ASIA CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THE CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION ON CHINA AND THE CHINESE Cornell University Library OS 572.C94 Slam / 3 1924 023 182 003 All books < V are subject to recall after two weeks Olin/Kroch Library DATE DUE .lAlsqn ^^^9^J ■ WWM^ "*^»o GAYLORD PRINTED IN U.S.A The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023182003 HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF TUB HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOBEI&N OFFICE.— No. 74 SI AM BY JOSIAH CROSBY. CLE., O.B.E., His Majesty's Consul-General at Bangkok LONDON: PUBLISHED BY H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE, 1920 ARTHUR PROBSTHAIN Oriental Bookseller 41 Gt. Russell Street LONDON, W.C. I HANDBOOKS PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 1 HISTORICAL SECTION OF THE FOREIGN OFFICE.— No. SIAM BY JOSIAH CROSBY, C.I.E., O.B.E., His Majesty's Consul-General at Bangkok LONDON : PIIHf.ISHEI) JIY H.M. STATIONEEY OFFICE. 1920 111 Editorial Note. In the spring of 1917 the Foreign Office, in connection with the preparation which they were making for the work of the Peace Conference, established a special section whose duty it should be to provide the British Delegates to the Peace Conference with information in the most convenient ' form — geographical, economic, historical, social, religious and political — respecting the different countries, districts-, islands, &c., with which they might have to deal. In addition, volumes were prepared on certain general subjects, mostly of an historical nature, concerning which it appeared that a special study would be useful. The historical information was compiled by trained writers on historical subjects, who (in most cases) gave their services without any remuneration. For the geographical -sections valuable assistance was given by the Intelligence Division (Naval Staff) of the Admiralty ; and for the economic sections, by the War Trade Intelligence I )epart- ment, which had been established by the Foreign Office. Of the maps accompanying the series, some were prepared by the above-mentioned department of the Admiralty, but the bulk of them were the work of the Geographical Section of the General Staif (Military Intelligence Division) of the War Office. Now that the Conference has nearly completed its task, the Foreign Office, in response to numerous enquiries and requests, has decided to issue the books for public use, believing that they will be useful to students of history, politics, economics and foreign affairs, to publicists generally and to business men and travellers. It is hardly necessary to say that some of the subjects dealt with in the series have not in fact come under discussion at the Peace Conference ; but, as the books treating of them contain valuable information, it has been thought advisable to include them. It must be understood that, although the series of volumes was prepared under the authority, and is now issued with the sanction,' of the Foreign Office, that Office is not to be regarded as guaranteeing the accuracy of every statement which they contain or as identifying itself with all the opinions expressed in the several volumes ; the books were not prepared in the Foreign Office itself, but are in the nature of information provided for the Foreign Office and the British Delegation. The books are now published, with a few exceptions, substantially as they were issued for the use of the Delegates. No atter&pt has been made to bring them up to date, for, in the first place, such a process would have entailed a great loss of time and a prohibitive expense ; and, in the second, the political and other conditions of a great part of Europe and of the Nearer and Middle East are still unsettled and in such a state of flux that any attempt to describe them would have been incorrect or misleading. The books are therefore to be taken as describing, in general, ante-bellum conditions, though in a few cases, where it seemed specially desirable, the account has been brought down to a later date. G. W. PEOTHERO, General Editor and fdrvievly January 1920. Director of the Historical Section. No. 74— Siam] TABLE OF CONTENTS I. POLITICAL HISTORY— page Chronological Summary ... ... ... ... 1 i. General Outline prior to 1855 ... ... ... ... .1 Extent of early Siamese dominions... ... ... 1 Early European relations ... ... ... ... 2 Burmese Invasion ... ... ... ... ... 2 Phya Talc Sin 3 Treaty of 1826 with British India 3 King Mongkjit ... ... ... 3 Treaty of 1855 with Great Britain ... ... ... 3 ii. General Outline subsequent to 1 855 .. . ... ... 3' Rights of British Nationals ... ... ... ... 4 Treaty of 1856 with France 4 Treaties with other Powers ... ... ... ... 4 Development and Progress ... ... ... ... 4 King Chulalongkorn ... ... ... ... ... 5 Progressive Measures ... ... ... ... 5 Treaty of 1883 with Great Britain 5 Jurisdiction of International Courts ... ... 6 Treaty of 1907 with France 6 Treaty of 1909 with Great Britain 6 Position of British Subjects in Siam ... ... 7 Treaty of 1913 with Denmark 7 King Rama VI ... ... ... _. . . ... 7 Declaration of War on Germany and Austria- Hungary... ... ... ... ... ... 8 iii. Relations with Great Britain and France ... ... 8 Relations with Great Britain ... 8 Siamese rights in the south of Malay Peninsula ... 8 Exterritorial Jurisdiction ... ... ... ... 9 Territorial and Commercial Concessions to Great Britain ... ... ... 9 Railway Loan by Federated Malay States ... ... 9 Relations with France 10 Incidents of 1893 10 Convention of 1904 11 Adjustment of territorial claims (1907) 11 Declarations of 1896 and 1904 12 Proposed creation of a Buffer State 12 P.S. 978 Wt. 9014/849 1005 7/30 F.O.P. [3602] JJ £ TABLE OF CONTENTS [No. 74 II. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Eeligious (2) Political • ... Form, Character, and Methods of Government The Monarchy ... The Ministers Local Government ... ... ... Social Conditions (3) Naval and Military Organization The Army The Navy. ... ... (4) Public Education PAGE 13 13 13 13 14 i 14 14 15 15 16 16 APPENDIX... AUTHOEITIES 18 20 Siam] I. POLITICAL HISTORY Chronological Summary 1350 Foundation of Ayuthia, the former capital. 1767 Destruction of Ayuthia by, the Burmese. 1768 Foundation of Bangkok, the present capital. 1782 Accession to the throne of the first monarch of the present reigning dynasty! 1855 Treaty of Friendship and Commerce concluded with Great Britain. 1893 Diificulties with Prance, culminating in the blockade of Bangkok by the French and the abandonment by the Siamese of their claims to territory situated on the left bank of the River Mekong. 