POULTRY FOODS 
 AND FEEDING 
 
 DUNCAN FORBES 
 LAURIE 
 
MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY 
 
 t'hz erff qy 
 James E. Rice 
 
 FfavY aVV V VvmV»s^-v» VV»VVS;«^;«^ 
 
 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
CorneK University Library 
 SF 487.L385 
 
 Poultry foods and feeding, a manual for a 
 
 3 1924 003 186 818 
 
L 
 
POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003186818 
 
POULTRY FOODS 
 AND FEEDING 
 
 A MANUAL FOR ALL BREEDERS 
 
 BY 
 
 DUNCAN FORBES LAURIE 
 
 Poultry Expert and Lecturer to the South Australian Government 
 
 Member of Committee (Poultry Section), American Breeders' 
 
 Association 
 
 Author of "A Poultry Manual." "Scientific Breeding and Heredity 
 
 with Notes on Mendelism,** "The Single Testing Method 
 
 of Breeding for Egg Production," etc. etc. 
 
 GASSELL AND COMPANY, LTD 
 
 London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne 
 1912 
 
 m 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Although a great number of books, in many languages, 
 on the subject of foods and feeding, have been published, 
 there appears to me to be a distinct need of a practical 
 guide for the poultry breeder, which, while dealing suffi- 
 ciently in detail with the various phases of the subject, 
 shall yet be concise and within the grasp of the average 
 reader. 
 
 In nearly every branch of agriculture we find 
 bands of students studying the most minute details. 
 The average farmer and stock owner is of an inquiring 
 disposition. He gladly seeks information and will atten- 
 tively heed scientific explanation as to various processes 
 of soil nitrification, botany, plant chemistry, and other 
 items of vital interest to him in his daily work. With- 
 out this growth of knowledge among our agriculturists 
 there could be no advance, such as has been witnessed 
 in recent years. But nothing beyond crude generalities 
 has been placed at his service in relation to the science 
 of foods and feeding. It would appear as if it were a 
 common belief among writers that such knowledge is 
 beyond the average capacity, and therefore dangerous. 
 My long years of work among primary producers of all 
 classes has shown me the universal desire which exists 
 of getting to the root of matters. The thousands who 
 understand in the main the chemical process of plant 
 nutrition can equally comprehend the chemical processes 
 of animal nutrition. 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 For those of an inquiring turn of mind, and who 
 desire to probe deeper into the science of feeding, I have 
 written Part II., in which I have sketched a brief outUne 
 of the chemistry of foods, together with extracts from 
 the leading authorities of the day. To give more than 
 an outUne would be impossible within the limits of this 
 book. The bibliography of this branch of the subject 
 alone would require a separate volume. It is also inex- 
 pedient to give at any length my reasons for various 
 conclusions arrived at, because the ground traversed in 
 doing so would include many of the arguments to be 
 found in the various treatises on heredity and evolution. 
 
 The thoughtful reader must agree that the presence 
 or absence of certain constituents in the food consumed 
 by man and beast (or bird) must have a cumulative, even 
 if not an immediate effect. Disuse of any part or function 
 is followed by atrophy and disappearance. 
 
 Chemists teach that between even the cells of which 
 our bodies are built up there is a never-ceasing inter- 
 change of compounds, depending upon chemical and 
 enzyme action. There can be no such action if the 
 chemical constituents are absent or altered, or if, through 
 cumulative effects extending through generations, the 
 work of the enz5mies, or their very nature, is altered. 
 
 No single system of feeding, nor group of foods, 
 can produce the universal panacea for the many troubles 
 which may rightly be traced to improper feeding. That 
 the medical world is alive to this fact may be seen on 
 reference to the special literature circulating among 
 the profession. 
 
 Dmring my many years' work, in my professional 
 capacity, I have noted numerous instances in which 
 all calculations have been upset, in what appeared to 
 be an unaccountable manner, and yet the causes of 
 
PREFACE vi 
 
 which undoubtedly were due to the accumulated effects 
 of generations of improper feeding. 
 
 The comparatively short hfe of a fowl, and the number 
 of generations which can be bred and experimented with 
 in a few years, are factors which have been availed of 
 by scientific breeders in testing their theories. 
 
 Equally so, poultry are of the greatest scientific 
 value in demonstrating over a series of generations the 
 effects of foods and feeding. 
 
 Although a book such as this must necessarily have 
 its limitations, I feel that the results of over thirty years' 
 practical and scientific investigation will be a great 
 help to poultry breeders in many lands. I have departed 
 somewhat from the stereotyped method of dealing 
 with the subject, because my experience of breeders 
 in Australia and elsewhere tells me that the treatment 
 of the various subjects will give them the information 
 they require. 
 
 Throughout this book I have given verbatim quota- 
 tions from many authorities. I do so, firstly, that I 
 may duly acknowledge the source, and, secondly, because 
 in making a reference one should, I think, quote the 
 author's exact words. I recommend all earnest students 
 of the subject to obtain the following publications, so 
 that they may pursue the scientific investigation of 
 foodstuffs to greater limits : — 
 
 "The Chemistry of the Proteids." Gustav Mann, 
 
 M.D., B.Sc. 
 " The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins " (Parts 
 
 I. and II.). R. H. Aders Plimmer, D.Sc. 
 " The General Character of the Proteins." S. B. 
 
 Schryver, Ph.D., D.Sc. 
 "The Vegetable Proteins." Thomas B. Osborne, 
 Ph.D. 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 " The Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides." 
 
 E. Frankland Armstrong, D.Sc, Ph.D. 
 " The Fats." J. B. Leathes, M.A., M.B., F.R.C.S. 
 " The Nature of Enzyme Action." W. M. Bayliss, 
 D.Sc, F.R.S. 
 For many years I have received communications from 
 all parts of the world upon the subject of this work. That 
 it will supply a great need is evident. I have not elabo- 
 rated any subject beyond its bare, just importance, and 
 naturally there are points which could not be treated 
 of without exceeding readable limits. The chapter on 
 Foods and Feeding for Egg Production is based upon 
 practical experience extending over many years. Facts 
 have been deduced from a mass of scientifically accurate 
 details which are accessible in few, if any, coimtries other 
 than South Australia. 
 
 I have repeatedly promised correspondents and scien- 
 tific friends that I would some day write this book, 
 embodying the results of a long practical experience 
 together with the conclusions drawn in relation to the 
 scientific aspect. 
 
 From all parts of the world, too, as Government 
 poultry expert, I receive constant requests to detail the 
 foods used, methods of feeding adopted, and reasons 
 for so doing. The excellent results of our State Egg 
 Laying Competitions evidently imbue breeders in other 
 parts with a desire for knowledge on the subject. Hence 
 this book. 
 
 Duncan Forbes Laurie. 
 
 " Glenavon,' 
 Glenelg, South Australia. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 1. The Science of Feeding i 
 
 2. The Science of Feeding; Foods Generally 
 
 Available 6 
 
 3. Food Constituents 38 
 
 4. Feeding Poultry 59 
 
 5. Feeding Fowls 64 
 
 PART II 
 NOTES ON THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD 
 
 6. The Proteins 103 
 
 7. The Carbohydrates and Hydrocarbons . . 126 
 
 8. The Enzymes.- Minerals and Salts . . 146 
 
 9. Explanation of Tables, etc 159 
 
 Index 181 
 
POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ■\,'- The Science of Feeding 
 
 Among stock-owners, be it of horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, 
 or poultry, there is a general vagueness as to the physiology 
 of foods and feeding. It may be taken for granted that 
 in most cases the owner's main consideration is to satisfy 
 the., animal's hunger. To a certain extent the owner 
 does pay solne'"regard *to the fattening or other qualities 
 of the food. The stockman with large areas of natural 
 herbage at his command knows by experience that so 
 long as there is sufficient of this food the stock will 
 thrive. I am not, however, considering those cases in 
 which the stock, be they birds or animals, have unlimited 
 range, with ample natural food. The purpose in view 
 is the discussion of artificial feeding, which will every- 
 where become more general as settlemenr extends ancZ 
 small holdings are the order of the day. 
 
 In dealing with the subject, it is necessary to say that, 
 in presenting the various arguments, due regard has been 
 paid to the laws of breeding. In many of my publications 
 I have dealt with the science of breeding and selection, 
 and, important to the breeder as is a proper appreciation 
 of these laws, the knowledge of foods and feeding is 
 equally important. With this in view it may be briefly 
 pointed out that beyond the immediate effects of a 
 
2 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 system of feeding the average stock-owner does not, 
 as a rule, concern himself. The race-horse owner breeds 
 and feeds for speed, the draught-horse breeder for muscular 
 development, the dairy farmer for milk and butter, 
 the grazier for meat. The breeder of table poultry aims 
 at flesh production, and the egg fanner hopes for the 
 production of the greatest possible number of eggs. 
 The wool-grower is, perhaps, the most scientific in his 
 feeding, when he has any choice, because bad feeding 
 produces serious effects on the wool. 
 
 Broadly speaking, however, none of the foregoing 
 stockmen systematically feeds for future generations. 
 It may be objected that one lives for the present, but 
 none the less the effects of the present will be felt by 
 the stock of the future. 
 
 The main object of feeding is in supplying foods 
 proper to each animal, so that its due consimiption may 
 enable the animal, by the processes of digestion and 
 assimilation, to replace worn-out tissues, to carry on the 
 life functions, and to lay up a reserve store for emergency. 
 In table poultry the surplus over that required for repairs 
 of waste tissue and the vital functions is stored as flesh 
 and fat. For the la3dng hen the surplus is not stored, 
 but is elaborated into eggs. Eggs of birds are but stores 
 of nutriment for the embryo of a future generation. 
 
 As wiU be seen later, the food must contain due 
 proportions of certain constituents which aid in the 
 production of flesh, fat, bone, etc., and also in maintaining 
 the various vital functions. 
 
 Digestion. — ^When food is consumed by some animals 
 part of the work of converting it to its various uses is 
 performed by mastication, which is a process of finely 
 dividing the bulk into' small particles and mixing the 
 whole evenly with the saUva. This may be done by 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 3 
 
 chewing, or by the action of powerful muscles, as in the 
 gizzards of poultry (here, of course, no saliva is mixed 
 with the food, other than what was added during the 
 act of swallowing). 
 
 Saliva. — Saliva is secreted by glands having ducts 
 which open into the mouth. To some extent the nature 
 of the food serves as a stimulant to the glandular action, 
 increasing the secretions. The amount of saliva secreted 
 by the glands is large in sheep and cattle, but very smaU. .. 
 in birds. Saliva is a dilute^lear liquid of faintly alkaline 
 action. The bulk Is water, but there is also secreted, 
 by some of the glands, a slimy substance called mucin^ 
 which aids the process of swallowing. The most im- 
 portant constituent, however, is a diasta se, or fermerit»„v. 
 called ^tyalin, which acts upon thestarcITm the food 
 and convertsTlt into maltose, a form of sugar. This 
 may be tested by holding aTfew drops of starch paste 
 in the mouth for a few minutes, when a faintly sweet 
 taste will develop. 
 
 Gastric Juice. — ^The food then passes into the 
 stomach, directly with some animals, indirectly with 
 others, and also in the case of birds. In the stomach 
 the food is acted upon by the gastric juice which is 
 secreted and poured in. Gastric juice contains free 
 hydr ochloric acid and various salts, such as the phos- 
 phates and chlorides of potassiumT sodium, calcium and ; 
 magnesium. 
 
 Ferments. — Gastric juice contains two enzymes or 
 ferments. One, pe^^in, acts upon the food, in the 
 stomach, and converts"the insoluble proteins into the 
 soluble albunipjes and peptones, which in this form are 
 diffusible~and can be utilised. 
 
 The other enzyme is ZMfiit which has the property 
 of coaygulatingj:asein (a constituent of milk). 
 
4 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 In the stomach the action is acid ; the muscular 
 movements of the walls of the stomach (very active 
 and powerful in the gizzards of birds), knead, grind, and 
 incorporate the food with the gastric juice, and form a 
 pulpy mass known as chyme. During the process the 
 greater portion of the proteins are, as stated, converted 
 into soluble forms, and, in addition, the fat is acted 
 upon mechanically and also has its cell walls broken' 
 down. 
 
 Pancreatic Juice. — The acid mass now passes into 
 the intestines, and is subjected to the action of two 
 alkaline fluids which neutralise the acids. The pancreas, 
 which lies in the loop of the duodenum, secretes pancreatic 
 juice, which is a viscid, alkaloid liquid, and, in man, 
 contains four distinct digestive ferments, viz. : 
 
 1. Trypsin, which acts in an alkaline medium, and is 
 
 a proteolytic ferment converting albumin, fibrin, 
 etc., into peptones, but digests egg-white very 
 slowly. 
 
 2. Amylopsin, a diastase, which acts rapidly on starch, 
 
 and converts it into dextrin, maltose, and dex- 
 trose. '^ ■ ' 
 
 3. Steapsin, a lipolytic (fat-splitting) ferment, which 
 
 emulsifies fats, converting them into glycerol and 
 free fatty acids. 
 
 4. Rennin, a milk-curdhng ferment, which converts 
 
 casein into a form of peptone. 
 Bile. — The food in the intestine is further acted upon 
 by bile, which is a greenish hquid in herbivora, and of 
 a reddish colour in carnivora. 
 
 Bile contains mineral matter, soaps, fats, salts of 
 
 bile acids, pigments; the latter are also found in the 
 
 ! shells (tinted or coloured) of the eggs of some birds. 
 
 \ Bile acts upon the fats and has an antiseptic effect upon 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 5 
 
 the contents of the intestines ; it is largely reabsorbed 
 in the intestines. 
 
 Bacterial Action. — In addition to the chemical 
 and enzyme (or fermentive) action, which takes place 
 in the alimentary canal, other changes are due to bacteria,, 
 which break down the proteins, carbohydrates, etc. It 
 is to this action that the formation of chemical sub- 
 stances such as indol and skatol, which impart to the 
 faeces their disagreeable smell, is due. 
 
 Bacterial action also results in the decomposition, 
 in part at least, of the cr ude fibr e which is not attacked 
 by the digestive fluids. 
 
 It will be noted that digestion is due to the combined 
 action of several organs, and while it is true that the 
 work of one can be taken, over, wholly or , in part, by 
 another, yet such action, if through errors in feeding, 
 is generally productive of serious digestive disturbance. 
 Much depends upon the first process of digestion ; this 
 applies not only to mammals with their large supply 
 of saliva, but also to birds, which secrete but small 
 quantities. 
 
 The undigested remains of the food pass from the 
 animal as ejcigta. In birds there is no separate dis- 
 charge of urine — the ureters from the kidney discharge 
 the thick urine into the cloaca, whence it is voided with 
 the faeces. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 The Science of Feeding ; Foods generally 
 available 
 
 It is customary in works on foods and feeding to supply 
 tables showing the average chemical constitution of each 
 food. This plan serves as a rough guide, but it shotJd 
 be distinctly understood that segsaji, periods of growth, 
 and other factors influence the composition of foodstuffs 
 to a much greater extent than is generally realised. 
 
 In the case of cereals the nitrogen content is less in 
 wet years than in dry years, and some sorts, which give 
 fairly constant analyses in one country, may differ very 
 considerably when grown in another part of the world. 
 Fodders vary according to the period of their growth, and 
 in many cases their food value for a particular class of 
 stock may not coincide with their chemical analysis. 
 This particularly apphes to the feeding of poultry. 
 
 GRAIN, CEREALS, SEEDS, ETC. 
 
 Wheat. — I have always regarded wheat as the best 
 staple grain food for poultry. In many countries maize 
 (com), rye, oats, and barley are chiefly used, as they 
 are often cheaper than wheat. The value of wheat, 
 however, is now more generally recognised, and, where 
 egg production is the main object, it is undoubtedly of 
 first importance. 
 
 There are two main classes of wheat : the hard wheats 
 with high nitrogen content, and the soft, starchy grains, 
 
 6 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 7 
 
 generally a third lower in nitrogen. This point has not 
 been discussed in any book on stock feeding which I 
 have seen, and yet it is of manifest importance. A 
 hard wheat with a gluten content of from 12 to 16% 
 is a better flesh former and egg producer than is a soft, 
 starchy wheat averaging from 8 to 10% and in many 
 cases as low as 7 % gluten. 
 
 When wheat"~an3"its mill products, such as bran, 
 pollard, and wheatmeal, form the main food of poultry, 
 it is important to know its chemical composition. Tables 
 such as are usually published can only serve as a very 
 general guide ; what is required is accurate information 
 as to local conditions and foods. 
 
 Wheat is low in fat, compared with some other grains 
 and seeds, and it is necessary to make up this deficiency. 
 It is within the experience of most feeders that when 
 laying fowls have been fed for a long period on an ex- 
 clusive diet of wheat and its mill products, great benefit 
 results, together with increased egg production, on 
 a change to, or large addition to the food of, maize, 
 which has a high fat content. This change is due to the 
 more natural an3 more complete jnetabolism, owing to 
 the restoration of the " fat " balance."' '" *' 
 
 The carbohydrate content of wheat varies in proportion 
 to the percentage of starch in the grain — soft wheats have 
 a higher starch content than have the hard varieties. 
 A rough-and-ready method of testing a wheat kernel 
 is by biting or cutting it in half. If the grain is starchy 
 the interior of the kernel wiU be soft, white and floury, 
 while if of high gluten content the fracture will be short 
 and the outer layers greyish crystalline, and the flour 
 area comparatively small. 
 
 The fibre content of wheat is low, and, as regards 
 poultry feeding, may be treated as of comparatively 
 
8 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 little importance compared with such grains as barley 
 
 and oats. The water content varies according to climate, 
 
 and may in a dry climate average io%, and in a moist 
 
 climate up to 15 %, or more. 
 
 ^ The main defect in wheat is the low mineral content, 
 
 and even this varies within appreciable limits as a soil 
 
 ' effect. The minerals of wheat, and its products, are 
 
 acid, which fact is held to be against normal bone growth. 
 
 The average ash (mineral) content of wheat is under 
 
 2%. This deficiency can best, and most economically, 
 
 ' be made good by feeding, large supplies of clover and 
 
 rlucerne, endives, etc., which are rich in mineral salts ; 
 
 those of vegetables are generally basic, i.e. alkaUne. 
 
 Poultry of all sorts are very fond of wheat, and will 
 
 jleave most other grains and seeds until they have eaten 
 
 the wheat. Damaged samples, containing smut and 
 
 ^Qther fungi, are often sold " cheaply," but should be 
 
 ■avoided by the poultry breeder. Good wheat should 
 
 '''have a sweet, nutty smell ; any fungoid or disagreeable 
 
 ? smell should ensure the rejection of a sample. Many 
 
 ''diseases of the respiratory organs are due to fungus- 
 
 \f;ontaminated grain. When no other grain but wheat 
 
 can be had it may be given boiled, occasionally, for 
 
 variety. An excellent plan is to place some on a shallow 
 
 pan and bake in an oven until the kernels are deep 
 
 brown, but not black. Poultry, especially la5nng hens, 
 
 are very fond of this baked wheat ; it is a valuable aid 
 
 to egg production. Small breeders should adopt this 
 
 plan ; the author has used it for a great many years 
 
 with success. 
 
 Rye is very similar in composition to wheat ; its 
 protein and starch content vary considerably in different 
 samples. When cheap, its use may be recommended, 
 but it will be found that poultry are not particularly 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 9 
 
 fond of it. It is not a good egg producer, and seems to 
 contain some principle which affects the fowls slightly. 
 It should be used preferably with other grain, and not 
 as a sole food. 
 
 Unlike some other cereals, rye will grow in the most 
 indifferent soils and yield a good crop. In districts 
 where lamb raising is carried on rye is largely grown as 
 a fodder crop, and, after it has been fed down, will shoot 
 up again and give a good yield of grain. 
 
 Rye is low in minerals, and this important defect 
 must be remembered. Where rye is plentiful, and its 
 use economically desirable, I recommend grinding it 
 and mixing with a little wheat meal or wheat bran. 
 
 Barley is generally lower in protein than wheat, 
 
 but the starch content is about equal to that of an average 
 
 soft wheat. The fat content is low, and there is, in most 
 
 samples, a high percentage of fibre, which is indigestible 
 
 and of little food value to poultry. Wheat and rye 
 
 '""'; kernels have smooth, thin skins, or outer coats, but 
 
 'barley kernels are enclosed in hard fibrous sheaths — 
 
 \\ mainly cellulose. 
 
 > , ' As regards cost barley is a cheap food in most countries. 
 
 .It is not a good egg-producing food, but is largely used 
 
 injatt±£Ilin£^ppultry. It may be given as a change of 
 
 food, and with advantage in cold weather. The mineral 
 
 content is low and, as in other cereals, is acid. 
 
 Barley meal, ground very fine, may be largely used 
 if mixed with meals of other grain, such as wheat and 
 a small proportion of maize. Torrefied barley and malt, 
 used in brewing, are strongly recommended, but as 
 regards egg production the experience gained in our 
 Laying Competitions is decidedly against its use. A very 
 moderate quantity may be fed to breeding stock, and in 
 that way has much value. 
 
10 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 The variety known as " skinless " bariey, with a kernel 
 Hke ordinary plump wheat, is the best for poultry. This 
 variety is also excellent for growing green barley, as 
 the plant has a broad flag, and the stem is juicy ; poultry 
 eat it very readily. The Arabs hold barley (grain) in 
 high esteem as a food for their celebrated horses. 
 
 Oats. — This cereal is generally regarded as a perfect 
 poultry food in all countries where it is grown to "per- 
 fection. Its value, however, depends upon the quality 
 of the grain and the percentage of kernel to husk. The 
 ' ration of fats and starches to the protein content make 
 * the oat what is called a " balanced " food. Oats have 
 a much higher faJ;.xontent than wheat, rye, or barley, 
 and compared with these is lower in starches, sugar, etc. 
 (carbohydrates). It has a good protein content, and 
 is therefore a good flesh former and egg. producer. The 
 ash content, although better than that of wheat, rye, 
 or barley, is still low, and must be balanced with green 
 fodders. The oat kernel is enveloped in a tough, fibrous 
 coat which is indigestible. Some poor samples are 
 absolutely bad for fowls, and may cause crop impaction. 
 The variety known as the " skinless " oat has a base grain 
 like wheat — but as a rule very small. It makes an 
 admirable food for poultry, but is not generally grown 
 on account of the habit of the grain in shaking out. When 
 the experimentalist brings out an improved variety it 
 will be one of the best of poultry foods. 
 
 Sometimes when the ordinary oat is harvested over- 
 ripe, the grains shake out — ^these " shelled " oats are 
 excellent for poultry and growing chickens ; they can 
 often be purchased at oat-milling factories. 
 
 Hulled oats are ordinary oats which have had the 
 husk and germ removed by milling — they are then made 
 into rolled oats, oatmeal or other modem oat products. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING n 
 
 Hulled bats are generally expensive, but are none the 
 less most valuable for poultry, and, unlike whole oats, 
 they are all food. Their defect, however, is in the lack 
 of the germ and its valuable nucleic acid content. 
 
 Oats vary in many ways, and there are numerous 
 varieties and sub-varieties, some more suitable for poultry 
 than others. A very stout milling oat with fine husk 
 is to be desired. 
 
 Ground very finely oats may be largely used in 
 compounding the morning mash, especially for growing 
 stock; the oat is a good muscle^fgriH^er, and with skim 
 milk builds up a fine^Jjameu. For fattening chickens' 
 and ducklings, very finely ground oats 7 parts^^and^ i 
 part barley meal mixed with milk may be highly recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Many feed oats as the sole grain, and the fowls very 
 soon become accustomed to it. For higher egg pro- 
 duction wheat is better, but by all means use a good 
 proportion of oats in some form. 
 
 Maize is largely used in America, where it is termed 
 " com," and is also used in Europe, South Africa, and 
 Australia as a poultry food. During the last thirty 
 years the use of maize for poultry or other stock has 
 been freely condemned. Like other grains, maize varies 
 in its composition, and may be rich in protein or rich 
 in starch, according to variety and where grown. It is 
 rich_in jnl^ some samples showing up to 8% of " fat " 
 content. Its ash (mineral) content is veryTowT"" 
 
 The ill effects, in pig breeding, attending the long 
 continued use of maize alone is well known. This, 
 however, with all stock, can be made good by the free 
 use of clovers and lucerne (alfalfa). 
 
 Maize,'perihapiTnoiFe than any other grain, is prone to 
 deteriorate, and is very subject to the attacks of weevils. 
 
13 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 This may largely account for much that has been said 
 in its disfavour. 
 
 As a sole poultry fattening food maize is objection- 
 able. Its use restilts in the production of much fat, but 
 of a yellow, oily nature, not desirable in a high-class 
 specimen, and, moreover, of no ..ecori omicvalue, as it 
 largely disappears from thetissues in coolang and leaves 
 the flesh dark in appearance. ~~" 
 
 As an occasional food^ or as a complete change for 
 a time, maize is of great value, on account of its " fat " 
 content partly, and chiefly as a palatable food of different 
 constitution to other grains. Chickens may have a 
 fair proportion in their cracked grain mixtures. 
 
 In cold weather maize may be more freely used, 
 on account of its heat-producing qualities. The small 
 grained varieties, such as Cobbett's corn or ninety-day 
 maize, are preferred by poultry. The grains of the large 
 horsetooth varieties are too large for poultry. Cracked 
 or roughly crushed maize may be fed, but a large stock 
 should not be kept, as it soon deteriorates. 
 
 Some of the modern fodder varieties of maize may 
 be grown as green food for poultry — the large broad 
 leaf is succulent and much relished. A border outside 
 the poultry run affords shade, and shelter from wind. 
 Green maize chopped with lucerne makes a splendid 
 green food for all stock, and poultry, especially, thrive 
 upon it. 
 
 Rice. — ^The ordinary commercial rice has been 
 husked and polished, and nearly all the protein has been 
 removed in these processes ; it cannot therefore rank 
 as a desirable poultry food. The protein content is 
 very low, and the fat is also deficient, but the starch 
 content is high. In mineral salts the deficiency is very 
 great. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 13 
 
 Rice is frequently recommended as a poultry food, 
 especially " if cheap, such as sweepings." The best 
 rice is but a poor food for poultry, therefore cheap, 
 damaged, or generally inferior rice is still less desirable. 
 Good rice boiled in milk m akes an excellent fattening 
 food, for use wEenT'' topping " chicEeiii" and ducklings; 
 it imparts a delicate texTure^nd white tint to the flesh. 
 A little, if cheap, may be used, but it must be of good 
 quahty. A few grains, cracked, may be included in 
 chicken mixtures. 
 
 V LEGUMINOUS SEEDS 
 
 Peas. — ^There are several varieties of the common 
 feeding pea, and, in addition, the garden varieties, which 
 are heavy croppers, are desirable as poultry food. Peas 
 should be more freely used than is the case. Readers 
 who study Part II. of this book, will be struck by the 
 remarkable similarity in the chemical composition of 
 the protein of the pea and the protein of fowl's flesh. 
 
 I have always been a strong believer in peas as poultry 
 food, and there are many others who also appreciate 
 the value of this legiune. The protein content is remark- 
 ably high (22 to 24%}, and this points to a good flesh 
 former and egg producer. The value of peas in bacon- 
 producing pigs is well known ; it is of all foods the one 
 which gives the necessary meat in what too often is 
 " too fat " bacon. With fowls, the high protein content 
 enables us to keep the fowls going in cases where other 
 foods would lead to too much fat production and con- 
 sequent diminution in the egg supply. 
 
