./ 5S BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrg W. Sage 1891 A-mui ii^jiprf^.. Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library PA 2087 .H28S5 3 1924 021 613 074 Digitized by Microsoft® M j^ This book was digitized by Microsoft Corporation in cooperation with Corneii University Libraries, 2007. You may use and print this copy in iimited quantity for your personai purposes, but may not distribute or provide access to it (or modified or partiai versions of it) for revenue-generating or other commerciai purposes. Digitized by Microsoft® Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive..£r^^cl^tails^u31 924021 61 3074 g.0 t) B 3 Digitized by Microsoft® SHORT ^ 'III LATIN GEAMMAE BY ALBERT HARKNESS, Ph.D., LL.D. PROFESSOR EMEKITUS IN BROWN UNIVEESITT oXXo NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •;• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Digitized by Microsoft® Copyright, 1898, by ALBERT HAEKNES8, Entered at Stationers' Hall. HARK, short gram. W. P. I Digitized by Microsoft® PREFACE The ■work now offered to the public is intended especially for those who do not contemplate a collegiate course of study, but it may be successfully used in any school where for special reasons a small Grammar is deemed desirable. The instruments of education must of course be readjusted from time to time to the ever-changing methods in school and college. Accordingly the prime object of this volume is to adapt the wort of instruction to present methods and present needs. In view of the heavy demands now made on the time of classical teachers and students a special effort has been made to develop the prac- tical side of grammar, to make it as helpful as possible to the teacher in the difficult task of explaining the force of involved constructions in Latin authors, and as helpful as possible to the learner in his early efforts to understand and appreciate thoughl; in the strange garb of a complicated Latin sentence. Simplicity and clearness, ever of paramount importance in the work of the class-room, have received special attention. The leading prin- ciples of construction have been put in the form of definite rules or laws, and illustrated by carefully selected examples from Latin authors, a mode of treatment perfectly consistent with scientific accuracy, and sanctioned by the general experience of teachers as in the highest degree helpful to the pupil. Moreover, to secure convenience of reference and to give completeness and vividness to the general outline, these laws of the language after having been separately discussed are presented in a body at the close of the syntax. Another consideration which has had weight in determining the character of this grammar is the importance of bringing the treatment which the practical needs of the school and college seem to demand into harmony with the learned results recently iii Digitized by Microsoft® iv PREFACE gathered by specialists in the field of historical grammar and linguistic study. On this point the author deems himself fortu- nate in having secured the cordial cooperation of three of the eminent Latinists who are engaged in the preparation of the "Historische Grammatik der Lateinischen Sprache" now in process of publication at Leipzig, Professor F. Stolz of the Uni- versity of Innsbruck, Professor G. Landgraf of Munich, and Professor H. Blase of Giessen, authors whose works- are known and read by classical scholars throughout the world, and whose names are identified with the best scholarship of the age. This volume is intended to be a sufficient Latin Grammar for those in whose interests it has been prepared. It is not therefore in any sense an introduction to the author's Complete Latin Gram- mar, although it must be admitted that many teachers prefer to use an elementary text-book in the class-room, provided it can be properly supplemented in later study by a more complete discus- sion of the subject. But a manual which must soon give place to a more extended work on a different plan involves an inexcus- able waste of time and labor. The beginner needs to store his mind at the outset with the laws of the language in such forms of statement as he can carry with him throughout his whole course of study. The convenience and interest of the student in this regard have been carefully consulted in the preparation of this work. Accordingly, all the paradigms, rules, and discussions have in general been introduced in the exact form and language of the author's Grammar, by which it may at any time be fully supplemented. The numbering of the sections in this volume is the same as in the Complete Grammar. In conclusion the author desires once more to make his grate- ful acknowledgments to the classical teachers of the country who by their fidelity and skill in the use of his books have won for them such marked success. To their hands this work is now respectfully and gratefully committed. ALBERT HARKNESS. Bkowh University, June 25, 1898. Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS PASS Intkoduction 1 PAET I. PHONOLOGY Alphabet .... 2 Pronunciation of Latin . 3 Quantity 4 Accentuation . . 4 Inherited Vowels and Diphthongs 5 Vowel Gradation or Ablaut 6 Phonetic Changes 5 Changes in Vowels ... 5 Changes in Consonants 7 PAET II. MORPHOLOGY Nouns and Adjectives Gender .... ... Person, Number, and Case Declension First Declension, 4-Nouns and ^-Adjectives Second Declension, 0-Nouns and 0-Adjectives Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Third Declension, Nouns and Adjectives Nouns of the Third Declension Stems ending in a Labial : B or P Stems ending in a Dental : D or T . Stems ending in a Guttural : O oi G Stems ending in a Liquid : L ox B Stems ending in a Nasal : Mot N Stems ending in S . Stems ending in 7 . Consonant and /-Stems combined Special Paradigms . Gender as determined by the Endings of Nouns V Digitized by Microsoft® 8 9 10 10 13 14 16 18 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 23 26 VI CONTENTS FAGR Adjectives of the Third Declension 26 Fourth Declension, Z7-Nouns 29 Fifth Declension, ^-Nouns . 30 General Table of Gender 30 Indeclinable Nouns and Adjectives 31 Defective Nouns and Adjectives 31 Heteroolites 32 Heterogeneous Nouns 33 Comparison of Adjectives 33 Numerals 35 PRONOUNS Personal and Reflexive Pronouns 38 Possessive Pronouns 89 demonstrative Pronouns 39 Determinative Pronouns 40 Relative Pronouns 41 Interrogative Pronouns 41 Indefinite Pronouns 42 Table of Correlatives 43 VERBS Voices, Moods, and Tenses . 43 CONJUGATION Sum, I am ; Stems, es,fu 46 First Conjugation : ^- Verbs . 48 Second Conjugation : S- Verbs 52 Third Conjugation . Consonant Verbs 56 Fourth Conjugation : /-Verbs 60 Comparative View of Conjugations 64 Deponent Verbs 66 Semi-Deponent Verbs 67 /-Verbs of the Third Conjugation 67 Verbal Inflections 70 Periphrastic Conjugations 72 Formation of Stems 73 Present Stem 74 Perfect Stem " . .74 Participial System 75 Veirbal Endings 76 Personal Endings 76 Mood*and Tense Signs 76 Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS vii PAGE Classification of Verbs 76 First Conjugation 76 Second Conjugation 77 Third Conjugation 78 Fourth Conjugation .81 Irregular Verbs 82 Defective Verbs 88 Impersonal Verbs 89 PARTICLES Adverbs 89 Prepositions 90 Conjunctions 90 Interjections 91 PAET III. ETYMOLOGY Inflection and Derivation 91 Root Words — formed from Roots by Inflection 92 Primary Derivatives 92 Secondary Derivatives — Nouns and Adjectives 95 Derivation and History of Latin Verbs 99 Root Verbs 99 Thematic Verbs 99 Verbs formed with the SuflBx io . ' 99 The Formation of Verbs from the Stems of Nouns and Adjectives . 100 Composition of Words 101 PART IV. SYNTAX Classification of Sentences 102 Elements of Simple Sentences 103 Elements of Compound Sentences 104 RULES OF AGREEMENT Subject Nominative 104 Agreement of Verb with Subject 104 Appositives and Predicate Nouns 105 . Agreement of Adjectives 106 Agreement of Pronouns 107 Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS USE OF CASES Nominative and Vocative .... Accusative Accusative as Direct Object Two Accusatives of the Same Person Two Accusatives — Person and Tiling Accusative and Infinitive Accusative as Subject of Infinitive . Accusative of Specification Accusative of Time and Space Accusative as Limit of Motion Accusative witli Prepositions . Accusative in Exclamations Dative Dative of Indirect Object Dative with Special Verbs Datives with Compounds Dative of the Possessor . Dative of the Apparent Agent Ethical Dative Indirect Object and Predicate Dative - Dative with Adjectives . Dative with Nouns and Adverbs Genitive Genitive with Nouns Predicate Genitive Predicate Genitive of Price and Value Predicate Genitive with Eefert and Interest . Genitive with Adjectives . . ... Genitive with Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting Accusative and Genitive Genitive with Verbs of Feeling Genitive with Special Verbs Ablative Ablative Proper Ablative of Separation Ablative of Source Ablative with Comparatives .... Instrumental Ablative Ablative of Association Ablative of Cause AWative of Means PAGE 108 108 108 109 110 110 110 110 111 111 112 113 113 113 114 115 115 110 116 116 117 117 117 118 120 121 121 122 122 123 123 124 124 124 125 126 127 127 127 128 128 Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS Ablative of Means — Special Uses Ablative of i'rioe and Value Ablative of Difference Ablative of Specification . Locative and Locative Ablative Ablative of Place Ablative of Time Ablative Absolute Ablative with. Prepositions Summary of Constructions of Place and Space USE OF ADJECTIVES Equivalent to a Clause . . . . • . Comparatives and Superlatives 129 130 130 130 131 131 132 133 133 134 134 136 USE OP PRONOUNS Personal Pronouns 136 Possessives 136 Keflexive Use of Pronouns 136 Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . , 137 Determinative Pronouns 138 Relative Pronouns . . 139 Interrogative Pronouns 139 Indefinite Pronouns 139 General Indefinite Pronouns 140 Pronominal Adjectives 141 SYNTAX OP VERBS Use of Voices, Numbers, and Persons . .... 141 Distinction between the Three Pinite Moods 141 Use of the Indicative ..... .... 142 Special Uses 142 Tenses of the Indicative 143 Table of Tenses 143 Present Indicative 143 Imperfect Indicative 144 Future Indicative 145 Perfect Indicative 145 Pluperfect Indicative 145 Future Perfect Indicative 146 Tenses of the Subjunctive . 146 Digitized by Microsoft® X CONTENTS PAGE Distinction between Absolute and Relative Time 147 Sequence of Tenses . ■ • 147 Table of Subjunctive Tenses 148 Peculiarities in the Sequence of Tenses 148 SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES Potential Subjunctive . . 149 Optative Subjunctive 150 Subjunctive of "Will, or Volitive Subjunctive 151 Imperative Subjunctive and Imperative 151 SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES Volitive Subjunctive in Substantive Clauses . Volitive Subjunctive in Clauses of Purpose — Final Clauses Potential Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses Potential Subjunctive in Clauses of Result — Conspnitive Clausrs Potential Subjunctive in Substantive Clauses . Moods in Conditional Sentences .... Indicative in Both Clauses Subjunctive, Present or Perfect in Both Clauses Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect in Both Clauses Conditional Clauses of Comparison Conditional Adversative Clauses Moods in Adversative and Concessive Clauses Moods with Dum, Modo, Dummodo .... Moods with Quod, Quia, Quoniam, Quando Indicative and Subjunctive in Relative Clauses Moods with Quin Subjunctive with Cum in Causal and Concessive Clauses Moods in Temporal Clauses with Cum .... Temporal Clauses with Postquam, Ubl, Ut, etc. . Temporal Clauses with Dum, Donee, and Quoad . Temporal Clauses with Antequam and Friusquam 153 154 155 155 155 156 156 157 158 159 160 160 161 161 162 164 165 166 167 167 168 INFINITIVE. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES Origin, Early Use, and Development of the Infinitive . . . 169 Infinitive Clause as Object 170 Infinitive or Infinitive Clause as Subject 171 Tenses of the Infinitive 172 Digitized by Microsoft® CONTENTS GERUNDIVES, GERUNDS, SUPINES, AND PARTICIPLES PAGE Use of Cases in the Gerundive Constraotion and in Gerunds . .173 Supines 175 Participles 175 INDIRECT DISCOURSE — ORATIO OBLIQUA Moods in Principal Clauses 176 Moods in Subordinate Clauses 177 Pronouns and Persons in Indirect Discourse 177 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse 178 Indirect Clauses . 179 USE OF PARTICLES Use of Adverbs 180 Use of Coordinate Conjunctions 181 RULES OF SYNTAX Rules of Agreement 182 Use of Cases 182 Use of Moods and Tenses 185 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND CLAUSES Arrangement of Words in a Simple Sentence 189 Arrangement of Clauses 192 Latin Periods 193 PAET V. PROSODY QUANTITY Quantity of Final Syllables 194 Quantity in Increments 195 Quantity of Derivative Endings 196 Quantity of Stem Syllables 197 VERSIFICATION General View of the Subject 197 Feet 198 Rhythmic Series, Verses 199 Figures of Prosody 200 Digitized by Microsoft® xii CONTENTS PAGE Varieties of Verse . _ 201 Dactylic Hexameter 201 •_ Other Dactylic Verses 202 ■ Trochaic Verse ........ . . 202 Iambic Verse ' 202 Ionic Verse 203 Logaoedic Verse 203 Compound Meters 203 Versification of the Principal Latin Poets 203 Vergil, Horace, Ovid, Juvenal 203 Saturnian Verse 203 APPENDIX Hidden Quantity . .204 Figures of Speech ' . . ' . 205 Roman Literature 206 Roman Calendar 206 Romali Money . ' - . . . 208 Abbreviations in Latin Authors 208 Index op Verbs . . 209 General Index . . . , . . .- - . . . . 215 Digitized by Microsoft® LATIN GRAMMAR INTRODUCTION 1. The Latin language derives its name from the Latini, the Latins, the ancient inhabitants of Latium in Italy. It belongs to the Indo-European family. 2. The Latin, the Oscan, and the Umbrian are the three leading members of the Italian group of this family, and the resemblance between them is so great that they appear to be only different dialects of one common language. 3. From the Latin has been directly derived the entire group of the Romance languages, of which the Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese are important members. The English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family, but it is in- debted to the Latin for one third of its vocabulary. LATIN GRAMMAR 4. Latin grammar treats of the principles of the Latin language. It comprises five parts : I. Phonology, which treats of the letters and sounds of the lan- II. Morphology, which treats of the form and inflection of words. III. Etymology, which treats of the derivation of words. IV. Syntax, which treats of the structure of sentences. V. Prosody, which treats of quantity' and versification. HAKK. a. S. LAT. GRAM. — 2 1 Digitized by Microsoft® 2 PHONOLOGY PART I. — PHONOLOGY ALPHABET 5. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English with the omission of j and w, but k is seldom used, and y and z occur only in words of Greek origin. 6. Letters are divided according to the position of the vocal organs at the time of utterance into two general classes, vowels and consonants, and these classes are again divided into various subdivisions, as seen in the following : 7. CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS VoTwels 1. Open vowel a 2. Medial vowels e o 3. Close vowels i y u Consonants Gutturals Palatals Linguals Dentals !Lablals 4. Semivowels, sonant i = J v = w 5. Nasals, sonant n i n m 6. Liquids, sonant 1, r 7. Spirants, surd h s f 8. Mutes, sonant g d b 9. Mutes, surd c, q, k t p Note. — x = cs, or gs, is a double consonant. 8. Observe that the consonants are divided, 1. According to the organs chiefly employed in their production ^"^ ° Gutturals,— throat letters. Linguals, — tongue letters. Palatals, — palate letters. Dentals, — teeth letters. Labials, — lip letters. 2. According to the manner in which they are uttered, into Sonants, or voiced letters, as b in had. Surds, voiceless or breathed letters, as p in pad. 1 With the sound of n in concord, linger. Digitized by Microsoft® PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN 3 9. Diphthongs are formed by the union of two vowels in one syllable. The common diphthongs are ae, oe, au, and eu. Ei and ui are rare. PRONUNCIATION OP LATIN 10. The vowels are pronounced substantially as follows ' : Long Short a like a in ah : a'-ra a like initial a in aha : at e " e " they: de e " e "net: et I " i "pique: i'-vl i " i "pick: id 5 " o"hole: OS o " o "forty: ob u " ii"rule: u'-sQ u " u "full: ut 1. U in qu, and generally in gu and su before a vowel, has the sound of V7: qui (kwe); sua'-sit (swah-sit). 11. Diphthongs. — In diphthongs, each vowel retains its own SO^^ rex regis Case Suffixes s is Digitized by Microsoft® 20 Dat. Ace. Abl. N. V. Gen. Dat. Aoc. Abl. MORPHOLOGY duel radici regi duoem radlcem regem duce radice Plukal lege duces radices reges ducum radicum regum ducibus radicibus regibus duces radices reges ducibus radicibus rSgibus i em em es um ibus es ibus 1. The stems are due, radic, and reg. 99. Stems ending in a Liquid: L or R. Passer, m., Consul, m., consul. N.V. consul Gen. e5nsulis Dat. consul! Ace. consulem Abl. eSnsule N.V. consulea Gen. eonsulum Dat. eonsulibus Aec. consules Abl. eonsulibus Pater, m., father. sparrow. Singular passer pater passeriB patris passer! patri passerem patrem passere patre Pltjral passeres patres passerum patrum passeribus patribus passeres patres passeribus patribus 1. The stems are consul, passer, and pater, patr. 2. Most nouns in er are declined like passer, but those in ter, with a very few exceptions, are declined like pater. 100. stems ending in a Nasal: M or N. Hiems, f., Leo, m., Virgo, f., N.V. Gen. Dat. Aoc. Abl. winter. hiems hiemis hiemi hiemem hieme lion. Singular le5 leonis leon! leonem leone maiden. virgS virginis virgin! virginem virgine Carmen, n., song. carmen carminis carmin! carmen carmine Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 21 Plural K.V. hiemes leones virginea carmina Gen. hiemum leonum virginum carminum Dat. hiemibua leSnibus virginibuB carminibus Aoc, hiemes leones virgines carmina AW. hiemibus leonibus virginibus carminibus 1. The stems are hiem, leon, virgon, virgin, and carmen. 2. Most nouns in 5 are declined like leo, but those in do and g5, with a few others, are declined like virgo. 101, , Stems ending in S. Flos, m., liis, n., Opus, n., Corpus, n., flower. right. SlNGULAK work. body. N.V. flos ius opus corpus Gen. fleiis iiiris operls corporis Dat. florl iunt operi corpori Aoc. ilorem ius opus corpus Abl. flore itire Plural opere corpore N.V. flores iiira opera corpora Gen. flomm iurum operum corporum Dat. floribus iiiribus operibus corporibus Ace. flores iiira opera corpora Abl. floribus iuribuB operibus corporibus 1. The stems are flos, iila, opos, opes, corpoa. II. — I-Stems 102. Stems ending in I. — Nouns in is and es, not increasing in the Genitive. Tussis, f., Navis, f., Ignis, m., Auris, f.. cough. ship. fire. ear. Singular Case Endings N.V. tussia navis ignis auris is Gen. tussis navis Ignis auris is Dat. tussi navi Igni auri I Ace. tussim navim. , navem ignem aurem im, em Abl. tussi navi, nave ignl, Igne aure i, e Digitized by Microsoft® MORPHOLOGY Pl0ral N.V. Gen. Dat. Aco. Abl. tussea tussinm tussibus ( tusses (. tussis tussibua navea navium navibus naves navis navibuB ignea Ignium ignibuB ignes ignis ignibus aurea aurium auribuB aures auris auribus 1. The stems are tussi, navi, igni, and auri. 103. Stems ending in I. — Neuters in e, al, and ar. es ium ibus es is ibus Cubile, Animal, Calcar, couch. animal. Singular spur. Case Endings N.V. cubile animal calcar e — Gen. cubllis animalia calcaris is Dat. cubili animal! calcarT i Ace. cubile animal calcar e — Abl. cubili animali Plural calcari i N.V. cubilia animalia calcaria ia Gen. cubilium animalium calcarium ium Dat. cubilibus animallbus calcaribua ibus Ace. cubilia animalia calcaria ia Abl. cubilibus animalibus calcaribus ibus 1. Cubile was originally cubili, animal, animali, and calcar, calcari. III. — Consonant and I-Stems Combined 104. TMs class of Latin nouns consists of i-stems which have lost the final i in the singular and of consonant stems which have assumed i in the plural. 105. Nouns in es and nouns in a and x generally preceded by a consonant. Nubes, f., Urbs, cloud. city. f-, Arx, f., citadel. N.V. Gen. Singular nubea urbs nubis urbis arx arcis Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 23 Dat. nubi urbi Ace. nubem urbem Abl. nube urbe Plural N. V. nubes urbes Gen. nubium urbium Dat. nubibus urbibus Aco. f nubes I nubis • urbes '.urbis Abl. nubibus urbibus arci arcem aroe arces arcitun arcibus f arces l arcis arcibus 1. These nouns are declined in the singular like consonant stems, and in the plural like 1-stems. 106. To this class belong the following nouns : 1. Most nouns in es, Gen. in is: caedes, slaughter; clades, disaster; sedes, seat; stmes, heap; suboles, sprout. 2. Most nouns in ns and rs : cliens, client; cohors, cohort. 3. Monosyllables in s and x preceded by a consonant : urbs, city ; arx, citadel. TV. — Special Paradigms IC 17. Sus, m.am df., Bos, m. a ,nd f., Nix, f ., Senex, m.. Vis,f., swine. ox, cow. snow. old man. force. Singular N. V. sus bos nix senex vis Gen. suis bovis nivis senis visi T3at. SUl bovi ni\^ seni vii Ace. suem bbvem nivem senem vim Abl. sue bove nive sene vi Plural N. V. sues boves nives senes vires Gen. suum ' bovum .boum nivium senum virium Dat. f suibus I subus f bobus I bubus nivibus senibus viribus Ace. sues boves nives senes vires Abl. f suibus . subus f bobus I bubus nivibus senibus viribus 1. luppiter is thus declined : luppiter, lovis, lovi , lovein, love. 1 The Genitive and Dative singular, vis and vi, are rare. Digitized by Microsoft® 24 MORPHOLOGY LOCATIVE CASE 108; Many names of towns have a Locative singular in i or e, denoting the Place in Which any thing is or is done : Tiburi, or Tibure, at Tibur. In the plural the Locative meaning is expressed by the ending ibus : Gadibus, at Gades. GREEK NOUNS 109. Many Greek nouns of the Third Declension are entirely regular, but some retain certain peculiarities of the Greek, espe- cially the following Greek forms : 1. A Vocative singular like the stem : Pari-s, Pari; Orpheu-s, Orpheu. 2. A Genitive singular in os : Pallas, Palladia, Pallados. 3. An Accusative singular in a : PaUada. 4. A Nominative plural in es : Arcades. 5. An Accusative plural in as : Arcadas. 110. The following examples illustrate these peculiarities: Lampas, f., torch. N. V. lampas Gen. lampadis, lampados Dat. lampadi Ace. lampadem, lampada Abl. lampade N. V. lampades, lampades Gen. lampadum Dat. lampadibua Ace. lampades, lampadas Abl. lampadibus Phryx, m. and f., Phrygian. Singular Phryx Phrygis Phrygi Phrygem, Phryga Phryge Plural Phryges, Phryges Phrygum Phry gibus Phryges, Phrygas Phry gibus Heros, m., hero. heros herois heroi heroem, heroa heroe heroes, heroes heroum heroibus heroes, heroas heroibus 1. Greek ferainines in 6 may be declined either with us in the Genitive and with 5 in the other cases, as Dido, Didiis, Dido, etc., or regularly from the stem in on, as Dido, Dldonls, DIdoni, Didonem, Didone. 2. Greek neuters in a, Gen. in atis or atos, often have is in the Dative and AblaWve plural, and sometimes orum in the Genitive plural : poema, poem ; poematis or poematibus ; poematorum or poematum, Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 25 GENDER AS DETERMINED BY THE ENDINGS OF NOUNS I. Masculines 111. Nouns of the Third Declension ending in o, or, os, er, and es, are masculine : Ssrmo, discourse; dolor, pain; mos, custom; agger, mound; gurges, whirlpool. 113. Nouns in o are masculine, except those in do and go, and abstract and collective nouns in 15, most of which are feminine. 113. Nouns in or and os are masculine, except 1. The Feminines: arbor, arbos, tree; cos, whetstone; dos, dowry. 2. The Neuters: ador, spelt; aequor, sea; cor, heart; marmor, marble; 6s, mouth. 114. Nouns in er and es are masculine, except 1. The Feminines: linter, boat; merges, sheaf; seges, crop; teges, mat. 2. The Neuters: cadaver, corpse; iter, way; tuber, tumor; uber, udder ; a few names of trees and plants in er : acer, maple tree. II. Feminines 115. Nouns of the Third Declension ending in do, go, io ; as, es, is, us, ys, X, and in s preceded by a consonant are feminine : Grande, hail; origo, origin; ratio, reason; aetas, age; nubes, cloud; navis, ship; virtus, virtue; chlamys, cloak; pax, peace; urbs, city. 116. Nouns in do and go, and abstract and collective nouns in io, are feminine, except cardo, hinge; ordo, rank; harpago, grap- pling hook; ligo, mattock; margo, border, which are masculine. 117. Nouns in as and es are feminine, except 1. The Masculines: as, the as, a coin; acinaces, scimiter; celes, a racer; lebes, chaldron; paries, wall; pes, foot; quadrupes, quadruped. 2. The Neuter : vas, vessel. 118. Nouns in is are feminine, except the following masculines : 1. Nouns in nis and guis : ignis, fire ; sanguis, blood. 2, Nouns in is, Gen, in eris : pulvis, dust; vomis, plowshare. Digitized by Microsoft® 26 MORPHOLOGY 3. The following : axis, axle fascis, bundle orbis, circle coUis, hill lapis, stone piscis, jSsA ensis, sword mensis, month postis, post 4. A few otlier nouns in Is. 119. Nouns in us and ys are feminine, except 1. The Masculines : mus, mouse, and a few Greek nouns. 2. The Neuters: crus, leg ; ius, right; rus, the country ; tus, incense. 120. Nouns in x are feminine, except the following masculines ; 1. Most Nouns in ex ; grex, flock. 2. Calix, cup; fornix, arch. 121. Nouns in s preceded by a consonant are feminine, except the following masculines : 1. Dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons, bridge; gen- erally, adeps, fat ; and nidens, cable. III. Neuters 122. Nouns of the Third Declension ending in a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, and us are neuter : Poema, poem; mare, sea; sinapi, mustard; misy, kind of mushroom; lac, milk; animal, animal; carmen, song; caput, head; nectar, nectar; ebur, ivory ; corpus, body. ' 123. Nouns in 1, n, and ar are neuter, except sal, salt; sol, sun; pecten, comb, which are masculine. 124. Nouns in ur and us are neuter, except 1. The Masculines: turtur, turtle dove; vultur, vulture; lepus, hare. 2. The Feminine: pecus (peoudis), herd of cattle. ADJECTIVES or THE THIRD DECLENSION 125. Adjectives of the Third Declension may be divided into three classes : I. Those which have in the Nominative singular three different forms — one for each gender: I-Stems. II. T^ose which have two forms — the masculine and feminine being the same : Consonant and I-Stems. Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD DECLENSION 27 III. Those which have but one foun- ders : Consonant and I-Stems. -the same for all gen- 126. Adjectives of Three Endings in this declension have the stem in i, and are declined as follows : Acer, acris, acre, sharp. Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter N. V. aoer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Abl. acn Plhka acri L acri N.V. a.cres acres acria Gen. aciium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus ACG. acres, acris acres, acris acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus 1. The stem of acer, acris, acre is acri. 127. Adjectives of Two Endings are either from i-stems or from s-stems, and are declined as follows : Tristis, triste, sad. Tristior, tristius, sadder. Singular M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. N.V. tristis triste tristior tristius Gen. tristis tristis tristioris tristioris Dat. tristi tristi tristiori tristiori Ace. tristem triste tristiorem tristius Abl. tristi tristi Plural tristiore (i) tristiore (i) N.V. tristes tristia trlstiores tristiora Gen. trisUum tristium tristionim tristionim Dat. tristibus tristibus tristioribus tristioribus Ace. tristes, tristis tristia tristiores (is) tristiora Abl. tristibus tristibus tristioribus tristioribus 1. Observe that tristis and triste have i in the Ablative singular. 2. Tristior is the comparative (149) of tristis. Digitized by Microsoft® 28 MORPHOLOGY 3. The comparative plus, more, is declined as follows : M. , and F. Neut. Nom. — pias Gen. — pluria D. Abl. — — Aoc. — plus M. and F. Neut. pi urea plura plurium pliiiium pluribus pluribus plures plura 128. Adjectives of One Ending are declined partly from con- sonant stems and partly from i-stems. Most of them end in s or X : a few in 1 or r. Felix, happy. Singular Amans, loving. M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. N.V. felix felix amans amans Gen. fellcis felicis amantis amantis Dat. felici felici amanti amanti Ace. fellcem felix amantem amans Abl. felici (e) felici (e) Plural amante (i) amante (i) N.V. felioes felioia amantes amantia Gen. felicium felicium aniantium amantium Dat. fellcibus felicibus ainantibus amantibus Aoc. felices (is) felicia amantes (is) amantia Abl. felicibus felicibus amantibus amantibus Vetus, old. Memor, mindful. Singular M. and F. Neut. M. and F. Neut. N.V. vetus vetus memor memor Gen. veteris veteris memoris memoris Dat. veteri veteri memori memori Aco. veterem vetus memorem memor Abl. vetere (i) vetere (i) Pldral memori memori N.V. veteres Vetera memores Gen. veterum vetemm memorum Dat. veteribus veteribus niemoribus Ace. veteres (is) Vetera memores (is) Abl. veteribus veteribus memoribus . Digitized by Microsoft® FOURTH DECLENSION 29 129. Neuter Plural. — Many adjectives from the nature of their sig- nification are rare in the neuter. Some of these, like memor, lack the neuter plural. 130. Genitive Plural. — Most adjectives of the Third Declension have ium in the Genitive plural, but a few have um. FOURTH DECLENSION U-NOUNS 131. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in us and u. Those in lis are masculine, those in 5 are neuter. They are declined as follows : i.\Ji.X\J ¥V O Fructus, fruit. Cornu, lioiyi. N.V. fructus SiNGu: cornu LAR Case us Endings U Gen. fructus cornus us us Dat. fructui cornu ul u Ace. fructum cornu um u Abl. fructu cornu u u Plural N.V. fructus cornua us ua Gen. fructuum cornuum uum uum Dat. fructibua cornibus ibus (ubus) Ibus (ubus) Ace. fructus cornua us ua Abl. fruotibus cornibus ibus (ubus) ibus (ubus) 1. The stems are fructu and cornu. 2. A few nouns retain ubus in the Dative and Ablative plural : regularly tribus, tribe ; generally acus, needle ; arcus, bow ; artus, joint : lacus, lake ; partus, birth. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER 132. The following nouns in us are feminine: acus, needle; colus, dUtoff; domus, house; Idus, Ides; manus, hand; porticus, portico ; quinquatrus, /eas( of , Minerva; tribus, tribe. 133. Domus, f., house, has a Locative, domi, at home, and is otherwise declined as follows : Singular Plural N.V. . domus domus Gen. domiis domuum, domorum Dat. domuT, domo domibus Ace. domum domus, domos Abl. domu, domo domibus Digitized by Microsoft® 30 MORPHOLOGY FIFTH DECLENSION E-NouNS 134. Nouns of the Eifth Declension end in es and are feminine. I'hey are declined as follows : Dies, day. Ees, thing. Singular Case Endings N. V. dies res es Gen. die! rSi Si Dat. diei rii m Ace. diem rem em AW. die Plural re e N.V. dies res es Gen. dierum rerum erum Dat. diebuB rebus ebus Ace. dies res es Abl. diebus rebus ebus 1. The stems are die and re. 2. Dies and res are tbe only nouns in this declension complete in all their parts. In other nouns the plural forms are rare in the best writers. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER 135. Dies, day, and meridies, mid-day, are masculine, though dies is sometimes feminine in the singular. 136. GENERAL TABLE OF GENDER 1. Gender independent of endings ; common to all declensions. Masculine Names of Males, of Rivers, Winds, and Months Feminine Names of Females, of Countries, Towns, Islands, and Trees Neuter Indeclinable Nouns, In- finitives, and Clauses used as Nouns 2. Gender determined by Nominative ending.^ First Declension Masculine I Feminine I as, es a, e Neuter 1 For exceptions, see under the several declensions. Digitized by Microsoft® DEFECTIVE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES Second Declension 31 er, ir, us, os, os o, or, OS, er, es, ex- cept do, go, and io Third Declknsion do, go, io ; as, es, is, us, ys, X, s pre- ceded by a consonant FonETn Declension um, on a, e, 1, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us Fifth Declension - I es I - INDECLINABLE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 137. A very few nouns and adjectives are indeclinable, having but one form for all cases, as fas, right; nefas, wrong; nihil, nothing; instar, likeness; mane, morning; frugi, frugal, good; nequam, worthless ; mille, thousand; potis, ahle. DEFECTIVE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 138. Many nouns, from the nature of their meaning, are used chiefly in the singular. To these belong 1. The names of Persons and many names of Places: Cicero, Caesar, Roma, Borne; Graecia, Greece. 2. Most Abstract nouns : hdes, faith ; iustitia, JMSft'ce. 3. The names of Materials : aurum, gold ; ferrum, iron. 139. Many nouns, from the nature of their meaning, are used only in the plural. To these belong 1. Certain Personal Appellatives applicable to Classes: maiores, fore- fathers; poster!, descendants; gemini, twins; liberi, children. 2. Many names of Cities : Athenae, Athens; Thebae, Thebes. 3. Many names of Festivals : Bacchanalia, the Bacchanalian Festival. 4. Certain special nouns : arma, arms ; divitiae, riches ; indiitiae, truce ; insidiae, ambuscade; manes, shades of the dead; minae, threats; moenia, walls; niiptiae, nuptials, etc. 140. Plural with Change of Meaning. — Some nouns have one signification in the singular and another in the plural. Thus : aedes, temple aedes, (1) temples, (2) a house auxilium, help auxilia, auxiliaries Digitized by Microsoft® 32 MORPHOLOGY castrum, castle, hut castra, camp cop\a, plenty, force copiae, (1) stores, (2) troops finis, end fines, borders, territory gratia, gratitude, favor gratiae, thanks impediinentum, hindrance impedimenta, (1) hindrances, (2) baggage littera, letter of alphabet litterae, epistle, literature mos, custom mores, manners, character pars, part partes, (1) parts, (2) a party 141. Many nouns, entire in the singular, lack certain forms of the plural. Thus many monosyllabic nouns lack the Genitive plural: nex, death; pax, peace; pis, pitch; cor, heart; cos, whet- stone; sal, salt; sol, sun; lux, light; see also 134, 2. 142. Some nouns, entire in the plural, lack certain forms of the singular. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. Meaning opis — opem ope help — preci precem preoe prayer friigis frugl frQgem frage fruit 143. A few verbal nouns in u, and a few others, have only the Ablative singular in general use : iussu, hy order; mandatu, hy command; rogatu, hy request; sponte, by choice, etc. 144. Defective Adjectives. — A few adjectives, from the nature of their meaning, are used chiefly in the plural : complures, several; paucT, few; plerique, most. HETEROCLITES 145. A few nouns, called Heteroclites (heteroclita) are partly of one declension and partly of another. 1. Of the Second and Fourth Declensions are a few nouns in us: domus, house; laurus, laurel tree, etc. ; see 133. 2. Of the Second and Third Declensions are iugerum, iugeri, an acre; plural, iiigera, iugerum : vas, vasis, a vessel ; plural, vasa, vasorum. 3. Of the Third and Fifth Declensions are requies, rest, and fames, hunger. 4. Many nouns of four syllables have one form in ia of the First Declen- sion, and one in ies of the Fifth Declension : luxuria, luxuries, luxury. 146. Many adjectives have two distinct forms, one in us, a, um, of the !]girst and Second Declensions, and one in is and e, of the Third : hilarus and hilaris, joyful; exanimus and exanimis, lifeless. Digitized by Microsoft® COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 33 HETEROGENEOUS NOUNS 147. Heterogeneous (heterogenea) Nouns are partly of one gender and partly of another : locus, m.,jest; plural, iool, m., ioca, n.; locus, m., place; plural, loci, m., topics, Ioca, n., places; caelum, n., heaven; plural, caeli, m. ; epulum, n., feast; plural, epulae, f. 148. Some nouns of the Second Declension have one form in us, masculine, and one in um, neuter : clipeus, clipeum, shield. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 149. Adjectives have three forms, called the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative : altus, altior, altissimus, high, higher, highest. 150. The Latin, like the English, has two modes of comparison. I. Terminational Comparison — by endings. II. Adverbial Comparison — by the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, most. I. Terminational Comparison 151. Adjectives and participles used as adjectives are regu- larly compared by adding to the stem of the positive, stripped of its final vowel, the following Endings of Compabison Comparative Superlative M. and F. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. lor ius issimus issima issimum altus, altior, altius, altissimus, altissima, altissimum high, higher, or too high highest, or very high amans, aiuantior, amantius, amantissimus, aiuantissima, amantissimum loving, more loving most loving 152. Irregular Superlatives. — Many adjectives with regular comparatives have irregular superlatives. Thus : 1. Adjectives in er add rimus to this ending : acer, acrior, aoerrimus, sharp, sharper, sharpest HARK. G. o. LAT. GRAM. 4 Digitized by Microsoft® 34 MORPHOLOGY 2. Bat note dexter, riglit, dexterior, dextimua. 3. Five adjectives in ills add limus to the stem, stripped of its final vowel : facilis, facilior, facillimus, difficilis, difficilior, difaoillimus, similis, similior, simillimus, dissimilis, dissimilior, dissimillimus, humilis, humilior, humillimus, easier, easiest difficult, more difficult, etc. like, more like, most like unlike, more unlike, most, etc. low, lower, lowest 153. Compounds of dicus and volus form their comparatives and superlatives from the corresponding participial stems, dicent and volent, and compounds of ficus sometimes follow their analogy : maledicus, maledlcens, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus benevolus, henevolens, benevolent, benevolentior, benevolentiasimus honorificus, honorable, honorificentior, honorificentlssimus 154. Special irregularities of comparison sometimes arise from the use of different stems : bonus, melior, optimus, good, maluB, peior, pessimus, bad, magnus, maior, maximus, great, parvus, minor, minimus, small. better, best worse, worst greater, greatest smaller, smallest DBrBCTIVE CoMPABISOjST 155. In a few adjectives the Positive is either entirely want- ing, or used only in special constructions : 1. Positive wanting : citerior, citimus, deteiior, deterrimus, interior, intimus, ocior, ocissimus, prior, primus, propior, proximus, ulterior, ultimus, 2. Positive used only in special constructions : (exterus), exterior, extremus, and extimus, outer, outermost (inferus), inferior, Infimus, and imus, lower, lowest (posterns), posterior, postremus, and postumus, later, last, last-born (superus)* superior, supremus, and summus, higher, highest on this side, near, - nearest worse. worst inner. inmost swifter, swiftest former, first nearer. nearest farther. farthest Digitized by Microsoft® NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 35 156. A few adjectives lack the Comparative : falsus, — , falsissimus, false, most false novus, — , novisaimus, new, last sacer, — , sacerrimus, sacred, most sacred vetus, — , veterrimus, old, oldest 157. Many adjectives lack the Superlative, especially verbals in ills and bills : agilis, agilior, — , agile, more agile laudabilis, laudabilior, — , laudable, more laudable pronus, prSnior, — , inclined, more inclined 168. Three adjectives supply the Superlative as follows : adulescens, adulesoentior, minimuB natu, young, younger, youngest iuvenis, iunior, minimus natu, young, younger, youngest senex, senior, mazimus natu, old, older, oldest XI. Adverbial Comparison — by the Adverbs magis and mazime 159. Most adjectives in eus, iua, and uus, except those in quus, are compared by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, more, and mazimi, most: idoneus, magis idSneus, mazime idoneus, suitable more suitable most suitable ADJECTIVES WITHOUT COMPAEISON 160. Many adjectives, from the nature of their signification, are rarely, if ever, compared, especially such as denote Material, Color, Possession, or the relations of Time and Place : aureus, golden albus, white patemus, of a father Romanus, Roman aestivus, of summer sempiternus, eternal NUMERALS 161. Numerals comprise Numeral Adjectives and Numeral Adverbs. 162. Numeral Adjectives comprise three principal classes : 1. Cardinal Numbers: unus, one; duo, two; tares, three. 2. Ordinal Numbers : piimus, first ; secunOaa, second. 3. Distributives : singuli, one by one; biai, tivo by two, two each. Digitized by Microsoft® 36 MORPHOLOGY 163. Table of Numeral Adjectives Cardinals Ordinals Distributives 1. unus, una, unum primus, first singuli,! one by one 2. duo, duae, duo secundus, second bini, two by two 3. tres, tria tertius, third terni or trini 4. quattuor quartus, fourth quaterni 5. quinque quintus, fifth quini 6. sex sextus seni 7. septem Septimus septeni 8. octo octavus oetoni 9. novem nonus noveui 10. decern decimus deni 11. undecim iindecimus undeni 12. duodecim duodecimus duodeni 13. tredecim ^ tertius decimus ^ terni deni 14. quattuordecim quartus decimus quaterni deni 15. quindecim quintus decimus quini deni 16. sedecim^ sextus decimus seni deni 17, septendeeim Septimus decimus septeni deni 18. duodeviginti^ duodevicesimus^ duodeviceni 19. undeviginti * iinde vicesimus ^ undeviceni 20. vigiati vicesimus viceni 21. viginti unus vicesimus primus viceni singuli unns et viginti ^ iinus et vicesimus ^ singuli et viceni 30. triginta tricesimus triceni 40. quadraginta quadragesimus quadrageni 50. quinquaginta quinquagesiraus quinquageni 60. sexaginta sexagesimus sexageni 70. septuaginta septuagesimus septuageni 80. octoginta octogesiraus ootogeni 90. nonaginta nonagesimus nonageni 100. centum centesimus centeni 101. centum unus centesimus primus centeni singuli centum et iinus ^ centesimus et primus centeni et singuli 200. ducenti, ae, a. ducentesimus duceni 1,000. mille millesimus singula milia 2,000. duo milia bis millesimus bina milia 164. Distributives show the Number of objects taken at a time: ternos denarlos accepirunt, they received each three denarii. They are also used with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense. 1 Distributives, singuli, bini, etc., are adjectives, used only in the plural. 2 Sometimes with the parts separated : decern et tres, etc. 3 Decimus, with or without et, may precede. ^ Literally two from twenty, one from twenty, by subtraction ; but these numbers may be expressed by addition: decern et octo, etc.: so 28, 29; 38, 39, etc., either by subtraction from triginta, etc., or by addition to viginti, etc. s Sometimes expressed by addition : octavus decimus ; nSnus decimus. s If taps precede the units, et is omitted, otherwise it is generally used. ^ In compounding numbers above 100, units generally follow tens, tens hundreds, Digitized by Microsoft® NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 37 165. In fractions the numerator is expressed by cardinals and the denominator by ordinals, with or without pars, as in English: duae tertiae, tico thirds = f ; tres quintae, three fifths = f . Declension of Numeral Adjectives 166. tJnus, duo, and tres are declined as follows : Unus, one. Singular Plural Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern, Neut. Nom. unus una unum uni unae una Gen. unius unius unius tinorum unarum unorum Dat. uni unx uni unis unis unis Aco. unum unam uniun unos Unas una Abl. uno una uno unis unis unis Duo, two. Tres, three. Masc. Fein. Neut. M. and F. Neut. Nom. duo duae duo tres tria Gen. duorum duarum duorum triiun trium Dat. duobus duabus duobus tribus tribus Aoc. duos, duo duas duo tres, tris tria Abl. duobus duabus duobus tribus ti-ibus 1. The plural of unus in the sense of alone may he used with any noun ; but in the sense of one, it is used only with nouns plural in form, but singular in sense ; iina castra, one camp. 2. Like duo is declined ambo, both. 167. The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable, but hundreds are declined like the plural of bonus : ducenti, ae, a. 168. Mille as an adjective is indeclinable; as a substantive it is used in the singular in the Nominative and Accusative, but in the plural it is declined like the plural of cubile (103) r milia, milium, milibus. 1. With the substantive mille, milia, the name of the objects enumerated is generally in the Genitive : mille hominum, a thousand men (of men) ; but if a declined numeral intervenes it takes the case of that numeral : tria milia trecenti milites, three thousand three hundred soldiers. 169. Ordinals are declined like bonus, and distributives like the plural of bonus, but the latter often have um instead of orum in the Genitive ; binum for binorum. Digitized by Microsoft® 38 170. Arabic Boman 1 I 2 II 3 III i IV 5 V 6 VI 7 vn MORPHOLOGY NuMBRi Arabic LL byMB( Boman . 8 VIII 9 IX 10 X 11 XI 12 XII 15 XV 16 XVI Tabic Boman 19 XIX 20 XX 21 XXI 50 L 60 LX 90 XC 100 C Numeral Adverbs 171. To numerals belong also Numeral Adverbs. 1. semel, once 2. bis, twice 3. ter, three times i. quater 5. qumquies 6. sexies 7. septies 8. octies 9. nOYies 10. deeies 11. undecies 12. duodecies 13. ter deeies 14. quater deeies 1 duodevicies 18.: octies deeies jg 1 iindevicies ' i nonies deeies 20. vioies 21. semel et vicies 30. tricies 40. quadragies 90. nonagies 100. centies PRONOUNS 172. Pronouns are used either as Substantives: ego, /; is, he; or as Adjectives: meus, my; tuus, your. 173. Pronouns are divided into seven classes : 1. Personal and Eeflexive Pronouns : tii, thou; sui, of himself. 2. Possessive Pronouns : meus, viy. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns : hie, this ; iUe, that. 4. Determinative Pronouns : is, he, that. 5. Relative Pronouns : qui, tvho. 6. Interrogative Pronouns : quis, who f 7. Indefinite Pronouns : aliquis, some one. I. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 174. Personal Pronouns, so called because they designate the person of the noun which they represent, sometimes refer back to the subject of the sentence, and thus have a reflexive use: puer se amat, tha boy loves himself. Digitized by Microsoft® PRONOUNS 39 175. Personal and Reflexive Pronouns are thus declined: Ego, / Tu, thou Sul, of himself, of herself Singular * Nom. ego, / tu, thou Gen. mei, of me tui, of you sui, of himself, etc. l)at. mihi, for me tibi, for you sibi, for himself Ace. me, me te, thee, you se, himself Abl. me, xmth, by me, etc. te, with, by you, etc. se, with, by himself, etc. Pldral Nom. nos, loe vos, you „ f nostrum, 0/ !«s f vestrum, o/ woM - ^., Gen. .^ . -■ L. i ^- I sui, of themselves Inostn, of us (.vestri, of you Dat. nobis, /or us vobis, for you sibI, for themselves Ace. nos, MS vos, you se, themselves Abl. nobis, wiJA, it/ us vobIs, with, by you sS, witt, by themselves 1. Mi is often used for mihi in poetry, and sometimes in prose. 2. Nostrum and vestrum are • generally used in a Partitive sense, as quis nostrum, who of us 9 3. The Reduplicated Forms meme, tete, and seae occur both in the Accusative and in the Ablative. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 176. From Personal Pronouns are formed the Possessives: meus, mea, meum, my; noster, nostra, nostrum, our; tuus, tua, tuum, thy, your; vester, vestra, vestrum, your; suns, sua, suum, his, her, its; suus, sua, suum, their. 1. Possessives are adjectives of tlie First and Second Declensions ; but meus has in the Vocative singular masculine generally mi, sometimes meus, and in the Genitive plural sometimes meum instead of meorum. 2. Emphatic forms in pte occur in the Ablative singular : suopte. III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177. Demonstrative Pronouns are : - Hic, this, near me. Iste, that, near you. ' Ille, that, near him, that yonder. Digitized by Microsoft® 40 MOEPHOLOGY 178. The Demonstrative Pronouns hie and iste are declined as follows, and ille is declined precisely like iste : Hie, thiSf SiNGDLAK I ste, that. Masc. Fem. Neut. Dlasc. Fein. Neut. Nom. hlo haec hoc iste ista istud Gen. liiiius huius huius istius istius istius Uat. huic huic huic isti isti isti Ace. huiio banc hoc is turn istam istud Abl. hoc hac hoc Plural isto ista isto Nom. hi hae haec isti istae ista Gen. horum harum horum istorum istarum istorum Dat. his his his istis istis istis Aoc. hos has haec istos istas ista AM. his his his istis istis istis 1. Haec is sometimes used for hae, feminine plural. 2. The stems of hie, haec, hoc are ho, ha. 3. The enclitic ce may be appended to any form in s : hos-ce, his-ce. ._ 179. Special Pronominal Endings. — Note the following : ius, Tus, in the Genitive singular : hiiius, istius, illius.' i, in the Dative singular : isti, illi. d, in the neuter singular of the Nominative and Accusative : id. IV. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS 180. Determinative Pronouns are : Is, ea, id ; he, she, it, that one, that. Ipse, ipsa, ipsum ; he himself, she herself, itself, self. Idem, eadem, idem ; the same, same. 181. The Determinative Pronouns are declined as follows : Is, he. ' Singular ^j^u-., ui>y. Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fein. Neut. Nom. is ea id ipse ipsa ipsum Gen. eius elus eius ipsius ipsius ipsius Dat. ei ei el ipsi ipsi ipsi Ace. eum earn id ipsum ipsam ipsum Abl. eo a ea eo ipso ipsa ipso I In the Genitive ending observe that i is a consonant vyhdn it follows a yowej, Digitized by Microsoft® 41 ipsae ipsa ipsarum ipsorum ipsis ipsis ipsas ipsa ipsis ipsis Idem, formed by appending dem to the pronoun is, the same, same. Isdem is shortened to idem and iddem to idem. PRONOUNS Pr.URAL Nom. ii eae ea ipsi Gen. , eorum earum eorum ipsorum Dat. iis iis iis ipsis Aco. eos eas ea ipsos Abl. iis iis iis ipsis Singular Masc. Fein. Neut. Nom. Idem eadem idem Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem Dat. eldem eidem eidem Ace. eundem eandem idem Abl. eodem eadem eodem Plural Masc. Fein. Nent. Idem eaedem eadem eSrundem earundem eorundem isdem isdem isdem eosdem easdem eadem Isdem Isdem isdem 1. Case Forms. — Certain less common case forms of is and idem are el and i for the Nominative ii ; els and is for the Dative and Ablative iis ; eidem and iidem for the Nominative plural idem, and elsdem and iisdem for the Dative and Ablative isdem. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 182 . The Relative SiNGOLAE qui, who, is declined as follows : Plural Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. qui quae quod qui quae quae Gen. cilius cuius ciiius quorum quarum quorum Dat. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus Aco. quem quam quod quos quas quae Abl. quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus 1. Quicumque and quisquis, whoever, are General Relatives. Qui- cumque is declined like qui. Quisquis is rare except in the forms quisquis, quicquid, quoquo. VI. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 183. The Interrogative Pronouns are : Masc. Fern. Neut. 1. Quis, — quid whoi what? used as a substantive. 2. Qui, quae, quod w/>ic/i? w7ia«? used as an adjective. Digitized by Microsoft® 42 MORPHOLOGY 184. Quis, quid? used in the singular, is declined as follows: Singular Neut. quid who what cuius of whom of what cui for whom for what quid whom what quo by whom with what 1. Qui, quae, quod ? which ? what kind of ? used as an adjective, is declined lilie tiie relative qui, quae, quod. 2. Quis is sometimes an adjective, and qui sometiznes a substantive. M. and F. Nom. quis Gen. .emus Dat. CUl Ace. quem Abl. quo VII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 185. Indefinite Pronouns are quis and qui, with their com- pounds. 186. Quis and qui, ani/ one, any, are declined like the interrogar tives quis and qui ; but they have quae or qua in the feminine singular and neuter plural. They are used chiefly after si, nisi, ne, and num. 187. Prom qtiis and qui are formed various other indefinite pro- nouns and pronominal adjectives, to which iillus may be added. These may be arranged according to their meaning as follows : Substantive Adjective ali-quis ^ ali-quid quis-piam i quid-piam quis-quam ' quic-quam qui-vis 2 quae-vis quid-vis qui-libet ^ quae-libet quod-libet qui-dam8 quae-dam quid-dam quis-que ■• quid-que Aliquis and aliqui liave aliqua in tlie neuter plural. 188. The following words, with which we are already familiar, are called Pronominal Adjectives ; see 93 : alius, alter; uter, neuter; alius, niillus. which? neither; any, not any. ali-qul ali-qua ali-quod quis-piam quae-piam quod-piam uUus alia uUum qui-vIs quae-vis quod-vis qui-libet quae-libet quid-libet qui-dam quae-dam quod-dam quis-que quae-que quod-que another, the other; '■ Someone, any one, some, any. '^ Any one you please, any le'iatever. » A certain one, certain. * Every one, every, each. Digitized by Microsoft® VERBS 43 189. The correspondence which exists between Demonstratives, Rela- tives, Interrogatives, and Indefinites is seen in the following Table of Corkblatives Interrogative Indefinite Demonstrative Relative quls, qm, who 9 what? quis, qui, any one, any; aliquis, same one, some ; quidam, certain one, certain ; hie, this one, this; ■ iste, that one, that ; ille, that one, that ; is, he, that; qui, who. uter, which of two? uter or alteruter, either of two ; uterque, each, both; qui, who. VERBS 190. Verbs in Latin, as in English, express existence, condition, or action: est, he is; dormit, he is sleeping; legit, he reads. I. VOICES 191. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting or existing : pater filium amat, the father loves his son; est, he is. 192. The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon by some other person or thing : fiUus a patre amatur, the son is loved by his father. II. MOODS 193. The Indicative Mood represents the action of the verb as a Fact. It may assert or assume a fact, or it may inquire after the fact; legit, he is reading; si legit, if he. is reading ; legitne, is he reading? 194. The Subjunctive Mood in general represents the action of the verb simply as Possible, as Desired, or as Conceived : amemus patriam, let us love our country; forsitan quaeratis, perhaps you may inquire. 195. The Imperative Mood is used in Commands and En- treaties : valitiidinein tuam cura, take care of your health. Digitized by Microsoft® 44 MORPHOLOGY III. TENSES 196. There are six tenses, three for Incomplete Action and three for Completed Action : 1. Tenses for Incomplete Action : Present : amo, 7 love, I am loving, I do love. Imperfect : amabam, / was loving, I loved. Future : amabo, / shall love. 2. Tenses for Completed Action : Perfect : amavi, / have loved, I loved. Pluperfect : amaveram, / had loved. Future Perfect : amavero, I shall have loved. , Note. — The Indicative Mood has the six tenses ; the Subjunctive has the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect ; the Imperative, the Present and Future only. 197. The Latin Perfect, unlike the English, has a twofold use: 1. It sometimes corresponds to our Perfect with have — they have loved. It is then called the Present Perfect, or Perfect Definite. 2. It sometimes corresponds to our Imperfect, or Past tense — they loved. It is then called the Historical Perfect, or Perfect Indefinite. 198. Principal and Historical. — Tenses are also distinguished as 1. Principal or Primary Tenses : Present: amo, 7 love. Present Perfect : amavi, 7 have loved. Future : amabo, 7 shall love. Future Perfect : amavero, 7 sJiall have loved. 2. Historical or Secondary Tenses : Imperfect : amabam, 7 was loving. Historical Perfect : amavi, 7 loved. Pluperfect : amaveram, 7 had loved. 199. Verbs have two numbers. Singular and Plural, and three persons. First, Second, and Third. 1. The narious verbal forms which have voice, mood, tense, number and person, make up the Finite Verb. Digitized by Microsoft® VERBS 45 200. Among verbal forms are included : 1. The Infinitive, a verbal noun : amare, to love. 2. The Gerund, a verbal noun of the Second Declension, used only in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative singular. It corresponds to the English verbal noun in ing : ars vivendi, the art of living. 3. The Supine, a verbal noun of the Fourth Declension. It has a form in um and a form in u : auxilium postulatum venit, he came to ask aid. 4. The Participle, a verbal adjective. A verb may have four participles, — two in the Active, the Present and the Future, amans, loving ; amaturus, about to love, and two in the Passive, the Perfect and the Gerundive, amatus, loved; amandus, deserving to he loved. CONJUGATION 201. Regular verbs are inflected, or conjugatfd, in four differ- ent ways, and are accordingly divided into Pour Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the stem characteristics or by the endings of the Infinitive, as follows : Characteristics Infinitive Undings CoNj. I. a a-re II. e e-re III. e e-re IV. i i-re 202. Principal Parts. — The Present Indicative, Present Infini- tive, Perfect Indicative, and Supine, or the Neuter of the Perfect Participle, are called the Principal Parts of the verb. 1. In verbs which lack both the Supine and the Perfect Participle, the Future Participle may serve as one of the Principal Parts. 203. The Principal Parts contain the three stems which form the basis of all verbal inflections, viz. : 1. The verb stem, which remains unchanged in all the various forms of both voices of the verb. 2. Two special stems, the Present Stem, found in the Present Indicative, and the Perfect Stem, in the Perfect Indicative. 204. The entire conjugation of any regular verb may be readily formed from the principal parts by means of the proper endings. 1. Sum, / am, is used as an auxiliary in the passive voice of regular verbs. Accordingly, its conjugation must be given at the outset. Digitized by Microsoft® 46 MORPHOLOGY 205. Sum, I am; Stems, es, fu.' PRINCIPAL PARTS Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Pert. Ind. sum '^ esse ^ f ux Indicative Mood Present Tense Fut. Part. futuruB SINGULAR PLURAL sum I am sumus^ we are es thou art, you are estis you are est he is • sunt they are Imperfect eram I was eramus we were eras thou wast, you were eratis you were erat he was' erant they were Future ero I shall be erimus we shall be eiis thou wilt be^ eritis you will be eiit he will be erunt they will be Perfect ful I have been^ fuimus we have been fuisti thou hast been* fuistis you have been fuit he has been fuerunt fuere I they have been Pluperfect fueram I had been fueramus we had been fueras thou hadst been* fueratis you had been fuerat he had been fuerant they had been Future Perfect fuero / shall have been fuerimus we shall have been fueris thou wilt have been* fueiitis you will have been fuerit he will have been fuerint they will have been 1 The forms of irregular verbs are often derived from different roots. Thus in English, am, was, been ; go, went, gone. 2 Observe that the stem es has two forms, es, seen In es-se, es-t, es-tis, and in er-am, for es-am (50), and a weak form, s, seen in s-um, s-umus, s-unt. 3 Observe that the endings which are added to the stems es and fu are dis- tinguished by the type. ■* Or, you will be, you have been, you had been, you will have been. The use of thou is confined chiefly to solemn discourse. 5 Or, I was; see 19§, 2, Digitized by Microsoft® VERBS 47 Subjunctive Present Sim sis sit essem esses esset fuerim fueris fuerit SINGULAR may I he, let me be mayst thou be ^ let him be, may he be simus sitis sint Imperfect I should be thou wouldst be he would be I may have been thou mayst have been he may have been essemus essetis essent Perfect fueiimus fueritis fuerint Pluperfect fuissem / should have been fuisses thou wouldst have been fuisset he would have been fuissemus fuissetis fuissent PLURAL let us be be ye, may you be let them be we should be you would be they would be we may have been you may have been they may have been we should have been you would have been they would have been Pres. es be thou Fut. esto thou Shalt be ^ esto he shall be Impebative este estote sunto Infinitive Pres. esse to be Perf. fuisse to have been Fut. faturam^ esse to be aboutxo be be ye ye shall be they shall be Participle Fut. futurus^ about to be 1. In the paradigm all the forms beginning with e or s are from the stem es ; all others from the stem fu.* 2. Rare Forms. — Forem, fores, foret, forent, fore, for essem, esses, esset, essent, futiirum esse ; siem, sies, siet, sient, or fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant, for sim, sis, sit, sint. 1 Or be thou, or may you be, but remember that the proper translation of tlie Subjunctive can be best learned from the Syntax. 2 Or lilie the Present, or with let : be thou ; let him be. 3 Puturus is declined like bonus, and the Accusative futurum in futurum esse like the Accusative of bonus : futurum, am, um ; futuros, as, a. 4 Es and fu are roots as well as stems. As the basis of this paradigm they are properly stems, but as they are not derived from more primitive forms they are in themselves roots. Digitized by Microsoft® 48 MORPHOLOGY FIRST CONJUGATION: A-VERBS 206. Stems and Principal Parts of Am5. Verb Stem and Present Stem, amai Pres. Ind. amo PRINCIPAL parts Pres. Inf. Pert. Ind. amare amavi Neut. Part. amatum ^ 207. Active Voice. - Amo, / love. Indicative Mood Present Tense amo' amas am at amabam am abas amabat amabo amabis amabit amavi amavisti amavit amaveram amaveras amaverat amavero amaveris amaverit SINGULAR thou lovest, you he loves I was loving you were loving he was loving I shall love you will love he will love I have loved^ you have loved he has loved amamus ainatis amant Imperfect amabamus amabatis amabant Pdture amabimus amabitis amabunt Perfect amavimus amavistis PLURAL we love you love they love we loere loving you were loving they were loving we shall love you will love they will leve we have loved you have loved amaverunt, amavere they have loved Pluperfect I had loved you had loved he had loved amaveramus amaveratis amaverant Future Perfect I shall have loved you ivill have loved he will have loved amaverimuB amaveritis amaverint we had loved you had loved they had loved we shall have loved you will have loved they will have loved 1 The final a of the stem disappears in amo, amem, etc., and in amor, amer, etc. 2 Amatum, Supine or neuter Perfect Participle. 2 Or / am loving, I do love. So in the Imperfect, 1 loved, Iivas loving, I did love. * Or tholi wast loving ; l)ut see 205, footnote 4. ^Ot I loved; see 196, 2. Digitized by Microsoft® FIRST CONJUGATION 49 Subjunctive Present SINGULAR PLURAL amem may I love amemus let us love allies may you love ametis may you love ainet let him love ament let them love Imperfect amarem I should love amaremus we should love am ares you would love amaretis you would love auiaret he would love amarent they would love Perfect amaverim I may have loved amaverimus loe may have loved amaverls you may have loved amaveritis you may have loved amaverit he may have loved amaverint they may have loved Pluperfect amavissem I should have loved amavissemus we should have loved amavisses you would have loved amavissetis you would have loved amavisset - he would have loved amavissent they would have loved Imperative Pres. ama love thou amate love ye Fut. amato thou Shalt love amatote ye shall love auiato he shall love amanto they shall love Infinitive Pres. am are to love Perf. amavlsse to have loved Put. amaturum^ esse to he about to love Gerund Gen. ainandi of loving^ Dat. amando for loving Ace. ainandum loving Abl. amando by loving Participle Pres. amansi loving Put. amaturus^ about to love Supine Ace. Abl. amatum amatu to love to love, be loved 1 For declension, see 128. 2 Amaturus is. declined like bonus, and amaturum like the Accusative of bonus. HARK. G. S. LAT. GRAM. 5 Digitized by Microsofi® 50 208. MORPHOLOGY FIRST CONJUGATION: A-VERBS Passive Voice. — Ainor, I am loved. Verb Stem and Present Stem, ama Indicative Mood Present Tense I am loved singular amor amaris amatur amabar amabaris, amabare amabatur Imperfect / was loved FUTUKE I shall he loved amabor amabeiis, amabere amabituT PLURAL amamur amanum amantur amabamur amabamini amabantUT amabimur amabimini amabuntur Perfect I have been loved or I was loved amatus sum ^ amatuB ea amatus est amatus eram ' amatus eras amatus erat amatus ero^ amatus eris amatus erit Pluperfect / had been loved amati sumus amati estis amati sunt amati eramus amati eratis amati erant Future Perfect I shall have been loved amati enmus amati eritis amati erunt 1 Fui,"fuisti, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. : amatus fui for ama- tus sum. So fueram, fueraa, etc., for eram, etc. : also fuero, etc., for er5, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® FIRST CONJUGATION 51 Subjunctive Present May I be loved, let him be loved SINGCLAK amer am iris, amere ametur PLURAL ametnur amemini amentur Imperfect I should be loved, he would be loved amarer amaremur amareris, amarere amaremini amaretur amarentur Perfect / may have been loved, he may have been loved amatus sim ^ amatus sis amatus sit amati sTmus amati sitis amati sint Plcperfect I should have been loved, he would have been loved amatus essem ' amatus esses amatus esset amati essemus amati essetis amati essent Pres. amare be thou loved Fut. amator thou shall be loved amator he shall be loved Impeeative amamini amantor be ye loved they shall be loved Infinitive Pres.* amaii to be loved Perf. amatumessei Fut. amatum iri to have been loved to be about to be loved Participle Perf. amatus having been loved Ger.2 amandus to be loved, deserving to be loved 1 Fuerim, fuerls, etc., are sometimes tised for sim, sis, etc. So also fuissem, fulsses, etc., for essem, esses, etc. : rarely fuisse for esse. * Ger. = Gerundive ; see 200, 4. Digitized by Microsoft® 52 MORPHOLOG Y SECOND CONJUGATION! E-VERBS 209. Stems and Principal Parts of Moneo. Verb Stem, mon ; Pkesent Stem, mone PRINCIPAL PARTS moneo monere monui 210. Aptive Voice. — Moneo, I advise. Indicative Mood monitum Present Tense SINGULAR I advise PLURAL moneo moil emus mones monetia monet monent Imperfect I toas advising, or / advised monebam monebamus monebaa monebatis monebat monebant Futdre ■ / shall advise monebS monebimuB monebis monebitis monebit monebunt monui monuisti monuit Perfect / have advised, or / advised monuimua monueram monueras monuerat monuero moniieria monuerit Pluperfect / had advised Future Perfect I shall have advised monuiatia monuerunt, monuere monueramua monueratis monuerant mimuerimus monueritis mouuerint Digitized by Microsoft® SECOND CONJUGATION 63 Subjunctive Present May I advise, let him advise SINGULAR moneam moneas moneat PLURAL moneamus moneatis moneant Imperfect I should advise, he would advise monerem moneres moneret moneremus moneretis monerent Perfect / may have advised, he may have advised moiiuerim monueris monuerit monuerimua monueritis monuerint Pluperfect I should have advised, he would have advised monuissem monuisses monuisset monuissemus monuissetis monuissent Pres. mone Fut. moneto moneto Imperative advise thou thou shalt advise he shall advise monete inonetote monento advise ye ye shall advise they shall advise Infinitive Pres. monere to advise Perf. monuisse to have advised Fut, moniturum esse to be about to advise Gerund Gen. monendi of advising Dat. monendo Ace. monendum Abl. monendo for advising advinng by advising Participle Pres. inonens advising Fut. moniturus about to advise Supine Ace. monitum Abl. mouitu to advise to advise, be advised Digitized by Microsoft® 54 MOHPHOLOGY SECOND CONJUGATION! E-VERBS 211. Passive Voice. — Moneor, / am advised. "Verb Stem, mon ; Pkesent Stem, mone Indicative Mood Present Tense I am advised SINGULAR moneor moneris monetur Imperfect I was advised monebar I monebaris, monebare monebatur | Future I shall be advised monebor moneberis, monebere monebitur PLURAL monemur monemini monentuT monebamur monebamini monebantur monebimur monebimiiu monebuntur Perfect I have been advised, I was advised monitus sum ' monituB es monitus est monitus eram ' monitus eras monitus erat Pluperfect I had been advised moniti sumus moniti estis moniti sunt moniti eramus moniti eratis moniti erant Future Perfect I shall have been advised monitus ero' monitus eris monitus erit moniti erimus moniti eritis moniti erunt ' See 208, footnotes. Digitized by Microsoft® SECOND CONJUGATION 55 Subjunctive Present May I he advised, let him be advised SINGULAR PI,URAL monear moneamur monearis, moneare moneamini moneatur moneantur IsiPEEFECT I should be advised, he would be advised . nionerer moneremur. monereris, monerere monereminl moneretur monerentur Pekfect I may have been advised, he may have been advised monitus sim i moniti simus monitus sis moniti sitis monitus sit moniti sint Pluperfect I should have been advised, he would have been advised monitus essem ■ monitus esses monitus esset moniti essemus moniti essetis moniti essent Imperative Pres. monere be thou advised Put. monetor thou shalt be advised monetor he shall be advised monemini be ye advised monentor they shall be advised Infinitive Pres. moneri to be advised Perf. monltum esse ' to have been advised Ge'T. monitum iri to be about to be advised Participle Perf. monitus having been advised Ger. monendus to be advised, deserv- ing to be advised 1 See 208, footnotes. Digitized by Microsoft® 56 MORPUOLOGY THIRD CONJUGATION: CONSONANT VERBS 212. Stems and Principal Parts of Rego. Verb Stem, reg; Present Stem, rege, rego^ PRINCIPAL pakts rego regere rexi^ rectum ^ 213. Active Voice. — Rego, /"j-wZe. Indicative Mood Present Tense / rule 8INSULAR PLURAL rego regimus regis regitis regit regiint Imperfect / was ruling, or / ruled regebam regebamus regebas regebatis regebat regebant Future I shall rule regam regemus regeB regetis reget regent Perfect I have ruled, or I ruled rexi reximus rexisti rexistis rexit rexerunt, rexere Pluperfect I had ruled rexeram rexeramus rSxeras rexeratis rexerat rexerant Future Perfect I shall have ruled rexero rexerimus rexerls rexeritis rexerit rexerint ^ The characteristic of this conjugation is the thematic vowel which connects the stem and the ending. It originally had the form of e or o, but in classical Latin it geijerally appears as i or u, as in *reget, regit ; *reg(int, regunt. '^ Rexi, from *rec-si, from *reg-si ; see 51 • Eec-tum, from *reg-tum ; see 55. Digitized by Microsoft® THIRD CONJUGATIOIT 57 Subjunctive Present May I rule, let him rule SINGULAR PLURAL regam regamuB regas regatis regat regant Imperfect / should rule, he would rule regerem regeremus regeres regeretis regeret regerent Perfect / may have ruled, he may have ruled rexenm rexeris rexerit rexenmus rSxeritis rexerint Pluperfect / should have ruled, he would have ruled rexissem rexisses rexisset rexissemus rexissetis rSxissent Pres. rege rule thou Fut. regito thou shall rule regito he shall rule Imperative regite regitote regunto rule ye ye shall rule they shall rule Infinitive Pres. regere to rule Perf. rexiase to have ruled Fut. recturum esse to be about to rule Participle Pres. regens ruling Fut. recturus about to rule Gerund Supine Gen. regendi of riding Dat. regendo for ruling Ace. regendum ruling Ace. rectum to rule Abl. regendo by ruling Abl. rectu to rule, be ruled Digitized by Microsoft® 58 MORPHOLOGY THIRD CONJUGATION! CONSONANT VERBS 214. Passive Voice. — Regor, / am ruled. Verb Stem, reg ; Present Stem, rege, rego Indicative Moob Present Tense / am ruled SINGULAR. plural regor regimur regeris regimini regitur reguntur Imperfect / was ruled regebar regebamur regebaris, regebare regebamini regebatur regebantur Future / shall be ruled regar regemur regeris, regere regeminl regetur Perfect regentur / have been ruled, or I was ruled rectus sum ' recti sumus rectus es recti estis rectus est recti sunt Pluperfect I had been rjiled rectus eram ' recti eramus rectus eras recti eratis rectus erat recti erant Future Perfect 7 shall have been ruled rectus ero ' rectus eris rectus erit recti erimus recti eritis recti erunt 1 See 208, footnotes. Digitized by Microsoft® THinO CONJUGATION 59 Subjunctive Present May I he ruled, let him be ruled SINGULAR PLURAL regar regaris, regare regatur regamur regamini regantur Imperfect / should be ruled, he would be ruled regerer regeremur regereria, regerere regeremini regeretur regerentur PERtECT I may have been ruled, he may have been ruled rSctus Sim ' rectus SIS rSctus sit recti simus recti sitis recti sint Pluperfect / should have been ruled, he would have been ruled rectus essem ^ recti essemus rectus esses recti essetis rectus esset recti essent Impeeative Pres. regere be thou ruled Fut. regitor thou shalt be ruled regitor he shall be ruled reglmini be ye ruled reguntor they shall be ruled Infinitive Pres. regi to be ruled Perf . rectum esse ^ to have been ruled Tut. rectum iri to be about to be ruled Pakticiple Perf. rectus having been ruled ' Ger. regendus to be ruled, deservino to be ruled 1 Eec-tus from *reg-tus; see 55. Digitized by Microsoft® 60 MORPHOLOGY FOURTH CONJUGATION : l-VERBS 215. Stems and Principal Parts of Audio. Vekb Stem and Present Stem, audi PRINCIPAL PARTS audio audire audivi 216. Active Voice. — Audio, / hear. Indicative Moob Present Tense I hear au(^tum singular plural audio audimuB audis auditis audit audiunt Imperfect I was hearing, or / heard audiebam audiebamus audiebas audiebatis audiebat audiebant Future I shall hear audiam audiemus audies audietiB audiet aiidient Perfect / have heard, or / heard audivi audivimuB audlvisti audivistiB audlvit audivenint, audlvere Pluperfect I had heard audiveram audiveramus audiveras audlveratis audiverat audiverant FiTTDRE Perfect I shall have heard audlvero audiverimuB audlveris audiveritis audlveiit audlverint Digitized by Microsoft® FOURTH CONJUGATION 61 Subjunctive Peesent SINGULAR audiam audias audiat May I hear, let him hear PLURAL audiamus audiatis audiant Imperfect I should hear, he would hear audirem audires audiret audiremus audiretis audirent Pbkfect / may have heard, he may have heard audlverim audiveria audiverit audiverimus audiveritis audiverint Pluperfect I should have heard, he would have heard audivissem audlvisses audlvisset audivissemus audiviasetis audivissent Pres. audi hear thou Fut. audits thou shalt hear audito he shall hear Impekative audite auditote audiunto hear ye ye shall hear they shall hear Infinitive Pres. audire to hear Perf. audlvisse to have heard Put. auditurum esse to be about to hear Gerund Gen. audiendi of hearing Dat. audiendo for hearing Ace. audiendum hearing Abl, audiendo ' by hearing Participle Pres. audiens hearing Fut. audlturuB about to hear Supine Ace. audltum Abl. audits to hear to hear, he heard Digitized by Microsoft® 62 MORPHOLOGY FOURTH CONJUGATION! IVERBS 217. Passive Voice. — Audior, I am heard. Verb Stem and Present Stem, audi Indicative Mood Present Tense SINGULAR audior audiris auditur I am heard PLURAL audTmur audimini audiuntur Imperfect I was audiebar audiebaris, audiebare audiebatur heard audiebamur audiebamini audiebantur Future audiar audieris, audiere audietur / shall ie heard audiemur audiemini audieutur Perfect / have been hear audltus sum ' audltus es audltus est d or I was heard audit! sumus audit! estis audlti sunt Pluperfect / had been heard audltus eram i audltus eras audltus erat audlti eramuB audit! eratis audit! erant Future Perfect I shall have been heard audltus ero ' audltus eria audltus erit audit! erimuB audit! eritis audit! erunt ^ See 208, footnotes. Digitized by Microsoft® FOURTH CONJUGATION 63 Subjunctive Present Mmj I he heard, let him be heard SINGULAR PLURAL audiar audiaris, audiare audiatur audiamur audiamini audiantur audirer audireris, audirere audlretur Imperfect / should be heard, he would be heard audiremur audiremiiu audirentur Perfect I may have been heard, he may have been heard auditus Sim audit! simus auditus sis auditi sitis auditus sit audit! sint Pluperfect I should have been heard, he would have been heard auditus essem auditus esses auditus esset audit! essemus audit! essetis auditi essent Imperative Pres. audire be thou heard Fut. auditor thou shalt be heard auditor he shall be heard audimin! be ye heard audiuntor they shall be heard Infinitive Pres. audir! to be heard Perf. auditum esse to have been heard Fut. auditum !r! to be about to be heard Participle Perf. auditus having been heard Ger. audiendus to be heard, deserv- ing to be heard Digitized by Microsoft® 64 MORPHOLOGY COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS 218. Active Voice, Present System, Indicative Mood. Present Tense am -o mon -e6 reg aud -0 -iO as -at -amus -atis -ant -es -et -emus -etis -ent -is -it -imus -itis -unt -is -it -imus -itis -iunt am -a mon -e reg -e aud-i-e -bam -bas Imperfect -bat -bamus -batis -bant am -1 mon reg - aud -i Ith^ -bis -es FUTUKE -bit -bimus -bitis -et -emus -etis -bunt -ent 219. Passive Voice, Present System, Indicative Mood. Present Tense am am -a am -a mon -e reg aud -1 -or raon-e reg -e aud -1 , -ris mon-e reg -i aud -i am -an mon-en -mini '""" ~'' > -tur reg -un aud -inn J am -a mon -e reg -e aud-i-e -bar -baris Imperfect -batur -bamur -bamini -bantur am -a mon -e reg aUd -i Future -bor -beris -bitur -bimur -bimini -ar -eris -etur -emur -emini rbuntur -entur Digitized by Microsoft® VERBS COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS 220. Active Voice, Perfect System, Indicative Mood. 65 amav raonu rex audiv -isti Perfect Tense -it -istis -erunt, -ere amav monu rex audiv Plupekfect -eras -erat -eramus -eratis -erant amav monu rex audiv -erd Fdtuee Perfect -eris erit -erimus -erltis -erint 221. Passive Voice, Participial System, Indicative Mood. Perfect Tense ama mon-i rec audi -tus sum -tus es -tus est -ti suraus -ti estis -ti sunt Pluperfect ama I mon-i I _^ eram -tus eras -tus erat -ti eramus -ti eratis -ti erant rec audi J Future Perfect ama "i°°"' -tus era -tus eris -tus erit -ti erimus -ti eritis -ti erunt rec _ audi HARK. G. S. LAT. GRAM. 6 Digitized by Microsoft® 66 MORPHOLOGY DEPONENT VERBS 222. Deponent Verbs have in general the forms of the passive voice, with the signification of the active. But 1. They have also in the active the Future Infinitive, the Participles, Gerund, and Supine. 2. The Gerundive has the passive signification ; sometimes, also, the Perfect Participle: hortandus, to be exhorted; expertus, tried. 3. The Euture Infinitive has the active form. 223. Deponent verbs are found in each of the four conjugar tions. Their principal parts are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, and Perfect Indicative : I. Hortor II. Vereor III. Loquor IV. Blandior Pres. Imp. Eut. Perf. Plup. E. P. hortor, I exhort hortaris, etc. hortabar hortabor hortatus sum hortatus eram hortatus ero hortari vereri loqui hlandlri II vereor, I fear vereris, etc. verebar verebor Veritas sum veritus eram ve'ritus ero hortatus sum veritus sum lociitus sum blandltus sum III loquor, I speak loqueris, etc. loquebar loquar lociitus sum lociitus eram lociitus ero to exhort to fear to speak to flatter IV blandior, I flatter blandiris, etc. blandiebar blandiar blanditus sum blandltus eram blandltus ero Pres. horter Imp. hortarer Perf. hortatus sim Subjunctive Mood loquar verear vererer veritus sim loquerer looGtus sim blandiar blandirer blanditus sim Plup. hortatus essem veritus essem locutus essem blanditus essem Pres. hortare Eut. hortator verere veretor Imperative loquere loquitor blandire blanditor hortari ho^tatum esse Pres. Fferf. Eut. hortatiirum esse Infinitive loqui lociitum esse lociitiirum esse vereri veritum esse veritiirum esse blandiri blanditum esse blauditiirum esse Digitized by Microsoft® I-VEBBS, THIRD CONJUGATION 67 Pres. hortans Fut. hortaturus Perf. hortatus Ger. hortandus hortandi, etc. bortatum hortatu Participle verens ■ loqugns veriturus locuturus veritus locutus verendus loquendus GrEKUND verendl, etc. loquendi, etc. Supine veritum locutum veritu locutii blandiSns blanditurus blanditus blandiendus blandiendi, etc. blanditum blanditii SEMI-DEPONENT VERBS 224. Semi-Deponent Verbs have active forms in tlie Present system and passive forms in the Perfect system : audeo audere ausus sum to dare gaudeo gaudSre gavlsus sum to rejoice soleo solere solitus sum to he wont fido fidere fisus sum to trust I-VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION 225. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form the Present Indicative in io, like verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. They are inflected vfith the endings of the Pourth whenever those endings have two successive vowels. These verbs are : 1. Capio, to take; cupio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to dig; fugio, to flee; iacio, to throw; pario, to bear; quatio, to shake; rapio, to seize ; sapio, to be wise ; with their compounds. 2. The compounds of the obsolete verbs Iacio, to entice, and specio, to look; allicio, elicio, etc.; aspicio, conspicio, etc. 3. The Deponent Verbs gradior, to go ; morior, to die ; patior, to suffer. 226. Stems and Principal Parts of Capio. Verb Stem, cap ; Present Stem, capi capio PRINCIPAL PARTS capere cepi captum Digitized by Microsoft® 68 MORPHOLOGY 227. Active Voice. — Capio, / take. Indicative Mood Present Tense SINOnLAK PLTJRAL capio capis capit capimus Imperfect capitis capiunt capie-bam -bas -bat capie-bamus Future -batis -bant capi-am -es -et capi-emus Perfect -etis -ent C6p-I -isti -it cep-imus Pluperfect -istis -erunt, or-ere cepe-ram -ras -rat ■ cepe-ramus Future Pjerfect -ratis -rant o6pe-ro -ris -rit cepe-rimus Subjunctive Present -ritis -rint capi-am -as -at capi-amus Imperfect -atis -ant cape-rem -res -ret oape-reinus Perfect -retis -rent cSpe-rim -rIs -rit cepe-rimus Pluperfect -ritis -rint cepis-sem -ses -set cepis-semus -setis -sent SINGDLAR Imperative PLURAL Pres. Fut. , cape capito capito capite capitote capiunto Infinitive Participle Pres. Perf. Put. capere cepisse capturuni 1 esse Pres. capiens Fut. captQrus Gerund Supine Gen. Bat. Ace. Abl. capiendl capiendo capiendum capiendo Ace. captum Abl. capta Digitized by Microsoft® I-VERBS, THIRD CONJUGATION 69 228. Passive Voice. — Capior, I am taken. Indicative Mood SINGULAH PkESENT TeNSE capior caperis capitur capimur Impekfect PLUEAL capimini capiuntur capiS-bar -baris -batur capi-ar -eris captus sum es captus eram eras captus er5 eris capie-bamur -bamini -bantur Future capi-emur -emini -entur Perfect capti sumus estis sunt Pluperfect erat capti eramus eratis erant Future Perfect erit capti erimus eritis erunt -etur est capi-ar -aris cape-rer -reris captus Sim sis captus essem esses Subjunctive Present -atur capi-amur -amini -antur Imperfect -retur oape-remur -remini -rentur Perfect sit capti simus sitis sint Pluperfect esset capti essemus essetis essent Pres. capere Put. capitor capitor Infinitive Pres. capi Perf. captum esse Fut. captum Iri Imperative capimmi capiuntor Participle Perf. captus Fut. capiendus 229. Deponent verbs in lor of the Third Conjugation, like other de- ponent verbs, have in the active voice the Future Infinitive, the Parti- ciples, Gerund, and Supine, but lack the Future Infinitive of the passive form. They are otherwise inflected precisely like the passive of capior : patior pati passus sum to suffer Digitized by Microsoft® 70 MORPHOLOGY VERBAL INFLECTIONS 230. The principal parts are regularly formed in the four con- jugations with the following endings : CONJ. I. II. o amo are am are avi atum amavl amatum to love III. IV. In a few verbs : In most verbs : In consonant stems : In u-stems : eo ere evi etum deleo delere delSvI deletum to destroy eo ere ui itum moneo monere monul monitum to advise 5 ere si turn carpo carpere carpsi carptum to pluck u6 uere ui utum aouo aouere acui aoutum to sharpen lO audio ire audlre ivi itum audlvl auditum to hear Note. — For a fuller treatment of the formation of the principal parts of verbs, see Classification of Verbs, 257-289. 231. Compounds of verbs with dissyllabic Supines or Perfect Parti- ciples generally change the stem vowel in forming the principal parts. 1. When the simple verb has the stem vowel e, which becomes e, both in the Perfect and in the Participle, the compound generally changes e to i, but retains e : rego dl-rigo regere di-rigere rexi di-rexl rectum di-rectum to rule to direct 2. When the simple verb has the stem vowel e, which remains un- changed both in the Perfect and in the Participle, the compound gener- ally retains e in the Participle, but changes it to i in the other parts : teneo de-tineo tenere de-tinere tenul de-tinul ten turn de-tentum to hold to detain 3. When the simple verb has the stem vowel a, which becomes e in the Perfect, the compound generally retains e in the Perfect, but changes a to e in the Participle and to i in the other parts : capi5 capere cepi oaptum to take ac-eipio ac-oipere ac-cepi ao-ceptum to accept Digitized by Microsoft® VERBAL INFLECTIONS 71 4. When the simple verb has the stem vowel a throughout, the com- pounds generally change a to e in the Participle and to i iu the other parts : rapio rapere rapui raptum to seize di-ripio di-ripere di-ripui di-reptum to tear asunder 232. AH the forms of the regular verb arrange themselves in three distinct groups or systems. 233. The Present System, with the Present Infinitive as its basis, comprises : 1. The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative — Active and Passive. 2. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive — Active and Passive. 3. The Imperative — Active and Passive. 4. The Present Infinitive — Active and Passive. 5. The Present Participle. 6. The Gerund and the Gerundive. Note. — These parts are all formed from the Present stem, found in the Present Infinitive Active by dropping the ending re : amare, present stem ama ; monere, mone ; regere, rege, with ablaut form rego ; audire, audi. 234. The Perfect System, with the Perfect Indicative Active as its basis, comprises in the active voice : 1. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative. 2. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive. 3. The Perfect Infinitive. Note. — These parts are all formed from the Perfect stem, found in the Perfect Indicative Active, by dropping i : amavl, perfect stem amav. 235. The Participial System, with the neuter of the Perfect Parti- ciple or the Supine as its basis, comprises : 1. The Future Active and the Perfect Passive Participle, the former of which with ease forms the Future Active Infinitive, while the latter with the proper parts of the auxiliary sum forms in the passive those tenses which in the active belong to the Perfect system. These Participles are bnth formed from the verb stem, the Future by adding tiinis, sometimes slirus, and the Perfect by adding tus, sometimes sus. 2. Tlie Supine in turn and tii, the former of which with iri forms the Future Infinitive Passive. The Supine is formed from the verb stem by adding the endings turn, tu, which sometimes become sum, aii. Digitized by Microsoft® 72 MORPHOLOGY PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS 236. The Active Periphrastic Conjugation is formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the verb sum : Amaturus sum, I am about to love. Indicative Mood I am about to love I was about to love I shall be about to love I have been, or was, about to love I had been about to love I shall have been about to love Subjunctive May I be about to love I should be about to love I may have been about to love I should have been about to love Infinitive to be about to love to have been about to love 237. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation is formed by combining the Gerundive with sum : A.mandus sum, I am to he loved, deserve to be, or ought to he loved. Indicative Mood I am to be loved, I must be loved I was to be loved, deserved to be, etc. I shall deserve to be loved I have deserved to be loved I had deserved to be loved I shall have deserved to be loved Subjunctive May I deserve to be loved I should deserve to be loved I may have deserved to be loved I shoidd have deserved to be loved Infinitive to deserve to be loved to have deserved to be loved Digitized by Microsoft® Pres. amaturus sum Imp. amaturus eram Fut. amaturus ero Perf. amaturus fui Plup. amaturus f ueram F. P. amaturus fuero Pres. Su] amaturus sim Imp. amaturus essem Perf. amaturus fuerim Plup. amaturus fuissem Pres. amaturum esse Perf. amaturum fuisse Pres. amandus sum Imp. amandus eram Fut. amandus ero Perf. amandus fuI Plup. amandus fueram F. P. amandus fuero Pres. Su amandus sim Imp. amandus essem Perf. amandus fuerim Plup. amandus fuissem Pres. • amandum esse Perf. amandum fuisse FORMATION OF STEMS 73 PECULIARITIES IN CONJUGATION 238. Perfects in avi and evi and the tenses derived from them sometimes drop ve or vi before r or s : amavisse amasse delevisse delesse amaverim amarim deleverim delerim 1. Perfects in ovi and the tenses derived from them may also drop ve, or vi, before r or s : novisti, nosti, noveris, noris. 2. Perfects in ivi and tlie tenses derived from them sometimes drop vi before s, and they may drop v in any situation except before the ending ere : audivisti, audisti, audivi, audii. 239. The ending ere for Srunt in the Perfect is common in Livy and the poets, but rare in Caesar and Cicero. In poetry erunt occurs. 240. He for ris in the ending of the second person of the passive is rare in the Present Indicative, but common in the other tenses. 241. Die, dQo, fao, and fer, for dice, duoe, face, and fere, are the Im- peratives of dico, duco, facio, and fero, to say, lead, make, and hear. 242. Future and Perfect Infinitives often omit the auxiliary, esse : amaturum, for amaturum esse ; amatum, for amatum esse. 243. Undus and undi, for endus and endi, occur in the Gerundive and Gerund of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, especially after i : faciuudus, from facio, to make ; dicundus, from dico, to say. 244. Other Forms. — Various other forms occasionally occur : 1. ibam for iebam, in the Imperfect Indicative of the Fourth Conjugation : scibam for sciebam. See Imperfect of eo, to go, 297. 2. ibo, ibor, for iam, iar, in the Future of the Fourth Conjugation : ser- vibo for serviam ; opperibor for opperiar. See Future of eo, 297. 3. Im for am or em, in the Present Subjunctive : edim, edis, etc., for edam, edas, etc. In sim, velim, noUm, malim, im is the common ending. FORMATION OF STEMS 245. The Verb Stem, which is the basis of the entire conjuga- tion, consists of that part of the verb which is common to all the forms of both voices. The Special Stems are either identical with this stem or formed from it. Digitized by Microsoft® T4 MORPHOLOGY I. Present Stem 246. The Present Stem, found in the Present Infinitive Active by dropping re, is generally the same as the verb stem in the First and in the Fourth Conjugation, and sometimes in the Second. Thus, ama, dele, and audi are both Present stems and verb stems. 247. The Present stem, vfhen not the same as the verb stem, is formed from it by one of the following methods : 1. By adding the Thematic Vowel, originally e, o, usually written Vq. In Latin this vowel generally takes the form i, u : rego, Stem, reg ; Present Stem, reg Vo > rege becomes regi in regi-s, and rego becomes regu in regu-nt. 2. By adding n with the thematic vowel : cerno, Stem, cer; Present Stem, cer-nVo! to perceive 3. By inserting n and adding the thematic vowel : frango, Stem, frag ; Present Stem, frang Vo ! to break 4. By adding t with the thematic vowel : plecto. Stem, plec; Present Stem, plec-tVo J to braid 5. By adding sc with the thematic vow^el : quiesco, Stem, quie ; Present Stem, quie-sc '/„ ; to rest 6. By prefixing to the stem its initial consonant with i, and adding the thematic vowel : gign-ere ; Stem, gen ; Present Stem, gi-gn-=/o ; 7. By adding a, e, i, or i to the stem : dom-are Stem, dom Present Stem, dom-a " " vid-e vid-ere aper-Ire cap-ere vid aper cap aper-i cap-i to beget to tame to see to uncover to take II. Perfect Stem 248. Vowel stems, except those in u, generally form the Per- fect stem by adding v : Stem, ama Perfect Stem, amav " dele " " delev " audi " " audiv ama-vi amar-re dele-re dele-vi audi-re audi-vi to love to destroy to hear Digitized by Microsoft® Perfect Stem, , alu to nourish (1 t( fremu to rage U (( tenu to hold (( t( seni to connect " docu to teach PARTICIPIAL SYSTEM 75 1. In verbs in u5, the Perfect stem is the same as the verb stem-, acu-ere acu-i Stem, aou Perfect Stem, acu to sharpen 249. Many stems in 1, m, n, r, and a few others, together with most of the verbs of the second conjugation, form the Perfect stem by adding u : al-ere al-ul Stem, al frem-ere frem-ui " frem ten-gre ten-ui " ten ser-ere ser-ui " ser doc-ere doc-ui " doc 250. Most mute stems form the Perfect stem by adding s : carp-ere carp-si Stem, carp Perfect Stem, carps to pluck 251. Reduplication. — A few consonant stems form the Perfect stem by reduplication, which consists in prefixing the initial con- sonant of the stem with the following vowel or with e : curr-ere cu-curr-i Stem, curr Perfect Stem, cu-ourr to run can-ere ce-cin-i " can " " ce-cin to sing 1. The vowel of the reduplication was originally e. 2. After the reduplication, a of the stem is weakened to e or i : fall-ere, fe-fel-li; can-ere, ce-ci-ni. Ae is weakened to i : caed-ere, ce-ci-di. 3. In verbs beginning with sp or st, the reduplication retains both con- sonants, but the stem drops s : spond-ere, spo-pond-i, to proinise. 4. Compounds, except those of dare, to give ; discere, to learn ; poscere, to demand, and stare, to stand, generally drop the reduplication. 252. A few consonant stems form the Perfect stem by length- ening the stem vowel : em-ere em-i Stem, em Perfect Stem, em to buy vid-ere vid-i " vid " " vid to see 1. A few verbs retain the stem unchanged : vert-ere vert-i Stem, vert Perfect Stem, vert to turn via-ere vis-i " vis " " vis to visit PARTICIPIAL SYSTEM 253. The Participial System has no common stem, but it is represented in the Principal Parts of the verb by the neuter of Digitized by Microsoft® 76 MORPHOLOGY the Perfect Participle, or by the Supine, each of which is formed by adding turn, sometimes sum, to the verb stem : ama^re ama-tum to love can-ere can-turn to sing fal-lere fal-sum to deceive VERBAL ENDINGS 254. The Endings which are appended to the verb stem in the formation of the various parts of the finite verb distinguish the different Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. I. Personal Endings 255. Tlie personal endings, some of which appear to have been formed from ancient pronominal stems, distinguish Voice, Num- ber, and Person. They are in general as follows : Meaning / thou, you he, she, it we you they 1. These are the regular personal endings in the Indicative and Suhjunc- tive Moods, except in the Perfect Indicative active. II. Mood and Tense Signs 256. The Mood and Tense Signs include that part of the several verbal forms which stands between the verb stem and the personal endings : s-i-tis ; ama-ba-mus, ama-bi-tis, audi-vi-mus. CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS First Conjugation 257. Principal Parts in o, are, avi, atum : anio amare amavl amatum to love So all regular verhs of this conjugation. 1. Deponent verbs form their principal parts as follows : hortor hortarl hortatus sum to exhort Digitized by Microsoft® Person Active Passive Sing. First m, o r, or Second s ris Third t tur Plur. First mus mur Second tis mini Third nt ntur CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 77 258. Principal Parts in o, are, ui, itum, turn : domo domare domui domitum to tame So OMbo, to recline in-crepo, to reSwAe Y6t,o, to forbid 259. Principal Parts in o, are, i, turn : Perfect with Reduplication or Lengthened Stem Vowel do dare dedi datum to give sto stare steti statum to stand iuvo iuvare iavi iutum to assist lavo lavare lavI lavatum, lautum to wash Second Conjugation 260. Principal Parts in eo, ere, evi, itum deleO delere So com-pleo, to fill dslevi deletum fleo, to weep 261. Principal Parts in eo, ere, ui, itum: moneo monere habeo habere So ad-hibeo, to apply taceo, to be silent monui monitum habul habitum de-beo, to owe terreo, to terrify, etc. to destroy neo, to spin to advise to have placeo, to please 1. Many verbs lack the Participial System. 2. Some verbs have only the Present System in general use. 262. Principal Parts in eo, ere, ui, turn, sum : dooeo dooere docui doctum to teach misceo miscere miscui mixtum to mix censeo censere censul censum to assess 263. Principal Parts in eo, ere, si, turn, or sum : augeo augere auxii auotum to incrpafe indulges indulgere indulsi indultum to indulge iubeo iubere iussl iussum to order suadeo suadere suasi suasum to advise 264. Principal Parts in eo, ere, i, turn: Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel caves cavere cavl cautum to take heed faveS favere favi fautum to favor foveo fovere fSvI fotum to cherish 1 Observe that auxi is from *aug-si. Digitized by Microsoft® 78 MORPHOLOGY 265. Principal Parts in eo, ere, i, sum: 1. Pekfect with Keduplication moideo mordere mo-mordi morsum to bite spoiideo spondere spo-pondl sponsum to promise 2. Perfect -with Lengthened Stem Vowel sedeo sedere sedi sessum to sit video videre vidi visum to see 3. Pekfbot with Unchanged Stem prandere praiidi pransum to breakfast prandeo 266. Deponent Verbs liceor liceri licitus sum pol-lioeor pollicerl pollioitus sum So mereor, to deserve misereor, to pity to bid to promise vereor, to fear 267. Semi-Deponent Verbs, — Deponent in the Perfect audeo audere ausus sum to dare gaudeo gaudere gavTsus sum to rejoice soleo solere solitus sum to be accustomed Third Conjugation Stem in a Consonant 268. Principal Parts in o, ere, si, turn : ^ carpo carpere carpsi carptum to pluck So de-cerpo, to pluck off ex-cerpo, to choose out sculpo, to carve nubo nubere nupsi nuptum to marry scribo scribere scrips! soriptum to write dico dicere dixi dictum to say duco ducere doxi ductum to lead rego regere rexi rectum to rule tego tegere texT tectum to cover trabo trahere traxi tractum to draw vivo vivere vixi victum to live 269. Princ iipal Parts in 6, ere, si. sum : cedo cedere cessi cessum to give place claudiD claudere clausi clausum to close So con-cludo. , to enclose ex-cludo, to exclude e-vado, to go out plaudo, to ' applaud ex-plodO, to hoot off divide, to divide 1 For phonetic ctianges, see 5i-56. Digitized by Microsoft® OLASSIFiaATION OF VERBS 79 370. Principal Parts in 6, ere, i, turn : 1. Peefect with Redoplioation ab-d5 abdere ab-di-di abditum So ad-do, to add to crS-do, to believe tangS tangere te-tigl tactum cano canere ce-cini — to put away vSn-do, to sell to touch to sing 2. Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel age emo frangS lego vinoO solv5 Tolvo agere emere frangere legere vinoere eg! gmi fregl legl TicI actum em-p^tum fractum leotum victum 3. Pekpect with Unchanged Stem solvere solvl solutum volvere volvl volutum 271. Principal Parts in 6, ere, i, sum: 1. Pebfect with Reduplication cado cadere ce-cidi casum caedo caedere ce-cldi caesum pello pellere pe-pull pulsum curro currere cu-curri cursum to drive to buy to break to read to conquer to loose to roll to fall to cut to drive to run 2. Perfect with Lengthened Stem Vowel edo funds edere fundere edi fudi esum fusum de-fendo verto 3. Perfect with Unchanged Stem defendere defend! defensum vertere verti versum to eat to pour to defend to turn 272. Principal Parts in o, ere, ui, itum : gigno gignere genul genitum pono ponere posui positum 1. A few verbs lack the Participial System. 273. Principal Parts in o, ere, ui, alo alere alui colo colere colui consuls cSnsulere consului to beget to place altum, alitum to nourish cultura to cultivate consultum to consult Digitized by Microsoft® 80 MORPHOLOGY 274. A few consonant stems form tlie Present in io and the other Principal Parts like other consonant stems : capio oapere cepi captum to take cupio cupere cupivl oupitum to desire facio faoere feci factum to make iaoio iacere iecl iactum to throio rapid rapere rapui raptum to seize Stem ts a Vowel 275. Principal Parts in uo, uere, ui, utum : statuo statuere statu! statutum to place tribuo tribuere tribul tributum to impart 1 . So nearly all verbs in uo, but a few lack the Participial System. 276. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form their Present system from consonant stems, but their Perfect and Participial systems from vowel stems : sterno sternere stravi stratum to spread out sperno spernere sprevi spretum to spurn quaero quaerere quaeslvi quaesitum to seek Inceptive ob Inchoative Vbebs 277. Verbs in sc6 are called Inceptive or Inchoative verbs because most of them denote the Beginning of an Action. They are of three varieties : 1. Primitive Inceptives, formed directly from roots or from lost verbs, generally without inceptive meaning. 2. Verbal Inceptives, formed from other verbs, generally with inceptive meaning. 3. Denominative Inceptives, formed from nouns and adjectives, chiefly from adjectives. 278. Primitive Inceptives ; Perfect in v£ : pasoo pascere pavi pastum to feed cresco orescere crevi cretum to grow nosco noscere novl nStum to come to know 279. Many Verbal Inceptives have only the Present System in general use, but some take the Perfect of their Primitives : are|co aresoere arul — to become dry from areo calesco calescere calul — to become warm " cale5 Digitized by Microsoft® CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS 81 280. Many Denominative Inceptives have only the Present System, but some have the Perfect in ui: crebresc-o -ere crebrui — to grow frequent from creber dureso-o -ere durul — to grow hard " durus Deponent Verbs 281. Deponent Verbs with the Perfect in tus sum : fruor sequor frui sequi fructus sum secutus sum to enjoy to follow 282. Deponent Verbs with the Perfect in sus sum : gradior gradi gressus sum to walk to use utor uti usus sum 283. Deponent Verbs with Inceptive Porms : nasoor nasci natus sum paciscor paclsci pactus sum pro-ficisoor profioisol profectus sum to be horn to covenant to set out Fourth Conjugation 284. Principal Parts in io, ire, ivi, itum : audio audire audlvl audltum 1. So all regular verbs of this conjugation. 285. Principal Parts in io, ire, ui, turn : to hear aperio aperire aperul apertum to open operio operlre operui opertum to cover 286. Principal Parts in io, ire, si, turn or sum : saepio saepire saepsi saeptum to hedge in sancio sancire sanxi sanctum to ratify sentio sentire sensi sensum to feel 287. Principal Parts in io, ire, i, turn : com-perio comperire comperl compertum to learn venio venire veni ventum to come 288. A few verbs of this conjugation have only the present system in general use, as ferio, to strike, superbio, to he haughty. HAKK. G. S. I.AT. GRAM. — 7 Digitized by Microsoft® 82 MORPHOLOGY Deponent Verbs 289. All regular Deponent Verbs of this conjugation form their Principal Parts as follows : blandior blandirl blanditus sum to flatter Irregular Verbs 290. Sum, edo, fero, volo, fio, eo, queo, and their compounds, are called Irregular or Anomalous Verbs. 1. For sum see 205. Most of its compounds are inflected in tlie same way, but pos-sum and pro-sum require special treatment. 291. Possum posse potui to he able Indicative SINGULAR PLUEAL Pres. possum, potes, potest possumus, potestis, possunt Imp. poteram i poteramus Put. potero poterimus Perf. potui potuimus Plup. potueram potueramus F. P. potuero potuerimus Subjunctive Pres. possim, possis, possit possimus, possitis, possint Imp. possem possemus Perf. potuerim potuerimus Plup. potuissem potuissemus Infinitive Paeticiple Pres. posse Pres. potens {as an adjective) Perf. potuisse 1. Possum is a compound of pot (for potis, pote), able, and sum. 292. Pro-sum prod-esse pro-fui to profit Pro-sum is a compound of pro, prod, for, and sum. It retains d from prod, before e, but otherwise it is inflected \ike sum : pro-sum, prod-es, prod-est, pro-suraus, prod-estis, pro-sunt, etc. 1 Inflected regularly through the different persons : poteram, poteras, pot- erat, etc. So in the other tenses: potui, potuisti, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® IRREGULAR VERBS 83 293. Edo edere edi esum to eat In certain parts of the present system this verb has both regular and irregular forms, as follows : Active Voice Indicative edis edit edimus editis edunt es est estis Pres, /edo Imp. Pres Put. Pres. Pres. f ederem ederes l essem esses rede les / edits lesto f edor Imp. {e'lerer edere ederis ederSris Subjunctive ederet ederemus esset essem us Imperative edite este editote estate Infinitive Passive Voice Indicative editur edimur estur Subjunctive ederetur ederemur essetur ederetis essetis edimini ederent essent eduntS eduntur ederemini ederentur 1. In all the other tenses this verb has the regular inflection, but forms in im for am occur in the Present Subjunctive : edim, edis, edit, etc. 294. Fero ferre tuli Active Voice Indicative latum to bear SINGULAR Pres. fero, fers, fert Imp. f erebam i Put. feram PLURAL ferimus, fertis, ferunt ferebamus feremus 1 Inflect the several tenses in full : ferebam, ferebas, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® 84 MOKPHOLOGY feror Perf. tuli tulimus Plup. tuleram tuleramus P. P. tulero Subjunctive tulerimus Pres. feram feram us Imp. ferrem ferremus Perf. tulerim tulerimus Plup. tulissem Imperative tulissemus Pres. fer ferte Perf. ferto fertote ferto ferunto Infinitive Participle Pres. ferre Pres. ferens Perf. tullsse Fut. laturum esse Put. laturus Gerund Supine Gen. ferendl Dat. ferendo Aco. ferendum Aoc. latum Abl. ferendo Abl. Passive Voice lata ferri latus sum to he home Indicative SINeULAR PLURAL Pres. feror, ferris, fertur ferlmur, ferimini, feruntur Imp. ferebar ferebamur Put. ferar feremnr Perf. latus sum lati sumus Plup. latus eram lati eramus F. P. latus ero Subjunctive lati erimus Pres. ferar feramur Imp. ferrer ferremur Perf. latus sim lati simus Plup. latus essem lati essemus Digitized by Microsoft® IRREGULAR VERBS 85 Imperative Pres. ferre ferimini Put. fertor fertor feruntor Infinitive Paetictple Pres. ferii Perf. latum i esse Perf. latus Put. latum : iri Ger. ferendus 1. In a few of the compounds of fero the preposition suffers a euphonic change : ad ad-fero ad-ferre at-tuli al-latum to carry to au, ab au-fero au-ferre abs-tuli ab-latum to carry away dis, di dif-ferS dif-ferre dis-tuli di-latum to carry apart sub suf-fero suf-ferre sus-tuli sub-latuua to suffer 295. Vols velle volm to he ivilling Nolo nolle nolui to be univilling Malo malle inalui to prefer Indicative Pres. volo nolo malo vis non vis mavis vult non vult mavult volumus nolumus malumus Tultis non vultis mavultis volunt nolunt malunt Imp. volebam nolebam malebam Put. volam nolam malam Perf. volul nolui malui Plup. volueram nolueram malueram P. P. Yoluero noluero maluero Subjunctive Pres. velim i nolim malim Imp. vellem i noUem mallem Perf. voluerira noluerim maluerim Plup. voluissem noluissem maluissem 1 Velim is inflected lilse sim, and vellem lilce essem. Digitized by Microsoft® 86 MOBPHOLOOY Imperative Pres. noli nolite Fut. noUto nolitote nollto n51unto Infinitive i. velle nolle malle '. voluisse nolulsse Pakticiplb maluisse i. Tolens nolens 296. The regular verb facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, has the following irregular Passive : JFlo, fieri, factus sum, to become, be made Indicative SINGULAK PLURAL Pres. fio, fis, fit fiunt Imp. fiebam fiebamus Fut. flam fiemus Perf. factus sum fact! Rumus Plup. factus eram L fact! eramus P. P. factus ero Subjunctive fact! erimus Pres. fiam fiamus Imp. fierem fiereraus Perf. factus sim fact! simus Plup. factus essem fact! essemus Imperative Pres. fl fite Infinititb Participle Pres. fieri Perf. factum esse Perf. factus Put. factum iri Ger. faciendus 1. Theifirst and second persons plural of the Present Indicative are not found. Digitized by Microsoft® IRREGULAR VERBS 87 297. Eo ire 11 itum to go Indicative SIKGDLAR PLURAL Pres. eO is it imus Itis eunt Imp. ibam Ibas Ibat Ibamus ibatis Ibant Fut. ibo Ibis ibit Ibimus ibitis Ibunt Perf. ii isti lit iimus Istis ierunt Plup. ieram ieras ierat ieramus ieratis ierant F. P. iero ierls ierit Subjunctive ierimus ieritis ierint Pres. eam eas eat eamus eatis eant Imp. irem ires iret iremus Iretis irent Perf. ierim ieris ierit ierimus ieritis ierint Plup. Issem isses isset Issemus issetis issent Infinitive Participle Pres. Ire Pres. iens Gen. euntis Perf. isse Flit. ittirum ( 2sse Put. iturua Geeund Supine Gen. eundl Dat. eundo Ace. eundum Abl. eundo Pres. I Put. Its ItO Imperative Ace. itum Abl. itti ite Itete eunts 1. E6 is a verb of the Fourth Conjugation, but it forms the Supine from the weak stem i and is irregular in some parts of the Present system. 