1907 Treaty concluded with France, which receives territorial concessions in the Mekong region, but surrenders in part the exterritorial rights which French nationals had hitherto enjoyed in Siam. 1909 Treaty concluded with Great Britain; exterritorial rights of British subjects in Siam surrendered; Siam transfers to Great Britain her suzerain rights over the Malay States of Kelantan, Tringganu, Kedah, and Perlis. 1910 Death of King Chulalongkom and accession to the throne of the present ■ monarch, King Vajiravudh- (officially styled King Rama VI). 1917 Siain decFares war tipon Germany and Austria-Hungary. i. General Outline prior to 1855. — The authentic history of Siam may be said to commence with the foundation, in A.D. 1350, by King Ramathi- bodi I of the former capital, Ayuthia (situated on the River Menain some distance to the north of Bangkok). Internal revolutions, leading at times to changes in the ruling dynasty, and constant wars either with Burma on the west or with Cambodia on the east, go far to make up the annals of the country throughout the era during which Ayuthia was the seat of gt>vermnenti The extent of the Siamese dominions (or at least of the territory over which Siam could claim suzerain rights), though varying with the altering fortunes of war, was 2 HISTOEY [No. 74 at this epoch considerably greater than it is to-day, and at one time stretched as far south as the Straits of Malacca. Tavoy and Tenasserim (now incorporated in British Burma) were formerly in almost uninterrupted possession of the Siamese, whilst a period so recent as the last quarter of a century has witnessed the cession by Siam to France of provinces previously ruled by her in the region of the Mekong Eiver, and to Great Britain of her suzerainty over certain of the States in the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula. The Portuguese (early in the sixteenth century) and the Dutch (a century later) were the first European peoples to come into direct contact with Siam. Relations beitween Siam and the British East India Cpinpany be^an in the seventeenth cen^jiry, BfinsF factories .heing^, for „ a_ .time.l£§t^ffi2yad_at , i^^LtMa.and at Patani„(on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula). But these relations never prospered, and the Dutch seem at that period to have been virtual masters of the external trade of the kingdom. Of his- torical interest is the arrival, in the year 1685, of an embassy under the Chevalier de Chaumont, which was despatched to the King of Siam by King Louis XIV of France, in the hope that the former potentate would be Converted to Christianity by the efforts of French Jesuit missionaries, whose activities had- then already extended to the Far East. The attempt at conversion failed, although a treaty was signed according general facilities to the missionaries in the prosecution of their labours. The influence of France in Siam was soon afterwards still further advanced by the engagement of a number of French troops to serve as garrisons for the forts at Bangkok and at Mergui (then a Siamese pos- session). This last step, however, proved to be a disas- trous one. Becoming suspicious of French designs, cer- tain notables at Court instigated a revolution ; the reigning dynasty was overthrown; stnd the French soldiery were deported to Pondicherry. In the year 1767 Siam was overtaken by the greatest disaster in her history. A Burmese army invaded and siam] OUTLINE PRIOE TO 1855 3 overran the country; Ayuthia was stormed and burnt; and the reigning monarch, who was obliged to seek refuge in flight, perished miserably. An energetic military leader named Phya Tak Sin subsequently rallied around him a band of followers, and, after the withdrawal of the main body of the Burmese forces, succeeded in re-establishing the independence of Siam and in making himself king of a united people. Phya Tak Sin set up his government at Bangkok in 1768. He subsequently became insane, and was put to death, the crown being assumed in 1782 by one of his generals, an official who till then had held the title of Chao Phya Chakkri, and who came to be known later as King Phra Budda Yot Fa Chulalok. This monarch was the founder of the " Chakkri " dynasty, the members of which have continued to occupy the throne of Siam up to the present day. JnJS2£LaJa:eaiy„with Siam.jEa^.ljj|g2ii^li2i,byCap- t^jji^H^Burnjay,.- acting _on behaJtf™«S!IIKeZI]^^rnor- G^LgraJLol British JB.dia. This instrument granted a measure of trading facilities to British subjects ; it was also important as regulating various questions affecting Siam's relations with some of the States situated in Malaya. The reign of the fourth. monarch of the Chakkri dynasty (King Mongkut, 1851-1868) marks a turning- point in the annals of Siam by reason of the conclusion, in J1855, of the Treaty of Friendship and Commerce witKlflrftat. Bri^iP wTiipTi first. rp£^T1FiTOw the land open to foreign commerce~a5i3~e5ISFprise. Prior to ^ that date, trade between the Siameseand the subjects of the various Western Powers had been conducted on restricted and precarious lines ; foreign merchants had been admitted into the country, but their operations had been hampered by difficulties and disabilities of the most disheartening kind. ii. General Outline of History subsequent to 1855. — In virtue of the treaty between Great Britain and Siam, negotiated by Sir John Bowring in 1855, and ratified, in the following year, British national? 4 HISTORY [No. 74 acquired the right to trade freely in all seaports^ subject to the payment of clearly defined import and export duties; they further acquired the I'ight to reside and to purchase land in the vicinity of the capital (journeys into the interior, however, were allowed only under passports issued by the Siamese authorities); finally, the Siamese Govern- ment consented to the appointment of a British Consul at Bangkok, and to the exercise by him of ex- territorial jurisdiction over all British subjects in the country. The French, who had already established themselves in Cochin China, followed the example of Great Britain by negotiaiinsyjn JBSfi^ Treaty of Friendship and Commerce with Siam. Most of the other civilized Powers adopted the same course, treaties (all more or less identical with that with Great Britain in their general tenor) being concluded by them as follows : — The United States of America, 1856, Denmark, 1858, Portugal, 1859, the Netherlands, 1860, Ger- many (the States of the German Customs and Commer- cial Union and the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg- Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz), 1862, Sweden and Norway, 1868, Belgium, 1868, Italy, 1868, Aus- tria-Hungary, 1869, Spain, 1870, Japan, 1898, Russia (Declaration), 1899. It would be difiicult to exaggerate the importance of the results accruing from the earlier among the above treaties and from , the consequent gradual