 Peas are generally used in the cold weather, but 
 their analysis shows them equally suited to hot weather 
 feeding. They may, however, be regarded as a con- 
 centrated protein food, and are better fed, in due pro- 
 
14 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 portion, with other grains, or as pea meal mixed with 
 the mash. Fowls will soon become accustomed to whole 
 peas, and will eat them readily, but they seem to disUke 
 crushed peas. The pea has a bitte r prin ciple in it and 
 it is this that the fowl dSEE e's^which is evidently 
 accentuated by crushing. Peas have a better mineral 
 percentage than wheat, oats, and barley, but still there 
 is a shortage which must be made up. 
 
 Lentils are very valuable, but as a rule are expensive, 
 and their use must then be confined to chickens. The 
 protein content is richex- thaiL.in _peas, and there is a 
 little more fat (under 5%}.. The starcE content is about 
 the same as in peas. The mineral salts also are a little 
 more in evidence. In actual practice lentUs prove them- 
 selves very valuable, and they doubtless contain some 
 active principle beneficial to poultry. For many years 
 I have added a part of cracked lentils to chicken mixtures, 
 and this part is always eaten readily. When cheap, 
 lentils can be ground and added to the mash fed to 
 poultry. Similar seeds ground and added to mash 
 mixed with skim milk must be regarded as very valuable. 
 
 Vetches are more generally grown as fodder for stock 
 in conjunction with oats, the deficiencies of which they 
 make up. Chaffed while young and tender, and mixed 
 with other chaffed green foods, such as rape, cabbage, 
 etc., they have a distinct value. The seeds are very 
 rich in protein (26%), but low in fats ; the carbohydrates 
 are lower than inpSas and beans, and the ash (mineral 
 salts) are also better. Where plentiful they may be 
 used in the same manner as peas. The chemistry of the 
 protein of vetches is referred to in Part II. 
 
 Soy Bean. The soy, soya, or soja bean {glycine 
 hispida) is grown largely in Russia, and also, I believe, 
 in America. Its use, as a food for stock, is becoming 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 15 
 
 more generally known. It is used in Russia as poultry 
 food, and accounts for the remarkably fat condition of 
 some Russian ducks. In protein content (33%), the 
 soy bean is the richest of the legumes. In adSTtion, its 
 remarkable fat content, vi^_i7%, ranks it as an oil- 
 bearing seed. The ratio of protein to fat, however, is 
 greater in the soy bean than in any of the oily seeds. 
 The high protein content more than balances the high 
 fat content, but it is seen that the bean is a highly con- 
 centrated food. The mineral salts are well represented. 
 We must, therefore, look upon this bean as a food to 
 be welcomed, but used in proper proportions and with 
 due regard to its concentrated nature. 
 
 The chemical composition of various legumes, and 
 more especially of their proteins, is generally similar. 
 This matter will be referred to in Part II., but it may 
 be stated that, while similar in composition, there must 
 be distinguishing principles in each different legume ; 
 this matter is in course of investigation. What the 
 chemist may demonstrate lies in the future. The benefits 
 accruing from the use of legumes in variety are practical 
 matters which can be demonstrated. 
 
 OILY SEEDS 
 
 In this class the fat content is very high, so also is 
 the protein content. They are thus highly concentrated 
 foods with great heat-producing capacity. Sunflower seed 
 alone is used in its raw state as a potdtry food, and then 
 in moderation. The food ratio of the oily seeds appears 
 a good one at first sight, but the concentration is too 
 great. As an occasional change the seed may be used, 
 but the meals, oil cakes, etc., must always be mixed 
 in due proportion with other foods less rich. I could 
 give a long list of disasters which have come to my 
 
i6 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 knowledge through the injudicious use of these rich 
 oily seeds and foods. 
 
 Hemp seed is rarely given to poultry on account of 
 its price in most countries where it is not grown. A 
 little of the seed may be given to chickens in their grain 
 mixtures, especially in winter, as hemp is heat producing. 
 The protein content^.(i^..%i is high, and the fat content 
 (33%) is proof of its high oil-bearing capacity. The 
 mirieFal "salts are well represented, but there is a large 
 amount of hus k {t^% \. 
 
 Flax seed, or linseed, is still richer in protein {24%), 
 and the oil (36 %) is evidence of its heat producing powers. 
 The mineral"~?5ntent is fair. In both the protein and 
 the fat (oils, etc.) there are principles which act most 
 favourably. upon stock, to which a judicious amount is 
 fed. The value of linseed as an addition to poultry 
 foods is not generally known to breeders, although 
 fanciers use it in preparing their stock for exhibition. 
 Equal amounts of protein and fats might be given from 
 other sources, but the effects of linseed feeding would 
 
 • not be produced. 
 
 As a preparation for, and also for use during and for 
 a time after, the moulting season, linseed is invaluable. 
 
 -, The best method is to use it as the well-known hnseed 
 
 ij 2 tea"^-i part clean seed to 6 or 9 parts water. Let 
 it simmer slowly for some hours until the whole is reduced 
 to a jelly. At first only a small quantity must be used, 
 otherwise the birds will object. At all times it is pre- 
 ferable to use only small quantities spread over a long 
 period. The general effects are marvellous. It is par- 
 
 j , ticularly desirable for use in cold weather, and wiU largely 
 ■\ prevent false moults. A little of the seed may be in- 
 * eluded in chicken grain mixtures. Linseed tea has 
 well known and distinct therapeutical values. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 17 
 
 Rape seed, like other seed of the brassica family, 
 is not used as poultry food, although there is no reason 
 why, if obtainable, it should not be used in moderation. 
 It may be ground and added to the mash, but in small 
 quantity. The mineral content is fairly good. The 
 protein is present to the extent of nearly 20%, and its 
 oily nature (45 %) stamps it as one of the ^hest oil- 
 bearing seeds. 
 
 Rape cake — the residue after the oil has been ex- 
 pressed — ^is used as a stock food, and will be referred to 
 later. 
 
 Sunflower seed contains. 14^ of protein, 32^ of oil, 
 3|% of mineral salts, but also 28 to 30% of crude 
 indigestibl£_fibre. 
 
 This attractive analysis has misled many persons. 
 One has heard of the enthusiast who planted acres of 
 sunflowers to produce the sole food of his poultry. Sun- 
 flower seed is concentrated, and too rich for general 
 use — moderation is plainly indicated. Poultry are 
 ravenously partial to it, and will often overeat them- 
 selves. Our friend the sparrow revels in sunflower seed 
 and diminishes the crop in an almost incredible manner. 
 
 Sunflower seed can often be obtained at fair prices, 
 and may be used with advantage, especially during the 
 moulting period and in cold weather. A supply may be 
 grown by planting a double row outside the nms. It 
 thus affords shade from the sun, shelter from wind, and 
 supplies a lot of valuable food. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SEEDS 
 
 Buckwheat is a popular poultry food in France, 
 
 Belgiu m, and other countries. It is rarely grown in 
 
 Australia, and very little has been used for feeding poultry. 
 
 1 The protein content (11%) is good, but there is little 
 
 \ 
 
i8 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 fat (2"6%) ; mineral salts are in too small quantity, and 
 there is considerable fibre (15%). Buckwheat cannot 
 be considered a first-class food for egg production, but 
 where it is cheap it can be used in combination with 
 other foods to advantage. 
 
 Dari is the seed of sorghum tart., and is often used 
 as an addition to poultry foods. The protein content 
 is about 9'6%, and there is a fair amount of oil and a 
 full starch content. This small grain is suitable for 
 mixing with chicken foods. 
 
 Ohurra is the seed of sorghum vulg., and is of very 
 similar composition to dari ; the protein, oil and minerals 
 agree, but there is more fibre. Fowls will readily eat 
 this seed, and it affords variety, when obtainable. 
 
 Millet averages a slightly higher protein content, 
 but about the same amount of oil as dari and dhurra. 
 The mineral salts are about half only. Millet is much 
 liked by povdtry, and chickens may have it in their 
 grain mixture. These three seeds are very cheap in 
 some countries. The sparrow is very fond of millet 
 seed, and commits great havoc on the crops. 
 
 MILLING PRODUCTS, ETC. 
 
 Crushed grain and seeds should not be held long in 
 storage, as, owing to the destruction of the germ and 
 various cells, it is prone to fermentation. I have often 
 pointed out that, considering the price of various mill 
 products, such as bran, pollard, sharps, middlings, or 
 by whatever name these are known locally, it will pay 
 the poultry breeder to purchase a small mill to grind 
 whole grain. Thereby one gets the full food value of 
 the grain, and can blend several together so as to get the 
 desired crumbly mass. On large poultry plants it will 
 pay to use a larger mill worked by power. The great 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 19 
 
 advantage of a breeder having his own mill is that he 
 can stock a large variety of grains and mix them in varying 
 proportions ; the appearance of stock so fed will amply 
 repay a little trouble. 
 
 Bran. — ^Wheat bran is a most valuable poultry food 
 on account of its high phosphorus content. There are 
 many other brans, such as oat bran, barley bran, buck- 
 wheat bran, etc., but owing to the difference in the grains 
 and in the milling processes their actual food value is 
 less. Much has been written about bran, and, although 
 it is a good frame maker, it is, so far as horses are con- 
 cerned, said to cause some disease if fed to excess. This 
 may be so, but as regards poultry it is the one mill 
 by-product that should always be used. 
 
 Bran varies in quality, or rather food value, very 
 considerably. Sometimes the sample largely consists 
 of the outer cuticle of the wheat, and is technically called 
 " beeswings " ; in this there is very little food value. 
 The next layers of the wheat grain contain a high protein 
 percentage, and are valuable for frame building, and, in 
 fowls, for egg production. Coarse bran, in fairly thick 
 flakes, yet containing but little loose meal, is the best 
 kind for poultry. Other brans are finer, and contain 
 a good deal of pollard (including meal) ; these samples 
 are more fattening, and of less value in egg production. 
 
 Bran is useful for its mechanical effect in compotmding 
 the mash. As a rule, with ordinary samples of average 
 quality, I use i part bran to 2 parts pollard. I scald 
 the bran, and, after letting it soak and swell for a time, 
 the pollard is added. This ensures a flaky mixture 
 quickly and easily made. 
 
 The organic phosphorus (phytin) in bran is of much 
 importance. It is now held that the mineral content of 
 bran accounts for its laxative action. Formerly this 
 
20 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 action was held to be due to the mechanical action of 
 bran on the digestive tract. 
 
 Bran contains a high percentage (15) of husk and 
 fibre. The protein content in good samples is high 
 (10 to 15%), and there is about 4*5% of fats; the 
 mineral salts average 5%. In summer the fowls may 
 " ease off " in their laying — a change for the better will 
 generally result if more bran is used. In feeding for 
 flesh production only a limited proportion of bran is 
 used. 
 
 Pollard is the other mill by-product of wheat largely 
 used in Australia in compounding the mash. Some 
 pollards are httle better than fine bran, and contain but 
 little flour ; others again look hke wheatmeal. 
 
 Much depends on the method of miUing. Naturally, 
 if the pollard is rich in flour more bran will be required 
 to make a flaky mash ; some brans can be used with 
 but little added pollard. I much prefer using wheatmeal 
 and bran instead of pollard and bran. If only good, 
 flaky bran is bought one can then depend on the regular 
 food value of the mash. Pollard generally contains 
 more protein than bran, but is of higher starch content 
 — the fat is about equal in quantity, and there is only 
 a quarter the husk and fibre. 
 
 Oatmeal and rolled oats have the same food 
 value, although shghtly different preparations of the 
 original hulled oat. The protein content is very high 
 — up to 18%; in addition both are rich in oil (6%) 
 with 63"5% of starchy matter. The mineral content 
 (i"5%) is very low and discounts the theory that oats 
 are frame building. The big Scotsman built his frame 
 upon a milk diet with oatmeal. Oats contain axi active 
 principle, avenin, which seems to be of the nature of a 
 stimulant. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 21 
 
 From the high protein content it will be seen that 
 these oat products are flesh and muscle formers. They 
 are therefore beneficial to young chickens and growing 
 stock generally. The high cost, generally, of oatmeal 
 and rolled oats, while not excessive for small chickens, 
 makes them too expensive for adult poultry. The skin- 
 less oat ground in various degrees of fineness, would be 
 cheaper and equally as good, if not better, than either 
 of these. 
 
 Various. — ^There are, especially in large manufac- 
 turing districts, many other mill by-products which 
 need not be detailed here. If they are sound and cheap 
 a few practical trials will test their value. They are 
 to be had in endless variety and quality ; so that no 
 detailed food values can be given with any advantage. 
 In addition there are other products occurring in the 
 manufacture of various goods ; of these " gluten " — in 
 the process of starch manufacture — ^is a rich nitrogenous 
 food which may be used with advantage, if the sample 
 is sound. Local conditions govern the use of these 
 articles as foods, and no good purpose would be served 
 by compihng a long hst. 
 
 Quality. — In using cereals, seeds, meals, and such- 
 like foods, the question of quality is paramount. With 
 all stock the use of unsound food causes great mortality 
 and keeps the veterinary surgeons busy. Of course, in 
 exceptional circumstances, one may be compelled to 
 feed stock on material that should be burned. Some 
 stock-owners, under the impression that they are acting 
 wisely, will purchase damaged and musty grain and 
 mill products. The idea that pigs and poultry thrive 
 on rubbish, not to mention filth, is firmly embedded in 
 the curiously constituted brains of many persons. A 
 Avise man will keep only stock of the highest quality and 
 
22 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 utility ; and in feeding these he knows that only the 
 best quality of food will pay him. 
 
 Diseases of the respiratory organs of poultry are 
 frequently due to the use of musty foods. Must is due 
 to bacterial growth, and many forms of fungi are patho- 
 genic to animals. As it is a common trade practice to 
 grind up inferior grains, etc., this fact can be adduced as 
 a point in favour of securing a mill and grinding one's 
 own grain, etc. The use of good sound food, and the 
 observation of perfect cleanhness in aU directions, com- 
 mend themselves to anyone of ordinary business abihty. 
 
 VEGETABLE FOODS 
 
 It would be an endless task to attempt to enimierate 
 the many excellent vegetable foods, both green and 
 cured, which should find a place in the food bill of every 
 good feeder. 
 
 Local conditions govern the kinds which any breeder 
 may find it profitable to use. The majority of those 
 which will be mentioned, and which are included in 
 the food tables, will grow in most countries, and are 
 easily cultivated. The proper appreciation of vegetable 
 foods for poultry is not general, but this may be an 
 inheritance of the future. 
 
 In the two ordinary forms, fresh or preserved (cured), 
 vegetable foods are of mechanical value, in that they 
 provide the bulk so necessary and desirable for the 
 various digestive processes. For stock, in sore straits 
 owing to lack of better food, even unpalatable roughage 
 of httle food value has a comforting, if not very nutritive, 
 effect in staying the pangs of hunger. In ruminants 
 the chemical and bacterial action convert much harsh 
 and fibrous material into food equivalents. With poultry 
 this is not the case; yet fowls especially, if denied 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 23 
 
 sufficient vegetable food, will devour fibre, matting, and 
 old bags, with crop impaction as a general result. 
 
 Green Fodders.— These vary in their food value 
 according to season, stage of growth, etc. As grasses, 
 plants, etc., ripen, the stem, flag and leaf become more 
 fibrous, and, therefore, less digestible to poultry. The 
 analysis of such foods may be higher than when the 
 plant is young. 
 
 In feeding poultry all vegetable growths should be 
 young, sappy, and succulent. The growing ends of 
 vegetation contain the highest protein content ; in- 
 cluded are many of the so-called a proteins, which 
 have a high food value, and which will be appreciated 
 some day. Observation will show that stock of all 
 kinds take the growing ends alone after their ravenous 
 hunger is appeased. This particularly applies to poultry. 
 
 The analysis of a green fodder is not always a reliable 
 guide for the poultry-feeder. Sappy growths contain 
 more water, and, while their food value may be low, are 
 to be preferred for feeding poultry. 
 
 As fodders ripen, the migration of the cell contents 
 alters the food value considerably, and there is generally 
 a decided increase on the percentage of fibre (cellulose). 
 
 CURED FOODS— HAYS, ETC. 
 
 Cured fodders are quite as digestible, if properly 
 cured, as was the original green fodder when it was cut. 
 A common but bad practice, due to greed, is to allow 
 green crops to ripen, so that a heavy yield may be secured. 
 This gain in weight is frequently, if not always, at the 
 expense of quality, and therefore of food value. The 
 cured forms — ^hays, etc. — ^are of great economic value, 
 as a supply of valuable food may be stored for long 
 periods for use when no green food is available, or for 
 
24 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 conveyance to other parts, as is the case with grain, 
 seeds, etc. 
 
 The chemical actions which take place in the process 
 of curing often materially add to the food value of cmred 
 fodder as compared with the same when in the green 
 state. Certain a proteins may undergo change, and 
 their place may be taken by other forms, and aromatic 
 compounds ; starches change into sugars, and so on. 
 
 In both the green and the cured forms various vegetable 
 growths have a high food value for poultry, and are 
 generally cheap. Far more vegetable foods should be 
 used than is the practice among poultry breeders. The 
 most important characteristic of vegetable foods is their 
 high mineral content. Various salts are essential to 
 the well-being of animals, and their importance and 
 value is unfortunately often disregarded. Animals, 
 especially poultry, derive but partial benefit from the 
 ingestion of inorganic salts, but the organised forms 
 found in vegetation are at once available and of the 
 highest value. Poultry and pigs are the two classes of 
 domestic animals which suffer most from a deficiency 
 in mineral salts. This can be easily and profitably over- 
 come by feeding largely upon suitable vegetable foods 
 
 As in some countries and cUmates there may be 
 difficulty in securing supplies or in growing some of 
 the foods to be mentioned later, poultry breeders are 
 advised to make a selection of those known to succeed 
 in the locality. As regards others not grown locally, 
 it is advisable to sow successive trial plots at various 
 seasons of the year. 
 
 THE LEGUMES 
 
 These are the most important vegetable foods, 
 not only on account of their varied nature, but also 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 25 
 
 because they are very generally cultivated in many 
 countries. 
 
 Lucerne (Medicago), called also Alfalfa, is justly 
 termed the " King of Fodders." There are numerous 
 varieties, some blue-flowered (the best), others with 
 yellow flowers. Some are drought-resistant ; others are 
 hardy and will stand low winter temperatures. Some 
 are fibrous ; others, such as Arabian, carry a large amount 
 of leaf, in which the chief food value lies. 
 
 Lucerne thrives in heat, and summer is its main 
 growing period. Grown on suitable deep soils, with 
 irrigation, enormous crops may be secured. For poultry- 
 feeding the seed should be sown thickly and broadcast, 
 so as to ensure a fine growth of sappy nature, not a 
 coarse, fibrous stem. The plant is at its best both for 
 green food for poultry or for making into hay, when 
 about one-eighth of the fiower buds are just opening. 
 At later periods of growth there is more fibre ; this, 
 while adding bulk to the crop and showing a higher 
 food analysis, may suit cattle and horses, but is not 
 desirable for poultry. 
 
 Lucerne shotild be chaffed in very short lengths ; 
 especially is this necessary with the hay. I have seen 
 many cases of impaction of the crop due entirely to 
 long-cut fibrous lucerne hay. The hay is made as 
 follows : Soon after the green lucerne is cut, if the 
 weather is fine and dry, it should be tossed in rows ; 
 if very hot and dry it should be carted in as soon as 
 possible and cured on a good floor in heaps. If left in 
 a hot, dry field, the valuable leaf will drop off, and the 
 chief food value is lost. 
 
 Green lucerne has an average protein content of 
 about 5%, and is therefore a good flesh-forming food, 
 and its influence on egg production is very pronounced. 
 
26 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 In proportion to its protein the mineral content is good, 
 and to their presence is due the chief benefits derived 
 in feeding. There are, however, many active principles 
 in lucerne, as in other legumes ; the nature of these is 
 not known definitely, but their effects are evident. 
 
 In feeding poxiltry, lucerne may be chaffed, or hung 
 up in small bundles. These bundles afford the poultry 
 some occupation, but it is a wasteful method, as little, 
 if any, of the stem is eaten. When chaffed, it may be 
 mixed in the mash, of which it may form at least one- 
 third of the bulk. It is eaten greedily, and the mash 
 is of good consistency, and of high food value. 
 
 Chaffed green lucerne may also be fed alone in dishes 
 or troughs for the midday feed. Each bird may have 
 a couple of ounces or more. If cut short, every bit will 
 be eaten by the birds. In hot weather, when ducks 
 go "off their feed," chaffed lucerne fed in a shallow pan 
 of clear, cool water, will tempt them to eat, and wiU 
 revive them like magic. 
 
 The hay when well cured has a deUghtful aroma, 
 should be light brown in colour, and of a silky texture. 
 In chaffing it should be cut in J-inch lengths for poultry. 
 It should be cut as required and bagged ; it then keeps 
 well. Before use for poultry, a supply should be placed 
 in a large tub or basin and scalded with boiling water, 
 to which should be added a small handful of common 
 salt to each two bushels. Cover the scalded mass with 
 a bag to retain the steam. The odour is most attractive 
 to hungry cattle, who will lose no opportimity of gaining 
 access to it. This scalding process softens the fibre 
 and revives the lucerne, and makes it very palatable. 
 Poultry are very fond of mash containing 25% to 40% 
 of lucerne hay chaff. 
 
 Lucerne hay is of high food value — ^the protein content 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 27 
 
 ranges up to 17%, there is a good fat value (3%), 
 and the mineral salts are well represented, averaging 
 6"43%. Naturally there is a good deal of fibre (22%), 
 but, if softened as suggested, it causes no trouble. The 
 carbohydrates (starch, sugar, gums, etc.) total nearly 
 40%. It will be seen that this is a very valuable food 
 for poultry. Lucerne hay is sometimes milled, and 
 the product, lucerne dust or meal, is very convenient 
 to use. 
 
 Clover — ^There are a great many kinds of clover ; 
 some varieties are not liked by poultry, nor even by 
 sheep and cattle, unless short of other food. Clover is 
 a rival to lucerne in food values, and perhaps in some 
 climates is a safer and more suitable crop. It may be 
 used much as was suggested in dealing with lucerne. 
 Most clovers are annuals, and do not yield so many succes- 
 sive " cuts " as lucerne. 
 
 Red clover is richest in protein (5%), and in fat is 
 about the same as lucerne, and is even richer in mineral 
 salts. It is much grown. Red clover has 13 % of carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Incarnate clover is not nearly so rich in protein (2'8%), 
 and has less mineral salts, but about the same fat content, 
 The carbohydrates are only half as high as in red clover. 
 
 White clover is about equal to red clover in protein, 
 fat and minerals, but has but half the carbohydrates. 
 
 Made into hay the various clovers gain considerably 
 in food values, and probably approximately equal lucerne 
 hay. They average 13% of protein, nearly 3% fats, 
 over 7% minerals, and 35% carbohydrates. In the 
 latter as in protein they do not equal lucerne hays. 
 
 In America, clover meal is sold largely to poultry 
 breeders, and, if properly made of well-cured clover hay, 
 is a valuable food for poultry. 
 
28 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 There are numerous other clovers found in different 
 localities which are somewhat similar in food values. 
 An Egyptian clover (Berseem) is highly spoken of, and 
 gives an astonishing yield in autumn. It should prove 
 of value for poultry, but I have as yet had no experience 
 with it, although I am growing some at the poultry 
 locations. 
 
 THE CABBAGES, KAILS, ETC. (Brassica) 
 This group includes cabbages, kails, rape, etc., and 
 provides large amounts of very valuable green food for 
 poultry ; the birds are also very fond of this class of 
 fodder, if fresh, and succulent. Old fibrous, tough 
 growths are rank in smell, and are not liked by the birds ; 
 their use tends to impart a disagreeable flavour to the 
 eggs. As wiU be seen in Part II. these and other crucifene 
 contain valuable glucosides. 
 
 Cabbages, kails, rape, etc., are all gross-feeding 
 plants, and very quickly impoverish even a rich soil. 
 I take advantage of this fact and plant them in the poultry 
 runs, which, after a crop, are quite sweet, for all the 
 manure has been converted into plant food. The 
 growth is very vigorous. 
 
 The Kails — thousand-headed, Jersey tree, and the 
 French marrow kail {choumoellier) are to be highly 
 recommended on account of the heavy crops of succulent 
 and tender leaves they produce. As they grow the 
 leaves may be repeatedly stripped, and a fresh crop 
 follows. They provide excellent shade in the yards in 
 hot weather. I prefer them to cabbages, which are 
 generally much coarser, and do not contain nearly so 
 much chlorophyll. The water content is high — about 
 90%, and this in itself is of great value. These watery 
 leaves slake the bird's thirst at a time when excessive 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 29 
 
 water drinking is to be discouraged. The protein content 
 is 2-40% of appreciable food value, and, with 38% carbo- 
 hydrates, make a good flesh-forming addition to other 
 foods. The mineral salts are rather low, but are in a 
 valuable form. 
 
 Rape is of about the same composition, but has more 
 than double the mineral salts, and is otherwise valuable. 
 Rape requires fairly rich soil and plenty of moisture. 
 Given these conditions, the jrield of desirable green food 
 is excellent. Essex is a good variety to grow. 
 
 Mustard makes an excellent and easily grown green 
 food for poultry ; it is better fed in small quantities or 
 mixed with other green foods. It contains a glucoside 
 of some importance in metabolism. Its general food 
 vdue is about the same as rape. 
 
 OTHER GREEN FOODS 
 
 Besides those referred to in the Food Tables, which 
 need not be particularised here, other green foods may 
 be mentioned as of special value : — 
 
 Barley. — As stated when referring to the value of 
 skinless barley, this variety, as well as other barleys, 
 provide excellent green food, if cut while young, say from 
 9 inches to 18 inches high, and before the stem gets 
 tough. Poultry will readily eat green barley, which has 
 27% protein and 17% mineral salts. 
 
 Wheat. — In many wheat-growing countries this is 
 cut, and fed to poultry with advantage. It has about 
 the same composition as barley. 
 
 Oats are more commonly used as green food for 
 poultry than is wheat. The food value is similar to 
 that of barley, and like that fodder comes early and 
 with a good flag. Poultry will eat large quantities. 
 
 Maize. — ^This is a summer fodder, and, although 
 
30 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 not so high in food content as wheat, oats, and barley, 
 is nevertheless valuable and very palatable. It also 
 grows luxuriantly if irrigated when the heat scorches 
 up the cool climate growths. Varieties producing large 
 flag growths are to be preferred, as poultry do not care 
 for the stems. 
 
 OTHER HAYS 
 
 Wheaten Hay, if cured " on the green side " and 
 chaffed into short lengths, makes a valuable substitute 
 for green foods. It should be steamed, as suggested 
 when deahng with lucerne hay. When so treated and 
 mixed with the mash, the fowls eat it readily, and ducks 
 especially do well upon it. The protein content is about 
 6%, and the mineral salts are abundant. 
 
 Oaten Hay is still richer both in protein and salts, 
 but has more husk and fibre. It is a very excellent 
 fodder treated as lucerne hay, and is much hked by 
 poultry. A green tint in the hay is desirable. 
 
 Various hays made of grasses, and of other fodders, 
 may be chaffed and used for mixing with the mash. 
 It is essential that all hays be quite sweet and without 
 even a suspicion of musty smell. 
 
 SPROUTED GRAIN 
 
 The practice of sprouting grain, such as wheat, oats, 
 barley, maize, etc., and feeding it to poultry is an 
 old one. Sometimes the grain so sprouted is used when 
 the shoots are just visible. In this stage it generally 
 contains certain proteins, among the contents of which 
 is aspartic acid. The fact that poultry ravenously eat 
 these grains, and further, that they are very beneficial, 
 used in strict moderation, is proof that some at least of 
 the a proteins are of distinct food value. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 3i 
 
 Poultry must at all seasons of the year consume 
 appreciable quantities of sprouting grain and seeds which 
 they scratch up. I should recommend moderate use of 
 such foods. When, however, the grain has actually 
 started into permanent growth, and the plant is several 
 inches high, there have been many chemical changes in 
 the composition as compared with the first sprout. 
 These growths may now be cut and fed to the birds ; 
 sections of soil and plant may be cut out and thrown 
 to the birds. 
 
