QJortteU Iniaerattg Sabratg 3tt[a». New forit University of Southern ■■■California"" Cornell University Library H91 .B67 Introduction to the social sciences olin 3 1924 030 369 833 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030369833 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS Vol.1. No. I. September I, 1913 "*v___ — . — _ An Introduction to the Social Sciences BY E. S. BOGARDUS THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Department of ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY Vol. 1 No. 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL SCIENCES A TEXTBOOK OUTLINE BY EMORY STEPHEN B.OGARDUS, PH. D. Associate Professor of Economics and Sociology PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY Copyright 1913, by E. S. Bogardus. LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA RALSTON PRESS , ti 1913 INTRODUCTORY NOTE. This syllabus is published as it is being worked out in practice at the University of Southern California. While not in a finished form, it represents a beginning in what may be an important direction. The work of teaching in the field of the social sciences is handicapped through lack of an adequate course of study that will introduce the student to the general field and at the same time give him a comprehensive outlook. While this outline does not represent such an adequate course, it is printed in its present shape in order that it may be rapidly improved as the result of criticism. The increasing interest in the study of society and societary problems by thinking people has created a growing demand for social science courses in the colleges. The need is not entirely for upper division and graduate students, but also for college freshmen and sophomores and students in the normal schools. The general method of meeting this demand is to offer courses dealing in an apparently disconnected way with economics, gov- ernment, history, et cetera. In many cases, the economist, for example, is teaching that economics is the fundamental social science and that all of the other social sciences are based upon and controlled by the economic desires of man, while in the same institution and at the same time, the historian, it may be, is teaching the same student that history and the historical method are primary to the under- standing of human society. Thus the teachers and authorities in the field of the social sciences often present the rather strange spectacle of each claiming his own special social science as the most fundamental and of basing all other social sciences upon his own specialized field. Team-work among the teachers of the social sciences is still almost lacking. Anything like correlation has been generally accidental rather than scientific. Even sociology has been asking the student to postpone unifying courses in the social sciences until his senior and graduate years. 4 University of Southern California Publications. There is need for a course of study which will introduce the student to the field of the social sciences. It should give him a broad, comprehensive outlook at the beginning of his college work and prepare him for and arouse his interest in further work in the individual social sciences. This study should make it possible for him to choose his life-activity with reference to all the activities of society and assist him more or less per- manently in keeping his life-work properly oriented and fitted into its proper place in the life-work of society. Such a course may well be given not from the uncorrelated points of view of the respective social sciences but from a so- cietary point of view. It should clearly indicate that a good member of society should be produced before producing the lawyer, the engineer, the physician, or any other professional or occupational type.* It should emphasize the fact that the qualities which make good members of communities are more important than the accomplishments of life.* It should be based upon the proposition that the relations of men to one another are more important than the relations of men to nature.* It should never overlook the truth that the ideal of the United States today of individual power and success, instead of being a socializing agency, may become the chief instrument for dis- solving the social order itself.* The course of study in question should show the solidarity of society and the interdependence of all its parts. This syllabus is designed primarily for college freshmen and sophomores and for use in normal schools. It is intended to introduce the student to the whole field of social science. It is also intended to serve as a survey course to those students whose primary interests tend in other directions and who have time for only one course in the social science field. It is here attempted to present, for example, the political or economic factors in social progress not only from a sociological point of view, but in such a way that the student will want to continue along political science or economic lines as the case may be. The student is not urged to follow up this course with purely sociological studies, but the attempt is made to ♦Ellwood, C. A., Sociology and Modern Social Problems, Chap. XV. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 5 direct his social interest so that it will find wholesome expression through law, politics, business, and so forth. In this outline, history may not appear to have received full consideration as an important member of the group of social sciences, but the course is based on historical data, the historical method is used more or less continuously and such constant emphasis is laid on his- torical explanations and backgrounds that by the time the course is completed, history is likely to have received more than its proportionate attention. The course does not profess to offer new facts nor to formulate new principles. It does aim to combine known facts and prin- ciples in a new and comprehensive way. In order to cover the work, the section headings include 100 topics for class discus- sion. Each section as outlined is the basis for the discussion of one recitation period. The student is expected to bring into class each day illustrations (original illustrations wherever possible) of the various points in each section. The discussion which follows serves to clear up doubtful points. From the student's point of view, this course is essentially based on concrete situations. In the case of each of the ten sets of factors in social progress (as outlined in the syllabus), the student is expected as far as possible to make a study of some actual concrete situation or social movement in which the respective set of factors is clearly evident. The student is asked to point out in his own way how the other factors in the given situation or historical social movement are related to the one under study at the given time, how people in present or past society solve or have solved social problems, et cetera. By the time the course is completed, the student will have made an intensive study of several concrete situations and movements. From the instructor's point of view, the aim is not that of teach- ing concepts chiefly, but rather that of teaching actual social experiences and movements and of developing the concepts only as they appear necessary. A selected list of readings is subjoined to each section. The references marked with an asterisk have been found most useful in preparing the syllabus and where so marked, have been quoted from freely. The readings for each section have been selected 6 University of Southern California Publications. with the purpose in mind of presenting the given topic from several points of view and of using those references adapted to the degree of maturity of the college freshman and sophomore. At the end of each chapter will be found a group of suggested topics for student investigation and for class reports. The student may be asked to subscribe to such a magazine as The Survey, in which regular assignments for class discussions may be made. The magazine will assist the student in keeping alive to present-day social changes. An occasional debate may be arranged for four or six members of the class on an apropos topic. To give over a class period once a month to a live debate on some phase of the topic under discussion at the time will add to the value of the course. The writer received the fundamental idea of the syllabus and the stimulus for attempting to develop the idea when a student in the classes of Professor Albion W. Small. Special acknowl- edgement of indebtedness should be made here to Schmoller's Grundriss der Allgemeinen Volkwirtschaftslehre. The works of Schmoller and of many other important scholars are not in- cluded in the lists of suggested readings because too advanced in form and content for the type of student in mind. This syllabus is not intended as the basis, primarily, for lecture work, but for purposes of quiz and class discussion, hence the method is adopted of using somewhat complete sentences instead of the customary abbreviated outline of syllabi which are intended for advanced students. The chief object of this course of study, in brief, is to whet the student's appetite for more knowledge in the field of the social sciences, and to arouse within him early in his college course a strong desire to go ahead systematically (if possible) with further work in each of the social science branches. An Introduction to the Social