penetra- tion of Siam by foreign influences, ^iam's juivance alongJthe_pM]l_Qf western progress virtually began ^ymng the period immedia,tely succeeding- tlig_year 1855. A community of foreign merchants then grew |up in the capital; western ideas and methods forced ithemselves upon the attention of the Siamese ; foreign consulates — mostly developed /later into legations — ; were at hand to ensure respect for the new treaties and to represent the h^raJWiy^factor jof indepMadent^crit^^^ ir regard- to theiacfininistration of government. It is much to the credit of King Mongkut'that he should! Siam] , OUTLINE SUBSEQUENT TO 1855 5 have realised the futility and danger o£ resisting the march of events, and that he should have shown him- self so ready to' accept the inevitable by entering betimes into relations v(rith the Western Powers. Equally sagacious was the policy of King Mongkut's successor, the late King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910), who wisely resolved to meet the new western tenden- cies half-way and to seek foreign aid in reshaping the State in accordance with modern requirements. Hence the presence to-day of foreign officials and advisers in most of the Government Departments; hence also in large degree the remarkable progress which Siam has achieved of late years — a progress which now entitles her to cl aim a place among the civilized peoples of the world, ^ome of the many useful measures effected during Tting Chulalongkorn 's long reign were the distribution of the work of government among Ministries devised upon the European plaS^ the con- struction of railways north and south of the metro- polis, the reconstitution of the Army and Navy, the establishment on a sound basis of a national system of finance, and the reorganization of the Courts of Justice. The enactment of legislation adapted to modern needs has been continuous throughout the reigns both of King Chulalongkorn and of his son, the present King. A Penal Code was promulgated in 1908, and Civil Codes and Codes of Procedure are in course of prepara- tion under the auspices of a Commission composed of French and Siamese jurists. The greatest single reform adopted by Chulalongkorn was, perhaps, the total abolition of slavery throughout his realm, an event which took place early in his reign. Of great importance also was the work of consolidation and centralization performed under his rule by Prince Damrong, a former Minister of the Interior, who was instrumental in bringing" the outlying provinces of the kingdom under the complete and effective control of the Government at Bangkok. In 1883 a treaty was negotijated with Great Britain,^ whereby the right to establish a British consular officer . 6 HISTORY two. 74 4 at Chiengmai {in Northern Siam) was conceded; British subjects in the north of the country were at the same time removed from the jurisdiction of the distant con- sular tribunal at Bangkok and placed under that of an International Court composed of Siamese judges, sit- ting at Chiengmai ; the resident British consular officer was, however, empowered to be present at the trial by this new tribunal of aU cases affecting British subjects. The arrangement thus concluded was significant as denoting the first step in the process of gradual aban- donment by some of the foreign Treaty Powers of their exterritorial privileges in Siam. Similar Agreements, recognizing the jurisdiction of the International Court in Northern Siam, were concluded with France (Convention of February 13, 1904), with Denmark in 1905, and with Italy in the same year. King Chulalongkorn's reign is memorable on account of the unhappy dispute with France in 1893, to which reference is made below (p. 10). Fortunately the King was. able, before his death, to see the difficulties .r which had arisen with the French Republic set f at rest by the Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1907. This Agreement stipulated for extensive territorial concessions on the part of Siam, in return for which the French Government consented, subject to certain conditions and safeguards, to surrender throughout the whole extent of the kingdom the exterritorial privileges which had hitherto been enjoyed by its Asiatic subjects and 'proteges. Siam thus took a further step towards the removal of the disabilities imposed by the presence within her borders of a section of the population exempt from the juris- diction of her own tribunals and dependent upon that of alien Consular Courts. \ In 1909 a treaty on analogous lines was concluded with Great Britain. The progress made by Siam in the administration of justice, the example already set by the French, and the necessity for finding a solution to certain urgent territorial problems had, indeed, ren- dered this measure all but inevitable. \jji virtue of the Slam] KING CHULALONGKORN 7 instrument of 1909 the suzerain rights of Siain in the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula were trans- ferred to Great Britain, who on her part made a general surrender of her exterritorial jilrisdiction over her nationals (both European and Asiatic), stipulating, however, for a number of safeguards, the most impor- tant of which consisted in the presence updn the bench in the Siamese courts of a European legal adviser in all cases where a British subject was in the position of a^ defendant or accused person. British subjects were^ also rendered liable to all taxes and services which might be imposed by law on Siamese subjects, but they became entitled to enjoy throughout the whole of the \ country the rights and privileges possessed by the latter, notably the right of acquiring landed property in any part of the country and the rights of un- restricted residence and travel.^ In 1913 Denmark concluded with Siam a treaty closely resembling the Anglo-Siamese Agreement of 1909. Though she surrendered thereby her system of exterritorial jurisdiction, Denmark received no conces- sions of a special or material nature in return. The events of 1893 and the conclusion of the treaties with France and Great Britain of 1907 and 1909 respectively, were the chief occurrences in the domain of foreign policy which marked the reign of King Chula- longkorn. That monarch died in 1910, and was succeeded by his son, King Vajiravudh, who has recently adopted the official style and title of King Rama VI. The present monarch, who received his education in England, is thoroughly imbued with western ideas, and is continuing the en- lightened policy of his father. From the outset of the European war the King viewed with strong disapproval the methods of Warfare pursued by Germany, and he protested formally against the inauguration of the unrestricted submarine campaign. ^ In practice, the exercise of these last-named privileges had previously, to a certaia extent, been allowed to British subjects, although without the formal sanction oi treaty. 