 Grain may easily be sprouted in shallow boxes con- 
 taining a little soil. Water well and cover with a bag 
 until germination commences — ^then remove the bag. 
 If sprouting grain only is required, wet bags laid on the 
 ground and covered with grain over which another bag 
 is placed will soon develop sprouts. 
 
 ROOTS, TUBERS, ETC. 
 
 Many of these have excellent food values in their 
 raw state, and like other vegetable products their water 
 content is high. 
 
 Beets and Mangels vary in their composition, 
 and if properly stored will increase their sugar content. 
 They average nearly 90% of water, and about 1% of 
 protein, practically only a trace of fat, and under 10% 
 carbohydrates. They may be sliced or pulped, and 
 mixed in the mash, or whole roots cut in half may be 
 hung up for the birds to peck at. Poultry — especially 
 fowls — ^will eat large quantities, and evidently appreciate 
 the flavour. 
 
 Potatoes are seldom used in the raw form, when 
 they contain 75 % water, about 2 % protein, a trace of 
 fat, and about 20% carbohydrates. Cooked in their 
 skins, after careful washing to remove soil, etc., they 
 
32 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 may be mashed with bran and pollard, or with bran 
 alone, and thus afford a good change of diet. This 
 potato mash is appreciated in cold weather, and is a 
 good egg-producing food. 
 
 Carrots and Turnips may be used raw, or cooked, 
 and may be pulped, or mashed with bran and pollard or 
 other meal. Garden carrots contain a valuable principle 
 which benefits poultry. They are often to be had cheaply, 
 and grow well in rich soils. 
 
 Pumpkins and Pie-melons grow well on suitable 
 soils, even if the rainfall is limited. These may be 
 sliced and mashed, and are of great value where other 
 vegetable food is scarce. Pvunpkins have a fair sugar 
 content. 
 
 It is not the actual food value as a flesh or fat maker 
 that is of importance in foods of vegetable origin ; the 
 mineral salts are of chief value, and in others their 
 succulent naturfe, 
 
 ANIMAL FOODS 
 
 Although analysis of both animal and vegetable 
 products show that they contain protein, fat, carbo- 
 hydrates, etc., the fact is known that vegetable proteins, 
 fats, etc., do not perform the same functions in the 
 process of metabolism as do those of animal origin. 
 Why this is so the chemist cannot definitely state — the 
 experienced feeder knows it to be the case. In feeding 
 poultry, especially ducks and growing duckhngs, animal 
 food is essential to success. All sorts of experiments 
 have been devised, and in every case the ration containing 
 animal food gave the best results. 
 
 Animal food should be used in moderation. In- 
 dividuals tolerate more than others do. As is well known 
 wild rabbits are plentiful in Australia, and are often 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 33 
 
 used to supply animal food for poultry. A pen of White 
 Leghorns had stewed rabbit twice a day, in the morning 
 and at midday, for a whole year, mixed with oat-bran 
 and oat-pollard ; they had grain at night. The egg 
 production was highly satisfactory, and the percentage 
 of fertiUty in the hatching season was 98%. When the 
 moulting period arrived the hens were almost bare of 
 feathers, but still laying very well. 
 
 Too much animal food causes kidney troubles — 
 white flesh such as the rabbit less so, perhaps, than beef 
 or other red meats. In ordinary flesh there is a low 
 percentage of mineral salts. Mixtures of flesh and bone 
 contain much higher percentages of salts. 
 
 Milk. — Skimmed, or separator milk, from which 
 the butter fat has been removed, is better for poultry 
 than whole milk. The fat of milk is not of great import- 
 ance unless the other foods are deficient therein. 
 
 Separator milk contains 4% protein, '2% fat, 47% 
 carbohydrates (sugar), -8% salts, and 90% water. It 
 will be seen that its food value is very good. For use 
 in fattening table poultry, milk is essential to success, 
 and one cannot find an effective substitute. It is used 
 in mixing the mash and pastes, and is exceptionally 
 valuable when the cramming machine is used. Sour 
 milk is preferable to sweet milk — so long as the degree 
 of acidity is shght but pronounced. In warm climates, 
 especially, due care must be exercised, otherwise milk 
 decomposes and is not fit for use. The action of sour 
 milk is held to inhibit the growth of many bacteria which 
 inhabit the digestive tract. 
 
 As a drink, milk requires careful attention. Ducklings 
 which have milk to drink frequently are afflicted with 
 sore eyes due to the splashing of the milk. I prefer 
 using the milk in the mash, and providing deep pans of 
 
34 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 water so that the fattening ducklings can immerse their 
 heads and thereby keep clean. 
 
 The albumins of milk are prepared by precipitation, 
 and after dr3dng are sold in the form of white powder. 
 These preparations are coming into general use in some 
 countries. Some are made from skim milk, others from 
 the whey. 
 
 Meat, free from fat, has the following composition: 
 Protein 20-50%, fat 3-50%, mineral salts i-6o%, water 
 74-40 %. The mineral deficiency is apparent ; carnivorous 
 animals eat a portion of the bones of their prey, and so 
 make up the required salts. Although of great value 
 in feeding poultry, meat should be sparingly used, and, 
 if not boiled and mixed with the resulting soup in the 
 mash, it may be minced raw and fed mixed with meal. 
 
 Ordinary meat is different in its effect from the 
 living animal food obtained by poultry in the form of 
 insect life, grubs, etc. There is a great difference physio- 
 logically and chemically between living meat and dead 
 meat. Sheep's plucks and bullocks' livers made into 
 soup give excellent results, and increase egg production, 
 and, if fed in moderation, are slightly stimulating, but 
 not unduly forcing in their action. 
 
 Meat Meals. — ^These differ in their actual food 
 value according to the method of manufacture. Some 
 meat meals have as a foundation the residue of meat 
 extract manufacture. Their analysis is improved by 
 the addition of blood and bone. The better classes are 
 made of meat and gristle (cartilage), which are minced, 
 boiled, and then evaporated to dryness. 
 
 These genuine meat meals do not contain as much 
 protein and minerals, but they contain a good deal 
 more fat than is shown in the analyses generally given. 
 A meat meal which has been fortified, as it were, with blood 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 35 
 
 and bone shows about 72% protein, 13% fat, 6% ash, 
 and 9% water. 
 
 Well-prepared meat meal should be free from offensive 
 odour. In South Australia lambs' livers and lights are 
 manufactured into meat meal by the Government at the 
 State freezing works — it has a pleasant smell, by no 
 means objectionable. Some meat meals are most offensive, 
 and when made into soup the stench is horrible. Such 
 samples are not fit for use in feeding poultry, and must 
 contain much foreign matter. The use of preservatives 
 is inimical to health. Meat meal, if well made, will 
 keep for a long time, and is in a most convenient form. 
 In warm chmates animal food soon decomposes, and 
 bacterial action results in the formation of ptomaines, 
 which are of deadly effect when fed to poultry. 
 
 For the small breeder in particular, meat meal is 
 most convenient, and there is none of the trouble and 
 disagreeableness connected with soup-making from scrap 
 meat, livers, etc. The quantities generally advised in 
 poultry-books must be the result of a generous and 
 optimistic spirit, and in Australia would lead to disaster. 
 I see frequent reference to " meat scrap," which cannot 
 be nearly so concentrated as meat meal. Lavish pro- 
 vision of meat meal in hoppers would be both expensive 
 and dangerous, because the poultry would always eat 
 too much. For each hundred adult fowls a pound 
 of meat meal, made into soup for mixing the mash, 
 is ample, and may be given three or four times a 
 week. Ducks may have double this quantity, but not 
 more. 
 
 Forcing is reprehensible — only sufficient animal food 
 of this nature is required to stimulate the appetite, and 
 to provide a due proportion of certdn food elements. 
 
 Green Bone. — ^This is raw bone which has not been 
 
36 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 submitted to any process for extracting the oil fat or 
 gelatin. It is generally cut or shredded by machinery. 
 Green bone is frequently recommended, but its use 
 promiscuously for all poultry is inadvisable. Green 
 bone contains 20-30% of protein, 26-10% of fats and 
 oils, 24% minercil salts, and 29-70% water. It is 
 evidently, therefore, a very concentrated food of a 
 forcing nature. 
 
 In warm weather green bone is prone to chemical 
 change, and ptomaines are formed which cause disaster. 
 Innumerable cases of blood poisoning due to unsound 
 green bone have come under my notice. In cold weather 
 its use, ill very moderate quantities, is permissible. 
 An ounce per adult hen per week is sufficient. Ducks 
 may have double the quantity. Malays and Indian 
 Game fowls thrive on quantities which would injure 
 other breeds. A very good plan is to shred the bone, 
 then make soup of it, by boihng for 20 to 30 minutes, 
 and use it in the mash. 
 
 Fish Meal is used in many countries, and if prepared 
 from sound material is excellent for poultry ; there is 
 a high phosphorus content in the minerals, and there 
 are other active and valuable principles. Fed in modera- 
 tion fish meal does not affect the flavour of the eggs. 
 The average analysis shows protein 48-40%, fats, oils, 
 etc., 11-60%, salts 29-20%, water 10-80%. 
 
 Blood is used in crystal forms and also as fine 
 blood meal. Dry blood is a most insoluble substance, 
 especially when evaporated under high temperatures. 
 It is unstable and liable to decomposition. Fresh blood 
 if defibrinated remains hquid, but in its ordinary state 
 undergoes separation into clots and serum. Blood is 
 somewhat unsightly in the mash, and gives forth a dis- 
 agreeable effluvium. Used in moderation fresh blood 
 
THE SCIENCE OF FEEDING 37 
 
 mixed with meals is beneficial to poultry — ducks especi- 
 ally like it. 
 
 The average composition of blood meal is as follows : 
 Protein 83-9%, fat 2-5%, ash 4-2%, water 9%. The 
 organic iron in the globin is of great value, and is the 
 best form in which this mineral can be administered. 
 See Part II., " Iron." 
 
 Greaves are the refuse of certain manufactures, 
 and are much used in some countries, especially in 
 fattening poultry. They contain 58% protein, 25% 
 fat, about 7% mineral matter, and 9% water. As an 
 addition to food for fattening table poultry I would 
 much prefer sweet tallow. Some samples of greaves 
 contain foreign matter of a deleterious nature. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 Food Constituents 
 
 In feeding animals (including poultry), it is necessary 
 to select such foods as will supply the material necessary 
 for all the vital functions, and in addition a surplus which 
 will be either stored as accumulated flesh, or, in the case 
 of laying poultry, returned, after elaboration, as a 
 plentiful supply of eggs. The ingredients of foods for 
 all classes of stock are alike in general constitution, and 
 consist of nitrogenous compounds, such as proteins ; 
 non-nitrogenous, i.e. the nitrogen-free elements, such 
 as fats, oils, sugar, starches, etc. ; minerals, including 
 the valuable salts of vital importance to all animals. 
 These salts include sodium, calcium, potassium, sulphates, 
 phosphates, etc. There is often a residue, which is to 
 a large extent indigestible and of little food value. This 
 consists of hard, woody fibre, cellulose, etc., part of 
 which is digested by ruminants, but very httle by 
 poultry. 
 
 The water content of foods varies, but as a rule the 
 percentage is not \mder lo. In vegetables the high 
 sum of 90% is often reached. This form of water is 
 of more value to the animal than is generally under- 
 stood. 
 
 For the purposes of general information the chemist 
 makes a rough analysis of food and classifies the result 
 as proteins (sometimes called proteids, or albuminoids), 
 carbohydrates, fats and oils, minerals (or ash), husk and 
 
 38 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 39 
 
 fibre, and water. It is usual to express these in percent- 
 ages of the total, although in cases where the quantity is 
 relatively minute, the amount present may be expressed 
 as parts in a thousand. In the general analysis of food- 
 stuffs there are several sources of error, and we are only 
 just learning that the proteins, etc., of one food may be 
 very different in actual use from those of another food. 
 The scientific feeder of the future will, there is no doubt, 
 pay far more attention to the chemistry of foods than he 
 has in the past. 
 
 It is customary to deal at length with the question 
 of balanced rations. Food ratios, i.e. the proportion 
 which the protein content of a food bears to the com- 
 bined value of the carbohydrates plus the fat, stated in 
 terms as carbohydrates, are common measures of food 
 values. According to these ratios a course of feeding 
 is termed " narrow " or " wide." At best the values 
 given in food tables are but crude, and are so subject 
 to variation that they can only be regarded as a general 
 but rough guide. To select a few foods and use them 
 continuously, merely because their rough analysis in- 
 dicates that certain proportions will give a so-called 
 " balanced ration," is a mechanical, inefficient, and un- 
 scientific method. The true balanced ration consists of 
 a great variety of foods, and the balance may oscillate 
 considerably in either a " broad " or in a " narrow " 
 direction, and with advaiitage, so long as no one course 
 is of prolonged duration. 
 
 Much of the value of food depends upon its digesti- 
 bility, and that factor varies considerably in individuals. 
 Many " digestibility " experiments with various foods 
 have been made, but while interesting and a tribute 
 to the untiring energy of the experimenters, these can 
 hardly be regarded as of great t)ractical value. It is 
 
40 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 quite another matter to experiment with a view to deter- 
 mining the general or specific effects of a food, or 
 class of foods, which may, or may not prove injurious 
 under certain conditions. Some persons assert that 
 nowadays man is so busy that he has no time to inquire 
 into reasons. That may have been true at a given 
 period, but there is no disputing the fact that modem 
 stock-owners realise that they must inquire into the 
 reason of any matter that affects their calling, if they 
 are to keep abreast of the times and make their opera- 
 tions a success. In every branch of the occupations 
 of life scientific treatment alone leads to success. 
 
 Protein is the generally accepted modem term 
 which is appUed to a group of substances included in 
 the nitrogenous compound of foods. The calculations of 
 the protein content of a food are based upon the assump- 
 tion that proteins contain i6% of nitrogen. The per- 
 centage of nitrogen is then multiphed by 6-25 — a purely 
 arbitrary factor which, although assumed to be, is by 
 no means always correct. Protein is regarded as the 
 chief flesh-forming constituent of food, and therefore 
 most valuable for poultry fed for egg production. The 
 actual value of protein depends upon the associated 
 mineral salts, as will be shown in Part II. The protein 
 of one grain differs chemically and in its physiological 
 effects from the protein of another variety of grain. 
 In all grains, and often in particular portions of them, 
 in vegetable and animal foods, there are what are now 
 called a proteins, which during the process of metaboUsm 
 undergo chemical changes of vital importance. The 
 presence or absence of these proteins is of more im- 
 portance than is generally conceded, and here the neutral- 
 ising effects of some of the salts — e.g. sodium — ^play an 
 important part. 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 41 
 
 Numerous experiments have proved that animals 
 cannot hve unless there is a certain amount of protein 
 content in their food. In its absence the vital functions 
 are performed at the expense of the protein already in 
 the body ; the final result, generally termed, protein 
 starvation, is fatal. Mann {The Chemistry of the Pro- 
 teins, p. 553) says : " During inanition the connective 
 tissues all over the body and including the bones are 
 diminished, i.e. are partly converted into circulatory 
 proteid." 
 
 On the other hand, foods which are too rich in protein 
 cause serious derangements. Heavy quantities of pure 
 albumin, if consumed, do great damage to the kidneys. 
 Large quantities of protein cause a rise in body tempera- 
 ture, rapid respiration and increased blood pressure. 
 
 The essential constituents of protein are carbon, 
 oxygen, nitrogen, and in nearly all cases sulphur, 
 while some contain phosphorus, iodine, bromine, etc. 
 
 The proteins of animal origin, such as are contained 
 in meat, green (uncooked) bone, blood, etc., are of 
 importance in feeding poultry. While they cannot 
 displace proteins of vegetable origin in the birds' food, 
 they have a distinct beneficial physiological action. 
 Ducks, especially, require animal food rich in protein, 
 except when being fattened for the table. In the 
 latter case meat is undesirable, and the animal food 
 may consist of a little fat. 
 
 It should be noted that in animal foods in which the 
 gelatin content is included as protein the actual protein 
 food value is generally overstated in the analyses. This 
 applies to some meat meals. Gelatin has a low heat 
 value. 
 
 The vegetable proteins form the bulk of the proteins 
 fed to poultry in confinement ; this is due to the fact 
 
42 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 that the value of animal foods is not sufficiently recognised. 
 Proteins are found in the living part of all plants, in 
 the circulating fluid, and cell sap, also as reserve protein 
 in the cells of seeds, roots, tubers, etc. 
 
 Osborne {The Vegetable Proteins) says : " The pro- 
 teins extracted from seeds are obtained in different 
 forms which represent distinctly different protein sub- 
 stances. The solubility of the protein matter in 
 different seeds varies greatly, but in general it is found 
 that a part is soluble in water, or part is soluble in 
 neutral saline solutions, and part is insoluble in either 
 of these solutions, but soluble in dilute solutions of 
 acids or alkaloids." 
 
 The importance of vegetable proteins, such as are 
 found in the growing ends of vegetation, has been referred 
 to, in remarking the common practice of stock in selecting 
 those portions of growth, after their first hunger is 
 appeased. The sap is active in these portions of the 
 plant, and contains many protein acids and salts, which 
 are physiologically important as foods and for chemical 
 action. The palatableness of such foods excites the 
 action of the secretory organs, and in many ways helps 
 digestion and assimilation. 
 
 Experience is the sole reliable guide we have as to 
 the comparative values of proteins of different origin ; 
 such experience, however, must be wide and far reaching. 
 While we are far from possessing a complete knowledge 
 of the various proteins, chemically, and have only 
 experience to guide us as to the physiological effect, and 
 the food value of some, it may be laid down as a safe 
 axiom that the greater the variety of proteins, from 
 different sources, the more satisfactory will be the feeding 
 results. 
 
 Mann in his preface {The Chemistry of the Proteins) 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 43 
 
 says : " There is still far too little attention paid to the 
 salts of albumins, for people will not realise that albu- 
 minous compounds in the absence of salts are, as I put 
 it in my first book, in the true sense of the word, dead." 
 I purposely give this quotation here, although the value 
 of salts will be considered later. Briefly, it is of no use 
 concentrating one's energies upon the use of foods pro- 
 portionately rich in proteins unless the food content 
 also includes a sufficiency of the necessary salts. 
 
 THE CARBOHYDRATES (STARCH. SUGAR, GUMS, ETC.) 
 
 Under this heading are included starches, sugars, 
 glucosides, and other carbohydrates. In ordinary food 
 tables their amount is arrived at by adding together 
 the percentages of the other constituents, viz., protein, 
 hydrocarbons (fats, oils, etc.), fibre and husk, ash (minerals) 
 etc., and subtracting the total from lOO ; the remainder 
 equals the carbohydrate percentage. This method natur- 
 ally includes the accumulated error in all the others- 
 The carbohydrates are used in the system to supply 
 energy, and during that process are converted into 
 water and carbon dioxides. Carbohydrates are stored 
 in the body as such, in the form of glycogen — the only 
 place being the liver. When more carbohydrate is 
 supplied than is needed for the various life functions, 
 the balance can be changed into fats and stored as such, 
 it is, however, true that an excess of such fat is, under 
 certain conditions, injurious to health. 
 
 THE SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES 
 
 " The interest," says Armstrong, " attaching to the 
 group may be said to centre round glucose, this carbo- 
 hydrate being the first to arise in the plant, and the 
 unit group from which substances such as cane sugar. 
 
44 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 maltose, starch, and cellulose are derived ; it is also of 
 primary importance in animal metabolism, as the main 
 bvilk of the carbohydrate in our food materials enters 
 into circulation in the form of glucose." 
 
 Starches are found in vegetable growths, grain, 
 and seeds, as previously stated, in varying quantities 
 in varieties of the same plant or seed. Starch grains 
 of one plant or seed differ in shape from those of another 
 plant or seed. The starch grains of wheat differ in 
 shape from those of maize and of potatoes. Microscopic 
 examination reveals such facts if any sophistication of 
 a product has been practised. Starch is not affected 
 by soaking in pure, cold water ; in hot water the grains 
 swell, and finally burst, forming the well-known starch 
 paste. Starch treated with hot water is acted upon 
 more readily by the digestive fluids. Hence the practice 
 of scalding the bran and then, while hot, incorporating the 
 pollard. If the pollard is scalded there is a speedy 
 formation of starch paste, which renders it impossible 
 to make a satisfactory mash. Commercial glucose is 
 made from maize (com) starch by the action of acids. 
 
 The conversion of starches into sugars, etc., in the 
 process of metabolism, is due to specific enzymes, as 
 will be shown later. It is therefore very evident, and 
 there is ample experimental ground for this conclusion, 
 that the various starches in different grains, fodders, 
 etc., though of similar chemical constitution, have varying 
 effects upon the animal organism. This is no doubt due 
 in fact to substances which play an active part in the 
 digestive processes, and in the transformation or sjrnthesis 
 of chemical compounds in the cells. 
 
 The gums, pentosans, etc., are also included under 
 the heading " carbohydrates." These are numerous, 
 and are generally named in sympathy with the plant or 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 45 
 
 grain in which they originate. The pectin bodies are 
 of similar constitution and are generally present in 
 fruits, more especially when in an unripe stage, which 
 upon cooking become gelatinous. 
 
 The sugfars are found in the sap juices of plants, and 
 in some, such as the sugar cane, are plentiful. These 
 sugars migrate from one part of a growing plant to 
 another. 
 
 Starch Content as a Food Value Factor. — The 
 practice of calculating the food value of any substance 
 upon the basis of its starch equivalent has become 
 popular of late. Starch can easily be stated in terms of 
 heat, etc., but it is doubtful if it be wise to rely too much 
 on this method. A high starch equivalent does not 
 necessarily prove any substance to be desirable as a 
 food. The method may be adopted as a check in arriving 
 at the value of a compound of mixed foods. 
 
 In calculating the starch equivalent the following 
 formula is generally adopted : — 
 
 I part digestible protein = 0-94 parts starch equivalent. 
 
 I part fat in coarse fodders, 1 
 
 chafi, roots and other by- ■ = 1-91 ,, ,, ,, 
 
 products 
 I part fat, in grains, and their i 
 
 by-products exclusive ofl= 2-12 ,, ,, ,, 
 
 oily seeds J 
 
 I part fat, in oil seeds and oil ) _ 
 
 cakes. J " ^'■*^ " 
 
 I part nitrogen - free extract \ 
 
 substances and crude fibre, I = i-oo ,, „ ,, 
 
 together. ) 
 
 It is important to note that mere fat in an animal, 
 whether derived from carbohydrates or fat (oils, etc.), 
 is not a sign of energy, such as muscle capacity, and 
 that it is important to feed a due proportion of protein. 
 This applies particularly in feeding laying hens for high 
 
46 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 egg production. My experience has shown that starchy 
 grains must be counterbalanced by a due proportion of 
 proteins, if egg production is to be profitable after the 
 first year. Unless care is taken in this respect the hens 
 accumulate much internal fat, which it is dif&ctilt to 
 reduce. Barley and very soft starchy wheats are 
 particularly prone to bring about this undesirable state 
 of affairs. 
 
 That such foods in excess are detrimental to fertility 
 of eggs I am convinced ; this is the case whether the 
 hens lay ill or well, even when mated with tested, vigorous 
 males. I should like to be in a position to give tabulated 
 data, giving also the effect, of a monotonous carbohydrate 
 diet, or one in which a variety of carbohydrate-yielding 
 foods were used. Years of experiment with thousands 
 of fowls in groups, each group as like the other as could 
 possibly be arranged, has proved more to me than any 
 tabulated statements. 
 
 Doubtless many experienced breeders on reading 
 this will agree with my conclusions, and some will 
 wonder why there should be any doubt concerning the 
 matter, and yet I know of no pronouncement on the 
 subject. The medical profession pays particular atten- 
 tion to it. My desire is to draw the attention of 
 breeders to this point so that, if unconvinced, they may 
 at least make experiments. The reference is, of course, 
 applicable to poultry only ; the fact that they are 
 omnivorous, as is man, should afford convincing proof 
 of the importance of this view. 
 
 THE FATS, OILS, ETC. (HYDROCARBONS) 
 
 Under this heading are included the ether-soluble 
 parts of foods. In oil cakes, grains, and other ripe seeds, 
 animal substances, etc., the ether extract will yield 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 47 
 
 pTire fat (or oil as the case may be), but in vegetable 
 material, especially when green, there are chlorophyll 
 and other substances included. Fats freshly extracted 
 from material of animal or vegetable origin contain but 
 small amounts of free fatty acids, but after a period of 
 storage the percentage increases, particularly in the 
 presence of moisture. In some foods the increase of 
 fatty acids causes a sour taste or smell, and subsequently 
 the material becomes rancid. 
 
 The " fat " content of any particular substance is 
 of importance when dealing with its food value. Fat 
 is in the form in which the greatest amount of heat or 
 energy can be stored in the body. It is important to 
 take into consideration the fat content of foods, so that 
 its probable influence in feeding may be gauged. While 
 protein and the carbohydrates can be converted into 
 fat on the body, fat cannot be converted into protein. 
 Animals can be fed on protein alone, but if fed on fat 
 without any protein they will soon die. There is a limit 
 to the amount of fatty food which can be fed to an 
 animal or bird ; beyond this there is danger. 
 
 In the animal body fat is stored principally in the 
 cells of the connective tissue. About 90% of the total 
 energy developed in the body comes from the stored-up 
 fat. During starvation it is the stored up fat that 
 enables hfe to be maintained. 
 
 Leathes {The Fats, p. 117) says : " It is, of course, 
 most conspicuously as a reserve fund of fuel for the 
 gtowing and working cells that they (the fats) are of 
 importance. The storage of 100 calories in the form 
 of fat may be effected in the space of about 12 c.c. in 
 tissue weighing about 11 gms. The storage of 100 
 calories as glycogen is never effected in less than ten 
 times that bulk of liver tissue weighing 130 gms., rarely 
 
48 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 probably in less than twenty times. The influence of 
 gravity in the chemical economy of animals is often to 
 be observed, as in the arrangement by which birds dispose 
 of waste nitrogen without having to carry water to 
 dissolve it, and in the same way the main part of the 
 fuel reserve in all animals is carried in a form that is at 
 once light and compact and necessitates the carrying 
 of no more water than is necessary for other purposes. 
 But the substances out of which an organism is btult 
 may serve in other ways than as mere fuel. Carbohy- 
 drates themselves may come to form an integral and 
 essential part of the fabric of the living machine without 
 which the organism could not be held together ; in plants 
 especially this is the case, but also in large classes of 
 animals in which an exoskeleton is relied upon for 
 maintaining the organic cohesion of the whole. Fats, 
 and substances chemically related to them, in virtue of 
 their insolubility in water, as well as their general chemical 
 inertness, are similarly capable of being put to many 
 uses, in the organisation of plants and animals. Fats 
 and carbohydrates are regarded as merely so much un- 
 organised matter put to sundry menial uses by the living 
 proteins." 
 
 The importance of a due proportion of fat in the 
 food of animals is not generally understood. Reference 
 has been made to the benefits derived from a change 
 of food low in fat to one particularly rich — as from 
 wheat to maize — in feeding poultry for egg production. 
 In fattening poultry, if crude but sound fat be added in 
 proper proportions, the bulk will be stored as fat, Eind 
 the desired end can be attained more economically. 
 Then again, in regard to egg production, the hen requires 
 daily a surplus amount of fat for elaborating the material 
 from which comes the egg with its high fat content. 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 49 
 
 A due proportion of fat in the animal body is essential 
 to perfect health. Little is known as to the precise 
 constitution of the fats, but, like the proteins and the 
 carbohydrates, each fat is distinct in character and 
 doubtless in its physiological value. Whether this be 
 due to some distinctive features of its mechanical structure 
 or whether it is due to some chemical combination not 
 yet differentiated, is a matter for future discovery. 
 In Part II. the scientific and chemical values of fats 
 will be treated at some length, and should certainly 
 be studied. 
 