298. Queo, quire, quivi, quii, to he able, and ne-queo, nequire, nequivi, ne-quii, not to be able, are inflected like eo, but they are used chiefly in the Present tense and in early writers. Digitized by Microsoft® 88 MORPHOLOGY Defective Verbs 299. The following verbs lack the Present System : Coepi, Memini, Odi, I have begun I remember I hate Indicative Perf. ooepi memini odi Plup. coeperam memineram oderam r. p. coepero meminero Subjunctive odero Perf. coeperim meminerim oderim Plup. ooepiasem meminissem odissem Perf. Fut. Perf. Fut. Imperative Sing. memento Plur. mem en tote coepisse coepturum esse ooeptus coepturus Infinitive meminisse Participle odisse osurum esse osus osurus 300. The three following verbs are used chiefly in certain parts of the Present System. Aio, I say, I say yes: Indicative Pres. aio ais ait Imp. aiebam aiebas aiebat Perf. — — ■ ait — ■ — aiunt aiebamus aiebatis aiebant Subjunctive Pres. — aias aiat Imperative Pres. ai (rare) Digitized by Microsoft® Participle Pres. aiens aiant ADVERBS 89 Inquam, / say, is used in connection with direct quotations and is inserted after one or more of the words quoted. inquimus inquitis Inquiunt Indie. Pres. inquam inquis inquit " ' Imp. — — inquiebat " Put. — inqules inquiet " Perf. inquii inquisti inquit Imper. Pres. inque Put. inquito Fari, to speak Indie. Pres. — — falur " Put. fabor — fabitur " Perf. — — fatus est " Plup. f atus eram — fatus erat Imper. Pres. fare Infin. Pres. farl Part. Pres. fans — . fanti " Perf. fatus " Ger. fandus Gerund, Gen. fandi Abl. fando fantur — fati sunt fantem fante Supine, Abl. fatu 301. Certain verbs have only a few special forms : salve salvete salveto salvere hail, to be well ovat ovans he rejoices, rejoicing Impersonal Verbs 302. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English impersonal verbs with it : licet, it is lawful ; oportet, it is proper. They are conjugated like other verbs, but are used only in the third person singular of the Indicative and Subjunctive, and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive. 1. The subject, when expressed, is generally an Infinitive or a clause: hoc fieri oportet, that this should he done is proper. 2. In the Passive Voice intransitive verbs can be used only impersonally. PARTICLES 303. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are , sometimes called Particles. ADVERBS 304. The Adverb is the part of speech which is used to qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs: celeriter currere, to run swiftly ; tam celer, so swift; tarn celeriter, .so swiftly. Digitized by Microsoft® 90 MORPHOLOGY 305. Adverbs may be divided into three general classes: (1) adverbs which were originally case forms, (2) adverbs formed by means of suffixes no longer used in the regular declensions, and (3) adverbs formed by the union of prepositions with case forms. 306. Many adverbs were originally Accusatives, both in form and in meaning : vicem, in turn ; partim, partly ; multum, multa, much. 307. Many adverbs were originally Ablatives: forte, hy chance; iiire, rightly; raro, rarely; doote, learnedly; doctissime, most learn- edly; maxime, especially; ea, there, in that way; hac, here, in this way; eadem, in the same way. 308. Some Adverbs were originally Locatives: heri, yesterday; tem- peri, in time; vesperi, in the evening ; hie, here; ibi, there. 309. Adverbs are also formed by means of the endings tus and ter: f undi-tus, from the foundation ; f orti-ter, bravely ; pruden-ter, prudently. 310. Some adverbs are formed by the union of case forms with prepositions: ad-moduni, y«W!// e^-tevupVb, immediately. 311. Comparison. — Most adverbs are derived from adjectives, and are dependent upon them for their comparison. The comparative is the Accusative neuter singular of the adjective, and the superlative changes the ending us of the adjective into e : altus altior altissimus lofty alts altius altissime loftily 1. When the adjective is compared with magis and maxime, the adverb is compared in the same way, and when the adjective is irregular, the adverb has the same irregularity. PREPOSITIONS 312. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows the relations of objects to each other ; see 420, 490. 313. Inseparable Prepositions are so called because they are used only in composition ; see 375. CONJUNCTIONS 314. Conjunctions are mere connectives. They are either Coordinate or Subordinate. 1. Coordinate Conjunctions connect similar constructions : Carthaginem cepit ac diruit, he took and destroyed Carthage. Digitized by Microsoft® INFLECTION AND DERIVATION 91 2. Subordinate Conjunctions connect subordinate with, principal con- structions : Haeo dum coUigunt, effugit, while they collected these things, he escaped. 315. Coordinate Conjunctions comprise : 1. Copulative Conjunctions, denoting Union ; see 657. '2. Disjunctive Conjunctions, denoting Separation; see 658. 3. Adversative Conjunctions, denoting Opposition ; see 659. 4. Illative Conjunctions, denoting Inference; see 660. 5. Causal Conjunctions, denoting Cause ; see 661. 316. Subordinate Conjunctions comprise : 1. Temporal Conjunctions, denoting Time ; see 600-605. 2. Comparative Conjunctions, denoting Comparison ; see 584. 3. Conditional Conjunctions, denoting Condition ; see 574. 4. Adversative and Concessive Conjunctions, denoting Opposition and Concession ; see 585, 586. 5. Final Conjunctions, denoting Purpose or End ; see 568. 6. Consecutive Conjunctions, denoting Consequence or Result ; see 570. 7. Causal Conjunctions, denoting Cause ; see 588. 8. Interrogative Conjunctions, in indirect questions ; see 650. INTERJECTIONS 317. Interjections are certain particles used as expressions of feeling or as mere marks of address. They may express astonishment, joy, sorrow, etc. : 5, hem, io, euhoe, vae, ei, heu. PART III. — ETYMOLOGY 318. Words in our family of languages were originally formed by the union of primitive elements called Eoots. 319. In tlie formation of words in an inflected language, we distinguish Inflection, Derivation, and Composition. INFLECTION AND DERIVATION 320. Inflection forms Cases, Moods, Tenses, ISTumbers, and Persons by adding appropriate suifixes to stems : reg-is, rgg-em, reg-es, reg-ibus ; sta-t, sta-nt, sta-mus, sta-tis. Digitized by Microsoft® 92 ETYMOLOGY 1. A stem which cannot be resolved into more primitive ele- ments is also a root. Thus sta, the stem of sta-mus, is a root. 321. Derivation forms new stems by adding formative suffixes to other stems or to roots. Thus from the root sta, it forms the stem sta-bili by adding the suffix bili. 322. Etymologically words may be divided into groups, each group being derived from one common root. 323. Stems may be divided into three classes, as follows : 1. Root Stems, identical with roots. 2. Primary Stems, formed eitlier from roots or from the stems of verbs by means of suffixes. 3. Secondary Stems, formed from primary stems by means of suffixes. 324. Words formed by inflection are called Root Words or Primitive Words, if formed from root stems ; Primary Derivar tives, if formed from primary stems ; Secondary Derivatives, if formed from secondary stems. 325. In the language inherited by the Romans, roots, stems, and suffixes sometimes appear with varying quantity, and even with different vowels in different words. 326. These inherited vowel variations in some languages form a somewhat regular gradation, while in the Latin they have mostly disappeared, as kindred forms have been assimilated to each other. I. ROOT WORDS — FORMED FRO.M ROOTS BY INFLECTION 327. The following are examples of Root Words : Root due : due-is, of a leader duc-e duc-ibus es: es-se, to he es-t es-tis reg : reg-is, of the king reg-e reg-ibus sta : sta/-s, you stand star-mus sta-tis II. PRIMARY DERIVATIVES 328. Prom the stems of verbs are formed Participles, Verbal Ad]■ecti^res, and Verbal Nouns with the following suffixes: ns tus, a, uin tus tiirus, a, um ndus, a, \un Digitized by Microsoft® PRIMARY DERIVATIVES 93 1. With the suffix ns are formed Present Participles, Verbal Adjec- tives, and Verbal Nouns: ama-ns, ama-nt-is, loving. 2. With the suffix tus, a, um, are formed Perfect Participles, Verbal Adjectives, and Verbal Nouns: ama-tus, loved; lega-tus, envoy. 3. With the suifix tus, stem tu, are formed Supines and other Verbal Nouns : ama-tum, ama-tii ; audi-tua, act of hearing. i. With the suffix turus, a, um are formed Future Active Participles, and Verbal Nouns in tiira : ama-tiiruB ; cul-tiira, a cultivating. 5. With the suffix ndus, a, um, are formed Gerundives, Gerunds, and Gerundive Adjectives in undus, bundus, and cundus with the general meaning of participles : ama-ndus, ama-ndi ; sec-xuiduB, following. 329. Important Verbal Adjectives denoting Capability, Adap- tation, generally passive but sometimes active, are formed with the suffixes ,. , , .,. iliB and bills : fac-ilis, facile, easy, from fac-ere, to make ama^bilis, lovable, " ama-re, to love 330. Verbal Adjectives with the general meaning of participles are formed with the suffixes aud-ax. daring, from aud-ere, to dare am-icus, loving, friendly. " am-are, to love exim-ius, select, choice. " exim-ere. to select out 331. Verbal Adjectives having in general a meaning kindred to that of participles are formed with the suffixes ulus uus vus ivus : cred-ulus, credulous, from ored-ere, to believe noc-uus, hurtful, " noo-ere, to hurt ar-vus, plowed, " ar-are, to plow cad-iwis, falling, " cad-ere, to fall Verbal Nouns 332. Verbal nouns partake largely of the meaning of the verbs from which they are derived. Digitized by Microsoft® 94 ETYMOLOGY Action or Its Result 333. Verbal nouns denoting Action in the abstract, but often becoming concrete, are formed with the suffixes io tio or ies ium : leg-io, a levying, legion, mea levied, from leg-ere, to levy audl-tio, a hearing, a report, " audl-re, to hear tim-or, fear, " tim-ere, to fear fac-ies, face, ■ " fac-ere, to make gaud-iam, joy, " gaud-gre, to rejoice Agent or Doer 334. Verbal nouns denoting the Agent or Doer of an action are formed from the stems of verbs or from roots with the suffixes tor ter, masculine tr-xx, feminine : I from vena-rl, to hunt I ' venMr-Ix, hun-tr-ess, 1. Tlie few nouns in Latin formed witli the sufBxes ter, tr, which, like tor, originally denoted the Agent, have become names of Kindred : pa-ter, pa-tr-is, father ; ma-ter, ma-tr-is, mother; fra-ter, fra-tr-is, brother. Means and Instrument 335. Nouns denoting the Means or Instrument of an action, sometimes its Place or Result, are formed with the suffixes trum s-trum clum culum nlnm ula bulum bula: ara-trum, plow. from ara-re, to plow raon-s-trum. prodigy, " mon-ere, to admonish peri-clum , 1 peri-culum, / trial, test, peril. u obsolete peri-re, to try, test teg-ulum, 1 teg-ula, / covering, tile, roof, " teg-ere, to cover sta-bulum, stall, (( sta^re. to stand fa-bula, story, tale. (t fa-ri, to speak, tell 336. Many verbal nouns denoting the Means of an action, or its involuntary Subject or Object, and sometimes the Act itself or its Result, are formed with the suffixes Digitized by Microsoft® SECONDARY DERIVATIVES 95 nien mentum monium monia: ag-men, army on the march, from ag-ere, to lead orna-mentum, ornament, " orna^re, to adorn ali-«5nia, I ■ i ^ ,, , ,. _ . > nourishment, " ale-re, to nourish ali-monium, J 337. A few verbal nouns are formed with the suffixes d-6 g-6 : cupl-d5, desire, ,from cupi in cupl-vl, I desired orl-go, a beginning, " ori-rl, to rise, begin 338. Nouns having a great variety of meaning, as Action, its Eesult or Place, Means or Instrument, etc., are formed from the stems of verbs or from roots with the simple suffixes a us, um us : fug-a, a fleeing, flight, from fug in fug-ere, to flee lad- us, game, play, " lud in lud-ere, to play iug-um, yoke, " iug in iung-ere, to join together ac-us, needle, " ac in ac-uere, to sharpen III. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES — NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 339. Secondary derivatives may be classified as follows : 1. Diminutives; see 340. 2. Patronymics, or Names of Descent ; see 342. 3. Designations of Place ; see 343. 4. Nouns denoting Office, Condition, or Characteristic ; see 344. 5. Adjectives denoting Fullness or Supply; see 346. 6. Adjectives denoting Material ; see 347. 7. Adjectives denoting Characteris);ic or Possession ; see 348. Diminutives — Nouns and Adjectives 340. Diminutives of Nouns and Adjectives are generally formed with the following suffixes : lus, la, lum ulus, ula, ulum cuius, cula, culum filio-lus, little son, from filius, son filio-la, little daughter, " filia, daughter atrio-lum, small hall, " atrium, hall reg-ulus, petty king, " rex, Digitized by Microsoft® 96 ETYMOLOGY flos-culus, aureo-lus, a, um, longius-culus, a, um, small flower, from flos, flower somewhat golden, " aureus, golden rather too long, " longius, too long 341. Diminutive nouns in their true and proper signification represent objects simply as small, but they often become Terms of Endearment : filiola, little daughter or my dear little daughter. Patronymics 342. The Latin Patronymics, or Names of Descent, were bor- rowed from the Greek. The common patronymic endings were developed for metrical reasons in two forms, as follows : ides iades, masculine is ias, feminine Tantal-ides, son or descendant of 2'antal-us Laert-iades, son of Laert-es, y\z. Ulysses Tantal-is, daughter or descendant of Tantal-us Tliest-ias, daughter or descendant of Thest-ius 343. Designations of Place, where trees and plants flourish, are often formed with the suffixes turn and e-tum : virgul-tum, thicket, from virgul-a, hush ros-e-tum, garden of roses, " ros-a, rosebush 344. Derivatives denoting Ofiice, Condition, or Characteristic are formed from nouns with the suffixes ium monium tas tus tudo atus: magister-ium, office of master, from magister, master testi-monium, testimony, " testi-s, witness civi-tas, citizenship, " civi-s, citizen servi-tus, servitude. " servu-s, servant servi-tudo, servitude, " servu-s, servant oonsul-atus, consulship. ' ' consul, consul 345. Many Abstract Nouns are formed from adjectives, and a few from nouns, with the suffixes la audac-ia, molli-tia, firmi-tas, firmi-tudo, acri-monia, tia tas tudo monia : boldness, from audax. bold softness. " molli-s, soft firmness. " firmu-s. steadfast, firm sharptiess " acri-s, sharp Digitized by Microsoft® SECONDARY DERIVATIVES 97 Adjectives from the Stems of Nouns 346. Fullness. — Adjectives denoting Fullness, Abundance, or Supply are formed from nouns by means of the suffixes osus lens lentus tus a-tus i-tus u-tus aiiim-osus, full of COUVi ige, from anim-us, courage pesti-lens, pestilential, " pesti-s, pest ius-tus, just, " ius, right al-ar-tus, winged, " al-a, wing turr-i-tus, turreted. " turr-is, turret 347. Material. — Adjectives designating the material of which anything is made are generally formed with the suffixes eus nus n-eus ac-eus : aur-eus, of gold, golden, from aur-um, gold ros-eus, ros-ac-eus I made of roses, " ros-a, 348. Characteristic. — Adjectives meaning in general belonging to, relating to, derived from, and the like, are formed from nouns with a great variety of suffixes. The following examples illus- trate the meaning and use of one class of these suffixes : nliR eUs nis ulis aris arias : mort-alis, mortal, from mors, mort-is, death fid-elis, faithful, " fid-es, faith, trust olv-Uis, civil. " cIv-is, citizen salut-aris, healthful » " saltit-is, good health 349. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suffixes nus a-nus i-nus ur-nus ver-nus, of spring, vernal, from ver, spring urb-anus, of a city. ' ' urb-s, city mar-Inus, of the sea, marine, " mar-e, the sea noct-ur-nus, by night, nightly, " nox, iioct-is, night 350. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suffixes cus i-cus ivus t-ivus ius : civi-cus, of a citizen, from civi-s, citizen bell-icus, oftoar, military, " bell-um, war HARK. G. S. LAX. GRAM. 8 Digitized by Microsoft® 98 JETYMOLOGT fest-ivus, pleasing, tempes-tlvus, timely, reg-ius, kingly, royal. from fest-us, " tempus, tenipes, time " rex, reg-is, king 351. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the suflEixes ter tris ea-ter es-tris ensis: r ") .' \ of a horseman, from eques eques-tns, J eques-ter, eques-tris, j camp-ester, of a level field, level, " camp-us, Rilv_pRt.riR_ nf n. fnrftRt. innndp.d. " silv-a, castr-a, silv-estris. castr-ensis, of or in the camp. horseman level field, forest camp 352. The following examples illustrate the meaning and use of the sufB-xes ills hum-ilis, dap-s-ilis, aqua-tilis, mari-timus. s-ilis low, lowly, sumptuous, living in water, maritime. t-ilis from hum-US, " dap-s, " aqua. ti-mus : the earth, ground water " mare for mari, sea from Sulla, Sulla " Cicero, Cicero " Latium, Latium " Pythagoras, Pythagoras " Corinthus, Corinth " Britannus, a Briton 353. Adjectives from proper names have various endings, as SuU-anus, of Sulla, Ciceroii-ianus, Ciceronian, Lat-inus, Latin, Pythagor-eus, Pythagorean, Corinth-ius, Corinthian, Britann-icus, British, 354. The names of the Roman Gentes or Clans always ended in ius, masculine, and ia, feminine : Aemll-ius, Aemil-ia Cornel-ius, Cornel-ia lul-ius, liil-ia 1. The name of the gens to which a Roman citizen belonged formed one of the three names which he regularly bore : the first, or praenomen, desig- nating the individual ; the second, or nomen, the gens ; and the third, or cognomen, the family. Thus Publius Cornelius Scipio was Publius of the Scipio family of the Cornelian gens. Digitized by Microsoft® A. = Aulus M. = Marcus Ap. = Appius M'. = Manias C. = Gaius Mam. = Mamercus Cn. = Gnaeus N. = Numerius D. = Decimus P. = Publius L. = Lucius Q (Qu ) = Quintus DERIVATION OP VERBS 99 2. In writing, personal names are generally represented by abbreviations : S. (Sex.) = Sextus Ser. = Servius Sp. = Spurius T. = Titus Ti. (Tib.) = Tiberius 3. Womeu were generally known by the name of their gens. Thus the daughter of Julius Caesar was simply lulia. Adjectives from Adverbs and Prepositions 355. A few adjectives are formed from adverbs : ter-nus, three- fold, from ter, three times; hodi-ernus, of this day, from hodi-e, this day, to-day. DERIVATION AND HISTORY OF LATIN VERBS 356. The oldest Latin verbs were all inherited from the parent speech. They comprise three classes. I. — Root Verbs 357. In Root Verbs personal endings are added directly to the bare root, which forms the present stem, as in es-t, es-tis, es-te, es-t5, es-tote, from the root es, and in fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer-te, fer-to, from the root fer. II. — Thematic Verbs 358. The Present Stem ends in the thematic vowel, which was orig- inally e or o, but in Latin it generally takes the form of i or u. This class includes most verbs of the Third Conjugation: reg-e-re, to rule; reg-i-t, reg-i-mus, reg-i-tis, reg-u-nt. III. — Verbs formed vTith the suffix io 359. This class includes, 1. A group of A- Verbs; hiare, to gape; hi-a-mus, hi-a-tis, hi-a-nt. 2. A group of E- Verbs : favere, to faoor; fav-e-mus, fav-e-tis, fav-e-nt. 3. A group of I- Verbs : venire, to come; ven-i-mus, ven-i-tis, ven-iu-nt. Digitized by Microsoft® IQO ETYMOLOGY FORMATION OF VERBS FROM THE STEMS OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 360. A-Verbs are generally formed from a-stems, but sometimes from other stems : cur-o, -a-re, to care for, from cur-a, care nomin-o, -a-re, to name, " nomen, name 361. E-Verbs are generally formed, from o-stems, rarely from consonant stems : alb-eo, -e-re, to be white, from alb-us, white flor-eo, -e-re, to flower, " flos, flor-is, flower 362. I-Verbs are generally formed from i-stema ; but sometimes from other stems : fin-io, fin-i-re, to finish, from fln-is, end gest-io, gest-i-re, to gesture, " gest-us, gesture 363. XJ-Verbs are formed from u-stems : met-uo, met-u-ere, to fear, from met-us, fear 364. Frequentatives, or Intensives, denote Repeated, Continued, or Intense Action. They are of the First Conjugation, and are formed from verb stems or roots with the following suffixes : to so ito tito sito cap-to. to snatch. from cap-era, to take our-so, to run about, " cur-rere. to run ag-ito. to move violently. " ag-ere. to move, drive scrip-tito, to lorite often. (t scrib-ere, to write cur-sito, to run hither and thither, (; cur-rere. to run 365. Inceptives, or Inchoatives, denote the Beginning of the action. They regularly end in sco : gela-sco, to begin to freeze, from gela-re, to freeze cale-sco, to begin to be warm, " cale-re, to be warm 366. Desideratives, denoting a Desire to perform the action, end in turio or surio : emp-turio, to desire to purchase, from em-ere, to purchase Digitized by Microsoft® COMPOSITION OF WORDS 101 367. Diminutives, denoting a feeble action, end in illo : cant-ill-o, to sing feebly, from oant-are, losing 368. Denominatives are also formed with the suffixes ico and igo : claud-ic5, to he lame, from claud-us, lame mit-igS, to make gentle, " mit-is, gentle COMPOSITION OF WORDS 369. Many compound words are formed by uniting two or more stems and adding the suffixes of inflection when needed, as omni- potens, from omni-potent-s, omnipotent. 370. Compound words are also formed by prefixing an inde- clinable particle to an inflected word with which it could not be used separately in the same sense, as im-memor, un-mindful. 371. Compound words are also formed by uniting two or more words which already sustain to each other some syntactical relation, as duo-decim, twelve; postri-die, on the following day. 372. Compound Novms and Adjectives may be divided according to their meaning into three classes : 1. Determinative Compounds, in which the second part is qualified by the first: bene-volus, well-wishing. 2. Objective Compounds, in which the second part is limited by the first as object : prin-ceps, taking the first place. 3. Possessive Compounds, generally best rendered by supplying having or possessing : magn-animus, having a great soul. 373. Compound VerbsT — Verbs in general are compounded only with prepositions, originally adverbs, as ex-ire, to go out. 374. Prepositions in Composition. — Prepositions in composition sometimes undergo slight changes of form ; see 53. 375. The inseparable Particles occur in composition with verbs and sometimes with adjectives, as amb-ire, to go round; au-fugere, to flee away; im-memor, un-mindful. Digitized by Microsoft® 102 SYNTAX PART IV. — SYNTAX SYNTAX OP SENTENCES I. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 376. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 377. A sentence is a word, or a combination of words, express- ing either a single thought or two or more thoughts. 1. A simple sentence expresses a single thought : Komulus urhem oondidit, Hamulus founded the city.- 2. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences : Ego reges eieci, vos tyrannos introdaoitis, I have banished kings, you introduce tyrants. 3. A Declarative Sentence has the form of an assertion : Miltiades accQsatus est, Miltiades was accused. 4. An Interrogative Sentence has the form of a question : Quis non paupertatem extimescit, who does not fear poverty ? 5. An Imperative Sentence has the form of a command or entreaty : Libera rem piiblicam metti, free the republic from fear. 6. An Exclamatory Sentence has the form of an exclamation : Reliquit quos viros, what men he has left ! 378. Simple Interrogative sentences are generally introduced by an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or by an inter- rogative particle, ne, non-ue, or num : ne asking for information ; nomie generally implying an affirmative answer, and ntun a nega- tive answer : Quis doctior Aristotele fuit, who was more learned than Aristotle f Hora quota est, what time is it ? Estisne vos legati missi, were you sent as ambas- sadors 9 Nonne nobilitarl volunt, do they not wish to be renowned f Num igitur peccamus, are we then at fault ? 379. Answers. — In replying to a question of fact the Latin usually repeats some emphatic word, or its equivalent, often with prorsus, vero, and the like, or, if negative, with non : Nempe negas, do you indeed deny 9 Prorsus nego, certainly I deny. Digitized by Microsoft® SYNTAX OF SENTENOMS 103 380. Double or Disjunctive Questions offer a choice or alterna^ tive. The first clause generally has utrum or ne, or it omits the particle ; the second generally has an, as follows : utrum, an, ne, an, whether, or — , an, TJtrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, is that your fault or outs'? Eomamne venio, an hic maneam, am I going to Borne or am I to remain here? Haec vera, an falsa sunt, are these things true or false? II. ELEMENTS OP SIMPLE SENTENCES 381. The Simple Sentence consists of two distinct parts, ex- pressed or implied : 1. The Subject, or that of which it speaks. 2. The Predicate, or that which is said of the subject. 382. The Simple or unmodified Subject may be a noun, a pro- noun, expressed or implied, or some word or words used as a noun ; and the Simple or unmodified Predicate may be either a verb alone or a suitable verb, generally sum, with a Predicate Noun or a Predicate Adjective : Cluilius moritur, Cluilius dies. Ego scribo, I write. Dolere malum est, to suffer is an evil. Vita oara est, life is dear. 1. The subjects are Cluilius, ego, the Infinitive dolere, and vita. 2. The predicates are moritur, scribo, malum est, and cara est. Malum, thus used, is called a Predicate Noun, and cara a Predicate Adjective. 383. The Complex Subject consists of the simple subject with one or more modifiers : Albanus rex moritur, the Alban king dies. 1. Any noun or adjective used simply as a modifier of the subject, or of any other noun, is called an Attributive Noun or Adjective. 2. A noun or pronoun, used to describe or identify another noun or pro- noun denoting the same person or thing, is said to be in Apposition with it and is called an Appositive : Cluilius rex, Cluilius the king. 384. The Complex Predicate consists of the simple predicate with its modifiers : Gloria virttitem sequitur, glory follows merit. Digitized by Microsoft® 104 SYNTAX III. ELEMENTS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES 385. A Compound Sentence may consist of two or more inde- pendent sentences, combined without any change of form r Sol ruit et montes umbrantur, the sun hastens to its setting and the moun- tains are shaded. 386. A Compound Sentence may consist of two or more sen- tences so combined that one of them retains its independent form while the others are made subordinate to it : Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est, before you begin, there is need of deliberation. 1. In sentences of this kind the part which makes complete sense is called the Principal or Independent Clause ; and the part which is dependent upon it is called the Dependent or Subordinate Clause. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT SUBJECT NOMINATIVE 387. Rule. — The subject of a Finite Verb is put in the Nominative : Romulus regnavit, Romulus reigned. Gloria virtiiteTn sequitur, glory follmos merit. Ignore quid agas, / do not know how you are. 1. A Pronominal Subject, if not emphatic, is seldom expressed. AGEEEMENT OF VERB WITH SUBJECT 388. Rule. — A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person: Romulus urbem condidit, Romulus founded the city. Castor et Polliix ex equis piignare vlsi sunt, Castor and Pollux were seen to Jight on horse- hack. Scribam ad te, / shall write to you. 1. Participles in compound tenses also agree with the subject in gender according to 394, 1 , as in the second example. 2. The verb is sometimes omitted, when it can be readily supplied, espe- cially est and sunt in proverbs and brief sayings. Digitized by Microsoft® SUBJECT AND FREDIOATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT 105 389. Synesis. ^ Sometimes, especially in poetry and in Livy, the predicate is construed according to the real meaning of the subject without regard to grammatical gender or number : luventus ruit oertantque, the youth rush forth and contend. Multitudo abeunt, the multitude depart. 390. The verb agrees, not with its subject, but with the Predi- cate Noun, when that noun is nearer than the subject : N5n omnis error stultitia dioenda est, not every error should he called folly. Pueri TrSianum dioitur agmen, the boys are called the Trojan band. 391. The verb often agrees, not with its subject, but with an Appositive, regularly when the appositive is oppidum ; Volsinil, oppidum Tusoorum, oonorematum est, Volsinii, a town of the Tuscans, was burned. 392. With two or more subjects, the verb may agree either with one subject and be understood with the others, or with all the subjects conjointly : Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante R5main oonditam. Homer and Hesiod lived before the founding of Home. Ego et Cicero valemus, Cicero and I are well. Pater mihJ et mater mortui sunt, my father and mother are dead. 1. A verb agreeing conjointly with subjects differing in Person, takes the first person rather than the second and the second rather than the third. 2. A participle in a compound tense, agreeing conjointly with subjects dif- fering in Gender, is masculine if the subjects denote persons, otherwise gen- erally neuter. APPOSITIVES AND PREDICATE NOUNS 393. Rule. — A noun used as an Appositive or as a Predi- cate of another noun denoting the same person or thing agrees with it in Case : Appositives. — Cluilius rex moritur, Cluilius the king dies. Venus, regina Cnidi, Venus, the queen of Cnidus. Predicates. — Usus magister est, experience is a teacher. Vita magistra est, life is an instructress. 1. An appositive or a predicate noun with different forms for different genders must agree in gender as well as in case ; as Cluilius rex, Venus regina, iisus magister, vita magistra, above. Digitized by Microsoft® 106 SYNTAX 2. An appositive or a predicate noun may agree with, a pronoun, whetlier expresssd or only implied in the ending of a verb. 3. Partitive Apposition. — The parts may be appositives or predicates of the whole, or the whole may be an appositive or predicate of the parts : Duo reges, ille bello, hlc pace, civitatem auxerunt, two kings advanced the interests of the state, the former by war, the latter by peace. Ptolemaeus et Cleopatra, reges Aegypti, Ptolemy and Cleopatra, rulers of Egypt. 4. Predicate Apposition. — Appositives sometimes have nearly the force of subordinate clauses : Aedem Salatis dictator dedicavit, he dedicated the temple of Salus when (he was) dictator. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 394. Rule. — ■ Adjectives, whether Attributive or Predi- cate, agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case : Fortiina caeca est, Fortune is blind. Verae amicitiae seiupiternae sunt, true friendships are enduring. Haec aurea vasa, these golden vessels. Sol oriens diem conficit, the sun rising makes the day. 1. Demonstratives and participles are adjectives in construction, and accordingly conform to this rule, as haec vasa, sol oriens. 2. A neuter adjective used substantively sometimes supplies the place of a predicate adjective : Cum mors sit extremum, since death is the last thing. 3. Sometimes the adjective or participle conforms to the real meaning of its noun, without regard to grammatical gender or number : Pars certare parati, a part (some) prepared to contend. 395. An adjective or participle, belonging in sense to two or more nouns, may agree vs^ith one and be understood -with the others, or it may agree with them all conjointly : Dubitare visus est Sulpicius et Cotta, Snlpicius and Cotta seemed to doubt. Castor et Pollux visi sunt, Castor and Pollux were seen. 1. An attributive adjective generally agrees with the nearest noun; a predicate adjective less frequently. 2. A plural adjective or participle used with two or more nouns of differ- ent genders is generally masculine, when the nouns denote living beings, or are in a manner personified, otherwise generally neuter, used substantively: Pater mihl et mater mortui sunt, my father and mother are dead. Honores, imperia, victoriae fortuita sunt, honors, commands, and victories are accidental things. Digitized by Microsoft® USE OF CASES 107 AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS 396. Rule. — Pronouns agree with their antecedents in Gender, Number, and Person : Nemo est qni te iion metuat, there is no one who does not fear you. Ego qui te coufirmo, ipse me non possum, / who encouraged you am not able to encourage myself. 397. Synesis. — The Pronoun is sometimes construed according to the real meaning of the antecedent without regard to gram- matical form : Equitatum praemittit qui videant, etc., he sends forward his cavalry to see, etc. Earum rerum utrumque, each of these things. 398. Two or More Antecedents. — When a pronoun refers to two or more antecedents, it generally agrees with them conjointly, but it sometimes agrees with the nearest, or the most important : Pietas, Virtus, Tides, quarum Eomae templa sunt, Piety, Virtue, and Faith, whose temples are at Borne. Praeter culpam ac peccatum, qua semper carebis, except fault and error, from which you loill ever be free. 1. Witli antecedents differing in gender, the pronoun conforms to tlie rule for adjectives ; see 395, 2. 2. With antecedents differing in person, tlie pronoun conforms to the rule for verbs ; see 392, 1. 399. Relative Construction. — Originally the relative was a pro- nominal adjective in agreement with the antecedent repeated in the relative clause, as itinera duo, quibus itineribus, two ways, by which ways. USE OF CASES GENERAL VIEW OF CASES. —NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE 400. Cases, in accordance with their general meaning and use, naturally arrange themselves in pairs, as follows : -r \ Nominative, Case of the Subject. ' 1 Vocative, Case of the Person Addressed. yj J Accusative, Case of the Direct Object. ' \ Dative, Case of the Indirect Object. ■,-,-y f Genitive, Case of Adjective Relations. ' \ Ablative, Case of Adverbial Relations. Digitized by Microsoft® 108 SYNTAX NOMINATIVE 401. The Nominative is used as follows : 1. As Subject of the Sentence; see 382, 1 ; 387. 2. As Appositive to another Nominative ; see 393. 3. As Predicate Nominative ; see 393. VOCATIVE. — CASE 0¥ ADDRESS 402. Rule. — The name of the person or thing addressed is put in the Vocative : Tuum est, Servi, regnum, the kingdom is yours, Servius. O di im- mortales, immortal gods. 1. An Interjection may or may not accompany the Vocative. ACCUSATIVE 403. The Accusative is used as follovs^s : 1. As Direct Object ; see 404. 2. As Direct Object and Predicate ; see 410. 3. As Double Object — Person and Thing ; see 411. 4. As Direct Object with Infinitive ; see 414. 5. As Subject of Infinitive ; see 41S. 6. As Accusative of Specification ; see 416. 7. As Accusative of Time, Space, and Limit; see 417, 418. 8. With Prepositions and in Exclamations; see 420, 421. Accusative as Direct Object 404. Rule. — The Direct Object of an action is put in the Accusative : Marius Italiam liberavit, Marius freed Italy. Populi Roniani saliitem defendite, defend the safety of the Roman people. Romulus Romam condi- dit, Romulus founded Rome. 1. The Direct Object may be either the Person or Thing on which the action o^the verb is directly exerted, as Italiam and salutem above, or the Result of the action, the object produced by it, as Romam. Digitized by Microsoft® ACCUSATIVE 109 405. Special Verbs.— Note the use of the Accusative with verbs of Eeeling or Emotion, of Taste and Smell, and a few others : Meum casum doluerunt, they jnourned over my misfortune. Detrimenta rldet, he laughs at losses. Orationes redolentes antlquitatem, orations savoring of antiquity. Ego multa taoui, I have passed over many things in 406. Many Compounds of intransitive verbs with prepositions, especially compounds of verbs of motion with ciromn, per, praeter, trans, and super, take the Accusative : Mutinam circumsedent, they are besieging Mutina. Pyrenaeum transgre- ditur, he crosses the Pyrenees. 407. In poetry, rarely in prose, a few verbs, chiefly those of Clothing and Unclothing, are sometimes used reflexively in the passive, and thus admit an Accusative : Galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet. Inutile ferrum cingitur, he girds on his useless sword. luno neodum antiquum saturata dolorem, Juno not yet having appeased her old resentment. 408. Verbal Adjectives occur with the Accusative : Vltabundus castra hostium, avoiding the camp of the enemy. 409. Cognate Accusative. — Even Intransitive verbs admit the Accusative of an object of cognate or kindred meaning, generally with an adjective or other modifier : Tutam vitam vivere, to lead a secure life. Nemo servitutem servlvit, no one lived in servitude. Two Accusatives of the Same Person 410. Rule. — Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Regard- ing, Showing, and the like, admit Two Accusatives of the Same Person or Thing : Hamilcarem imperatorem fecerunt, they made Hamilcar commander. Ancum regem populus creavit, the people made Ancus king. Summum consilium appellarunt senatum, they called their highest council a senate. 1. Predicate Accusative. — One of these two Accusatives is the Direct Object and the other a Predicate Accusative. Digitized by Microsoft® 110 SYNTAX Two Accusatives — Person and Thing 411. Rule. — Some verbs of Asking, Demanding, Teach- ing, and Concealing admit Two Accusatives — one of the Person and one of the Thing : Me sententiam rogavit, he ashed me my opinion. Paoem te poscimus, we demand peace from you. Philosophia nos res omnes docuit, philosophy has taught us all things. Noii te oelavi sermonem, / did not conceal the conversation from you. 412. The Accusative of a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective occurs in connection with a direct object with many verbs which other- wise seldom, if ever, take two Accusatives : Hoc te hortor, / give you this exhortation. Ea monemur, we are admon- ished of these things. 413. A few compounds of trans, circum, and praeter admit two Accusatives : Copias flumen traduxit, he led his forces across the river. Accusative and Infinitive 414. Rule. — Many transitive verbs admit both an Accu- sative and an Infinitive : Edocuit gentem casus aperire futures, he taught the race to disclose future events. Sentinms calere ignem, we perceive that fire is hot. 415. Rule. — Subject of Infinitive. — The Infinitive some- times talces an Accusative as its subject : Platonem ferunt in Italiam venisse, they report that Plato came into Italy. Accusative of Specification 416. Rule. — In poetry, rarely in prose, a verb or an adjec- tive may take an Accusative to Define its Application : Nube umeros amiotus, with his shoulders enveloped in a cloud. Miles fractus membra labore, the soldier with limbs shattered with labor. Aeneas OS deo similis, Aeneas like a god in countenance. Digitized by Microsoft® AaaUSATIVE 111 1. The Accusative is often used in an adTertial sense, as multum, plii- rimum, cetera, etc. ; partem, nihil, hoc, illud, id, etc. ; id aetatis, of that age, ; id temporis, at that time : Cetera Ignarus popull, in other respects ignorant of the people. 2. Id genus, omne genus, and the like, apparently in the sense of eius generis, omnis generis, are probably best explained as appositives : Aliquid id genus scribere, to write something of this kind (something, viz. this kind). Accusative of Time and Space 417. Rule. — Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative : Romulus septem et triginta regnavit annos, Romulus reigned thirty- seven years. Septiiigenta milia passuum ambulare, to walk seven hundred miles. 1. Duration of Time is sometimes expressed by the Accusative with per : Per annOs viginti oertatum est, the contest was carried on for twenty years. 2. Duration of Time sometimes so far coincides with time in or within which (487) that it is expressed by the Ablative : Pugnatum est horls quinque, the battle was fought five hours. Limit of Motion 418. Rule. — The Place towards which the motion is directed as its End or Limit is generally denoted by the Accusative with ad or in, but in names of Towns by the Accusative alone : Legiones ad urbera addiioit, he is leading the legions to the city. Han- nibal exercitum in Italiam diixit, Hannibal led an army into Italy. Car- thaginem Novam in hiberna Hannibal concessit, Hannibal retired into winter quarters at (to) New Carthage. 1. By a Latin idiom, verbs meaning to collect, to come together, etc., — cogo, convoco, convenio, etc., — are usually treated as verbs of Motion and accordingly take the Accusative, with or without a preposition. On the contrary, verbs meaning to place, — loco, pono, statuo, etc., — are usually treated as verbs of Rest, and accordingly take the Ablative (483), generally with a preposition : Omnes iinum in locum conveniunt, they all assemble in one place. Spem salutis in virtiite ponebant, they all placed their hope 'of safety in their valor. Digitized by Microsoft® 112 SYNTAX 419. Like names of towns, the following Accusatives are used without prepositions : 1. Regularly domum, domos, rus, and Supines in um : Domum reductus est, he was conducted home. Alius alium domos suas invltant, they invite each other to their homes. Ego rus ibo, / shall go into the country. Ad Caesarem oongratulatum oonvenerunt, they came to Caesar to congratulate him. 2. Sometimes the Accusative of names of Islands and Peninsulas, and even of Countries : Latona confugit Delum, Latona fled to Delos. Miltiades pervenit Cher- sonesum, Miltiades went to the Ghersonesus. 3. In poetry and late prose, the preposition is often omitted before the names of Countries and Nations. italiam venit, he came to Italy. 4. A Poetical Dative occurs for the Accusative : It clamor caelo, the shout ascends to Heaven. Accusative with Prepositions 420. Rule. — The Accusative may take a Preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended : Ad te ante lucem veniet, he will come to you before light. Post nie erat Aegina, behind me was Aegina. 1. Note the force of the prepositions in the following expressions: ad urbem, to the city; in urbem, into the city ; per urbem, through the city. 2. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative alone : ad, to contra. opposite pone. behind adversus, adversum. \ opposite erga, extra. towards outside post, praeter. behind beyond ante, ' before infra, below prope. near apud. near, at inter. among propter. on account of circa, i circum, J around intra, iiixta, inside near secundum, supra. next after above circiter. about ob, on account of trans. across cis, i_ citra, . on this side penes, per. in power through of ultra, versus. beyond towards 3. The following four prepositions are used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative : Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE 113 in, into, in subter, beneath, under, toieards sub, under super, above, about, beyond in and sub with the Accusative after verbs of motion ; subter and super generally with the Accusative. 4. Several words which are generally adverbs, sometimes become prepo- sitions and are used with the Accusative: propius, nearer; prozime, tiearest; pridie, the day before; postrldlie, the day after; clam, clancu- lum, without the knowledge of; usque, as far as, even to: Propius periculum, nearer to danger. Pridie sum diem, the day before that day. Accusative in Exclamations 421. Rule. — The Accusative, either with or without an interjection, may be used in Exclamations : Heu me miserum. Ah me unhappy. Me miserum, me miserable. O fallacem speni, deceptive hope. 1. An adjective or a Genitive generally accompanies this Accusative, as in the examples. DATIVE 422. The Dative is used as follo-ws : 1. As Indirect Object — Genei-alUse; see 424. 2. With Special Verbs ; see 426. 3. With Certain Compound Verbs ; see 439. 4. As Possessor ; see 430. 5. As Apparent Agent; see 431. 6. As Ethical Dative ; see 432. 7. As Indirect Object and Predicate ; see 433. 8. With Adjectives ; see 434. 9. With Special Nouns and Adverbs ; see 436. Indirect Object 423. The Indirect Object designates the Person To or For Whom, or the Thing To or For Wbich, anything is or is done. Dative with Verbs 424. Rule. — The Indirect Object of an action is put in the Dative. It may be uspd either alone or in connection with the Direct Object : HARK. G. S. LAT. SRAM. 9 Digitized by Microsoft® 114 SYNTAX Muiidus Deo paret, the world is subject to God. Tibi seris, tibi metes, for yourself you sow, for yourself you will reap. Pecuniae serviunt, they are slaves to money. Vita vobis data est, life has been granted to you. Militibus signum dedit, he gave the signal to the soldiers. Tibi gratias agimus, we give you thanks. 1. The Indirect Object generally designates a Person, or something Per- sonified, as in the examples. 425. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be 1. The Dative of Influence, generally designating the Person To Whom, sometimes the Thing To Which, something is or is done : Civitatibus libertatem reddidit, he restored liberty to the states. 2. The Dative of Interest, designating the Person For Wliom some- thing is done : Non solum nobis divites esse volumus, sed liberis, we wish to be rich, not for ourselves alone, but for our children. 3. The Dative of Purpose or End, designating the Object or End For Which something is or is done ; Non scholae sed vitae disoimus, we learn, not for the school, but for life. 4. The Dative of Kelation, designating the Person In Relation To AVhom, or In Reference To Whom, something is or is done : Tu illi pater es, you are a father to him. 426. With Special Verbs.— The Dative of the Indirect Object is used with many verbs which require special mention. Thus, 1. With verbs meaning to please or displease, command or obey, serve or resist, benefit or injure, favor or oppose, trust or distrust, and the like : Ego numquam mihi placul, I have never pleased myself. Imperat aut servit pecQnia cuique, money rules (oomraanrts) or serves every one. Non licet nocere alteri, it is not lawful to injure another. Diffidebant Servilio, they were distrnstinrj Servilius. 2. With verbs meaning to indulge, aid, spare, pardon, believe, persuade, flatter, threaten, envy, be angry, and the like : Indulgebat sibi, he indulged himself. Caesar ignovit omnibus, Caesar pardoned all. Mihi crede, believe me. Probus invidet nemini, the upright man envies no one. 3. Scjjne verbs admit either the Accusative or the Dative, but with a difference of meaning : Digitized by Microsoft® DATIVE 115 Hunc tu caveto, be on your guard against this one. Foedus regi cavet, the treaty provides for the Icing. Perfidiam timemus, we fear perfidy. LegiOuibus timebat, he was fearing for his legions. 4. A few verbs admit the Dative of tlie Person and the Accusative of the Thing, or the Accusative of the Person and the Ablative of the Thing : Praedam militibus donat, he gives the booty to the soldiers. Atticus Athe- uienses frumento donavit, Atticus presented the Athenians with grain. 427. A Dative rendered /rom or with sometimes occurs where our idiom would lead us to expect the Ablative, as with verbs of Differing, Dissenting, Repelling, Taking Away, etc., and some- times with facio : SibI dissentire, to dissent from himself. Populus non adimit ei liber- tatem, the people do not take from him his civil rights. Quid huio hominl facias, what are you to do with (to) this man? 428. Dative in Poetry. — In the poets and in the late prose writers, the Dative is used much more freely than in classical prose : Multos demittimus Orc5, we send many down to Orcus. Solstitium pecori defendite, keep off the heat from the flock. Fletum cruori miscuit, slie min- gled her tears with his blood. Plaoitone pilgnabis amori, will you contend with acceptable love f Ardet apex capiti, the helmet gleams upon his head. 429. Datives with Compounds. — The Dative is used with many verbs compounded with ad ante con de in inter ob post prae pro sub super: Omnibus perlculls adf uit, he was present in all dangers. Gloriam potentiae anteponunt, they prefer glory to power. H5c Caesari def uit, this failed (was wanting to) Caesar. Interfuit piignae, he participated in the battle. Homines hominibus et prosunt et obsunt, men both benefit and injure men. Aetas suooedit aetati, age succeeds age. 1. Transitive verbs thus compounded take both the Accusative and the Dative. 2. Compounds of other prepositions sometimes admit the Dative. 3. Several compounds admit either the Accusative or the Dative without any special difference of meaning. 430. The Dative of the -Possessor is used with the verb sum : Est mihl domi pater, I have (there is to me) a father at home. FontI nouien Arethusa est, the name of the (to the) fountain is Arethusa. Digitized by Microsoft® 116 SYNTAX 1. The Dative of the name, as well as of the possessor, is common in expressions of naming : Sclpioni Africans cognomen fuit, Soipio had the surname Africanus. 431. The Dative of the Apparent Agent is used with the Ge- rundive and with the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation: DIoenda Musis proelia, battles to be sung by the muses. Suum ouique incommodum ferendum est, every one has his own trouble to bear. 1. The Dative of the Apparent Agent is sometimes used with the com- pound tenses of Passive Verbs : Mihl consilium oaptum iam diu. est, I have apian long since formed,. 2. Habeo with the Perfect Participle has the same force as est mihl with the Participle: Pecunias coUocatas habent, they have moneys invested. 3. In the poets, the Dative is often used for the Ablative, with a or ab, to designate simply the agent of the action : Neque cernitur ulll, nor is he seen by any one. 432. The Ethical Dative, denoting the person to whom the thought is of special interest, is often introduced into the Latin sentence in the form of a personal pronoun : At tibi venit ad me, but lo, he comes to me. Quo mihi abis, whither are you going, pray f Two Datives 433. Rule. — Two Datives, the Object To Which and the Object or End For Which, are used with a few verbs, either alone or in connection with the Direct Object: Vobis hoiiori estis, you are an honor (for an honor) to yourselves. Est mihi magnae ciirae, it is of (for) great interest to me. Venit Atti- cis auxilio, he came to the assistance of the Athenians. Quinque cohortes castris praesidio reliuquit, he leaves Jive cohorts for the defense of the camp. Pericles agros suos dono rel publicae dedit, Pericles gave his lands to the republic as a present. 1. The Dative of the object or end is a Predicate Dative. 2. The verbs which take two Datives are Intransitive verbs signifying to be, heaojgie, go, and the like, and Transitive verbs signifying to give, send, leave, impute, regard, choose, and the like. Digitized by Microsoft® GENITIVE 117 Dative -with Adjectives 434. Rule. — Many adjectives take the Dative as the In- direct Object of the quality denoted by them : Id militibus fuit iucundum, tlds was agreeable to the soldiers. Atticus amicissimus Bruto, Atticus most friendly to Brutus. Caiiis similis lupp, a dog similar to a wolf. Locus castris idoneus, a place suitable for the camp. Uiiiversae Graeciae utile, useful for all Greece. 