Sciences CHAPTER I. iNTEODrCTOET SECTION 1. THE FIELD OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES. (1) The first sciences, with an inductive viewpoint, to de- velop were the physical. a. They describe the facts and laws of the inorganic, non-living world. b. In this field, measurements can be made accurately and laws stated w T ith considerable exactness. c. This group includes such sciences as Astronomy, Geology, Physics. Chemistry, Geography, etc. (2) Besides investigating the inorganic world, science has entered the field of organic activities ; and the biological sciences are in process of development. a. They describe the facts and laws of the living world. b. Their subject matter is more complex than that of the physical sciences. (a) Since they are based on physical facts and laws (not yet adequately described). (6) Since they are attempting to describe non- mechanical, changing phenomena. c. The group includes Biology, Zoology. Botany, Gen- eral Physiology, General Anatomy, etc. (3) In recent times, the highest and most complex phase of life, namely, human life, has been scientifically approached and the social sciences are beginning to develop. a. They are based directly on biological facts and laws and indirectly on physical facts and laws. b. They use scientific methods in describing their data, — the coexistence and sequence of human life. 8 University of Southern California Publications. c. The group includes economics, history, psychology, political science, ethics, the science of religion, etc. Suggested Readings : Ellwood, Sociology in its Psychological Aspects, Chs. I-V. Giddings, Elements of Sociology, Ch. I. Dealey, Sociology, Ch. I. Small, The Meaning of Social Science, Ch. I. Ross, Foundations of Sociology, Ch. I. SECTION 2. FACTORS IN THE RISE OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES. (1) The rise of the social sciences may be dated from the publication by Adam Smith of "The Wealth of Nations," 1776. (2) Some of the leading factors in the rise of the social sciences that may be mentioned here are : a. When hand-driven tools were supplanted by power- driven machinery and the home gave way to the factory as the unit of production during the in- dustrial revolution, new and complex social phe- nomena began to develop which demanded scientific attention. . b. Efforts of sympathetic but temporary enthusiasts (Fourier, Robert Owen) stimulated more permanent methods of overcoming social obstacles. c. The influence of idealists and critics (Ruskin, Carlyle) offered little toward social solutions but helped to create a broad horizon for the social sciences. d. The efforts of the "Christian Socialists" in England (Maurice, Kingsley) made clear the need of studying society in the light of ethics. e. Political economy's early emphasis on wealth-getting activities created a desire for a conspectus of all the constituent factors of social progress. f. The theory and practice of modern charity has furnished evidence that scientific relief of dependents An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 9 defectives, delinquents rests on the science of the independents, effectives, and efficients. g. Socialism in its revolutionary assaults has mercilessly exposed social evils, but has failed to provide scien- tific programs of social procedure. h. Religion since its direct entrance into the field of social service has been asking for a body of reliable social facts. i. Modern attempts to secure social legislation with reference to employers' liability, child and woman labor, social insurance, inheritance and income taxes, etc., are making necessary the organization of scien- tific social statistics and data. /. The evolution in means of transportation. k. The achievement of political democracy. I. The segregation of classes and the development of class consciousness and of group morality. m. The phenomenal growth and concentration of popu- lation in large cities, etc. (3) In response to these and to other needs, the social sciences are attempting an analysis of the factors in social progress. Suggested Readings : Small and Vincent, Introduction to the Study of Society, 23-53. Blackmar, Elements of Sociology, Bk. VII. Carver, Sociology and Social Progress, Ch. I. Ely, Outlines of Economics, 644 ff. Vincent, The Province of Sociology, Amer. Jour. Sociol., 1 :473-491. SECTION 3. THE FACT OF SOCIAL PROGRESS AND THE FACTORS IN SOCIAL PROGRESS. (1) This course of study starts with the assumption that social progress is a fact. a. (Several illustrations of the progress of society in the past few thousand years may be suggested here.) 10 University of Southern California Publications. (2) This course attempts to analyze social progress on the basis of the general sets of factors in social progress and to give a survey of these sets of factors in so far as they are societary factors : a. Physical and Geographical, i. e., the influences of the physical and geographic environment in determining the direction of social progress. b. Biological, i. e., the influences of the laws of heredity, variation, natural selection, evolution, and of the in- stincts in social growth. c. Hygienic and Eugenic, i. e., the influences of the health factor — in improving the physical functions, by directing the biological forces of heredity, by control over disease, by rational development of the play activities. d. Genetic, i. e., the influences of the sex and parental impulses as manifested generally in the development of the family. e. Economic, i. e., the influences of the food-interest and of the impulse for gain as they have developed in connection with the wealth-getting and wealth- using activities of man. /. Political and Legal, i. e., the influences of the pro- tection interest as manifested in group organizations, (e. g., tribes, nations) for protection against other groups and against the anti-social members of the given social group, — in order to promote life, liberty, and happiness. g. Ethical and Religious, i. e., the influences of the de- sire to do right as seen in the individual's attempts to develop higher standards of conduct in himself and in others, and the influences resulting from human attempts to give finite life its Infinite rating. h. Aesthetic, i. e., the influences connected with the expressions of the feelings through ornamentation, sculpture, music, painting, poetry, etc. i. Intellectual, i. e., the influences arising directly from the development of mind. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 11 ;'. Associational, i. e., the influences of the special set of factors which are the causes and the results of human association. (3) On the basis of the above mentioned ten sets of factors, the course closes with a brief summary of the nature of social progress. Suggested Readings : Ellwood, Sociology in its Psychological Aspects, Ch. XII. Ross, Foundations of Sociology, 149-81. Stuckenberg, Sociology, 1 :186-258, and in Carver, Sociology and Social Progress, Ch. VI. Small, General Sociology, 443-81. Ward, Outlines of Sociology, Ch. I. Spencer, The Study of Sociology, Ch. I. Bibliography of the Suggested Readings for Chapter I: Blackmar, F. W., Elements of Sociology, Macm. ; 1905. Carver, T. N., Sociology and Social Progress, Ginn. ; 1905. Dealey, J. Q., Sociology, Silver, Burdett; 1909. Ellwood, C. A., Sociology in its Psychological Aspects, Ap- pleton; 1912. Ely, R. T., Outlines of Economics, Macm. ; 1908. Giddings, F. H., Elements of Sociology, Macm. ; 1909. Ross, E. A., Foundations of Sociology, Macm. ; 1905. Small, A. W., General Sociology, Univ. of Chicago Pr. ; 1905. Small, A. W., The Meaning of Social Science, Univ. of Chicago Pr.; 1910. Small, A. W. and G. E. Vincent, An Introduction to the Study of Society, American Book; 1894. Spencer, H., The Study of Sociology, Appleton; 1893. Stuckenberg, J. H. W., Sociology, Putnam; 1903. Ward, L- F., Outlines of Sociology, Macm. ; 1909. Suggested Topics for Investigation for Chapter I. 1. A Study of Social Progress in the United States. 2. History of the Social Progress of your own City. 3. Your Analysis of the Nature of Social Progress. 12 University of Southern California Publications. 4. The Migration of Social Supremacy Among the Nations. 5. The Contrasts Between Sociology and Socialism. 6. The Relation of Sociology to Christianity. 7. The Relation of Sociology to the Special Social Sciences. 8. Carlyle as a Forerunner of Social Science. 9. History of Communism in the United States. 10. A Study of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. 