 THE MINERAL SALTS, ETC., OF FOODS 
 
 Some writers have stated that consideration of the 
 mineral content of food-stuffs is of little moment. Such 
 statement can be understood only on the assump- 
 tion that in the general feeding of stock on scientific 
 lines a sufficiency of mineral salts exists in the foods 
 used. Otherwise one must marvel at such a statement. 
 Beyond all doubt the mineral salts are of vital import- 
 ance to the well-being of animals. Mann, as quoted, 
 has emphasised that, in the absence of salts, proteins are 
 " dead." 
 
 Chemical and enzyme action are influenced by the 
 salts. It is quite within the mark to assert that the 
 majority of present-day evils in man, beast, and bird 
 are due to prolonged feeding on foods deficient in salts, 
 such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, etc., as 
 well as the minerals, phosphorus, sulphur, etc. Stock- 
 breeders well know that certain country on which the 
 herbage growing is deficient in salts, etc., is unsuited 
 for continued stocking ; the animals pastured thereon 
 must from time to time be removed and sent to country 
 abounding in mineral salts. In any case, on land defi- 
 
50 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 cient in natural salts, it is imperative to supply an 
 artificial substitute, e.g. salt-licks, iron, magnesia, soda, 
 or lime (in the shape of crushed bones). Ingle mentions 
 the disease osteoporosis (a bone trouble in stock) as 
 due in South Africa to deficient mineral in the food 
 available for stock. Most practical men in various 
 countries have arrived at similar conclusions in respect 
 to other maladies of stock, caused from a like deficiency 
 in salts. The framework can only be maintained in the 
 presence of a sufficient mineral content in the food, and 
 the processes of metabolism depend upon the various 
 salts. 
 
 As was pointed out when discussing the various foods 
 in Chapter II., many are distinctly poor in salts and 
 minerals, and yet such foods are frequently fed continu- 
 ously without any compensation for their mineral defi- 
 ciency. 
 
 One of the principal reasons why milk is an ideal 
 food, on which a man may live and work, is the 
 high mineral salts content. Some contend, and not 
 without reason, that milk should be looked upon as 
 a standard by which the value of other foods should 
 be gauged. 
 
 Potassium and Sodium. — Potassium and sodium are 
 found in the cell-walls, muscles and blood corpuscles, 
 but the precise functions are not clear. Sodium is found 
 in the gastric juice, saliva, lymph and blood; in com- 
 bination as sodium chloride (common salt), and, in 
 addition to assisting in the processes of metabolism, 
 forms free hydrochloric acid and soda in the stomach. 
 Milking cows require regular suppUes of salt to make 
 good that drawn from the body by the milk ; the 
 demand here is for chlorine, not for the sodium content. 
 Common salt is a necessity in feeding poultry, as with 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 5i 
 
 other stock ; it improves the food and the appetite, 
 promotes an increased flow of digestive fluids, acts 
 beneficially upon the circulation, and aids digestion 
 generally. For poultry the continued use of small quan- 
 tities is advisable : large amounts of salt act upon 
 poultry as an irritant. 
 
 Calcium, Magnesium, etc. — Lime, magnesia, and 
 phosphoric acid are found chiefly in the bones. Without 
 good bone structure there can be but imperfect flesh 
 development. Pig breeders have long appreciated the 
 importance of, and actual necessity of, supplying plenty 
 of ash (minerals), even if in crude form. There is among 
 some breeders a craze for bone-bulk, and there is also 
 in others a craze for fine bone. Coarse bone is not a 
 desirable feature in any class of stock, just as on 
 the other hand deficiency must not be mistaken for 
 quality. 
 
 Bone. — ^The question of the importance of bone in 
 relation to frame does not always arise. Bone can be 
 fine, showing great quality, and be at the same time of 
 great strength ; but this depends on two factors — ^breed- 
 ing and feeding. Assuming that one has the necessary 
 breeding in the stock, a proper mineral content in the 
 food at all times is essential both to proper bone 
 formation and to the general welfare of the stock. 
 
 Only a portion — one-third to one-half — of the hme 
 and phosphoric acid in vegetable foods can be taken 
 therefrom by animals. 
 
 Meat is deficient in lime salts. Carnivorous animals 
 make good this deficiency by eating also part of the 
 bone, which, in addition to lime, contains phosphorus 
 and other minerals. 
 
 Composition of Bone. — ^The normal composition of 
 the bone of an ox is shown in the following table : — 
 
52 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Calcium phosphate 
 
 • 857-2 
 
 „ fluoride 
 
 4-5 
 
 carbonate 
 
 . 119-6 
 
 ,, chloride 
 
 30 
 
 Magnesium phosphate 
 
 • 15-3 
 
 Iron ..... 
 
 1-3 
 
 Sodium as a Base. — In the process of metabolism 
 sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid are produced, and 
 unless these substances are neutralised their accumula- 
 tion will cause disaster. Sodium as an alkali neutralises 
 these acids. Many diseases are due to the accumula- 
 tion in the system of these acids and to the inabihty of 
 the system satisfactorily to supply basic neutralising 
 salts. Animals which were fed on a diet freed from all 
 mineral salts died. 
 
 When bleeding is caused by a cut the calcium in the 
 blood assists coagulation. In treating hsemophiha — a 
 disease the subject of which is generally known as a 
 " bleeder " — an effort is made to increase the sodium 
 content of the blood. 
 
 Iron. — ^The importance of iron in the S5^tem is due 
 to its affinity for oxygen. The organic iron in the blood, 
 in the hsemoglobin, when aerated in the lungs, takes up 
 oxygen, and becomes scarlet in colour (oxy-haemoglobin). 
 Through the circulation oxygen is thus carried to eill 
 parts of the system. 
 
 The carbon dioxide is carried from the system, 
 together with other products, by the blood stream. 
 Although of great importance, the total iron in the body 
 is comparatively small, yet it is a constituent of every 
 cell, and as regards the blood, of which 14% is haemo- 
 globin, only i-30oth is iron. This iron is organic. In 
 making good a deficiency in iron, recourse is had to the 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 53 
 
 inorganic citrates and sulphates. In administering iron 
 to human beings the organic form is now largely pre- 
 scribed, owing to the fact that many systems will not 
 tolerate the ordinary inorganic preparations. 
 
 Sulphur. — Sulphur, in its various compounds, is pre- 
 sent in the body and is essential. In fowls the beak, 
 claws, feathers, etc., largely consist of keratin, which is 
 rich in sulphur. 
 
 MINERALS IN FOODS 
 
 In reviewing the mineral contents of food-stuffs, it 
 will be seen that cereals, seeds, etc., which are stores of 
 proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, are all low in ash 
 (mineral) content ; the minerals are, as a rule, in organic 
 form. In plants the leaves are richest in minerals, which 
 are carried there in the sap, and remain there after the 
 transpiration of the moisture. In ordinary grasses the 
 potash salts show higher content, while in legumes the 
 calcium content is high. In cereals there is a larger 
 content of phosphorus in the grain than in the stalk and 
 flag, while the low potash content about equals that of 
 the phosphorus. In bran the potash and phosphorus 
 content is much higher than in the whole grain. Wheat 
 flour, compared with whole wheat, is deficient in phos- 
 phorus and iron. Rice, as commonly used in the house, 
 has been husked and polished ; in these processes the 
 phosphorus and most of the minerals are removed. 
 Brans, linseed meal, cotton-seed meal, and rice polish 
 are all rich in phosphorus. The soja (or soy) bean is 
 richer in sulphur, calcium, and potash than are the 
 cereals. 
 
 In root crops the rapid transpiration of moisture in 
 the leaves accounts for the high mineral content. All 
 the Brassica family — cabbage, kail, rape, etc. — are rich 
 
54 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 in sulphur. This fact should be remembered by poultry 
 breeders, who should use these fodders freely, especially 
 as the moulting season approaches. Feathers are rich in 
 sulphur compounds. 
 
 In feeding poultry the question of the mineral content 
 of the food used is very important. Laying hens recLuire^ 
 hme (calcium carbonate) for the shells of the eggs, and 
 for this pmrpose oyster shelf and sea shells and crushed 
 dry bone may be supplied. Chickens and other growing 
 stock require phosphorus (in calcium phosphate) more 
 than the lime carbonate for building up the frame (bones, 
 etc.). Crushed dry bones (fine) may be given ; oyster 
 shells and sea shells are not necessary, nor are they able 
 to supply the proper substances. 
 
 FIBRE, HUSK, ETC. 
 
 The fibre and husk of food-stufis consist of cellulose, 
 lignin, cutin, etc., and are, as previously stated, hardly 
 acted upon by the digestive processes of poultry, although 
 in some animals they are attacked and reduced by bac- 
 terial action. Cellvdose, which is foimd in an almost 
 pure state in cotton wool freed from fat, is similar in 
 chemical composition to starch. By the action of strong 
 acids, such as sidphuric and hydrochloric, cellulose is 
 converted into glucose (a sugar). It is insoluble in 
 water and in dilute acids and alkahes ; thus it cannot 
 be acted upon by the digestive fluids. Straws, such as 
 the stems of wheaten, oaten, lucerne and clover hay, are 
 rich in crude fibre, and, as has been shown, the cereals 
 oats and barley are richer in fibre than are wheat, rye, 
 skinless oats, and skinless bailey. Roots and tubers 
 contain small amounts only. 
 
 Bran and hay chaff, when they have been steeped in 
 hot water to soften the tissues, are valuable additions to 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 55 
 
 poultry foods, although they contain much indigestible 
 fibre. Apart from their food value, they provide the 
 required bulk when added to concentrated foods, such as 
 rich meals, etc., and also enable one to mix the food so 
 that it crumbles without becoming sticky. Experience 
 shows, however, that the more finely divided the fibre 
 is the less risk there is from crop impaction — a result 
 which frequently follows the use of long-cut, tough, 
 fibrous food material. The abnormal appetites exhibited 
 by some fowls, which devour old bags, matting, old 
 straw, etc., are due to insufficient vegetable food and 
 mineral salts, not to Nature's selection of a suitable 
 food-stuff. 
 
 THE WATER CONTENT OF FOODS 
 
 Water (moisture) is present in all food-stuffs, in small 
 amounts as the water of crystallisation, and normally as 
 moisture— from lo to 15% in cereals, seeds, etc. In 
 roots and green fodders it varies, ranging to 90 %. The 
 succulence of foods, such as roots and other fodders, 
 depends on its sappiness or juice content. Thus a watet 
 content makes many foods very palatable, and in hot 
 weather, or in dry countries, such foods as contain much 
 water are very valuable. Under general conditions the 
 addition of water to food, while it may render it more 
 palatable, or permit giving the same food in other forms, 
 does not otherwise add to its value. Dry grain and 
 seeds, i.e. when with a low moisture content, as in dry 
 climates, are equally good foods as grain or seed, etc., 
 of the same chemical composition as to solid content, 
 but which has absorbed more moisture from the atmo- 
 sphere. A bushel of wheat grown in a dry climate and 
 shipped during hot, dry weather, will absorb many 
 pounds (4 to 6) of moisture when exposed tothe atmo- 
 sphere of a moist climate. 
 
56 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 The bodies of animals contain a large percentage of 
 water. Whether given as part of the composition of the 
 food, or as drink, it is of vital importance to all animals. 
 The drinking water should be pure and fresh and kept 
 in sanitary receptacles free from disease organisms. In 
 regard to poultry the quality of the drinking water is of 
 supreme importance. Laying hens require a plentiful 
 provision of water, even when fed daily on wet mash with 
 plenty of succulent vegetable food. The yolk of an egg 
 contains 53 %, and the white 84 % of water. With poultry 
 the consumption of large quantities of water increases 
 the protein consumption in the body, as is the case with 
 other animals. With fattening poultry this should be 
 avoided. An excess of water consumption, from what- 
 ever cause, also increases fat consumption in the body, 
 and should therefore be guarded against. 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 In the foregoing chapters an amount of detail has 
 been given, and at the end of this book some food tables 
 are supplied, and from this data the practical breeder 
 should deduce his conclusions. So much depends on 
 climate, environment, the feeder, and the individuality 
 of the animal (bird) that it does not appear desirable to 
 publish compounded rations. Experience shows that it 
 is seldom possible to obtain the food materials of one 
 country in other countries. The breeder will be guided, 
 first, by the foods he can conveniently and economic- 
 ally obtain ; secondly, by the information herein given ; 
 and, thirdly, by experiment, which is governed by climate, 
 individuals, and strains, and by environment. If he be wise 
 he will regard quality above all things. The science of 
 the feeding of the future must depend a good deal upon 
 individual experiment and effort upon a proper scientific 
 
FOOD CONSTITUENTS 57 
 
 basis due to the appreciation of foods and their com- 
 position. 
 
 In many cases where deterioration of the stock is 
 due to generations of bad feeding, it is unhkely that 
 precise results will immediately accrue from the adop- 
 tion of scientific methods. An improvement doubt- 
 less will take place, but as a rule stock which has 
 deteriorated in this respect is generally visibly worthless. 
 
 There are numerous diseases and abnormal condi- 
 tions, often not recognised by the breeder, which are 
 due wholly, or in part, to faulty metabolism, and there 
 is reason for believing that in the first case the trouble 
 originated in a course of faulty feeding. Great as is 
 the present knowledge of the physiology and of the 
 chemistry of foods and feeding, there is yet much to be 
 explored, but the time is approaching when many of the 
 troubles of stock-owners will be directly traced to crudi- 
 ties in the food supply. Every action within the body 
 is dependent upon such seeming trifles, yet their import- 
 ance is grave. The systematic denial during years, or, it 
 may be, generations, of a proper supply of some acid 
 or of some salt, etc., may result in the atrophy of some 
 portion of the delicate mechanism which controls the 
 processes of metabohsm and catabolism. An abundant 
 food supply has always been held by evolutionists to be 
 an important factor. The statement may, with reason, 
 be amphfied by adding that the food must also contain 
 all the constituents necessary for the welfare of future 
 generations. The lack of this may accoimt for the 
 disappearance of species. 
 
 To confer immunity from disease is one of the dreams 
 of the scientist. To preserve and to increase the natural 
 power of resistance to disease should be the aim of 
 the scientific breeder. Immunity from disease depends 
 
58 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 upon certain chemical or enzyme actions, within thie 
 body. These cannot take place if parts are atrophied. 
 We cannot see these actions, but we can prove that they 
 occur. We cannot say how enzyme action originates 
 nor how the enzymes themselves are kept in a state of 
 activity. They are part and parcel of the body and of 
 life, and therefore must be influenced by the composition 
 of the food. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 Feeding Poultry 
 
 Proper Housing Essential. — ^When it is remembered that 
 the functions of food include maintenance of animal 
 heat, due precautions should be observed that the poultry 
 are not exposed to conditions under which there is undue 
 loss of heat. All poultry in confinement should be 
 properly housed, and unless this be the case, no matter 
 how well fed pens of the best-laying strains may be, 
 they will not lay well, nor be profitable. It is, however, 
 essential that the houses or shelters provided be amply 
 ventilated, for a free supply of oxygen is necessary for 
 all the functions of life. Free and ample ventilation 
 without draughts is what the buildings should provide. 
 The amount of ventilation necessary depends upon 
 climatic conditions, but it must be such that, where 
 the poultry sleep and feed, the air is perfectly sweet and 
 free from taint. It is of no use attempting to feed 
 poultry with satisfactory results if they are housed imder 
 exposed and insanitary conditions. In addition to fresh 
 air, they should have as much light and sunshine as can 
 be arranged. These are Nature's agents for the destruc- 
 tion of filth germs and disease organisms. 
 
 Much has been written of the advantages accruing 
 when poultry are allowed to roost and sleep in the open 
 air, perched on trees. In some localities, where special 
 conditions obtain, and where certain densely foliaged 
 evergreen trees grow, the birds thrive. Where the site 
 
 59 
 
6o POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 is exposed and the trees provide inadequate shelter, 
 even in South AustraUa, one of the most favoured 
 dimates in the world, egg production is not satisfactory 
 nor comparable with results obtained under proper 
 housing conditions. 
 
 Poultry (fowls, ducks, geese, and turkeys) are omni- 
 vorous. They do fairly well on grain food alone if the 
 variety is large. The goose is practically a grazing 
 animal in some countries. Turkeys thrive where insect 
 life is abundant. It is impossible, of course, to give 
 poultry in confinement the kind and variety of food they 
 gain when at liberty under certain ideal conditions. 
 Experience proves," however, that with the exception of 
 growing stock, and for a period only, free range is not a 
 commercial advantage .when dealing with laige numbers. 
 It is craimed~tTiat poultry with complete liberty find the 
 greater part of their food ; with this class of bird, and 
 in these conditions, which are exceptional, the question 
 of scientific feeding does not arise. The quantity and 
 nature of the actual food obtained is not definitely ascer- 
 tainable, therefore there are no means of finding out 
 what should be added to the food. If, however, the natural 
 food consists of vegetation, animal life, and seeds of 
 grasses, etc., the breeder may supplement the food by 
 selecting such items as from their nature will supply any 
 deficiency. 
 
 Grain Feeding. — Very fair results accrue from a 
 system of grain feeding, without mash — ^wet or dry. As 
 much variety in the grains should be given as is possible. 
 Many poultry owners, especially pioneer farmers, state 
 that they have no time to devote to compounding and 
 feeding either dry or wet mashes, but are willing, in a 
 general way, to give their poultry a Uberal amount of 
 such food as can be obtained economically. It is claimed 
 
FEEDING POULTRY 6i 
 
 with justice that grain-fed poultry lay more fertile eggs, 
 that is eggs which will hatch good stock, than those fed 
 largely upon mashes of soft food (meals, etc.). Grain 
 feed in litter is an excellent method, because it keeps the 
 birds busy, and much time elapses before they have 
 satisfied their wants. This applies only to ordinary 
 stock, not to fattening birds. 
 
 Green Food. — ^Where there is plenty of natural grass 
 and other herbage no additional green food is required. 
 It is, however, important to point out that poultry will 
 eat any green food, however valueless, in default of 
 better. It is necessary, therefore, to be sure that the 
 natural provision includes nutritious and succulent 
 growths. 
 
 Water. — Special attention must be directed to the 
 water supply. The Vessels must be kept scrupulously 
 clean, and should be disinfected periodically. For further 
 details refer again to the section dealing with water 
 (pp. 55-6). 
 
 Mash. — ^Where soft food, or mash, is used some 
 breeders prefer to give it in the morning. Others give it 
 the last thing at night ; some breeders mix mash with 
 the grain fed in the evening. 
 
 Free Range. — ^When fowls are running free and in 
 large flocks, feeding results are seldom quite satisfactory, 
 so far as egg production is concerned, because it is diffi- 
 cult to ascertain the value of individuals as layers and 
 the particular effect of the food upon them. Free range, 
 as already stated, is beneficial to growing stock, also to 
 breeding stock in the off season. Laying hens are gener- 
 ally kept apart from the growing stock and breeders, 
 and as their period of utility generally ends with their 
 second year they do not need free range for any recupera- 
 tive effects. With breeding stock the alternations of 
 
62 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 confinement during the breeding season and free range 
 when the pens are broken up are conducive to success. 
 My experiments point strongly to the desirability of 
 confining stud stock during the breeding season, so long 
 as they are properly accommodated and fed. 
 
 With ducks, during the off season, it is important to 
 provide sufficient water for them to swim in, and, if 
 animal food can be obtained at the same time, so much 
 the better. Swimming is the duck's natural and proper 
 method of exercising the muscles. During the breeding 
 season ducks, especially the heavy breeds, require a 
 small pond of water, not less than a foot in depth. Market 
 ducklings should not roam at large, and do not require 
 water to swim in. Goslings thrive best if at Uberty on 
 well-grassed land, where there is plenty of succulent 
 growth. Fattening geese do particularly weU on stubbles. 
 
 The turkey is the one exception as regards confine- 
 ment. These birds are miserable when confined, and 
 undoubtedly where there is insufficient free range turkey 
 breeding should not be attempted ; their natural dis- 
 position is different from that of fowls, ducks, and geese. 
 Turkeys are bred and reared in confinement, but it rarely 
 pays to do so in the long run. 
 
 In all cases, therefore, of poultry running at large, 
 the question of foods and feeding is governed by local 
 conditions, which vary greatly. 
 
 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF POULTRY 
 
 In general, the digestive apparatus of poultry is 
 similar to that of other animals. The food of the fowl 
 passes into the crop, thence to the proventriculus, or true 
 stomach, and then to the gizzard, or muscular stomach, 
 where it is finely divided. The various digestive fluids 
 described in Chapter I. act, and are secreted, as was 
 
FEEDING POULTRY 63 
 
 described. It is interesting to note that the hard mus- 
 cular lining of the gizzard contains a valuable pepsin, 
 and the preparation known as ' ' Inglavin ' ' is similar. This 
 lining may be detached from the muscle of the gizzard, 
 washed, dried, and reduced to powder. It is a most 
 valuable agent in the alleviation of certain forms of 
 indigestion, and anyone can prepare the powder. It is 
 a pity that the value of this simple remedy is not more 
 widely known ; it is absolutely without any prejudicial 
 effects, and may be taken (5 grains) after each meal. 
 
 In ducks and geese the crop is merely a dilatation of 
 the oesophagus, andTS not a distinct pouch, as in the 
 fowl. The dilated portion is In the cervical region. 
 
 EFFECTS OF FEEDING 
 
 Given good strains of poultry, properly housed, the 
 successful issue will depend upon the foods given, and 
 the methods adopted. All stockmen know that in deal- 
 ing with animals the personal equation is the crux of 
 the whole matter. Many fail through lack of apprecia- 
 tion of the importance of what may appear to be minor 
 points. The most minute detail is essential, just as a 
 minute screw or pin is an essential factor of the mechanism 
 of a watch or motor-car. Attention to details is the 
 cardinal virtue among all successful stock breeders. 
 Methodical and common-sense methods are those which 
 lead to success, but these are founded on knowledge, not 
 upon ignorance. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 Feeding Fowls 
 
 For Egg Production. — The methods adopted in breeding 
 fowls best suited to egg production cannot be here 
 explained ; the science of breeding, an extensive one, 
 is not within the scope of the present work. It is, how- 
 ever, assumed that only such fowls will be used for egg 
 production for market which have been bred as layers. 
 No matter how well bred the fowls may be, their pro- 
 duction of eggs will not be satisfactory unless they are 
 properly fed. Neither men nor hens are cast in a 
 common mould, without variation. Men vary ; some 
 are bom feeders, others never seem able to grasp the 
 essentials of feeding. Fowls, as do other stock, need care- 
 ful study. Rule of thumb methods, or fixed rations, and 
 weights and measures, wiU lead only to disappointment. 
 
 The much vauiited " save work, save time " methods 
 — ^the hope of the " born tired " man — are out of place 
 in dealing with stock. Laying hens are quick, active 
 birds, with their likes and dislikes, and it pays the feeder 
 to study each group, and to see also that the members 
 of a flock agree to live in harmony. It is not intended 
 to lay down hard-and-fast rules, nor to give a wearisome 
 list of proposed rations. With the information given 
 in this book, any breeder, according to the conditions of 
 the local food supply, should be able to think for him- 
 self and experiment successfully in feeding. Those who 
 are so indifferent, or mentally dense, that they cannot 
 
 64 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 65 
 
 do without precise information as to how to compound 
 foods were never intended to handle stock. Some other 
 more suitable and congenial occupation, requiring no 
 particular attainments, should be chosen. 
 
 In discussing the feeding of fowls for egg production, 
 market eggs for human consumption only are referred 
 to. For that purpose the hens or pullets should not be 
 mated. The male bird is superfluous : he neither lays 
 eggs nor does he influence egg production. The in- 
 fertile egg keeps almost indefinitely, and unmated 
 hens lay more eggs, by at least 10%, than when run- 
 ning with a male bird. In the egg-laying competitions 
 in South Australia — ^which are under my direction — 
 large numbers of unmated pullets have given results, 
 both for individual pens and also as general flock averages, 
 which have been most satisfactory. 
 
 How many hens should be included in one flock 
 depends upon the method of housing adopted. Small 
 flocks — six to twenty birds — ^necessitate considerable 
 outlay upon yards and houses, and the cost of attend- 
 ance is proportionately great. There is ample evidence, 
 however, that the smaller the flock the better the average 
 egg production will be. Against this one must put cost 
 of extra plant, interest, and the cost of handling. This 
 part of the subject, however, can only be referred to in 
 passing, as it does not come within the scope of the 
 present work. 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT METHODS. 
 
 In describing the methods adopted at the South 
 Australian Government Poultry Stations under my direc- 
 tion, the results given for a number of years, during 
 which the same system of feeding was adopted, are 
 presented in tabular form. The foods used are all 
 
66 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 those commonly available in this State, and are also 
 available and can be recommended for use in many other 
 countries. 
 
 Wheat bran and pollard are the mill by-products used 
 in compounding the mash, or soft food. The names of 
 these foods are not the same in all countries, and 
 although the matter has been referred to in discussing 
 the various foods, it may be repeated. Bran, as used, 
 is composed of the skin and outside layers of the wheat 
 kernel, and, according to sample, contains more or less 
 of the inner layers. When much of the inner layers are 
 included, the bran has a high pollard content. Pollard 
 is made from the inner layers of the wheat kernel, and 
 may consist of fine bran, with little flour content, or the 
 flour content may be high, and the sample equal to a 
 low-grade flour. 
 
 In compounding the mash, the proportions used aver- 
 age I part of bran to 2 parts of pollard. Two factors 
 govern the respective quantities of bran and pollard 
 used. Firstly, enough bran must be added to the pollard 
 to make the mash, when moistened, into a crumbly mass 
 without being sticky or doughy. Secondly, the amoimt 
 of bran is increased or decreased if we wish to add to or 
 decrease the mineral and the protein content of the 
 mash. On large farms, where the grain can be ground, I 
 recommend the use of wholemeal (wheatmeal), made by 
 grinding good wheat to a fine meal, to which the desired 
 quantity of bran can be added. By adopting this method 
 the full value of the wheat is obtained, and flaky bran 
 can be purchased, which will supply extra mineral and 
 protein and help to make a mash of uniform quality and 
 texture. 
 
 The fowls are fed with regularity at 7 o'clock in the 
 morning, when their meal is prepared as follows. Boil- 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 67 
 
 ing water is poured upon the supply of bran to be 
 used ; this is quickly stirred, and then covered tightly 
 and allowed to soak and swell for fifteen to twenty 
 minutes. This softens the tissues of the fibrous portion 
 of the bran, and also allows the water to be absorbed. 
 As a rule, boiling soup is used instead of water. This soup 
 is made from meat meal, at the rate of from | lb. to 
 I lb. of meat meal for each 100 hens. Sometimes this 
 is used daily for a period, and when in full lay in the 
 spring the soup is used three or four times a week. 
 