1. Adjectives which take the Dative are chiefly those meaning agreeable, dear, easy, faithful, friendly, like, near, necessary, suitable, useful, together with others of a similar or opposite meaning. 435. Other constructions sometimes occur where the learner would expect the Dative : 1. The Accusative with a Preposition. Perindulggns in patrem, very kind to his father. 2. The Accusative with propior, proximus : Propior montem, nearer the mountain. Proximus mare, nearest the sea. 3. The Ablative with or without a Preposition : Human! nil a me alienum puto, I consider nothing human foreign to me. 4. The Genitive with adjectives meaning like, unlike, belonging to, char- acteristic of, and a few others : CyrI similis esse voluit, he wished to be like Cyrus. Dative vrith Nouns and Adverbs 436. Rule. — The Dative is used with a few special nouns and adverbs derived from primitives which take the Dative : Kstitia est obtemperatio legibus, /M.'ift'ce is obedience to the laws. Con- gruenter naturae vivere, to live in accord with nature. GENITIVE 437. The Genitive in its ordinary use corresponds to the Eng- lish possessive, or the objective with of, and expresses various adjective relations. 438. The Genitive is used as follows : 1. As Attributive and Predicate Genitive, — General use; see 439. 2. As Subjective and Objective Genitive ; see 440. Digitized by Microsoft® 118 SYNTAX 3. As Partitive Genitive ; see 441. 4. In Special Constructions ; see 445. 5. As Predicate Genitive of Price and Value ; see 448. 6. As Predicate Genitive with Refert and Interest ; see 449. 7. As Objective Genitive with Adjectives; see 450. 8. As Objective Genitive with Verbs ; see 454-458. Genitive -with Nouns 439. Rule. — A noun used as an Attributive or Predicate of another noun denoting a different person or thing is put in tlie Genitive : Attributive Genitives. — Xenophontis libri, the books of Xenophon. Vir consilii magni, a man of great prudence. liistitia est regina virtutura, Justice is the queen of virtues. Predicate Genitives. — Omnia hostium erant, all things were in the pos- session of (were of) the enemy. liidicis est veruin sequi, to follow the truth is the duty of a judge. 1. The Predicate Genitive of personal pronouns is not in good use, but its place is supplied by possessives in agreement with the subject : Est tuum videre quid agatur, it is your duty to see what is being done. Attributive G-enitive 440. The Attributive Genitive may be 1. A Subjective Genitive, designating the Subject or Agent of an action and the Author or Possessor of anything: In sermone hominum, in the conversation of men. Xenophontis librl, the books of Xenophon. Note. — Possessives are regularly used for the subjective Genitive of personal pronouns : mea domus, my house ; nostra patria, our country. 2. An Objective Genitive, designating the Object towards which the action or feeling is directed : Meus amor gloriae, my love of glory. 3. A Descriptive Genitive, or Genitive of Characteristic, designating character or quality, including value, price, size, weight, age, etc. It is generally accompanied by an adjective or some other modifier : Vir magnae auctoritatis, a man of great influence. Vestis raagni pretil, a garmenl^of great value. Corona parvi ponderis, a crown of small weight. Exsilium decem annOrum, an exile of ten years. Digitized by Microsoft® GMNITIVE 119 4. A Definhig or Appositional Genitive, having the general force of an appositive (393) : Virtus contlnentiae, the virtue of self-control. Vox voluptatis, the word pleasure. 5. A Partitive Genitive, designating the whole of which a part is taken : Pars fluminis Rlieni, a part of the river Ehiiie. Omnium sapieutissimus, the wisest of all men. 441. The Partitive Genitive is common with nouns and pro- nouns used partitively : Maxima pars hominum, most mere (the largest part of). Unus quisque nostrum, every one of us. 442. The Partitive Genitive is also common with numerals and adjectives used substantively, especially with comparatives and superlatives : Quattuor milia equitum, four thousand (of) cavalry. Horum omnium fortissimi, the bravest of all these. 1. Pronouns and Adjectives, except neuters, when used with the Partitive Genitive usually take the gender of the Genitive, but Predicate Superlatives, when thus used, generally agree with the subject : Quis eOrum non egregius, who of them is not eminent ? Indus est omnium fluminum maximus, the Indus is the largest of all rivers. 2. In the best prose, words meaning the whole do not admit the Partitive Genitive, hut poets and late writers disregard the rale : Cunotaterrarum, all lands. Macedonum omnes, all the Macedonians. 3. In the best prose the Partitive Genitive is rarely used after any adjec- tives except comparatives and superlatives, but in the poets and late writers the use of this Genitive is greatly extended : Sancte deoriim, thou holy god. Dierum festos, festal days. 443. The Partitive Genitive is also used with a few Adverbs, especially with Adverbs of Quantity, Degree, and Place : Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum, enough of eloquence, of wisdom too little. Ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ? 444. Instead of the Partitive Genitive, the Accusative with ante, inter, or apud, or the Ablative with ex, de, or in, is often used: Digitized by Microsoft® 120 SYNTAX Thales sapientissimus in septem fuit, Tholes was the wisest of the seven. Apud Helvetios ditissimus, the richest among the Helvetii. 1. In the best prose, unus is generally followed by tbe Ablative with ex or de, but sometimes by the Partitive Genitive. Genitive in Special Constructions 445. The word upon wMch the Attributive Genitive depends is often omitted : Conferre vitam Treboni cum Dolabellae, to compare the life of Trebonius with that of Dolabella. Habitabat rex ad lovis, the king resided near the temple of Jupiter. 446. Observe also the folloviring constructions : 1. Hasdrubal Gisconis, Gisco's Hasdrubal, i.e. Hasdrubal, Gisco's sorij Hectoris Andromache, Hector's Andromache, i.e. Hector's wife. 2. Two Genitives with the same noun : Helvetiorum iniuriae populi RomanI, the wrongs done by the Helvetii to the Boman people. 3. Genitive of ipse, solus, iinus, or omnis with a Possessive : Ad tuam ipsius amicitiam, to your own friendship. 4. Genitive with mstar : instar montis equum aedifioant, they construct a horse of the size of a mountain. 5. Genitive with pridie, postrxdie, ergo, and tenus : Pridie eius diel, on the day before that day. Predicate Genitive 447. The Predicate Genitive is generally Subjective or De- scriptive, rarely Partitive. When used with transitive verbs, it is of course combined with the Direct Object : Est imperatoris superare, to conqtier is the. business of a commander. Oram Romanae dioionis fecit, he brought the coast under (made the coast of) Soman rule. 1. Reliqui occurs as a Predicate Genitive in reliqui facere, to leave : Mllites nihil reliqui victis fecere, the soldiers left nothing to the vanquished. Digitized by Microsoft® GENITIVE 121 Predicate Genitive of Price and Value 448. The Predicate Genitive of Price and Value is used with sum and with verbs of Valuing, especially with aestimo, facio, and puto : Parvi pretil est, he is of small value. Magnl erunt mihl tuae litterae, your letters will l>e of great value to me. Patrem tuum pluriml feci, / prized your father most highly (made of the greatest value). Ea magnl aestimantur, those things are highly valued. Honores magiii putare, to deem honors of great value. 1. The Genitive of Price or Value is generally an adjective, as magni, parvi, tanti, quanti ; plurls, minoris ; maxlmi, plurlmi, minimi, hut pretli is sometimes expressed as in the first example. 2. With aestimo the price and value are denoted either by the Genitive or by the Ablative. 3. Tanti, quanti, pliiris, and minoris are used as Genitives of Price even with verbs of Buying and Selling, though with these verbs price is generally expressed by the Ablative : Quanti emptae, purchased at what price ? Parvo, at a low price. Predicate Genitive -with Hefert and Interest 449. The Construction of refert and interest is as follows : 1. The Person or Thing interested is denoted by the Genitive, but instead of the Genitive of a personal or reflexive pronoun, the Ablative feminine of the Possessive is regularly used : Neque refert cuiusquam, nor does it concern any one. Quid Milonis intererat, how was it the interest of Milo f Tua et mea interest, it is yoxtr interest and mine. 2. The Subject of Importance, or that which involves the interest, is expressed by an Infinitive, or clause, or by a neuter pronoun : Interest omnium reote facere, to do right is the interest of all. Quid tua id refert, how does that concern you ? 3. The Degree of Interest is expressed by an adverb, an adverbial Accusative, or a Genitive of Value : Vestra hoc maxime interest, this especially interests you. lUud mea magnl interest, that greatly interests me. 4. The Object or End for which it is important is expressed by the Accusative with ad, rarely by the Dative : Magni ad honorem nostrum interest, for our honor it is of great im- portance. Digitized by Microsoft® 122 SYNTAX Genitive Twith Adjectives 450. Rule. — Many adjectives take an Objective Genitive to complete their meaning : Avidi laudis fuistis, you have teen very desirous of praise. Habetis ducem memorem vestii, oblitum sui, you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself. Plena Graeoia poetaruiii fuit, Greece was full of poets. luventus belli patieus, youth capable of enduring the hardships of war. 451. This Objective Genitive is used, 1. With Adjectives denoting Desire, Knowledge, Skill, Recollection, and the like, with their contraries : sapientiae studiosus, studious (stu- dent) of wisdom; peritus belli, skilled in war; conscius coniurationis, cognizant of the conspiracy ; insuetus navigandi, unacquainted with navi- gation. 2. With Adjectives denoting Participation, Characteristic, Guilt, Full- ness, Mastery, etc., with their contraries : rationis particeps, endowed with (sharing) reason; rationis expers, destitute of reason ; manifestua rerum capitalium, convicted of capital crimes. Note. — A few adjectives, as similis, dissimiUs ; alienus, communis ; contrarius and superstes admit either the Genitive or the Dative ; see 435, 4. 3. With Present Participles used as Adjectives : Tir amantissimus rei publicae, a man very fond of the republic. 452. In poetry and late prose the Genitive is used with Verbals in ax and with Adjectives of almost every variety of meaning: Fugax ambitionis eram, I was inclined to shun ambition. AevI maturus, mature in age. Fidens animi, confident in spirit. 453. Adjectives which usually take the Genitive sometimes admit other constructions. Note the following examples : Avidus in novas res, eager for new things. Insuetus moribus Romanis, unaccustomed to Soman manners. lis de rebus conscius, aware of these things. Prudens in iilre oivili, learned in civil law. Genitive -with Verbs 454. Rule. — Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting — memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor — regularly take the Objec- tive Genitive when used of Persons, but either the Genitive or the Accusative when used of Things : Digitized by Microsoft® QENITIYE 123 Vivorum memini, / remember the liolng. Oblitus sum mei, 1 have for- gotten myself. Animus meminit praeteritoi'um, the soul remembers the past. Beiieficia meminerunt, they remember favors. 1. Memini, remimscor, and obliviscor admit a doiible construction. As transitive verbs tliey may take the Accusative, but by virtue of their signification, to be mindful of, to be forgetful of, they may take the Genitive ; remimscitur = memor est ; obliviscitur = immemor est. 2. The Accusative may be used of a person remembered by a contemporary or by an eyevyitness. 3. Memini, I make mention of, may take the Ablative with de. 4. Venit mihi in mentem = reminiscor, generally takes the Genitive. Venit mihl Platonis in mentem, the recollection of Plato comes to my mind. 455. Recordor, I recall, when used of Persons, takes the Abla- tive with d3, but when used of Things, it almost always takes the Accusative, rarely the Genitive : Kecordare de ceteris, bethink yourself of the others. Triumphos recordari, to recall triumphs. Accusative and Genitive 456. Rule. — -Verbs of Reminding, Admonishing, and verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, Acquitting, take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing, Crime, Charge, etc. Ipse te veteris airiicitias commonef ecit, he himself reminded you of your old friendship. Eum tv. acciisas avaritiae, rfo you accuse him of avarice f Aocusatus est pvoditionis, he was accused of treason. ludex absolvit initi- riarum eum, the judge acquitted him on a charge of assault. 1. Instead of the Genitive of the Thing, Crime, etc., the Ablative with de or the Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is often used. 2. With verbs of Accusing, etc., the Genitive with nSmine, crimine, iiidicio, or some similar word is sometimes used. 3. With verbs of Condemning, the Penalty is generally expressed by the Ablative, with or without de, or by the Accusative with a preposi- tion, usually ad. Peoilnia multatus est, he was condemned to pay a fine in money. Genitive with Verbs of Feeling 457. Rule. — Misereor and miseresco take the Objective Genitive ; miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet take the Digitized by Microsoft® 124 SYNTAX Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Object which produces the feeling : Miseremini sooiorum, have pity on our allies. Arcadii miserescite regis, pity the Arcadian king . Eorum nos miseret, we pity them (pity for, or of them moves us). Fratris me piget, / am grieved at my brother. Me civi- tatis niorum taedet, I am tired of the manners of the state. 1. Miseresco belongs to poetry. 2. Miseror and commiseror, I pity, deplore, take the Accusative in the best prose. Genitive -with Special Verbs 458. In certain Special Constructions, largely colloquial, or poetical in their origin, many verbs by analogy occasionally ad- mit the Genitive, or if transitive, the Accusative and Genitive : 1. Some verbs denoting Desire, Emotion, or Feeling: Cupiunt tui, they desire you. Ne tui quidem testimonii veritus, regarding not even your testimony. Desipiebam mentis, I was out of my senses. 2. Some Verbs of Plenty and Want : Virtus exercitationis indiget, virtue requires exercise. 3. Some verbs denoting Mastery or Participation : Partis Siciliae potitus est, he became master of a part of Sicily. 4. A few other verbs : Abstineto Irarum, abstain from quarrels. Mirarl belli laborum, to wonder at warlike achievements. ABLATIVE 459. The Latin Ablative performs the duties of three cases originally distinct: I. Ablative Proper, denoting the relation From : II. Instrumental, denoting the relation With, By : III. Locative, denoting the relation In, At. I. Ablative Proper 460. — The Ablative Proper includes: 1. Ablative of Separation ; see 461. 2. Ablative of Source, including Agency, Parentage, etc. ; see 467. 3. Ablative of Comparison ; see 471. Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE 125 Ablative of Sbpakation 461= Rule. — The Ablative of Separation is generally used with a preposition — a, ab, de, or ex — when it represents a person or is used with a verb compounded with ab, de, dis, se, or ex : Caedem a vobis depellebam, I was warding off slaughter from you. De foro discessimus, we withdreto from the forum. Ex oppido fugit, he fled out of the town. 462. Rule. — The Ablative of Separation is generally used without a preposition when it is the name of a town or is used after a verb meaning to relieve, free, deprive, need, or be mthout : Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus fled from Corinth. Leva me hoc oiiere, relieve me from this burden. Magiio me metu liberabis, you will free me from great fear. Murus defensoribus iiudatus est, the wall was stripped of its defenders. Non egeo niedicina, / do not need a remedy. 1. With the Ablative of Separation, the preposition is more freely used when the separation is local and literal than when it is figurative. 2. The preposition is sometimes used with names of towns. 3. The preposition is generally used when the vicinity, rather than the town itself, is meant. 4. Many Names of Islands and the Ablatives domo, humo, and rure, are used like names of towns : Lemno advenio Athenas, from Lemnos I come to Athens. Domo profugere, to flee from home. Ablative oe Separation with Special Verbs 463. With moveo, cedo, and pello in special expressions the Ablative of Separation is used without a preposition : Loco die motus est, he vias dislodged from his position. Civem pellere pos- sessionibus conatus est, he attempted to drive a citizen from his possessions. 464. With many verbs the Ablative of Separation is used, some- times with and sometimes without a preposition. De provincia deoessit, he iiiithdrew from the province. Decedens pro- vincia, withdrawing from the province. Digitized by Microsoft® 126 SYNTAX 465. With adjectives meaning free from, destitute of the Abla- tive of Separation is used sometimes with and sometimes without a preposition : Haec loca ab arbitris libera sunt, these places are free from spectators. Animus liber cura, a mind free from care. 466. In the poets and late writers the Ablative of Separation, even in a purely local sense, is often used without a preposition : Columbae oaelo venere volantes, the doves came flying from the heavens. Ablative op Sotjece 467. Rule. — The Ablative of Source, including Agency, Parentage, and Material, generally takes a preposition, -■— a, ab, de, e, or ex : Source in General. — Hoc audivi de patre meo, this I have heard from my father. Agency Mons a Labieiio tenetur, the mountain is held by Labienus. Parentage or Ancestry. — Oriundl ab Sabinis, descended from the Sabines. Material. — Erat ex frauds f actus, he was made of fraud, 468. The Ablative of the Independent Agent, or the Author of an actio.i, takes the preposition a or ab : Rex ab suls appellatur, he is called king by his own men. 469. The Ablative of Parentage and Ancestry is generally used 1. With a or ab, in designating Remote Ancestry: Belgae sunt orti ab Germanis, the Belgians originated from the Germans. 2. "Without a preposition with the verb nascor and a few Perfect Participles, as natus, prognatus, ortus, and in poetry and late prose, witli editus, genitus, satus, etc. : Nobill genere nati sunt, they were born of a noble race. Regis nepos, filia ortus, the grandson of the Icing, horn of his daughter. Edite regibus, than descendant of kings. 470. The Ablative of Material generally takes e or ex, and is used with verbs or participles, and sometimes with noans : Homo ex animo constat et corpore, man consists of a soul and a body. Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE 127 Ablative with Comparatives 471. Rule. — Coniparatives virithout quam are followed by tlie Ablative: Nihil est viitute amabilius, nothing is more lovely than virtue. Amiei- tia, qua nihil melius habemus, friendship, than which we have nothing better. 1. Comparatives with quam are followed by the Nominative or by the case of the corresponding noun before them : Melior est certa pax quam sperata viotSria, better is a sure peace than a hoped-for victory. 2. The Ablative is used chiefly in negative sentences. It is freely used for quam with a Nominative or Accusative, regularly so for quam with the Nominative or Accusative of a relative pronoun. 3. After plus, minus, amplius, or longius, in expressions of number and quantity, quam is often omitted without influence upon the construc- tion ; sometimes also after maior, minor, etc. ; Tecum pliis annum vixit, he lived with you more than a year. II. Instrumental Ablative 472. The Instrumental Ablative includes 1. Ablative of Association ; see 473. 2. Ablative of Cause ; see 475. 3. Ablative of Means ; see 476 and 477. 4. Ablative of Price ; see 478. 5. Ablative of Difference ; see 479. 6. Ablative of Specification ; see 480. Ablative of Association 473. Rule. — The Ablative of Association is used 1. To denote Accompaniment, or Association in a strict sense. It then takes the preposition cum : Cum patre habitabat, she was living with her father. 2. To denote Characteristic or Quality. It is then modi- fied by an adjective or by a Genitive : Fliimen ripis praeruptis, o stream with precipitous banks. Cato singular! fuit industria, Cato was a man of remarkable industry. Digitized by Microsoft® 128 SYNTAX 3. To denote Manner or Attendant Circumstance. It then takes the preposition cum, or is modified by an adjec- tive or by a Genitive : Cum sileiitio audit! sunt, they were heard in silence. Templum magna oui'a custodiunt, they guard the temple with great care. 474. The Ablative of Association is used without cum : 1. In a few special instances, as arte, skillfully ; clamore, with a shout, 2. After verbs meaning to mingle or to join together, as confundo, iungo, misceo, and often in military operations : Siculis confunditur undis, it mingles with the Sicilian waters. Ingenti exercitu profectus, having set ont with a large army. 3. With facio, fio, and sum in such expressions as the following : Quid hoc homine facias, what will you do with this man 9 Quid te futii- rum est, what will become of you ? Ablative ov Cause 475. Rule. — The Ablative of Cause, designating the Cause, Ground, or Reason for an action, is used without a preposition : Gubernatoris avs iitilitate laudatur, the pilot's art is praised because of its usefulness. Quisque gloria diicitur, every one is influenced by glory. Nimio gandio desipiebam, / was wild with (from) excessioe joy. Regni cupiditate inductus coniurationem fecit, influenced by the desire of ruling, he formed a conspiracy. Aeger erat vulneribus, he was ill in consequence of his wounds. 1. When the cause is fear, anger, hatred, etc., it is often combined with a Perfect Participle, as in the fourth example. 2. Causa and gratia, as Ablatives of Cause, are regularly limited by the Genitive or by a possessive or interrogative pronoun : Quem honoris gratia nomino, whom I name as a mark of honor. Ablative of Means 476. Rule. — The Instrument and Means of an action are denoted by the Ablative without a preposition : Ipse sua manii fecit, he did it himself with his own hand. Sol omnia liice coUiistrat, the sun illumines all things with its light. Terra vestita floribus, Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE 129 the earth covered with flowers. Laote atque pecore vivunt, they live upon milk and flesh. Auvelia via profectus est, he went by the Aurelian road. 1. The Ablative of Means is used with a few adjectives, as contentus, praeditus, and fretus : Domo sua regia contentus non fuit, he was not satisfied with his royal palace. Humanls consilils fretus, depending upon human counsels. 2. Adiicio with the Ablative of Means forms a very common circum- locution : honore adiicere = honorare, to honor. 3. This Ablative is used with fido, confido, nitor, inmtor, assuesco, assuefacio, etc. : Nemo fortunae stabilitate confldit, no one trusts the stability of fortune. Saliis veritate nititur, safety rests upon truth. 4. The following Ablatives deserve notice : Facere vitula, to make a sacrifice with a calf. Pila IMere, to play ball. Ablative of Means — Special Uses 477. Rule. — I. The Ablative of Means is used with utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vesoor, and their compounds : Plurimis rebus fruimur atque Utimur, we enjoy and use very many things. Fungitur officio senatoris, he is discharging the duty of a senator. Lacte et carne vescebantur, they lived (fed) on milk and flesh. 1. This Ablative is readily explained as Ablative of Means ; thus utor, I use, I serve myself by means of; fruor, / enjoy, I delight myself with, etc. 2. Utor admits two Ablatives of the same person or thing : Faoill me iitetur patre, he will find me an indulgent father. 3. Potior admits the Genitive. II. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs of Abound- ing and Filling and with adjectives of Fullness : abundo, redundo, adfluo, etc. ; compleS, expleo, impleo, onero, etc. ; onustus, refertus, plenus, etc. : Villa abundat la;Cte, caseo, melle, the villa abounds in milk, cheese, and honey. Deus bonis explevit mundum, God has filled the world with bless- ings. Urbs referta copiis, a city filled with supplies. 1. Compleo and impleo take either the Accusative and Genitive or the Accusative and Ablative. 2. Most adjectives of Fullness occasionally admit the Genitive. With ple- nus this is the regular construction in the best.prose. HARK. a. a. LAT. GKAM. — 10 Digitized by Microsoft® 130 SYNTAX Illt The Ablative of Means is used with opus and fisus, often in connection with the Dative of the person : Auctoritate tua nobis opus est, we need your influence. Ablative of Pkice and Value 478. Rule. — Price and Value are denoted by the Abla- tive, if expressed definitely or by means of Nouns, but by the Genitive or Ablative, if expressed indefinitely by means of Adjectives. Auro viri vitam vendidit, for gold she sold her husband's life. Faniim pecunia grand! venditum est, the temple was sold for much money. Lis aestimatur centum talentis, the fine is fixed at a hundred talents. Prata magno aestimant, they value meadows highly. Quanti est aesti- manda virtiis, how highly should virtue be valued? 1. The Ablative of Price is used with verbs of Buying, Selling, Hiring, Letting ; of Costing ; of Being Cbeap or Dear, and with a few adjectives of kindred meaning. Ablative of Diefeebnce 479. Rule. — The Measure of Difference is denoted by the Ablative. It is used 1. With Comparatives and Superlatives : Uno die longiorem mensem faciunt, they make the month one day longer. Conspectus multo iucundissimus, a sight by far the most pleasing. 2. With verbs and other words implying Comparison : Multo mihi praestat, it is much better for me. 3. To denote Intervals of Time or Space : Homerus annis multis fuit ante Eomulum, Homer lived (was) many years before (before by many years) Romulus. Ablative of Specification 480. Rule. — A Noun, Adjective, or Verb may take an Ablative to define its application : Agesilaus nomine, non potestate, fuit rex, Agesilaus was king in name, not in power. Fuit claudus altero pede, he was lame in one foot. Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE 131 1. Natu and Supines in u are often used as Ablatives of Specification. 2. The Ablative of Specification is often used with verbs of Measuring and Judging, to show in reference to what the statement is true : Magnos homings virtiite metimur, non fortiina, we measure great men hy (in reference to) their merit, not by their success. 481. To the Ablative of Specification may be referred the Ablative with dignus and indlgnus : Dignl sunt amicitia, they are worthy of friendship. 1. In rare instances dignus and indlgnus occur with the Genitive. 2. DTgnor, as a passive verb meaning to be deemed worthy, takes the Abla- tive ; but as a deponent verb meaning to deem worthy, used only in poetry and late prose, it takes the Accusative and Ablative : Honore dignantur, they are deemed xoorthy of honor. Hand tali mg dignor honore, not of such honor do I deem myself worthy. III. Locative and Locative Ablative 482. The Locative and the Locative Ablative in a measure supplement each other. They include 1. Ablative of Place, generally with the preposition in ; see 483. 2. Locative in Names of Towns ; see 483. 3. Ablative of Time ; see 486. 4. Ablative Absolute ; see 489. Ablativb of Place 483. Rule. — The Place In Which anything is done is denoted generally by the Locative Ablative with the prepo- sition in, but in names of Towns by the Locative : Duas legiones in Gallia conscripsit, he enrolled two legions in Gaul. Roraae supplicatio redditur, at Rome a thanksgiving is appointed. Co- rinthi pueros docebat, he taught hoys at Corinth. 1. In the names of Towns the Ablative is used, with or without a prepo- sition, when qualified by an adjective or adjective pronoun. 484. Like Names of Towns are used 1. Many Names of Islands and Peninsulas : ConOn CypiJ vixit, Canon lived in Oypru?. Digitized by Microsoft® 132 SYNTAX 2. The Locatives domi, ruri, humi, militiae, belli : Et domi et militiae consilium praestabant, they showed their wisdom at home and abroad. RUri agere vitam, to spend life in the country. 485. The Locative Ablative is often used without a preposition : 1. When quaUfied by totus and when the idea of place is figurative rather than literal : Manat tota urbe rumor, the report spreads through the whole city. Me5 iudioio stare malo, I prefer to abide by my own judgment. Nova pectore versat consilia, she devises new plans in her breast. 2. The Ablatives terra and marl are regularly used without the prepo- sition ; generally loco and locTs, and occasionally other Ablatives. 3. In poetry the Locative Ablative is freely used without a preposition. 4. By a difference of idiom, the Latin sometimes uses the Ablative with a, ab, e, or ex, where the Englisli uses ore or in : a or ab dextra, on the right : Has ab utroque latere protegebat, these he protected on both sides. Ablative of Time 486. Rule. — The Time At or In Which an action takes place is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition : Postero die liice prima movet castra, on the following day at dawn he moves his camp. 1. The Ablative of Time is found in the names of Games, Festivals, Offices, and in almost any words that may be used to denote time. 487. The Time Within Which an action takes place is denoted by the Ablative with or without in, sometimes with de : Ter in anno audire nimtium, to hear the tidings three times in the course of the year. De tertia vigilia, in the third watch. 1. The Ablative with in is often used to call attention to the Circum- stances of the Time or the Condition of Affairs. 488. The Interval between two events may be expressed : 1. By the Accusative or Ablative with ante or post: Classis post dies paucos venit, after a few days the fleet arrived. Faucis ante diebus, a feio days before. 2. By the Accusative or Ablative with ante quam, post quam, or post, generally iwith an ordinal numeral: Post diem tertium quam dixerat, three days after he had.spoken. ., Digitized by Microsoft® ABLATIVE 133 3. By the Ablative of a relative and its antecedent : Mors RSscii quadriduS quo is ooclsus est nuntiatur, the death of Roscius is announced four days after he was killed. Ablative Absolute 489. Rule. — A noun with a participle, an adjective, or another noun, may be put in the Ablative to add to the predicate an Attendant Circumstance : Servio regnante viguerunt, they flourished in the reign of Servius (Ser- vius reigning). Hoc dicit, me audiente, he says this in my hearing. Caelo sereno obscurata lUx est, while the sky was clear, the sun was obscured, L. Pidone, Aulo Gabinio consulibus, in the consulship of L. Piso and Aulus Gabinius. 1. The Ablative Absolute, much more common than the English Nomina- tive Absolnte, generally expresses the Time, Cause, or some Attendant Cir- cumstance of the action. It is generally best rendered by a noun with a preposition — in, during, after, by, with, through, etc.; by an active par- ticiple with its object ; or by a clause with when, while, because, if, though, etc. ; see examples above. Ablative with Prepositions 490. Rule. — The Ablative may take a preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended : Matiirat ab urbe proficisci, he hastens to set out from the city. Ab his amatur, by these he is loved. Statua ex aere facta, a statue .made of bronze. Coram frequentissimS conventii, in the presence of the crowded assembly. 1. Note the force of the prepositions in the following expressions : ab urbe, from, the city ; ex urbe, out of the city ; in urbe, in the city. 2. The following ten prepositions are used with the Ablative only : a, ab, abs, from, by e, ex, out of, from absque, without prae, before, in comparison with coram, in the presence of pro, before, for cum, with sine, without de, down from, from tenus, as far as 3. The following four prepositions are used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative : in, into, in subter, . beneath, under, towards sub, under, towards super, above, about, beyond Digitized by Microsoft® 134 SYNTAX In and sub with the Accusative after verhs of motion ; with the Ablative after verhs of rest. Subter and super generally with the Accusative ; sub- ter with the Ablative rare and mostly poetical ; super with the Ablative meaning concerning, of, on, used of a subject of discourse. 4. A few words, generally adverbs, sometimes become prepositions, and are used with the Ablative, as intus, palam, procul, simul. Summary of Constructions of Place and Space 491. I. The Names of Places are generally put 1. In the Accusative with ad or in to denote the Place to Which : Exercitum in Italiam diixit, he led an army into Italy. 2. In the Ablative with ab, de, or ex to denote the Place from Which : Ab urbe proficiscitur, lie sets out from tJie city. 3. In the Locative Ablative with in to denote the Place at or in Which: Hannibal in Italia fuit, Hannibal ivas in Italy. II. The Names of Tovras and words which follow their analogy are put 1. In the Accusative to denote the Place to Which : Legati Athenas missi sunt, ambassadors were sent to Athens, 2. In the Ablative to denote the Place from Which : Demaratus fugit Corintho, Demaratus fled from Corinth. 3. In the Locative to denote the Place at or in Which : Romae et domi tuae vivere, to live at Rome and in your house. III. The common constructions of Space are as follows : 1. Extent of Space is denoted by the Accusative : Agger altus pedes octoginta, a mound eighty feet high. 2. Measure of Difference is denoted by the Ablative : Sol multls partibus maior est quam terra, the sun is very much larger than the earth. USE OF ADJECTIVES. 492. Adjectives in Latin correspond in their general use to adjectives in English. 1. In Latin, as in English, an adjective may qualify the complex idea formed by a noun with one or more other modifiers : duae legiones novae, Digitized by Microsoft® USE OF ADJECTIVES 135 two new legions; naves longae veteres, old war vessels, but if the first adjective is multi, a connective is usually inserted : multae bonaeque artes, many good arts. 493. Prolepsis, or Anticipation. — An adjective or a participle is sometimes applied to a noun, especially in poetry, to denote the result of the action expressed by the verb : Soiita latentia condunt, they conceal their (hidden) shields. 494. Adjectives and Participles are often used Substantively in the plural: fortes, divitss, the hrave, the rich; spectantes, audi- entes, spectators, hearers; bona, utilia, good, things, useful things. 495. Adjectives and Participles are occasionally used Substan- tively in the singular: hio doctus, this learned man; nihil human!, nothing human. 496. Equivalent to a Clause. — Adjectives, like nouns in predi- cate apposition, are sometimes equivalent to clauses : Alteram vlvum amavi, alterum non odi mortuum, the one I loved while he was alive, the other I do not hate now that he is dead. 497. Adjectives and Adverbs. — Adjectives are sometimes used ■where our idiom requires adverbs or adverbial expressions : SScratSs venBiium laetus hausit, Socrates cheerfully drank the poison. Erat ille Komae frequens, he was frequently at Borne. 1. The adjectives thus used are chiefly those expressive of Joy, Knowledge, and their opposites. 2. A few adjectives of Time and Place are used in the same way. 3. Note the following special uses of such adjectives as prior, primus, princeps, postremus, ultimus, etc. Est primus rogatus sententiam, he was the first to he ashed his opinion. Princeps in proelium ibat, he was the first to go into battle. 4. Certain adjectives, as piimus, medius, ultimus, and summus, may designate a part of an object: prima nox, the first part of the night; summus mons, the top of the mountain. 5. In rare instances, adverbs seem to supply the place of adjectives : Eectissime sunt omnia, all things are perfectly right. 6. Numeral adverbs often occur with titles of office : Regulus consul iterum, Ilegulus when consul for the second time. Digitized by Microsoft® 136 SYNTAX 498. Comparatives and Superlatives. — Latin Comparatives and Superlatives are generally best rendered by the corresponding English forms, but comparatives may sometimes be rendered by somewlmt, unusually, too, while superlatives are sometimes best rendered by very. 499. Comparatives after Quam. — When an object is said to possess one quality in a higher degree than another, the two adjectives thus used may be connected by magis quam, the usual method in Cicero, or both may be put in the comparative : Praeolarum magis est quam diflScile, it is more admirable than difficult, or admirable rather than difficult. DItiores quam fortiores, more wealthy than brave. USE OF PRONOUNS 500. Personal Pronouns. — The Nominative of Personal Pro- nouns is used only for emphasis or contrast; Ego reges eiecl, vos tyrannos introducitis, / have banished kings, you introduce tyrants. 1. Mei, tui, sui, nostri, and vestri are generally used as Objective Genitives; nostrum and vestrum, as Partitive Genitives: Habetis duoem memorem vestri, oblitum sul, you have a leader mindful of you, forgetful of himself. Uni cuique vestrum, to every one of you. 501. Possessives, when not emphatic, are seldom expressed if they can be supplied from the context : In eo studio aetatem consumpsi, I have spent my life in this pursuit. 502. Reflexive Use of Pronouns. — The Personal and Possessive Pronouas may be used reflexively ; sui and suus are regularly so used: Me ipse consolor, / comfort myself. Anteposuit suam saltitem meae, he preferred his own safety to mine. 1. Note the following reciprocal use of pronouns : inter nos, inter vSs, and inter se, each other, one another, together : Puerl amant inter se, the boys love one another. 503. In simple sentences and in principal clauses, sui and suus generally refer to the subject : Quisqua siM earns est, every one is dear to himself. Caesar copias suas dl visit, Caesar divided his forces. Digitized by Microsoft® DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 137 1. Suus, meaning Ids own, their own, fitting, etc., and the plural of suus, meaning his friends, their friends, their possessions, etc., are used with great freedom, often referring to oblique cases : lustitia suum cuique distribuit, Justice gives to every one his due. 504. In Subordinate Clauses expressing the Thought, Wish, or Purpose of the principal clause, as in the Infinitive clause, final clause, indirect questions, and the like, sui and suus generally refer to the subject of the principal clause ; in all other subordi- nate clauses, they generally refer to the subject of their own clause, and are called Direct Reflexives : Sentit animus sS vl sua inoverl, the soul perceives that it is moved by its ' oion power. Ubil orant ut sibi parcat, the XJbii ask him to spare them. Neminem cogiiSvI poetam, qui sibI non optimus videretur, / have known no poet who did not seem to himself to he the best. 1. After verbs of Advising, Exhorting, etc., sui and suus generally refer to the Subordinate Subject, as the person in whose interest the advice is given : Nervios hortatur ne sui liberandi ocoasionem dimittant, he exhorts the Nervii not to lose the opportunity of freeing themselves. 2. Two Reflexives. — Sometimes a clause has one reflexive referring to the Principal subject, and another referring to the Subordinate subject : Bespondit neminem secum sine sua pernicie oontendisse, he replied that no one had fought with him without (his) destruction, DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOTJNS 505. Hio, iste, iUe, are often called, respectively, demonstratives of the first, second, and third persons, as hie designates that which is near the speaker ; iste, that which is near the person addressed ; and iUe, that which is remote from both : lovem, custodem hulus urbis, Jupiter the guardian of this (our) city. Muta istam mentem, change that purpose of yours. Illos quos videre non pos- sumus neglegis, you disregard those whom we can not see. 1. Hie designates an object conceived as near, and ille as remote, whether in space, time, or thought : Non antique ills more, sed hoc nostro eruditus, educated not in the manner of the olden times, but in this our modern way- Digitized by Microsoft® 138 SYNTAX 506. Former and Latter. — In reference to two objects previously mentioned, hie generally follows ille and refers to tlie latter object, while ille refers to the former. 507. Other Uses of Demonstratives. — Hie and iUe are often used of what belongs to the immediate context : Haeo quae soribo et ilia quae antea questus sum, these things which I am writing and those of which I before complained. 1. Hie et ille, ille aut ille, etc., this and that, that or that, are sometimes used in tlie sanss one or two, one or another. 2. Hie, as a demonstrative of the first person, is sometimes equivalent to , meus or noster ; and hic homo, to ego. 3. Iste, as a demonstrative of the second person, is often applied to an opponent, or to a defendant in a court of justice. 4. Ille is often used of what is well known, famous : magnus ille Alex- ander, that famous Alexander the Great. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS 508. Is and idem refer to preceding nouns, or are the ante- cedents of relatives : Dionysius auf Hgit ; is est in pro vincia tua, Dionysius has fled ; he is in your province. Eecit idem quod fecerat Coriolanus, he did the same thing which Coriolanus had done. 1. The pi'onoun is is often understood, especially before a relative : Sunt qui oenseant, there are those who think. 2. Is with a conjunction is often used for emphasis, like the English and that too, and that indeed : Unam rem explicabo, eamque maximam, one thing I will explain, and that too a very important one. 3. Idem is sometimes best rendered also, at the same time, both, yet: Qui fortis est. Idem est fidens, he who is brave, is also confident. 509. Ipse adds emphasis, generally rendered self: Quod ipse Caesar cogn5verat, which Caesar himself had ascertained. 1. Ipse belongs to the emphatic word, whether subject or object. 2. Ipse is often best rendered by very : ipso illo die, on that very day. 3. Witjj numerals, ipse means jasf so many, jtist : triginta dies ipsT, just thirty days. Digitized by Microsoft® INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 139 RELATIVE PRONOUNS 510. The relative is often used where the English idiom requires a demonstrative or personal pronoun, sometimes even at the begin- ning of a sentence : Perutiles libri sunt ; quos legite, hooks are very useful ; read them. Quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. 1. Relatives and Demonstratives are often correlatives to each other. 2. In Two Successive Clauses, the relative may be expressed in both, or it may be expressed in the first, and omitted in the second. 3. Several relatives may stand in successive clauses. 4. Relative with Adjective. — Adjectives belonging in sense to the antecedent, especially Comparatives, Superlatives, and Numerals, some- times stand in the relative clause in agreement with the relative : Vasa, quae pulcherrima viderat, the most beautiful vessels which he had seen (which the most beautiful he had seen) . 5. When both antecedent and relative depend on the same preposition, and the two clauses have the same predicate, the preposition may be omitted before the relative : Incidit in eandem invidiam, quam pater suus, he incurred (fell into) the same unpopularity as his father. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 511. The Interrogative s quis and quid are generally used as substantives, who? what person? what? what thing? Qui and quod are generally used as adjectives, what? of what kind, sort, or character? Quis ego sum, who am I? Qui locus est, lohat place is there ? 1. This distinction between quis and qui, quid and quod, is not always observed. 2. Which of two is generally expressed by uter ; which one of a larger number, by quis. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 512. Quis, ali-quis, quis-piam, and qui-dam may be conveniently grouped together. Of these, quis, any one, is the most indefinite, and quidam, a certain one, the least indefinite, while aliquis and Digitized by Microsoft® 140 SYNTAX quispiara. some one, not distinguished from each other in meaning, are less indefinite than quis, but more so than quidam : Si qua oivitas fecisset aliquid eius modi, ;/ any state had done anything of this kind. Num quid vis aliud, do you wish anything else ? Est aliquuJ niimen, there is a divinity. Aoourrit quidam, a certain one runs up. 1. Quis as a substantive, and qui as an adjective, are used chiefly after SI, nisi, ne, num, and in Relative clauses. 2. Aliquis and aliqui sometimes mean some person or thing of impor- tance. 3. Quidam, with an adjective, is sometimes used to qualify or soften the statement : Est gloria solida quaedam res, glory is a somewhat substantial thing. 513. Quis-quam, any one ivhatever, is more general in its mean- ing than the simple quis, any one. This pronoun and the pronom- inal adjective ullus are used chiefly in negative and conditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences, implying a negative : Neque me quisquam ibl agnovit, and no one whatever recognized me there. 1. Nemo is generally used as a noun, though with the designations of persons it may be used as an adjective. 2. Niillus, the negative of ullus, is generally used as an adjective, though it regularly supplies the Genitive and Ablative of nemo. GENERAL INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 514. Quivis and quilibet mean, any one you wish, any one you please, any one whatever; quisque, every one, each one: Quivis heres pecuniam potuit auferre, any heir lohatever might have taken the money. Quod quisque dixit, what every one said. 515. Quisque is used chiefly as follows : 1. After Reflexive, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns: Ipse se quisque dtligit, every one loves himself. 2. After Superlatives and Ordinals, where it is generally best rendered by all, every ; with primus by very, possible : Epioiireos doctissimus quisque contemnit, all the most learned despise the Epicureans. I'rimo quoque tempore, at the very first opportunity. 3. After unus, as in unus quisque, evei-y one, every person. Digitized by Microsoft® DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE THREE FINITE MOODS 141 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 516. Alius means another, other ; alter, the one, the other (of two), the second, a second. Tliey are often repeated : alius . . . alius, one . . . another; alii . . . alii, some . . . others; alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other; alteri . . . alteri, the one party . . . the other : Alii gISriae serviunt, alii peciiniae, some are slaves to glory, others to money. Alteri dimicant, alteri timent, one party fights, the other fears. 1 . Alius and alter repeated in different cases, or combined witli alias or aliter, form various idiomatic expressions : Alius alium domos suas invTtant, they invite one another to their homes. Aliter alii vivunt, some live in one way, others in another. SYNTAX OF VERBS USB OF VOICES AND NUMBERS 517. The Voices in Latin correspond in their general meaning and use to the Active and Passive Voices in English, but origi- nally the Passive Voice had a reflexive meaning, like the Greek Middle, and was equivalent to the Active with a reflexive pro- noun, a meaning which is still retained in a few verbs : Lavantur in fluminibus, they bathe (wash themselves) in the rivers. Galeam induitur, he puts on his helmet. Capita velamur, we veil our heads. 518. With transitive verbs, a thought may at the pleasure of the writer be expressed either actively or passively. 1. Intransitive verbs have regularly only the active voice, but they are sometimes used impersonally in the passive. 519. In Latin an individual is regularly addressed in the singular, but the speaker often refers to himself in the plural. DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE THREE FINITE MOODS 520. The Indicative Mood, alike in present, past, and future time, represents the action of the verb as an actual fact : Gloria virtiitem sequitur, glory follows merit. 5.21. The Subjunctive Mood represents the action of the verb, as Possible, as Desired, or as Willed : , Digitized by Microsoft® 142 SYNTAX Forsitan qiiaeratis, perhaps you may inquire. Valeant cives mel, may my fellow citizens be well. Suum quisque nosoat ingenium, let every one learn to know his own character. 522. The Imperative Mood, like the Subjunctive, represents the action as willed or desired, but it is used almost exclu- sively in Commands and Prohibitions : Valetudinem tuam oura, take care of your health. Salus popull suprema lex esto, the safety of the people shall he (let it be) the supreme law. USE or THE INDICATIVE 523. Rule. — The Indicative is used in treating of facts: Romulus septem at triginta regnavit annos, Romulus reigned thirty- seven years. Nonne nobilitari volunt, do they not wish to be renowned? 524. The Indicative, though more common in Principal Clauses, is also used in Subordinate Clauses, but only in treating of Facts : Id, qiiod volunt, credunt, they believe that which they wish. Si haec civitas est, if this is a state. Quamquam festinas, although you are in haste. Cuui quiescuut, while they are silent. 525. Special Uses. — Notice the following special uses of the In- dicative, apparently somewhat at variance with the English idiom : 1. In expressions of Duty, Propriety, Ability, and the like ; hence in the Periphrastic Conjugations, especially in conditional sentences : Eum colere debebas, you ought to have revered him. Non suscipl bellum oportuit, the war should not have been undertaken. Multos possum bonos viros nominare, I might name (I am able to name) many good men. Haec condicio non aocipienda fuit, this condition should not have been accepted. 2. The Indicative of the verb sum is often used with longum, aequum, difficile, melius, etc., in such expressions as longum est, it would be tedious ; melius erat, it would have been belter : Longum est omnia enumerare proella, it would he tedious (it is a long task) to enumerate all the battles. 3 Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, made general by being doubled, or by assuming the suffix cumque, and the Conjunctions sive . . . sive, take the Indicative : QuisquiB est, is est sapiens, whoever he may be (is), he is loise. Sive re- traotabis, sive properabis, whether you may be reluctant or in haste. Digitized by Microsoft® TEMSJiS OF THIS INDICATIVE 143, TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 526. The Latin, like the English, distinguishes three periods of time, Present, Past, and Future. 527. In each of the three periods an action may be Incomplete, Completed, or Indefinite. An action is said to be Indefinite when it is viewed in its simple occurrence without reference to duration or completion. 528. The Latin has no special forms for Indefinite action, as is shown in the following : 529. Table of Tenses Time Action Incomplete Completed Indefinite Present . f Pres. lego, I / am reading Perf. legi, I have read Pres. lego, / read Past . . f Imperf. legebam, I I was reading Pluperf. legeram, / had read Hist. perf. legi, I read Future 1 Fut. legam, I I shall be reading Fut. perf. legero, / shall have read Fut. legam, / shall read 530. All the tenses for Incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, aa.l Future, may denote an attempted or intended action : Virtutem accendit, he tries to kindle their valor. 531. In the Periphrastic Conjugation, the tenses of the verb sum preserve their usual force, and the meaning of any periphrastic form is readily obtained by combining the proper meaning of the participle with that of the tense. I. Present Indicative 532. The Present Indicative represents the action of the verb as taking place at the present time. It is used 1. Of present actions and events. 2. Of general truths and customs. Digitized by Microsoft® 144 SYNTAX 3. Of past actions and events which the writer represents as present. It is then called the Historical Present, and is generally best rendered by a past tense : Duas ibi legiones oonscribit, he there enrolled two legions. 533. Special Uses. — 1. The Present is often used of a present action which has been going on for some time, especially after iam diu, iam dudum, etc. : Iam diu. Ignoro quid agas, / have not known for a long time how you are. 2. The Present is sometimes used of an action really Future, espe- cially in animated discourse and in conditions. 3. The Present may be used of authors whose works are extant. 4. With dum, ichile, the Historical Present is generally used, but with dum meaning as long as, each tense has its usual force : Dum haeo geruntur, Caesarl nuntiatum est, while these things were talcing place, it was announced to Caesar. VIxit, dum vixit, bene, he lived well as long as he lived. II. Imperfect Indicative 534. The Imperfect Indicative represents the action as taking place in past time. It is used 1. Of actions going on at the time of other past actions : An tu eras consul, cum mea domus ardebat, or were you consul when my house was burning f 2. In lively descriptions of scenes, or events : Fulgentes gladios videbant, they saw the gleaming swords. 