8 HISTORY [NO. 74 The King finally decided to declare the existence of a state of war with both Germany and Austria-Hungary as from midnight of July 22, 1917. Within a very few hours of the time specified the internment of all male enemy subjects resident in Siam was effected ; trading with the enemy was forbidden; arrangements were made for the liquidation of enemy businesses ; enemy vessels lying in the river at Bangkok were seized; and a decree was promulgated denaturalising such former enemy sub- jects as had come to acquire Siamese nationality by the process of naturalisation. By these prompt and vigorous means a dangerous centre of German intrigue in the Far East was eliminated, and success was defi- nitely assured to the efforts made by the Allies to destroy the local commerce of the enemy. Through her action in entering the war upon the side of the Allies, the close ties which bind Siam to Great Britain and France, her neighbours upon the west and east, have been further strengthened. iii. Relations with Great Britain and France. — No statement of conditions in Siam would be complete, and no understanding of that country's future line of development possible, without some account of her ipeculiar relations with Great Britain and France. As Siam's geographical situation necessarily links p her interests with those of France and Great ritain, by whose territories she is completely circled upon her landward frontiers, the two Powers imed have for the last half -century inevitably exer- ii|gd a considerable influence upon her foreign policy'. Ipiam's relations with Great Britain have been con- sistently friendly and have never been seriously tjioubled. A bone of contention had, however, existed om early days in the question of the extent to whi^ ;e rights of Siam were to be recognized in the southern alf of the Malay Peninsula. The possibility of further dispute in this connection was removed by the Angjgt^. ,SiaJiifisaXreaty_of, WM,^^ which_Siam, tjanSIeffp^ to the, British. -Criown her. suzerain^ rights„^Yer_th^ siam] RELATIONS WITH GEEAT BEITAIN 9 adjacent islajod^ Siam had exercised a more or less^ nominal autKor% over these States, which till then had remained practically independent, .and were still in a backward stage of development. \/rhe task of bringing about the needed reforms in their methods of govern- ment seemed logically to devolve upon Great Britain;?' in view of her ascendancy elsewhere in Malaya. <^s has been seen, Siam, on lier side, obtained from Great Britain the abandonment of^th g system of exterritorial jurisdiction — a concession which, regarcT being had to the number of British nationals and to the magnitude of British commercial interests, was of great importajice to her. At the time of signing the treaty the Siamese , Government, by means of an exchange of diplomatic) notes, gave to the British Government the assurance j that they would not cede or lease, directly or indirectly, to aiiy foreign Government any territory situated in the Malay Peninsula south of the southern boundary of > the MQnyijgjpuCErQtxincial circle) of Raj?ibun, or in any j of the islands adjacent" to the said, territory; also that' within the limits above mentioned a right to establish or lease any coaling station, to build or own any con- struction or repairing docks, or to occupy exclusively any harbours the occupation of which would be likely to be prejudicial to British interests from a strategic point of view, should not be grafted to any foreign! Government or company.' At the same time, jivAgEBg^ rrient was_made between the Siajnese Goyer,nmejftLan4 the Government of the Federated Malay States, whefebj the latter, undertook to advance to the former, at the' rate of 4 per cent, per annum, tha sum of £4,000,060 for the purpose of _ constructing ..^d working a railway, in the Siamese dominions of, the Malay Eeiunsula. Good progress has already been * See correspondence annexed to the text of the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 in the following British State Paper: " Siam No. 1 ,(1903). Despatch from ^is Majesty's Minister in Siam, foryard- ing a Trpaty .between Great Britain and Siain, sighed at Bangkok March 10, 1009, together with an Explanatory Memorandum. [Cd. 4646.]" 10 HISTORY [No. 74 made with this line, which will ultimately link up Bangkok and Singapore. J As regards relations between Siam and France, the Siamese frontiers before 1893 included territory- lying upon the left (or eastern) bank of the Mekong River, which had in the past formed the subject of contention between Siam on the one hand and Annam or Cambodia on the other. Frg-nce had now assumed a protectorate over both the latter countries, and was disposed to. argue that these trans-Mekong possessions of Siam belongeid, historically to Annam and Cambodia, and should be restored to them. Colli- sions occurred between French and Siamese troops in the neighbourhood of the disputed zone; and the gar- risons of the Siamese trans-Mekong military posts were obliged at last to fall back across the river. Siamese offers to refer the questions at issue to arbitra- tion were not entertained; sundry outrages upon the persons and property of French nationa;ls were alleged to have been perpetrated by the Siamese authorities; and, by way of reprisal, the French fleet proceeded to occupy some of the islands in the Gulf of Siam. In cf July 1893 two French gunboats, contra,ry to the wishes of the Siamese Government, forced the passage of the River Menam (upon which Bangkok stands). Two suc- cessive ultimatums were delivered by France to Siam; the French Minister quitted the capital ; and a blockade of Bangkok and the adjacent waters was instituted, and lasted from July 26 to August 2. The terms of t;he second French ultimatum were accepted by Siam, the blockade was raised, and a treaty between the two Powers was signed on October 3, 18.94- Siam. renounced all claim to territory on the left bank of the Mekong; she agreed to maintain no fortified posts or military establishments within her provinces of Battambong and Siemrap, or at any point within a radius of 25 kilometres from the right bank of the Mekong ; she con- 1 In 1913 a further loan to Siam of £750,000 was negotiated between the same two Governments, in order that railway con- nection might be effected also between Bangkok and Penang. siam] EELATIONS WITH FRANCE 11 sented further to a military occupation by the French of the port of Chantaboon until such time as the pro- visions of the Treaty of Peace should have been executed and the pacification of the districts which had been in dispute effected. Franco-Siamese relations, .although thus embittered in 1893, improved