 The scalded bran is then placed in a large mixing- 
 trough, and incorporated with the pollard and cut green 
 food, if any is used at the time, when about one-third 
 of the bulk given will consist of this. This mash, or soft 
 food, is mixed with the hands, though many use spades, 
 shovels, or even mixing machines. Mash feeding for egg 
 production is a science which must be thoroughly learnt. 
 It is found that the proper texture and consistency can 
 only be obtained quickly and with certainty by mixing 
 with the hands. The process is a quick one ; an assis- 
 tant works at each end of the food trough. He takes 
 a supply of scalded bran and then some pollard, which he 
 rubs in quickly, until it breaks and crumbles ; this is 
 pushed aside and a fresh lot treated. The morning mash 
 is carried away in vessels on a truck, and is hot when 
 the birds get it in winter. It is fed cold in the hot 
 weather. The supply for each pen or flock is placed in 
 earthenware pans, which are, at all times, kept scrupu- 
 lously clean. After all the birds have been fed, an assis- 
 tant goes round, and any flock which appears still 
 hungry has a little more, while those whose appetite is 
 less keen have the unconsumed balance removed. None 
 is ever allowed to remain in the food pans and become 
 sour. 
 
68 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Mash, or soft food, is never thrown upon the ground 
 as is so frequently recommended in poultry books. 
 Such a course naturally leads to contamination, due to 
 contact with the ground. Disease germs, whether active 
 or not, are generally present in the soil ; besides these 
 there are always droppings and other undesirable ele- 
 ments, notwithstanding the apparently clean ground. 
 The practice of throwing soft food on the ground, in 
 addition to lack of cleanUness with regard to the food 
 receptacles, may be held responsible for the propagation 
 of intestinal parasites, as well as of many disease 
 germs. 
 
 In the middle of the day a supply of cut green food 
 is given, unless the sun's heat is so great that the birds 
 prefer to remain under shelter, and thus allow the green- 
 food to become dried up. On such days a handful of 
 grain — ^generally wheat — is thrown in for each half- 
 dozen hens. 
 
 It is important to note that at the Government 
 Poultry Stations the Lajnng Competition Yards and many 
 of the other yards are small, generally 40 feet long and 
 10 feet wide. At the Kybybolite Competition there are 
 double yards — in front of and behind the houses, which 
 are built on a continuous plan. These yards are each 
 only 30 feet long by 8 feet wide. Such yards are kept 
 littered to a depth of several inches with clean, short 
 cereal straw. In this litter the grain is scattered, and the 
 fowls are generally occupied throughout the day scratch- 
 ing for it. The principle of mash-feeding is that in the 
 morning each bird obtains a supply of easily digested 
 food of a definite composition, including meals, animal 
 and vegetable foods. Only as much as the hens will 
 readily consume is given. By having the whole floor 
 area of the yards littered with straw, in which the grain 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 69 
 
 is scattered, the hens are forced to scratch for it, and in 
 thus working for their living, they obtain exercise, are 
 occupied, and keep feeding at a natural rate. By even- 
 ing they retire to roost with a gradually filled crop, the 
 contents of which will not unduly swell up. 
 
 When the days are long the hens are off their perches 
 at daylight, and are busy scratching in the straw and 
 finding food, instead of moping about waiting for the 
 7 o'clock morning meal — a matter of hours. On a frosty 
 morning, in early spring, when it is daylight before 7 
 o'clock, one can note, by the appearance of the htter, 
 which lots of hens were early risers and good foragers. 
 It is generally noticed that signs of great activity in the 
 early morning are found in the yards tenanted by the best 
 layers. The evening feed of grain is generally given at 
 4 o'clock, and is merely a renewal of supply. 
 
 The use of the straw litter in the yards keeps the 
 birds dry underfoot in wet weather, and avoids muddy 
 conditions. In wet climates the use of large, scratching 
 sheds for grain feeding is advisable. 
 
 The water supply is most carefully attended to. The 
 competition pens are supplied with earthenware pans. 
 The water is renewed twice a day in cold weather, and 
 as required in hot weather. Grit — ^hard quartz and shell 
 grit — bone grit, and small charcoal are kept in hoppers, 
 and are freely used by the hens. 
 
 The following table shows the total quantity and kind 
 of food used in the 1910-11 Laying Competition at the 
 Roseworthy Poultry Station, and it will be noted that 
 there was very little variety. The main object in 
 these Laying , Competitions is egg production without 
 any undue forcing. Experience has shown that, for a 
 twelve months' test, simple foods will give the desired 
 results. 
 
33 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 £i57 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 70 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 i s. ^. 
 Wheat, 504 bis. (7 lb.), cost from 3s. id. 
 
 to 4s. per bl. . . . . 88 2 o| 
 Oats (skinless), 8 J cwt., @ los. per cwt. 450 
 Wheat bran, 197 bis. (20 lb.), @ from 
 
 IS. to IS. i^d. per bl. . . 10 4 ij 
 
 Wheat (pollard), 645 bis. (20 lb.), @ is. 
 
 to IS. ijd. per bl. . 
 Meat meal, i8| cwt., @ i8s. 6d. per cwt. 
 Grit, charcoal, and shell grit, 2 tons 
 
 8 cwt., @ 20s. 
 Lucerne hay chafT, 7 cwt., @ 6s. . 
 
 A large quantity of green food was fed, and for this 
 no charge is made. The runs and yards are periodically 
 spelled and are planted with kail, rape, etc., to sweeten 
 the soil. This gives a large supply of green food. 
 
 These la3dng tests are not designed to show a profit 
 and loss account. Although they are separate from the 
 other experimental work, and include privately owned 
 fowls only, they are attended to by the general staff of 
 the poultry station as part of the daily routine. The 
 actual outlay in food, etc., and the return for the eggs 
 laid are given. The object is to show, first, the superiority 
 of highly developed strains of layers, and, secondly, the 
 effects on egg production of systematic feeding, together 
 with the quantity of food used and the cost. The fol- 
 lowing table shows these details. 
 
 HOW 534 HENS WERE FED AND THE RESULTS 
 
 In the Laying Competition held during the year April 
 ist, 1910 — March 31st, 1911, there were 534 pullets. 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 
 
 Number of pens, each consisting of 6 pullets 
 
 Number of birds 
 
 Total number of eggs laid 
 
 Total value of eggs laid 
 
 Total cost of food 
 
 Profit on cost of food 
 
 Average market price of eggs 
 
 Average number of eggs laid per pen of 6 hens 
 
 Average number of eggs laid per hen . 
 
 Average cost of food per pen of 6 hens 
 
 Average cost of food per hen 
 
 Profit over cost of food per pen of 6 hens . 
 
 Profit over cost of food per hen 
 
 Eggs laid by winning pen, Section I. . 
 
 Eggs laid by winning pen. Section II. 
 
 Highest monthly total eggs laid, Section I. 
 
 Highest monthly total eggs laid. Section II 
 
 Highest weekly total eggs laid, Section I. 
 
 Highest weekly total eggs laid. Section II. 
 
 71 
 
 89 
 
 • 534 
 
 102,723 
 
 £358 17s. 8-9d. 
 
 £157 4s. 2d. 
 
 ;£20i 13s. 6d. 
 
 ii-2d. 
 
 II54-2 
 
 192-3 
 
 £1 15s. 3-9d. 
 
 . 5s. io-65d. 
 
 £2 5s. 3-8d. 
 
 7s. 6|d. 
 
 1.513 
 
 1,231 
 
 . 163 
 
 155 
 41 
 41 
 
 The test included 348 White Leghorns, 12 Brown Leg- 
 horns, and 6 Black Minorcas in Section I., and 84 Black 
 Orpingtons, 48 Silver Wyandottes, 12 Buff Orpingtons, 
 and 24 Langshans in Section II. 
 
 Quantity of Food per Hen. — ^As all the food consumed 
 by the hens in the laying competitions is kept in a sepa- 
 rate food house, and accurately weighed, the data 
 obtained during a series of tests afford a ready means of 
 ascertaining roughly what each hen requires. It will be 
 noted that the quantity of wheat in the first two tests 
 was in close agreement, was diminished in the third 
 test, and greatly increased in the fourth. The pollard 
 used varies but little, but the bran does because the bran 
 is increased or decreased according to the bran content 
 
73 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 of the pollard. The meat meal was increased in the 
 third test in an endeavour to increase the flow of eggs, 
 and on account of much cold weather. In the fourth 
 test the hens consumed a surprising amount of grit, and 
 this is probably due to insufficient supply before they 
 came to the stations. The green food is constant in 
 amount, and is practically all the birds could eat. 
 
 It will be noticed that the food ratios are constant 
 — they are for practical purposes i to 4. This is theoretic- 
 ally a suitable ratio, and the fact that the birds are fed 
 on what they require, irrespective of any regard for food 
 ratios, is proof that the theory works out in practice. 
 Until the end of the third test, included herein, the food 
 ratio had not been worked out. 
 
 As regards egg production, the results obtained at 
 Roseworthy have been so excellent that many people 
 would have regarded the figures with suspicion but for 
 the fact that they are official, and that thousands of 
 people are fully acquainted with the facts. Visitors 
 frequently stay all day and see the feeding, etc. The 
 methods adopted here have been copied by most breeders 
 and are equally satisfactory with them. 
 
 The Food Ratio. — So that readers may test the 
 matter for themselves, the table on page 75 gives aU the 
 data required in arriving at the food ratio of the 1910-11 
 test (see fourth column of Food Table). In the list of 
 foods used the weights are given in bushels. A bushel 
 of wheat weighs 60 lb. Bran and pollard are sold by 
 the bushel of 20 lb. Oats are sold by the bushel of 
 40 lb. The other items are given in ordinary weights. 
 The first column shows the total weight in pounds of 
 each food stuff ; and then, using the table at the end 
 of this book, the proportions of protein, etc., per cent, 
 of the weight of each food are worked out. Then the 
 
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74 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 total protein is ascertained ; this is divided into the 
 sums of the fat and the carbohydrates, and the quotient 
 gives the ratio, viz. i to 4-18. The " fat " contents 
 have been multiplied by 2 25 to show their carbo- 
 hydrate equivalents. A pound of fat will create as much 
 energy as 2-25 lb. of starch, sugar, etc. 
 
 This table shows only the crude constituents, a prac- 
 tice I have adopted all through. With actual crude food 
 constituents we are dealing with matters somewhere within 
 the region of facts ; but to discuss digestible co-efficients 
 with regard to poultry tends to pure hypothesis. 
 
 The number and quality of the fowls concerned in 
 the tests from which the data are compiled, together 
 with the results from a definite system of feeding, shoiild 
 give any breeder the class of fact which he can turn to 
 his own use. 
 
 OTHER METHODS AND FOODS 
 
 The foregoing particulars relate to the foods given, 
 and are statements of fact. The food for laying hens 
 can be varied in many ways, so long as due regard is 
 paid to the various food elements. If the hens are 
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 Laying hens should always be spare and hard. Too 
 much flesh and weight will mean a poor egg return even 
 with the heavy breeds. Hens should be treated kindly, 
 so that they will be tame and allow one to handle 
 them. You must handle fowls frequently if you wish to 
 know their exact condition. If they are on the fat side 
 reduce their food, and increase the amount of bran. If 
 results are still poor, increase the amount of animal 
 food. Either change will generally remedy matters. 
 
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76 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Oats, both ground and whole, can be used with 
 excellent effect, and rye is a fair food ; but the great 
 value of wheat bran must not be overlooked. Oats will 
 often give a better cold weather return of eggs than will 
 wheat products. 
 
 Of prime importance in egg production is a full supply 
 of green food. I have, however, full particulars of 
 excellent returns, extending over three years, from fowls 
 which never had a blade of grass, nor any green food, 
 nor did they have hay chaff. This was hard necessity, 
 because none was available. More eggs, and better 
 results generally, would have been obtained with a good 
 green food supply. 
 
 Among other grains and seeds, the peas, with their 
 high protein content, are valuable, and are generally 
 used in cold weather, but are also well suited for frequent 
 use in the summer. 
 
 Sudden changes of diet are to be avoided, as hens take 
 these matters very much in earnest. A sudden change 
 may cause a sort of " strike " ; the hens cease laying, 
 and sometimes a partial, if not a full, moult results, and 
 in such a case the breeders' prospective profits vanish. 
 
 Very frequently a hen may be ill, and even if the 
 matter is of no moment, and only of a temporary nature, 
 she should be removed from the pen and returned again 
 when well. Some hens are bullies, and prevent the 
 more timid ones from obtaining a fair share of food. 
 Such hens should be removed and housed elsewhere. 
 
 Observation will always reveal the cause of a short- 
 age of eggs from a flock of properly bred hens. Insuffi- 
 cient nest accommodation prejudicially affects egg pro- 
 duction, no matter how good the feeding is. This is due 
 to individuality of the hens ; it is common, and it pays 
 to give due regard to factors which must be met. 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 11 
 
 I much prefer enamelled drinking vessels, glazed pans 
 for preference : iron pots, old tins, and such are generally 
 harbours for disease germs, and are difficult to cleanse 
 and disinfect. The drinking water should always be 
 kept in absolute shade ; sun-heated water is responsible 
 for the greater portion of the deaths among poultry in 
 confinement. 
 
 There have been many arguments for and against a 
 supply of grit. The reader may agree with all that has 
 been written, but at the same time will be well advised 
 if he keeps a good supply where the hens can get it. If 
 they want some they will eat it ; if not, they will cer- 
 tainly leave it alone. It may be that an abnormal 
 appetite demands the grit, but of the thousands of giz- 
 zard contents I have examined I have seen none without 
 a little grit. Hard, sharp quartz grit, and gravel, in 
 J-inch cubes, is what they eat. They also like crushed 
 dry bone of about the same size, and sifted cracked 
 wood charcoal is devoured by laying hens at all times. 
 
 For the first week or so after a competition has started, 
 the pullets eat large quantities of grit of all sorts. Most 
 probably their breeders did not supply any. Shell grit 
 (sea or oyster shell) is practically pure carbonate of 
 lime, and is readily eaten by the hens ; they also like 
 marble chips, old mortar, precipitated carbonate of 
 lime, crushed bone. 
 
 Crushed bone consists largely of phosphates of lime, 
 and thus a supply of phosphorus is obtained by the 
 birds, in addition to the lime contained, in various forms. 
 Old dry bone, or boiie from which the oil, fat, etc., 
 have been removed by boiling, or by steam pressure, is 
 best suited for making bone grit. These materials may 
 be mixed, or each kind of grit may be kept in separate 
 hoppers, so that the consumption of each may be noted. 
 
78 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Dry Feeding. — ^By this is understood a system of 
 feeding similar to that described, but instead of the 
 mash being moistened with milk, water, or soup, the 
 ingredients are placed in a hopper and eaten in a dry 
 condition by the fowls. Although this is an old method, 
 there has been, of late years, a great revival of the prac- 
 tice, and many breeders affirm that the method is cheap 
 and effective. It is essential, however, that birds so 
 fed should have been reared upon similar food. 
 
 I arranged a series of tests, using various foods, and 
 on a sufficiently large scale ; among the tests was the 
 dry mash feed. . I purchased 24 White Leghorn, 24 Black 
 Orpington, and 24 Silver Wyandotte pullets from noted 
 breeders, each of whom had entered a pen in the Laying 
 Competition, which started on the same day as the food 
 tests. I had therefore 30 pullets of each breed, bred by 
 the same person and of the same blood. The details of 
 the test were : — 
 
 No. I. — Competition feeding (as described). No male. 
 
 No. 2. — Competition feeding (as described). Male in 
 pen. 
 
 No. 3. — Competition feeding. Double amount of 
 animal food. 
 
 No. 4. — Competition feeding. Mash given dry. 
 
 No. 5. — Grain only. No mash. Animal food scalded 
 and dried, with pollard. 
 
 In tests 2, 3, 4, and 5 male birds were in each pen. 
 Each test was made with a pen of each of the three 
 breeds. The results were as follows : 
 
 No. I. — 1092 eggs, average per pen of 6 pullets. 
 
 ji 2. 057 >' >> >> >> 
 
 „ 3.— 1047 
 
 „ 4.— 960 
 
 .. 5- — 689 ■> .. .. >i 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 79 
 
 While one test may not be considered conclusive, for 
 many reasons, it may be added that similar tests since 
 carried out give similar results, here and elsewhere. 
 When the pullets have been reared upon dry mash the 
 results are much better. The " grain only " test is 
 typical of many others. The cost of labour is small 
 and the egg yield is small, though in the circumstances 
 profitable. 
 
 Many advantages are claimed for dry mash feeding. 
 The fowls must perforce eat slowly, and cannot there- 
 fore overload their crops. Each mouthful must be 
 slowly and separately swallowed, thus ensuring admixture 
 of saliva and a good attack on the starch content of the 
 food. This should greatly aid digestion. When com- 
 pounding the dry mash a good variety of grains, seeds, 
 etc., should be finely ground and mixed, and, in addi- 
 tion, bran may be freely included. 
 
 As regards egg production, hens so fed will not lay so 
 well as those fed on the wet mash system, and, more- 
 over, they generally become too fat. In giving this 
 opinion, founded upon my own experience, I do not wish 
 to decry the merits of dry mash feeding, because there 
 are conditions obtaining in other countries where this 
 method may be justified and the results profitable. 
 
 As regards grain feeding, where mash, both dry and 
 wet, is dispensed with, medium results can always be 
 obtained, if the grain is fed in proper proportion, accord- 
 ing to variety, and also if scattered in clean scratching 
 litter. 
 
 In wet climates the scratching litter should, for 
 preference, be under cover. This method is convenient 
 where assistance cannot be obtained, and a man has 
 many other matters to attend to. 
 
 For market egg production, and where a man makes 
 
8o POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 this a business, the wet-mash system and the foods used 
 in our competitions will give the best results. In mild, 
 dry climates, I recommend the open yards, Uttered with 
 straw. In cold, wet climates, I prefer the large scratch- 
 ing-shed houses, in which the birds are confined until the 
 weather is fine, but in which they are always fed. 
 
 While most breeders and feeders have their own par- 
 ticular methods, from correspondence I have received it 
 seems as if nearly every Australian breeder of note feeds 
 his birds after the methods so successfully adopted for 
 many years at the South Austrahan Govenunent Poultry 
 Stations. As some American tersely put it, " It depends 
 upon the man behind the gun." 
 
 It seems undesirable to debate the matter further. 
 Any intelligent breeder can try the methods suggested, 
 and vise his judgment as to any modification necessary 
 under his special conditions. If he will carefully read 
 this book, he will find information bearing on points of 
 varied nature, such as have occurred during a long 
 experience with poultry in niunbers. 
 
 Pepper, Spices, Patent Foods, etc. — No pepper, spice, 
 condiment, or patent egg food ever had a place in my 
 method of feeding. I have experimented with them in 
 years gone by and found each and everyone " wanting." 
 The use of such nostrums is unnatural, and could only 
 be required in cases where the feeding methods have 
 been bad. A properly fed bird needs none of these 
 things. As regards the much-vaunted egg foods and 
 tonics, I am not disposed to argue upon the assertions 
 of their vendors — they may say what they please. The 
 fact remains that they are neither necessary nor proper 
 additions to poultry foods. 
 
 If through misadventure some birds, especially young 
 ones, get wet, they may have a little ground ginger 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 8i 
 
 added to their food. Ginger is wholesome in moderation, 
 and you know what you are using. Epsom salts (mag- 
 nesium sulphate) are invaluable, as stated elsewhere, 
 and may be used with advantage, especially in very hot 
 weather, or in case of an outbreak of chicken-pox. For 
 each twenty adult fowls dissolve i oz. in sufficient hot 
 water to mix the mash — ^this is preferable to adding 
 the salts to the drinking water. The well-known Douglas 
 mixture (iron) is also a reasonable tonic, which anyone 
 can prepare, and which may be added to the drinking 
 water. Sulphur and iron are supplied by this tonic. 
 
 The whole question of tonics, sterihsing water, etc., 
 are appropriate to a work dealing with poultry diseases, 
 their prevention and cure. Poultry properly fed and 
 housed require neither tonics nor other medical treat- 
 ment. 
 
 For Flesh Production. — To some extent the nature of 
 the food influences the colour of the flesh and skin, a 
 point of some importance where high quaUty is demanded. 
 Thus in America the demand is for yellow-skinned table 
 poultry, and although milk deposits no yeUow pigment 
 in the fat, the alteration is not important. In England 
 and in other markets, where white skin and white flesh 
 are highly esteemed, the use of maize (com) often imparts 
 a decided creamy or yellow tint. For the best markets 
 quality is the main object in fattening fowls. Birds of 
 medium size and of good finish are in demand in all 
 markets. Although a limited number of very large, 
 heavily fatted chickens bring extreme prices, it pays 
 better to fatten and market the birds in prime condition 
 at a much earlier age. 
 
 Where only small ntunbers are to be dealt with, an 
 ordinary crate, supphed with an outside food trough, 
 will answer the purpose. The most sanitary crates are 
 
 G 
 
82 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 made of galvanised iron with false bottoms of |-inch 
 mesh wire netting tightly stretched a few inches above 
 a movable pan, which will catch the droppings. Such 
 an arrangement is sanitary, and the birds' feet are always 
 clean. The bird needs no more room than just suffices 
 for it to turn round. The crates should be placed in a 
 quiet spot, warm in winter and cool in summer. 
 
 Meal, mixed with milk, is the best food. Fine meal is 
 better than grain coarsely crushed. Ground oats, oat- 
 meal and oat flour, mixed with ground barley, and then 
 moistened with milk, are excellent for the production 
 of fine white flesh. Where colour of flesh is of no im- 
 portance a good proportion of ground maize wiU assist 
 the fattening process, although maize deposits an oily 
 fat which largely disappears during cooking. Good 
 results accrue from making the maize meal first into 
 porridge (boiled) and then adding to the mixture of other 
 meals and miUc. Pea-meal and bean meal are flesh- 
 making, but are very deficient in fat ; this may be 
 remedied by using oats or maize, or soy beans. The 
 latter are excellent for fattening, used with other meals 
 and milk. 
 
 Milk is essential to success — it may be either sour or 
 sweet, but should always be the same, not sour one day 
 and sweet the next. It should just be sour, not decom- 
 posing. 
 
 The consistency of the fattening mixtures varies 
 among feeders. A good plan for the novice is to note the 
 consistency preferred by the birds. Some like the food 
 fairly firm, and others prefer it of the consistency of thick 
 gruel. Twice a day is often enough to feed, although 
 some feeders give three meals. The food should be 
 placed in a trough, in front of the crate, and when the bird 
 has eaten its fill the balance, if any, should be removed. 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 83 
 
 On no account should food be allowed to remain and 
 become sour and tainted. A supply of coarse grit, sand, 
 and charcoal grit should be kept in a hopper. This aids 
 digestion. In hot weather it may be necessary to give 
 the birds an occasional drink of milk or water. 
 
 Hand Cramming may be practised by those who 
 keep poultry as a hobby, or where labour is cheap. By 
 this method, after the birds have eaten as much as they 
 can from the trough, they are removed from the crate 
 and crammed with pellets of food, of a dough-like con- 
 sistency. The pellets are about 2 inches long and ^ inch 
 wide. The bird to be crammed is held firmly, and his 
 beak opened ; a pellet is dipped in milk or water, placed 
 at the back of the mouth, the beak released, and the 
 pellet is then stroked with the finger down the oesophagus 
 into the crop, and so on, until the crop is well filled. 
 
 Another method of hand cramming is performed with 
 the aid of a small metal funnel, with a specially rounded 
 shank — ^this is pushed down the gullet. The food is 
 then made of the consistency of thin cream and poured 
 into the bird's crop. 
 
 Machine or Force Feeding is the most expeditious and 
 satisfactory method of feeding large numbers of fatten- 
 ing chickens. Cramming machines are made in various 
 patterns, but the essentials are a bucket-like reservoir 
 to contain the food mixture, which is of the consistency 
 of moderately thick cream ; a pump or piston con- 
 nected with the reservoir ; and a flexible rubber tube, 
 about 9 inches long. This is inserted into the bird's gullet 
 and pushed down into the crop. There are various methods 
 of holding the bird during the process. The first two 
 or three feeds should be limited so that the bird may 
 become accustomed to the method. With practice a 
 large number of birds can be fed in an hour. For con- 
 
84 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 venience in handling large numbers, two assistants are 
 desirable — one to pass fresh birds and the other to remove 
 and re-pen those which are fed. Any bird which has 
 not digested the previous meal should be put aside in a 
 spare coop and not treated again imtil the crop is empty. 
 Should there be no improvement, the bird should be 
 placed in a run for a few weeks until it recovers its tone. 
 A little carbonate of soda may be administered in such 
 cases. 
 
 Not only is there a great gain in weight by this 
 method of feeding, but the general appearance (finish) of 
 properly crammed chickens is vastly superior to that 
 obtainable by any other method. The gain in weight is 
 achieved at a moderate cost, and the economic value of 
 a fowl is greatly increeised by a course of systematic 
 fattening. 
 
 Those accustomed to properly fattened poultry find 
 little pleasure in consuming ordinary farm sorts, even 
 if they carry a fair amount of flesh. The chickens fed as 
 described carry a large amount of flesh on the back, and 
 in parts generally covered by skin only. The quality 
 of the flesh is vastly superior owing to the good food, the 
 milk, and the admixture, due to this method of feeding, 
 of fat and flesh. From a business point of view the 
 quality always commands top prices, and consumers are 
 willing to pay well and repeat orders. It is really extra- 
 vagant to use half-fatted fowls. It costs a certain amount, 
 from IS. to IS. 3d., to raise a large-framed chicken to the 
 age of twelve to fourteen weeks. If sold in the rough 
 state and weighing, say, 3I lb., it will bring perhaps 
 2s. 6d. After three weeks' fattening, at a cost of, say, 
 8d., the same chicken will weigh at least 5 lb., and sell 
 for 4s. or more. Some breeds or crosses are more profit- 
 able when crammed than are others. 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 85 
 
 There is a happy medium in the fattening of chickens. 
 Many buyers would object to a mass of fat — ^just as they 
 would reject a half -starved specimen. A well-fattened 
 fowl should carry abundance of flesh, and only a moderate 
 quantity of fat. 
 
 FEEDING BREEDING STOCK 
 
 There is no more important consideration than the 
 foods and methods of feeding as applied to breeding 
 stock. Long experience has accentuated this fact, and 
 was primarily the reason which led me to write this 
 treatise. It is common experience that the scientific 
 breeder founds a high-class strain of birds, etc., and the 
 unskilful feeder ruins them and their progeny in a short 
 time. When the subjects of feeding for egg production 
 and fattening chickens were discussed, the objects in 
 view did not influence the progeny, as there was none. 
 
 The whole question of feeding is treated in too general 
 a manner by the average breeder. With him it is largely 
 a question of bulk. Let the needs of the present suffice, 
 and let the future look after its own problems. This is 
 the general feeling among a large number of breeders, 
 and probably accounts for most of the failures. Breed- 
 ing stock must be regarded as the media through which 
 future generations must come. Improper methods of 
 feeding, unsuitable food, and insanitary surroundings 
 will not only impair the health of breeding stock, and 
 limit production, but they will also seriously affect fer- 
 tility and will ruin the constitutions of the progeny. 
 The progeny will be inherently weak, and, in my opinion, 
 will receive from their parents organs which are deficient 
 in their ability to perform their proper fimctions. 
 
 In urging the importance of proper feeding, I am 
 aware that some may think the views I have expressed in 
 
86 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Scientific Breeding and other publications are chang- 
 ing. This is not so. I am the more firmly convinced 
 of the truth of the modern conceptions of the laws of 
 breeding. That feeding and foods are intimately con- 
 cerned in the whole system of enzyme action in our body 
 is so sure to my mind that I look for the announcement 
 of discoveries in the near future confirming this view. 
 While we can readily elucidate many of the laws of breed- 
 ing by the aid of poultry, it is in working with plant 
 life that we are struck with the peculiarities which can 
 only be due to feeding, nutrition, and the accumulated 
 effects of cultivation or neglect and starvation. 
 
