SEOOND EDITION. 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" But Mr Page's work is very much more than simply a translation of the language of Geology into plain English ; it is a Dictionary, in which not only the meaning of the words is given, but also a clear and concise account of all that is most remarkable and worth knowing in the objects which the words are designed to express. In doing this he has chiefly kept in view the requirements of the general reader, but at the same time adding such details as will render the volume an acceptable Handbook to the student and professed geologist."— TAe Press. 14 MESSRS BLACK The Book of the Farm. By Henry Stephens, F.R.S.E. A New Edition. In Two Volumes, large Octavo, with upwards of 600 En- gravings, price £Zf half-bound. *' The best practical book I have ever met with." — Professor Joknstoru " One of the corapletest w^rks on agriculture of whicli our literature can boast." — Agricultural Gazette. Book of Farm Implements and Machines. By James Slight and K, Scott Butin. 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