11. Ten Best Examples of Social Progress. CHAPTER II. Physical and Geographical Factors in Social Progress SECTION 4. MAN'S RELATION TO THE EARTH. (1) The highly favored position of the earth in the solar system. (2) Dependence of the inhabitants of the earth on the solar system. a. The day, the year, the seasons thus determined. b. The safety of all sea-faring vessels related to the positions of the stars. c. The ideas of "permanence" and "order" spring from such phenomena as the regular daily rising of the sun. d. Measurements of the earth possible only by referring to the heavenly bodies. (a) Latitude and longitude, accurate maps of con- tinents and oceans, boundaries of nations and estates reckoned by astronomical measure- ment. e. Man dependent on and limited by the great laws of the universe over which he has no control and the nature of which he does not fully understand. (3) A glimpse at the orderly and world-embracing process by which the once uninhabitable globe has come to be man's well-appointed home. o. The earth underwent a long series of transformations before the appearance of man. (a) Oldest strata of rocks show no signs of the presence of life. (b) After the first evidences of life, higher and higher strata of rock formations indicate the appearance of higher and higher forms of life. 13 14 University of Southern California Publications. b. A few, simple stone implements found in the deposits belonging to the glacial epoch, — a silent testimony to the appearance of man. c. Then came the long struggle between earth and man before historical times and man's final supremacy over other forms of life. d. Man's adjustment to the elevations and depressions of the earth's crust. (a) Less than one-fifth of the earth's surface inhabitable. (b) That one-fifth inhabitable by virtue of a mantle of rock-waste of varying thickness and quality. e. The student of social science has an advantage over the geologist. (a) The latter finds the world completed so far as need concern him. (b) But the social scientist deals with a growing world. (c) He has a right not only to speculate about the processes of its growth, but also to try to ac- celerate its growth. Suggested Readings: Semple, Influences of a Geographic Environment, Chs. I-IV. Blackmar, Elements of Sociology, Bk. II., Ch. II. Buckle in Carver, Sociology and Social Progress, Ch. X. Fairbanks, Introduction to Sociology, Pt. I., Ch. III. Shaler, Man and the Earth, Chs. I, XIII. SECTION 5. THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHIC AREA AND LOCATION ON HUMAN SOCIETY. (1) Small, naturally defined areas always harbor small groups of markedly individual peoples. a. Islands, peninsulas, mountain valleys are bars to ex- pansion and develop close contacts between group members. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 15 b. Involve handicap of numerical weakness of popula- tion. c. Easily encompassed by invaders. d. Belgium, Holland, Switzerland exist today as dis- tinct nations only on sufferance. (2) In a small area, a group is likely to overestimate its own size and importance. a. In a small area, people tend to measure distance with a yard-stick. b. Judea clung with provincial bigotry to the narrow, tribal creed and repudiated the larger faith of Christ. c. Plato's ideal democracy restricted its free citizens to 5,040 heads of families, all living within reach of the agora. d. In small New England, the provincial point of view has persisted. (a) Acquiesced in the occlusion of the Mississippi River to Trans-Allegheny settlements by Spain in 1787. (b) Later opposed the Louisiana Purchase. (c) Opposed the acquisition of the Philippines. (3) Larger the area, the surer the guarantee of permanence. a. Means abundant command of the resources of life, varied pursuits, and varied wants. (4) Larger the area under one political control, the greater the economic and political independence. a. A vast territory has enabled the United States to maintain a protective tariff. b. Russia's immense area is the military ally on which she can most surely count. (a) The long road to Moscow converted Napo- leon's victory into a defeat. (5) Larger the area which a civilized nation occupies, the more numerous are its points of contact with other peoples. a. Less likely to have a premature crystallization of its civilization. b. Ultimately means access to those multiform inter- national relations which the ocean highway confers. 16 University of Southern California Publications. c. Generous territories breed a wide outlook upon life, a continental element in the national mind. (6) Area itself, important as it is, must yield to location. a. No one thinks of size, when mention is made of Gibraltar, Jerusalem, Athens. b. Holland owed her maritime supremacy from the 13th to the middle of the 17th century to her exceptional location at the mouth of the great Rhine highway. c. Location of Phoenicians made them the middlemen between Orient and Occident. Suggested Readings : *Semple, Influences of a Geographic Environment, Chs. V.-VII. Semple, American History and its Geographic Conditions, Ch. I. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History, Ch. I. Mill, International Geography, Ch. V. Shaler, Nature and Man in America, Ch. VI. SECTION 6. THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF OCEANS, COAST LINES, AND INLAND WATERWAYS. (1) The eternal unrest of moving waters has knocked at the door of human inertia. a. Flow of stream and ebb of tide have sooner or later, stirred the curiosity of land-born barbarians. b. Rivers by mere force of gravity have carried man to the shores of the common ocean. (a) Then he has followed timidly or involuntarily the ocean current or the trade-wind. (2) The sea which brought him, bars him from his old home. a. Wastes of water are effective barriers. (3) The sea promotes many-sided development. a. Sea induces nautical achievements in man. (a) Simple floats and rafts first, then devices to secure displacement, now great floating sea monsters. b. Sea develops special classes of industry. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 17 (a) Earliest were the classes of fishermen. (b) Fisheries are the training schools which fur- nish sailors for the merchant marine. c. Sea provides wealth of experiences. (a) Had proportion of land and water been re- versed, world would have been poorer. (b) Branches of human family would have re- sembled each other more closely but at the cost of development. (4) Best geographic advantages are at mouths of rivers. a. Participation in the cosmopolitan civilization char- acteristic of coastal regions. b. Opportunity for both inland and maritime commerce. c. The fertile, alluvial soil yields support for dense populations. d. Politically, the up-country may be bottled up at the mouth of a large river. (5) River highways are bases of commercial pre-eminence. a. They are nature-made paths into new countries. b. Cheapness of river-travel tends to check the con- struction of high-roads and railroads. (a) Later to check railway freight rates. (b) In South and in Central America, railroads are still mere adjuncts of river and coastwise routes. c. The inland waterways movement has lately been re- started. d. Pacific trade will continue to be exploited from the Atlantic basis because Atlantic peoples have wider and more accessible lands as the basis of their mari- time operations. (6) A river system is a system of communication. a. Rivers unite ; they are poor boundaries. b. Every river tends to become a common artery feed- ing all the life of its basin. (a) Makes a bond of union between people living among its remoter sources and those settled at the mouth. 18 University of Southern California Publications. (7) Indentations of land by the sea open up the interior of continents. a. Every protrusion of an ocean artery into the heart of a continent makes that heart feel the life on far-off, unseen shores. Suggested Readings: *Setnple, The Influences of a Geographic Environment, Chs. VIII-XI. Semple, American History and Its Geographic Conditions, Chs. II., XIII, XIX. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History, Ch. IV. Gregory, Keller, and Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geography, Chs. I., IV. Murray, J. and H. R. Mill, International Geography, Ch. VI. SECTION 7. THE SOCIAL INFLUENCE OF PLAINS AND DESERTS. (1) Well watered lowlands invite expansion — ethnic, commer- cial, political. a. They make for uniformity of life conditions, for monotony of climate as well as of relief. (2) Plains are not favorable to early development. a. Their lack of contrasting environments, their wide extent and absence of barriers, put chains on prog- ress. b. Show a paucity of varied geographical conditions and of resulting contrasts in the population. c. Larger eastern half of Europe embraced in the plains of Russia and Poland shows monotony in every as- pect of human life. d. Sameness leaves its stamp on everything. (3) In boundless, arid steppes, nature has made the homes of restless, rootless people. a. Migration is permanent. b. While the people move, progress stands still. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 19 c. Waterless wastes permit no accumulation of pro- ductive wealth beyond increasing flocks and herds. d. Not only aridity, but excessive cold condemns a peo- ple to nomadic life. e. Population must forever remain too sparse to attain historical significance. /. Constant movement reduces impedimenta to a mini- mum. (a) No furniture in their tents. (b) Keep their meager supply of clothing and utensils neatly packed. (c) Only desirable form of capital is that which transports itself — flocks and herds. g. Seasonal migration. (a) Move down rivers in winter to lowlands; up rivers in summer to the hills and mountains. h. Deserts make marauders. (a) Seasons of unusual drought give rise to ma- rauding expeditions. (b) Predatory excursions result from want. (c) Robber is a title of honor. (d) Constant practice in riding, scouting, use of arms, physical endurance tested by centuries of exertion and hardship, make every nomad a soldier. (e) Hazardous life of the desert makes the Arab the bravest of mankind. i. Nature-made necessity of scattering in small groups induces in the nomad a spirit of independence. (a) The Bedouin is personally free. (b) Political organization is lacking. (c) Desert is the last part of earth's surface to yield to conquest from without — conquest pays only as a police measure. /. Power of fasting developed — one meal of a Euro- pean would suffice for six Arabs. k. Checks to population — three children constitute a large family among the Bedouins. 