 It must be assumed that the breeder who feeds on 
 scientific lines will select stock only which are of the 
 highest quahty and with vigorous constitutions. I cannot 
 here indicate the most approved methods of selection. 
 But I will say that just as we know Nature's methods are 
 inflexibly rigid in eliminating the unfit, so also must be 
 the methods of the breeder if he is to succeed. 
 
 The feeding of breeding stock should be a carefully 
 planned course of preparation for events of vital im- 
 portance. In a general way this is understood by horse, 
 cattle, and sheep breeders ; but, as a rule, any prepara- 
 tion made resolves itself into a question of condition 
 only. As a rule, there is too much condition as to 
 quantity and too little regard to efficiency. It may fre- 
 quently happen that the poultry breeder finds that the 
 one-time valuable stud of birds has been ruined by a 
 long course of bad feeding. Some birds have been 
 allowed to get over-fat — ^great accumulations of intes- 
 tinal fat, with signs of fatty degeneration and high starch 
 contents. It is almost hopeless to get such stock into 
 breeding condition again. Genercd infertility, with few 
 but weak germs, are common results. I admit that 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 87 
 
 stock kept under unnatural and in insanitary condi- 
 tions are prone to overfatness and other disadvantages. 
 So also are improperly fed stock, even if well housed 
 and otherwise attended to. 
 
 In Australia we often find that imported birds have 
 been accustomed to patent foods and other unnatural 
 mixtures, and will hardly eat good, wholesome, natural 
 foods. Such birds are veritable degenerates, and it is 
 to be feared that the modern tendency is in the direction 
 of an increase of degeneracy. 
 
 The use of patent foods, spices, drugging, and high 
 feeding is carried to great excess. Many preparations for 
 the show bench act as insidious and lasting poison, and 
 the results appear in the progeny without any doubt. 
 
 Too much soft food, or mash, is undesirable in feed- 
 ing breeding stock. The best results accrue when about 
 two feeds a week of soft food are given. Mash is a 
 useful medium for giving extra protein, fat, animal food, 
 and additional mineral salts. Grain in variety, with 
 abundance of mixed green food, gives the best results. 
 The grain should be well scattered and buried in clean 
 straw litter, so that the birds must work hard to get it. 
 The condition of birds can be most easily regulated by 
 this method, and they are always hard and fit. When 
 fed on this system the condition of the birds and the 
 fertiUty of the eggs is equal, and in my experiments has 
 proved superior to that resulting where the birds were 
 on extensive grass runs without scratching sheds. 
 
 It has been stated that mash feeding is essential to 
 egg production, and that without soft foods there will 
 be few eggs. That may be so with pampered fowls, but 
 properly bred fowls which are fed on the system recom- 
 mended with the grain buried in litter, in warm, dry 
 scratching sheds, will give sufficient eggs. The occa- 
 
88 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 sional feed of mash given as a change will sufficiently and 
 safely stimulate egg production. 
 
 In breeding, mere numbers of eggs are not desir- 
 able. One requires a moderate yield of eggs at the right 
 time, each egg properly formed, and containing a strong 
 germ. Birds which are over-fed and pampered prior to 
 the breeding season, are those which lay but few eggs — 
 unless forced — in which the fertihty is low and the 
 germs weak. 
 
 Breeding stock should be fed chiefly on hard food — ^not 
 too starchy — so as to be in hard condition, to which they 
 are assisted by the exercise they take perforce. Soft, 
 flabby, over-fed fowls are useless for stock production. 
 So also are the fatigued birds which have gone through 
 a series of shows to the accompaniment of the unnatural 
 modem methods in vogue. 
 
 Breeding stock do well on a mixture of grains, which 
 should consist largely of oats and wheat (non-starchy 
 sorts), to which may be added peas, lentils, and a little 
 barley. In cold, wet weather add, say, 5% of maize 
 and soy beans. If the fat-containing seeds and grains 
 are unobtainable, recourse may be had to the use of 
 linseed-oil cake, or stewed linseed in the mash. But, 
 rather than increase the amount of mash feed, I would 
 prefer fewer eggs from the breeding stock in cold, wet 
 weather. As a general rule, the mash should be largely 
 composed of wheat bran, scalded with meat meal soup. 
 
 Usually, it will be found that the ordinary grains 
 supply sufficient fat, and the task may be to keep the 
 birds in hard condition, and more flesh and egg formers 
 than fat may be required. The constant exercise makes 
 a wonderful difference in the feeding. While the com- 
 mon failing is in feeding the stock too highly, it some- 
 times happens that the stock is in poor condition, either 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 89 
 
 through semi-starvation or because they are infested 
 with internal or external parasites, or by both. 
 
 Ample green food should be given. Part may be 
 chaffed and fed in the food pans, but the balance may 
 preferably be hung up so that the birds may peck at it, 
 thus providing change of occupation. Cabbage, kail, 
 rape, mustard, etc., may be given in this way. Where 
 insect life is abundant the birds do well, but in con- 
 finement animal food must be provided. If plucks, 
 livers, and fresh meat scraps can be obtained, they may 
 be made into soup and used (including the boiled meat) 
 in the mash. In addition, raw meat may occasionally 
 be used, minced, in the mash. 
 
 It is always a good plan to feed occasional handfuls 
 of such grains, seeds, etc., as sunflower, soy, and other 
 beans, lentils, and the various millets. Any special 
 preference may then be noted and the reason ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 In food of a varied nature poultry will consume 
 proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and minerals, which, while 
 generally alike, are yet chemically different in their com- 
 position, and their general effect on metabolism is varied. 
 It is this great variety of foods of different composition 
 that keeps the free range poultry in good condition for 
 reproduction. 
 
 Many advise feeding the different grains and seeds 
 separately, and many diet tables in diary form have 
 appeared. The study of these will no doubt keep the 
 feeder busy. The best results accrue from feeding a 
 general mixture in scratching material : the birds always 
 thrive. By feeding odd handfuls of any seed or grain, 
 and by examining the scratching htter, one may ascer- 
 tain if any variety of seed or grain is neglected, or if there 
 is a demand for a special kind. Very often during wet 
 
90 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 weather part of the grain in the htter will germinate, 
 and is in this stage eagerly sought for by the birds — ^the 
 action of the aspartic acid and other principles of sprout- 
 ing grains appear to be very beneficial. 
 
 Tests for Condition. — Properly fed breeding stock 
 have a hard look about them. The plumage is glossy 
 and remains so until moulting time ; the birds are active 
 and alert. Badly or over-fed stock have a sleepy, dull 
 appearance, and the birds are sluggish in their movements. 
 Abnormal appetites are the result of bad feeding — such 
 symptoms are the precursors of digestive and bowel 
 troubles. 
 
 The plumage of fowls hides their actual condition, 
 and breeders are often at a loss to know whether to 
 alter, diminish, or increase the food. There is only one 
 certain means of ascertaining condition, irrespective of the 
 fact that eggs may be scarce or plentiful. It frequently 
 happens that overfed hens lay large numbers of eggs — 
 generally infertile. The egg yield is thus an indifferent 
 indicator of condition. At night the breeder should 
 examine the birds on their perches, and thus ascertain 
 the condition of each. This can be done very quickly, 
 and without lifting the birds from their perches. If 
 abnormally fat and heavy the food must be reduced and 
 its composition altered. 
 
 Over-feeding. — As I have pointed out in various 
 publications, over-feeding is wasteful, because no re- 
 turn can be obtained from the surplus food. It is 
 also da ngerous b ecause many birds die through over- 
 feeding, especially in hot weather. Large accumulations 
 of internal fat derange the organs of reproduction, and 
 various troubles will occur. As previously stated, the birds 
 should be in medium and hard condition. If the breeder 
 knows the average weight of his breed of fowls when in 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 91 
 
 good condition, he should see that his breeding stock are 
 on the light side in comparison. 
 
 Systematic Examination of Stock. — ^Another excel- 
 lent method is to conduct a general examination in the 
 morning. The breeder establishes himself outside the 
 poultry house in which the stock are confined, and they 
 are caught and handed out by the assistant. The con- 
 dition can readily be ascertained ; the birds can also be 
 examined for vermin or disease, etc. A fortnightly 
 examination will in the long run amply repay the breeder, 
 who should be in possession of precise information upon 
 all points. Haphazard and lazy methods, coupled with 
 guesswork, will never make a person a skilled breeder and 
 feeder. The proper care of stock is one of the most 
 highly skilled callings, and success can only result from 
 exact and painstaking methods. 
 
 All breeders are familiar with the fact that stock, while 
 of the same blood line, if housed and fed properly in a 
 distant locality, acts when brought back, as a change of 
 blood of the most desirable nature. Such a method of 
 working may not be within the reach of every breeder, 
 who must, therefore, adopt the methods indicated in 
 order to keep his stock at a high pitch of perfection by 
 using a great variety of foods, and by varying and chang- 
 ing the amount and composition as occasion demands. 
 Many young and inexperienced breeders are misled by 
 temporary results ; they are apt to think their conditions 
 are unique, and that the long experience of others is 
 founded upon misapprehension. It seems that human 
 beings prefer to purchase their experience, however great 
 the price. 
 
 FEEDING CHICKENS 
 
 This question has been deferred until the feeding of 
 layers and of breeding stock had been considered, and 
 
92 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 yet, of course, both have passed, through the chicken 
 stage. It was deemed advisable to deal with the feeding 
 of layers as a separate matter not connected either with 
 breeding stock or with chickens. The treatment of breed- 
 ing stock had priority, so that the method of feeding 
 advised would indicate how strongly fertile eggs from 
 sound stock could be secured from which to hatch 
 chickens. 
 
 It has been shown that care in feeding the breeding 
 stock is of vital importance, and it may now be stated 
 that the future value of the adults, for whatever purpose, 
 will depend on the methods adopted in feeding the 
 chickens and growing stock. One frequently hears that 
 the chickens of certain breeds are dehcate and difficult 
 to rear. This is largely due to continued bad feeding 
 during successive generations, and, of course, in a large 
 measure, to lack of method in breeding. It is not merely 
 a question of breeding, because a change of blood does 
 not always remedy matters. The chickens resulting 
 from the cross of the wild jungle fowl and domestic 
 fowls produce some delicate offspring ; here the 
 domestic parent had transmitted a defect. 
 
 When the chickens are hatched they require no 
 food for thirty or forty hours ; they may apparently 
 clamour for some, but Nature has provided for them in 
 the still undigested yoUc which, upon dissection, may be 
 found up to sixty hours after hatching. The hen will, 
 if the weather be fine, lead the chickens about, and they 
 will eat small particles of grit, and after a time perhaps 
 a few minute seeds and insects. In the brooder house 
 all the chickens require is a moderate degree of warmth, 
 some coarse sand to play and scratch in, and some milk 
 or water to drink. 
 
 The old henwives of former days were insistent that 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 93 
 
 the hard tip of the tongue — the " pip " they called it — 
 should be torn off, usually by the aid of a thumbnail the 
 reverse of antiseptic. This operation is cruel and abso- 
 lutely unnecessary and a survival of the dark ages. 
 Further maltreatment consisted in forcing the poor 
 victim to swallow a peppercorn, " to warm it up," they 
 said ; this also is unnecessary. 
 
 First Foods. — ^Then two unnatural foods were — and, 
 unfortunately, are still by some — considered necessary 
 and appropriate, viz. hard-boiled egg and stale bread- 
 crumbs. Where in Nature does a hen obtain hard- 
 boiled egg for her young ? The albumins are coagulated 
 and are almost beyond the powers of the digestive fluids ; 
 other changes also, which are detrimental to digestion, 
 have taken place. If it be thought that egg is, the 
 natural food for the chick, why not give it in its natural 
 form — raw ? It may then be mixed with coarse oat- 
 meal, rolled oats, or toasted breadcrumbs, and fed in a 
 crumbly condition. For the first few feeds, and for a small 
 number of chickens, this food is all very well, but its 
 preparation is a tedious matter. 
 
 I much prefer, and for many years have strongly 
 recommended, dry feeding on rolled oats and cracked 
 grain mixtures, and recommend as much variety as can 
 be obtained. The large cereal grains and seeds are 
 passed through a small mill, or grit cracker, and reduced 
 to the size of, say, canary seed. This is then sifted 
 with a small sieve made of ordinary fly wire gauze. The 
 meal which passes through is kept for use as mash ; that 
 which remains is mixed with the small grains and 
 seeds mentioned. Do not use the so-called chicken 
 wheat, which consists of small screenings, drake, 
 and other valueless, and often injurious, seeds, such as 
 poppy, etc. 
 
94 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 The following is an ideal mixture : — 
 
 Wheat (hard, sound grain) . lo parts 
 Rolled oats (fresh) . . .10 
 
 Skinless barley ... 4 
 
 Maize (whole, not crushed) . 2 
 
 Peas ..... I 
 
 Lentils ..... i 
 
 Soy bean . . . . i 
 
 To be cracked, sifted, and added to : 
 Millet seed (various) 1 
 
 Canary seed [together . i 
 
 Rape seed ' — 
 
 Total . 30 parts 
 
 Drink. — For drink I strongly advise the use of sour 
 milk, because of the valuable action of lactic acid in 
 inhibiting the development of many of the diseases of 
 chickenhood, which are due to bacterial action. Strict 
 cleanliness is necessary where milk is used. Most satis- 
 factory results, however, have been obtained by the use 
 of fresh water, kept in frequently sterilised vessels. 
 
 How to give the Foods. — ^When the chickens are 
 hungry — say when thirty to forty hours old — a little of 
 the chicken mixture may be scattered in front of them, 
 and usually they learn to feed at once. Many times, 
 however, it was found that chickens bred from stock im- 
 ported from England could only be taught to eat with 
 great difificulty. As a rule, with normal chickens in a few 
 minutes all are busily occupied, and I have seen a chicken 
 two days old dig a hole in sandy soil big enough to bury 
 itself in. This is the sort of chicken that is wanted. 
 By scattering the grain mixture in chaff overlying coarse 
 sand and earth mixed, the chickens become accustomed 
 to scratch from the first. In this occupation, which 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 95 
 
 lasts all day generally, with few intervals, the chickens 
 are kept warm and the exercise promotes digestion and 
 muscle formation. 
 
 Finely cut green food may be fed at frequent inter- 
 vals throughout the day. It should be cut fresh. A 
 miniature chaff-cutter, with four blades, and cutting in 
 J-inch lengths, is convenient. Use barley grass and 
 similar tender growths, clover, lucerne, lettuce, endive, 
 sow thistle, etc. Finely chopped onion and garlic tops 
 may occasionally be included — ^the juice of garlic is an 
 active germicide — but the chickens will not take much 
 of it. 
 
 As soon as possible the chickens should be allowed 
 to run out of the brooder house and get all the fresh air 
 they can. If there is a grass plot, or patch of lucerne or 
 barley grass, for them to txm about in, so much the 
 better — .they will find some worms and insect hfe and 
 many other much-appreciated morsels. A piece of 
 sandy loam forked over will also cause them to find 
 much profitable employment. When the gates are opened 
 healthy, well-fed chickens will skip and fly in their joy 
 at Uberty, and will play and scratch all day, and such 
 are the chickens one wishes to rear. 
 
 As the chicks grow the canary and rape seed may be 
 omitted from the grain mixture, but any other small 
 seeds available may be tried in small quantity. Hoppers 
 containing fine quartz grit, dry bone, and charcoal 
 should be on hand and will be freely used by the chicks. 
 Failing a supply of worms, a httle fresh meat, minced, 
 and dusted over with pollard, may be given, but in 
 strict moderation. No cut green food shovdd be given ; 
 its use is frequently advised, but long experience proves 
 the practice to be unwise. 
 
 When the chicks are a month old they may have 
 
96 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 sliced beets, mangels, turnips, crusts, etc. ; they enjoy 
 pecking at them and the exercise is beneficial, and they 
 gain valuable food also. When about six weeks old 
 they may have an occasional feed of mash made of the 
 meal which was saved when crushing the grain mixtures. 
 Meals made from wheat, skinless oats, skinless barley, 
 maize, peas, soy, and other beans, may be fed in a 
 crumbly mass once a day. The mash may be moistened 
 with milk. Oats are of great value as muscle and frame 
 builders, and vegetable food will supply much of the 
 salts needed. 
 
 The Craze for Size. — In some countries there is a 
 craze for size, which necessitates the use of much mash 
 or soft food. The wise feeder will, however, content 
 himself with normal, steady development, and eschew 
 all exaggerations. The day will come when more experi- 
 enced breeders and fewer faddists will be appointed to 
 judge poultry shows, and then the craze for undue size 
 and other evils may cease. 
 
 The Runs. — ^The chickens should be changed from yard 
 to yard frequently. They enjoy the novelty, and thrive 
 all the better. The soil in all chicken runs should be 
 well worked and kept soft and friable ; lumps and 
 stones should never be allowed to accumulate. In small 
 yards the soil should be frequently sterihsed with 
 some strong germicide, and then allowed to rest for a 
 period before use. Shelter from sun and rain must be 
 provided. Bushes and low-growing shrubs are desir- 
 able, but are soon destroyed by the chicks. Artificial 
 shades are neat and effective : they may be made of 
 Hessian, and, if desired, may be limewashed. 
 
 Free Range, — Good food in variety, green food, fresh 
 water, and exercise in the fresh air and sunshine are the 
 main factors in building up fine chickens, and one should 
 
FEEDING FOWLS 97 
 
 get as near to this order of things as dimatic conditions 
 will permit. Half-grown chickens should have as much 
 free range, for a time at least, as can be given them. 
 Practically, free range serves to develop the frame, and 
 promotes quick growth and feather formation. Those 
 chickens to be fatted for table use should be treated 
 separately when they attain the desired weight. 
 
 Milk chickens are usually fed from the first on soft 
 foods, such as bread and milk, oatmeal, and barley meal 
 and milk, and liberally fed until they are six or seven 
 weeks old, when they should be very plump and average 
 I lb. weight or more, according to breed. Some experi- 
 ence is needed in making a success of this branch. There 
 is a good demand for these little chicks, which are termed 
 variously " milk chickens," " petits foussin?," etc- 
 Wyandottes, Orpingtons, and Faverolles chickens are 
 suitable, as are also some game crosses. 
 
 Leghorn Cockerels. — ^Leghorn breeders generally find 
 50 to 60% of their chickens are cockerels, and, as a 
 rule, require for their own use and for stock about 10%. 
 The little cockerels can be distinguished when about a 
 week old, and should be drafted out and fed as milk 
 chickens until six to eight weeks old and sold. Or they 
 may be well fed as described for table birds and sold as 
 spring chickens, weighing from x\ lb. to 3 lb. The 
 great advantage in selling the surplus cockerels at an 
 early age is that the more valuable pullets have more 
 space and attention. 
 
 Stock Production. — ^This depends on good feeding 
 and constitution ; chickens intended for use later on as 
 breeders should not be forced, but should grow slowly 
 and without check. Quick maturity and precocity are 
 not always desirable attributes. 
 
 Laying Breeds. — ^When the pullets are well developed 
 
98 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 they should, as signs of laying approach, be passed along 
 to the single testing pens. No pullet intended to be 
 bred from to produce future layers should be used as a 
 stud bird until she has passed a satisfactory test in the 
 single pen for not less than twelve months. Other 
 laying-strain pullets not selected for testing should be 
 passed on to the ordinary laying yards to produce market 
 eggs. 
 
 Pullets should not be forced to lay early ; it is a 
 mistake, stunts the growth, tends to the production of 
 small eggs, and in time, if persisted in, these vindesir- 
 able characters become fixed and an inferior strain 
 results. To prevent or retard la5dng, change the birds 
 from yard to yard, alter the feeding, diminish the protein 
 content, and increase the green food. In warm climates, 
 such as Australia, there is a tendency towards early 
 laying among the pullets of all breeds of poultry, and 
 more especially among the light breeds. 
 
 FEEDING YOUNG DUCKS AND TURKEYS 
 
 Ducks for Egg Production. — Indian Rimners and 
 other breeds derived from these may be bred to pro- 
 duce great layers. As a rule, the laying strains of Pekins 
 and other of the larger breeds are small compared with 
 standard birds. Like Indian Runners and other small 
 breeds, the duckUngs of these light laying strains are 
 not desirable as table birds, on account of their small 
 size, although the flesh is good. Poulterers, as a rule, 
 prefer the large breeds, more especially those with white 
 plumage. As a commercial commodity, ducks' eggs are 
 not so saleable as hen's eggs. They are generally quoted 
 at higher rates, but are used for family purposes. Where, 
 however, there is a sale for them in quantity the laying 
 strains of ducks will pay handsomely. 
 
FEEDING DUCKS AND TURKEYS 99 
 
 The plant for ducks need be but of an inexpensive 
 character. Runners especially are capital foragers, and 
 in the morning, after laying, they may be released and 
 will forage for food far and wide. 
 
 In wet country especially, where fowls would not 
 live, these little ducks thrive and lay in the coldest 
 weather. A morning feed of mash, to which are added 
 animal food and abundance of green food, free range, 
 and green food throughout the day, and a good supply 
 of grain before penning up at night, will result in a full 
 yield of eggs. 
 
 As ducks are voracious feeders, it will be found 
 profitable to indulge their love for the cheaper green 
 food. Animal food is essential to success. They con- 
 sume astonishing quantities of grit, gravel, coarse sand, 
 etc. Ducks strongly resent sudden changes in their 
 food ; any alterations or additions to the food must be 
 made gradually, otherwise the ducks may refuse their 
 food and cease laying. Where there is a market for 
 duck eggs the laying strains can be kept most profitably. 
 Ducks are very consistent layers, and if given practically 
 the same food as is given to fowls, they thrive. 
 
 As Table Birds. — Ducklings are easily reared and, 
 except in very cold climates, require but little artificial 
 heat. They need plenty of clean, dry straw to sleep in, 
 and their quarters must be well drained and kept scrupu- 
 lously clean, otherwise they will become very offensive, 
 and disease may break out. They need a good supply of 
 grit, sand, and gravel, and must have drinking water 
 available day and night. Great thirst, followed by a 
 long drink, is generally fatal to the fattening duckling. 
 
 The best food for ducks in this class is mash mixed 
 with milk, to which must be added some animal food 
 and at least half the bulk of the feed should be cut green 
 
100 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 food. The meal used in making the mash may be bran 
 and pollard, ground oats, ground barley, wheat meal, 
 or a combination of these, to which may be added ground 
 maize and soy bean meal if obtainable. The animal 
 food may be meat meal, or it may be fresh meat, such as 
 bullock's liver, boiled and shredded and mixed together 
 with the resulting soup in the mash. Any succulent, 
 green fodder will serve the purpose, but if none is avail- 
 able, then lucerne, or clover hay, chaff, or meal, or even 
 wheaten or oaten hay-chaff may be scalded and used. 
 
 The ducklings must be grown without a check. The 
 quicker they grow the better. As the size increases the 
 flocks must be split up, until at length five or six in a 
 pen remain. When dividing them the largest and most 
 forward should be placed together, and they should be 
 graded to size. They should be kept quiet and imdis- 
 turbed ; nothing is worse for ducklings than a fright 
 such as is caused by strangers, dogs, or any sudden and 
 considerable noise. 
 
 As previously stated, ducklings are very keen scented, 
 and can instantly detect any change in their food and 
 may turn from it. If obtainable, plenty of milk should 
 be used in the mash ; if not, during the last ten days 
 or fortnight sweet fat may be added, at the rate of i lb. 
 for each forty ducklings daily. The fat should be 
 thoroughly incorporated with the meal before the mash 
 is mixed. The green food should be gradually diminished, 
 as also the animal food (except the fat), so that during 
 the final period of ten days they may be fed on meal 
 mash only. Both green food and meat prejudicially 
 influence the quality of the flesh if kept on too long. 
 
 Large ducklings of the Pekin, Aylesbury — or a cross 
 between the two — breeds should be ready at from eight 
 to ten weeks, and average 6 lb. killed and plucked. 
 
FEEDING DUCKS AND TURKEYS loi 
 
 Stock Ducks should be well fed while young, but 
 should not be specially fattened. When well grown they 
 may have water (running for preference) to swim in. 
 They will greatly improve with the exercise. They 
 should be kept going steadily until full grown. On no 
 account should they be starved, but they should be kept 
 in poor condition until near the breeding time, when they 
 may have more generous diet. For producing the best 
 stock, only ducks in their second year should be used. 
 These may be mated with well-grown yearling drakes. 
 During the breeding season the stock ducks should have 
 daily access to a pond of water. 
 
 Turkeys can be bred with consistent success when 
 on free range only. They delight and thrive in country 
 which abounds in open spaces, well grassed and sur- 
 rounded by low bush, which affords shelter from rough 
 winds. Two-year-old birds are preferable for breeding 
 from, but not younger. The eggs can be hatched under 
 ordinary hens, or in incubators ; but very satisfactory 
 results are to be had by letting the turkey hen select 
 her own nest. When the young are hatched, they and 
 the mother hen should be brought in at night and housed 
 in a secure coop, so constructed that the hen has plenty 
 of room and the chicks can run in and out. 
 
 The chicks are almost voiceless and appear stupid, 
 but are much hardier than they look, if not coddled. If 
 the weather is wet they may be confined to the coop ; 
 long, wet grass is the thing to be feared and guarded 
 against. 
 
 The chicks should be fed little and often ; the old 
 hen will eat most of the food until the chicks learn to 
 know their feeder and eat apart from their mother. 
 Turkey chicks have very small crop capacity, and so need 
 many feeds a day. They are good foragers, and thrive and 
 
102 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 grow where a chicken (fowl) would die of starvation. 
 Mash and chicken mixtures, with any amount of cut 
 green food and a little garlic, will suit them well. 
 When six or seven weeks old they are generally on the 
 safe road, and the old hen may be let out to take them 
 to " fresh woods and pastures new." They are great 
 wanderers, so they must be looked after during the day 
 and fed well, and accustomed to come home at night 
 for their final feed. 
 
 Grass-fed birds, i.e. those which have httle food 
 other than what they gain in the fields, are not suited 
 for market purposes. For a month before killing they 
 should be fed several times a day on mash and grain 
 mixed with milk ; they soon put on great weight, and, 
 when in proper condition, should carry a great deal of 
 fine flesh. 
 
 Half-wild turkeys fret and pine in confinement, and 
 very rarely fatten — ^more often they fade away. It is, 
 therefore, important to know how strange birds brought 
 in to fatten were bred. Turkey breeding is likely to be 
 a profitable branch of the poiiltry industry for all time. 
 The demand is increasing, and in many countries the 
 supply is receding to the vanishing point. 
 
 On good stubble land in South AustraUa flocks of 
 upwards of 500 pure and half-bred American bronze 
 turkeys have frequently Uved and thriven without any 
 addition to the food they gathered. Turkeys are invalu- 
 able for destroying grasshoppers, locusts, and other 
 pests. On such food they thrive and fatten. 
 
PART II 
 NOTES ON THE CHEMISTRY OF FOODS 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 The Proteins 
 
 In Part I. various details of foods, their rough analyses, 
 and the most approved methods of feeding were dealt 
 with. In many instances the reader was referred to 
 Part II. for further information. I feel more confident, 
 day after day, that our breeders are in urgent need of 
 a more systematic and scientific study of foods and 
 feeding. To obtain this, one must know something of 
 their composition. The chemist is not content with the 
 crude information that a substance is composed of pro- 
 tein, fat, etc., or substances of a general like nature. 
 He submits them to processes of dissociation, or splitting 
 up into their utmost particles. As will be seen, in the 
 course of this study, there are many chemical combina- 
 tions, acids, bases, etc., which are common alike to bird, 
 mammal, and vegetables. Plant life draws its substance 
 from the soil, aided by sunlight — ^the animal lives on the 
 products of vegetation, directly or indirectly. 
 