slowly in course of time; and in 1904 a fresh Convention was signed, whereby the French agreed to evacuate Chantaboon (to which they still clung), and to place their nationals in Northern Siam under the jurisdiction of the International Court. In return for these concessions Siam abandoned territory in the south-east, and renounced her claim to such por- tions of the State of Luang Prabang as were situated on the right bank of the Mekong River. She also undertook that, in the Siamese portion of the basin of the Mekong, she would come to an understanding with the French Government before proceeding to the con- struction of ports, canals, or railways, in the event of such enterprises not being carried out exclusively with a Siamese personnel and with Siamese capital. In 1907, by the treaty already referred to, Siam ceded to France the territories of Battambong, SiemJ rap, and Sisophon (adjoining the frontier of Cami bodia), but received back those of Dan-Sai- and Kratt (in the south-east), which she had previously given, up under the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904. This final readjustment of territorial claims inaugurated a new era of friendliness in the official relations of the Siamese and French Governments, which has been greatly to the advantage of both parties. • So early as 1889 the British and French authori- ties had considered the desirability of devising a plan for the neutralisation of Siam, with a view to the establishment of a permanent bar- rier between their respective possessions in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The occurrences of 1893 emphasized still further the need for arriving at some such understanding. On January 15, 1896, a declaration was accordingly signed in London, by 12 HISTORY [1^0.74 which the Goyernments of Great Britain and France guaranteed the integrity of the basins of the River Menam and adjacent streams (the most valuable part of Siam), by engaging that neither of them would, without the consent of the other, advance its armed fdrces into that area, except in so far as it might do so for any purpose which might be required for the main- tenaiice of Siam's independence. The contracting parties further engaged not to acquire within the region so guaranteed any special privilege or advan- tage which should not be enjoyed by, or equally open to, both of them. A supplementary declaration between Great Britain and France was signed in London on April 8, 1904, stipulating that Siamese territory lying i to the west of the basin of the Menam River should be considered as falling within the British sphere of influ- ence, while a French sphere of influence was recog- nized in the case of the possessions of Siam situated to the east of that region. The contracting parties expressly disclaimed all idea of annexing any Siamese territory or of committing any act which might con- travene the provisions of existing treaties; but, with this reservation, they agreed that, so far as either of them was concerned, the two Governments should each respectively have liberty of action in its sphere of influence as defined. The idea was entertained at one time of creating a special buffer-state to separate British and French possessions where they adjoin one another for a short distance in the region of the Upper Mekong to the north of the Siamese boundary. A protocol was even signed at Paris in November 1893, agreeing to the appointment for this purpose of technical agents of the two countries, who should proceed to an enquiry upon the spot. Thja^plan,. however, did not materialise, and the buffetstate was never set iip^.~" siam] KELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 18 [I. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS (1) Religious The religion of the country is Buddhism, that faith being professed in its purer form as followed also in Burma and Ceylon. All Buddhist religious establish- ments in Siam are under the control of the State. The greatest toleration prevails, sectarian factions and rivalries being practically unknown. Christian mis- sionaries are allowed to prosecute unhindered their work among the people, and, indeed, as regards their educational and medical labours, often with the assist- ance of the Government. The Roman Catholic Church is represented by the French fathers of the " Soci^t^ des Missions etrangeres," Protestantism mainly by the members of the American Presbyterian Mission. Polygamy is not forbidden under the Buddhist system; it is, however, now becoming usual with the younger and better-educated generation of Siamese for men to content themselves with one wife. (2) Political Form, Character, and Methods of Government. — Siam is governed on the principle of an absolute monarchy. Succession to the throne, while always con- fined to members of the Royal Family, was not until re- cently hereditary in the sense ofjthejDrown-being, when- ever possible, transmitted"ff65i father to son, and of the line of succession being determined beforehand. The hereditary system was first inaugurated by Chulalong- korn, who during his own lifetime designated one of his sons as his prospective successor. The present monarch is unmarried ; in the event of his death with- out issue it has been decided that the Crown shall pass [3602] C 1.4 PEESENT CONDITIONS . ' [no. 74 in order of seniority, to his brothers by the same mother (the late King had offspring by more than one Queen). The Prince of Bisnulok (Prince Chakra- bongs) is at present, in virtue of this ruling, the Heir- Presumptive to the Throne of Siam. While all power is vested ultimately in the King, the actual work of administration is shared (subject to any commands which he may choose to issue) by the following Ministers of State : — Foreign Affairs, War, Marine, Interior, Finance, Justice, Local Govern- ment and Police, Communications, Public Instruction, Agriculture, Privy Seal, and Royal Household. The above Ministers form a Cabinet Council, which rueets only upon such occasions as the King may sum- mon it for purposes of consultation. A Legislative Council, composed of various princes and notabjes, was created by Royal decree in 1895, but it seldom exercises any functions. Bangkok, the capital city, is placed under the charge of the Ministry o;f Local Government. The remainder of the country is divided up into seventeen provincial circles, at the head of each of which stands an official designated "Viceroy" or "Lord-Lieutenant," as the case may be ; these of&cers derive their functions direct from the King, though much of their business is con- ducted through the medium of the Ministry of the Interior. A political franchise does not exist in Siam, and there are no electoral assemblies to take a consultative or deliberative part in the management of the