20 University of Southern California Publications. (4) Deserts and steppes lay an arresting hand on progress. a. No alteration in customs or mode of life from age to age. (5) Desert-born genius for religion. o. Mind, finding scant material for deduction, falls back upon contemplation. b. From immense monotony of their environment comes the impression of unity. c. Inevitable gravitation towards monotheism. d. Three great monotheistic religions of the world are closely connected in their origin and development with the deserts of Syria and Arabia. Suggested Readings: *Semple, Influence of a Geographic Environment, Ch. XIV. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History, Chs. V, VIII. Gregory, Keller, Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geog- raphy, 38-48. Salisbury, Physiography, 16-32. Chisholm, Handbook of Commercial Geography, 15-30. SECTION 8. THE SOCIAL EFFECTS OF A MOUN- TAIN ENVIRONMENT. (1) Man always feels the pull of gravity. a. Maintenance of life in high altitude is always a struggle. b. At first, mountains become mere transit districts. c. Often remain as great inert masses in the midst of active historical lands. (2) Mountain passes are nature-made thoroughfares. a. Passes draw to themselves migration, travel, trade, war. b. Traversed alike by undisciplined hordes and by or- ganized armies, by wagon-trains and by transcon- tinental railroads. (3) Mountain boundaries are rarely by nature impartial. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 21 a. A wide zone of food supply and habitation on the gentler slope. b. They lower the bars to the people on one side, hold them relentlessly in place to the people on the other side. c. Himalayas are flanked by the teeming population of India ; on the other side are the scattered nomadic tribes of Tibet. d. Western side of the Scandinavian range (Norway) has the warm air of the Atlantic westerlies; on the eastern side, Sweden feels all the rigor of a sub-artic climate. (4) Mountain peoples the world over have resorted to ter- race agriculture. a. Mountainous islands develop terrace tillage in its most pronounced form. (5) Utilization of mountain pastures for stock-raising is al- most universal. a. They have generally remained communal property. (6) High altitudes with their long, severe winters stimulate industries in the home. a. Almost everywhere native mountain industries are in a high state of development. b. Consists of carved wood, artistic metal work in silver and copper, the famous Kashmir shawls, finest violin strings in the world. (7) Marauding propensities are marked among all retarded mountain peoples of modern times. a. They solve the problem of deficient food by raiding valleys and lowlands. b. Conquest of mountain peoples always expensive — invader has always two enemies to fight, nature and the armed foe. (8) Political dismemberment is the (inherent weakness of mountain peoples. a. Political consolidation is always forced upon them from without. b. Swiss Republic is result of threatened encroachments from outside. 22 University of Southern California Publications. c. Every aspect of environment makes against social integration. (9) Mountains are often museums of social antiquity. a. "To have and to hold" is the motto. b. Antiquated races and languages abound. c. Religion is orthodox to the last degree. d. Judean mountains performed the inestimable service for the world of keeping pure and undented the first and last great gift of the desert— a monotheistic faith. e. The mountain dweller is essentially conservative. /. Little reaches him from the outside to stimulate him. g. Has a suspicion toward strangers. h. His loves and hatreds are pronounced. i. When he comes down to the plains, he is a formidable competitor because of his strong muscles, unjaded nerves, iron purpose, indifference to luxury. Suggested Readings: *Semple, Influences of a Geographic Environment, Chs. XII., XVI. Semple, American History and its Geographic Conditions, Chs. V, VIII. Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History, Ch. III. Gregory, Keller & Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geog- raphy, 50-54, 62-65. SECTION 9. THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE ON SO- CIETY. (1) Climate fixes the boundaries of human habitations. a. In Arctic latitudes, high altitudes, arid regions, — by drawing the dead-line to all life. (2) Moisture is essential to all that life upon which human existence depends. a. Grazing capacity and wheat yield of southern Aus- tralia increase almost regularly with every added inch of rainfall. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 23 b. Deserts which yield nothing are purely climatic phenomena. (3) Nature has fixed the mutual destiny of tropical and tem- perate zones, — as complementary regions of trade. o. Hot belt produces numerous things that never grow in colder countries. b. A much shorter list of products coupled, however, with greater industrial efficiency is restricted to the temperate zone. (4) Climate influences man indirectly. a. Dictates what crops he may raise. b. Has it in its power to affect radically the size of his harvest. c. Decides which flocks as herds he shall keep, — rein- deer, camels, llamas, horses, or horned cattle. d. It decides the character of his food, clothing, dwell- ing, and ultimately of his civilization. (5) In general, there is a close correspondence between cli- mate and temperament. a. Northern peoples of Europe are energetic, provident, serious, thoughtful, rather than emotional, cautious rather than impulsive. b. Southerners of sub-tropical Mediterranean basin are easy-going, gay, emotional, imaginative. c. Man of the colder habitat is more domestic. d. With the southerner of the Tropics, it is "easy come, easy go" — he therefore suffers more frequently in a crisis. e. Everywhere a cold climate puts a steadying hand on the human heart and brain — it gives an autumn tinge to life. (6) History reveals a steady influx from colder into tropical and subtropical lands. a. Followed by enervation and loss of national efficiency. (a) Due to debilitating heat. (&) Partly to easier conditions of living. b. Germans who recently have colonized southern Brazil show marked deterioration. 24 University of Southern California Publications. (7) Man was born in the Tropics, but grew up in the Tem- perate zone. a. Where he has remained in the tropics, he has gen- erally suffered arrested development. b. His nursery has kept him a child. c. The tropics have been the cradle of humanity, the temperate zone has been the cradle and school of civilization. Suggested Readings: *Semple, Influences of a Geographic Environment, Ch. XVII. Dickson, H. N. in Mill, International Geography, Ch. VII. Gregory, Keller & Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geog- raphy, Chs. V., VII. Bowman, Forest Physiography, Ch. IX. Huntington, Changes of Climate and History, Amer. Hist. Rev., Jan. 1913, 213-232. SECTION 10. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RE- SOURCES. (1) The very magnitude of natural resources has made the United States wasteful. a. Many resources have already been so exhausted that a few years will see an end of their use in large com- mercial quantities. b. While coal and iron will last longer, yet when gone they can never be replaced. c. The time has come when the United States can no longer wastefully use her resources without inter- fering with future development. d. While other nations have passed into decay, none has ever exhausted its resources so early in its history. (2) Conservation of the soil — the greatest natural resource. a. The soil is a source of all life, — from it comes all food, the materials with which homes are built and from which clothing is made. b. The formation of soil from beneath is scarcely more than a foot in 10,000 years. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 25 e. Germany has been cultivated nearly 1800 years, the soil is naturally not so productive nor the climate so favorable yet the wheat-yield there averages more than twice as much as in this country. d. Conservation means that the United States will not allow her farms to lose $500,000,000 in value yearly by letting the rich top-soil drain off into the rivers. e. Conservation means that the land shall not be robbed steadily of the elements that produce good crops and that nothing be put back into the soil. (3) Conservation of coal, — in the rush of a few people to turn coal into money, one-fourth to one-half of it is wasted. a. Water-power remains unused while millions of tons of coal are burned annually in doing the work that water-power might do better. (4) Conservation of water-power, — estimated that there is now running idly over falls, dams, etc., over 30,000,000 horse- power of energy. a. Enough power is wasted to run every factory, turn every wheel, move every electric car, supply every light and power station in the country. b. Geographical Survey states that by storing the flood- waters and regulating the flow of streams, the large rivers may be made to furnish 150,000,000 horse- power. (5) Conservation of forests, — the forests of the United States will not last longer than about thirty years. a. Of all wood cut, fully two-thirds is wasted in the forests, left to decay or destroyed by forest fires. (6) Conservation doesn't mean the locking up of natural re- sources, nor a hindrance to real progress in any direction, but a careful use of these resources in the light of the needs of future generations. Suggested Readings : Van Hise, Conservation of Natural Resources, Pt. V. Gregory, Checking the Waste, Chs. I-IV. Coman, Industrial History of the United States, Ch. XL Bogart, Economic History of the United States, Ch. XXXIII. 