3. Of Customary or Repeated actions and events : Epulabatur more Persarum, he was wont to banquet in the Persian style. 535. Special Uses. — 1. The Imperfect is often used of a past action which had been going on for some time, especially with iam, iam diu, iam dudum, etc. : Domicilium Romae multos iam annos habebat, he had already for many years had his residence at Rome. 2. For the Imperfect of an Attempted Action, see 530. 3. Per the Imperfect In letters, see 639, 1. 4. Per the Descriptive Imperfect in Narration, see 638, 2. Digitized by Microsoft® TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 145 III. Future Indicative 536. The Future Indicative represents the action as one which will take place in future time ; Numquam aberrabimus, we shall never go astray. IV. Perfect Indicative 537. The Perfect Indicative performs the duties of two tenses. 1. As the Present Perfect or Perfect Definite, it represents the action as at present completed, and is rendered by our Perfect with have: De genere belli dixi, I have spoken of the character of the war. 2. As the Historical Perfect or Perfect Indefinite, corresponding to the Greek Aorist, it represents the action simply as an historical fact : Accusatus est ijroditionis, he was accused of treason. 538. Special Uses. — 1. The Perfect is sometimes used to contrast the past with the present, implying that what has been or was true in the past is not true at present : Habuit, non habet, he had, but he has not. Fuit Ilium, Ilium has been. 2. In Animated Narrative the Perfect usually narrates the leading events, and the Imperfect describes the attendant circumstances. 3. Conjunctions meaning as soon as, after, when used of past actions, are generally followed by the Perfect or by the Historical Present. 4. Many Latin Perfects may denote either a completed action or the Present Result of that action. Thus cognovi may mean either / have learned or I know; consuevi, / have accustomed myself or T am wont; doctus sum, / have been taught or / am learned. 5. The Perfect is sometimes used of General Truths, Repeated Actions, and Customs. It is then called the Gnomic Perfect : Pecuniam nemo saplgns concupivit, no wise man too eagerly desires (has desired) money. V. Pluperfect Indicative 539. The Pluperfect Indicative represents the action as com- pleted at the time of some other past action : Copias quas pro oppido coUocaverat, in oppidum recipit, he received into the town the forces which he had stationed in front of it. HAKK. G. 9, LAT. Gtik1^lg;f}^^ j^y ^j^^aSOft® 146 SYNTAX 1. In letters the -writer often adapts the tense to the time of the reader, using the Imperfect or Perfect of present actions and events, and the Pluperfect of those which are past : Nihil habebam quod scriberem ; ad tuas omnes resoripseram pridie, / have (had) nothing to write ; I replied to all your letters yesterday. 2. The Pluperfect after cum, sT, etc., is often used of Repeated Actions, General Truths, and Customs : Cum quaepiam cohors impetum fecerat, hostes refugiSbant, whenever any cohort made (had made) an attack., the enemy retreated. 3. The Pluperfect may state what had been true at some previous past time, implying that it was no longer true at the time of the writer. VI. Future Perfect Indicative 540. The Future Perfect Indicative represents the action as one which will be completed at some future time : Romam cum venero, quae perspexero, scribam ad te, when I reach (shall have reached) Rome, I shall write you lohat I have (shall have) ascertained. 1. The Future Perfect is sometimes used to denote the Complete Accom- plishment of the work : Ego meum oflBcium praestitero, / shall discharge my duty. TENSES OE THE SUBJUNCTIVE 541. The four tenses of the Subjunctive perform the duties of the six tenses of the Indicative, and are used as follows : 1. They have in general the same temporal meaning as the corre- sponding tenses of the Indicative : Euere qui crederent, there were some who believed. Oblitus es quid dixerim, you have forgotten what I said. 2. In addition to this general use, these four tenses supply the place of the Future and of the Future Perfect, the Present and the Imperfect supplying the place of the Future ; the Perfect and the Pluperfect, that of the Future Perfect : Erit tsmpus cum desideres, the time will come when you ivill desire. Dioebam, simul ac timere desisses, simllem te futurum tui, / was saying Digitized by Microsoft® SEQUENCE OF TENSES 147 that as soon as you should cease (shall liave ceased) to fear, you would be like yourself. Note 1. — But tlie place of the Future may he supplied by the Present and Imperfect of the active Periphrastic Conjugation, and is generally so supplied when the idea of future time is emphatic ; see Tahle of Sub- junctive Tenses, 544. 3. By a transfer of tenses, the Imperfect Subjunctive, in Conditional Sentences and in expressions of Wish, refers to Present time, and the Pluperfect to Past time : Plara soriberem, si possem, / would write more (now) if Iioere able. SI voluisset, dimicasset, if he had wished, he would have fought. DISTINCTION BETWEEN ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TIME 542. The time of an action is said to be Absolute when it has no reference to the time of any other action, but it is said to be Relative when it indicates the Temporal Relation that the action sustains to some other action : Hasdrubal tum, cum haec gerebantur, apud Syphacem erat, Hasdrubal, at the time when these things were taking place, was with Syphax. Here gerebantur denotes relative time, action going on at the time of erat, — Contemporaneous Action. 543. In Dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive gen- erally denote relative time, and they may represent the action of the verb as going on at the time of the principal verb, Contempo- raneous action ; as completed at that time. Prior action ; or, as about to take place. Subsequent action. Moreover, they conform to the following rule for SEQUENCE OF TENSES Rule. — Principal tenses depend on Principal tenses, and Historical on Historical : Qualis sit animus, animus nescit, the soul knows not what the soul is. Quaeramus quae vitia fuerint, let us inquire what the faults loere. Rogavit essentne fiisi hostes, he asked whether the enemy had been routes- Digitized by Microsoft® 148 544. SYNTAX Table of Subjuis^ctive Tenses Dependent Clause Clause Contemporaneous Action Prior Action Subsequent Action PRINCIPAL TENSES Quaero Quaeram Quaesiero / ask I shall ask I shall have asked , quid facias lohat you are doing quid feceris what you have done quid facias quid factiirus sis > what you will do HISTORICAL TENSES Quaerebam Quaesivi Quaesieram / loas asking I asked I had asked quid faceres what you were doing quid fecisses what you had done quid faceres quid facturus esses what you would do 545. In this table, observe : I. Tliat the Subjunctive dependent on a Principal Tense is put : 1. In the Present, to denote Incomplete, or Contemporaneous, action. 2. In the Perfect, to denote Completed, or Prior, action ; and 3. In the Present, either of the simple or the periphrastic form, to denote Pature, or Subsequent, action. II. That the Subjunctive dependent on an Historical Tense is put: 1. In the Imperfect, to denote Incomplete, or Contemporaneous, action. 2. In the Pluperfect, to denote Completed, or Prior, action ; and 3. In the Imperfect, either of the simple or of the periphrastic form, to denote Future, or Subsequent, action. PECULIARITIES IN" THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES 546. In the sequence of tenses the Perfect Indicative, the His- torical Present, the Present used of authors, and the Historical Infinitive are, generally. Historical tenses.. Digitized by Microsoft® SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 149 547. The Imperfect Subjunctive, even when it refers to present time, as in conditional sentences, is generally treated as an Historical tense: SI probarem, quae ille diceret, if I approved what he says. 548. The Perfect Infinitive is generally treated as an Historical tense, but the Present and the Future Infinitive, the Present and the Future Participle, as also Gerunds and Supines, share the tense of the verb on which they depend, as they express only relative time : Non speraverat fore ut ad s6 deficerent, he had, not hoped that they would revolt to him. 549. Clauses containing a General Truth usually conform to the law for the sequence of tenses, at variance with the English idiom : Quanta consoientiae vis esset, ostendit, he showed how great is the power of conscience. 550. In clauses denoting Result, or Consequence, the Subjunctive tenses have the ordinary temporal force of the corresponding tenses of the Indicative. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 551. The Latin Subjunctive performs the duties of two moods originally distinct, the Subjunctive and the Optative. It com- prises three varieties : I. Subjunctive of Possibility, or Potential Subjunctive, which represents the action as Possible ; see 552. II. Subjunctive of Desire, or Optative Subjunctive, which repre- sents the action as Desired ; see 558. III. Subjunctive of Will, or Volitive Subjunctive, which repre- sents the action as Willed ; see 559. Potential Subjimctive 552. Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is used to repre- sent the action, not as real, but as Possible or Conditional. The negative is non : Forsitan quaeratis, perhaps you may inquire. Ita laudem invenias, thus you (any one) may or will win praise. Eum facile vltare possis, you may easily avoid him. Digitized by Microsoft® 160 SYNTAX 553. In these examples observe that the Potential Subjunctive in its widest application includes two varieties : 1 . The Potential Subjunctive in a strict sense, which is comparatively rare. 2. The Conditional Subjunctive, which represents the action as dependent on a condition, expressed or implied, as in the last example. 554. On the use of Tenses, observe : 1. That the Present may be used of Incomplete actions either in Present or in Future time. 2. That the Perfect may be used of Completed actions either in Present or in Future time. 3. That the Imperfect is sometimes used in its original meaning as a Past tense : turn diceres, you would then have said, and sometimes in its later transferred meaning to represent the statement as contraiy to fact : diceres, you would say. The latter is its regular meaning in conditional sentences. 555. In simple sentences, the Potential Subjunctive is most common in the third person singular with an indefinite subject, as aliquis, quispiam, and in the second person singular of the Imperfect, used of an indefinite you, meaning one, any one: diceres, you, any one, would say, or would have said. 556. In the language of Politeness and Modesty, the Potential Sub- junctive is often used in the iirst person of the Present and Imperfect of verbs of Wishing, as velim, I should wish ; nolim, / should be umoill- ing ; vellem, I should wish, or should have wished. 557. Potential Questions. — The Potential Subjunctive is used in questions to ask, not what is, but what is likely to be, what may be, would be, or should be : Cur ego non laeter, why should I not rejoice 9 Optative Subjunctive 558. Rule. — The Optative Subjunctive is used to express pure Desire vsfithout any idea of authority, as in prayers and wishes. The negative is ne : Sint incolumes, sint beati, may they he safe, may they be happy. Id sit quod spero, may that which I hope take place. Utinam omnes servare potu- isset, womd that he had been able to save all. Digitized by Microsoft® IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 151 1. Force of Tenses. — The Present implies that the wish may he fulfilled, the Imperfect and Pluperfect that it cannot be fulfilled. 2. Utinam is regularly used, with rare exceptions in poetry, with the Imperfect and Pluperfect, and sometimes with the Present. Subjunctive of Will, or VoUtive Subjunctive 559. Rule. — -The Volitive Subjunctive is used to repre- sent the action, not as real but as Willed. The negative is ne. This Subjunctive comprises the following varieties : 1. The Hortative Subjunctive, used in Exhortations, but only in the first person plural of the Present tense : Amemus patriani, let us luve our country. Ne difficilia optemus, let us not desire difficult things. 2. The Imperative or Jussive Subjunctive, used chiefly in the third person and generally best rendered by let; but see 560: Desinant insidiari consul!, let them cease to lie in wait for the consul. 3. The Concessive Subjunctive, used in Admissions and Con- cessions : Sit ista res magna, admit that that is (let that be) an important matter. Age, sit ita factum, well, admit that it took place thus. 4. The Deliberative Subjunctive, used in Deliberative or Doubt- ing Questions, implying that the speaker desires to be directed : Quid agam, iudioes, what am I to do, judges f Quid agerem, what was I to do? 5. Repudiating Questions. — The Subjunctive vi^ith or without ut is also used in questions v^rhich express Surprise or Impatience : Te ut iilla res frangat, how is anything to subdue you? 6. The Subjunctive is occasionally used to state what should have been or ought to have been : Mortem piignans oppetlsses, you should have met death in battle. IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 560. Rule. — In commands the Subjunctive and Impera- tive supplement each other, the Imperative being used in the second person and the Subjunctive in the third : Digitized by Microsoft® 152 SYNTAX Libera rem publicam metu, free (lie repuhlic frmn fear. Pergite, ut facitis, go on, as you are now doing. Suum qiiisque nosoat ingenium, let every one know his own character. 1. The second person of the Present Subjunctive may be used of an indefinite you, meaning one, any one : Isto bono iitare, dum adsit, use that blessing of yours, while it is with you. 2. In Commands involving future rather than present action, and in Laws, Orders, Precepts, etc., the Future Imperative is used : Cras petito, dabitur, ask to-morrow, it shall be granted. 561 . Prohibitive Sentences. — In ordinary Prohibitive Sentences : 1. Noll and nolite with the Infinitive is the approved form in classi- cal prose : Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest, do not desire that which can not be done. 2. Cavg, cave ne, fac ne, or ne with the Subjunctive is common in early Latin, but rare in classical prose : Isto bono iitare, dum adsit ; cum absit, ne requiras, use your blessing while it is with you ; when it is gone, do not long for it. 3. In Prohibitive Laws and Ordinances the Future Imperative is used : Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, neve ilrito, thou shall not bury nor burn a dead body in the city. i. The negative, when not contained in the auxiliary verb noli, or cavS, is regularly ne ; with a connective, ne-ve, or ne-que. SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 562. The meaning of the Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses is either precisely the same as in Principal Clauses, or is a natural development from that meaning. 563. A clause containing an Optative or Volitive Subjunctive, when dependent, may become, 1. A Substantive Clause, generally used as the Object of the Prin- cipal verb ; see 564. 2. An, adverbial Clause, used to denote the Purpose or Intention of the action, often called a Final Clause; see 568. Digitized by Microsoft® SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 153 VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 564. Rule. — The Subjunctive, generally with ut or ne, may be used in Substantive Clauses which involve Purpose : I. In Substantive Clauses used as the Objects of Verbs : Scribas ad me velim, / wish that you loould write to me. Grant ut sibi pai'cat, they ask that he would pardon them. II. In Substantive Clauses used as Subjects or Predicates : In epistula scriptuni erat, ut omnia pararet, that he was to make all preparations had been written in the letter. Altera est res ut res geras magiias, the other thing is that you should perform great deeds. 1. Subject Clauses sometimes take the Subjunctive without ut, regularly with licet and oportet, and generally with necesse est. III. In Substantive Clauses used as Appositives : Fecit pacem his condicionibus, ne qui adficerentur exsilio, he made peace on these terms, that none should be punished with exile. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES USED AS THE OBJECTS OF VERBS 565. Verbs meaning to Desire, Wish, Ash, Command, Persuade, Determine, Decree, and the like, generally take the Subjunctive in Object Clauses : Velim ut tibi amicus sit, I wish him to he (that he may be) a friend to you. Te hortor ut orationes meas legas, / exhort you to read my orations. Oro ut homines conserves incolumes, I ask that you would keep the mere unharmed. Praedixit ut ne legates dimitterent, he charged them not to release the envoys. 1. lubeo and veto regularly take the Accusative and the Infinitive. 2. Some verbs may take the Subjunctive without ut. 3. Verbs meaning to determine, decide, etc., generally take the Subjunc- tive when a new subject is introduced, otherwise the Infinitive (614). 4. Several other verbs of this class admit either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive, but generally with some difference of meaning. 566. Verbs meaning to Make, Obtain, Hinder, and the like, generally take the Subjunctive in Object Clauses : Digitized by Microsoft® 154 SYNTAX Fao ut te ipsum custodias, make sure that you protect yourself. Ne mihl Qooeant, vestrum est providere, it is your duty to see to it that they may not injure me. 1. Ut with the Subjunctive sometimes forms with facio aud ago a circumlocution : Invitus facio ut recorder, / unwillingly recall (I do unwillingly that I recall) . 2. Some verbs of this class admit the Infinitive. 567. Verbs meaning to Fear generally take the Subjunctive in Object Clauses : Timeo ut labores sustlneas, I fear that you will not endure the labors. Timeo ne eveniant ea, I fear that those things may happen. 1. Observe that ut must be rendered that not, and ne that or lest. 2. After verbs of Fearing, ne non is sometimes used in the sense of ut, regularly so after a negative clause. 3. Verbs of Fearing admit the Infinitive as in English. 4. Various expressions, equivalent to verbs of Fearing, also take the Subjunctive ; as timor est ; metus, cura, periculum est. VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF PURPOSE — FINAL CLAUSES 568. Rule. — The Subjunctive is used with ut, ne, quo, quo minus, quominus, to denote the Purpose of the action : Legibus idcii-c6 servimus ut liberl esse possimus, we are servants of the laws for this reason, that we may be able to be free. Claudi curiam iubet, ne quis egredi possit, he orders the senate house to be closed that no one may be able to come out. Medico aliquid dandum est, quo sit studiosior, .'something ought to be given to the physician, that he may be more attentive. Neque te deterreo quo minus id disputes, and I am not trying to deter you from dis- cussing that point. 1. A clause of purpose may take ut non when the negative belongs, not to the entire clause, but to some particular word : Ut plura non dicam, not to say more, or to say no more. 2. The negative connective between Subjunctive Clauses, whether Substantive or Final, is regularly neve, or neu, but sometimes neque. 3. Quo is used chiefly with comparatives. Quo minus is simply quo with the comparative minus. 4. Quo minus is used with verbs of Hindering, Opposing, Refusing. Digitized by Microsoft® SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 155 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 569. Rule. — The Potential Subjuncti-ve is used in Subor- dinate clauses, whatever the connective, to represent the action as Possible or Conditional, rather than real : Nemo est qui non liberos suos beatos esse cupiat, there is no one who would not wish his children to be happy. Quoniam civitati consulere non possent, since they would not be able to consult for the state. Ubi periclum, facias, whenever you (any one) may make the trial. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE IN CLAUSES OF RESULT — CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES 570. Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is used with ut, or ut non, to denote the Result of the action : Tale est ut possit iure laudari, it is such that it may be justly praised. Tanta tempestas coorta est, ut nulla navis cursuni teiiere posset, so great a tempest arose that no vessel would be able, or loas able, to hold its course. Nemo adeo ferus est, ut non mitescere possit, no one is so fierce that he may not become gentle. 1. The Potential Subjunctive occurs with quam, with or without ut : Imponebat amplius quam ferre possent, he imposed more than they would be able, or were able, to hear. 2. After tantum abest ut, a second ut-clause sometimes occurs : Philosophia, tantum abest ut laudetur, ut etiam vituperetur, so far is it from the truth that philosophy is praised that it is even censured. POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 571. Rule. — The Potential Subjunctive is often used with ut and ut non in' Substantive Clauses as follows : 1. In Subject clauses, with certain Impersonal verbs meaning it happens, it follows, etc., — accidit, accedit, evenit, fit, efficitur, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, etc. : Potest fieri ut f allar, it may be that I am deceived. Accidit ut esset luna plena, it happened that the moon was full. Evenit ut luii essemus, it hap- pened that we were in the country. Digitized by Microsoft® 166 SYNTAX 2. In Subject clauses with predicate nouns and adjectives : Mos est ut nolint, it is their custom to be unwilling. Verum est ut bonos boni diligant, it is true that the good love the good. 3. In Object clauses depending upon facio, efficio, etc., of the action of irrational forces : Sol efficit, ut omnia floreant, the sun causes all things to bloom. 4. In clauses in Apposition with nouns or pronouns : Est boo vitium ut invidia gloriae comes est, there is this fault, that envy is the companion of glory. Id est proprium civitatis ut sit libera, it is char- acteristic of a state to be free. MOODS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE 572. Every Conditional Sentence consists of two distinct parts expressed or understood, the Condition or Protasis, and the Con- clusion or Apodosis : Si negem, mentiar, if I should deny it, I should speak falsely. Here si negem is the condition and mentiar the conclusion. 573. Conditional sentences naturally arrange themselves in three distinct classes with well-defined forms and meanings : Class I. — Indicative in both clauses ; Condition assumed as Real ; see 574. Class II. — Subjunctive, Present or Perfect, in both clauses ; Condi- tion assumed as Possible ; see 576. Class III. — Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect, in both clauses; Condition assumed as Contrary to Fact ; see 579. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CLASS I Indicative in Both Clauses 574. Rule. — The Indicative in Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, nl, sin, assumes the supposed case as Real : Si haec civitas est, civis sum, if this is a stale, I am a citizen. Plura scribam, si pliis otii habuero, / shall write more if I shall have (had) more leisure. Si licuit, pecuuiam recte abstulit filius, if it was lawful, the son Digitized by Microsoft® CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 167 took the money rightfully. Sin oerte eveniet, nulla foi'tuna est, but if it ■will surely happen, there is no uncertainty whatever. 1. Force of the Indicative. — The Indicative in conditional clauses assumes the supposed case as a fact, but it does not necessarily imply that the suppo- sition is in accord with the Actual Fact. Force of Conditional Particles 575. The Condition is generally introduced, when affirmative, by si or sin, with or without other particles, as si quidem, si modo, sin autem ; when negative, by nisi, ni, si non : Si haec civilas est, civis sum ; si non, exsul sum, if this is a state, I am a citizen ; if not, I am an exile. 1. Nisi and si non are often used without any perceptible difference of meaning ; but strictly nisi, if not, with the emphasis on if, means unless, and introduces a negative condition, while si non, if not, with the emphasis on not, limits the negative to some particular word : Parvl forls sunt arma, nisi est consilium domi, arms are of little value abroad, unless there is wisdom at home. SI tibi n5n graves sumus, refer ad ilia ts, if we are not troublesome to you, return to those topics. Here non belongs to graves. 2. Sin and sin autem, but if are generally used in contrasting clauses. 3. Nisi or ni is sometimes best rendered but or except. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CLASS II Subjunctive, Present or Perfect in Both Clauses 576. Rule. — The Present or Perfect Subjunctive in Con- ditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Possible : Dies deficiat, si velim causara defendere, the day ivould fail me, if I should wish to defend the cause. Haec si tecum patria loquatur, noiine iinpetrare debeat, if your country should speak thus with you, ought she not to obtain her request ? Si quid te fUgerit, ego perierim, if anything should escape you, I should be ruined. 1. The time denoted by these tenses, the Present and the Perfect, is either Present pr.Future,.and the difference between them is that the former regards the action in its progress, the latter in its completion. The Perfect is rare. . Digitized by Microsoft® 158 SYNTAX Present Subjunctive in Conditional Clauses 577. Conditional Sentences with the Present Sabjunctive in the condition exhibit the three following varieties : 1. The first variety has the Present Subjunctive in both clauses. This is the regular form in Plautus, and the prevaihng form in classical Latin. 2. The second variety lias the Present Subjunctive in the Condition and the Present Indicative in the Conclusion : Intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, / wish to enter the camp of the enemy, if I may he able. 3. The third variety has the Present Subjunctive in the Condition and the Future Indicative in the Conclusion : Nee, si Gupias, licebit, nor if you should desire it, will it he allowed. 578. General Conditions. — Conditional sentences which contain General Truths or Eepeated Actions usually take the following forms : 1. Any required tense of the Indicative in the condition with the Present or Imperfect Indicative in the conclusion : Parvi forls sunt arma, nisi est consilium domi, arms are of little value abroad unless there is wisdom at home. 2. The Present or Perfect Subjunctive, generally in the second person used of an indefinite you = one, any one, in the condition, with the Present Indicative in the conclusion : Memoria minuitur nisi earn exerceas, the memory is impaired if you do not (if one does not) exercise it. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. — CLASS III Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect in Both Clauses 579. Rule. — The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences with sT, nisi, m, sin, assumes the sup- posed case as Contrary to Fact : Sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efiiceret, wisdom would not be sought (as it is) if it accomplished nothing. Si voluisset, propius Tiber! dimicasset, if he had wished, he would have fought nearer the Tiber. 1. Here the Imperfect generally relates to Present time and the Pluperfect to Past time, as in the examples. Digitized by Microsoft® L'ONDtrtONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 159 DEVIATIONS FROM THE REGULAR FORMS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 580. Certain deviations from the regular form of the conclusion are admissible ; see 581-583. 581. The Indicative in the Condition may be accompanied by the Imperative or Subjunctive in the Conclusion, regarded as an Independent Clause : SI quid peccavl, Ignosoe, if I have done anything wrong, pardon me. Quid timeam, si beatus futurus sum, what should I fear, if I am going to be happy ? 582. Periphrastic forms in the conclusion of conditional sen- tences are generally in the Indicative (525, 1) : Quid, si hostes veniant, faotiiri estis, what will you do, if the enemy should come 9 SI verum respondere velles, haec erant dioenda, if you had wished to answer truly, this should have been said. 583. The Historical tenses of verbs denoting Ability, as pos- sum, and of those denoting Duty, Propriety, Necessity, as debeo and the like, are often in the Indicative in the conclusion of con- ditional sentences (525, 1) : Deleri exercitus potuit, si perseciitl victores essent, the army might have been destroyed if the victors had pursued. Quem, si ulla in te pietas esset, oolere debebas, whom you ought to have honored, if there was any filial affection in you. 1. But these verbs often take the Subiunctive. 2. The Perfect Tense in the conclusion of a conditional sentence is regu- larly in the Indicative when accompanied by paene or prope. 3. The historical tenses of the verb esse with certain predicate adjectives are generally in the Indicative in the conclusion of conditional sentences ; see 525, 2. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON 584. Rule. — Conditional Clauses of Comparison, intro- duced by ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, velut si, as if, than if, take the Subjunctive : Til similiter facis, ac si me roges, you are doing nearly the same thing, as if you should ask me. Tam te diligit quam si vixerit tecum, he loves you Digitized by Microsoft® 160 SYNTAX as much as if he had lived wilh you. Quasi nihil umquam audierim, as if I had never heard anything. Crudelitatem, velut si adesset, horrebaiit, they shuddered at his cruelty, as if he were present. 1. In all these sentences the principal clause is entirely independent of the conditional clause. CONDITIONAL ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES 585. Rule. — Etsi and etiam si, when they mean although, introduce Adversative clauses and take the Indicative, but when they mean even if they introduce Conditional clauses, and accordingly take the same construction as si : Etiam si multi mecum contendent, tamen omnes supevabo, although many will enter the contest with me, yet I shall surpass them all. Etiam si oppetenda mors esset, doml mallem, even if death ought to he met, I should prefer to meet it at home. MOODS IN ADVERSATIVE AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 586. Rule. — I. Clauses introduced by quamquam and tametsi contain admitted facts, and accordingly take the Indicative : Quamquam festinas, non est mora longa, although you are in haste, the delay is not long. Tametsi ab duce deserebautur, tauien spem saliitis in virtiite ponebant, although they were deserted dy their leader, they still placed their hope of safely in their valor. I. But clauses with quamquam and tametsi admit the Potential Sub- junctive when the thought requires that mood (569). II. Clauses introduced by licet, quamvis, ut, or ne are Concessive, and accordingly take the Concessive Subjunctive (559, 3): Licet irrideat, pliis apud me tamen ratio valebit, although he may deride, yet reason will avail more with me. Non tii possis, quamvis excellas, you would not he able, although you may he eminent. Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas, although the strength may fail (let strength fail), still the ivill is to be commended. Ne sit summum malum dolor, Malum oerte est, though pain may not be the greatest evil, it is cer- tainly an evil. Digitized by Microsoft® MOODS WITH QUOD, QUIA, QUONIAM. QUANDO 161 1. Quamquam, meaning yet, but yet, and yet, often introduces inde- pendent clauses : Quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak 9 MOODS WITH Dum, Modo, Dummodo 587. Rule. — The Jussive Subjunctive is used with dum, modo, modo ut, and dummodo, meaning if only, provided, in conditional clauses of desire : Dum res maneant, verba fingant, let them manufacture words, if only the facts remain. Manent ingenia, modo permaneat industria, menial powers remain if only industry continues. Dummodo ne continuum sit, provided this he not continuous. MOODS WITH Quod, Quia, Quoniam, Quando 588. Rule. — Causal Clauses with quod, quia, quoniam, quando, generally take I. The Indicative to assign a reason positively, on one's own authority : Delectatus sum tuis litteris, quod te intellexi iam posse ridere, I have been delighted with your letter, because I have learned from it that now you can laugh. Quia iiatiira miitari non potest, because nature can not be changed. Quoniam supplicatio decreta est, since a thanksgiving has been decreed. II. The Subjunctive to assign a reason doubtfully, or on another's authority : Aristides nonne expulsus est patria, quod iustus esset, was not Aristides banished because (on the alleged ground that) he was ju.it? Reprehendis me, quia defendam, you reprove me because (on the ground that) / defend him. Quoniam civitati consulere non possent, since they could not consult for the slate. 1. Sometimes by a special construction the Subjunctive of a verb of Saying or Thinking is used, while the verb which introduces the reason on another's authority is put in the Infinitive : Dies prorogatur, quod tabulas obslgnatas diceret (= obsignatae essent), the time is extended on the ground that the documents were signed, as he said. HARK. u. s. LAT. GKAM-,^-.12 , , ... .^^ Digitized by Microsoft® 162 SYNTAX •2. Noil qaod, ndn quo, non quin, uon quia, also quam quod, etc., are used with the Subjunctive to denote an alleged reason, in distinction from the true reason : Non quod suscenserem, sed quod suppudebat, not because I was angry, but because Iioas ashamed. N5n quo haberem quod scriberem, not because (that) I had anything to write. Note. — Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the beginning of sentences to announce the subject of discourse : Quod me Agamemnonem aemularl putas, falleris, as to the fact that you think that I emulate Agamemnon, you are in error. INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE IN RELATIVE CLAUSES 589. Rule. — Clauses introduced by tlie relative qui, or by Relative Adverbs, ubi, unde, quo, etc., tak& I. The Indicative, when they simply state or assume facts, with- out any accessory notion of Purpose, Eesult, Concession, or Cause : Ego qui te confirmo, ipse me non .possum, / who encourage you am not able to encourage myself. Civitates propinquae his locis, ubI bellura gesserat, states near to those places where he had been carrying on war. Athenienses, unde leges ortae putantur, the Athenians, from whom laws are supposed to have been derived. II. The Subjunctive in all other cases : Missi sunt delecti, qui Thermopylas occupavent, picked men were sent to take possession (that they might take possession) of Thermopylae. Domum, ubI habitaret, legerat, he had selected a house where he might dwell (that he might dwell in it). Quae tam firrha civitas est, quae non odiis possit everti, what state is so firmly established that it cannot be ruined by dissensions f 590. The Volitive Subjunctive is used in Eelative clauses, to denote Purpose, as in ut clauses (568) : LSgatos Romam, qui auxilium peterent, misere, they sent ambassadors to Some to ask aid (that they might ask aid). Locum petit, unde hosteni invadat, he seeks a position from which he may (that from it he may) attack the enemy. 591. The Potential Subjunctive is used in Relative clauses : 1. f o characterize Indefinite or General antecedents, especially Gen- eral Negatives ; Digitized by Microsoft® MOODS IN RELATIVE CLAUSES 163 Nemo est orator qui DemosthenI se similem nolit esse, there is no orator who would be unwilling to be like Demosthenes. Quis est qui hoc dicere audeat, who is there who would dare to say this f Note. — The Indicative is used in relative clauses after indefinite ante- cedents when the Fact is to be made prominent : Permulta sunt, quae dici possunt, there are many things which may be said. 2. To denote the Natural Result of an Action or Quality : Non is sum qui Ms delecter, I am not one who would be delighted with these things, or such a one as to be delighted. Non tu is es quem nihil deleotet, you are not one whom nothing would please. 3. In Restrictive clauses with quod, as quod sciam, as far as I (may) know; quod meminerim, as far as I can remember, etc. . Non ego te, quod sciam, umquam ante hunc diem vidl, as far as I know, I have never seen you before this day. 4. In clauses with quod, or with a relative particle, cur, quare, etc., in certain idiomatic expressions. Thus, after est, thei-e is reason; non est, nihil est, thej'e is no reason ; nulla causa est, there is no reason, etc. ; Est quod gaudeas, there is reason why you should rejoice (there is that as to which j'on may rejoice). TibI causa nillla est cur veils, you have no reason why you should wish. 5. After unus, solus, and the like : Sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat, wisdom is the only thing which dispels (may dispel) sadness. Soli centum erant qui crearl patres possent, there were only one hundred who could be made senators. 6. After Comparatives with quam : Damna maiora sunt quam quae (ut ea) aestimarl possint, the losses are too great to be estimated (greater than so that they can be estimated). 7. After dignus, indignus, idoneus, and aptus : Hunc Caesar idoneum iudicaverat quem mitteret, Caesar had judged him a suitable person to send (whom he might send). 592. The Subjunctive, originally Potential, is used in Relative clauses to denote Cause or Reason : vis veritatis, quae se defendat, the power of truth, that it (which) can defend itself. O fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, fortunate youth, in having obtained (who may have obtained) Homer as, the .herald of your valor. Nee facillime agnoscitur, quippe qui blandiatur, he is not very easily detected, as he is likely to flatter. Digitized by Microsoft® 164 SYNTAX 1. Causal clauses with qui admit the Indicative when the statement is viewed as a fact rather tlian as a cause. 2. In Sallust quippe qui regularly takes the Indicative. 593. The Subjunctive, originally Jussive, is used 1. In those Relative clauses which are equivalent to Conditional clauses with the Subjunctive (573): Qui (= si quis) videret, urbem captam diceret, if any one saw it, he would say that the city vjas taken. 2. In those Relative clauses which are equivalent to Concessive clauses with the Subjunctive (586, II.): Absolvite eum, qui se fateatur pecunias cepisse, acquit him, although he confesses (let him confess) that he has accepted money. MOODS WITH Quin 594. Rule. — I. Quin in Direct Questions and Commands takes the ordinary construction of independent sentences: Quin taces, why are you not silent ? Quin uno verbo die, nay, say in a single word. II. Quin in Subordinate clauses takes the Subjunctive: Nee dubitari debet, quin fueriut ante Homerum poetae, nor ought it to be doubted that there were poets before Homer. ISTeque reciisare, quin armis contendant, and that they do not refuse to contend in arms. Nem5 est tarn fortis, quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so brave, as not to be dis- turbed by the suddenness of the event. 595. Quin is used after Negatives and Interrogatives implying a Negative. Thus : 1. After negative expressions implying Doubt, Uncertainty, Distance, Omission, and the like, as non dubito, nihil abest, etc. : Non dubitat quin sit Troia peritiira, he does not doubt that Troy will fall. Non erat dubium, quin plurimum possent, there was no doubt that they had very great power. Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus, nothing is wanting to make me (that I should be) most unhappy. 2. After verbs of Hindering, Preventing, Refusing, and the like : Rethieri non potuerant quin tela coicerent, they could mt be restrained from hurling their weapons, Digitized by Microsoft® MOODS IN CLAUSES WITH CUM 165 3. After facere non possum, fieri non potest, etc., in Object and Subject clauses : Facere non possum, quin cottidig litteras ad te mittam, / cannot but send (cannot help sending) a letter to you daily. i. After nemo, nullus, quis, and the like, in the sense of qui non : Nemo est, quin malit, there is no one who wojild not prefer. Nulla fuit civi- tas quin Oaesari pareret, there was no state which was not subject to Caesar. 5. After various verbs with numquam and in Interrogative clauses with umquam : Nuinquara tam male est Sioulls, quin aliquid fac6te dicant, it is never so bad with the Sicilians that they cannot say something witty. 596. Special Verbs. — Certain verbs vrhich take quin with more or less frequency also admit other constructions. Thus : 1. Non dubito admits a dependent or indirect question ; see 649, II. 2. A few verbs of Hindering and Opposing, especially deterreo and impedio, admit the Subjunctive with ne, quo minus ; see 668. CLAUSES WITH Cum 597. The particle cum, like the relative from which it is derived, is very extensively used in subordinate constructions, as in Causal, Concessive, and Temporal clauses. SUBJUNCTIVE WITH Cum IN CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 598. Rule. — In writers of the best period, Causal and Concessive clauses with cum take the Subjunctive : Cum vita sine amicis metiis plena sit, ratio monet amicitias comparare, since life without friends is (would be) full of fear, reason advises us to establish friendships. Quae cum ita sint, perge, since these things are so, proceed. Quippe cum eos diliganius, since in truth we love them. Phocion fuit pauper, cum divitissiraus esse posset, Phocion was a poor man, although he might have been very rich. Cum multa sint in philosophia litilia, although there are many useful things in philosophy. 1. The causal relation is emphasized by the addition of quippe and utpote to cum. Digitized by Microsoft® 166 SYNTAX 599. The Indicative in Causal clauses with cum is used when the statement is viewed as an actual fact, especially after laudo, gaudeo, gratulor, and the like : Cum de tuls factis conqueruntur, since they complain of your deeds. Gra- tulor tibl, cum tantum vales, I congratulate you on the fact that you have so great influence. 1. Concessive clauses with cum sometimes take the Indicative to em- phasize the fact rather than the concession. MOODS IN TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Cum 600. Rule. ■ — Temporal clauses with cum, meaning when, while, after, take I. The Indicative in the Present, Perfect, and Future Tenses : Libios, cum est otium, legere soleo, I am wont to read books when I haoe leisure. Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, when Caesar came into Gaul. I . Cum Inversum. — Here belong clauses with cum inversum, i.e. with cum in the sense of et tum, and then : Dies nondum decern interoesserant, cum alter filius necatur, ten days had not yet intervened when (and then) the other son wasput to death. II. The Subjunctive in the Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses : Cum dimicaret, occisus est, when he engaged in battle, he was slain. Caesari cum id niintiatum esset, matiirat ab urbe proficisci, when this had been announced to Caesar, he hastened to set out from the city. 1. The Subjunctive of the second person singular, used of an indefinite you, meaning any one, may be used in any tense : Difficile est tacere, cum doleas, it is difficult to be quiet when you are suffering. 601. Indicative. — The Indicative in the Imperfect and Plu- perfect may be used in temporal clauses, as follows : 1. After cum = et tum, as in cum interim, cum interea, tvhen in the meantime = and or but in the meantime : Caedebatur virgis, cum interea nuUus gemitus audiebatur, he was beaten with rods, but in the meantime no groan loas heard, 2. j^fter such correlative expressions as tum . . . cum, then . . . when; eo die . . . cum, on that day ■ . ■ when : Digitized by Microsoft® TEMPORAL CLAUSES 167 Eo tempore pariiit, cum parere neoesse erat, he obeyed at that time xuhen it was necessary to obey. 3. After cum, meaning from the time when, since : Nondum centum anni sunt cum lata est lex, it is not yet a hundred years since the law was proposed. 4. Generally after cum, meaning as often as, whenever: Haec renovabam, cum licebat, I was wont to renew my acquaintance with these subjects whenever an opportunity offered. TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Postquam, Ubi, Ut, ETC. 602. Rule. — Temporal Clauses, introduced by the parti- cles, postquam, postea quam, after, — pridie quatn, postridie quam, on the day before, on the day after; ubi, ut, simul, simul atque, when, as, as soon as, — state facts, and accord- ingly take the Indicative, generally the Perfect, or the Historical Present : Postquam omnes Belgarum copias ad se venire vidit, castra posuit, after he saw that all the forces of the Belgae were coming against him, he pitched his camp. Pridie quam tu coactus es conflteri, etc., on the day before you were compelled to admit, etc. Id ut audivit, as soon as he heard this. Simul in arido coiistiterunt, as soon as they stood on dry land. 1. In Livy and the late historians, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are often used in temporal clauses to denote Repeated action : Id ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat, when he had said this, he was wont to hurl a spear. Ut quisque veniret, as each one arrived. 2. In any temporal clause, the Subjunctive may be used in the second person singular to denote an indefinite subject, you, one, any one : Ubi periclum facias, when you make the trial. TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Dum, Donee, AND Quoad 603. Rule. — I. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning as long as, take the Indicative : Hoc feci, dum licuit, / did this as long as it was allowed. Quoad potuit, restitit, he resisted as long as he could. Digitized by Microsoft® 168 SYNTAX II. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take : 1. The Indicative, Present, Perfect, or Future Perfect, when the action is viewed as an actual fact : Quoad renuntiatum est, until it was actually announced. 2. The Subjunctive, Present or Imperfect, when the action is viewed as something desired, proposed, or conceived : Exspeotas duui dioat, you are waiting until he speaks (i.e. that he may speak). Ea continebis quoad te videam, you will keep them until I see you. 604. Special Constructions of dum and donee. — ■ Note the following : 1. Dum, meaning while, as distinguished from as long as, generally takes the Historical Present Indicative (533, 4) : Dum ea geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, tohile those things loere taking place, it was announced, to Caesar. 2. Donee belongs chiefly to poetry and late prose. TEMPORAL CLAUSES WITH Antequam AND Priusquam 605. Rule. — I. In Temporal clauses with antequam and priusquam the Present and Perfect are put in the Indicative when the action is viewed as an Actual Fact, and in the Subjunctive when the action is viewed as something De- sired, Proposed, or Conceived : Nee prius respexi quam veniraus, nor did I look back until we arrived. Priusquam inoipias, consults opus est, before you begin, there is need of deliberation. II. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put in the Sub- junctive : Paucis ante diebus quam Syracusae caperentur, a few days before Syra- cuse was taken. Antequam de ineo adventii audive potuissent, before they were able (had been able) to hear of my approach. Non prius egressus est quam rex eum in fldem reciperet, he did not withdraw until the king took him under his protection. Digitized by Microsoft® ORIGIN AND EARLY USE OF THE INFINITIVE 169 INFINITIVE. — SUBSTANTIVE GLAUS ES 606. The Infinitive is a verbal noun with special characteris- tics. Like verbs, it has voice and tense, takes adverbial modifiers, and governs oblique cases. 607. Rule. — Infinitive. — Many verbs admit the Infinitive to complete or qualify their meaning : Cupio videre, qui id audeat dicere, / desire to see who will dare to say this. Desino quaerei'e, I forbear to inquire. Quid facere cogitas, what do you intend to do ? Dubitas abire, do you hesitate to depart f Debes boo rescribere, you ought to write this in reply. 1. Tlie Infinitive is used especially with transitive verbs meaning to dare, desire, determine; to begin, continue, end; to know, learn; to intend, pre- pare; to hesitate, not to care, refuse ; to owe, be under obligations, etc. 2. The Inflnitive is also used with Intransitive verbs meaning to be able, to be wont, be accustomed, etc. ORIGIN, EAELY USE, AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFINITIVE 608. Originally the Latin Infinitive appears to have been made up of Dative and Locative forms of a verbal noun. Indeed, it is sometimes used with nearly the same force as the Dative of Pur- pose or End (425, 3). Thus : 1. With many Intransitive verbs : N5n populare penates venimus, we have not come to lay waste your homes. 2. With Transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative : Pecus egit altos visere montes, he drove his herd to visit the lofty mountains. 3. Sometimes with verbs which usually take the Subjunctive: Gentem hortor amare fooos, / exhort the race to love their homes. 4. With a few adjectives : Est paratus audire, he is prepared to hear. Avidi committere pilgnam, eager to engage in battle. Erat dignus amari, he was worthy to be loved. 609. Infinitive as Object or Subject. — From this early use of the Infinitive was developed its use as a General Modifier of the verb and as the Direct Object of the action : Digitized by Microsoft® 170 SYNTAX Mortem eftugere nemo potest, no one is able to escape death. Magna negotia volunt agere, they wish to perform great deeds. 1. From the use of the Infinitive as the direct object of the action was developed its use as the Subject of the verb : Deoreverunt non dare signum, they decided not to give the signal. Decre- tum est non dare signum, it was decided not to give the signal. 610. Historical Infinitive. — In lively descriptions, the Present Infinitive, like the Historical Present, is sometimes used for the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. It is then called the Historical Infinitive, and, like a finite verb, has its subject in the Nominative : Catillna in prima acie versari, omnia providers, multum ipse pilgnare, saepe hostem ferire, Catiline was active in the front line, he attended to every- thing, fouijht much in person, and often smote down the enemy. 1. The Historical Infinitive sometimes denotes customary action. 2. The subject of an Infinitive, when not historical. Is put in the Accusa- tive (415). 3. An Infinitive and its subject, with their modifiers, form what is called an Infinitive clause, in distinction from the simple Infinitive. 611. Passive Construction. — When a Transitive verb, which has an Accusative and an Infinitive depending upon it, becomes Passive, it may admit one or both of the following constructions : 1. The Personal construction, in which the noun or pronoun which is the object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. 2. The Impersonal construction, in which the verb is used imperson- ally. 612. A Predicate Noun, or a Predicate Adjective, after an Infinitive, or a Participle in a compound tense of an Infinitive, agrees with the noun or pronoun of which it is predicated, according to the general rules of agreement (393, 394). It is thus put : 1. In the Nominative, when it is predicated of the principal subject. 2. In the Accusative, when predicated of the subject of the Infinitive. mriNITIVE CLAUSE AS OBJECT 613. The Accusative and an Infinitive, or an Infinitive with a Subject Accusative, is used as the Object of a great variety of verbs, especially of verbs of Perceiving, Thinking, and Declaring ; Digitized by Microsoft® USE Oil' THE INFINITIVE 171 Sentlmus nivem esse albam, we perceive that snow is white. Nemo umquam proditorl credendum putavit, no one ever thought that we ought to trnat a traitor. Simonidem primum ferunt artem memoriae protulisse, they say that Simonides was the first to make known the art of memory. 614. An Infinitive Clause is also used as the Object of verbs of Wishing, Desiring, Commanding, and their opposites,' and of verbs of Emotion and Feeling ' : Tg tua frui virtute cupimus, we desire that you should enjoy your virtue. Pontem iubet resoindi, he orders the bridge to be broken down. LSx eum necari vetuit, the law forbade that he should be put to death. Gaudeo id te miiil suadere, I rejoice that you give me this advice. 1. Several verbs involving a Wish or a Command admit the Subjunctive, with or without ut or ne, when a new subject is introduced. 2. Volo, nolo, malo, and cupio also admit the simple Infinitive. INFINITIVE OR INFINITIVE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT 615. An Infinitive, or an Infinitive Clause, is often used as the Subject of a verb : Infinitive. — Dlligl iucundum est, to be loved is pleasant. Facere fortia Romanum est, to do brave deeds is Soman. Infinitive Clause. — Caesari nilntiatum est equites acoedere, it was an- nounced to Caesar that the cavalry was approaching. Faoinus est vincire civem Romanum, to bind a Roman citizen is an outrage. 