 A vast amount of knowledge has been accumulated, 
 and more recently some of the foremost chemists have 
 specialised with marked results. I thankfully acknow- 
 ledge the great help I have derived in the study of the 
 epoch-marking works of Mann, Aders Plimmer, Leathes, 
 
 103 
 
104 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Frankland, Armstrong, Schryver, Osborne, and Bayliss, 
 and I have given many extracts verbatim from these 
 authors. In so doing, and in using their exact phraseo- 
 logy, the full significance of their opinions on important 
 points will be evident. In the preface of this work full 
 details of the bibliography referred to are given, and I 
 can recommend readers no more inspiring and useful 
 occupation than a close study of the books mentioned. 
 
 If the reader should be unacquainted with the che- 
 mistry of foods, he is advised to refer back to Part I., 
 and re-read the various paragraphs describing the pro- 
 teins, fats, etc., and then continue their study in Part II. 
 I have endeavoured to make matters as clear as pos- 
 sible, and have given names of substances with their 
 chemical formulae, and have occasionally added bracketed 
 information when making a quotation. The needs of 
 chemistry are shown in the particular nomenclature, to 
 understand the origin of which generally requires a 
 knowledge of languages, physiology, and anatomy. It 
 is, of course, impossible to give full explanations on every 
 point within the limits of this work. 
 
 THE PROTEINS 
 
 The proteins are met with in nature in the following 
 states : — 
 
 1. In the form of solutions in the fluids of plants 
 and animals, e.g. in blood, lymph, sap, etc. 
 
 2. As " protoplasm " in the cells and tissues of 
 plants and animals. This plasm is a mixture of 
 albuminous substances, and other organic and in- 
 organic compounds. It possesses a definite struc- 
 tural arrangement, and occupies a middle position 
 between the solid and the fluid states. The animal- 
 supporting structures, built up of the so-called 
 
THE PROTEINS io3 
 
 albuminoids, are in a somewhat firmer state than 
 
 ordinary cell plasm. 
 
 3. As reserve material in the form of firm or even 
 
 crystalline structures, which act as storehouses for 
 
 the developing embryo of plants and animals. 
 "Proteins form a well-defined group of organic com- 
 pounds with definite physical and chemical properties. 
 They are for the greater part built up of a-amino acids 
 linked to one another as acid amines. Their general 
 characters agree to such an extent that a doubt hardly 
 ever arises in our minds as to whether a given substance 
 is, or is not, a protein, and already amino acids have 
 been combined into aggregates, giving the tests of such 
 proteins as are found normally in animals and plants " 
 (Mann). 
 
 Proteins may be divided into three groups — 
 
 1. The albumins, which occur in nature as 
 " native albumins." They include the albu- 
 minoid substances which form the supporting and 
 connective tissue of the body. 
 
 2. The proteins proper, which are combinations 
 of the native albumins with such other organic 
 compounds as sugars, or radicals containing phos- 
 phorus or iron. 
 
 3. Derivatives of the natural albumins and pro- 
 teins, which retain in their chemical configuration 
 the characteristics of albuminous substances, and 
 are represented by the albumoses, peptones, peptids, 
 and other compounds. " These bodies are met with 
 in nature as products of digestion and metabolism, 
 but they may be also obtained artificially by hydro- 
 lysis of the more complex albuminous substances" 
 (Mann). 
 
 " Proteins," says Schryver, " from different sources 
 
io6 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 have markedly different properties. Some are soluble 
 in water, others are insoluble in pure water but soluble 
 in saline solutions ; others again are soluble in alcohol. 
 The individual proteins have been found to differ from 
 one another both qualitatively and quantitatively as 
 regards the amino acids which they yield on hydrolysis." 
 
 THE VEGETABLE PROTEINS 
 
 In view of the special value attaching to vegetable 
 foods in feeding poultry, I give the following on the 
 authority of Osborne. 
 
 " Proteins are found in the living parts of all plants. They 
 occur ia the dissolved state in the circulating fluids and in the 
 solutions of the cell vacuoles, that is in the cell sap. In a semi- 
 dissolved state they occur in protoplasm, and in the undissolved 
 state as reserve protein in the cells of seeds, tubers, bulbs, buds, 
 roots. In many of the cells of these parts of the plant the un- 
 dissolved protein is found in the form of well-developed crystals 
 of various forms, formerly called crystalloids ; in irregular, semi- 
 crystaUine forms with facets and angles on a part of their surface, 
 and as regular or distorted spheres, all of which several forms are 
 found in aleurone grains ; and in an amorphous, finely granular 
 form, generally designated aleurone. The reserve protein occurs 
 in the cells, together with the non-nitrogenous reserve food 
 materials, starch, oil, etc., which several substances fill the cells, 
 leaving a thin layer of dried protoplasm between them and the 
 cell wall. In most dicotyledonous seeds the cells containing the 
 reserve protein are distributed among those of the embryo 
 tissues. In roots, bulbs, and tubers the undissolved reserve 
 protein occurs suspended in the cell sap, frequently in the form 
 of crystals. 
 
 " Little that is definite is known concerning the chemical 
 properties of any of the plant proteins except those of seeds. 
 The total protein is contained in several different parts of tlie 
 seed, namely in the endosperm cells as reserve protein, in the 
 protoplasm of these cells, and in the cells composing tlie tissues 
 of the embryo, both in the cytoplasm and in the nuclei. It is 
 probable that most of the reserve protein is yielded by the cells 
 
THE PROTEINS 107 
 
 of the embryo as well as by the protoplasm of the endosperm 
 cells. With most seeds definite evidence of this has not yet been 
 obtained, but in the case of wheat the embryos are separated 
 by the commercial process of milhng in a nearly pure condition, 
 and a study of this product has shown that those proteins which 
 are obtained only in small quantity from the entire seed are 
 present in relatively large amounts in this embryo meal. The 
 proteins of this embryo, both in chemical and physical character, 
 differ from those of the endosperm and resemble more nearly the 
 physiologically active proteins of animal tissues. These embryo 
 proteins are globuUn, albumin, and proteose, and associated with 
 them is a large quantity of nucleic acid, so that products similar to 
 the nucleo-proteins and nucleins are also obtained from this meal. 
 " The flour of the entire kernel of samples of spring and winter 
 wheat yielded ; — 
 
 Spring Wheat % Winter Wheat % 
 
 Glutenin. 
 Gliadin . 
 GlobuUn . 
 Albumin 
 Proteose 
 
 4-68 4-17 
 
 3-96 390 
 
 •62 -63 
 
 •39 -36 
 
 ■21 -43 
 
 Osborne and Campbell obtained from the wheat 
 embryo meal no gliadin or glutenin, 10% of albumin, 
 5 % of globulin, and about 3 % of proteose. The embryo 
 meal contains a relatively large proportion of nucleated 
 cells and therefore a large amount of nucleic acid. 
 
 The proteins of seeds have been the subject of exten- 
 sive investigation, and we now know much concerning 
 the chemical and physical properties of a number of 
 different proteins from several species of seeds. Most 
 of these, which are unquestionably the reserve proteins 
 of these seeds, are products of the metabolism of the 
 plant, and, in the fully ripe seed, no longer take part in 
 its physiological processes. They may, therefore, be 
 regarded in a sense analogous to excretory products, for, 
 as Pfeiffer says, " all protoplasmic secretions which 
 appear externally and are lost to the plant, or which 
 
io8 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 can take no further part in metabolism, are to be re- 
 garded as excretory substances." 
 
 In many ways the reserve seed proteins bear a relation 
 to the physiologically active tissues of the parent plant, 
 similar to that which the animal albuminoids bear to 
 the physiologically active tissues of the animal, for the 
 reserve protein of ripe seeds has even less connection 
 with the living tissues of the plant which produced it 
 than the albuminoids of hair, horn, and hoof have with 
 the living tissues of the animal. 
 
 As already stated, the proteins extracted from seeds 
 are obtained in various forms, which represent distinctly 
 different protein substances. The solubiUty of the protein 
 matter in different seeds varies greatly, but in general it 
 is found that a part is soluble in water, a part is soluble 
 in neutral saline solutions, and a part is insoluble in 
 either of these solutions, but soluble in dilute solutions 
 of acids and alkalies, while in the seeds of cereals a 
 part is also soluble in alcohol at from 70 to 90%. 
 
 Seed proteins differ in a marked degree from the 
 animal proteins, for most of them are very incompletely 
 coagulated by heating their solutions even to boiling. 
 No fundamental chemical difference exists in the cha- 
 racter of the amino acids from which the molecules of 
 the vegetable proteins are constructed and those which 
 form the molecules of the animal proteins. In general 
 the plant proteins 5deld more glataminic acid than the 
 animal, and many of them 5deld more ammonia. 
 
 The following classification of proteins is that adopted 
 by Aders PHmmer : — 
 
 I. Protamines, e.g. salmine, sturine, clupeine, scorn- 
 brine, cyclopterine, cyprinine. 
 
 II. Histories, e.g. Thymus histone. Lota and Gadus 
 histone, and histone from blood corpuscles. 
 
THE PROTEINS 109 
 
 ■III. Albumins, e.g. ovalbumin, conalbumin, serum 
 albumin, and various plant albumins. Albumins con- 
 tain no glycine. 
 
 IV. Globulins, e.g. serum globulin, fibrinogen and its 
 derivative fibrin ; myosinogen and its derivative myosin ; 
 crystalline vegetable globulins, edestin, excelsin. Globu- 
 lins contain glycine. 
 
 V. Glutelins, e.g. legumin, conglutin, amandin, occur- 
 ring in plants, soluble in dilute alkali. 
 
 VI. Gliadins, e.g. wheat gliadin, hordein, zein, in 
 cereals. These are much alike. 
 
 VII. Phospho-proteins, e.g. caseinogen, vitellin, icthu- 
 lin. 
 
 VIII. Sclero-proteins, e.g. keratin from hair, horn, 
 feathers, egg membrane, collagen, gelatin, elastin, silk 
 fibroin, silk gelatin. 
 
 IX. Conjugated Proteins : 
 
 (a) Nucleoproteins : nucleic acid in combina- 
 tion with the proteins I., II., III., IV. above. 
 
 (6) Chromoproteins : chromogenic substances in 
 combination with protein, e.g. haemoglobin. 
 
 (c) Glucoproteins : carbohydrates in combination 
 with proteins, e.g. mucin, ovomucoid. 
 
 X. Derivatives of Proteins : 
 
 (a) Metaproteins, e.g. acid albumins, alkali glo- 
 bulin. 
 
 (6) Proteoses, e.g. caseose, albumose, globulose. 
 
 (c) Peptones, e.g. fibrin peptones. 
 
 (d) Polypeptides, e.g. glycyl-alanine, leucyl-glut- 
 aminic acid, etc. 
 
 All the proteins except the protamihes, histones, and 
 derivatives of the proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen in the following elemen- 
 tary composition ; — 
 
110 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 51 to 55 per cent, 
 
 7 .. ,. 
 
 15 to 17 „ 
 
 •04 to 25 „ „ 
 
 20 to 30 „ 
 
 The protein molecule is built up of a series of amino 
 acids. Those known at present are classified as : — 
 
 A. Mono-amino Monocarboxylic Acids 
 
 1. Glycine (or glycocoll) (CgHgNOj), amino acetic 
 acid. Is found in gelatin, but not in albumin, casein- 
 ogen, and haemoglobin. It is found in small amounts in 
 vegetable proteins. 
 
 2. Alanine (CjHyNOj), amino proprionic acid. Is 
 widely distributed in all proteins. The aromatic deriva- 
 tives are phenylalanin, tyrosin, and the mother substances 
 of the indol radicle of albumins. 
 
 3. Valine (CgHnNOj), a-amino isovalerianic acid. 
 Is found in aqueous extracts of pancreas, extracts from 
 seedUngs, in horn, caseinogen, and other proteins, and 
 it may occur in the zein of maize. 
 
 4. Leucine (CgHjjNOa), a-amino isocaproic acid. This 
 has been found in all proteins, with the exception of the 
 protamines. It is found in meat, caseinogen (of cheese 
 or milk), fibrin, and albumin. It contains ammonia and 
 caproic acid. Leucine occurs as an early result in protein 
 cleavage. Is found in some cases of liver disease in 
 man. Leucine is used in medicine (contains o-68% 
 prussic acid), (HCN). 
 
 5. Isolettcine (CgHigNOj). a-amino S-methyl ^S-ethyl 
 proprionic acid. Is most widely distributed. This and 
 leucine are the only two isomers of amino caproic acid 
 in the protein molecule. In combination with tyrosine 
 
THE PROTEINS m 
 
 and valine it forms a very important part of most 
 proteins. 
 
 6. Phenylalanine (CgHiiNO^), /8-phenyl, a-amino- 
 proprionic acid. Is present in all proteins. Is the prin- 
 cipal aromatic constituent and occurs when tyrosine is 
 absent. It is found in germinating seeds. 
 
 7. Tyrosine (CjHuNOj), /8-parahydroxylphenyl- 
 a-amino-proprionic acid. Is found in mucin and vari- 
 ous other proteins. It is one of the aromatic compounds. 
 It is found in plants (elderberries, potatoes, cucumber 
 seeds), also in zein, koratin, casein, and protalbumose 
 Oxyphenylalanin is a derivative. It forms a portion of 
 trypsin. 
 
 8. Serine (C3H7NO3), j8-hydroxy-a-amino-proprionic 
 acid. Is present in all proteins and in silk. 
 
 9. Cystine (CJH12N2O4S2), or Dicystine, di-/3-thio-a- 
 amino-proprionic acid. This is the only sulphur-con- 
 taining compound in the protein molecule. Cysteine 
 is a derivative. Protein cystine and stone cystein are 
 identical. Keratins are richest in sulphur and cystine ; 
 other albumins contain less. Casein and egg-white con- 
 tain traces. Momer says, " Not only in serum albu- 
 min, serum globulin, horn, hair, but also in fibrinogen, 
 egg albumin, casein, and the shell membrane of hen's 
 eggs, the whole of the sulphur is in some form of cystine. 
 Cystine is a cleavage product of protein metabolism 
 loosely bound and easily split off at an early stage of 
 the intestinal digestion. It is the mother substance of 
 the sulphates, the unoxidised sulphur, and the salts of 
 dithyonic acid (H^SaOC) in the urine." 
 
 B. The Mono-amino-dicarboxylic Acids 
 
 10. Aspartic Acid (C4H7NO4), amino succinic acid. 
 Asparagine, the amide of aspartic acid, is found in 
 
112 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 asparagus and in seedlings of lupines, peas, vetches, etc- 
 It is also found in egg-white and in the vitelline prepared 
 from the yolk. It is one of the chief dissociation products 
 of germinating seeds. Aspartic acid contains 770% 
 prussic acid (HCN), the formation of which Mann says 
 is " unexplainable." 
 
 11. Glutaminic Acid (CsHgNOi), amino glutaric acid. 
 Is the homologue of aspartic acid, and is found in the 
 albumins of the pancreas, in casein, and in all proteins, 
 except the protamines. Is found in wheat gluten (from 
 25 to 36% in ghadin), and from 12% in zein of maize, 
 and in the other vegetable proteins. The amide glut- 
 amin is found in the extracts of seedhngs. 
 
 C. The Diamino-monocarboxylic Acid 
 
 12. Arginine (CgHi4N402) a-amino S-guanidin valeri- 
 anic acid. Is one of the hexone bases, and is an import- 
 ant part of the protein molecule. Ornithin is a con- 
 stituent, and is found in the urine of birds as omi- 
 thuric acid. Arginine is found in all vegetable proteins, 
 in horn, gelatin, conglutin, vitellin, egg albumin, blood 
 serum, caseinogen, elastin. Contains 0-12% prussic 
 acid (HCN). It forms part of the k5nins. 
 
 13. Lysine (C6H14N2O2), a e-diamino caproic acid. 
 Is a widely distributed dissociation product of proteins ; 
 it is only absent from a few vegetable proteins. It is 
 found in the greatest quantity in casein and gelatin, 
 and is also found in egg albumin, conglutin, fibrin, in 
 antipeptones, and the protamins, germinating seedlings 
 and vegetable proteins. It contains cadaverin. Lysine 
 is a hexone base, and, like arginine, is an important part 
 of the protein molecule. Lysine hydrochloride contains 
 o-o8 prussic acid (HCN). Lysine forms part of the 
 kyrins. 
 
THE PROTEINS 113 
 
 D. Diamino-oxy-monocarboxylic Acid 
 
 (Glucose is converted into lactic and the oxyacids by 
 
 alkalies.) 
 
 14. Caseinic Acid. — CiaHagNaOs), diamino-trioxydo- 
 decanic acid. 
 
 E. Heterocyclic Compounds 
 
 15. ffjsfi'A'we (C5H9N3O2). Is obtained during hydro- 
 lysis of various proteins, including those of the vegetable 
 group. It is possible that histidine and the purin bodies 
 are synthesised in the body. Is found in casein and egg- 
 white. With the exception of the protamins has been 
 found in all proteins, and is most abundant in globin 
 (the albumin of haemoglobin). 
 
 16. Proline (C5H9NO2), pyrrolidin-carboxylic acid. Is 
 found in egg albumen, caseinogen, gelatin, and other 
 proteins. 
 
 17. OxyproUne (C5H9NO3), hydroxy-a-pyrrolidin car- 
 boxylic acid. This is one of the dissociation products 
 of gelatin. 
 
 18. Tryptophane (CiiHuNjOa), Indol-amino-proprionic 
 acid. This is one of the units of the protein molecule, 
 and is the origin of indol and skatol, and related sub- 
 stances, occurring in putrefaction. Indol is formed in 
 large amounts in the large intestine, and skatol in small 
 amounts. The derivatives, skatol carboxyhc and skatol 
 acetic acids, give the characteristic odour to the faeces. 
 Tryptophane probably exists in most proteins. It is 
 found in casein and egg-white, but is absent from gelatin 
 and heteroalbumose. Kynurenic acid (C10H7NO3) is a 
 derivative. 
 
 Group I., the protamines, and Group II., the distones, 
 do not particularly concern us in our food studies : the 
 exception is the histone from blood corpuscles. 
 
114 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 THE ALBUMINS 
 
 Mann says : " When we read in older descriptions 
 about ' albumins ' and especially about their physio- 
 logical properties, we must remember that the simple 
 coagulable albumins are meant ; or, in other words, 
 what are now called ' albumins proper ' and globulins. 
 Two albumins we know — serum albumin and lact albu- 
 min ; but it is customary also to include egg albumin, 
 although the latter ought to be classified among the 
 glyco-proteids." 
 
 Egg albumin forms the chief constituent of egg-white, 
 and also contains a globulin and a mucoid. The high 
 glucosamin content of egg-white, viz. lo to 16%, is 
 of interest. The sulphur content varies from i-i8 to 
 17 in various analyses. 
 
 The chlorides, nitrates, and sulphates of all albiraiins 
 are much more soluble in water than are pure albumins. 
 Gastric juice gives rise to chlorides of the albumoses 
 and peptones. The salts which albumins form with 
 ammonia, with fixed alkalies, and with alkaline earths, 
 are still more important, because the acid Edbumins, 
 nucleo-albumins, mucins, etc., occur in nature as such 
 readily soluble salts (Mann). Coagulation renders albu- 
 mins less readily digestible by pepsin and trypsin. 
 
 The albumin, taken as food, is converted in the ali- 
 mentary canal of the higher animals by means of four 
 proteolytic ferments — ^pepsin, trypsin, erepsin, and argi- 
 nine — into primary crystalhne dissociation products — 
 the amino acids, which are then absorbed in this form. 
 Whether a part of the albumin taken as food can, or 
 cannot be, absorbed in the form of albumoses, peptones, 
 and peptids, is a question which has not been settled. 
 Cohnheim states that it has become probable that the 
 animal body can build up its proteids from all nitro- 
 
THE PROTEINS ii5 
 
 genous compounds, provided that these can be acted 
 upon by its ferment. Kossel and Mann beheve that 
 from the physiological standpoint we are nowadays not 
 justified in believing that meat albumins possess the 
 same nutritive values as milk albumin or the albumin of 
 maize. These substances differ in their chemical con- 
 stitution and therefore must play different parts in 
 nutrition. Kossel has looked on this matter from another 
 point of view. He draws attention to the fact that 
 arginase is, up till now, the only dissociation product 
 which has been found in all albumins, and that certain 
 albumins exist, viz. the protamines, and that the pro- 
 tamines appear relatively simple, because of the smaller 
 number of compounds that contain them. Whenever 
 the other amino daci increases in number and com- 
 plexity, arginine diminishes in amount. He therefore 
 considers arginine as the nucleus of the albumin mole- 
 cule. (Kyrins are bases consisting for the greater part 
 of arginine and lysine.) 
 
 If egg albumin is eaten in large quantities it is 
 absorbed undigested, and is excreted in the urine, 
 damaging simultaneously the renal epithelium. In 
 further discussing dissociation products, Mann says : 
 " It will be seen that the powers of desamination vary 
 not only greatly among different organs, but also 
 as regards individual amino acid radicles, which are 
 subject to the influence of the tissue compounds." 
 He mentions many pathological states due to faulty 
 metabolism. 
 
 In referring to the group termed " albuminoids," he 
 says, " This group comprises a series of albuminous 
 substances which form the supporting structures in 
 animals or the connective tissues of the histologist. They 
 do not form part of the cell, but are structures which 
 
"6 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 have been secreted by the cells, the latter during forma- 
 tion of the supporting tissues becoming included in the 
 secretions. Albuminoids are absent in the nutritive 
 fluids of animals, such as the blood and lymph. The 
 term albuminoid is thus an anatomical one and com- 
 prises chemically the most divergent substances. Albu- 
 minoids are as much albumins as are the soluble albu- 
 mins, and it is arbitrary to classify them as ' substances 
 resembling albumins,' for the differences between 
 gelatin and keratin and the albumins are by no means 
 greater than are those between the albumins and 
 casein or globulin." No albuminoids are found in 
 plants. 
 
 Ageing of Cells. — Cohnheim says : " Cells are con- 
 stantly renewed by their metabohsm, and do not age. 
 While thus cell albumins and the soluble albumins 
 remain the same during the whole life of the animal, the 
 ground matrix of connective tissue alters in a remark- 
 able way with age. It increases in amount, becomes 
 firmer and harder. This is specially distinct in the 
 connective tissue proper ; while young connective tissue 
 consists essentially of cells with only a Uttle soft ground 
 matrix, it forms in older animals, and also on scar tissues, 
 a coarse, tough, firm mass, which has hardly a single 
 feature in common with young tissue." 
 
 Mann says : " It is a mistake to assume that cells 
 do not age, and that their metabolism keeps them eter- 
 nally young. If this were the case we ought, accord- 
 ing to Cohnheim, only to die because our blood-vessels 
 and other connective tissues have become old. That 
 ageing affects all the cells of the body has been 
 established (by Mann) long ago, and holds good 
 for both vegetable and animal cells. The chief feature 
 of advancing age is diminution of nuclear activity. 
 
THE PROTEINS 117 
 
 i.e. of that factor which normally brings about the 
 synthesis of the simple amino acids into the higher 
 compounds." 
 
 During inanition the connective tissues all over the 
 body, and including the bones, are diminished, i.e. are 
 partly converted into circulatory proteins. 
 
 Coagulation of Egg Albumin. — In hen's eggs and in 
 the eggs of birds the young of which leave their nests 
 as soon as hatched (nidifugous) the alkali albuminate 
 becomes white and opaque on boiling, while the eggs of 
 all birds which remain for a considerable time (nidicolous) 
 in their nests, as is the case with the crow, the swallow, 
 lapwing, etc., the egg-white solidifies into a jelly as 
 clear as glass, as ha? been pointed out by Lieberkiilm 
 and Tarchanoff, who introduced the term " Tata albu- 
 min " after a little Russian girl, who observed that; 
 swallow's eggs remained clear on boiling. The white of i 
 hen's eggs may also be made to solidify into a clear jellyj 
 by placing them for two or three days in a 10 % solution 
 of caustic potash (KOH). 
 
 Vegetable Albumins. — ^The following are definitely 
 known to be albumins : — 
 
 Found in 
 Wheat 
 Leucosin . . . . ■ Rye 
 
 Barley 
 /Pea 
 
 Horse bean 
 Vetch 
 Legumelin . . . jSoy bean 
 
 Lentil 
 
 \Cow pea, etc. 
 Phaselin . . . Kidney bean 
 
 Ricin .... Castor-oil bean 
 
ii8 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Beccari first discovered in wheat flour a substance of 
 a protein nature, which was coagulable — afterwards the 
 juices of many plants yielded similar substances. 
 
 The Globulins. — These are simple, coagulable albu- 
 mins, which differ from the albumins in being insoluble 
 in pure water or dilute acids ; but they are soluble in 
 dilute alkalis and in solutions of neutral salts. Egg 
 globulin contains considerable amounts of glucosamin. 
 The animal globulins are coagulated on heating ; most 
 vegetable globuHns are only imperfectly coagulated, even 
 when heated to boiling-point. Among the many vege- 
 table globuhns which are of interest in regard to poultry 
 foods the following may be selected : 
 
 Legumin, in the pea, horse bean, vetch, and lentiL 
 
 Glycinin, in the soy bean. 
 
 Vicihn, in the pea, horse bean, and lentil. 
 
 Edestin, in hempseed. 
 
 Avenalin, in oats. 
 
 Maysin, in maize. 
 
 Tuberin, in potatoes. 
 
 Unnamed globulins have been found in flax seed, 
 sunflower seeds, rape seed, mustard seed, wheat, rye, 
 rice, barley, maize, and oats in addition to the above. In 
 the wheat kernel the globulin occurs in the embryo, and 
 probably the same is true of many other seeds. In oats, 
 however, where the percentage is greater, it is probable 
 that the globulin forms part of the reserve protein. 
 
 The Glutelins, — ^These are of vegetable origin, but 
 that found in wheat is the only glutelin which is weU 
 established. Protein matter can be obtained from rye 
 and barley flour, also from maize. Gluten is a by-product 
 of the manufacture of starch from maize, and is much 
 used in America as food for poultry and other stock. 
 After the zein has been extracted a considerable amount 
 
THE PROTEINS 119 
 
 of other protein can be obtained, but which differs from 
 zein. A glutelin from rice has been obtained and named 
 oryzenin. 
 
 Vitellin. — ^This is a phosphorus containing albumin- 
 ous substance prepared from the yolk of eggs. The mem- 
 brane containing the yolk is termed the vitelline mem- 
 brane. Vitelline contains 12% nitrogen and 1-31% 
 phosphorus. The coagulation point is 75° C. Para- 
 mucleic acid (haematogen) contains 9-88% phosphorus, 
 also masked iron. Vitellin contains a carbohydrate 
 radical, and is therefore similar to ichthulin found in 
 the eggs of fish. In vitellin the glycine content is small. 
 
 Histones. — The first histone was isolated from the 
 blood corpuscles of a goose. Globin is a histone, although 
 t contains less than the typical amount of arginin ; but 
 it contains more histidin than does any other albumin. 
 The goose-blood histone is quite distinct from globin, 
 as it is contained in the nucleo, while haemoglobin is only 
 present in the cell plasm. The histone of goose blood 
 contains 18 % nitrogen and 0-5 % sulphur. In vegetable 
 proteins it seems probable that histone will be found, 
 judging by the reactions of edestan (obtained from 
 edestin chloride) from hemp. 
 