26 University of Southern California Publications. Pinchot, Fight for Conservation, 40-52. Pinchot, A Primer of Forestry, Pt. I. Shaler, Man and the Earth, Chs. II, III. SECTION 11. A SUMMARY OF THE PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS. (1) A people and their land, each unthinkable without the other. a. A land is fully comprehended only when studied in the light of its influence upon its people, and a people cannot be understood apart from their field of activities. b. Wars, which constitute so large a part of political history, have usually been aimed more or less directly at acquisition or retention of territory. c. The land occupied by a primitive tribe or a highly organized state is the underlying material bond hold- ing society together. (a) The broader this physical base, the richer its resources, and the more favorable the climate, the greater may be its ultimate historical significance. d. When a state has taken advantage of all of its natural conditions, these conditions become a part of the state. (a) They modify the people and are modified in turn by the people — till the people cannot be understood apart from their physical and geog- raphic bases. (2) Every advance to a higher state of civilization has meant a progressive decrease in the amount of land necessary for the support of the individual. a. And a progressive increase in the relations between man and his habitat. (3) Progress involves an increasing exploitation of natural ad- vantages. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 27 a. Man multiplies his dependencies upon nature. b. While increasing their sum total, he diminishes the force of each. c. The Delaware Indian depended upon the forests alone for fuel, the Pennsylvania citizen today has six or seven choices. (a) But fuel was a necessity to the Indian only for warmth and cooking; while today, it is a nec- essity in the manufacture of nearly every arti- cle that the modern Pennsylvanian uses. d. Man's dependence on nature has become more far- reaching, though less conspicuous, and especially less arbitrary. (4) Man forms a partnership with nature, contributing brains and labor while she provides the raw material in ever more abundant forms. a. As a result, civilized man receives a better and better living than the savage who like a mendicant accepts what nature is pleased to dole out and lives under the tyranny of her caprices. Suggested Readings: *Semple, Influences of a Geographic Environment, Ch. II. Shaler, Nature and Man in America, Ch. V. Mill, International Geography, Ch. I. Patten, New Basis of Civilization, Ch. I. Bibliography of the Suggested Readings for Chapter II. Blackmar, F. W., Elements of Sociology, Macm. ; 1905. Bogart, E. L., Economic History of the United States, Long- mans; 1912. Bowman, I., Forest Physiography, Wiley; 1911. Brigham, A. P., Geographic Influences in American History, Ginn; 1903. Carver, T. N., Sociology and Social Progress, Ginn; 190S. Cbisholm, G. G., Handbook of Commercial Geography, Longmans; 1908. Coman, K., Industrial History of the United States, Macm ; 1910. 28 University of Southern California Publications. Fairbanks, A., Introduction to Sociology, Scribner's; 1910. Gregory, Keller and Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geography, Ginn; 1910. Mill, H. R., International Geography, Appleton, 1909. Patten, S. N., The New Basis of Civilization, Macm. ; 1907. Pinchot, G, The Fight for Conservation, Doubleday, Page; 1910. Pinchot, G, A Primer of Forestry, Bui. 24, U. S. Dept. of Agricult; 1900. Salisbury, R. D.; Physiography, Holt; 1909. Semple, E. C, The Influences of Geographic Environment, Holt; 1911. Semple, E. C, American History and its Geographic Condi- tions, Houghton, Mifflin; 1903. Shaler, N. S., Nature and Man in America, Scribner's ; 1891. Shaler, N. S'., Man and the Earth, Chautauqua Pr. ; 1907. Van Hise, C. R., The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States, Macm.; 1910. Suggested Topics for Investigation for Chapter II. 1. The Effect of Climate and Geography on the Develop- ment of your City. 2. A Social Study of the Kentucky Mountaineers. 3. Electricity as a Social Instrument. 4. The Geography of the Civil War. 5. Mountain Barriers as Social Divides. 6. Geographical Distribution of Cities. 7. Geographical Distribution of Railroads. 8. A Comparison of Tropical Peoples with Temperate Peoples. 9. The Social Uses of Chemistry. 10. River Valleys as Paths of Migration and Commerce. 11. The Work of the Forestry Service. 12. The Life and Work of Gifford Pinchot. 13 Social Achievements of the Department of Agriculture. 14. History and Methods of Operation of the Weather Bureau. CHAPTEE III. Biological Factors in Social Progress SECTION 12. BIOLOGICAL LAWS AND SOCIETY. (1) Introduction to the biological factors. o. At this point, transition is made from a study of the inorganic to a study of the organic factors in society. (2) Organisms are distinguished from inorganic substances by the following characteristics. o. Organization : the power to make over inorganic sub- stances into living tissues. b. Motion : the power of spontaneous movement in re- sponse to stimuli. c. Sensation : the power of being sensitive to external stimuli. d. Reproduction: the power of producing new beings like themselves. e. Adaptation : the power of responding to external con- ditions in a way useful to the organism. (3) The different phases of universal evolution. o. Cosmic evolution : deals with the development of world's and how the earth came to its present stage. b. Organic evolution : deals with the evolution of living forms, of which man represents one group. c. Evolution of mind : deals with the use of the keenest intelligences among organisms. d. Social evolution: deals with the development of the highest types of associating groups. ,. (4) Factors at work in organic evolution. a. The multiplication of organisms in some geometric ratio through reproduction. (a) It is not infrequent for a people to double its numbers every twenty-five years. 29 30 University of Southern California Publications. b. Continuity of the species or racial type is secured through heredity— the law that like begets like. c. Every new form born in the organic world, while it resembles its parents and species, is subject to varia- tion within certain limits. (a) Man is the most variable, in this sense, of all organisms. d. The struggle for existence. (a) Individuals in all species are born in large numbers; competition results, the fittest sur- vive, the inferior perish. (&) Thus the type is raised through natural selec- tion, i. e., through the elimination of the unfit. e. Besides struggle and conflict, co-operation is a factor in organic evolution. (a) Perhaps the chief source of this co-operation is to be found in the rearing of offspring. (b) Only in human social life does co-operation attain its full development. (c) Human society tries to fit as many as possible to survive ; not only to survive, but to live well. Suggested Readings: *Ellwood; Sociology and Modern Social Problems, 27-51. Ward, Elements of Sociology, Ch. III. Wallace, The World of Life, Ch. I. Jordan and Kellogg, Evolution and Animal Life, Ch'. III. Dealey and Ward, Text-book of Sociology, Ch. X. SECTION 13. HEREDITY: A CONSERVING FACTOR. ( 1 ) Heredity : The law that like begets like. a. (Several simple illustration may be given here.) (2) In describing the facts of hereditary resemblance between successive generations, two methods are available. a. The Mendelian formula which deals with individuals separately and with the transmission of single char- acteristics. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 31 b. The statistical which deals with the group as the unit and considers the individual in the general average, (a) In many ways the former is of greater im- portance because of its more exact and more particular nature. (3) The Mendelian law of heredity. a. Characteristics are transmitted as single or "unit characters." b. In such transmission, certain characteristics are likely to be "dominant" while others are "recessive." c. Illustrated by the transmission of color in the Anda- lusian fowl. d. Pure bred now means pure bred with reference to certain traits only. (a) An individual may be pure bred in certain of his traits and hybrid in others. e. A pure bred may be produced by a hybrid mated with another hybrid. (4) Statistical description of heredity. a. Regression: with a few exceptions, offspring deviate less than their parents from the average of the whole group. b. The coefficient of heredity — a number which ex- presses the average closeness and regularity between all the plus and minus deviations from the group average. c. Susceptibility to tuberculosis is double the normal rate among first-born children. d. When both parents are congenitally deaf, 26% of the offspring are deaf (Fay, 1898). (a) If the parents are related (belong to the same deaf mute strain), the proportion of deaf-mute children is greater. e. "Old age" or longevity, as such, is not inherited, but traits such as absence of defects of bodily structure, vital resistance to the commoner virulent forms of disease are inherited. 