616. Special Constructions. — An Infinitive Clause is some- times used 1. As a Predicate : Exitus fuit Srationis sibi niillam cum his amicitiam esse posse, the close of his oration loas that he could have no friendship with these. 2. As an Appositive : Oraculum erat datum viotrices Athenas fore, an oracle had been given that Athens would be victorious. 3. In Exclamations: Te sic vexarl, that you should be thus troubled ! 4. In the Ablative Absolute : Audits Dareum movisse, pergit, having heard that Darius had withdrawn (that Darius had withdrawn having been heard) he advanced. 1 As cupio, volo, nolo, etc. ; impero, veto, etc. ; g'audeo, doleo, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® 172 SYNTAX TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 617. The three tenses of the Infinitive represent the action respectively as present, past, or future, relatively to that of the principal verb. The Present denotes that the action is contem- poraneous with that of the principal verb, the Perfect, that it is prior to it, and the Puture, that it is subsequent to it. 618. The Present Infinitive denotes Contemporaneous Action: Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest, do not wish that which cannot be accomplished. Cats esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be good rather than to seem good. 1. After the past tenses of debeo, oportet, and possum, the Present Infinitive is generally used where our idiom would lead us to expect the Perfect : Liberos tuos erudire debuisti, you ought to have educated your children. N8n suscipi bellum oportuit, the war should not have been undertaken. Id facere potuit, he might have done this. 619. The Future Infinitive denotes Subsequent Action : Amioitiae nostras memoriam spero sempiternam fore, / hope that the recollection of our friendship loill be eternal. SS eversurum civitatem mina- batur, he threatened that he would overthrow the state. 1. Instead of the regular Future Infinitive, the Periphrastic form, futii- rum esse ut, or fore ut, with the Subjunctive is sometimes used : Spero fore ut contingat id nobis, / hope (it will come to pass) that this will fall to our lot. Non speraverat fore ut ad se deficerent, he had not hoped that they would revolt to him. 620. The Perfect Infinitive denotes Prior Action : Platonem ferunt didicisse Pythagorea omnia, they say that Plato learned all the doctrines of Pythagoras. 1. The Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used where our idiom requires the Present, but it generally calls attention to the completion of the action : Quibus lex consultum esse vult, whose interests the law requires us to consult. 2. The Perfect Passive Infinitive, like the Perfect Passive Indicative, sometimas denotes the result of the action. Thus doctum esse may mean either to have been instructed, or to be a learned man. Digitized by Microsoft® CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDIVES AND GERUNDS 173 GERUNDIVES AND GERUNDS 621. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective or participle, which is used in. several special constructions. With the verb, sum, it forms the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation, which may be either Personal or Impersonal. 1. The Passive Periphrastic Conjugation of Transitive verbs generally takes the personal construction : Ocoultae inimicitiae timendae sunt, concealed hostilities are to be feared. 2. The Passive Periphrastic conjugation of Intransitive verbs always takes the impersonal construction : Resistendum senectuti est ; pugnandum contra senectutem, we must resist old age; we must fight against old age. 622. The Gerundive is sometimes used as a Predicate Accusar tive to denote the Purpose of the action, chiefly after verbs of Giving, Delivering, Sending, Permitting, Undertaking, Caring for, etc., — do, trado, mitto, suscipio, euro, etc. : Hos Aeduis custediendos tradit, these he delivered to the Aedui to guard. Caesar pontem £aoiendum curat, Caesar has a bridge made. 623. The Gerundive in direct agreement with a noun in an oblique case forms with that noun what is called the Gerundive construction : CSnsilia urbis delendae, }Mns for destroying the city (of the city to be de- stroyed). 624. The Neuter of the Gerundive, used impersonally, forms the Gerund, a verbal noun which shares so largely the character of a verb that it governs oblique cases and takes adverbial modifiers : Sum cupidus te audiendi, / am desirous of hearing you. Ad bene vlven- dum, for living well. USB OF CASES IN THE GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION AND IN GERUNDS 625. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative occur both in the Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds, and in general they conform to the ordinary rules for the use of cases. Digitized by Microsoft® 174 SYNTAX 626. Genitive. — The Genitive in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds is used with nouns and adjectives: Gerundive. — Inita sunt oonsilia urbis delendae, plans have been formed for destroying the city. Platonis studiosus audiendi, desirous of hearing Plato. Gerund. — Ars Vivendi, the art of living. lus vocandi senatum, the right of summoning the senate. ] . In the Gerundive construction with the pronouns mei, tui, suT, nostri, and vestri, the Gerundive ends in di, as these pronouns were originally pos- sessives in the Genitive singular masculine : Sul purgandl causa, for the sake of excusing themselves. 637. Dative. — The Dative is rare both in Gerundive construc- tions and in Gerunds, but it occurs with a few verbs and adjectives which regularly govern the Dative : Numa sacerdotibus creandls animum adiecit, Numa turned his mind to the appointment of the priests. Cum solvendo non essent, since they were not able to pay. Sunt acuendis puerorum ingeniis non inutiles liisiis, games are useful (not useless) for sharpening the intellects of boys. 628. Accusative. — The Accusative in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds is used with a few prepositions, generally with ad : Haec res Caesari dif&oultatem ad consilium capiendum adferebat, this fact presented a difficulty to Caesar in the way of forming his plans. Ad audi- endum paratl suraus, we are prepared to hear. 629. Ablative. — The Ablative of Separation and Source in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds generally takes a preposition, — a, ab, de, e, or ex : Deterrere a scribendo, to deter from writing. De nostro amioo placando, in regard to appeasing our friend. 630. The Instrumental Ablative in Gerundive constructions and in Gerunds is generally used without a preposition: Legendis oratoribus, by reading the orators. Salatem hoininibus.dando, by giving safety to men. 631. The Locative Ablative generally takes the preposition in: Virtates oernuntuv in agendo, virtues are seen in action- Digitized by Microsoft® USE OF PARTICIPLES SUPINES 632. The Supine, like the Gerund, is a verbal noun. It has a form in um, an Accusative, and a form in u, generally an Abla- tive, though perhaps sometimes a Dative. Supines in um 633. Rule. — The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion to express purpose : Legati venerunt res repetitum, deputies came to demand restitution. 1. The Supine in ^xm is sometimes used after verbs whioli do not directly express motion. 634. The Supine in um is not very common, though it occurs in a large number of verbs, but Purpose may be denoted by various other constructions.; see 568, 590, 622. Supines in u 635. Rule. — The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative ; sometimes perhaps as a Dative : liicundum auditu, agreeable to hear (in hearing). Difficile dictii, difficult to tell. PARTICIPLES 636. The Participle is a verbal adjective which governs the same cases as the verb to which it belongs : Animus se non videns alia cernit, the mind, though it does not see itself (not seeing itself), discerns other things. 1. Participles are sometimes used as substantives ; see 494. 2. Participles used as substantives sometimes retain tbe adverbial modi- fiers which belong to them as participles : Praemia reote factorum, the rewards of good deeds. 637. Participles are sometimes equivalent to Qualifying Eela- tive clauses : Omnes aliud agerites, aliud simulantes, improbi, all viho do one thing and pretend another are dishonest. Digitized by Microsoft® 176 SYNTAX 638. Participles are sometimes equivalent to Adverbial clauses. 1. Participles sometimes denote Time, Cause, Manner, Means : Plato scrlbens est mortuus, Plato died while writing. Sol orlens diem confioit, the sun by its rising causes the day. 2. Participles sometimes denote Condition, or Concession : Reluctante natura, Inritus labor est, if nature opposes, efort is vain. 3. Participles sometimes denote Purpose : Dedit ralhl eplstulam legendam tuam, he gave me your letter to read. 639. Participles are sometimes used in Latin where principal clauses would be required in English : Classem devictam cepit, he conquered and took the fleet. 640. The Tenses of Participles, Present, Perfect, and Future, represent the time, respectively, as Present, Past, and Future relatively to that of the principal verb. INDIRECT DISCOURSE— ORATIO OBLIQUA 641. Direct and Indirect Discourse. — When a writer or speaker expresses thoughts in the original words of the author, he is said to use the Direct Discourse, Oratio Recta ; but when he expresses thoughts, whether his own, or those of another, in any other form, he is said to use the Indirect Discourse, Oratio Obliqua. The Indirect Discourse regularly depends upon a verb of Saying, Thinking, Perceiving, etc. : Direct. — Plato in Italiam venit, Plato came into Italy. Indirect with ferunt. — ^Platonem ferunt in Italiam venisse, they say that Plato came into Italy. MOODS AND TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE Moods in Principal Clauses 642. Rule. ■ — The principal clauses of the Direct Dis- course, on becoming Indirect, take the Infinitive with the Subject Accusative when Declarative, and the Subjunctive when Interrogative or Imperative : Digitized by Microsoft® INDIRECT DISCOURSE 177 Dico classem niaguam superatam esse,^ I say that a large fleet was con- quered. Respondit se id facturum, lie replied that he would do it. Pauca respondit ; quid sib! vellet ? ciir in suas possessiones veniret,'' he replied briefly: ichat did he (Caesar) wishi why did he come into his possessions? Scribit Labieno cum legione veniat,^ he writes to Labienus to come (that he should come) with his legion. 1. The verb on which the Infinitive depends is often omitted. 2. Khetorical Questions, which are questions only in form, talie the In- finitive. Moods in Subordinate Clauses 643. Rule. — The subordinate clauses of the Direct Dis- course, on becoming Indirect, take the Subjunctive: Dico classem quae ad Italiam raperetur, superatam esse,^ I say that a fleet, which was hurrying toward Italy, teas conquered. Respondit, se id quod in Nerviis fecisset, factiirum,* he replied that he would do that which he had done in the case of the Nervii. 1. Parenthetical and explanatory clauses introduced into the Indirect Discourse, without strictly forming a part of it, take the Indicative : Referunt silvam esse, quae appellatur Bacenis, they report that there is a forest which is called Bacenis. 644. Tenses in the Indirect Discourse generally conform to the ordinary rules for the use of tenses in the Subjunctive and Infinitive ; but notice the following special points : 1. The Present and Perfect may be used even after an. historical tense, to impart a more lively effect to the narrative. 2. The Future Perfect in a subordinate clause of the direct discourse is changed in the indirect into the Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and into the Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense. PRONOUNS AND PERSONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 645. In passing from the Direct Discourse to the Indirect, pronouns of the first and second persons are generally changed 1 In Direct Discourse tliese examples would read (1) classis magna superata est, (2) id faciam. 2 In Direct Discourse these examples would read (1) quid tibi vis? cur in meas possession§s venisfand (2) cum legione veni. ' Direct, classis quae ad Italiam rapiebatur superata est. * Direct, faciam idquod in Nerviis feci. HAKK. a. a. LAT. GKAM. — 13 Digitized by Microsoft® 178 SYNTAX to pronouns of the third person, and the first and second persons of verbs are generally changed to the third person : Hippias gloriatus est, pallium quo amictus esset, se sua manu i oonfecisse, Hippias boasted that he had made with his own hands the cloak which he wore. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 646. Conditional sentences of the First and of the Second Form in the Indirect Discourse take the Subjunctive in the Condition and the Infinitive in the Conclusion: Respondit si quid Caesar se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere, he replied that if Caesar wished anything of him, he ought to come to him. 647. Conditional Sentences of the Third Form in the Indirect Discourse depending on a verb of Saying, Thinking, etc., retain the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive unchanged in the Con- dition, regardless of the Tense of the Principal verb, but in the Conclusion they take the Periphrastic Infinitive, the Present in urum esse when the condition belongs to present time, and the Perfect in urum fuisse vsrhen it belongs to past time : Clamitabat, neque aliter Carnutes consilium fuisse captilros, neque EburS- nes, si ille adesset, ad castra ventiiros esse, he cried out that otherwise the Carnutes would not have conceived the purpose, nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp. 648. Conditional Sentences of the Third Form depending on verbs which require the Subjunctive admit the following con- structions : I. If the condition relates to present time, the entire sentence remains unchanged. II. If the condition relates to past time, the condition remains un- changed, but the conclusion, though unchanged in the passive, may take the Perfect Subjunctive of the Periphrastic Conjugation in the active : Die quidnam factiirus fueris si censor fuisses, say what you would have done, if you had been censor. Soimus quid, si vixisset, facturus fuerit, we know what he would have done if he had lived. m — 1 Direct, ego mea manil. Ego becomes se, and mea becomes sua. Digitized by Microsoft® INDIRECT DISCOURSE 179 IlfDIRECT CLAUSES 649. Indirect Discourse in its widest application includes, not only reported speeches, but all indirect clauses. I. Subordinate Clauses containing statements made on the authority of any other person than that of the speaker, or on the authority of the speaker at any other time than that when the statements are reported, regularly take the Subjunctive : Laudat Africanum quod fuerit abstinens,i he praises Africanus because he was temperate. Libros quos frater suus rellquisset,^ mihl donavit, he gave me the books which his brother had left. II. Indirect Questions are subordinate interrogative clauses and accordingly take the Subjunctive : Epamlnondas quaeslvit salvusne esset olipeus,' Epaminondas inquired whether his shield was safe. Qualis sit animus, animus nescit, what the nature of the soul may be, the soul knows not. MIror ciir me acoiisSs, / wonder why you accuse me. 650. Indirect Double Questions are generally introduced by the same interrogative particles as those which are direct (380). 1. An, in the sense of whether not, implying an aflSrmative, is used after expressions of doubt and uncertainty: dubito an, nescio an, baud scio an, I doubt whether not, I know not whether not = / am inclined to think. 651. Indirect Questions must be carefully distinguished 1. From clauses introduced by relative pronouns or relative adverbs. These always have an antecedent expressed or understood, and are never, as a whole, the subject or object of a verb. 2. From clauses introduced by nescio quis = quidam, some one, nescio quo modo = quodam modo, in some way, mirum quantum, wonderfully much, wonderfully, etc. 652. Clauses closely dependent upon an Infinitive or upon a Subjunctive are virtually Indirect clauses, and as such they gen- erally take the Subjunctive : 1 Quod . . . abstinens, on the ground that, etc., the reason in the mind of the eulogist, not of the historian. 2 Quos . . . reliquisset, which he said his brother had left. ^ Here no question is directly aslied ; we are simply told that Epaminondas asked a question, hut this statement involves the question, salvusne est olipeus, is my shield safef Digitized by Microsoft® 180 SYNTAX Quam bellum fuit ooiifiteri iiescire quod uescires, what a fine thing it was to admit not to know vihat you did not know. Vereor ne, diim minuere velim laborem, augeam, / fear that while I wish to diminish the labor, I shall increase it. 653. The directions already given for converting the Direct Discourse, Oratio Recta, into the Indirect, Oratio Obliqua, are further illustrated in the following jDassage from Caesar: Direct Discourse. Indirect Discourse. Ariovistus respondit : Transii Rhenum uon mea sponte Transisse Rheiium non sua sed rogatus et arcessitus a Gallls ; sponte sed rogatum et arcessitum non sine magna spe magnisque prae- a Gallis ; non sine magna spe mag- miis domum propinquosque reliqui ; nisque praemiTs domum propin- sedes habeo in Gallia ab ipsis con- quosque relTquisse ; sedes habere cessas, obsides ipsorum voluntate in Gallia ab ipsIs conoessas, obsides datos ; stipendium capio iure belli, ipsorum voluntate datos ; stipendium quod victores victis imponere con- capere iiire belli quod victores victis suerunt. Non ego Gallls sed Galll imponere consuerint. Non sese mihi bellum intulerunt. Gallis sed Gallos sibi bellum intu- lisse. USE OF PARTICLES USE OF ADVERBS 654. Rule. — Adverbs qualify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs : Sapientes semper feliciter vivunt, the wise always live happily. Res hand sane difflcilis, a thing not so very difficult. 655. The common negative particles are non, ne, hand. Non is the usual negative ; ne is used with the Optative and Volitive Subjunctive and with the Imperative. 656. Two negatives are generally equivalent to an affirmative, as in English : Aperte adulantem nemo non videt, every one recognizes the open flatterer. 1. Non before a general negative gives it the force of an indefinite affirmative, but after such negative the force of a general afSrmative : non ngtrio, some one non nihil, something non nnmquRm, sometimes nemo non, every one nihil non, everything numquam nou.,- always Digitized by Microsoft® USE OF COORDINATE CONJUN'CTIONS 181 2. After a general negative, ne . . . quidem gives emphasis to tlie nega- tion, and neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve, and tlie lilce, repeat tlie negation dlstributively : Numquam Scipionem ne minima quidem re offendl, never have I displeased Scipio even in the smallest thing. 3. Non modo (or solum) non, sed ne . . . quidem means not only not, but not even, and non modo (solum), sed ne . . . quidem, sometimes has tlie same meaning. USE OF COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 657. Copulative Conjunctions (315) meaning and, also, and not, unite similar constructions : Castor et PoUiix, Castor and Pollux. Etiam atque etiam, again and again. Senatus populusque, the senate and people. Veni Athenas neque me quis- quam agnovit, I went to Athens, and no one recognized me. 1. Et simply connects ; que implies a more intimate relationship ; atque and ac generally give prominence to what follows. Neque and neo have the force of et non. Et and etiam sometimes mean even. 2. Copulatives are sometimes used as correlatives : et . . . et, neque (neo) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor. 3. Between two words the copulative is generally expressed, though it is omitted between the names of consuls : L. Domltio, Ap. Claudio consulibus, in the consulship of Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius. i. Asyndeton. — Between several words the copulative is in general either repeated or omitted altogether. A union of coordinate words without the connective is called Asyndeton. 658. Disjunctive Conjunctions (315, 2) meaning or, either . . . or, offer a choice between two objects : TibI ego, aut tii mihi servus es, / am servant to you or you to me. 659. Adversative Conjunctions (315, 3) denote Opposition or Contrast : Cupio me esse clementem, sed me inertiae condemns, I wish to be mild, but I condemn myself for inaction. 660. Illative Conjunctions (315, 4) denote Inference: Nihil obstat ; ergo omnia prospere, igitur beats, there is no opposition, therefore all things are moving prosperously, therefore happily. 661. Causal Conjunctions (315, 5) denote Cau.se: N6mo enim maeret suo incommode, for no one mourns over his own mis- fortune. Digitized by Microsoft® 182 SYNTAX RULES OP SYNTAX 662. For convenience of reference, the principal Eules of Syntax are here introduced in a body. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE — RULES OF AGREEMENT 1. The subject of a Finite Verb is put in the JSTominative (387). 2. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per- son (388). 3. A noun used as an Appositive or as a Predicate of another noun denoting the same person or thing agrees with it in Case (393). 4. Adjectives, whether Attributive or Predicate, agree with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (394). 5. Pronouns agree with their antecedents in Gender, Num- ber, and Person (396). VOCATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE 6. The name of the person or thing addressed is put in the Vocative (402). 7. The Direct Object of an action is put in the Accusative (404). 8. Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Regarding, Showing, and the like, admit Two Accusatives of the Same Person or Thing (410). 9. Some verbs of Asking, Demanding, Teaching, and Conceal- ing admit two Accusatives, — one of the Person and one of the Thing (411). 10. Many transitive verbs admit both an Accusative and an Infinitive (414). 11. Subject of Infinitive. — The Infinitive sometimes takes an Accusative as its subject (415). 12. Accusative of Specification. — In poetry, rarely in prose, a verb or an adjective may take an Accusative to Define its Appli- cation (416). 13. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusative (417). Digitized by Microsoft® RULES OF SYNTAX 183 14. The Place towards which the motion is directed as its End or Limit is generally denoted by the Accusative with ad or in, but in the names of Towns by the Accusative alone (418). 16. The Accusative may take a Preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended (420). 16. The Accusative, either with or without an interjection, may be used in Exclamations (421). DATIVE 17. The Indirect Object of an action is put in the Dative. It may be used either alone or in connection with the Direct Object (424). 18. Two Datives — the Object To Which and the Object or End Eor Which — are used with a few verbs, either alone or in con- nection with the Direct Object (433). 19. Many adjectives take the Dative as the Indirect Object of the quality denoted by them (434). 20. The Dative is used with a few special nouns and adverbs derived from primitives which take the Dative (436). GENITIVE 21. A noun used as an Attributive or Predicate of another noun denoting a different person or thing is put in the Genitive (439). 22. Many adjectives take an Objective Genitive to complete their meaning (450). 23. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting — memini, remiui- scor, and obliviscor — regularly take the Objective Genitive when used of Persons, but either the Genitive or the Accusative when used of Things (454). 24. Verbs of Eeminding, Admonishing, and Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Condemning, Acquitting, take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing, Crime, Charge, etc. (456). 25. Misereor and miseresco take the Objective Genitive ; mise- ret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet take the Accusative of the Person and the Genitive of the Object which produces the feeling (457). Digitized by Microsoft® 184 SYNTAX ABLATIVE I. Ablative Proper 26. The Ablative of Separation is generally used -with a prepo- sition — a, ab, de, or ex — when it represents a person or is used with a verb compounded with ab, de, dis, se, or ex (461). 27. The Ablative of Separation is generally used without a preposition when it is the name of a town, or is used after a verb meaning to relieve, free, deprive, need, or be without (462). 28. The Ablative of Source, including Agency, Parentage, and Material, generally takes a preposition, — a, ab, de, e, or ex (467). 29. Comparatives without quam are followed by the Ablative (471). II. Instnunental Ablative 30. The Ablative of Association is used (473) : (1) To denote Accompaniment, or Association in a strict sense. It then takes the preposition cum. (2) To denote Characteristic or Quality. It is then modified by an adjective or by a Genitive. (3) To denote Manner or Attendant Circumstance. It then takes the preposition cum, or is modified by an adjective or by a Genitive. 31. The Ablative of Cause, designating the Cause, Ground, or Reason for an action, is used without a preposition (475). 32. The Instrument . and Means of an action are denoted by the Ablative without a preposition (476). 33. Means. — Special Uses. — The Ablative of Means is used (477) : 1. With utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their com- pounds. 2. With verbs of Abounding and Filling, and with adjectives of Fullness. 3. With opus and usus. 34. Price and Value are denoted by the Ablative, if expressed definitely or by means of Nouns, but by the Genitive or Ablative, if expressed indefinitely by means of Adjectives (478). Digitized by Microsoft® RULES OF SYNTAX 185 35. The Measure of Difference is denoted by tlie Ablative (479). 36. Ablative of Specification. — A Noun, Adjective, or Verb may take an Ablative to define its application (480). III. Locative and Locative Ablative 37. The Place In Which anything is done is denoted generally by the Locative Ablative with the preposition in, but in names of Towns by the Locative (483). 38. The Time At or In Which an action takes place is denoted by the Ablative without a preposition (486). 39. Ablative Absolute. — A noun with a participle, an adjective, or another noun, may be put in the Ablative to add to the predi- cate an Attendant Circumstance (489). 40. The Ablative may take a preposition to aid in expressing the exact relation intended (490) . USE OF THE INDICATIVE 41. The Indicative is used in treating of facts (523). SEQUENCE OF TENSES 42. Principal Tenses depend on Principal Tenses, and Histor- ical on Historical (543). SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 43. The Potential Subjunctive is used to represent the action, not as real, but as Possible or Conditional. The negative is non (552). 44. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express pure Desire without any idea of authority, as in prayers and wishes. The negative is ne (558). 45. The Volitive Subjunctive is used to represent the action, not as real, but as Willed. The negative is ne. This Subjunc- tive covers a wide range of feeling and comprises the following varieties (559): Digitized by Microsoft® 186 SYNTAX (1) The Hortative Subjunctive, used in Exhortations, but only in the first person plural of the Present tense. (2) The Imperative or Jussive Subjunctive, used chiefly in the third person, and generally best rendered by let; but see 560. (3) The Concessive Subjunctive, used in Admissions and Con- cessions. (4) The Deliberative Subjunctive, used in Deliberative or Doubting Questions, implying that the speaker is in doubt in regard to the proper course to be pursued, and that he desires to be directed. IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 46. In commands the Subjunctive and Imperative supplement each other, the Imperative being used in the second person and the Subjunctive in the third (560). SUBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 47. Substantive Clauses. — The Subjunctive, generally with ut or ne, may be used in Substantive Clauses which involve Purpose. Thus (564): (1) In Substantive Clauses used as the Objects of Verbs. (2) In Substantive Clauses used as Subjects or Predicates. (3) In Substantive Clauses used as Appositives. 48. Final Clauses. — The Subjunctive is used with ut, ne, quo, quo minus, quominus, to denote the Purpose of the action (568). 49. The Potential Subjunctive is used in Subordinate clauses, whatever the connective, to represent the action as Possible or Conditional, rather than real (569). 50. Consecutive Clauses. — The Potential Subjunctive is used with ut, or ut non, to denote the Result of the action (570). 51. Substantive Clauses. — The Potential Subjunctive is often used with ut and ut non in Substantive Clauses as follows (571) : (1) In Subject clauses, with certain Impersonal verbs meaning it happens, it follows, etc. Digitized by Microsoft® RULES OF SYNTAX 187 (2) In Subject clauses with Predicate nouns and adjectives. (3) In Object clauses depending upon faoio, efBcio, etc., of the action of irrational forces. (4) In clauses in Apposition with nouns or pronouns. CONDITIONAL, CONCESSIVE, AND CAUSAL CLAUSES 62. The Indicative in Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, Bin, assumes the supposed case as Real (574). 53. The Present or Perfect Subjunctive in Conditional Sen- tences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Possible (576). 54. The Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences with si, nisi, ni, sin, assumes the supposed case as Contrary to Fact (579). 55. Conditional Clauses of Comparison, introduced by ac si, ut si, quam si, quasi, tamquam, tamquam si, velut, velut si, as if, than if, take the Subjunctive (584). 56. Etsi and etiam si, when they mean although, introduce Adversative clauses and take the Indicative, but when they mean even if, they introduce Conditional clauses, and accordingly take the same construction as si (585). 57. (1) Clauses introduced by quamquam and tametsi contain admitted facts, and accordingly take the Indicative (586). (2) Clauses introduced by licet, quam-vis, ut, or ni, are Con- cessive, and accordingly take the Concessive Subjunctive (559, 3). 58. The Jussive Subjunctive is used with dum, modo, modo ut, and dummodo, meaning if only, provided, in conditional clauses of desire (587). 59. Causal Clauses with quod, quia, quoniam, quando, generally take (588) : (1) The Indicative to assign a reason positively, on one's own authority. (2) The Subjunctive to assign a reason doubtfully, or on another's authority. Digitized by Microsoft® 188 SYNTAX KELATIVE CLAUSES AND QUiN CLAUSES 60. Clauses introduced by the Relative qui, or by Relative Adverbs, ubi, unde, quo, etc., take (589) : (1) The Indicative, when they simply state or assume facts, without any accessory notion of .Purpose, Result, Concession, or Cause. (2) The Subjunctive in all other cases. 61. (1) Quin in direct questions and commands takes the ordinary construction of independent sentences (594). (2) Quin in Subordinate Clauses takes the Subjunctive. CUM CLAUSES, TEMPORAL CLAUSES 62. In writers of the best period, Causal and Concessive Clauses with cum take the Subjunctive (598). 63. Temporal Clauses introduced by cum, meaning when, ivhile, after, take (600) : (1) The Indicative in the Present, Perfect, and Future Tenses. (2) The Subjunctive in the Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses. 64. Temporal Clauses introduced by the particles postquam, postea quam, after, pridie quam, postridie quam, on the day before, on the day after ; ubi, ut, simul, simul atque, when, as, as soon as, state facts, and accordingly take the Indicative, generally the Per- fect, or the Historical Present (602). 65. I. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning as long as, take the Indicative (603). II. Temporal clauses with dum, donee, and quoad, meaning until, take : (1) The Indicative, Present, Perfect, or Future Perfect, when the action is viewed as an Actual Pact. (2) The Subjunctive, Present or Imperfect, when the action is viewed as something Desired, Proposed, or Conceived. 66. (X) III Temporal clauses with antequam and priusquam the Present and Perfect are put in the Indicative when the action is Digitized by Microsoft® ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 189 viewed as an Actual Fact, and in the Subjunctive when the action is viewed as something Desired, Proposed, or Conceived (605). (2) The Imperfect and Pluperfect are put in the Subjunctive. INFINITIVE AND SUPINE 67. Infinitive. — Many verbs admit the Infinitive to complete or qualify their meaning (607). 68. The Supine in um is used with verbs of motion to express Purpose (633). 69. The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative, some- times perhaps as a Dative (635). MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 70. iPrincipal Clauses. — The Principal clauses of the Direct Discourse on becoming Indirect take the Infinitive with the Sub- ject Accusative when Declarative, and the Subjunctive when Interrogative or Imperative (642). 71. Subordinate Clauses. — The Subordinate clauses of the Di- rect discourse on becoming Indirect take the Subjunctive (643). ADVERBS 72. Adverbs qualify Verbs, Ad j ectives, and other Adverbs (654) . ARRANGEMENT OP "WORDS AND CLAUSES 663. The Latin allows great variety in the arrangement of the different parts of the sentence, but there are certain general laws which it will be useful to notice. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SIMPLE SENTENCE General Rules 664. The Subject followed by its modifiers occupies the first place in the sentence, and the Predicate preceded by its modifiers the last place : Sol'briens ef occidens aiem noctemque coiiflcit, the sun by its rising and setting makes day and night. .... Digitized by Microsoft® 190 SYNTAX 1. The Modifiers of the Subject either follow it or are grouped around it. 2. The place directly before the verb is generally occupied by the Direct object, or by an Adverb which directly qualifies the action. 8. The Indirect object generally stands before the Direct. 4. Expressions of Place, Time, or Means generally stand before the other modifiers of the verb, often even before the subject. 665. Emphasis and the relative importance of different parts of the sentence often cause a departure from the Grammatical arrangement just described. Thus, 1. Any word, except the subject, may be made emphatic by being placed at the beginning of the sentence. 2. Any word, except the predicate, may be made emphatic by being placed at the end of the sentence. 3. In any phrase within a sentence the emphatic word stands first. 666. Two groups of words may be made prominent and em- phatic either by Anaphora or by Chiasmus. 1. Anaphora. — Here the order of words in the second group is identi- cal with that in the first : Me ouncta Italia, me universa clvitas consulem deolaravit, me all Italy, me the whole state proclaimed consul. 2. Chiasmus. — Here the order of words in the first group is reversed in the second : Fragile corpus animus sempitemus movet, the imperishable soul moves the perishable body. 667. Kindred Words. — Different forms of the same word, or different words of the same derivation, are generally placed near each other. Ad senem senex de senectute scripsi, I, an old man, wrote to an old man about old age. 668. A word which has a common relation to two other words connected by conjunctions, is generally placed either before or after both. 669. ]\|oreover, the context often has some share in determining the arrangement of words in the sentence. Digitized by Microsoft® SPECIAL RULES OF ARRANGEMENT lOl 670. Euphony and Khythm. — The best Latin writers in the arrange- ment of words regard sound as well as meaning. They aim at variety in the length, sound, and ending of successive words and pay special atten- tion to the manner in which the sentence closes. Special Rules 671. The Substantive Modifiers of a Noun generally follow it, but Adjective Modifiers may stand either before or after it : aedes lainervae, the temple of Minerva; magister optimus, the best teacher ; Tuscus ager, the Tuscan territory. 672. Modifiers of Adjectives. — Adverbial modifiers generally staud before adjectives while Objective modifiers more commonly follow them : valde magnus, very great; avidus laudis, desirous of praise. 673. The Modifiers of verbs generally stand before them (664). 674. Modifiers of adverbs generally stand before them, but a Dative depending on an adverb usually follows it : valde graviter, very heavily; congruenter naturae, in harmony with nature. 675. Pronouns. — Possessives generally follow the nouns to which they belong, but other pronominal adjectives generally precede their nouns, Demonstratives and Interrogatives regularly. 676. Prepositions generally stand directly before their cases, but tenus and versus follow their cases. 677. Conjunctions and Relatives, when they introduce clauses, gen- erally stand at the beginning of such clauses : but autem, enim, quidem, quoque, vero, and generally igitur, follow some other word. 678. Non, when it qualifies some single word, stands directly before that word; but when it is particularly emphatic, or qualifies the entire clause, it sometimes stands at the beginning of the clause, and sometimes before the finite verb : Homo non probatissiraus, a man by no means the most approved. Non fuit luppiter. metuendus, Jupiter was not to be feared. 1: In general, in negative clauses the negative word, whether particle, verb, 6t noun, is made prominent. Digitized by Microsoft®' 192 SYNTAX 679. Inquam, sometimes aio, introducing a quotation, follows one or more of the words quoted : Nihil habeo, inquit, quod acousem senectiitem, I have nothing, said he, of which to accuse old age. 630. The Vocative rarely stands at the beginning of a sentence. It usually follows an emphatic word : Vos, Quirites, in vestra tecta discedite, you, Bomans, retire to your homes. ARRANGEMENT OE CLAUSES 681. Clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (315, 1) fol- low each other in the natural order of the thought, as in English : Sol ruit et montes umbrantur, the sun hastens to its setting, and the moun- tains are shaded. 682. A clause used as the Subject of a compound sentence (386, 2) generally stands at the Beginning of the sentence, and a clause used as the Predicate at the End : Quid dies ferat incertum est, what a day may bring forth is uncertain. Exitus fuit orationis, sibi nuUam cum his amicitiam esse, the close of the oration was, that he had no friendship with these men. 683. Clauses used as the Subordinate Elements of compound sentences admit three different arrangements. 1. They are generally inserted within the principal clause, like the subordinate elements of a simple sentence : Ariovistus, ex equis ut colloquerentur, postulavit, Ariovistus demanded that they should converse on horseback. 2. They are often placed before the principal clause : Cum quiescunt, probant, wliile they are quiet, they approve. 3. They sometimes follow the principal clause : Sol eflBcit ut omnia floreant, the sun causes all things to bloom. 684. When either the subject or the object is the same both in the Principal and in the Subordinate clause, it usually stands at or near the beginnins of the sentence and is followed by the subordinate clause: Ilia ut potui tull, those things I endured as (well as) I could. Digitized by Microsoft® QUANTITY 193 685. Latin Periods. — A carefully elaborated Latin sentence con- sisting of one or more subordinate clauses inserted in the princi- pal clause, or placed before it, and so combined with it and with each other as to make one complete organic whole, is a Latin Period : Ut quod turpe est, id quamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieli nuUo modo potest ; sio quod honestum nOn est, id utile ut sit effioi non potest, as that which is base, although it may be concealed, can in no way be made honor- able, so that which is not honorable can not by any possibility be made useful. PART v. — PROSODY 686. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification. QUANTITY 687. A syllable is long if it contains a diphthong or a long vowel, or is the result of contraction : haec, dico, nil. 1. Prae in composition is usually short before a vowel : praeaciitus. 688. A syllable is long if its vowel is followed in the same word by a double consonant, or any two consonants except a mute and a liquid : dux, servus, sunt. 1. A syllable is also long before two consonants, even if only one of them belongs to that word ; and in the thesis (725) of a foot it is generally long before a double consonant or two single consonants at the beginning of the following word. Note. — -The aspirate h never affects the quantity of a syllable. 2. A syllable is long before i consonant, except in the compounds of iugiim. 689. A syllable is short if its vowel is followed in the same word by another vowel, by a diphthong, or by the aspirate h : dies, viae, nihil. But a few exceptions occur. 1. For a before another vowel, see 79, 3. 2. For e or e before a vowel, see 134 : diei, fidsi, rii, spei. 3. For i or i before a vowel, see 93, 179, and 296 : fiam, illius, totius. HARK. a. S. LAT. GKAM. — -14 Digitized by Microsoft® 194 PROSODY 690. A syllable is common in quantity if its vowel, naturally short, is followed by a mute and a liquid : agri, patris. 1. A syllable ending in a mute in the first part of a compound before a liquid at the beginning of the second part is long : ab-mmpo, ob-rogo. QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES 691. Monosyllables are generally long: da, si, do, dos, pes, sis, bos, par, sol. But note the following exceptions : 1. Enclitics : que, ve, ne, ce, te, pse, pte. 2. Monosyllables in b, d, 1, m, t : ab, ad, fel, sum, et ; except sal, sol. 3. An, bis, cia, cor, es, fac, fer, in, is, nee, os, per, ter, quis, vlr, vas, and hio and hoc in the Nominative and Accusative. 692. In words of more than one syllable 1. The final vowels i, o, and u are long; a, e, and y, short: audi, servo, fructu ; via, mare, misy. 2. Final syllables in c are long ; in d, 1, m, n, r, t, short : illuo ; iUud, consul, amem, carmen, amor, caput. 3. The final syllables as, es, and os are long ; is, us, ys, short : amas, niibes, servos ; avis, bonus, chlamys. 693. I final, usually long, is short in nisi, quasi ; common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi. 694. O final, usually long, is short in duo, ego, eho, cedo, cito, ilico, modo and its compounds, and sometimes in nouns of the Third Declension and in verbs, though rarely in the best poets. 695. A final, usually short, is long 1. In the Ablative : mensa, bona, ilia. 2. In the Vocative of Greek nouns in as : Aenea, Palla. 3. In certain numerals : triginta, quadraginta, etc. 4. In verbs and particles : ama, cura ; circa, iuxta, antea, frustra ; except ita, quia, heia, and puta used adverbially. 696. E final, usually short, is long 1. In the First and Fifth Declensions : epitome ; die. Hence in hodie, pridie, quare, etc. 2. In the singular Imperative Active of the Second Conjugation : mone, doce. 3. In iere, ferme. She, and in adverbs from adjectives of the Second Declension : docte, recte ; except bene, male. Digitized by Microsoft® QUANTITY IN INCREMENTS 195 697. As final, usually long, is short in a few forms, chiefly Greek. 698. Bs final, usually long, is short 1. In the Nominative singular of the Third Declension with short increment (702) in the Genitive, except abies, aries, paries, Ceres, and compounds of pes, as bipes. 2. In penes and the compounds of es, as ades, potes. 699. Os final, usually long, is short in compos, impos, exos. 700. Is final, usually short, is long 1. In plural oases : mensis, vobis. Hence foris, gratis, ingratis. 2. In Nominatives of the Third Declension, increasing long in the Geni- tive: Quiiis, SalamiB. 3. In the singular Present Indicative Active of the Fourth Conjugation : audis. 4. In the singular Present Subjunctive Active : possis, veils, nolis. 5. Sometimes in the singular of the Puture Perfect and of the Perfect Subjunctive: amaveris, doouerls. Note. — Mavis, quivls, and utervis retain the quantity of vis. 701. XTs final, usually short, is long (1) in Nominatives of the Third Declension increasing long in the Genitive, as virtiis, tellQs, but palus occurs in Horace, and (2) in the Pourth Declension, in the Genitive singu- lar, and in the plural : frilctlis. QUANTITY IN INCBEMENTS 702. A word is said to increase in declension, when it has in any case more syllables than in the Nominative singular, and to have as many increments of declension as it has additional syllables : sermo, sermo- nis, sermonibus.i 703. A verb is said to increase in conjugation, when it has in any part more syllables than in the second person singular of the Present Indicative Active, and to have as many increments of conjugation as it has additional syllables : amas, amatis, amabatis. 704. If there is but one increment, it is uniformly the penult ; if there are more than one, they are the penult with the requisite number of syl- 1 Sermonls, having one syllable more than sermo, has one incTement, while ser-mon-l-bus has two increments, the first mon ; the second i. Digitized by Microsoft® 196 PROSODY lables before it. The increment nearest the beginning of the word is called the First increment, and those following this are called succes- sively the Second, Third, and Fourth increments. Increments of Declension 705. In the Increments of Declension, a and o are long ; e, i, u, and y, short : aetas, aetatibus ; sermo, sermonis ; puer, puerorum ; miles, raiUtis ; fulgur, f ulguris ; chlamys, chlamydis. 706. A, usually long In the increments of declension, is short in the first increment of masculines in al and ar, of nouns in s preceded by a consonant, of lar, nectar, par, and a few other words. 707. O, usually long in the increments of declension, is short in the first increment of neuters in the Third Declension, of nouns i]i s preceded by a consonant, and of a few special words. 708. E, usually short in the increments of declension, is long in the first increment of ver, heres, locuples, merces, quies, inquies, requies, plebs, lex, rex, and generally long in the first increments of nouns of the Fifth Declension. 709. I, usually short in the increments of declension, is long in the first increment of words in ix, and of dis, lis, vis, Quiris, Samnis. 710. XJ, usually short in the increments of declension, is long in the first increment of nouns in us, and of fur, (frflx), friigis, liix. Increments of Conjugation 711. In the Increments of Conjugation (703) a, e, and o are long ; i and u short : amamus, amemus, amatote ; regimus, sumus. 1. For exceptions see the paradigms of verbs. QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVE ENDINGS 712. Note the quantity of the following derivative endings: 1. abrum, acrum, atrum. 2. edo, ido, tfldo ; ago, igo. Ago. 3. ela, He ; aUs, elis, uUs. 4. anus, enus, mus, onus, unus ; ana, ena, ona, iina. &. aris, osus ; avus, ivus, tivus. 6. atUB, etus, itus, otus, iitus. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL VIEW OF VERSIFICATION 197 QUANTITY OF STEM SYLLABLES 713. All simple verbs in 16 of the Third Coniagation have the stem syllable short : capio, cupio, facio, fodio, fugio. 714. Host verbs which form the Perfect in ui, except inceptives, have the stem syllable short : domo, seco, habeo, moneo, alo, oolo. 715. Dissyllabic Perfects, Supines, and Perfect Participles generally have the first syllable long, unless short by position : iuvo, iuvi, iutum. 716. Trisyllabic Reduplicated Perfects generally have the first two syllables short unless the second is long by position : cado, cecidi. 717. In general, inflected forms retain the quantity of stem syllables unchanged unless affected by position: avis, avem; nubes, nubium. 718. Derivatives generally retain the quantity of the stem syllables of their primitives : bonus, bonitas ; animus, animosus ; civis, civious. 719. Compounds generally retain the quantity of their elements ; ante-fero, de-duco, pro-duco; but pro is generally shortened before f followed by a vowel. VERSIFICATION GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT 720. Latin Versification is based upon Quantity. Syllables are combined into certain metrical groups called Feet, and feet, singly or in pairs, are combined into Verses.^ 1. In quantity or time the unit of measure, called a Time or Mora, is a short syllable indicated either by a curve ^^ or by an eighth note in music, n. A long syllable has in general twice the value of a short syllable, and is indicated either by the sign _, or by a quarter note in music, J. 2. Triseme. — A long syllable is sometimes prolonged so as to have the value of three short syllables, indicated by the sign i_, or J . 1 Modern versification is hased upon Accent. An English verse is a, regular combination of Accented and Unaccented syllables, bnt a Latin verse is a similar combination of Long and Short syllables. Compare the following lines : Tell' me not', in mourn'-ful num'-bers, Life' is » but' an emp'-ty dream'. Tru'-di- tur' di- es' di- e'. At'fi- des' et in'-ge- ni'. Digitized by Microsoft® 198 PROSODY 3. Tetraseme. — A long syllable is sometimes prolonged so as to have the value of four short syllables, Indicated by i_i, or J. 4. A long syllable is sometimes shortened so as to have approximately the value of a short syllable, and is marked by the sign > ; and two short syllables sometimes seem to have approximately the value of one, and are marked ^^^. Syllables thus used are said to have Irrational time. 5. The final syllable of a verse, often called syllaba anceps {doubtful syllable), may generally be either long or short at the pleasure of the poet. 721. The feet of most frequent occurrence in the best Latin poets are 1. Feet of Four Times or Four Morae Dactyl one long and two short \j ^ Spondee two long syllables JJ 2. Feet op Three Times or Three Morae Trochee one long and one short ^ J #^ Iambus one short and one long w »^J Tribrach three short syllables w w v ^ ^ ^ legis parens dominus Note 1. — To these may be added the following : Anapaest Lesser Ionic bonitas adulescens Note 2. — A Dipody is a group of two feet ; a Tripody, of three ; a Tetrapody, of four ; etc. 722. Metrical Equivalents. — A long syllable may be resolved into two short syllables, as equivalent to it in quantity, or two short syllables may be contracted into a long syllable. The forms thus produced are metrical equivalents of the original feet. 723. In certain kinds of verse admitting irrational time (720, 4), spondees, dactyls, and anapaests are shortened so that they have approximately the time of a trochee or of an iambus, and thus become metrical equivalents of each of these feet. 1. A spondee used for a trochee is called an Irrational Trochee, and is marked — >. 2. A ^ondee used for an iambus is called an Irrational Iambus, and is marked > — . Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL VIEW OF VERSIFICATION 199 3. A dactyl used for a trochee is called a Cyclic Dactyl, and is marked — \j w or \.^^. 4. An anapaest used for an iambus is called a Cyclic Anapaest, and is marked ^ k_, — or v^^ . 724. Ictus, or Shythmlc Accent. — In the pronunciation of a metrical foot one of the syllables has a special prominence called Rhythmic Accent, or Ictus. 1. Feet consisting of both long and short syllables have the ictus uni- formly on the long syllables, unless used as equivalents for other feet. 2. Equivalents take the ictus of the feet for which they are used. 725. Thesis and Arsis. — In every foot the syllable which has the ictus is called the Thesis (putting down), and the rest of the foot is called the Arsis {raising). 726. Rhythmic Series. — A group of feet forming a single rhythmic unit by the predominance of one ictus over the rest is called a Rhythmic Series, or Colon. 727. Verses. — A verse consists of a single rhythmic series, or of a group of two or three series so united as to form one distinct and separate whole, usually written as a single line of poetry. It has one characteristic or fundamental foot, which determines the ictus for the whole verse. 728. Caesura or Caesural Pause. — Most Latin verses are divided metrically into two nearly equal parts, each of which forms a rhythmic series. The pause, however slight, which separates these parts is called " 1. A Caesura, or a Caesural Pause, when it occurs within a foot (736). 2. A Diaeresis, when it occurs at the end of a foot (736, 2). 729. The full metrical name of a verse consists of three parts. The first designates the characteristic foot, the second gives the number of feet or measures, and the third shows whether the verse is complete or incomplete. Thus 1. A Dactylic Hexameter Acataleotio is a dactylic verse of six feet (Hexameter), all of which are complete (Acataleotic) . Note 1. — A verse with a Dactyl as its characteristic foot is called Dac- tylic ; with a Trochee, Trochaic ; with an Iambus, Iambic ; etc. Digitized by Microsoft® 200 PROSODY Note 2. — A verse consisting of one measure is called Monometer ; of two, Dimeter ; of three, Trimeter ; of four, Tetrameter ; of five. Pentameter ; of six, Hexameter. Note 3. — -A verse which closes with a Complete measure is called Acata- lectic ; with an Incomplete measure, Catalectic ; with an excess of syllables. Hypermetrical. 