national affairs. Efforts are, however, being made to create something in the nature of municipal councils in certain of the provincial towns. Social Conditions. — ^At the head of the Siamese social system stands an upper class or aristocracy made up of the numerous members of the Royal Family and of the higher officers of the Administration. Siam has properly no middle class, the nearest approach to such Ijeing found in the large body of smaller Government officials which interposes itself between the aristocracy siam] POLITICAL; MILITARY 15 and ttie great mass of the working population. The latter is engaged for the most part in agricultural pur- suits, mainly in the cultivation of rice fields. The operations of commerce are conducted almost wholly by foreigners (Europeans, Chinese, Indians, and Burmese or Shans). The Chinese compose the bulk of the shopkeeping class; they form, too, the artisan and labouring elements in the la?rger towns. The natives of Siamese race seem to have little aptitude for trade, and are disinclined to engage in any of the more menial kinds of toil. Hence the presence of a very large admix- ture of Chinese in the population and a steady stream of immigration from China. Indispensable as the Chinese undoubtedly are to the industrial and economic Ijfe of the country, it is urged against them that they are unduly tenacious of their racial associations and habits, and that they do not conform readily enough to the conditions which obtain in the land of their adop- tion. The necessity for absorbing and assimilating this powerful foreign element forms, perhaps, the chief, if not the only serious, social problem which con- fronts the Siamese. Labour questions, as we under- stand them in the West, cannot at present be said to exist; and extreme poverty is unknown in a country where Nature has shown herself to be so bountiful as in the case of Siam. (3) Naval and Militaky Organization Liability to military service is enforceable by law upon every able-bodied male between the ages of 18 and 40, with certain specified exceptions, which include all foreign nationals. The standing army is composed of four army corps, comprising ten divisions in all. The arms and equipment of the troops are modern. An aviation school has been established under the Ministry of War, which has also under its control a musketry school, a general staff school, and other kindred institu- tions. The King of Siam has himself organized, outside the army, a body of adult scouts known by the name of 16 PRESENT CONDITIONS [no. 74 the corps of " Wild Tigers." Eecruits for this body are found among Government officials all over the country; the members wear a distinctive uniform, and undergo military training in their spare hours. The last yearly Budget estimates of the Ministry of Finance included expenditure on account of the Ministry of War amounting to about £1,040,000. The navy of Siam is a small one. For all practical purposes it consists of two torpedo boat destroyers and four torpedo boats (all built in Japan), and four steel gunboats, the largest of which has a displacement of 700 tons. A dock is established at the Naval Arsenal in the capital, where there is also a naval academy for the training of cadets. Wireless stations in charge of the Ministry of Marine have been established at Bangkok and at Singora, a port situated on the western shore of the Gulf of Siam. The last Budget estimates made provision for the expenditure of a sum of £340,000 upon Siamese naval requirements. A small cruiser, of which the completion has been delayed by the war, is building in England for Siam, and another in Russia. Under the auspices of the Royal Navy League, money is being collected to pay for another small cruiser. The subscriptions had reached nearly 2^ million ticals (£193,750) at the end of January 1918. Naval training is partly British, but of recent years has been mainly Danish. (4) Public Education A sum of, approximately, only £134,000 was included on account of public education in the Budget estimates for the current financial year (1917-18). The majority of the schools, though under the control of the Department of Education, are managed by the local authorities, and supported, so far as possible, by voluntary contributions. Institutions of this kind (of which there are nearly 4,000) consist almost entirely of primary schools. Of schools established and maintained by the Department there were in the year 1915-16 some 394, siam] PUBLIC EDUCATION 17 made up as follows: — Primary, 269; secondary, 105; special (technical and professional), 20. In 1913-14 the total number of scholars attending both Govern- ment and non- Government schools was between 122,000 and 123,000. Thanks to the educational facilities which it has always been customary to offer to youth in many Buddhist religious establishments, a nucleus — however primitive — has existed from the first in the shape of monastery schools around which to build up an educational system. A small stail of English inspectors and masters assists in the work of instruction in the Government schools of the capital. A beginning has been made in the matter of female education. The nucleus of a university has been set up in Bangkok by the opening of a higher college, but higher education is likely to be handicapped by the circumstance that the Siamese language is very largely destitute of the technical vocabulary necessary for the purpose. Education in Siam has not yet been made compulsory. The latest census returns show that out of the total population of the kingdom (with the important exception, however, of the metropolitan province of Bangkok) less than 15 per cent, of persona were literate. A large proportion of the younger and wealthier generation of Siamese have received their education in Europe or America. [3602] D 18 ArPENDIX [No. 74 APPENDIX Treaties and Agreements The following Treaties and Agreements concluded by Siam are still whoUy or partly in force, and affect the existing condition of afEairs : — ^/^Treaty with Great Britain of April 18, 1855 (and Supple- mentary Agreement of May 13, 1856). Treaty with France of August 15, 1856. Treaty with United States of America of May 29, 1856. Treaty with Denmark of May 21, 1858. Treaty with Portugal of February 10, 1859. Treaty with the Netherlands of December 17, 1860. Treaty wi^ the German States of February 7, 1862 (abrogated by state of war). Treaty with Sweden and Norway of Ma^ 18, 1868. Treaty with Belgium of August 29, 1868. Treaty with Italy of October 3, 1868. Treaty with Austria-Hungary of May 7, 1869 (abrogated by state of war). Treaty with Spain of February 23, 1870. Treaty with Japan of February 25, 1898. Treaty with Eussia (Declaration) of June 28, 1899. The above are Treaties of Friendship and Commerce upon which the exterritorial system, the import tariff, &c., are based. The following further Treaties concluded by Siam should equally be cited: — With Great Britain ^ fl) Treaty of September 3, 1883 (establishing an Inter- national Court in Northern Siam). (2) Treaty of March 10, 1909 (abandonment of exterritorial jurisdiction; transfer to Great Britain of suzerain rights of Siam in southern portion of Malay Peninsula). 