32 University of Southern California Publications. (a) When these are coupled with favorable en- vironmental conditions— then "old age" is pos- sible. f. "Pauperism" and "crime" are not necessarily inher- ited, but mental defectiveness, feeble-mindedness, etc., which may lead to pauperism and crime are subject to laws of heredity. Suggested Readings: Kellicott, The Social Direction of Human Evolution, 77-130. Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, Ch. II. McKim, Heredity and Human Progress, Ch. III. Doncaster, Heredity, Ch. VIII. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, 289-300. SECTION 14. VARIATION : A MEANS OF PROGRESS. (1) Every organismal characteristic whether "unit" or com- plex is subject to variation. a. The variation may be due to circumstances within the germ-cell, or to the environing conditions, or to both. (2) Variation appears during an organism's period of develop- ment. a. At the beginning of its existence every individual (among higher organisms) has the form of a single organic cell — the germ-cell. (a) It shows a comparatively slight degree of dif- ferentiation of structure, and may be of microscopic proportions. (b) The parts of the germ-cell bear no actual or visible resemblance to the parts of the or- ganism into which they rapidly develop. b. Somehow the characteristics of the germ-cell lead to other characteristics, and these to still more com- plex characteristics. (a) Until a period of comparative changelessness is reached when we say that development is completed. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 33 c. This development is fundamentally a period of re- action between the germ and its surrounding condi- tions. (a) It is during this development that variations appear. (3) Two distinct kinds of variation: variability and mutation. o. Variability — small fluctuations in any and every char- acteristic centering about an average or mean. (a) Index of variability — possible to determine the average amount by which each individual of the group deviates from the group average. (b) Possible to determine quite definitely the gen- eral distribution as to future height of a thousand individual children. (c) Men are twice more variable in weight thaD in stature. b. Mutations — these are variations proper. (a) Mutations are abrupt changes of the average or type condition to a new condition or value which then becomes a new center of fluctuat- ing variability. (b) Essential difference between variability and mutations is with reference to the inheritance of the variation in case of mutation. (c) In the case of variability, the offspring tend to be nearer the group average than the parents ; in the case of mutations, the offspring have approximately the same average as their im- mediate parents. (4) By means of mutations and possibly by variability new types are formed, and hence new influences appear in the course of social progress. Suggested Readings : Wallace, The World of Life, Ch. VII. Doncaster, Heredity, Chs. II., III. McFarland, Biology, Ch. XL Jordan and Kellogg, Evolution and Animal Life, Chs. II., IX. 34 University of Southern California Publications. SECTION IS. MAN'S RELATION TO THE FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE WORLD. (1) Animals used by man. a. As servants and friends of man — out of 150,000 species of animals, but forty-seven have been domes- ticated. b. Animals used as food — all races have fed in part at least, on the flesh of animals, either raw or cooked. (a) Mammals and birds that are wholly carniver- ous have been rejected as food by man. c. Clothing from animals — hair of certain mammals is used as a fabric for cloth, the wool of sheep being most valuable. (a) Likewise the fine-spun covering of the larvae and chrysalids of a white moth — silk. (b) Furs and skins of many animals formed the chief clothing of primitive man and still largely used by two extremes in society: the fashion- able and the primitive. (c) Most valuable is the fur of the North Pacific sea-otter, a single skin often bringing $1,000. d. Animals as ornaments— includes furs and plumes, but the most valuable ornament derived from any animal is the pearl from the pearl-oyster. e. Animal products used in the arts — leather, oil, ivory, whalebone, ambergris. (2) Plants used by man. a. As fuel — nearly all fuel is of vegetable origin. b. As timber — three-fourths of the world's lumber sup- ply is furnished by about forty species of cone-bear- ing trees (the pines) and by the leading broad-leaved trees (oaks, hickory, etc.). (a) Full value of thoroughly seasoned woods is nearly proportional to their weight per cubic foot. (b) In recognition of the service of trees, forestry has developed — includes scientific tree-cutting, An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 35 prevention of forest fires, exterminating de- structive fungi and harmful insects, tree- planting. c. Plant products used in manufacture — in tanning, as dyes, varnishes. d. Medicinal plants formed the basis of the work of the medicine men in all primitive groups, and are still important. e. Plants used as fertilizers — clovers and alfalfas, due to the power which their root tubercles have of utiliz- ing the nitrogen of the air. f. Plant fibres — used in making thread, cordage, rope; while from the hairs which clothe the seed of the cotton plant all cotton goods are manufactured. g. As food products for animals — especially the grasses and clovers. h. As food products for human use — includes grains, seeds, fleshy pulps, edible leaves, shoots, tubers and roots. (a) Grain of the wheat most important because of its palatableness, high food value, and ready digestibility. Suggested Readings: * Jordan, Kellogg and Heath, Animal Studies, Ch. XXVII. *Bergen and Davis, Principles of Botany, Ch. XLL Gregory, Keller and Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geog- raphy, 250-95. Thomson, in Mill, International Geography, Ch. VIII. Shaler, Nature and Man in America, Ch. IV. SECTION 16. MICRO-ORGANISMS AND HUMAN LIFE. (1) General classification of micro-organisms — (a) molds and fungi; (b) yeasts and processes of fermentation; (c) bacteria; (d) available knowledge of invisible micro- organisms. (2) Micro-biology of the soil. 36 University of Southern California Publications. a. Under the attack of bacteria and other micro- organisms, the various organic debris in the soil are split into relatively small chemical fragments. (a) Carbon is restored to the air as carbon dioxide and nitrogen is changed into ammonia and nitrates. b. Work of the micro-organisms hastens the weathering of the rock-particles and makes available thereby the mineral portion of plant-food. c. Micro-organisms live in the root-tubercles of the clovers and alfalfa and are an indispensable factor in returning nitrogen to the soil. (3) Microbial diseases of plants — in the form of blights at- tacking alfalfa, oats, pear-trees, the rot of potato, the wilt of sweet corn, etc. (4) Micro-biology of special industries. "a. In preserving foods by cold temperature and by chemicals, the methods are intended to retard or in- hibit the activity of micro-organisms. b. In preservation of foods by pasteurization and sterili- zation and by drying, the destruction of the decom- posing micro-organisms results. c. Alcohol products the result of fermentation due to bacteria. d. Raising of dough in bread-making caused by pro- duction of carbon dioxide by yeast organisms. e. Lactic acid microbes cause milk to turn sour — this change dreaded by the milk-man is used by the cheese-maker. (5) Microbes as scavengers — one of the principal functions of microbes. a. Microbes in upper layers of the earth, and to a less extent in air and water, oxidize waste organic mat- ter to carbon dioxide, water, etc. (6) Pathogenic bacteria — causing disease in man — pneumonia, typhoid, tuberculosis, diphtheria, etc. a. Main sub-divisions — spherical forms, rod-forms, spiral forms. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 37 b. In chapter IV of this Syllabus on the Hygienic and Eugenic Factors in Social Progress, Section 19 is devoted to a fuller discussion of the disease-producing bacteria. Suggested Readings : Marshall, Microbiology, Pt. I. Ch. III. Woodhead, Bacteria, Chs. I, II. Jordan and Kellogg, Evolution and Animal Life, Ch. XVII. McFarland, Biology, Ch. XIV. Davison, The Human Body and Health (Advanced) Chs. VI, VII. SECTION 17. BIOLIGICAL BASES OF THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND IMPULSES. (1) The instincts refer to inherited tendencies which are the essential motive powers of all action. a. Racial characters that have been slowly evolved in the process of adaptation of species to their environ- ment. b. Insect life affords perhaps the most striking examples of purely instinctive action, also the young squirrel burying nuts, the terrier yapping at the sight of his quarry. (2) The impulses of self-preservation or of survival are in general the controlling animal impulses. a. Their outward expression may be temporarily checked by the intrusion of other highly organized impulses. b. Impulses of attacking, fighting, pugnacity — the con- dition of their excitement is opposition to the free exercise of any impulse. c. Impulse of flight, to flee from danger, is necessary for the survival of almost all species of animals. d. On the basis of the food impulse, lower animals and man have powerful incentives to search actively for nutriment. (a) Becomes in man one of the bases of the highly complex impulse for gain. ' , 38 University of Southern California Publications. (3) The sex instinct is most likely to intrude on the survival impulses. a. Holds the same relation to the preservation of the race as do the survival impulses to the preservation of the individual. (4) Parental impulses lead to permanent affections, and around them the institution of the family has developed. a. A relatively pure form of monogamy is ascribed to certain higher animals, especially to certain species of birds. (5) Impulses of curiosity are displayed by many of the higher animals. a. Native excitant of the instinct would seem to be any object similar to, yet perceptibly different from, fami- liar objects habitually noticed. b. In men of certain type, it may become the main source of intellectual energy and effort. (6) Gregarious impulses— have played a great part in mould- ing animal and human group-life. a. Their fundamental nature is indicated by the extreme and frantic distress shown by animal forms when separated from their own groups and by the satisfac- tion shown in being one of a herd. Suggested Readings : McDougall, Social Psychology, Chs. II, III. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, Chs. IV-XIII. Ellwood, Sociology in its Psychological Aspects, Ch. IX. Jordan and Kellogg, Evolution and Animal L,ife, Ch. XX. Bibliography of Suggested Reading for Chapter III. Bergen and Davis, Principles of Botany, Ginn: 1906. Davenport, C. B., Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, Holt: 1911. Davison, A., Human Body and Health (Advanced), Amer. Book: 1910. Dealey & Ward, Text-book of Sociology, Macm: 1905. Doncaster, L., Heredity, Cambridge Univ. Pr: 1911. Ellwood, C. A., Sociology and Modern Social Problems, American Book: 1910. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 39 Gregory, Keller and Bishop, Physical and Commercial Geog- raphy, Ginn: 1910. Jordan and Kellogg, Evolution and Animal Life, Appleton : 1908. Jordan, Kellogg and Heath, Animal Studies, Appleton : 1906. Kellicott, W. E., The Social Direction of Human Evolution, Appleton: 1911. Kirkpatrick, E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study, Macm: 1908. Marshall, C. E., Microbiology, Blakiston: 1911. McDougall, W., Social Psychology, Luce: 1909. McFarland, J., Biology, Saunders : 1910. McKim, W. D., Heredity and Human Progress, Putnam : 1901. Mill, H. R., International Geography, Appleton: 1909. Shaler, N. S., Nature and Man in America, Scribner's: 1891. Wallace, A. R., The World of Life, Moffatt: 1911. Ward, L. F., Elements of Sociology, Macm: 1898. Woodhead, G. S'., Bacteria, Scribner's: 1897. Suggested Topics for Investigation for Chapter III. 1. The Leading Contribution of Biology to Social Advance. 2. The Service of the Microscope to Mankind. 3. The Survival of the Fittest as Illustrated in Human Life. 4. The Social Characteristics of Animals. 5. A Study of the Relative Influence of Heredity and En- vironment in your own case. 6. The Organic Conception of Society. 7. A Study in Economic Zoology (or in Economic Botany). 8. The Biological History of the Race. 9. Heredity and Sociology. 10. The Biological Side of Immigration. CHAPTER IV. Hygiexic axd Eugenic Factors in Social Progress SECTION 18. THE SELF-PRESERVATION IMPULSES. (1) Introductory— the factors in social progress described in the preceding sections are external to man. a. The factors in social progress to be described in the remaining chapters of this syllabus are subjective — they are based on human impulses, instincts, desires, interests — are psychological in nature. (2) The primary interest of every man, as of every animal, is in sheer keeping alive (anthropologically, not finally). a. Doubtful if it is ever observed alone in normal human beings. b. If life be worth living, it is logical to yield to the instinct to prolong it so long at least as any satisfac- tion can be got from it or given by it. c. In giving way to this instinct, people strive to in- crease the number of their days — either by rational methods or by resort to unintelligent measures. (a) Methods of satisfying the physical functions may extend from unrestrained animalism to the perfection of a perfect body as an instru- ment of highest life. (3) Rational methods of physical self-control — by observing the laws of hygiene and sanitary science— by developing the tendency to play, etc. a. The eugenic method — guaranteeing to all future in- dividuals the right of being well-born. (a) Since the physically and mentally defective, the stunted and the starved are a drag upon and arrest or defect to social progress. (4) Ratio between the health desire and all other human de- sires is infinitely variable. 41 42 University of Southern California Publications. a. One day a man will forego all for the privilege of continuing to exist. b. Again he may jauntily throw away his life for a principle or a sentiment or a passion. (5) Social Progress calls for races of physically splendid men. a. Mental and social life stand in the most intimate relation conceivable to physical development of in- dividuals. Suggested Readings : Bigelow, Applied Biology, Pt. IV. Herter, Biological Aspects of Human Problems. Bk. II. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, Ch. VI. McDougall, Social Psychology, Chs. VII, XI. SECTION 19. SOCIAL WASTE THROUGH BACTERIAL DISEASES. (1) Plagues, pestilences, and epidemics are the most striking examples of influences affecting public health. a. As late as 1892, the wealthy city of Hamburg was terrorized by a severe epidemic of Asiatic cholera. b. Still more recently Ithaca, N. Y., Butler, Penn., Rock- ford, 111., have been ravaged by the plague of typhoid fever. (2) Explanations of plagues. a. Savages attributed them to evil spirits, demons. b. Even for civilized peoples, plagues have been mys- terious in origin. c. Now known to be outbreaks of infectious and con- tagious diseases. (a) Due to invasions of the body by micro-organ- isms. (b) Each such disease has its own special microbe. (c) Not the disease but the parasitic microbe which are "catching." (d) Epidemics may occur when public food sup- plies, water supplies, milk supplies, steamers, An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 43 coaches, and other public places become in- fected with disease. (3) Microbes as disease germs — for these discoveries, society is indebted to Pasteur (French biologist), Koch (German bacteriologist), and others. (4) Some microbic diseases and their prevention. a. Tuberculosis — so-named because of certain charac- teristic cheesy tubercles found in the lungs and other tissues. (a) Until discovery of tubercle bacillus in 1882 by Koch, the disease was generally regarded as readily inherited. (b) Caused only through the entrance of the microbe into susceptible bodies — by personal contact, by objects handled or mouthed (food, drinking cups, towels), by dust containing germs expectorated, by the moist breath in coughing, or even in talking. (c) The disease moves to a fatal issue only when the vital resistance proves unequal to the de- fense. b. Typhoid fever — caused by typhoid bacillus, discov- ered by Koch about 1879 — a slow fever requiring months for its convalescence. (a) Bacilli taken into the human body by drinking water contaminated by sewage containing the microbes, through milk contaminated by dirty hands of careless and unclean milkers, through oysters growing in localities where city sew- age is emptied. c. Diphtheria— disease of the throat— bacillus diph- theriae finds lodgment in throats of susceptible per- sons. (a) Multiply there and secret meanwhile a pois- onous substance or toxin. d. Malarial fever — a world-famous disease — by far the most important of all tropical diseases. 44 University of Southern California Publications. (a) In 1880 the malarial microbe was discovered, and in 1899 whence it came and how it was transmitted from victim to victim was discov- ered — in a genus of mosquito, anopheles. e. Yellow fever, greatly dreaded in the tropics, now at- tributed to a microbe, conveyed by a mosquito, stegomyia by name. f. Lockjaw or tetanus — due to the tetanus microbe, grows best in absence of oxygen, in deep or lacerated wounds — made by toy pistols, etc. Suggested Readings: Marshall, Microbiology, Div. VII., Ch. I. Sedgwick, Principles of Sanitary Science, Ch. III. McFarland, Biology, Ch. XV. Flexner, "Natural Resistance to Infectious Diseases and its Reinforcement," Smithsonion Report, 1909: 723-38. SECTION 20.— OVERWORK AND FATIGUE. (1) A vast difference in the degree of wellness — many well men cannot run a block for a street car without feeling completely tired out. (2) Origin of the problem of fatigue to be found in connection with the Industrial Evolution. a. With rise of factory system, monotonous speeded-up processes developed. (3) Fatigue — the most common and subtle danger of occu- pation. a. It may be regarded as a chemical process — a con- tinual tearing down of muscle and nerve tissues without building them up. b. In this way, fatigue substances or toxins come to cir- culate in the blood, poisoning brain and nervous sys- tem, muscles, glands and other organs. (a) When blood is transferred from an exhausted dog to a frisky one, the latter immediately droops and shows all the signs of fatigue. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 45 (4) Objective causes of fatigue. a. Long hours — in the steel industry, the working day is usually twelve hours, seven days in the week. b. Monotonous, speeded-up operations — at many ma- chines a quick pressure of the foot and accompanying hand-movements are repeated "40 times a minute, 24,000 times a day." (5) Results of fatigue. a. Fatigue and industrial inefficiency — poorer work and less work is done in the last hours of a day's labor than in the earlier hours. b. Fatigue and contagious diseases — an overworked lab- oring man or woman is more susceptible to pneu- monia, tuberculosis, typhoid fever than is a person whose vital resistance is normal. (a) A typical succession of events is first, fatigue, then colds, then tuberculosis, then death. c. Fatigue and nervous diseases — long hours of labor and feverish haste leads to nervous breakdown. d. Fatigue and future generations — the children of over- worked parents tend to be physical weaklings. e. Fatigue and morals of working people — long hours of monotonous labor increase the susceptibility of the human organism to harmful temptations. (a) The exhausted worker tends to neglect all family duties. /. Fatigue and industrial accidents — the liability to acci- dent increases with the daily hours of labor. (a) Investigation: In the second hour of work, 9,000 accidents occur; in the third hour, 12,- 000; in fourth hour, 15,000 accidents occur. Suggested Readings : Goldmark, Fatigue and Efficiency, Ch. I. Nearing, Social Adjustment, Ch. X. Bogardus, Fatigue and Industrial Accidents, Amer. Jour. Sociol., 17:206-22. Favill, The Toxin of Fatigue, Survey, 24 -.767-73. 46 University of Southern California Publications. SECTION 21. THE DURATION OF THE WORKING LIFE. (1) The desirability of a lengthened life. a. Society needs balanced men — with broad views and mature judgments. b. The years from forty-five to sixty-five should be the most valuable years from the social view-point. c. Society trains for a working period of forty years, but in hundreds of thousands of cases, life-work is artificially stopped almost before it has begun. d. If the length of average life were doubled, the popu- lation would in a generation double without any in- crease in the birth-rate. e. Increase of longevity would also enable the man at the margin to care more adequately for those de- pendent upon him. /. It is abnormal that any individual should be cut down in the prime of development. (a) With the potentialities of existence unrealized and the character growth of life barely begun. (2) The length of the working life. a. Extends from about the age of sixteen until the time of death. b. Out of every thousand males living at the age of fifteen, 556 will have died before the age of sixty-five as the result of either accident or disease (Hoffman). (a) Thus society loses more than one-half of its working force before the end of the working period. c. Each decade marks an advance in the age at which children may go to work. (a) The constant tendency to raise the age of en- trance upon life activities shortens the working period. d. Overstrains and "speeding up" processes of modern industries throw men out of work earlier than for- merly. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 47 (a) Thus the working period is being shortened at both ends. e. People do not at present die natural deaths. (a) Many of the deaths even between the ages of seventy and seventy-four are not due to old age, but to accident and preventable diseases (Metchnikof). f. Industry is doubly wasteful of life and efficiency — (Campbell). (a) "Mav be charged not only with the extrava- gance of killing and maiming yearly thousands of workers. (b) But it seems to choose for its victims many in the prime of manhood, normally with years of life before them, and with obligations but par- tially discharged to wives and children." (3) A new social attitude. o. While the general philosophy of modern life bids us turn away from a scene of premature death, with a feeling of sorrow for the dead, b. The new social attitude requires that every such scene inspire us, first of all, to prevent similar and succeed- ing catastrophes. Suggested Readings : Nearing, Social Adjustment, Ch. IX. Campbell, Industrial Accidents and Their Compensation, Ch. II. Fisher, Report on National Vitality. Hoffman, Annals of American Academy, 27 :46S-90. Metchnikof, Prolongation of Life, Ch. I. SECTION 22. HYGIENE AND SOCIAL ADVANCE. (1) General classification of causes of disease. a. Constitutional and environmental, inside and outside, intrinsic and extrinsic. b. Premature death is common ; old age is rare — due either to defects in mechanism or to environmental disease. 48 University of Southern California Publications. (2) As sanitary science (and public control of health condi- tions) will lessen environmental diseases, so hygiene (and eugenics) may eliminate in a large part constitutional de- fects. a. Hygiene is of special importance to a man physically weak. b. Horace Fletcher in his 46th year, rejected for life insurance, later obtained it and on his 50th birthday bicycled 190 miles. (3) Hygiene of environment — man is normally an outdoor animal. a. Civilization has brought him indoors and increased his susceptibility to many diseases. b. "Where sun and air enter seldom, the physician en- ters often." c. John Muir: "The minute I get into a house, I get into a draft and the first thing I know, I am cough- ing and sneezing and threatened with pneumonia and am altogether miserable." (4) Hygiene and nutrition — scientific study of diet has only recently begun. a. Three essential classes of energy-giving foods : pro- teins or nitrogenous foods (lean meat), fats (butter), carbohydrates such as sugar, starch. b. Foods needed to form body material, phosphate of lime for bone and nerve-tissue. c. A man of ordinary labor needs daily, food which con- tains about 100 grains of proteid, 50 grains of fats, 500 grains of carbohydrates. (a) Hence to put foods together in proper propor- tion and form, a scientist and artist is needed, and the kitchen becomes a scientifically con- ducted laboratory. d. The hygiene of nutrition warns against poisons. (a) Several English life-insurance companies have found by statistics (for about forty years) that abstainers from alcoholic liquors have a death- rate about 23% lower than non-abstainers. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 49 (5) Hygiene of activity — an evil of the modern division of labor is that the sedentary worker does not get necessary activity. a. An animal lives a more healthy life than the average man. (6) Observation shows that many of world's most famous vital men and women have virtually, through hygienic methods, made over their constitutions from weakness to strength. o. Examples : Roosevelt, and others. Suggested Readings : Stewart in Pyle, Personal Hygiene, 315-48. Sedgwick, Principles of Sanitary Science, Ch. I. Taft, Address at the 15th Intern. Cong, on Hyg. and Demog., Science, n. s., 36; 504-8. Wile, Survey, 29: 146-52. SECTION 23. THE PURE FOOD MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES. (1) No such problem existed when food consisted chiefly of raw materials. a. When food comes under artificial preparation and is imported from foreign countries and from other sec- tions of the same country, the problem has arisen. b. England and Germany have created "public analy- cists," who must approve the quality of food before it can be sold. (2) Agitation by consumers in the United States — began about 1882. a. In one year in Pennsylvania it was found that over 87,000,000 pounds of oleomargerine were sold as butter. b. Investigations of infant mortality in New York showed that milk was poisoned by preservatives, weakened by being watered, and was often an ideal breeding place for bacteria as a result of unsanitary handling. 50 University of Southern California Publications. c. Deaths in the Spanish American War were traced to "tainted meat.'' (3) State legislation preceded national legislation— as in many other ruses. a. Massachusetts was the first state to adopt a pure food law. (a) The rate of adulteration decreased in ten years, from 57% in 1883 to 31.2% in 1894. b. By 1896, thirty-two of the states had adopted pure food laws. (o) Their lasting influence was nullified because goods that did not conform to the standard of purity of one state were shipped into another. (b) Foreign goods, pure or impure, were shipped in. (c) Hence the need of a Federal Law. (4) The fight for national legislation. a. The Bureau of Chemistry began investigations as early as 1885. b. The Oleomargerine Act (passed, 1887) placed a tax of ten cents a pound upon all oleomargerine sold as butter. c. The Investigation Act (passed, 1890) prohibited the importation of adulterated meats. d. The Interstate Pure Food Commission (organized, 1897) drew up a model pure food bill. e. Senate (1899) appointed a committee (Dr. Wiley as head) to investigate the sanitary conditions in the Chicago packing houses. f. When the first general pure food bill was introduced in the Senate (1899), it was regarded as "a huge joke." (a) The success of the manufacturing interests in fighting the bill, a national disgrace. (b) Not passed until February, 1906; Dr. Wiley was opposed by the "interests" in enforcing the law. An Introduction to the Social Sciences. 51 (