2. In reading catalectic verses, a pause is introduced in place of the lacking syllable or syllables. 3. A Pause or Rest equal to a short syllable is marked A i a Pause equal to a long syllable is marked 7\ . 730. Verses and stanzas are often designated by names derived from celebrated poets. Thus Alcaic is derived from Alcaeus. 731. A Stanza or Strophe is a combination of two or more verses into one metrical whole. 732. Rhythmical Reading. — In reading Latin verse care must be taken to preserve the words unbroken, to show the quantity of the sylla- bles, and to mark the poetical ictus. 733. Figures of Prosody. — The ancient poets sometimes allowed themselves, in the use of letters and syllables, certain liberties generally termed Figures of Prosody. 1. Elision. — A final vowel, a final diphthotig, or a final m with the preceding vowel, is generally elided before a word beginning with a vowel or with h. 2. Hiatus. — A final vowel or diphthong is sometimes retained before a word beginning with a vowel, especially in the thesis of a foot. 3. Synizesis. — Two syllables are sometimes contracted into one : deinde, iidem, nsdem. 4. Dialysis. — In poetry, two syllables usually contracted into one are sometimes kept distinct : aurai for aurae, soluendus for solvendus. 5. Diastole. — A syllable usually short is sometimes long, especially in the thesis of a foot : Friatnides for Priamides. Note. — This poetic license occurs chiefly in proper names and in final syllables. Vergil uses it quite freely. 6. Systole. — A syllable usually long is sometimes short : tulerunt for tulerunt. 7. Syncope. — An entire foot is sometimes occupied by a single long syllable ; see 720, 3. Digitized by Microsoft® VARIETIES OF VERSE 201 VAEIETIES OF VERSE Dactylic Hexameter 734. All Dactylic Verses consist of Dactyls and their metrical equivalents, Spondees. The ictus is on the first syllable of every foot. 735. The Dactylic Hexameter consists of six feet. The first four are either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth a Dactyl, and the sixth a Spondee (720, 5). The scheme is,^ JL \J\J I ^ W W I jL WW I Z- WW I _d WW I ^ w. Quadrupe- | dante pu- | trem soni- | tu quatit | ungula | campum. Verg. Arma vi- | rumque ca- I no Tro- | iae qui | primus ab | oris. Verg. Infan- | dum re- | gina iu- 1 bes reno- 1 vare do- | lorem. Vcrg. 1. The scheme of dactylic hexameters admits sixteen varieties, produced by varying the relative number and arrangement of Dactyls and Spondees. 2. Effect of Dactyls. — Dactyls produce a rapid movement, and are adapted to lively subjects. Spondees produce a slow movement, and are adapted to grave subjects. 3. Spondaic Line. — The Hexameter sometimes takes a Spondee in the fifth place. It is then called Spondaic. 736. Caesura, or Caesural Pause. — The favorite caesural pause of the Hexameter is after the thesis or in the arsis of the third foot : Arma^ | tl ten- | dunt ; || it | clamor et | agmine | facto. Verg. Infan- | dum, re- | gIna, || iu- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. Verg. Note. — In the first line tlie caesural pause, marked ||, is after tendunt, after the thesis of the thii-d foot ; and in the second line, after regina, in the arsis of the third foot. A caesura after the thesis of a foot is lermed a Mas- culine caesura, while a caesura in the middle of the arsis is termed a Feminine caesura. 1. The Caesural Pause is sometimes in the fourth foot, and then an addi- tional pause is often introduced in the second : Credide- | rim ; |{ ver | illud e- | rat, || ver | magnus a- | gebat. Verg. 2. Bucolic Diaeresis. — A pause called the Bucolic Diaeresis sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot : Ingen- 1 tem cae- | 15 soni- | tum dedit ; 1| inde se- 1 oiitHS. Verg. 1 In this scheme the sign ' marks the ictus (724), and cTw denotes that the original Dactyl, marked w w, may become by contraction a Spondee, marked , i.e. that a Spondee may be used for a Dactyl (722). Digitized by Microsoft® 202 PROSODY 737. The ictus often falls upon unaccented syllables, but in the fifth and sixth feet it generally falls upon accented syllables. 738. The last word of the hexameter is generally either a dissyllable or a trisyllable. Other Dactylic Verses 739. Dactylic Pentameter. — The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two Dactylic Trimeters — the first syncopated or catalectio, the second cata- lectic — separated by a diaeresis. The Spondee may take the place of the Dactyl in the first part, but not in the second : ^wwl^vTwI^All^wol^ww I 6 A, or S. WW I -i vJw |i_i|l_i.ww|-^ww|w.A Admoni- | tu coe- | pi || fortior | esse tu- 1 o. Ovid. 1. Elegiac Distich. — The Elegiac Distich consists of the' Hexameter followed by the Pentameter : Semise- | pulta vi- | rum || cur- | vis feri- | untur &■ | ratris Ossa, ru- | ino- 1 sas || ooculit | herba do- 1 mus. Ovid. Trochaic Verse 740. The Trochaic Dipody, the unit of measure in trochaic verse, consists of two trochees, the second of which is sometimes irrational (720, 4), i.e. it sometimes has the form of a Spondee with the time of a Trochee. The first foot has a heavier ictus than the second : ^^jZ.Z, or J ^^ J /> 741. The Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic consists of two Trochaic Dipo- dies with the last foot incomplete. In Horace it admits no equivalents, and has the following scheme : Aula divi- 1 tern manet. Hor. Iambic Verse 742. The Iambic Dipody, the measure of Iambic verse, consists of two iambi, the first of which has a heavier ictus than the second and is sometimes irrational (730, 4) ; e ^ w ^ or J^ J / J Digitized by Microsoft® VARIETIES OF VERSE 203 743. The Iambic Trimeter, also called Senarius, consists of three Iambic Dipodies. The caesura is usually in the third foot, but may be in the fourth : <. , i ^ , i ■» , Quid obsera- | tis || auribus | f undis precis ? Hor. Has inter epu- | las || ut iuvat | pastas oves. Hor. Ionic Verse 744. The Ionic Verse in Horace consists entirely of Lesser Ionics and is found only in a single ode. It may be either Trimeter or Dimeter : - w.i_| V^W-i I \J \J ^ \J \J S WW / Neque ptlgno ] neque segnl | pede victus ; Catus idem | per apertum. Hor. Logaoedic Verse 745. Logaoedic Verse is a special variety of Trochaic Verse. The Irrational Trochee _£>, the Cyclic Dactyl Aj\j or ^wwi and the Synco- pated Trochee l_ (733, 7) are freely admitted. Compound Meters 746. Compound meters occur but are very rare. VERSIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL LATM POETS 747. Vergil and Juvenal use the Dactylic Hexameter; Ovid, the Hexameter in his Metamorphoses, and the Elegiac Distich in his Epis- tles and other works ; Horace, the Hexameter in his Epistles and Satires, and a variety of lyric meters in his Odes and Epodes. Saturnian Verse 748. The Saturnian verse is employed in some of the earliest remains of Latin literature, but its nature is still in dispute. Digitized by Microsoft® APPENDIX HIDDEN QUANTITY 749. On the natural quantity of vowels before two consonants or a double consonant, observe I. That vowels are long before ns, nf, gn, and before the inceptive endings sc5 and scor : CSnsul, amans ; confero, conflcio ; benlgnus, magnus ; floresco, adlpiscor. II. That all vowels which represent diphthongs or are the result of contraction are long : Existimo, audissem, malle, mallem, nolle, noUem. III. That the long vowels of primitives are retained in derivatives : Cras-tinus, fas-tus, flos-culus, ius-tus, ius-titia, rus-ticus. IV. That compounds retain the long vowels of their members : De-duxi, de-rectus, ex-actus, dl-stinguo, fratri-cida, matrl-cida. V. That vowels are long in the ending of the Nominative singular of nouns and adjectives which increase long in the Genitive : Lex, lux, pax, plebs, rex, vox. VI. In verbs the long stem vowel of the Present is retained in all the principal parts : ardeo ardere arsi arsum como coraere compsi comptum figo figere fix! fixum nubo nubere nupsi nuptum pasco pascere pavi pastum scribo sorlbere scrips! scriptum • sum5 sumere sumpsi sumptum vivo vivere vixi victum Digitized by Microsoft® FIGURES OF SPEECH 205 1. Note the following exceptions : dico dicere dtxl dictum duco ducere duxl ductum cSdo cedere cessi cessum tiro urere ussi iistum VII. In some verbs the short stem vowel of the Present is lengthened in the Perfect and in the Supine or Perfect Participle. FIGURES OF SPEECH 750. The principal Figures of Etymology are 1. Aphaeresis, the taking of one or more letters from the beginning of a word. 2. Syncope, the taking of one or more letters from the middle of a word. 3. Apocope, the taking of one or more letters from the end of a word. 751. The principal Figures of Syntax are 1. Ellipsis, the omission of one or more words of a sentence : Habitabat ad lovis (sc. templum), he dwelt near the temple of Jupiter. 2. Brachylogy, a concise and abridged form of expression : Nostrl Graece nesciunt nee Graeci Latine, our people do not know Greek, and the Greeks (do) not (know) Latin. 3. Pleonasm is a full, redundant, or emphatic form of expression : Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent, there were two ways by which ways they might depart. 752. Figures of Rhetoric comprise several varieties. The following are the most important : 1. A Simile is a direct comparison : Par levibus ventis, like the swift winds. 2. Metaphor is an implied comparison, and assigns to one object the appropriate name, epithet, or action of another : Kei piiblicae naufragium, the shipwreck of the republic. 3. Metonymy is the use of one name for another naturally suggested by it: Furit VulcSnus (ignis), the fire (Vulcan) rages. Digitized by Microsoft® 206 APPENDIX 4. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part ; of the special for the general, or of the general for the special : Static male fida carinls (navibus), a station unsafe for ships. ROMAN LITERATURE 753. The history of Roman literature begins with Livius Andronicus, a writer of plays. It embraces about eight centuries, from 250 B.C. to 550 A.D. ROMAN CALENDAR 754. The Julian Calendar of the Romans is the basis of our own, and is identical with it in the number of months in the year and in the num- ber of days in the months, but it has the following peculiarities : I. The days are not numbered from the beginning of the month, as with us, but from three different points in the month : 1. From the Calends, the first of each month. 2. Erom the Nones, the fifth — \mX the seventh in March, May, July, and October. 3. From the Ides, the thirteenth — hut the fifteenth in March, May, July, and October. II. From these three points the days are numbered, not forward, but backward. Note. — Hence, after the Ides of each month, the days are numbered from the Calends of the following month. III. In numbering backward from each of these points, the day before each is denoted by pridie Kalendas, Nonas, etc. ; the second before each by die tertio (not secundo) ante Kalendas, etc. ; the third, by die quarto, etc. ; and so on through the month. 1. In dates the name of the month is added in the form of an adjective in agreement with Kalendas, Nonas, etc. ; as die quarto ante Nonas lanua- rias, often shortened to quarto ante Nonas Ian. or IV. ante Nonas Ian., or without ante, as IV. Nonas Ian., the second of January. 2. Ante diem is common, instead of die . . . ante ; as ante diem quar- tum Nonas Ian. for die quarto ante Nonas Ian. 3. The expressions ante diem Kal., etc., pndie Kal., etc., are often used a^ indeclinable nouns with a preposition ; as ex ante diem V. Idiis Oct., from the 11th of Oct. ; ad pridie Nonas Maias, till the 6th of May. Digitized by Microsoft® 755. ROMAN CALENDAR Calendar foe the Yeae 207 Days of the Month March, Hay, July, . January, August, April, June, February October December September, November 1 Kalendis.i KalendIs. KalendTs. Kalendib. 2 VI. Nonas.i IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. 8 V. " III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Nonas. Pridifi Nonas. Pridie Nonas. 6 HI. NONlS. NOnis. NoNlS. 6 Pi-Idle NSnas. VIII. Idas. VIII. Idas. VIII. Idas. 7 NOHIS. VII. VII. VII. 8 VIII. Idtts. VI. VI. VI. 9 VII. V. V. V. 10 VI. IV. IV. IV. 11 V. III. III. III. 12 IV. Pridie Idas. Pridie Idas. Pridie Idas. 18 III. IDIBUS. Idibus. Idibtts. 14 PridiS Idas. XIX. Kalcnd.2 XVIII. Kalend.s XVI. Kalend.s 15 IDIBUB. XVIII. " XVII. XV. 16 XVII. Kalend.s XVII. " XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. 20 XIII. XIII. xir. X. 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI. XI. X. VIII. 28 X. X. IX. VII. 24 IX. IX. VIII. VI. 25 VIII. VIII. VII. V. (VI.)» 26 VII. VII. VI. IV. (V.) 27 VI. VI. V. III. (IV.) 23 V. V. IV. Prid. Kal. (III. Kal.) 29 IV. IV. III. (Prid. KbI.) 80 III. " III. Pridie Kalend. 81 Prldie Kalend. Pridie Kalend. 1. This table will furnish the learner with the English expression for any Latin date, or the Latin expression for any English date. 756. The Roman day, from sunrise to sunset, and the night, from sunset to sunrise, were each divided at all seasons of the year into twelve hours. 1. The night was also divided into four watches of three Roman hours each. 1 To the Calends, Nones, etc., the name of the month must of course be added. Before Nonas, Idus, etc., ante is sometimes used and sometimes omitted (754, m. 1). 2 The Calends of the following month are of course meant ; the 16th of March, for instance, is XVII. Kalendas Apriles. ' The inclosed forms apply to leap year. Digitized by Microsoft® 208 APPENDIX KOMAN MONEY 757. The principal Roman coins were the as, of copper ; the sester- tius, quinarius, denarius, of silver; and the aureus, of gold. Tlieir value in the Augustan period may be approximately given as follows: As 2 cents Sestertius . , . . .... 4 " Quinarius . 8 " Denarius . .... 16 " Aureus $5.00 758. Various abbreviations occur in classical authors : A. D. = ante diem. | Id. = Idas. A. U. C. = anno urbis conditae. Cos. = consul. Coss. = consules. F. C. = faciendum cura^ vit. K. or Kal. = Kalendae. Non. = Nonae. P. C. = patres conscript!. P. R. = populus Eoma- nus. Proc. = pro-consul. S. = senatus. S. C. = senatus consul- tum. S. P. Q. R. = senatus populusque Romanus. Tr. PI. = tribunus ple- bis. Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX OF VERBS [References are to sections] ab-do, dere, didi, ditum, 270, 1. ab-eo, ire, ii, itum. ab-icio, icere, ieci, iectum. ab-nu5, ere, nui, — , 275, 2. aboleO, ere, evi, abolitum. ab-sum, ab-esse, a-ful, a-futurus. ac-cendo, ere, cendi, censum. ae-cipio, cipere, cepi, oeptum, 23t, 3. acud, ere, ui, — , ad-do, dere, didi, ditum, see ab-do. ad-ferO, ferre, at-tuli, al-latura, 294, ad-hibeo, ere, ni, itum, 261. ad-ipiscor, ipisci, eptus sum. ad-olesco, ere, olevi, ultum. ad-veuiO, ire, veni, ventum. S^gnOscO, like eo-gnoscO. ago, ere, egi, actum, 270, 2. aio, def., 300. algeO, ere, alsi, — . al5, ere, alui, alitum, altum, 273. amicio, ire, ni, turn. amO, 206. amplector, i, amplexus sum. ango, ere, — . aperie, ire, ui, turn, 285. ap-peto, ere, ivi, itum. arceo, ere, arcui. arcesso, ere, ivi, itum. ardeo, ere, arsi, arsum. arescO, ere, arui, — . argiiO, ere, argui, — . a-scendo, like de-soendo. a-spicio, like cOn-spicio. as-sentior, iri, sensus sum. audeo, ere, ausus sura, 267. audio, 215 ; 284. ha.se. g. s. lat. gram. — 15 Digitized au-fero, ferre, abs-tuli, ab-latum, 294, 1. augeO, ere, auxi, auctum, 263. B blandior, iri, itus sum, 223 ; 289. cadO, ere, cecidi, casum, 271, 1. caedo, ere, cecidi, eaesum, 271, 1. caleo, ere, ealui, caliturus. calescO, ere, ealui, — , 279. cano, ere, cecini, — , 270, 1. capessO, ere, ivi, itum. capio, ere, cepi, captum, 225, 1 ; 226. careo, ere, ui, iturus. carpo, ere, carpsi, carptum, 268. caveO, ere, cavi, cautum, 264. cedO, ere, cessi, cessum, 269. censeO, ere, censui, censum, 262. eernO, ere, crevi, cretum. cieo, ere, civi, citum. clngo, ere, cinxi, cinctum. circum-agO, like per-ago. claudo, ere, clausi, clausum, 269. coepi, def., 299. co-erceo, ere, ui, itum. cO-gtiOscO, ere, gnovi, gnitum. cogo, ere, coegi, coactum. col-ligO, ere, legi, Iectum. col-IuceO, ere, luxi, — . colO, ere, colui, oultum, 273. coraS, ere, compsi, cOmptum. com-miniscor, i, commentus sum. com-perio, ire, peri, pertum, 287. com-pleo, ere, plevi, pletnm, 260. con-cludo, ere, cliisi, clusum, 269. 209 by Microsoft® 210 INDEX OF TERES con-cutio, ere, cussi, cussum. con-do, like ab-do. con-fero, ferre, tuli, col-latum. con-flcio, ere, feci, fectum. con-flteor, fiterl, fessus sum. con-gruo, ere, grui, — . coQ-sero, ere, ui, turn, con-sisto, ere, stiti, — . con-spieio, ere, spexi, spectum. con-stltuo, ere, stitui, stitutum. consuesco, ere, consuevi, — . consuls, ere, sulu!, sultum, 273. crebresco, ere, crebui, — , 280. credo, ere, credidi, creditum, 270, 1. crepo, are, ui, itum. cresco, ere, crevi, cretum, 278. cubo, are, cubui, cubitum, 258. cudo, ere, cudi, cusum. cupio, ere, cupivi, cupitum, 274. curro, ere, cucurri, cursum, 271, 1. D debeo, ere, ui, itum, 261. de-cerno, ere, crevi, cretum. de-cerpo, ere, cerpsi, cerptum, 268. de-do, like ab-do. de-fendo, ere, fendi, fensum, 271, 3. deleo, ere, evi, etum, 230 ; 260. demo, ere, derapsi, demptum. de-scendo, ere, scendi, seensum. de-sino, ere, desii, desitum. de-sum, esse, fui, futurus. de-tineo, ere, tinui, tentum, 231, 2. dico, ere, dixi, dictum, 268. dif-fero, ferre, distuli, dilatum, 294, 1. diligo, ere, dilexi, dileetum. di-raico, are, avi, atum. di-ruo, ere, rui, rutum. disco, ere, didici, — . di-stinguo, like ex-stinguS. divido, ere, visi, visum, 269. do, dare, dedi, datum, 259. doceo, ere, docui, doctum, 262. doleo, ere, dolui, doliturus. domo, are, domui, domitum, 258. duco, ere, duxi, ductura, 268. duresco, ere, durui, — , 280. E edo, erl, edi, esum, 271, 2; 293. ef-fugio, ere, f ugi, — . egeo, ere, egui, — . e-lici5, ere, licui, llcitum. emineo, ere, eminui, — . emo, ere, emi, emptum, 270, 2. e5, ire, ii, itum, 297. esurio, ire, — , esuriturus. e-vado, ere, vasi, vasum, 269. evanesco, ere, cvanui, — . ex-cludo, ere, clusi, clusum, 269. ex-cudo, ere, cudi, cusum. ex-eo, ire, exii, exitum. ex-erceo, ere, ui, itum. ex-perior, iri, pertus sum. ex-pleo, ere, evi, etum. ex-plico, are, avi, ui, atum, itum. ex-plodo, ere, plosi, plosum, 269. ex-stinguo, ere, stinxi, stinctum. F facio, ere, feci, factum, 274. fallo, ere, fefelli, falsum. fari, def., 300. fateor, eri, fassus sum. faveo, ere, favi, fautum, 264. ferio, ire, — , — , 288. fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 294. figo, ere, fixi, fixum. finds, ere, fidi, fissum. fingo, ere, finxi, lictum. fio, fieri, f actus sum, 296. fleets, ere, flexi, flexum. fleo, ere, evi, etum, 260. floreS, ere, ui, — . fluo, ere, fluxi, fluxum. fodiS, ere, fodi, fossum, 274. foveo, ere, lovi, fstum, 264. frango, ere, fregi, fractum, 270, 2. fremS, ere, fremui, — . fries, are, ui, atum, turn. frigeo, ere, — , — . fruor, frui, fructus sum, 281. f ugio, ere, fugi, fugitum. fulcio, ire, fulsi, fultum. fulgeo, ere, fulsi, — . funds, ere, fudi, f usum, 271, 2. fungor, fungi, fiinctus sum. furo, ere, — , — . G gaudeo, ere, gavisus sura, 224; 267. gems, ere, gemui, — . Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX OF VERBS 211 gero, ere, gessi, gestum. gigno, ere, genul, genitnm, 272. gradior, gradi, gressus sum, 225, 3 ; 282. H habeo, ere, ul, itum, 261. haereo, ere, haesi, haesum. haurio. Ire, hausT, haustum. horreO, ere, horrui, — . hortor, ari, hortatus sum, 223. ignosco, ere, ignovi, ignotum. il-lioio, ere, lexi, lectum. Im-mineo, ere, — , — . im-pleo, like com-pleo. im-plico, are, avi, uT, atum, itum. in-cido, ere, cidi, casum. in-eido, ere, cidi, cisum. in-eol6, ere, colui, — . in-crepo, are, ui, itum, turn, 258. in-cnmbo, ere, cubui, cubitum. indulges, ere, duisi, dultum, 263. induo, ere, indui, indutnm . iu-fero, ferre, tuli, illatum. in-gredior, gredi, gressus sum. iuquam, def., 300. intel-lego, like neglego. in-venio, ire, veni, ventum. irasoor, i, — . I CONSONANT iaoeo, ere, iacui, iaciturus. iaeio, ere, ieci, iactum, 225, 1 ; 274. iubeo, ere, iussi, iussum, 263. iungo, ere, iiiuxi, iunctum. iuvo, are, iiivi, iiitum, 259. labor, i, lapsus sum. lacesso, ere, ivi, itum. laedo, ere, laesi, laesum. lateo, ere, latui, — . lavo, are, lilvi, lavatum, lautum, 259. lego, ere, legi, lectum, 270, 2. liceor, eri, licitus sum, 266. licet, impers., 302. loquor, i, lociitus sum. luceo, ere, liixi, — . ludo, ere, lusi, liisum. lugeo, ere, luxi, — . luo, ere, lui, — . M maereo, ere, — , — . malo, malle, malui, — , 295. maneo, ere, mansi, mansum. maturesco, ere, maturui, — . raedeor, eri, — . memini, def., 299. mereo, ere, ui, itum . mereor, eri, meritus sum, 266. mergo, ere, mersi, mersum. metier, iri, mensus sum. metuo, ere, metui, — . mico, are, micui, — . misceo, ere, miscui, mixtum, 262, misereor, eri, miseritus sum, 266. mitto, ere, misi, missum. molo, ere, molui, molitum. moneo, 209. mordeo, ere, momordi, morsum, 265. morior, i, mortuus sum. moveo, ere, movi, motum. N nanciscor, i, nanctus (nactus) sum. nascor, i, natus sum, 283. necto, ere, nexui, nexum. neg-lego, ere, lexi, lectum. ne-queo, quire, quivi, quii, — , 298. nitor, i, nisus, nixus sum. noceo, ere, nocui, nocitum. nolo, nolle, nolui, — , 295. nosco, ere, novi, notum, 278. niibo, ere, niipsi, nuptum, 268. obliviscor, i, oblitus sum. ob-miitesco, ere, mutui, — . ob-solesco, ere, solevi, soletum. ob-tineo, ere, tinni, tentum. odi, def., 299. of-fero, ferre, obtuli, oblatum. oleo, ere, olui, — . operio, ire, ui, turn, 285. oportet, impers., 302. op-perior, iri, pertus sum. ordior, iri, orsus sum. orior, iri, ortus sum. Digitized by Microsoft® 212 INDEX OF VERBS paciscor, J, pactus sum, 283. palleo, ere, pallui, — . pando, ere, pandi, passum. paroo, ere, peperci, parsum. pareo, ere, parui, paritum. pario, ere, peperi, partum, 225, 1 ; 274. partior, iri, partltus sum. pasco, ere, pavi, pastum, 278. pateo, ere, patui, — . patior, i, passus sum, 225, 3; 229. paveo, ere, pavi, — . pel-licio, ere, lexi, lectum. pello, ere, pepuli, pulsum, 271, 1. pendeo, ere, pependi, pensum. pendo, ere, pependi, pensum. per-ago, ere, egl, actum. per-cello, ere, cull, culsum. per-do, like ab-do. per-fringo, ere, iregi, fractum. pergo, ere, perrexi, perrectum, see rego per-lego, ere, legi, lectum. per-petior, i, pessus sum. peto, ere, ivi, ii, petitum. plngo, ere, pinxi, pictum. placeo, ere, ui, itum, 261. plaudo, ere, plausi, plausum, 269. polleo, ere, — , — . poUiceor, eri, polllcitus sum, 266. pono, ere, posui, positum, 272. posco, ere, poposci, — . pos-sido, ere, possedi, possessum. possum, posse, potui, — , 291. poto, are, avi, atum, potum. prae-beo, ere, ui, itum. prae-curro, ere, cucurri, cursum. prae-sum, esse, fui, — . prandeo, ere, i, pransum, 265, 3. prehendo, prendo, ere, i, prehensum, prensum. premo, ere, pressi, pressum. pro-do, like ab-do. proficiscor, i, profectus sum, 283. promo, ere, prompsi, proraptum. pro-sterno, ere, stravi, stratum, pro-sum, prodesse, profui, — , 292. pungo, ere, pupugi, punctum. quaero, ere, quaesivi, quaesitum, 276. quatio, ere, — , quassum, 225, 1. queo, Tre, quivi, quii, — , 298. queror, i, questus sum. qulesco, ere, quievi, quietum. K rado, ere, rasi, rasum. rapio, ere, rapui, raptum, 274. red-do, like ab-do. re-fero, ferre, rettuli, relatum. rego, ere, rexi, rectum, 212 ; 268. re-linqu6, ere, liqui, lictum. re-miniscor, i, — . reor, reri, ratus sum. re-perio, ire, repperi, repertum. re-spondeo, ere, spondi, sponsum. re-tineo, ere, tinui, tentum. rideo, ere, risi, risum. rods, ere, rosi, rosum. rumpo, ere, rupi, ruptum. ruo, ere, rui, rutum, ruiturus. saepio, ire, saepsi, saeptum, 286. salio, ire, salui, salii, — . salve, def., 301. sancio, ire, sanxi, sanctum, 286. sapio, ere, sapivi, — , 225, 1. scindo, ere, scidi, scissum. scisco, ere, scivi, scitum. scribo, ere, scripsi, scriptum, 268. sculpo, ere, sculp,si, sculptum, 268. seco, are, secui, sectum. sedeo, ere, sedi, sessum, 265, 2. sentio, ire, sensi, sensum, 286. sepelio, ire, ivi, sepultum. sequor, i, secutus sum, 281. sero, ere, sevi, satum. sileo, ere, silui, — . sino, ere, sivi, situm. sisto, ere, stiti, statum. soles, ere, solitus sum, 224; 267. solvo, ere, solvi, solutum, 270, 3. sono, are, sonui, sonaturus. spargo, ere, sparsi, sparsum. sperno, ere, sprevi, spretum, 276. splendeo, ere, ui, — . spoiideo, ere, spopondi, sponsum, 265. status, ere, statui, statutum, 275. sterno, ere, stravi, stratum, 276. sto, are, steti, statum, 259. Digitized by Microsoft® INDEX OF VERBS 213 streps, ere, strepui, — . strides, ere, stridi, — . struS, ere, etruxi, structum. studeo, ere, ul, — . suadeo, ere, suasi, suasum, 263. sub-do, like ab-do. suf-fero, ferre, sustuli, sublatum, 29i, 1. sum, esse, fui, futurus, 205. sumo, ere, sumpsi, sumptum. superbio, ire, — , — , 288. taceS, ere, tacui, taciturn, 261. tangs, ere, tetigi, tactum, 270, 1. tego, ere, texi, tectum, 268. temno, ere, — , — . tends, ere, tetendi, tentum. teneS, ere, tenui, tentum, 231, 2. terS, ere, trivi, tritum. terreS, ere, ui, itum, 261. texo, ere, texui, textum. times, ere, timui, — . tolls, ere, sustuli, sublatum. tondeS, ere, totondi, tSnsum. torques, ere, torsi, tortum. torreS, ere, torrui, tostum. tra^ds, like ab-ds. trahS, ere, traxi, tractum, 268. tremo, ere, tremui, — . tribuo, ere, tribui, tribCitum, 275. trudS, ere, trusi, trusum. tueor, eri, — , 266. tundo, ere, tutudi, tunsum, tusum. U ulcisoor, i, ultus sum. urges, ere, ursi, — . urS, ere, ussi, iistum. utor, i, usus sum, 282. vads, ere, — , — . valeo, ere, valui, valiturus. vehS, ere, vexi, vectum. veils, ere, velli, vulsum. vends, ere, vendidi, vendltum, 270, 1. veniS, ire, veni, ventum, 287. vereor, eri, veritus sum, 223; 266. vergS, ere, — , — . verro, ere, verri, versum. verts, ere, verti, versum, 271, 3. vets, are, vetui, vetitum, 258. videS, ere, vidi, visum, 265, 2. vigeS, ere, vigui, — . vincio, ire, vinxi, vinctum. vines, ere, vici, victum, 270, 2. vires, ere, virui, — . visS, ere, visi, visum. vivS, ere, vixi, victum, 268. vols, velle, volui, — , 295. volvS, ere, volvi, volutum, 270, 3. voveS, ere, vSvi, vStum. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX Note. — The numbers reler to sections unless p. (= page) is added. Adjs. = adjectives; adva. = adverbs ; appos. = appositlve or apposition ; coinp. = com- pound or composition ; compar. = comparative or comparison ; compds. = compounds ; condit. = condition or conditional ; conj. = conjugation ; conjunc. = conjunction ; oonstr. = construction ; f f. = and the following ; gen. = genitive ; g'end. = gender ; ger. = gerund ; indir. disc. = indirect discourse ; instrum. = instrumental ; loo. = locative ; pred. = predicate ; preps. = prepositions ; prons. = pronouns ; qualit. = qualitative ; quant. = quantity ; seq. = sequence ; subj. = subject or subjunctive ; w. = with. A, ft, sound, 10; qualitative changes of , 24 , a shortened, 39. Ain nom., ace, and voc. plur., 75, 2. A-nouns, Decl. I., 78; a-verbs, 201; 206 ff. ; nouns in a, Decl. III., 110, 2; gend., 122. Derivatives in a, 338; a in compd. verbs changed to e or i, 231. Conj. of Br-verbs, 359, 1 ; 360. A-iinal, quant, of, 692, 1 ; 695 ; a in increm. of decl., _705; 706; of conj., 711 and 1. A, ab, abs, in compds. w. dat., 429, 2; w. abl. of separation, 461 ; of source, 467; of agent, 4ei8; w. abl., 490, 1, 2; w. gerund and gerundive, 629. Abbreviations, 354, 2 ; 758. Abies, es in, 698, 1. Ability, verbs of, in apodosis, 583. Ablative, Decl. I., 80, 2 ; a in, 695; Decl. II., 84, 1; Decl. III., in i-stems, 102; 125 ff.; Decl. IV., 131, 2. Ablative, translation of, 78 and footnote 1; syntax of, 459 ff. Abl. w. adjs., 435, 3; w. retert, 449, 1; w. de w. memini, 454, 3 ; w. verbs of accusing, 456, 1 ; w. verbs of condemning, 456, 3. Abl. of separation, 461 ff . ; of source, 467 ff.; w. compar., 471 ; instrum. abl., 472 ; of association, 473 ft. ; of cause, 475; of means, 476 ff. ; of price, 478; of difference, 479 ; of specification, 480 ; loc. abl., 483 ; of time, 417, 2 ; 486 ff. ; abl. abs., 489; w. preps., 490 ; w. advs., 490, 4; infin. in abl. abs., 616, 4; abl. of gerund and gerundive, 629 ff. ; of supine, 635. Ablatives as adverbs, 307. Ablaut, 21. Abode denoted by pers. pron. w. prep., 600, 5. Abounding, abl. w. verbs of, 477, II. -abrum, a in, 712, 1. Abs, see a, ab. Absolute abl., 489. Absolute and rela- tive time, 542 ff. Absque w. abl., 490, 2. Abstineo, constr., 458, 4. Abstract nouns, 62, 2 ; plur., 138, 2; from adjs., 345. -abusin Decl. I., 80, 2. Ac, 657, 1. Ac si w. subj. in condit., 584. Acatalectic, 729, n. 3. Accedit, constr., 571, 1. Accent, original, 19 ; rhythmic, 724. Accentuation, 16 S. Accidit, constr., 571, 1. Accompaniment, abl. of, 473; 474. Accusative, syntax of, 403 if. Direct obj., 404; with special verbs, 405; w. comp. verbs, 406 ; w. verbs of clothing, etc., 407; w. verbal adjs. and nouns, Digitized biSHyScrosoft® 216 GENERAL INDEX 408; cognate, 409; two aces., 410 ff.; predicate, 410, 1; as obj., w. infin., 414; sub]', of infin., 415; 610, 2; of specification, 416; adverbial, time and space, 417 ; of limit, 418 ff. ; poet. dat. for, 419, 4 ; w. preps., 420 ; in exclama- tions, 421 ; w. propior, proxiruus, 435, 2; pred. ace, gerundive as, 622; ace. of gerund and gerundive, 628 ; of supine, 633; 634. Accusatives as adverbs, 306. Accusing, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Acer, decl., 126. -aceus, adjs. in, 347. Acquittinc/, constr. w. verbs of, 456. -acrum, a in, 712, 1. Action, repeated, iu temp, clauses, 602, 2 and 3. Active voice, 191. Act. and pass, constr., 518. Acus, decl., 131, 2; gend., 132. -ad, old abl. ending, 79, 4. Ad in compds., w. dat., 429. Ad w. ace, 420, 2 ; w. refert and interest, 419, 4; w. gerund and gerundive, 628. Adeo, 654, n. 2 ; 657, 3. -ades, a In, 712, 8. Adfertur, constr., 611, 2, n. 3. AdflciS w. abl., 476, 2. Adjectives, morphology, 63 ; 90 ff. ; Decl. I. and II., 90 ff. ; irregular, 93; Decl. III., 125 ff. ; indecl., 137; defective, 144 ; heteroclites, 146 ; comparison of, 149 ff ., without compar. , 160 ; numeral, 162 ff. ; iuterrog., 184, 1; pronominal, 188; 516; verbal, 200; derivative, 328 ff. ; attributive, 383, 1. Agree- ment, 394 ; neut. adj. as substantive, 394, 2 ; w. two or more nouns, 395 ; verbal, w. ace, 408; w. dat., 434; w. gen., 442. Use, 492 ff. ; as substan- tives, 494; 495; w. force of clauses, 496; of adverbs, 497. Adj. modifiers, position of, 671 ; position of modifiers of adj., 672. Admodum, 310. Admonishing, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Adulescens, compar., 158. Adverbial compar., 159; adv. ace, 416, 1; adv. clauses, 5K3, 2 ; adv. modifiers, posi^on, 672: 673. Adverbs, 304 ff.; numeral, 171. Com- parison, 311. Adverbs w. nouns, 497, Digitized by 6 ; w. dat., 436 ; w. gen., 443. Adverbs as preps., 490, 4. Use of adverbs, 654 ff . Position of modifiers of adverb, 674. E in adverbs, 096, 3. Adversative conjuncs., 315,3; 659. Ad- versative clauses of condit., 585. Adversum, adversus, w. ace, 420, 2. 1 Ae, sound of, 11. ' Aedes, sing, and plur., 140. Aeneas, decl., 81. Aestimo w. gen. of value, 448 ; w. abl., 448, 2. Aetas, decl., 97. Agent, dat. of, 431 ; abl. of, 431, 3; 467; 468. Agar, decl., 85. Ago, ut, 566, 1. -ago, a in, 712, 2. Agreeable, dat. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Agreement of verbs, 388; synesis, 389; w. pred. nouns, 390 ; w. appos., 391 ; w. compd. subj., 392. Of nouns, 393. Of adjs., 394; w. two or more nouns, 395; w. part, gen., 442, 1. Of prons., 396 ; synesis, 397 ; w. two or more _ antecedents, 398. Ah, aha, interj., 317. Ai, diphthong, qualit. changes of, 32 ; ai, 79, 3. Aiding, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Aio, position, 679. -al final shortened, 39; -al, nouns in, 103; quant, of inerera., 70B. Albus, without compar., 160. Alcaic verse, 730. Alias, use, 516, 1. Alienus, w. dat. and gen., 451, 2, s. Aliqui, use, 512, 2. Aliquis, 187; use, 512. -alls, adjs. in, 348 ; a in, 712, 3. Alitor, use, 516, 1. Alius, decl., 93, 1 ; use, 188 ; 516. Alphabet, Latin, 5. Alter, decl., 93; use, 188; 516. Alvus, gend., 87, 3. Amans, decl., 128. Amtoi, amb, 375. Ambo, decl., 166, 2. Amicus, decl., 83. Amplius without quam, 471, 3. An, 380; in indir. quest., 650, 1. -ana, a in, 712, 4. Anapaest, 721, 2, N. 1 ; cyclic, 723, 4. Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 217 Anaphora, 666, 1. Ancient forms of verbs, 244. Androgeos, decl., 89. Animal, decl., 103. Answers, 379. Ante in compds. w. dat., 429. Ante w. ace, 420, 2 ; in expressions of time, 488. Antea, a in, 695, 4. Antecedent, 396 ; two or more, 398. General or indef. antecedent, w. relat. clause, 591. Antequam, in temp, clauses, 605. Anticipation, prolepsis, 493. -anus, adjs. in, 349 ; 353 ; a in, 712, 4. Apliaeresis, 750, 1. Apocope, 750, 3. Apodosis, 572. Apparent agent, 431. Appendix, 749 ff. Apposition, partitive, 393, 3. Appositional gen., 440, 4. Appositive, agreement of verb with, 391 ; case, 393 ; gend., 393, 1. Clause as appos., 564, III. Infin. as appos., 616, 2. Aptus qui w. subj., 591, 7. Apud w. ace, 420, 2. -ar final shortened, 39; -ar, nouns in, 103; gend., 122; 123; quant, of increm., 706. Arcus, decU, 131, 2. Aries, es in, 698, 1. -aris, adjs. in, 348 ; a in, 712, 5. -arius, adj. in, 348. Arrangement of words and phrases, 663 ff. ; gen. rules, 664 ff. ; effect of emphasis, 665 ; anaphora, 666, 1 ; chi- asmus, 666, 2; kindred words, 667; words w. common relation, 668 ; effect of context, 669; euphony and rhythm , 670 ; special rules, 671 ff. ; modifiers of nouns, 671; of adjs., 672; of verbs, 673; adverbs, 674; prons., 675; preps., 676; conjuncs. and relats., 677 ; non, 678; inquam, aio, 679; voc, 680; clauses, 681 ff. ; as subj. or pred., 682 ; subord. elements, 683; subj. or obj. common to prin. and subord. clause, 684; periods, 685. Arsis, 725. Article, 78, 6. Artus, decl., 131, 2. Arx, decl., 105. -as iu gen. of Decl. I., 79, 2; nouns in, Decl. I., 81 ; Decl. III., 97 ; gend., 115 ; 117. as, as, final, quant, of, 692, 3 ; _ 697. As, 757. Asking, constr. w. verbs of, 411 ; verbs of , w. subj . , 565. Assimilation of vowels, 31; of conso- nants, 53 ff. ; partial, 55. Association, abl. of, 473; 474. Assuesco, assuetaciS, w. abl., 476, 3. Asyndeton, 657, 4. -at, neut. stems in, 110, 2. At, 659, 1. Atque, 657, 1. -atrum, a in, 712, 1. Attempted action, how expressed, 530. Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 473, 3. Attributive noun or adj., 383, 1 ; gen., 439 ff. -atus, derivatives in, 344; 346; a in, 712, 6. Au, sound, 11 ; qualit, changes of, 35. Aureus, 757. Auris, decl., 102. Aut, 658, 1. Autem, position, 677. Auxilium, sing, and plur., 140. Avidus, constr., 4.53; w. infin., 608, 4. -avus, a in, 712, 5. -ax, derivatives in, 330; verbals in, w. gen., 452. B, changed to p, 55; quant, of monosyl. in, 691,2. Becoming, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2. Beginning, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Beginning of sentence emphatic, 665, 1. Being, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2. Being angry, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Being without, constr. w. verbs of, 462. Being cheap or dear, abl. w. verbs of, 478, 1. Being able, wont, accustomed, infin. w. verbs of, 607, 2. Believing, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Belli, loo., 484, 2. Belonging to, gen. w. adjs. meaning, 435,'4. Bene, e final in, 696, 3. Benefiting, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Digitized by Microsoft® 218 GENERAL INDEX -bills, derivatives in, 329; compar., 157, 1. Bis ill compounding numbers, 163, 1 ; i in, 091, 3. Bonus, decl., 78; 83; 91; compar., 154. B5s, decl., 107. Bracliylogy, 751, 2. Bucolic diaeresis, 736, 2. -bula, -bulum, verbal nouns in, 335. -bundus, derivatives in, 328, 5. Buying, gen. w. verbs of, 448, 3; abl., 478, i. C, sound, 12; dropped, 58,1. Nouns in, gend. of, 122. Quant, of final sylla- bles in, 692, II. Caelum, decl., 147. Caesura, caesural pause, 728 ; in hexam., 736. Calcar, decl., 103. Calendar, Roman, 754 ff. Calends, 754, 1., 1. Calling, verbs of, w. two aces., 410. Caput, decl., 97. Caring for, gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Cardinal numbers, 162 ff. ; decl., 166 ff. Carmen, decl., 100. Cases, morphology of, 73 ff. ; cases alike, 75; case endings, 74, 3; irreg. case endings, Decl. I., 79; 80; Decl. II., 84; case suffixes, 74, 1 ; in Decl. III., 96 ; 98. Cases, Syntax of, 400 ff. ; general view, 400 ; nom., 401 ; voc, 402 ; ace, 403 ff. ; dat.,422ff.; gen., 437 ff.; abl., 459 ff.; oases w. preps., 420, 490. Castrum, sing, and plur., 140. Catalectic, 729, n. 3. Causa, constr., 475, 2. Causal conjuncs., 315, 5 ; 316, 7 ; 661. Causal clauses, 588 ; relat., 592 ; w. cum, 597 ; 598. Cause, abl. of, 475 ; relat. clauses of, 592 ; expressed by participle, 638, 1. Cave, cave ne, w. subj., 561, 2. -ce appended, 178, 3 ; quant., 691, 1. Cedo, o in, 694. Cedo, w. abl., 463 ; e in cessi, cesBum, 749, VI., 1. Celo,^constr., 411. Ceres, es in, 698, 1. Oh, sound, 12. Changes in consonants, 51 ff. Characteristic, derivatives denoting, 344; 348. Characteristic, stem characteristic, of nouns, 76; of verbs, 201. Gen. of characteristic, 440, 3 ; abl. of, 473, 2 ; rel. clause of, 591, 1. Characteristic of, gen. w. adjs. mean- ing, 435, 4 ; 451, 2. Chiasmus, 666, 2. Choosing, verbs of, w. two aces., 410; w. two dats., 433, 2. Cingo, constr., 407. Circa w. ace, 420, 2 ; a in, 695, 4. Clrclter w. ace, 420, 2. Circum, compds. w. ace, 406; w. two aces., 413. Circum w. ace, 420, 2. Circumstance, attendant, abl. of, 473, 3. Cis w. ace, 420, 2 ; i in, 691, 3. Citerior, compar., 155, 1. Cities, plur. in names of, 139, 2. Clto, o in, 694. Citra w. ace, 420, 2. Clam, Clanculum, w. ace, 420, 4. Clans, Roman , how designated, 354. Classification of letters, 7; of verbs, 257 ff . Clauses, as nouns, gender, 70 ; prin. and snbord., 386, 1. Substantive clauses, 564 ; as object, 564, I. ; 565 ff . ; 571, 3 as subject or predicate, 564, II. ; 571, 1 and 2; as appos., 564, III.; 571,4 Restrictive clauses w. quod, 591, 3 conditional clauses, 584; 585; 587 adversative, 585 ; concess., 586 ; causal. 588 ; clauses w. cum, 597 ff. ; temp, clauses, 600 ff. ; infin. clauses, 610, 3 as obj., 613 ff. ; as subject, 615; relat, clause supplied by particip., 637; prin clause, 639; prin., in indir. disc, 642 subord.,C43; indir., 649. Arrang. of clauses, 681 ff. Cliens, decl., 106, 2. Close vowels, 7, 3. Clothing, constr. w. verbs of, 407. -clum, -culum, verbal nouns in, 335. Cognate ace, 409. Cognomen, 354, 1. Cog-o, constr., 418, 1. Coins, Roman, 757. Collecting, constr. w. verbs of, 418, 3. Collective nouns, 62, 2 ; w. plural verbs, 389, 1. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 219 CoUoco, oonstr., 418, 1. Colon, 726. Com, con, co, in compds., w. dat.,429. Coming together, constr. w. verbs of, 418, 1. Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1 ; subj. w. verbs of, 565; 614, 1; infin. w. verbs of, 614. Commands, subj. and imperat. in, 559, 2 ; 560 ff.; fut. imperat. in, 560, 2; in indir. discourse, 642. Oommlseror, constr., 457, 2. Common nouns, 62, 2. Common sylla- bles, 14, 3; 690. Communis w. dat., or gen., 451, 2, n. 1. Compar. conjuncs., 316, 2; compar. de- gree, 149 ; deel. of, 127 ; wanting, 156 ; formed by magls, 159; compar. w. gen., 442; w. abl., 471; 479, 1; w. quam, 471, 1; 499; w. rel., 510, 4. Meaning of comparatives, 498. Comparative view of conjugations, 218 ff. Comparison of adjs., 149 ff. ; termina- tional, 150 fE. ; adverbial, 150 ; 159 ; endings, 151 if. ; irregular, 152 if. ; de- fective, 155 fif. Comparison of advs., 311. Comparison, condit. clauses of, 584. Abl. w. verbs of comparison, 479, 2. Compleo, constr., 477, II., 1. Complures, defective, 144. Compos, OS in, 699. Composition of words, 319; 369 ff.; preps, in, 374 ; 375. Compound words, how formed, 369 ff. ; pronunciation, 13, 3; syntactic com- pounds, 371; compd. nouns and adjs., 372; verbs, 373; quant, in, 749, IV. Compd. sentences, 377, 2; elements, 385 ff. ; compd. verbs w. ace, 406; w. two aces., 413; w. dat., 429. Comp. meters, 746. Concealing, verbs of, w. two acca., 411. Concession expressed by particip., 638, 2. Concessive conjuncs., 316, 4; concess. subj., 559, 3; concess. clauses, 586; concess. subj. w. relat., 593, 2 ; w. cum, 597 ; 598 ff . Condemning, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Condition, derivatives denoting, 344. Condit. expressed by particip. , 638, 2. Conditional conjuncs., 316, 3. Condit. sentences, 572 ff. ; three classes, 578 ff. ; condit. assumed as real, 573 ; 574; as possible, 573 ; 576 ; as contrary to fact, 573 ; 579 ; general, 578 ; deviations from reg. forms, 680 ff. ; condit. clauses of comparison, 584 ; condit. adversative clauses, 585 ; relat. clauses, 593, 1 ; in indir. disc, 646 ff. Oonfido w. abl., 476, 3. Oonfundo w. abl., 474, 2. Conjugation of verbs, 201 ff. ; of sum, 205. First conj., 206 ff., 257 ff. ; second^ 209 ff. ; am ff. ; third, 212 ff. ; 268 ff. fourth, 215 ff . ; 284 ff . 1-verbs of conj III., 225 ff.; periphrastic, 236 ff. peculiarities in, 238 ff. Irreg. verbs, 290 ff. ; defect., 299 ff.; impers., 302 Comparative view, 218 ff. Increm. of conj., 703 ff. ; quant, of, 711 ff. Conjunctions, 314 ff . ; coordinate, 315 ; 657 ; subordinate, 316; position in sen- tence, 677. Consecutive conjuncs., 316, 6. Consonant stems in nouns, 95 ff.; con- sonant verbs, 212 ff. Consonants, classes of, 7 ; 8 ; 44 ff. ; double, 7, N. ; sounds, 12 ; assimila- tion, 53 ff. ; partial assim., 55; dis-- similation, 56 ; consonants lost, 57 ff. Consul, decl., 99. Contentus w. abl., 476, 1. Context, effect of, on position, 669. Continuing, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Contra w. ace, 420, 2. Contraction of vowels, 42 ff. ; quant, of syllables in contraction, 687 ; 749, IL Contrarlusw. gen. or dat., 451, 2, n. Convenio, constr., 418, 3. Convicting, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Convoco, constr., 418, 1. Coordinate conjs., 314, 1; 315 ; 657 ff. Copla, sing, and plur., 140. Copulative conjuncs., 315, 1 ; 657. Cor, defect., 141 ; o in, 691, 3. Coram w. abl., 490, 2. Cornu, decl., 131. Corpus, decl., 101. Correlative prons., 189. Cos, defect., 141. Costing, abl. w. verbs of, 478, 1. Countries, gend. of names of, 69; constr., 419, 3. Crimine, constr., 456, 2. Digitized by Microsoft® 220 GENERAL INDEX Cubile, decL, 103. -culum, verbal nouns in, 335. -cuius, -cula, -culum, diminutives in, 340. Cum w. abl., 490, 2 ; of accompani- ment, 473, 1 ; ol manner, 473, 3. Cum (quom), w. plup. indie, 539, 2; clauses w., 597 ffi. ; causal and conoess., 598; 599; temporal, 600; cum inver- sum, 600, I., 1. Turn . . . cum, 601, 2. Cuncti TV. part, gen., 442, 2. -cundus, derivatives in, 328, 5. Curo, w. gerundive, 622. -cus, derivatives in, 350. Cyclic dactyl, 723, 3 ; anapaest, 723, 4. D D assimilated, 53, 1 and 2 ; lost, 59, 1 ; in old abl., 79, 4; 84, 1; in pronouns, 179. Quant, of mouosyl. in, 691, 2 ; of final syllables in, 692, 2. Dactyl, 721, 1; cyclic, 723, 3; effect of dactyls, 735, 2. Dactylic verse, 729, 1; 734; hexameter, 7.34 ff. ; pentameter, 739. Damma, gend., 78, 5. Baring, oonstr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Dative, Decl. I., 80, 2; Decl. IV., 131, 2. Dative, Syntax of, 422 ff.; dat. for ace, 419, 4; w. verbs, 424 ff. ; in poetry, 428; w. compds., 429; of possessor, 430; of agent, 431; ethical, 432; two dats., 433 ; w. adjs., 434 ; w. nouns and adverbs, 436 ; w. refert and interest, 449, 4 ; of gerund and gerundive, 627 ; of supine, 636. Days of month, how numbered, 754; Rfunan day, divisions of, 756. De in compds. w. dat., 429; de w. abl., 490, 2 ; to denote time, 487 ; w. gerund and gerundive, 629; w. abl., for gen., 444. Dea, decl., 80, 2. Dear, dat. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Debeo in conclusion, 583 ; w. pres. in- fin., 618, 1. Deciding, constr. tv. verbs of, 565, 3. Declarative sentence, 377, 3; in indir. disc^, 642. Declaring, constr. w. verbs of, 613. Declension, 74 ; first, 78 ff. ; second. 82 ft. ; third, 94 ff . ; fourth, 131 ff . ; fiith, 134 ff. ; of numerals, 166. B in Decl. I. and v., 696, 1. Increm. of decl., 702 ff. ; quant, in, 705 ff. Decreeing, subj. "w. verbs of, 565. Defective nouns, 138 fif. Def. compari- son, 155 ff. Def. verbs, 299. Defining gen., 440, 4. Deliberative subj., 559, 4. Delivering, gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Delos, decl., 89. Demanding , constr. w. verbs of, 411. Demonstrative prons., 177 ft. ; agree- ment, 394, 1. Position of demon., 675. Denarius, 757. Denominative verbs, 368 ; denom. incep- tives, 277, 3; 280. Dentals, 7 ; 8, 1 ; 46. Dental stems, Decl. III., 97. Dependent clauses, 386, 1. Deponent verbs, 222 ft. ; prin. parts of, 257, 1 ; 266 ; 281 ff . ; 283 ; 289. Depriving, constr. w. verbs of, 462. Derivation of words, 319 ff. Derivatives, primary, 324, 328 ff. ; sec- ondary, 324; 339 ff.; quant, in, 712; 718 ; 749, III. Descent, names of, 342. Descriptive gen., 440, 3; as pred. gen., 447. Desideratives, 366. Desire, subj. of, 551, II. ; 558. Desiring, gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 1; w. verbs of, 458, 1 ; subj. w. verbs of, 565 ; iufln. w. verbs of, 007, 1,; 614. Destitute of, constr. w. adjs. meaning, 465. Deterior, compar., 155, 1. Determinative prons., 180; use, 508 ft. Determinat. compds., 372, 1. Determining, subj. w. verbs of, 565; subj., or infin., 565, 3; infin., 607, 1. Deterreo, constr., 596, 2. Deus, decl., 83, 7. Dexter, compar., 152, 2. Diaeresis, 728, 2 ; bucolic, 736, 2. Dialysis, 733, 4. Diastole, 733, 5. Die for dice, 241. Dico, 1 in dictum, 749, VI., 1. -dicus, compds. in ; compar., 153. Dido, decl., 110, 1. Dies, decl., 134; gend., 135. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 221 Difference, abl. of, 479. Differing, dat. w. verbs of, 427. Difflcilis, compar., 152, 3. DIgnor, constr., 481, 2. Dignua w. abl., 481; w. gen., 481, 1; w. infin.,608, 4. Dignusqui w. subj., 591, 7. Dimeter, 729, N. 2 ; trochaic, 741 ; Ionic, 744. Diminutives, 340; signif., 341; dimin. verbs, 367. Diphthongs, 9 ; 11 ; inherited, 20 ; qualit. changes in, 32 ff.,; quant, of syllab. w. diph., 687 ; final diph. elided, 733, 1. Dipody, 721, 2, N. 2; trochaic, 740; iambic, 742. Direct object, 404 ff. Direct disc, 641 ; changed to indir., 653. Dis, quant, of increm., 709. Discourse, dir. and indir., 641 ff. ; moods and tenses in indir., 642 if. ; dir. changed to indir., 653. Disjunctive conjuncs., 315, 2; 658. Dis- junctive questions, 380. Displeasint), dat. -w. verbs of, 426, 1. Dissenting, dat. w. verbs of, 427. Dissimilation of consonants, 56. Dissimilis, compar., 152, 3; constr., 451, 2, N. Distance, expressions of, w. quin, 595, 1. Distich, elegiac, 739, 1. Distributives, 162 ff.; use of, 164; decl., 169. Distrusting, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. -do, decl. of nouns in, 100, 2. Verbal nouns in do, 337. Do vf. two dats., 433, 2 ; w. gerundive, 622. Doceo, constr., 411. Domus, decl., 133; constr., 419, 1; domo, 462, 4; domi, 484, 2. Donee in temp, clauses, 603 ; 604, 2. Douo, constr., 42K, 4. Double consonant, 7, N. ; length of syl- lable before, 688. Double questions, 380; indirect, 650. Doubt, expressions of, w. quin, 595, 1. .Dropping of vowels, 40; consonants, 57 ff. Dt changed to st, ss, s, 52, 1. Duo for duce, 241. Duoo, u in ductum, 749, VI., 1. Dum -w. pres. indie, 533, 4; 604, 1; Digitized by w, subj. in conditions, 587 ; in temp. clauses, 603 ; 604. Dummodo w. subj, in conditions, 587. Duo, decl., 166 ; o in, 694. Duration of time, 417. JHUy, verbs denoting, in apodosis, 583; expressed by pass, periphras. conjug., 621. Dux, decl., 98. B B, e, sound, 10 ; changed to i or o, 25 231 ,■ e shortened, 39, 4. Nouns in e, Decl. I., 81 ; in e, Decl. III., 103 gend. of nouns in e, Decl. III., 122 e in stems of Decl. V., 134, 1 ; e-nouns, 134; e- verbs, 201; 209 ff.; 359, 2: 361 ; e in adverbs, 311 ; e final, quant of, 692, 1 ; 696 ; in increm. of decl. _705; 708; couj., 711. E, ex, see ex. Ea, 307. Eadem, 307. Easy, dat. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Edjm, 244, 3. Editus w. abl., 469, 2. -edo, e in, 712, 2. Efflcio, constr., 571, 1 and 3. Ego, decl., 175; o in, 694. I in mihl, 693. Eho, o in, 694. El, sound, 11 ; changed to i, 33. -ela, e in, 712, 3. Elegiac distich, 739, 1. -ells, adjs. in, 348 ; e in, 712, 3. Elision, 733, 1. Ellipsis, 751, 1. Emotion, constr. w. verbs of, 405 ; 458, 1. Emphasis in arrang. of words, 665 ff. ; by standing at beginning, 665, 1 ; at end, 665, 2 ; by anaphora, 666, 1 ; by chiasmus, 666, 2. -ena, e in, 712, 4. Enclitics, accent of, 17, 1 ; quant., 691, 1. End, dat. of, 425, 3. End of sentence emphatic, 665, 2. Ending, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Endings of gen., 76; in compar., 151; 152; of prons., 179; verbal endings, 254 ; personal, 255 ; mood and tense signs, 256; deriv. endings, quant, in, 712. Bnim, position, 677. Microsoft® 222 GENERAL INDEX -ensis, adjs. In, 351. -euus, e in, 712, 4. Envying, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Epitome, decl., 81. Epulum, decl., 147. Equivalents, metrical, 722. -er, nouns in, decl., 85 ff.; 99, 2 ; adjs. in, decl., 91 ff. ; 126; compar., 152. -emus, adjs. in, 349 ; 355. ere = erunt, 239. Erga w. ace, 420, 2. Erg-o w. gen., 446, 5. -erunt for erunt, 239. Es, e in, 691, 3; in compds., 698, 2. es, nouns in, decl., 105 if.; gend., 115; 117; es, nouns in, decl., 97; gend.. Ill; Bs, es, final, 692, 3; 698. Esse omitted, 242 ; in perf . pass, infin., 620, 2. Est quod, 591, 4. -ester, -estris, adjs. in, 351. Et, 057, 1. Et . . . et, 657, 4. Ethical dat., 432. Etiam, 657, 1. Btiam si, etiamsi, etsi, in advers. clauses, 585. -etus, e in, 712, 6. Etymology, 4, III. ; 318 fe. ; figures of, 750. Eu, sound, 11; qualit. change of , 36. Euphony in arrang. of wordsand clauses, 670. ^us, adjs. in, 347 ; -eus, 353. Evenit, constr., 571, 1. Ex w. abl., 461 ; 467 ; 470 ; 490, 2 ; w. abl. = part, gen., 444 ; w. gerund and ge- rundive, 629. -ex, -ex, decl. of nouns in, 98, 120. Exanlmis, exanlmus, decl., 146. Exclamations, ace. in, 421. Exclamatory sentences, 377, 6 ; infin. in, 616, 3. Exos, OS in, 699. Expers w. gen., 451, 2. Extemplo, 310. Extent of space, ace. of, 417. Extra w. ace, 420, 2. Paorfor face, 241. Pac ne w. subj. in prohibitions, 561, 2. Paoilis, compar., 152, 3. Digitized by Pacio w. dat., 427 ; w. pred. gen., 447; 448; w. abl., 474, 3. Faoio ut, 560, 1 ; 571, 3. Faithful, dat. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Palsus, compar., 156. Pames, decl., 145, 3. Pamilia, gen. of, 79, 2. Pas, indecl., 137. Favoring, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Fearing, constr. w. verbs of, 567. Feeling, constr. w. verbs of, 405; 457; 458, i ; 614. Feet in versification, 720. Pelix, decl., 128. Feminine, 67, 2 ; 69 ; 115 ft. Per for fere, 241 ; e in, 691, 3. -fer, adjs. in, 92, 2. Fere, ferme, e in, 696, 3. Festivals, plur. in names of, explained, 139, 3; abl. in names of, 486, 1. -flcus, compds. in, compar., 153. Pido w. abl., 476, 3. Fifth decl., 134 ff.; e final in, 696, 1. Figures of prosody, 733; of speech, 750 ff. ; of etymology, 750 ; of syntax, 751 ; of rhetoric, 752. Pilia, decl., 80, 2. Filius, voc. gen. fill, 83, 5 and 6. Ap- parent ellipsis of, 446, 1. Filling, abl. w. verbs of, 477, II. ; gen. w. adj. of fullness, 477, II., 2. Final conjuncs., 316, 5. Final clauses, 568. Final vowels and syllables, quant. of, 691 ff . Final syllable elided, 733, 1. Finis, sing, and plur., 140. Finite verbs, 199, 1 ; agreement, 388. First decl., 78 ff. First conj., 206 ff.; 257 ff. Flattering, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Flos, decl., 101. Pore ut, constr., 571, 1; 619, 1. Forgetting, constr. w. verbs of, 454. Poris, is in, 700, 1. Formation of verb stems, 245 ff. ; of words, 319 ff. ; of nouns and adjs., 328 ff. Fourth dec!., 131 ff. Fourth conj., 215 ff. ; 284 ff. Fractious, 165. FrfiRing, abl. w. verbs of, 462; w. adjs. meaning free from, 465. Frequentatives, 361. Pretus w. abl., 476, 1. Microsoft® ' GENERAL INDEX 223 Friendly, oonatr. w. adjs. meaning, 434,1. FrQctus, decl., 131. Prustra, a in, 695, 4. Pragi, indecl., 137. Frugis, defect., 142 ; quant, of increm., 710. Fruor w. abl., 477, I. Fuam, 205, 2. Fullness, derivatives denoting, 346 ; gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 2; 477, II., 2; abl. w. adjs. of, 477, II. Fungor w. abl., 477, 1. Filr, quant, of increm., 710. Future tense, 196,1. Fut. indie, 536; in condit., 577, 3. Fut. imperat., 660,2; 561,3. Fut. in temp, clauses, 600, I. Fut. time in Bubj,, 541, 2. Fut. infin., 619. Fut. particip., 640. Future perf . tense, 196, 2 ; 540 ; how supplied in subj., 541, 2; in temp. clauses, 603, II., 1; in indir. disc, 644, 2. Puturum esse ut, 619, 1. G G, sound, 12 ; changed to c, 55 ; dropped, 58. Games, names of, constr., 486, 1. Gaudeo, constr., 599. Gender, 65 ff. ; in Decl. I., 78 and 5 ; Decl. II., 82 ; 87 ff. ; Decl. III., Ill ff. ; Decl. IV., 131 fe. ; Decl. V., 134 ff. ; general table of, 136. General relatives, 182. Gen. truths, 5.32, 2 ; in condit., 578 ; in temp, clauses, 601, 4. Genitive, endings of, 76; Decl. I., as, 79, 2 ; urn, 80, 1 ; Decl. II., i for ii, 83, 6; um, 84, 3; Decl. III., um, 130; orum, 110, 2 ; us, 110, 1 ; gen. want- ing, 141 ff. Genitive, syntax of, 437 ff. ; how ren- dered, 437 ; uses, 438 ; w. nouns, 439 ff. ; attrib. and pred., 439; attrib., its varieties, 440 ; in special constructions, 445 ff. ; pred. gen., 447 ff. ; of price, 448; w. retert and Interest, 449; w. a|djs.,435, 4; 450 ff.; w. pres.particips. as adjs., 451, 3; w. verbs, 454 ff ; ' gen. of gerund and gerundive, 626. Position of gen., 671. Genitus w. abl,, 469, 2. Gentes, Eoman, how designated, 354. Gerund, 200, 2; in seq. of tenses, 548. Syntax of gerund, 624 ff. ; cases of, 625. Gerundive, 200, 4; syntax, 621 ff. ; gerundive constr., 623; w. gen., mel, etc., 626, 1. -ginta, numerals in, a in, 695, 3. Giving, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2; gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Gn, vowel long before, 749, 1. Gnomic perfect, 538, 5. -go, decl. of nouns in, 100, 2; verbal nouns in, 337. Going, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2. Gratia, sing, and plur., 140; gratia, constr., 475, 2. Gratis, is in, 700, 1. Gratulor, constr., 599. Greek nouns, Decl. I., 81; Decl. II., 89; Decl. III., 109 ff.