3) Agreement between Governments of the Federated Malay States and of Siam concluded on March 10, 1909. (Former engages to lend to latter a sum of £4,000,000 for purposes of railway construction in Siamese dominions of Malay Peninsula.) 81am] APPENDIX 19 , With France (1) -Treaty of Peace of October 3, 1893. (Followed on the events of 1893; abandonment of claims to territory by Siam on left bank of Eiver Mekong.) (2) Convention of February 13, 1904. (Cession of further territory in Mekong region by Siam; assurances by latter as to her action in basin of Mekong Eiver.) (3) Treaty of March 23, 1907, (Partial abandonment of exterritorial jurisdiction, by, France; further cession of territory by Siam.) t With Denmark Treaty of March 15, 1913. (Abandonment of exterritorial jurisdiction.) The following agreements respjecting Siam have been coneluded between Great Britain, and France^: — (1) Declaration of January 15, 1896 (guaranteeing indepen- dence of Menam Valley, &c.).' (2) Declaration of April 8, 1904 (defining spheres of influence).' 20 AUTHORITIES [No. 74 AUTHORITIES British State Papers: — (1) Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Siam. — Siam No. 1 (1894). [C.-7396.J (2) Despatch to Her Majesty's Ambassador at Paris, enclosing a copy of the Declaration between Great Britain and France of January 15, 1896, for the settlement of Siamese and other questions. — France No. 2 (1896). [C.-7976.] (3) Despatch to His Majesty's Ambassador at Paris, forward- ing Agreements between Great Britain and France of April 8, 1904.— France No. 1 (1904). [Cd. 1952.] ' (4) Despatch from His Majesty's Ambassador at Paris, transmitting the Treaty between France and Siam, signed at Bangkok, March 23, 1907. — France No. 1 (1907). [Cd. 3578.] (5) Despatch from His Majesty's Minister in Siam, forwarding a Treaty between Great Britain and Siam, signed at Bangkok, March 10, 1909, together with an Explanatory Memorandum (with rnap). — Siam No. 1 (1909). [Cd. 4646.] The text of the Railway Loan Agreement concluded on March 10, 1909, between the Governments of the i'ederated Malay States and of Siam was published in the Selangor Government Oazette of July 30, 1909. For the texts of all Siam's Treaties with the Foreign Powers see British and Foreign State Papers. Siamese Government Publications: — (1) Statistical Year Book of the Kingdom of Siam (English edition); one volume; Bangkok; published armuaUy by the Department of Commerce and Statistics, Ministry of Finance. (2) Annual Reports of the Financial Adviser on the Budgets of the Kingdom of Siam; one volume; Bangkok; published yearly by the Ministry of Finance. A useful work of historical and general reference is the following: — Graham, W. A. Siam: a Handbook of Practical, Commercial, and Political Information. London, 1912. siam] AUTHORITIES 21 Much valuable information on historical and general subjects is contained in the issues for 1914 and previous years of the Directory for Bangkok and Siam, published by the Bangkok Times Press, London. Similar particulars are also to be found in the yearly issues of the Siam Directory, published annually by the iSiam Observer newspaper, Bangkok. PEACE HANDBOOKS. The following is a complete list of the Handbooks prepared under the General Editorship of Sir George W. Prothero, late Director of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office. Net Prices are given of all Volumes which have been published to date. Volumes X-XXV will be issued shortly. Books marked thus * contain sections on Geography and Economics as well as on History. Those marked thus § contain Geography and History only. (A) EUROPE. Vol. I. Austria-Hungary (1). Uew Nob. Old Nos. '(1) History of Austria ... (2) History of Hungary... (3) Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary 2 (4) Bohemia* and Moravia* 3 (6) Slovakia* ... 4 (4a) Austrian Silesia* 5 (.5) Bukovina* ... 6 (7) Transylvania* and the Banat* ... 7 (8) Hungarian Ruthenia* { :i 2s. 6d. 2s. M. Is. Qd. Is. M. Is. M. 2s. M. Os. 6d Vol. II. Austria-Hungary (2). 8 (9) Croatia-Slavonia,* with Finme* 9 (9a) Carniola*, Carinthia,* Styria* 10 (12) Austrian Littoral* ... 11 (13) Dalmatia* 12 (10) Bosnia* and Herzegovina* , 18 (14a) The Slovenes (14) The Jugo-Slav Movement F.O.P. [3435] 7/20 2s, Od Is. 6rf. 2s. Od. 2s. Qd. 2s. M. Os. U. Is. Od. Vol. Ill, The Balkan States (1). New Noa. Old Nob, 15 (15) The Eastern Question ... ... 3a Gd. 16 (46) Turkey in Europe ... ... ... 3«. Od. 17 (16) Albania* 2s. Od. 18 (18) Greece*, with the Oyclades* and Northern Sporades* ... ... 3s. 6d. Vol. IV, The Balkan States (2). 19 (20) Montenegro* ... ... ... 2s. Od. 20 (22) Serbia* ... ... ... ... 2s. &d. 21 (19) Macedonia ... ... ... 2s. Od. 22 (17) Bulgaria* ... ... ... ... 3s. 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Dutch and British Possessions. 82 (71) Java* and Madura* 83 (72) Sumatra* ... . ... 84 (73) Dutch Borneo*... 85 (74) Celebes* 86 (75) Dutch Thnor* and the smaller Sunda Islands* 87 (76) Dutch New Guinea* and the Molucca Islands* 88 (66) Britisb New Guinea* ... In the Press. (C) AFRICA. Vol. XV. British Possessions (1> 89 (132a) The Partition of Africa 90 (100) British West African (General) ... 91 (100a) Gambia* 92 (101) Sierra Leone* 93 (102) Gold Coast* ... 94 (103) Nigeria* 95. (104) Nyasaland* ... Colonies In the Press Vol. XVI. British Possessions (2) : Belgian Congo. NewNos. Old. If 08. 96 (105) British East Africa*, Uganda*, Zanzibar ... ... ... In the Press. 97 (106) British Somaliland* and Sokotra* " „ 98 (107) The Sudan* .... ... ... „ 99 (99) Belgian Congo* ... ... „ III the Press, jl. XVII. French Possessions. 100 (108a) French African Colonies (General; 101 (108) French Morocco* 102 (109) Senegal* 103 (110) French Guinea* 104 (111) Ivory Coast*... 105 (112) Dahomey* 106 (113) Mauretania* ... 107 (114) Upper Senegal* and Niger Terri- tories* 108 (115) French Equatorial Africa* 109 (116) French Somaliland* Vol. XVIII. German Possessions. 110 (117) Togoland* ... ... ... In the fress. 111 (118) Cameroon* ... ... ... „ 112 (119) German South- West Africa* ..'. „ 113 (120) German East Africa* ... ... „ 114 (132i) German Treatment of Natives ... „ Vol. XIX. Portuguese Possessions. 115 (55) Portuguese Colonial Empire ... In the Press. 116 (124) Azores* and Madeira* ... 117 (124a; Cape Verde Islands* ... 118 (125) Portuguese Guinea* 119 (126) SanThom^*,Princip^*,andAjuda* 120 (127) Angola* with Cabinda... 