* Guttural stems, 98. Gutturals, 7; 8, 1; with 8 forming x, 51 ; lost, 58. H H does not affect quant, of preceding syllables, 688, 1, n. Habeo, w. perf. part., 431, 2. Hac, 307. Hadria, gend., 78, 5. Haec = hae, 178, 1. Haud, use, 655. Heia, a in, 695, 4. Heres, quant, of increm., 708. Heros, decl., 110. Hesitating, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Heteroclites, 145 ff. Heterogeneous nouns, 147. Hexameter, 729, 1 ; 734 ff . ; last word of, 738. Hiatus, 733, 2. Hie, decl., 178 ; use, 505 ff. ; for meus, noster, hie homo for ego, 507, 2. 1 in hie, 6 in hoc, 691, 3 Hie, 308. Hidden quantity, 749. Hiems, decl., 100. Hilaris, hilarus, decl., 146. Hindering, constr. w. verbs of, 566; 568,4; 595,2; 596,2. Siring, abl. w. verbs of, 478, 1. Digitized by Microsoft® 224 GENERAL INDEX Historical tenses, 198, 2; hist, perf., 197, 2; 198, 2 ; 537, 2 ; pres., 532, 3 ; in sequence, 543 ff.; 546. Hist, infin., 610. Hodie, e in, 696, 1. Horace, versification, 747; lyric meters, 747. Hortative subj., 559, 1. Hortor, constr., 412; w. infin., 608, 3. Hours, Roman, 756. Humilis, oompar., 152, 3. Humus, gend., 87, 3; humo, 462, 4; humi, 484, 2. Hypermetrical, 729, N. 3. I, I, sound, 10 ; consonant sound of, 12, 1 ; 733, 3, N. 2 ; qualit. changes of, 26 ; i shortened, 39; i in gen. and voc. of nouns in ius and jn gen. of nouns in ium, 83, 5 and 6 ; stems in 1, 102 ff. ; 125 ff. ; i changed to e or dropped, 103, 1 ; i in abl., 102. I-verbs, 217 flf. ; 359, 3 ; 362. I final, quant, of, 692, 1 ; 693 ; in increm. of decl., 705; 709; conj., 711. Length of syllable before 1 con- sonant, 688, 2. -ia, nouns in, 345 ; 354. -iades, patronymics in, 342. lam, with diu, dudum w. pres., 533, 1 ; w. imperf., 535, 1. Iambic verse, 729, N. 1; 742 ff. ; dipody, 742 ; trimeter, 743. Iambus, 721, 2 ; irrational, 723, 2. -ianus, adjs. in, 353. -ias, patronymics in, 342. -ibam = iebam, 244, 1. Ibl, .308,2; i in, 693. -ibo, -ibor, = -lam, -iar, 244, 2. -ico, denominative verbs in, 368. Ictus, 724 ; place of, determined, 727 ; in hexam., 734; on unaccented syllables, 737. -icus, -icus, derivatives in, 330; 350; 353. idem, decl., 181 ; use of, 508. -ides, patronymics in, 342. Ides, 754, I., 3. -ido, iin, 712, 2. Idoufus qui w. subj., 591, 7. idus, gend., 132. -ies, verbal nouns in, 333. Igitur, position, 677. ignis, decl., 102. -igro, denom. verbs in, 368. ilico, o in, 694. ilion, decl., 89. -Ills, adjs. in, compar., 152, 3; 157; de- rivatives in, 329; 352; -His, adjs. in, 348. Illative conjuncs., 315, 4; 660. lUe, decl., 178; use, 505 ff. -illo, diminutives in, 367. -im in ace, 102 ; for am or em, 244, 3. Impedlmentum, sing, and plur., 140. Impedio, constr., 596, 2. Imperative mood, 195; syntax, 560 ff. Imperat. sentences, 377, 5. Imperat. subj., 559, 2; in indir. disc, 642. Im- perat. and subj. in_commands, 560 ff. ; in apodosis, 581. E in imperat., Conj. II., 696, 2. Imperfect tense, 196, 1 ; indie, 534 ff. ; w. iam, iam diu, etc., 535, 1 ; in let- ters, 539, 1 ; in condit., 578, 1 ; in temp, clauses, 601; subjunc, 541, 2; 544; 545 ; 547 ; subj . of desire, 558, 1 ; in condit., 579; in temp, clause, 600, II. ; 603, II., 2; 604, 1; 605, II.; in indir. disc, 647. Impersonal verbs, 302; impers. pass., 302, 2; 611, 2; 021, 2; w. substant. clause as subject, 571. Impleo, constr., 477, II., 1. Impos, OS in, 699. Imputing, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2. In in compds., w. dat., 429. In w. ace, 420, 3; w. abl., 490, 3; w. ace after adjs., 435, 1; w. abl. of time, 487, 1; w. gerund., 631. In, insep.prep., 313; in compds., 370; 375. Inceptives, inchoatives, 277 ff. ; 365. Increments, quant, in, 702 ff. ; decl., 705 ff. ; conj., 711 ff. Indeclinable nouns, 137; gend., 70. Indecl. adjs., 137. Indefinite pronouns, 185 ff. ; use of, 512 ff. Indefinite subject, 600, II., 1. Independent clauses, 386, 1. Index of verbs, p. 209. Indicative mood, 193; use, 520; 523 ff. • in condit., 573; 574; 581 ff. ; in adver- sative clauses, 585 ; in concess. clauses 686 ; in causal clause, 588, 1. ; w. cum Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 225 causal and concess., 599; vr. cura temp., 600; 601; w. dum, etc., 603; in indir. disc, 643, 1. Indignus w. abl., 481; w. gen., 481, 1. Indignus qui w. subj., 391, 7. Indirect discourse, 611 ff . ; naoods and tenses in, 642 ff. ; moods in prin. clauses, 642; in subord. clauses, 643; tenses, 644; prons. and persons, 645; condit. clauses, 646 ff . ; direct changed to indir., 653. Indirect clauses, 649 ff. ; indir. questions, 649, 2; 650; subj. in, 649,2. Indirect object, 423 ff. ; varieties, 425 ; w. adjs., 434 ; w. direct obj., 424. Indo-European languages, 1. Indulging, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Induo, constr., 407. Inferus, com par., 155, 2. Infinitive, 200, 1 ; origin and develop, of, 608; gend.,70; in seq. of tenses, 546 ; 548 ; syntax of, 606 ff . ; of pur- pose, 608; w. adjs., 608,4; as object or subject, 609 ; 615 ; historical, 610 ; w. verbs w. ace, 613 ; pred. after, 612 ; tenses of, 617 ; in indir. disc, 642 ; 643. Infin. clauses, 610, 3 ; as subject, 615 ; as pred., 616, 1; as appos., 616, 2; in exclamations, 616, 3 ; in abl. abs., 616, 4. Inflection of words, 319 ff. Influence, dat. of, 425, 1. Infra w. ace, 420, 2. Ingratis, is in, 700, 1. Injuring, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Innitor w. abl., 476, 3. Inquam, position, 679. Inquies, quant, of increm., 708. Inseparable preps., 313 ; in compds., 375. Instar, indecl., 137; w. gen., 446, 4. Instrumental case, 459, 2. Instr. abl., 472 &. ; 476 ff. ; of gerund and gerun- _ dive, 630. insuetus, constr., 451, 1 ; 453. Intending, construction w. verbs of, 607, 1. Intensives, 364. Inter in compounds, w. dat., 429. Inter TV. ace, 420, 2 ; = gen., 444 ; inter nos, inter vos, inter se w. reciprocal force, 502, 1. Interest, dat., of, 425, 2. Interest, constr., 449. Interior, compar., 155, 1. HARE. u. S. LAT, Digitized by Microsoft® Interjections, 317; w. voc, 402, 1; w. ace, 421. Interrogative prons., 183 ff. ; use, 511 ; position, 675. Interrog. conjuncs., 316, 8. Interrog. sentences, 377, 4; 378 ff.; in indir. disc, 642. Interval, abl. of, 479, 3; interval be- tween events, how expressed, 488. Intra w. ace, 420, 2. Intransitive verbs, w. cognate ace, 409; impers. pass., 518, 1; 621, 2. Intus w. abl., 490, 4. -inus, adjs. in, 349; 353. -io, verbs in, of Conj.III.,225ff. ; quant. of stem syllables, 713; verbal nouns in, 333 ; verbs w. suffix lo, 359. locus, dec!., 147. Ionic verse, 744. -lor in comparatives, 151 ff. ; decL, 127. Ipse, decl., 181 ; gen. of, w. possess,, 446, 3; use, 509. Irrational time, 720, 4. Irregular comparison, 152 ff. Irreg. verbs, 290 ff. Is, decl., 181; use, 508. -is, decl. of nouns in, 102; gend., 118; adjs. in, 126; 127; patronymics in, 342. Is in ace plur., 102 ; 105. Is, is, final, 692, 3 ; 700. Islands, gend. of names of, 69; constr., 419,2; 462,4; 484,1. -issimus, a, um, in superlative, 151. Iste, decl., 178 ; use, 505 ; 507, 3. -ito, frequentatives in, 364. -itus, adjs. in, 346. -ium, decl. of nouns in, 83, 6; lum in gen. plur., 102; 103; 105; verbal nouns in, 333 ; denominatives in, 344. lubeo, constr., 565, 1. ladicio, constr., 456, 2. lugerum, decl., 145, 2. lungo w. abl., 474, 2. luppiter, decl., 107, 1. Ills, decl., 101. luvenis, compar., 158. luventus w. plur. verb, 389. -ius, decl. of nouns in, 83, 5 and 6 ; derivatives in, 330; 350; 353; 354; -ius in gen. of adjs., 93. luxta w. ace, 420, 2 ; a in, 695, 4. -ivus, derivatives in, 331 ; 350. -Is., decl. of nouns in, 98; gend., 120; quant, of increm., 709. 226 GENERAL INDEX Joy, special use of adjs. expressing, 497, 1. Julian calendar, 754. Jussive subj., 559, 2; in condit.,587; in relat. clause, 593. Juvenal, versification, 747. K seldom used, 5. Kindred words placed near each other, 667. Knowing, constr. w. verbs of, 007, 1. Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 451, 1 ; w. force of adverbs, 497, 1. L, stems in, decl., 99; gend. of nouns in, 122; 123. Quant, of monosyl. in, 691, 2; of final syllable in, H92, 2. Labials, 7 ; 8, 1 ; 47 ; labial stems, 96. Laous, decl., 131, 2. Lampas, decl., 110. Language, Latin, 1 ; 2. Lapis, decl., 97. Lar, quant, of increm., 706. Latin language, name, derivation of, 1 ; 2. Latin period, 685. Latin literature, 753. Laudo, constr., 599. Leap year, 755, footnote 3. Learning, constr, w. verbs of, 607, 1. Leaving, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2. Lengthening of vowels, 37 ff. -lens, -lentus, adjs. in, 346. Leo, decl., 100. Letters, classification of, 6 ; 7 ; sounds, 10 ft. Tenses in letters, 539, 1. Letting, abl. w. verljs of, 478, 1. Lex, quant, of increm., 708. Liber, a, um, 85 ; 91. Licet w. subj., 564, IL, 1; 586, IL Likeness, dat., w. adjs. of, 434, 2; gen., 435, 4. Limit, ace. of, 418. -llmus, a, um, in superlative, 152, 3. Linguals, 7 ; 8,1. Liquids, 7; 44, 2; 48. Liquid stems, 99. Lis,^qaant. of increm., 709. Literature, Roman, 753. Littera, sing, and plur., 140. Locative, 73, 2; in Decl. L, 78, 4 ; Decl. IL, 83, 4; Decl. III., 108; domi, 133, 1; as adverb, 308. Syntax of loc, 482_ff.; loc. abl., 482ft.; 631. Loco, constr., 418, 1. Locuples, quant, of increm., 708. Locus, decl., 147; loco, locis, constr., 485, 2. Logaoedic verse, 745. Long syllables, 14, 1; 687; 688; long vowels w. hidden quant., 749. Longius without quam, 471, 3. -lus, la, lum, diminutives in, 340. LQx, defect., 141, 2; quant. -of increm., 710. Luxuria, luxuries, decl., 145, 4. Lyric metres of Horace, 747. M M, stems in, 100. Quant, of monosyl. in, 691, 2 ; of final syllables in, 692, 2. Mfinaleiided, 733, 1. Magis in eompar., 159; 499. Magnus, eompar., 154. Magni, constr., 448, 1. Maior without quam, 471, 4. Making, verbs of, w. two aces., 410 ; w. subj., 566. Male, e in, 696, 3. Malo, constr., 614, 2. Malus, eompar., 154. Mane, indecl., 137. Manifestus w. gen., 451, 2. Manner, abl. of, 473, 3; expressed by particip., 638, 1. Mari, constr., 485, 2. Mastenj, gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 2; w. verbs of, 458, 3. Material, derivatives denoting, 347. Abl. of material, 467 ; 470. Maxime in comparison, 159. Maximi, denoting price, 448, 1. Means, abl. of, 476 ft.; expressed by particip., 638, 1. Measure of difference, abl. of, 479. Measuring, abl. w. verbs of, 480, 2. Medial vowels, 7, 2. Meme, 175, 3. Memini, w. gen., 4.54; w. ace, 454, 1 and 2 ; w. abl. w. de, 454, 3. Memor, decl., 128. -men, -mentum, verbal nouns in, 336. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 227 Mensa, decl., 78. Merces, quant, of increm., 708. Meridies, gend., 135. Metaphor, 752, 2. Metouomy, 752, 3. Metrical equivalent, 722. Meus, decl., 17(i, 1. Mi = mlhi, 175, 1; voc. of meus, 176, 1. Middle voice, 517. Miles, decl., 97. Militiae, loc, 78, 4; 484, 2. Mille, 168 ; use, 163, 2. Minimi, denoting price, 448, 1. Minor, minus, without quam, 471, 3 ; minoris, constr., 448, 1 and 3. Miror w. gen., 458, 4. Misceo w. dat., 427 ; w. abl., 474, 2. Misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 457. Miseret, constr., 457. Miseror, constr., 457, 2. Mitto w. gerundive, 622. Modifiers, 383 ft. Position of modifiers of subject, 664, 1 ; of pred., 664, 2 ; of objects, 664, 3; position changed by emphasis, 665; modifiers of nouns, 671; 675; of adjs.,672; of verbs, 673; of adverbs, 674. Modo w. subj. in conditions, 587. O final in modo and its compds., 694. Moneo, constr., 412. Money, Roman, 757. -monia, nouns in, 336 ; 345. -monium, verbal nouns in, 336 ; denom- inatives in, 344. Monometer, 729, N. 2. Monosyllables, quant., 691. Months, gend. of names of, 68 ; Roman months, 754. Moods, 193 ff. Mood signs, 256. Indie, 520; 523 ff. Subj., 521; 541 ff. Imperat., 522. Moods in condit. sen- tences, 572 ff. ; 587 ; in advers. and oonoess. clauses, 586 ; in causal clauses, 588 ; in relat. clauses, 589 ff. ; w. quin, 594 ff . ; w. cum causal and concess., 597 ff. ; w. cum temp., 600; in indir. disc, 642 ff. ; inindir. clauses, 649. Infin., 606 ff. Morae or times, 720, 1. Morphology, 4, II. ; 60 ff. Mos, sing, and plur., 140. Moveo Tff. abl., 463. Multitado w. plur. verb, 389. Mutes, 7 ; 44 ff. Mute and liquid, quant, of syllable before, 690. N N lost, 58, 5. Stems in n, 100. Quant, of final syllables in, 692, 2. Name, dat. of, 430, 1. Names, Roman, 354. Names of tovrns, constr., 418; 462; 483,1. Nasals, 7, 5 ; 44, 2 ; 48. Nasal stems, 100. Nascor, constr., 469, 2. Natii, abl. of specif., 480, 1. Natusw. abl., 469, 1. Navis, decl., 102. -ne in questions, 378; in double ques- tions, 380. Ne, 655 ; vr. optative subj., 558 ; w. volit. subj., 659; w. subj. in prohibitions, 561, 2 and 4 ; w. verbs of fearing, 567, 1; w. subj. of. purpose, 568; in con- cess., 586, II. Ne non, 567, 2. Nearness, dat. w. adjs. of, 434, 1. Nee, 657, 1. B in nee, 691, 3. Necessary, dat. y!. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Necessity, verbs denoting, in apodosis, 583 ; expressed by pass, periphras. conj., 621. Necesse est w. subj., 564, II., 1. Neetar, quant, of increm., 706. Needing, constr. w. verbs of, 462, Nefas, indecl., 137. Negatives, 655; w. potent, subj., 552; w. subj. of desire, 558; w. volit. subj., 559; in prohib. sentences, 561,4; w. quin clauses, 595; position, 678, 1. Nemo, use, 513, 1 ; w. quin, 595, 4. Nepos, decl., 97. Nequam, indecl^, 137. Neque, 657, 1; in prohibitions, 561, 4; w. substantive clauses, 668, 2. Neque . neque, 656, 2. Ne . . . quidem, 656, 2 and 3. Neseio quis, 051, 2. Neu, see neve. -neus, adjs. in, 347. Neuter, decl., 93; use, 188. Neuter, nom., ace, voc, plur., 75, 2; neut. by signif., 70; by ending, Decl. II., 82; Decl. III., 122 ff. ; Decl. IV., 131. Neut. pron. or adj. as cognate Digitized by Microsoft® 228 GENERAL INDEX ace, 412; w. gerund, 626, 1. O in increm. of neut., 707. Neve, neu, in prohib., 561, 4; w. substan. clauses, 568, 2. Neve . . . neve, 656, 2. Nex, defect., 141. Nf, vowel long before, 749, I. Ni, incondit.,574ff. Night, Roman, divisions of, 756. Nihil, indecl., 137; w. quirt, 595, 4. Nihil abest, constr., 595, 1. Nisi, in condit., 574 ff. Nitor w. abl., 476, 3. Nix, decl., 107. Nolo, constr., 614, 2. Noli, nolite, in prohib., 561, 1. Nomen, .354, 1. Nominative neut. plur. in adjs., 129; Decl. II., a changed to a, 79, 1. Syn- tax of nom., 401. Nomine, constr., 456, 2. Non, 655 ; in answers, 379, 1 ; w. potent, sub]., 552 ; w. general neg., 656, 1; position, 678. Non quod, quin, quo, quia, w. subj., 588, II., 2; w. indie, 588, 2, N. Non modo (so- lum) non, 656, 3. Nones, 754, I., 2. Nonne, .378. Nostrum, nostri, use, 175, 2 ; 500, 1. Nouns, morphology, 62 ff.; gend., 65 ff.; person and number, 72 ; cases, 73 ; decl., 74 ff. ; indecl., 137; defective, 138 ff. ; heteroclites, 145 ; heterogene- ous, 147 ; verbal, 200 ; derivative, 328 ff. Syntax, 387 ff. ; agreement, 387 ff. ; general view of cases, 400; nom., 401; voc, 402; aoc, 403 ft.; dat., 422 ff. ; gen., 437 ff. ; abl., 459 ft. ; w. preps., 420; 490 ; Nouns, posi- tions of modifiers of, 671. Novus, compar., 156. -ns, sufBx, 328 ; decl. of nouns in, 106, 2 ; lengthens preceding vowel, 749, 1. Nubes, decl., 105. Nilllus, decl., 93; use, 188; 513, 2; w. quin, 595, 4 ; = non, 513, 3. Num, 378. Number in nouns, 72 ; in verbs, 199 ; 519. Numerals, 161 ff. ; adjs., 162 ff. ; sym- bols, 170; adverbs, 171. Numerals w^ gen., 442; w. relat., 510, 4. Numquam followed by quin, 595, 5. -nus, adjs. in, 347; 349; 355. O, o, sound, 10 ; qualit. changes of, 27 ; o-nouns and adjs., 82. O, final, quant. of, 692, 1; 694; in increm. of decl., _705; 707; of conj., 711. O, interj., 317 ; w. ace, 421. Ob in compds. ; w. dat., 429. Ob w. ace, 420, 2. Obeying, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Object, direct, 404 ; indir. object, 423 ; 424, 1 ; 434. Object clauses, 564, 1 ; 505; 613. Position of obj., direct and indirect, 664, 2 and 3. Objective compds., 372, 2. Object, gen., 440, 2; w. adjs., 450 ff. ; w. verbs, 457. Objective modifiers, position of, 672; 673. Oblique cases, 73, 1 ; use of, 403 ff . Obliviscor w. gen., 454; w. ace, 454,1. Obtaining, constr. w. verbs of, 566. Ocior, compar., 155, 1. Od, old abl. ending, 84, 1. Oe, sound, 11. Office, derivatives denoting, 344. Offices, names of, in abl., 486, 1. Ohe, e in, 696, 3. Oi, diphthong, qualit. changes of, 34. Omission, expressions of, w. quin, 595, 1. Omnis, gen. of, w. possess., 446, 3; w. part, gen., 442, 2. -ona, o in, 712, 4. Onero, constr., 477, II. -onus, o in, 712, 4. Open vowels, 7, 1. Oportet w. subj., 564, II., 1; w. pres. infin., 618, 1. Opposing, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1; constr. w. verbs of, 568, 4 ; 596, 2. Ops, defect., 142. Optative subj., 551, II. ; 558. Opus, work, decl., 101. Opus, need, constr., 477, III., N. 1. -or, verbal nouns in, 333; gend. of _ nouns in. 111; 113. Oratio obliqua, see Indirect discourse. OratiS recta, 641. Ordinal numbers, 162 ff. ; decl., 169; w. quisque, 515, 2. Ortus w. abl., 469, 2. Os, ossis, o in, 691, 3. -OS, -OS, decl . of nouns in, 101, 2 ; gend. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 229 111 ; 113 ; decl. of Greek nouns in, 8i OS, OS, final, 692, 3 ; 699. Oscan dialect, 2. -osus, adjs. in, 346; o in, 712, 5. -otus, o in, 712, 6. Ou, diphthong, qualit. changes of, 36. Ovid, versification, 747. Owing, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. P, assimilated, 53, 3. Paene w. perf. indie, 583, 2. Paenitet, constr., 457. Palam w. abl., 490, 4. Palatals, 7 ; 8, 1. Paliis w. u in Horace, 701. Par, quant, of increm., 706. Pardoning, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Parentage, expressed by abl., 467 ; 469. Parenthetical clauses in iudir. disc, i>43, 1. Paries, es in, 698, 1. Partioeps w. gen., 451, 2. Pars, sing, and plur., 140; in fractions, 165. Participation, gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 2; w. verbs of, 458, 3. Participial system, 235; 253; often wanting, 261, 1; 272, 1; 275, 2; 280. Participles, 200, 4; agreement, 394, 1; 395; 612; in abl. abs., 489; as sub- stantives, 494; 495; 636, 2; in seq. of tenses, 548. Syntax of particip., 636 ff. ; for relat. clauses, 637 ; denote ing time, cause, manner, means, 638, 1; condit., concess., 638, 2; purpose, 638,3; for prin. clause, 639; tenses of , 640. Particles, 303 ff. ; adverbs, 304 ff. ; preps., 312 ff. ; conjs., 314 ff. ; inter- jections, 317; use, 654 ff. ; use of ad- verbs, 654 ff. Interrog. particles, 378 ff. Partim, 306. Partitive apposition, 393, 3. Partitive gen., 440, 6 ; 441 ff. ; substitutes for, 444 ; as pred. gen., 447. Parts of speech, 61. Parum w. part, gen., 443. Parvus, compar., 154. Parvi, denot- ing price, 448, 1. Passer, decl., 99. Passive voice, 192. Passive used imper- sonally, 302, 2. Pass, constr., 518; 611. Pass, like middle, 517. Pater, decl., 99. Paterfamilias, 79, 2. Patronymics, 342. Pauci, defect., 144. Pause, caesura], 728. Pax, defect., 141, 2. Peculiarities in conj., 238 ff. ; in seq. of tenses, 546 ff. ; in Roman calendar, 755. Pelagus, gend., 88. Pell5 w. abl., 463. Penalty, how expressed, 456, 3. Penes w. ace, 420, 2 ; es in, 698, 2. Peninsulas, constr. of names of, 419, 2 ; 484, 1. Pentameter, 729, n. 2 ; dactylic, 739. Per in compds. w. ace, 406. Per w. ace, 420, 2. Perceiving, constr. w. verbs of, 613 and 4; 641. Perfect tense, 196, 2; pres. perf. and histor.,197. Perfect system, 234; per- fect stem, 248 ff. Perf. w. pres. mean- ing, 299, 2 ; 638, 4. Syntax of perf. indie, 537 ff. ; in temp, clauses, 602; 603, II., 1; 605, I.; perf. subj., 541, 2; in seq. of tenses, 543 ff. ; in condit., 576, 1 ; 578, 2 ; 582, 2 ; 584, 2 and 3 ; in temp, clauses, 600, II. ; 605, 1. ; in indir. disc, 644, 1 and 2. Perf. infin., 617; 620; to denote result of action, 620, 2. Perf. particip., 640. Quant, of penult of dissyllabic perf s. and p. part. , 715 ; of first two syllables of trisyllabic redup. perfs., 716. Periods, Latin, 685. Periphrastic conjugations, 236 ff. ; use, 525, 1; 531; 621; in apodosis, 582. Periphras. fut. infin., 619, 1. Peritus w. gen., 451, 1. Permitting, gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Person of nouns, 72 ; of verbs in indir. disc, 645. Personal pron., 174 ff. ; use, 500 ; reflex. use, 502; recip. use, 502, 1. Personal endings of verbs, 255. Personal constr. in pass, voice, 611, 1 ; 621, 1. Personification, 752, 9. Persuading, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2; subj . w. verbs of, 565. Digitized by Microsoft® 230; GENERAL INDEX Pes, es in compds. of, 698, 1. Phonetic changes, 22 ff. Phonology, 4, I.; 5 ff. Phryx, decl., 110. Piget, constr., 457. Fix, defect., 141. Place, derivatives denoting, 343. Place whither, 491, I., 1; vrhere, dat., 428; abl., 483; 491, I., 3; whence, 491, 1., 2. Adjs. of place w. force of adverbs, 497, 2. Pleasing, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Plebs, quant, of increm., 708. Plenty, constr. w. verbs of, 458, 2. Plenus w. abl., 477, II.; w. gen., 477, II., 2. Pleonasm, 751, 3. Plerique, defect., 144. Pluperfect tense, 196, 2. Plup. indie, 539 ; in letters, 539, 1 ; in temp. clauses, 601; 602, 1. Plup. subj., 541, 2; in subj. of desire, 558,1; in seq. of tenses, 543 ff. ; in condit., 579 ; in temp, clauses, 600, II. ; 605, 11. ; in indir.disc, 644, 2; 647. Plural, 72 ; wanting, 138 ; w. change of meaning, 140. Plurimi, gen. of price, 448, 1. Plus, decl., 127, 3; without quam,471, 3. Pluris, constr., 448, 1 and 3. Poetical ace, 407 ; 416 ; dat. , 419 ; 4 ; 428 ; 431, 3; gen., 442, 2 and 3; 452; abl., 4ii6; 469,2; 485,3. Pone w. ace, 420, 2. P5no, constr., 418, 1. Posco w. two aces., 411, 2. Positive, 149 ; wanting, 155. Possession, derivatives denoting, 348. Possessive pron., 176; for pred. gen., 439, 1 ; for subject, gen., 440, 1, N. ; w. refert and interest, 449, 1 ; use of, 501 ; reflex, use, 502 ; position of possess., 675. Possess, compds., 372, 3. Possessor, dat. of, 430. Possible condit., 573 ; 576. Possum inconclus.,583; w.pres.infin., 618, 2. Facere non possum, fieri non potest, 595, 3. Post in compds., w. dat., 429. Post w. ace, 420, 2 ; to express interval of time, 488. Postea quam, 602. Posterus, compar,, 155, 2. Postquam in temp, clauses, 602. Postridie w. ace, 420, 4; w. gen., 446, 5 ; Postridie quam, 602. Potential subj., 551, I.; 552; in subord. clauses, 569 ; in clauses of result, 570 ; in substantive clauses, 571 ; in concess. clauses, 586, 1 ; in relat. clauses, 591 ; 592. Potior w. gen., 458, 3; w. abl., 477, I. Potis, indecl., 137. Prae in compds., w. dat., 429. Prae w. abl., 490, 2 ; quant, of, In compds., 687, 1. Praeditus w. abl., 476, 1. Praen5men, 354, 1. Praeter in compds., w. ace, 406 ; w. two aces., 413. Praeter w. ace, 420, 2. Preci, defect., 142. Predicate, 381, 2; simple, 382; complex, 384. Pred. nouns, 382, 2 ; agreement of verb with, 390; case, 393; gend., 393,1; after infin., 612. Pred. adjs., 382, 2; after infln., 612. Pred. ace, 410, 1 ; 622. Pred. dat., 433, 1. Pred gen., 439 ; 447 ff. ; of price, 448 ; w. refert and interest, 449. Clause as pred., 564,11. Position of pred., 664; 682. Preparing, constr. w. verbs of, 607, 1. Prepositions, 312 ff. ; originally adverbs, 420,4; insep., 313; .375; in composi- tion, 374. Compds. w. ace, 406 ; w. two aces., 413; w. dat., 429. Preps, in expressions of time, 417, 1 ; 487, 1 ; 488, 1 ; of place, 418 ; 419, 3 ; of agency, 467. Preps, w. adjs., 435, 1, 2, and 3; = part, gen., 444; = gen. w. adjs., 453 ; = gen. w. verbs, 449, 4 ; 455 ; 456, 1, 3 ; of penalty, 456, 3; of separat., 461: 462, 1, 2, and 3 ; "accompaniment, 473, 1; source, 467; manner, 473, 3. Cases w. preps, ace, 420; abl., 490; abl. or ace, 420, 3; 490,3. Adverbs as preps., 420, 5 ; position of preps., 676. Preps, w. gerund and gerundive, 628; 629; 631. Present tense, 196, 1. Present system, 233. Present stem, 246 ff. Present indie, 532 ff. ; of gen. truths, customs, 532, 2; histor., 532, 3; 602; w. lam diu, etc., 533, 1; in condit., 577, 2; 578, 1 ; in temp, clauses, 600, I. • 603, II., 1; 604, 1; 605, I, Present Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 231 subj., 541, 2; 544; 545; in condit., 576, 1 ; 577 ; 578, 2 ; ia temp, clauses, 603, II., 2; 605, 1.; in indir. disc, 644, 1. Present infln., 617; 618, 1. Present particip., 640. Preventing, constr. w. verbs of, 595, 2. Price, gen. of, 448 ; abl. of, 478. Pridie, w. ace, 420, 4 ; w. gen., 446, 5 ; pridie quam, 602. Primary tenses, 1!)8. Primary stems, 323, 2. Primary derivatives, 324, 328. Primitive inceptives, 277, 1 ; 278. Princeps, decl., 96 ; w. force of adverb, 497, 3. Principal parts of verbs, 203 ; 230 ; 257- 289. Principal tenses, 198, 1 ; in sequence, 543 ff. Principal clauses, 386, 1 ; In indir. disc, 642 ; supplied by particip., 639. Principal elements of sentences, 381. Prior, primus, 155, 1; w. force of ad- verbs, 497, 3. Priusquam, in temp, clauses, 605. Pr5, prod, in compds., w. dat., 429. Pro w . abl. , 490, 2. o short in compds. before t, 719. Proclitics, 17, 2. Prooul w. abl., 490, 4. Pr5gnatus v? . abl., 469, 2. Prohibitions, imperat. in, 561, 1-3 ; subj. in, 561, 2. Prolepsis, 493. Pronominal adjs., 188; 516. Pronouns, 172 ff. ; classes, 173; personal and reflexive, 174 ; possess., 176; demon., 177 ff. ; determinative, 180 It. ; relat.,182; interrog., 183 ; indef.,185ff.; special endings of, 179 ; correl., 189; as subject, omitted, 387, 1 ; agreement, 396 ft.; w. two or more antecedents, 398. Use of pers. pron., 600; demon., 505 ft. ; determin., 508 ff. ; relat., 510 ; interrog., 511 ; indef., 512 ; gener. iudef., 514ff. ; gen. relat. w. indie, 525, 3. Prons. in indir. disc, 645; position of prons., 675. Pronunciation of Latin, 10 ff. Pronus, compar., 157. Prope TV. ace, 420, 2; w. perf. indie, 583, 2. Proper nouns, 62, 1 ; plur. of, 138, 1. Propior, proximus, 155, 1; w. ace, 435, 2. Propius w. ace, 420, 4. Propriety, verbs denoting, in apodosis, 583. Propter w. ace, 420, 2. Prorsus in answers, 379. Prosody, 4, V.; 686 ft.; quant., 687 ff.; versification, 720 ff.; figures of pros- ody, 733. Protasis, 572. Proxime w. ace, 420, 4. Proximus, see propior. Prudens, constr., 453,4. -pte, quant, in ending, 691, 1. Pudet, constr., 457. Puer, decl., 85. Purpose, dat. of, 425, 3; subj. of, 568; denoted by infin., 608 ; by gerundive, 622; by supine, 633 ; 634; by particip., 638, 3. Puta, a in, 695, 4. Puts w. gen. of value, 448. Pyrites, decl., 81. Q Qu, sound, 12. Qualitative phonetic changes, 24 ff. Quality, abl. of, 473, 2. Quam w. compar., 471, 1, 2, and 3; 499; w. subj., 570, 1. Quam si w. subj., 584. Quam quod w. subj.,, WS, 2. Quamquam, inconcess., 580, 1., 1; in indep. clauses, 586, II., 1. Quamvis, in concess., 586, II. Quando, in cansal clauses, 588. Quantitative phonetic changes, 37 ff. Quantity, 14 ; 687 ff. ; 749 ; varying in roots, stems, and suffixes, 325 ; in final syllables, 692 ; in increments, 702 ff. ; in deriv. endings, 712 ; in stem sylla- bles, 713 ff . ; in compds., 719. Quanti, denoting price, 448, 1 and 3. Quare w. subj., 591, 4; e in, 696, 1. Quasi w. subj. in condit., 684. I in quasi, 693. Que, 657, 1 ; 691, 1. Questions, 378 ; double, 380 ; potential, 557 ; deliberative, 559, 4 ; repudiating, 659,5; in indir. disc, 642, 2; indirect, 649, 2; 650. Qui, relat. pron., 182; use, 510; in- terrog., 183 ff. ; use, 511 ; indef., 185 ff. ; use, 512. Qui w. indie, 589, I.; w. Digitized by Microsoft® 232 GENERAL INDEX subj. of purpose, 590; w. subj. of re- sult, 591; w. subj. of cause, 592; in eoudit., 593, 1 ; in eoncess., 593, 2. Quia in causal clauses, 588. A in quia, mn, 4. Quicumque, general relat., 182, 1. Quidam, 187 ; use, 512. Quidem, position, 677. Quies, quant, of increm., 708. Quilibet, 187; use, 514. Quin w. indie, 594, I. ; w. subj., 594, II. Quinarius, 757. Quippe w. relat., 592, 2; w. cum, 598, 1. Quiris, quant, of increm., 709. Quls, interrog., 183 ff. ; use, 511; indef., 185 ff. ; use, 512 ; correl., 189 ; w. quin clause, 595, 4. Quispiam, 187, 1 ; use, 512. Quisquam, 187, 1 ; use, 513. Quisque, 187 ; use, 514 n. Quisquis, general relat., 182, 1. Quivis, 187 ; use, 514. Quo w. subj. of purpose, 568; in relat. clauses, 589 if. Quoad in temp, clauses, 603. Quod in causal clauses, 588. Quod-clauses, restrictive, w. subj., 591, 3. Quominus w. subj. of purpose, 568. Quouiam in causal clauses, 588. Quoque, position, 677. R R, sound, 12; assimilated, 53, 3. Stems in r, 99 ; gend., Ill fl. Quant, of final syllables in r, 692, 2. Radix, decl., 98. -re = -ris, 240. Reading, rhythmical, 732. Real condition, 573 ; 574. Reason, clauses expressing, 588; 592. Reciprocal use of prons., 502, 1. Recollection, gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 1. Recorder, constr., 455. Redoleo w. ace, 405, 1. Reduplicated prons., 182, 1; perfects, 251; quant, of first two syllables of trisyllabic redup. perfs., 716. Redjiplication in pres., 247, 6 ; perf., 251 ; compds., 251, 4. Befert, constr., 449. Befertus, constr., 453, 5 ; 477, 11. Reflexive or Middle use of verb, 407. Reflexive pron., 174 ff. Reflex, use of pron., 602 ff. Refusing, constr. w. verbs of, 595, 2; 607, 1. Regarding, verbs of, w. two aces., 410; w. two dats., 433, 2. Relation, dat. of, 425, 4. Relative pron., 182; use, 510; general relat., 182, 1; correl., 189; original force, 399; construction, 399; w. adjs., 510, 4; position in sentence, 677. Relative clauses, moods in, 689 if. ; w. Tolit. subj. of purpose, 590 ; w. potent, subj. of result, 591 ; denoting cause, 592; condit., 693, 1 ; eoncess., 593, 2 ; w. infln., 643, 1 ; to characterize indef., or general anteced., 591, 1 and 2 ; after iinus, solus, etc., 591, 5; after com- par. w. quam, 591, 6 ; after dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, 591, 7. Relative and absolute time, 542 ff. Relieving, constr. w. verbs of, 462. Beliqui faoere, 447, 1. Remembering, constr. w. verbs of, 454. Reminding, constr. w. verbs of, 456. Reminiscor w. gen., 454 ; w. ace, 454, 1. Repeated action denoted by imperfect indie, 534, 3; by cum-clause, 601, 4; by imperf. and plup. subj., 602, 1. Repelling, dative w. verbs of, 427. Repudiating questions, 559, 5. Bequies, decl., 145, 3; quant, of in- crem., 708. Res, decl., 134. Resisting, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Rest in catalectie verse, 729, 3. Restrictive clauses w. quod, 591, 3. Result, clauses of, 570; relat. clause of, 591, 2. Bex, decl., 98; quant, of increm., 708. Rhetoric, figures of, 752. Rhetorical questions, 042, 2. Rhythm in arraug. of words, 670. Rhythmic accent, 724 ; series, 726. Rhythmical reading, 732. Bideo w. ace, 405. -rimus, a, um, in superlat., 152, 1. Rivers, gend. of names of, 68. Eogo w. two aces., 411, 2. Boma, decl., 78, 4. Digitized by Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 233 Boman proniin. of Latin, 10 fC. Boman literature, 753; calendar, 754; 755; money, 757. Romance languages, derivation from Latin, 3. Boots, 318 ff. Root stems, 323. Root words, 324, 1 ; 327. Boot verbs, 357. -rs, decl. of nouns in, 106, 2. Ruber, decl., 85; 91. Rules of syntax, 662. Ba3, gend., 119, 2 ; constr., 419, 1 ; rure, 462, 4; ruri, 484, 2. S S, sound, 12; unchanged, 50; changed to r, 50 ; 101, 1 ; assimilated, 53, 3; 54 ; lost, 58 ; stems in s, 101. Decl. of nouns in s, 106, 3; quant, of increm., 706; 707. Saoer, compar., 156. Sal, defect., 141 ; a in, 691, 2. Samnis, quant, of increm., 709. Satis, w. part, gen., 443. Saturnian verse, 748. Satua w. ahl., 469, 2. Saying, verbs of, w. indir. disc, 641. -SCO, inceptives in, 365. Vowel, long before soo, scor, 749, 1. Second decl., 82 fe. Second conj., 209 ff. ; 260 ff. Secondary tenses, 198, 2. Secondary stems, 323, 3. Secondary derivatives, 324; 339. Secundum w. ace, 420, 2. Sides, decl., 106, 1. Seeming, pred. gen. w. verbs of, 447. Selling, gen. w. verbs of, 448, 3; abl., 478, 1. Semi-deponent verbs, 224 ; 267. Semi-vowels, 7, 4 ; 44, 8. Senaiius, 743. Sending, two dats. w. verbs of, 433, 2 ; gerundive w. verbs of, 622. Senex, decl., 107 ; compar., 158. Sentences, syntax of, 376 ff. ; classifica- tion, 377 ff. ; simple, 377 ; compd., 377, 2 ; 385 ; declarat., 377, 3 ; interrog., 377, 4; 378; imperat., 377, 5; exclam., 377,6; in indir. disc, 642. Separation, abl. of, 461 ff. ; 629. Sequence of tenses, 543; peculiarities, 546 ff. Seq.uitur, w. subj., 571, 1. Series, rhythmic, 726. Serving, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Sescenti used indefinitely, 163, 2. Sese, 175, 3. Sestertius, 757. Short syllables, 14, 2 ; 689. Shortening of vowels, 39. Showing, verbs of, w. two aces., 410. Si, in conditions, 572 ff. ; w. plup. indie, 539, 2. -silis, adjs. iu, 352. Simile, 752, 1. Similis, compar., 152, 3; w. dat., 434; w. gen., 435, 4; 451, 2, N. Simple sentence, 377, 1; elements of, 381 ff. ; arrang. of words iu, 664. Simul w.abl., 490, 4; in temp. clauses, 602. Simul atque, in temp, clauses, 602. Sin, in conditions, 574 ff. Sine w. abl., 490, 2. Singular, 72 ; wanting, 139. -sito, frequentatives in, 364. Sive . . . sive, w. indie , 525, 3. Skill, gen. w. adjs. of, 451, 1. Smell, constr. w. verbs of, 405, 1. -so, frequentatives in, 364. Sol, defect., 141 ; o in, 691, 2. Solus, decl., 93; gen. of, w. possess., 446, 3. Solus qui w. subj., 591, 5. Sonants, 7 ; 8, 2. Source, abl. of, 467 ff. ; 629. Space, ace. of, 417 ; abl. to denote inter- val of space, 479, 3. Summary of con- structions of space, 491, III. Sparing, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. Special constrs. w. gen., 445; 446; w. infin., 616. Specification, ace. of, 416; abl., 480 ff. Speech, parts of, 61 ; figures of, 750 ff. Spirants, 7, 7; 44,3. Spondaic line, 7.35, 3. Spondee, 721, 1. Stanzas, 730 ; 731. Statuo, constr., 418, 1. Stem in decl., 74; stem characteristic, 74, 2 ; in Decl. L, 78, 1 ; Decl. IL, 83, 1 ; Decl. m., 96, 1; 98, 1 ; 99, 1; 100, 1; 101, 1 ; 102, 1 ; Decl. IV., 131, 1 ; Decl. v., 134, 1. Stems of verbs, 203 ; forma- tion of, 245 ff . ; clasises of stems, 323. Stem syllables, quant, in, 713 ff. ; re- Digitized by Microsoft® 234 GENERAL INDEX talned in inflected forms, 717 ; deriv. retain quant, of prim., 718. Strophe, 731. Strues, decl., 106, 1. Sub, subs, in compds., w. dat., 429. Sub w. ace, 420, 3; w. abl., 490, 3. Subject, 381, 1 ; simple, 382 ; complex, 383; modified, 383, 2. Subject nom., 387 ; pronom. subject omitted, 387, 1 ; two or more subjects w. one verb, 392 ; of infin. in ace, 414 ff. Infin. as sub- ject, 609. Subject clauses, 564, II. ; 571, 1 and 2. Position of subject, 664; 682. Subjective gen., 440, 1 ; as pred. gen., 447. Subjunctive mood, 194 ; syntax of, 521 ; 541 ff. ; tenses, 541 if. ; seq. of tenses, 542 ff. ; in indep. sentences, 551 ; in subord. clauses, 562; in substantive clauses, 564 ; in object clauses, 566 ff. ; potential, 551, 1.; 552; optative, 551, II.; 558; volitive, 551, III.; 559; subj. and imperat. in commands, 560 ff. ; subj. of purpose, 568; in conditions, 573; 576 if. ; 579 ; 587 ; in causal clauses, 688, II. ; w. cum, causal and concess., 597 ; 598 ff. ; w. cum temp., 600, II. ; ■w. dum, etc., 603, II., 2 ; in indir. disc, 642 ; 643 ; in indir. clauses, 649 ; in indir. questions, 649, 2. Subordinate conjuncs., 314, 2; 316. Subord. clauses, 386, 1; subj. in, 562 ff. ; in indir. disc, 643; 649, 1; position, 683. Substantive clauses w. subj., 563, 1; 564 ft.; 571. Subter w. ace, 420, 3; w. abl., 490, 3. Suffixes in decl., 74; in formation of words, 320 ff. Sui, decl., 175; use, 502; 50_3; direct and indirect reflex., 504. I in sibi, 693. Suitable, constr. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Sum w. dat., 430; w. two dats., 433, 2; w. pred. gen., 447 ; 448 ; w. abl., 474, 3 ; in periphrastic conjs., 531 ; w. pred. adjs. in apodosis, 583, 3. Super in compds., w. ace, 406 ; w. dat., 429. Super w. ace, 420, 3; w. abl., 490, 3. Superlative, 149; irregular, 152 ff. ; wanting, 157 ; formed by maxime, 159. Superlative w. part, gen., 442; Digitized by w. abl. of diff., 479, 1; w. relat., 510, 4; w. quisque, 515, 2. Meaning of superlat., 498. Superstes, w. gen. or dat., 451, 2, N. Superus, compar., 155, 2. Supine, 200, 3 ; formation, 235, 2 ; constr., 480, 1 ; in seq. of tenses, 548 ; syntax of, 632 ff. ; sup. in um, 633 ff. ; sup. in u, 635. Quant, of penult of dissyl. supines and p. participles, 715. Supply, derivatives denoting, 346. Supra w. ace, 420, 2. Surds, 7; 8, 2. -surio, desideratives in, 366. Sus, decl., 107. Suscipio w. gerundive, 622. Suus, 176; use, 502; 503; direct and indir. reflex., 504. Syllaba anceps, 720, 5. Syllables, 13 ; quant., 14 ff. ; 687 ff. ; final, quant, of, 691 ff. Syncope, 733, 7 ; 750, 2. Synecdoche, 752, 4. Syiiesis, 389 ; 397. Synizesis, 733, 3. Syntactic compds., 371. Syntax, 4, IV. ; 376ff..; sentences, 376 ff. ; nouns, 400 ff. ; adjs., 492; prons., 500 ff. ; verbs, 517 ff. ; particles, 654 ff. Rules of syntax, 662. Figures of syn- tax, 751. Systems of the verb, 232 ff. Systole, 733, 6. T, sound, 12 ; assimilated, 53, 1. Stems in t, 97; gend. of, 122. Quant, of monosyl. in, 691, 2; of final syllables in, 692, 2. Taedet, constr., 457. Taking away, dat. w. verbs of, 427. Tametsi, in concessions, 586, I., 1. Tamquam w. subj. in conditions, 584. Tantum abest ut, 570, 2. Tanti, constr., 448, 1 and 3. -tas, derivatives in, 344; 345. Taste, constr. w. verbs of, 405, 1. Teachinc/, verbs of, w. two aces., 411. Templum, decl., 83; omitted, 445, 2. Temporal conjuncs., 316, 1. Temp, clauses w. cum, 600 ; w. postquam, etc., 602; w. dum, etc., 603; w. ante- quam and priusquam, 605. Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 235 Tenses for Incomplete and completed action, 196; prin. and histor., 198. Tense signs, 256. Tenses of indie, bwn.; sub]"., 541ft.; 554; 558, 1. Seq. of tenses, 643. Force of tenses in conditions, 576, 1; in indir. disc, 644. Tenses of infin., 617 ; of particip., 640. Tenus w. gen., 446, 5; w. abl., 490, 2; after its case, 676. -ter, adverbs in, 309 ; verbal nouns in, 334; decl., 99, 2; adjs. in, 351. Terminational comparison, 151. Terra, coustr., 485, 2. Tete, 175, 3." Tetrameter, 729, N. 2. Tetrapody, 721, 2, N. 2. Tetraseme, 720, 3. Thematic vowel, 212, footnote 1 ; 247 ff. Thematic verbs, 358. ' Thesis, 725. Thinking, constr. w. verbs of, 613 ; 641. Third decl., 94 ff. Third conj., 212 ft. ; 268 ff. Threatening, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 2. -tia, nouns in, 345. Tibur, decl., 108. -tills, adjs. in, 352. Time, ace. of, 417; abl., 486; 487; de- noted by preps., w. ace, 417, 1 ; w. abl., 487, 1 ; interval of time, 479, 3 ; 488. Adjs. of time, w. force of ad- verbs, 497, 2. Time, absolute and relat., 512 ff. Time denoted by par- ticiples, 638, 1. Timeo, constr., 567. Times, or morae, 720, 1. -timus, adjs. in, 352. -tio, verbal nouns in, 333. -tits, frequentatives in, 364. -tivus, adj. in, 350; i in, 712, 5. -to, frequentatives in, 364. -tor, verbal nouns in, 334. Totus, decl., 93; w. loc. abl., 485, 1. Towns, gend. of names of, 69; constr., 491, II. ; whither, 418 ; w. ad, 418, 4 ; whence, 462 ; where, 483. Trad5 w. gerundive, 622. Trans in compds., w. ace, 406; w. two aces., 413. Trans w. aoc, 420, 2. Transitive verbs, w. ace. and infin., 414; perlphras. conjug. of, 621, 1. Trees, gend. of names of, 69. Tres, decl., 166. Tribrach, 721, 2. Tribus, decl., 131, 2; gend., 132. Trimeter, 729, N. 2; iambic, 743; Ionic, 744. Tripody, 721, 2, N. 2. Triseme, 720, 2. -tris, adjs. in, 351. Tristis, tristior, decl., 127. Trisyllabic redup. perf., quant, of first two syllables, 716. -trix, verbal nouns in, 334. Trochaic verse, 729, N. 1 ; 740 ff . ; dipody, 740; dimeter, 741. -trum, verbal nouns in, 335. Trusting, dat. w. verbs of, 426, 1. Truths, general, expressed by pres. indie, 532, 2; by plup. indie, 539, 2; in conditions, 578. Tt changed to st, Bs, s, 52, 1. Tu, decl., 175. f in tibi, 693. -tildo, derivatives in, 344 ; 345. -turn, derivatives in, 343. -turio, desideratives in, 366. -turus, a, um, derivatives in, 328. -tus, adverbs in, 309 ; deriv. nouns, 328 ; adjs. in, 346. -tQs, derivatives in, 344. Tussis, decl., 102. Tuus, possessive, 176. Two aces., 410 ; 411; two dats.,433; two abls., 477, I., 2; two reflexives, 504, 2 ; two negs., 656. U U, u, sound, 10. TJ-nouns, 131 ; defect., 143, 1; U-yerbs, 363. Supine in ii, 635. TJ final, quant, of, 692, 1; in increm. of decl., 705; 710; conj., 711. Ubi, in temp, clauses, 602 ; in relat. clauses, 589 ff. f in ubi, 693. -ubus = -ibus, 131, 2. -ticus, derivatives in, 330. -ugo, u in, 712, 2. Ui, sound, 11. Perfs. in ui, quant, of stem syllables, 714. -ula, verbal nouns in, 335 ; dimins. in, 340. -ulis, adjs. in, 348 ; u in, 712, 3. UUus, decl., 93; use, 188; 513. Ulterior, ultimus, 155, 1 ; ultimus w. force of adverb, 497, 3. Ultra w. ace, 420, 2. Digitized by Microsoft® 236 GENERAL INDEX -ulum, verbal nouns in, 335 ; dimin. in, 340. -ulus, derivatives in, 331 ; dimin. in, 340. -um in gen. plur., 80, 1; 84, 3. Nouns in um, 338. Supine in ura, 633. Umbrian dialect, 2. Umquam in iiiterrog. sentence, fol- lowed by quin, 595, 5. -una, u in, 712, 4. Uncertainty, expressions of, w. quin, 595, 1. Unclothing, constr. w. verbs of, 407. Unde, in relat. clauses, 589 ff. Undertaking, gerundive w. verbs of, 622. -undus, -undi, 243 ; derivatives in, 328. Unlike, gen. w. adjs. meaning, 435, 4. Unus, decl., 93; 166; followed by abl. w. prep., or part, gen., 444, 1 ; gen. of, w. possess., 446, 3; w. quisque, 515, 3; unus qui w. subj., 591, 5. -unus, -una, ti in, 712, 4. -ur, decl. of adjs. in, 92, 1; gend. of nouns in, 122; 124. TJrbs, decl., 105. -urnus, adjs. in, 349. tjro, u in ussi, 749, VI., 1. -us, nouns in, decl., 82 ff.; 101; 131; in us, 97 ; quant, of increra., 710 ; verbal nouns in us, 338 ; names of trees in , decl., 133, 2; neuters in, Decl. II., 88 gend., Decl. III., 115; 119; 122; 124 heterogeneous, in us and um, 147 148 ; us, us final, 692, 3 ; 701. Useful, dat. w. adjs. meaning, 434, 1. Usque w. ace, 420, 4. Usus, constr., 477, III. Ut, uti, in repudiating questions, 559, 5 ; w. subj. of purpose, 564; 565 ; 568 ; w. verbs of fearing, 567, 1 ; w. subj . of result, 570; in concess., 586, II.; in temp, clauses, 602. Ut si w. subj. in conditions, 684. -ut, decl. of nouns in, 97. Uter, decl.,93; correl.,189; use, 511, 2. Utinam w. opt. subj., 558, 2. Utor w. abl., 477, I. Utpote w. cum, 598, 1 . Utrum, 380. Ut si, w. subj., 584. -uiBis, adjs. in, 346; u in, 712, 6. -uua, derivatives in, 331. -ux, nouns in, decl., 98. Digitized by V, sound, 12 ; dropped, 49 ; 238. Value, gen. of, 448 ; abl. of, 478. Valuing, pred. gen. w. verbs of, 448. Vannus, gend., 87, 3. Variable vowel, 96, 2 ; in compd. verbs, 231. Varieties of verse, 734 ff. Vas, decl., 145, 2. Vas, a in, 691, 3. Ve, 691, 1. Velut, velut si, w. subj., in condi- tions, 584. Venio w. infin.,608, 1. Venltinmen- tem, w. gen., 454, 4. Ver, quant, of increm., 708. Verbal nouns, classes of, 332 ; denoting action, 333 ; agent 334 ; means, 335 ff. ; w. infin., 608, 4, H. 2. Verbal iucep- tives, 277, 2 ; 279. Verbs, morphology of, 190 ff. ; voices, 191 ff . ; moods, 193 ff. ; tenses, 196 ff. conjs., 201 ff.; prin. parts., 202 flf. paradigms, 204 ff. ; comparative view, 218 ff. ; deponent, 222 ff. ; 257, 1 ; 266 281 ff.; 289; semi-deponent, 224; 267 i-verbs of Conj. III., 225 ff.; verbal in- flections, 230 ff. ; vowel changes In compds., 231 ; systems, 232 ff. ; verbal endings, 254 jff. ; classification of verbs, 257 ff. ; inceptives or inchoatives, 277 ff. ; 365 ; desideratives, 366 ; irregu- lar, 290 ff. ; defective, 299 ; impersonal, 302 ; derivation and history of, 3,56 ff . ; root verbs, 357; thematic verbs, 358; with sufiix io, 359; formation from nouns and adjs., 360fl:. ; a-verbs, 359, 1 ; 360 ; e-verbs, 359, 2 ; 361 ; 1-verbs, 359, 3 ; 362 ; u- verbs, 363 ; f requenta- tives, 364 ; diminutives, .367 ; denom- inatives in ico and igo, 368. Long vowel of pres. retained throughout, 749, VI. Verbs, Syntax of, 517 ff. ; verb omitted, 388, 2; 642, 1; plur. w. sing, subj., 389. Voices, 517; 518; person and number, 519; moods, 520 ff. ; indie, 623 ff. ; tenses, 526 ff. ; subj., and its tenses, 541 ff. ; seq. of tenses, 546 ff. ; subj. in indep. sentences, 651 ff.; imperat., 560 ff. ; subj. in subord. clauses, 562 ff. ; final clauses, 568 ; result, 570 ; condit., 572 ff. ; concess. Microsoft® GENERAL INDEX 237 clauses, 586 ; 689 ; causal clauses, 588; 598; relat., 589 ff. ; temporal, 600 ff. ; infin., 606 ff. ; gerunds and gerundives, G21 ff. ; supines, 632 ff. ; particips., 636 ff. ; indir. disc, 641 ff.; indir. clauses, 649 ff Position of modifiers of verb, 673. Vergil, versification, 747. Vero in answers, 379. Verses, 720; 727; name, 729; 730; varie- ties, 734 ff. Versification, 720ff. Feet, 720; verses, 720; 727; names, 729; 730. Figures of pros., 733. Varieties of verse, 734. Versification of principal poets, 747. Versus w. ace, 420, 2; position, 676. Vesoor w. abl., 477, I. Vestri, vestrum, use, 176, 2. Veto, constr., 565, 1. Vetus, decl., 128; compar., 166. Virgo, decl., 100. Virtus, decl., 97. Virus, gend., 88. Vis, decl., 107; quant, of increm., 709. Vocative, like nom., p. 21, footnote 2; decl., 83, 5. Syntax of voc, 402; position, 680. A in Greek vocatives, 695, 2.' Voices, 191 ff. ; meaning, 517 ff. Volitive subj., 551, HI.; 559; 564; 568; in relat. clause, 590. Volo w. infin. or subj., 614, 2. -volus, compds. in, compar., 153. Vowels, classes of, 7 ; quantity, 15 ; in- herited, 20; vowel gradation, 21; pho- netic changes in, 23 ff. ; assimilation, 31; lengthened, 37 ff. ; shortened, 39; lost, 40; developed, 41; contraction, 42 ff. Variable vowels, 96, 2. Vowel changes in compds., 231. Thematic vowel, p. 56, footnote 1 ; 247 ff. ; vowel variations in roots, stems, and suffixes, 325 ; 326. Final vowels, quant, of, 692. Final vowels elided, 7:j3, 1, Vowels long when they represent diphs., or result from contraction, 749, II. Long vowels of primitives retained in derivs.,749. III.; in compds.,749, IV. ; in nom. sing, of nouns and adjs. in- creasing long in the gen., 749, V. Vulgus, gend., 88. -vus, derivatives in, 331. W Want, constr. w. verbs of, 458, 2. Watches of night, 756, 1. Will, subj. of, 551, III.< 559. Winds, gend. of names of, 68. Wishing, verbs of, in potent, subj., 556; w. subj., 565; 614, 1; w. infin., 614. Words, format, of, 318 ff. ; inflection and derivation, 320 ff. ; arrang. of, 663 ff. X, sound, 7, N. ; nouns in, decl., 98; 105 ; gend., 115; 120. Y, in foreign words only, 5; gend. of nouns in, 122. Y final, quant, of, 692, 1. Year, calendar of, 755. Ys, gend. of nouns in, 115; 119; final, 692, 3. Z, in foreign words only, 5. Digitized by Microsoft® PARALLEL REFERENCES SHOWING THE CORRESPONDING SECTIONS IN THE GRAMMARS OE 1881 AND 1898 Old New Old New Old New 1 4 38 61 99 111 2 5 39 62 100 112; 116 3 6-8 40 64 101; 102 113 4 9 41 65 103; 104 114 5 10 — 66 105 115 6 11 42 67-70 106 117 7 12 43 71 107 118; 119 8 13 44 72 108 120 9-15 — 45 73 109 117 16 14; 15 46 74; 75 110 121 17 16 47 76 111 122 18 17; 18 — 77 112; 113 123 — 19-21 48 78 114; 115 124 19 22 49 79; 80 116 131 — 23 50 81 117 131,2 20 37; 38 51 82; 83; 85; 86 118 132 21 39 52 84 119 133 22 24-30 53 82; 87; 88 120 134 23 42; 43 54 89 121 134 23,11. 32-36 55 — 122 134,2 — 44^9 — 94 123 135 24 — 56 95 124 136 25 31 57 96 125-127 26 — 58 97 128 137 27 40 59 98 129 — 41 60 99; 100 130 138 28; 29 — 61 101 131 139 30 51 62 102 132 140 31 50 63 103 133 141; 142 32 52, 2, 3 — 104 134 143 — 54 64 105; 106 135-140 145 33 55 65 102-105 141-143 147 31 53 66 107; 108 144 148 • ^^ 56 67 — 145 * 36 57-59 68 109; 110 146 63 37 60 69-98 — 147 Digitized bpWcrosoft® PARALLEL REFERENCES 239 Old New- Old New Old New 148 go ; 91 206 208 264; 265 263 149 91 207 209; 210 266 264 150 91; 92 208 211 267 265 151 93 209 212; 213 268 266; 267 152 125 210 214 269 268 153 126 ■ 211 215; 210 270 269 154 127 212 217 271 270 155-158 128-130 213 218 272 271 159 137; 144; 146 214 219 273 272 160 149 215 220 274 273 161 150 216 221 275 — 162 151 217 225 276 276; 278 163 152 218 226 ; 227 277 276; 278 164 153 219 228 278 274; 276 165 154 220 230 279 276 166 155 221 231 280 277 167 156 222 232-235 281 279 168 157; 158 223-230 — 282 280 169 160 231 222; 229 283 281-283 170 159 232 223 284 284 171 161 — 224 285-287 285-287 172 162 233 236 288 289 173 — 234 237 289 290 174 163-165 233 238 290 290-292 175 166 236 239 291 293 176; 17T 167 237 240 292 294 178 168 238 241 293 295 179 169 239 243 294 296 180 170 240 244 295 297 181 171 241 254 296 298 182 172 242 256 297 299-301 183 173 243 — 298 302 184 174; 175 244 266 299-301 302 185 176 245 256 302 303 186 ( 177 ; 178 246 — 303 304 f 180 ; 181 247 255 304 306-31C — 179 248 — 305 — 187 182 249 245 306 311 188 183; 184 250 246 307 312 189 185 251 247 308 313 190 186; 187 252 248 309 314 — 188 253 249 310 315 191 189 254 250 311 316 192-194 190 255 251 ; 252 312 317 195 191 ; 192 256 253 313 318 196 193-195 257 257 — 319 197 196; 197 258 257; 258 314 320,1 198-201 198-201 259 259 315 323 202 202; 203 260 257,1 316 323,1 203 204 261 260 317 323,2 204 205 262 261 318 323,3 205 206; 207 263 262 — 324-332 Digitized by Microsoft® 240 PARALLEL REFERENCES Old New Old New Old New 319 321 ; 322 ; 3;>9 369 402 417 471 320 — 370 403 418 472 321 340; 341 371 404; 405; 409 419 473; 474 322 342 371, 1, n. 408 420 476 323 343 372 406 421 477 ; 481 324 344 373 410 — 482 325 345 374 411 422 478 326 334; 335 375 412 423 479 327 333; 335; 336 376 413 424 480 — 337-339 377 407 425 483; 485 328 346 378 416 426 484 329 347 379 417 427 491, I. 330 348 380 418; 419 428 491, 11. — 349-352 381 421 429 486; 487 331 353 382 423 430 488 332 340 383 422 431 489 333 328, 5 ; 329 384 424 ; 425 432 420; 490 334 355 385 426^28 433 420 — 356-359 386 429 434 490 335 360-363 387 430 435 420, 3 ; 490, . 336 304 388 431 436 312 337 365 389 432 437 490,4 338 366 390 433 438 394 339 367 391 434; 435 439 395 — 368 392 436 440 492; 493; 49 340; 341 369 393 437 441 494; 495 — 370; 371 394 438 442 496 342; 343 372 395 439 443 497 344 373-375 396 440 444 498; 499 345 376 397 440, 5 ; 441-444 445 396-399 346 377 398 445; 446 446 500 347 377,1 399 450-452 447 501 348 386 400 453 448 502 349 377,2; 385 401 439 449 503; 504 350 377,3 402; 403 447 450 505-^07 351 377,4; 378 404 448 451 508 352 379 405 448,3 452 509 353 380 406 449 ; 454 ; 457 453 510 354 377,5 407 454 454 511 355 377,6 — 455 455 512 356; 357 381 408 449 456 512,3 358 382 409 456 ; 457 457 513 359 383 410 458 458 614; 515 360 382 411 459 459 616 361 384 460 460 388 362; 363 393 412 461; 462 461 389 364 393,3 413 461 ; 467 ; 475 462 390; 391 365 400 414 ( 463 ; 464 ; 465 ; 463 392 366 — i 477, III. 464; 405 517; 518 — 401 — 466 466 532 •367 469 415 467-470 467 532 ; 633 368 387 416 475 468 534 Digitized by Microsoft® PARALLEL BEFEBENGES 241 Old New Old New Old New 469 534; 535 612 556; 557 317 470 536 613 584; 587 568 662 471 537 ; 538 514 — 659 663 472 539 515 585 ; 586 ; 593, 2 560 664 473 640 516, III. n. 4 599 561 665 4T4 520; 523 562 666 475 524 616 588 563 667 476 525 — 589 564 668 — 526-^31 517 592; 598; 699 — 669; 670 477 521 618 602 565 671 — 522 519 603; 604 566 672 478 541 620 606 667 673 479 541,2 521 600; 601 568 674 480 641,3 622 641 569 675-680 481 541,2 523 642 570 681 482 541,2 624 643 571 682 — 542 525 644 572 683 483 559 526 645 — 684 484 658; 659 527 646-648 673 686 485 552 528 649 674 686 486 663-557 529 649; 652 575 — 487 560 630 653 676 687; 688 i8; 489 561 531 — 577 689 _ 562; 563 . 532 606 578 690 »; 491 543 533 607; 608 679 691 _ 644 — 609 580 692 492 545,1. 534 414; 611 581 693-701 493 545, n. 534, n. 242 582 702 494 545, I. and II. 535 613; 614 583 703 495 546-560 536 415; 610; 612 584 704 — 551 537 617-620 585 706-710 496 541,2 538 616 586 711 497 568; 590 539 616 587 712 — 569 540 564; 671; 651,1 688 713 498 664, 1. ; 565^67 541 624 589 714 499 565, 2 ; 564, II. 542 625-631 590 715 andlll.; 568,4 543 621 591 716 BOO 570; 591 643, n. 623 592 717 601 571 644 625-631 593 718 502 570 544,2, 622 594 719 603 691 n. 2 595 — — 594, 1. 545 632 596 720 504 594, II. ; 695 546 633; 634 697 721 505 596 547 635 598 722; 723 — 597 648 636 699 724 606 672 549 637-639 600 725 507 573 550 640 — 726 508 574; 675 551 664 601 727 509 576; 677 562 655 602 728 — 578 653 656 603 729 510 579 554 657-661 604 730 511 680-583 555 314,2 605 720,5 HABE . G. S. LAT. GRA MD^Med by Microsoft® 242 PARALLEL REFERENCES Old New Old New Old 606 731 620 — 637 607 732 621 742 638 608 733 622 743 639 ; 640 609 734 623-625 — 641 ; 642 610 735 626 744 643 611 736 627 745 644 612 737 628 ; 629 — 645 613 738 — 746 646; 647 614 739 630 747 648 615 739,1 631 — 649 616 — — 748 650 617 — 632; 633 — 651 618 740 634; 635 750 619 741 636 751 ELEOTROTTPED BY J. S. GUSHING &. 00., NORWOOD, MASS. Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® Digitized by Microsoft® tt ',/ / f ^./^-* y /f 7 //// "^-Z. ^'^ ' ^/