121 (128) Mozambique* Vol. XX Spanish and Italian Possessions : Independent States. 122 (129) Spanish Morocco* ... ... 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Part II ... > 2s. M. 157 (157). German Opinion since July 1914 ... Is. Od. Vol. XXV. Indemnities, Plebiscitea, &c. New Nos. Old Nos. ifiR f (159) Indemnities in previous wars ... In the Press. ^'^ 1(160) Subsidies and Loans (British) ... „ 159 (163) Plebiscite and Referendum ... „ 160 (162) Schemes for maintaining General 161 (166) President Wilson's Policy ... " 162 (164) Zionism ... ... ... „ (P) VOLUMES OP MAPS. 1 Austria-Hungary (10 maps) ... ... In the Press. 2 The Balkan Peninsula (8 maps) ... ... „ 3 Poland (8 maps) ... ... ... ,. 4 Ethnography of Central and South-Eastern , Europe and Western Asia (6 maps) ... „ 1 SIAM TODAY AND YESTERDAY by H.E. SIR JOSIAH CROSBY. <2cLf^C^C' British Minister to SIAM. /i \ / yrj ^ >, (We are deeply grateful for this excellent contribution Itrom a great diplomat and true lover of Thailand (Siam). Sir Josiah Crosby has, during his many years residencjc in the country, made himself well known among and respected by the Thai people The Manager ). It is wPth much pleasure that I respond to the invitation of the Overseas Broadcasting Station at Bangkok to give my impression of the principal changes which I have observed in this country since I first took up my residence in it some 36 years ago. Apart from political events, with which I do not propose to deal, I am disposed to group the changes that I have observed under four main heads. . In the first place there are those notable develop- ments inthej spheres of executive and judicial administra- tion which have only just led to the conclusion by Siam with various Foreign Powers of Treaties of Friendship and Commerce based on the principle of complete reciprocity and of full recognition by each party of the other's autonomous rights in all respects. The commemoration of this happy result, the finil step leading to which was the recent pro-nulgation of the entire body of Siam's Legal Codes, has by order of the Government figured among the national celebrations which took place on June 21th. As- the Plenipotentiary who signed on behalf of his country the Treaty of November 23rd., 1937, between Great Britain and Siam, I esteem it a high privilege to have bsen associated with His Excellency Liaag Pradist Manudharm in the conclusion of one of the instruments here in question, and so to have played a pirt in negotia- tions which may be held to have m irked a turning-point in the history of Siam. , A second change which I would mention has to do with improvements in the means of transport and com- munication. When I first cama to Siam there were practically no highways outside the capital itself, whilst the Northern Railway did not proceed beyond Paknimpoh and the Southern Eailway had got no further thaa Petchaburi. Journeys to Europe were in those day3 of necessity made via Singapore, which was reached from Bangkok by sea, there being then no convenient interna- tional express train to Penang. And it took literally weeks to reach Chiengmai, the journey to that place from Paknampoh being undertaken in boats which were poled slowly and laboriously up the River Me Ping. At the present time both Singapore and Chiengmai are connected with Bangkok by rail, and there is a railway from 3 Bangkok to the frontier of Cambodia via Patriew. i When I first asrived, it had not got beyond the latter point). Furthermore, a network of highways is now in process of construction all over the Kingdom and the •Government's road programme does it infinite credit. The effect wh"ch these improved means of corumunication :are having, and will go on having, upoa the population is ■incalculable. Not only is the capital being brought into •closer touch with the out-districts, but the inhabitants of the latter are coming to acquire a broader and a more national outlook in place of their former more nirrow and, in the nature of things, more parochial, one. A thir^ change to note is the progress of education, which has accomplished great strides of late years. Secondary education had already made a good beginning over thirty years ago, but it lias come along steadily since ihen, whilst primary education has miade extensive progress, too. Vocational training is also being encouraged but the most striking feature of all is perhaps the ■development of higher education. Three decades ago Siam could boast of no University in the proper sense of the word; now there are two of them flourishing at Bangkok and the task which they are performing will ■mean ev*y thing to the Siam of the future. These institutions assuredly deserve the fullest measure of -support from both the Government and the public. The fourth significant change to which I would a-efer concerns the position of women. The men of this country have always treated their women with conrteay- and respect ; it has never been the practice to keep thenx in close confinement, to cut them off from the rest of the- world or to look upon them as other than helpmeets and equals. Yet in former times — - such at least is my impression — the phce of a Thai lady was judged to be most suitably at home, by which I mean that she d d not mix to any great extent in society, certainly not in the cosmopolitan society of Bangkok thirty or forty years since, though even then there were exceptions. • Now all this is altered, and how much for the better ! The Thai wife is seen everywhere with her husband, the unmarried daughters (if they are old enough) go about freely and the consequence is that the society of iSangkok is as- agreeable to-day as any one could wish. Moreover, the education of girls is receiving the attention which it merits, and it augurs well for Siam that this should be so, since for no country can there be any real progress in which the women do not share. I have spoken of changes. Now let me speak of one factor which, I am happy to say, is permanent, and that is the 1 hai himself. Ever since I have been in "this country he has continued to be what he has always been, the same tolerant and hospitable friend whom I first learnt to know and appreciate in 1904. He has perfect manners and a singularly kind heart, and I wish him all manner of go.od in the years to come. LONDON : PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE. To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from B..U. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses: IlfFBRiAL Ho0SE, EiNasTTAY, LoNDON, W.C. 2, and 38, Abinodon Stbeet, London, S.W. 1; 87, Peteb Stbeet,' Manchbsteb; 1, St. Andrew's Cbescent, Cardiff; 28, Forth Street, EmnbuR(3h; or from E. P0N80NBY, Ltd., 118, OtBAFTON Strbbt, Dubuh. 1020. Price Qd.Net.