 Globin. — ^This is the essential radical of haemoglobin. 
 The globin of oxyhaemoglobin of horse blood contains 
 glycocoll, alanin, leucin, phenylalanin, a-pyrrolidin car- 
 boxylic acid, glutaminic acid, aspartic acid, cystine, 
 serine, tyrosine, lysine, histidin, arginin, tryptophane, 
 and ammonia. Haemoglobin is the red colouring matter 
 in the blood ; it is also found in some muscles. The red 
 corpuscles of the blood of a goose contain from 62 to 
 65%, and of man 94-3%. The remainder of the cor- 
 puscle consists of the framework, envelope, and in 
 non-mammals of the nuclei. The envelopes are composed 
 
120 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 of cholesterin and lecithin. In addition to globin, haemo- 
 globin contains iron (hsematin), an organic form which, 
 in combination with oxygen, forms oxyhaemoglobin, on 
 which respiration depends. It is interesting to note that 
 the molecule of haemoglobin is gigantic in size, compared 
 with the molecule of other substances. 
 
 The analysis of the haemoglobin of a goose and of a 
 fowl is interesting : — 
 
 
 C H N S 
 
 Fe 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Goose 
 
 . 5426 7-10 i6-2i 0-54 
 
 0-43 
 
 20-69 
 
 0.34^.77 
 
 Fowl 
 
 . 52-47 7-19 16-45 0-85 
 
 0-33 
 
 12-5 
 
 0-198 
 
 The hsematin (iron) content is 4 to 4-5%. The 
 sulphur is partly in the form of cystin in the globin. The 
 haematin of all animals is alike, while the albuminous 
 element is not. Haemoglobins differ greatly from one 
 another as regards their solubilities. The coagulation 
 temperature is 64° C, but it decomposes if kept at 54° C. 
 The haemoglobins of the goose, duck, and pigeon crystallise 
 readily. 
 
 When the manufacture of haemoglobin is more exten- 
 sive and the price more moderate, I beheve its use as 
 an addition to poultry foods will be of the greatest value, 
 for the organic iron content alone. Haemoglobin is pre- 
 scribed by the medical faculty in place of inorganic 
 iron, especially for such systems as do not tolerate 
 the latter. 
 
 No proteins resembling haemoglobin have yet been 
 found in plants. 
 
 Glyco-proteins. — Mucin and egg albumin, according 
 to Mann, belong to this group of albuminous substances, 
 which contain a carbohydrate or its derivative. In the 
 albumin of egg yolk a carbohydrate has been found. 
 Glyco-proteins contain a large amount of sulphur. As 
 
THE PROTEINS 
 
 121 
 
 regards its occurrence in plants, Osborne states " little 
 that is definite can be said." 
 
 Nucleo-proteins. — ^Phosphoric acid is a characteristic 
 dissociation product of nucleic acids. Iron is contained 
 in most nucleo-proteins, if not in all — and if we except 
 the iron present in the haemoglobin, the main bulk of 
 the remaining iron concerned in metabolism is com- 
 bined in the nucleo-proteins. The nucleo-proteins are 
 the agencies by which amino acids are built up into the 
 cell plasm (Mann). 
 
 Nucleo-proteins are found in vegetable cells. Osborne 
 and Campbell f oimd them in large amount in the wheat 
 embryo, the products of which consisted of protein com- 
 bined with very different proportions of nucleic acid. 
 The aqueous extract of the wheat embryo contains a 
 large proportion of nucleic acid. 
 
 The composition of the wheat embryo (extracted by 
 water) is as follows (Osborne) : 
 
 Carbon 
 
 • 51-13 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 . 6-85 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 . 16-28 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 . i-i8 
 
 Phosphorus . 
 
 •72 
 
 Ash ... . 
 
 • 273 
 
 Phosphoric acid in ash . 
 
 . 1-88 
 
 The Mucins. — ^Mucins are found in most of the sUmy 
 fluids in the body, and they cause the sliminess. They are 
 excreted normally, partly by the goblet cells of the mucous 
 membrane, and partly by the deeply seated mucous 
 glands, and in particular by the submaxillary gland. 
 
 Scherer described two substances, metalbumin and 
 paralbumin, obtained from the contents of an ovarial 
 
122 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 cyst. Mann says : " In normal Graafian follicles, and 
 also in the so-called ' hydrops-ovarii/ Pfannenstiel 
 found only albumin, presumably serum albumin and 
 serum globulin, while the proliferating, papillary, or 
 glandular cystomata always contain, according to Oerum 
 and Pfannenstiel, pseudo mucin, which imparts to them 
 a more or less mucous or viscous character. Oerum 
 found in ovarial cystomata o-88 to 10-83% albuminous 
 bodies." 
 
 The Mucoids. — ^The mucoids are found partly in solu- 
 tion, as in the blood serum, and in egg-white, or in 
 ascitic fluid, and partly with collagen, etc.. in the tissues. 
 Cartilage, apart from the cells enclosed in it, consists of 
 an albuminoid forming a net-work of collagen and mucoid. 
 Ovimucoid is a glyco-protein contained in egg-white, in 
 addition to the albumin and globiihn. In egg-white 
 it is one-eighth of the organic content, equal to 1-5% of 
 the solution. From 100 grammes of ovimucoid Seemann 
 obtained 294 grammes of glucosamin, and obtained 
 among the dissociation products acetic acid and a di- 
 ethyl-sulphino fatty acid. Serum mucoid in blood serum 
 closely resembles ovimucoid. 
 
 Collagen. — ^This comes from the glue-3delding tissues 
 which compose the fibrils of white fibrous tissue, and the 
 ground substance of bone and cartilage. When treated 
 with boiling water it passes into solution and is then 
 turned into gelatine, gelatin, or glue. In noting the 
 gelatine content of some meat meals, it may be pointed 
 out that gelatine has a low heat value ; it is from 500 
 to 700 calories lower heating power than most other 
 albuminous substances. Among the dissociation pro- 
 ducts of gelatin are glycocoll, or sweat glue (16-5%), 
 also glutaminic acid, pyrrolidin, and oxy-pjnrolidin- 
 carboxylic acid, arginin, and lysin. It is poor in histidin. 
 
THE PROTEINS 123 
 
 but contains phenylalanin ; tyrosin and tryptophane are 
 absent. 
 
 Keratin. — ^This protein is a constituent of the homy 
 substance in birds and mammals, and is found in the 
 stratum corneum of the epidermis, in nails, hoofs, feathers, 
 hair, mandibles of birds, horn, and in the egg-shells and 
 membranes of eggs. Neurokeratins are found in the 
 medullary sheath of meduUated nerves. It is the most 
 insoluble of the albuminoids. A hot 10% solution of 
 caustic potash (KOH) dissolves it, while a 20% cold 
 solution will render it pliable, but liable to decomposi- 
 tion. Among the dissociation products of keratin from 
 the egg-shell are leucin, cystin, and oxy-pyrrolidin car- 
 boxylic acid. Young keratin differs chemically from 
 old keratin. Keratin is distinguished by containing 
 more cystin (7-62 %) than any other protein. 
 
 Amyloid. — Under certain pathological conditions 
 (Mann) this protein may occur, especially when accom- 
 panied by great protein disintegration, in enormous 
 quantities in the liver, spleen, and kidney, as a shiny, 
 homogeneous mass, and when in large quantities gives 
 the organ a firm, almost wooden consistency and a 
 peculiar greasy appearance resembling bacon. 
 
 Eeratinoid. — ^This is obtainable from the horny layer 
 of the muscular stomach (gizzard) of birds, and differs 
 from keratin in possessing less sulphur and less tyrosin. 
 
 Melanins. — The black colouring of hair (and feathers), 
 etc., is due to melanin, and so also is the colouring of 
 some tumours. A negro has 3-3 grammes, in his skin, of 
 pigmentary granules of which amount only i gramme 
 consists of pigment, the remaining 2-3 grammes consist 
 of colourless substratum and other organic matter (Mann). 
 Urine containing o-i% of melanin is the colour of dark 
 beer. As much as 300 grammes has been obtained from 
 
124 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 a liver. Some of the dissociation products of albumin, 
 as, for example, glucosamin, tyrosin, tryptophane, and 
 lysin have a tendency to be converted into dark-coloured 
 compounds forming the so-called humin substances when 
 they are boiled with acids. Humins, or melanins, are 
 apt to form in egg-white owing to its large carbohydrate 
 content ; access of oxygen is necessary to its formation. 
 
 Vegetable Phosphoproteins. — " No evidence has as 
 yet been obtained that phosphoproteins occur in plants ; 
 and in view of what is now known it seems probable that 
 these occur in very small quantities if they occiu: at all " 
 (Osborne). 
 
 Animal Phosphoproteins. — Ordinary animal proteins 
 contain very little phosphorus. Ovovitellin contains 
 1-1% (from the egg). 
 
 Biological Relations of Seed Proteins. — The follow- 
 ing will accentuate much that I have written in sup- 
 port of my opinion of the necessity for great variety in 
 food, and also for the more complete study of the com- 
 position of our stock foodstuffs and their many effects, 
 both good and bad. Osborne says: 
 
 " If the chemical and physical properties of the difierent 
 proteins obtained from seeds are compared with one another, 
 it will be noticed that they show many relations which are 
 in harmony with the recognised botanical relations of the 
 seeds, from which they were obtained. The most marked 
 instance of this agreement is shown by the protein constituents 
 of the cereals. These contain a relatively large proportion of prot- 
 amins, which, as we have already stated, are characterised by 
 yielding no lysin and much proline, as well as much glutaminic 
 acid and ammonia, and also by yielding relatively Uttle sirginine 
 and nitidine. 
 
 " The physical properties and general behaviour of all these 
 proteins are much alike and present marked differences from the 
 proteins obtained from other groups of seeds. The proteins from 
 leguminous seeds resemble one another in many respects, but 
 
THE PROTEINS 123 
 
 differ noticeably from those of the cereals. The proteins of the 
 pea, horse bean, lentil, and vetch yield preparations of legumin 
 which have thus far been found to be so nearly alike that no 
 certain distinction can be made between them. The proteins 
 of these seeds, while in the main resembUng those from Phaseolus 
 (kidney bean, etc.), are not the same, for distinct, but slight 
 differences in properties, composition, and products of hydrolysis 
 have been established between them. The proteins of the cow 
 pea and soy bean, while closely resembling, in many respects, the 
 proteins of the legumes just mentioned, are not exactly the 
 same, while the proteins from different species of Lupinus present 
 common characteristics, but differ from the proteins of other 
 leguminous seeds. The proteins of Lupinus, 9iowever, resemble 
 proteins of other leguminous seeds more closely than those found 
 in non-leguminous seeds. The proteins of different species of 
 Juglans (walnut) appear to be identical so far as they have been 
 examined, but differ in one respect or another from the proteins 
 of other plants. 
 
 " We thus find similar proteins only in seeds which are botanic- 
 ally closely related, and it would seem that these differences in 
 the reserve food substances of the seeds must have an important 
 bearing on the development of the embryo which derives its first 
 food from them. This food substance, as well as the tissues of 
 the embryo itself, are the final products of the metabolism of 
 the plant which produced them. When the embryo first develops 
 it is supplied with a definite food which for each individual of 
 the same species is the same, but for those of different species is 
 different. Each member of a species thus begins its individual 
 life under similar chemical conditions, but under chemical con- 
 ditions which are different from tiiose of every other species. 
 It seems probable, therefore, that when the plant has reached a 
 stage of development at which its organs of assimilation are 
 able to furnish it with nutriment from its external surround- 
 ings, its chemical processes have already been established along 
 definite Unes. which it must follow throughout the rest of its 
 life." 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 The Carbohydrates and Hydrocarbons 
 
 THE CARBOHYDRATES 
 
 All carbohydrates, e.g. starch, sugar, and the soluble 
 portions of cellulose, act as fuel in the body. The carbo- 
 hydrates in food are rendered soluble by enzymes ; sugar 
 is soluble, but starch is attacked by the invertase ftyalin 
 in the saUva, and later again by the diastase in pan- 
 creatic juice. As regards cellulose (in fibre, etc.) all 
 seeds contain an enzyme which attacks cellulose in the 
 process of digestion. As stated, while animals do not 
 apparently secrete any cytase or cellulose-attacking 
 enzyme, fibre and cellulose are attacked and reduced by 
 bacterial action in the intestinal tract, and are reduced 
 to sugars and fatty acids, which can be absorbed. 
 Armstrong says : 
 
 " The carbohydrates, together with the proteins, rank first 
 in importance among organic compounds, on account of the part 
 they play, both in plants and animals, as structural elements, 
 and in the maintenance of the functional activity of the organisms. 
 The interest attaching to the group may be said to centre around 
 glucose, this carbohydrate being the first to arise on the plant, 
 and the unit group from which substances, such as cane sugar, 
 maltose, starch, and cellulose are derived. It is also of primary 
 importance in animal metabolism, as the main bulk of the carbo- 
 hydrates in our food materials enters into circulation in the 
 form of glucose. Under natural conditions the higher carbo- 
 hydrates are resolved into the simpler by the hydroljrtic agency 
 of enzymes ; but these also exercise synthetic functions. The 
 simpler carbohydrates are further resolved by processes which 
 
 126 
 
THE CARBOHYDRATES 127 
 
 are undoubtedly akin to that of ordinary alcoholic fermentation. 
 The simple carbohydrates are all of the empirical composition 
 corresponding with the formula CHjO, the most important being 
 those containing five or six atoms of carbon. The members of 
 the sugar group are usually distinguished by names having the 
 suf&x ' ose.' 
 
 " The simplest carbohydrate, CHjO, formaldehyde or formal, 
 is, in all probability, the first product of vital activity in the plant, 
 the carbon dioxide absorbed from the air being converted into 
 this substance by the combined influence of sunlight and chloro- 
 phyll." This is converted into glucose, thence to starch. 
 
 Glucose (CgHijOg), Dextro-glucose, or Dextrose.— 
 Glucose is generally spoken of as grape sugar, as distin- 
 guished from cane sugar, and on account of its occur- 
 rence in grape and fruit juices, together with fructose 
 or cerulose. The three sugars are nearly always found 
 together, and cane sugar, by hydrolysis, is easily resolved 
 into glucose and fructose : 
 
 C12H22O11 -f- HjO = CgHijOg -f- CgHigOg 
 
 Cane sugar Glucose Fructose 
 
 Glucose is formed from starch and other more com- 
 plete substances by the aid of acids or of enzymes, i.e. 
 from lactose (milk sugar) by the enzyme lactase, from 
 malt sugar maltose by the enzyme maltase. Glucose 
 may be prepared by treating starch with dilute sulphuric 
 acid (H2SO4). It never separates into clear, well-defined 
 crystals, but usually in crystalline powder. In commerce 
 it is sold either as a thick syrup or dried in solid blocks. 
 Glucose shows a great tendency to further oxidation ; it 
 then gives rise to three acids — ^gluconic acid, glucoronic 
 acid, and saccharic acid. 
 
 Saccharic acid is formed by the action of nitric acid on 
 glucose, and is used as a test for glucose. It is also formed 
 from sucrose, raffinose, dextrin, starch, etc., all of which 
 contain glucose. 
 
128 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Glucuronic acid is physiologically the most interest- 
 ing oxidation product of glucose — it is frequently found 
 in urine. It has not been found in plants. In the animal 
 organism glucose is normally oxidised — ^to carbon dioxide 
 (COg) and water (HgO). Certain drugs, etc., which are 
 with difficulty oxidisable in the system, combine with glu- 
 cose and form glucosides, and are eventually secreted in 
 the urine. This action of glucose frequently takes place 
 in both plants and animals. Glucose is converted into 
 lactic and other oxyacids by alkalies. 
 
 Glucose and saccharose are the only monosaccharides 
 which occur naturally.' 
 
 HEXOSES AND PENTOSES 
 
 Mannose (CgHijOg) is widely distributed in nature, 
 but not in a simple form. It is generally prepared from 
 the vegetable ivory nut. 
 
 Galactose (CeHigOg) is a constituent of milk sugar, 
 also of rafifinose, and, as galactan, in gums and seaweeds. 
 It resembles glucose in its properties. It may be, under 
 abnormal conditions, such as a sudden frost, foxmd in 
 the sugar beet. Galactose is the sugar of the brain 
 (cerebrose). 
 
 Fructose [Q,^■^^fi^, or levulose, with glucose, occurs in 
 fruit juices ; the mixture is cailled fruit sugar, or invert 
 sugar. Fructose crystallises less easily than glucose. 
 
 Only Two Pentoses Occur in Nature — arabinose 
 (CbHiqOs) in gum and xylose (CbHioOs) in straw. In 
 the animal kingdom pentoses form an important con- 
 stituent of nucleic acids and of the nucleo-proteins. 
 
 THE DISACCHARIDES 
 
 Sucrose (Ci2H240i2), or cane sugar, is widely distri- 
 buted in the vegetable kingdom. Its functions are as a 
 
THE CARBOHYDRATES i^g 
 
 reserve material. It is very soluble in water, is much 
 sweeter than glucose, but is not so sweet as moist sugar. 
 Cane sugar is fermented by yeast only after previous 
 inversion with the invertase (an enzyme) of yeast. 
 
 Maltose (CijHjjOu) is prepared from starch by the 
 action of diastase (amylase) ; the only other product is 
 dextrin. The other enzymes, diastase, invertase, lactase, 
 and emulsin, are without action in maltose. 
 
 Lactose (C12H24O12), or milk sugar, occurs in the 
 milk of all animals, but not in the vegetable kingdom. 
 It is manufactured from whey in the form of a white 
 crystalline powder. Lactose is not hydrolised by maltase, 
 invertase, diastase, nor by any of the enzymes of brewer's 
 yeast. Only those yeasts containing lactase will fer- 
 ment sugar. Lactose is prone to undergo lactic and 
 butyric acid fermentation. The souring of milk is the 
 result ; the lactic acid coagulates the casein, hence the 
 thickening process. 
 
 TRISACCHARIDES (CigHajOig) 
 
 Raffinose from the sugar beet is the best known of 
 this group ; it is present in other plants. It behaves 
 chemically as cane sugar. 
 
 CONVERSION OF GALACTOSE INTO GLUCOSE 
 
 There is little doubt (Armstrong) that this takes place 
 in the organism, as it is only on this supposition that the 
 formation of the galactoside, milk sugar, in large quan- 
 tities in animals during lactation can be accounted for. 
 Under normal conditions the blood transports glucose to 
 the mammary glands, where, in the regular course of 
 lactation, it is converted into the disaccharide, milk 
 sugar, and excreted in' the milk. Removal of the mam- 
 mary gland results in an accumulation of glucose in the 
 J 
 
130 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 blood, from which it passes to the urine. Injections of 
 glucose cause lactosuria, when the mammary glands are 
 in full activity, but produce glucosuria when the glands 
 are less active. 
 
 THE GLUCOSIDES 
 
 These, as a class, are generally colourless, crystalline 
 sohds, having a bitter taste, as amygdalin in almonds, 
 etc., and salicin in the willow, etc. They are obtained 
 by extraction of the plant substances with water or 
 alcohol. The term is applied to a large number of bodies 
 which furnish a glucose, and one or more other products 
 when hydrohsed by acids. Small quantities of gluco- 
 sides are usually present in plants. Although of great 
 scientific interest, the principal glucosides hitherto in- 
 vestigated have no close bearing on the present work. 
 The following, however, may be considered : 
 
 CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES 
 
 Of these there are several, as hydrocyanic acid (HCN), 
 which have been discovered in various plants. 
 
 Dhurrin was isolated from the leaves and stem of the 
 great millet, and is found in sorghimi, in certain stages of 
 growth. The formation of hydrocyanic acid is due to 
 the decomposition of a glucoside. 
 
 STARCH (CgHioOs) 
 
 Starch is abundant in vegetable products, and is in 
 granular form. Many grains and seeds contain consider- 
 able amounts. It is contained in potatoes and other 
 tubers and roots. This point has been referred to in 
 discussing the various foods in Part I. 
 
 Glycogen (CeHy,OB), or animal starch. The starches 
 are stored up, as glycogen or animal starch, pending 
 metabolism in the liver, muscles, etc. It is said to be 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS 131 
 
 changed at death into glucose, maltose, and isomaltose. 
 It is prescribed in medicine and is stated to improve 
 nutrition. 
 
 THE HYDROCARBONS (FATS, OILS, ETC.) 
 
 All true fats are composed of organic acids with an 
 organic, radical glyceryl (CjHgOg). In fats this is tri- 
 valent. but in waxes, which are similar in constitution 
 to fats and oils, the bases are monovalent radicals of 
 more complex character. Glyceryl is present in all true 
 fats. In plants the oil accumulates in the seed, and 
 many, such as rape, soy bean, sunflower, flax seed, 
 contain large quantities. It frequently occurs that seeds 
 rich in starch are low in oil content. In most of the 
 estimations of fat that have been carried out in physio- 
 logical investigations, particularly those of earher date, 
 the nature of the fat in the product weighed has not 
 received proper attention. The principal fats in the 
 formation of which acid and glycerin as the alcohol 
 take part are palmitin, stearin, and olein. Butter, for 
 instance, consists of ethereal salts of glycerin and several 
 fatty acids, including palmitic, stearic, and butyric. 
 
 Leathes says : 
 
 " The fat or oil in animal or vegetable tissues is obtained for 
 commercial purposes by methods which are seldom available 
 in physiological investigations. The material is heated by itself, 
 or with water, and the melted fat is poured or skimmed ofi, or, 
 especially in the case of vegetable matter, seeds, nuts, etc., the 
 oil is expressed by means of hydraulic presses. 
 
 " The term ' fat ' has a precisely defined chemical meaning 
 which restricts its application to a certain number only of the 
 substances of this group, and yet many of the substances that 
 are in the strict chemical sense fats, have, on account of their 
 physical properties, to be spoken of as oils, while some are 
 generally known as waxes ; of the compounds, on the other hand, 
 that are not in the strict sense fats, some have had assigned to 
 
132 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 them the term ' wax,' a term for which also a chemical definition 
 has been devised that does not correspond to the ordinary mean- 
 ing of the word ; while for a large class the physiological import- 
 ance of which is daily coming more into evidence, no better 
 general name has been proposed than ' lipoids,' which is at once 
 a cloak for ignorance and an indefinable limbo into which any- 
 one can thrust anything of which he knows little or nothing, in- 
 cluding often what is not a compound of any fatty acid at all." 
 
 The following particulars concern the acids most fre- 
 quently of value in studying fats : 
 
 Formic Acid (CHgOg) occurs in sweat, urine, and 
 meat juice, and in the bodies of ants. When heated with 
 strong sulphuric acid (H2SO4) it breaks down into carbon 
 monoxide (CO) and water (HjO). The stinging nettle 
 (Urtica dioica) contains formic acid. 
 
 Acetic Acid (C2H4O2) occurs in sweat, muscles, liver, 
 faeces, urine, and sometimes in the stomach. 
 
 Proprionic Acid (CgHgOj) occurs in sweat. 
 
 Normal Butyric Acid (C4Hg02) occurs in sweat, faeces, 
 urine, and in the form of glycerides, to the extent of 
 about 6% in butter. In putrid cheese the but5Tic acid 
 ferment or enzyme has the power of converting sugar 
 into butyric acid. 
 
 Isobutyric Acid (C4H8O2) occurs in fasces and among 
 the products of bacterial action on the proteins. It is 
 less soluble in water than the normal acid. 
 
 Valerianic Acid (C6H10O2) is said to be formed from 
 lactic acid by certain bacteria. 
 
 Normal Caproic Acid (C6H12O2) occurs in sweat and 
 in the form of glycerides in the butter of cow's and 
 goat's milk, and also in coco-nut and palm-nut oil. 
 Has an offensive goat-like {caper, Latin for " goat ") 
 odour. 
 
 Capric Acid if^xo^iJ^i} occurs in the form of glycerides 
 in the milk of cows and goats, and in coco-nut and palm- 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS i33 
 
 nut oils, and as potassium salt in wool washings. Has 
 an offensive goat-like odour. 
 
 Laurie Acid (C12H24O2) occurs in traces, as glyceride, 
 in milk, more abundantly in spermaceti and in laurel oil, 
 coco-nut oil, and certain other vegetable oils. Used in 
 the manufacture of " so-called " marine soaps. 
 
 Myristic Acid (CijHggOj) occurs in traces, as a gly- 
 ceride, in milk, lard, wool fat, cod-hver oil, and in large 
 quantities in certaiix vegetable fats. 
 
 Palmitic Acid (CuHgaOg) occurs combined with 
 glycerol in most animal and vegetable fats, especially in 
 palm-oil and Japan wax and spermaceti. 
 
 Stearic Acid (CigHggOa) occurs as a glyceride in most 
 soUd fats, most abundantly in the vegetable fats. 
 
 Arachidic Acid (C20H40O2), found in traces as glyceride 
 in cow's milk, and in the fat of dermoid cysts, more 
 abundantly in arachis, or pea-nut oil (5%), and other 
 vegetable fats. 
 
 The other fatty acids do not closely concern the 
 study of food, fats, etc. 
 
 UNSATURATED ACIDS 
 
 The acids more unsaturated (Leathes) than those of 
 the oleic series occur characteristically in the vegetable 
 drying and semi-drying oils, and also in animal tissue, 
 for instance in the liver of the cod and many other fish, 
 and also in the liver, heart, and spleen of mammalian 
 animals. In the latter they are in part, at any rate, 
 present in combination with glycerophosphoric acid as 
 phospholipines. 
 
 Cod Liver Oil does not " dry " like linseed oil, although 
 it becomes sticky on exposure to air. Linseed oils absorb 
 oxygen and are converted into varnishes. The larger the 
 number of unsaturated unions that occur in a fatty acid 
 
134 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 the more unstable it is, and the more readily it takes up 
 oxygen ; the fact that in those tissues in the animal 
 body in which fats are burnt and not merely stored in 
 reserve, the fatty acids found are more unsaturated than 
 those of the glycerides which are found in the adipose 
 tissue, or contained in the food, shows that the former 
 have been got ready for oxidation, while the reserve is 
 kept in the active form ; the body stores its powder wet 
 for safety, and dries it only when required for use. 
 
 Of the unsaturated acids the following concern us : 
 
 Oleic Acid (CigHg^Oa) occurs as glyceride in most fats 
 and oils, and, as a general rule, in larger quantities than 
 any other fatty acids. Pure oleic acid is a colourless, 
 odourless fluid, crystallising at 4° C. It is insoluble in 
 water ; it is far more soluble in alcohol than the cor- 
 responding saturated acid, dissolving even in cold, 
 diluted alcohol. Oleic acid contains aceti^;, caprylic, 
 capric, and sebacic acids. 
 
 Rapic Acid (C18H34O2) occurs as a glyceride in rape 
 or colza oil, which is expressed from the seeds of rape 
 {B. napa), cabbage, and other related crucifers. It 
 differs from oleic acid in not solidifying when acted upon 
 by nitrous acid, in not soUdifying on cooling, and in the 
 properties of its zinc salts. Its constitution is not 
 known. 
 
 Erucic Acid (€22114202) occurs as a glyceride in colza 
 oil, mustard seed oil, and other vegetable oil. It closely 
 resembles oleic acid in its chemical behaviour. 
 
 THE LINOLEIC SERIES (CnHan-jOj) 
 
 The acids that have been described in this series 
 have the formula C18H32O2. The acid obtained from 
 linseed cril is the one that has been most studied, but the 
 constitution of even this acid has not yet been deter- 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS i35 
 
 mined. An acid, and possibly two acids, of this formula 
 occur in the fat of the pig's liver, and the same is true of 
 cotton-seed oil, and in many vegetables a similar acid has 
 been shown to occur. 
 
 GLYCEROL AND THE GLYCERIDES OF FATTY ACIDS 
 
 Glycerol, a triatomic alcohol, occurs in all natural fats 
 and oils, and is formed in the fermentation of sugar by 
 yeast. At ordinary temperatures it is a viscid fluid and 
 solidifies to a mass of rhombic crystals when cooled much 
 below zero. It is miscible with water in all proportions, 
 and is highly hygroscopic. When mixed with water, 
 contraction and a rise of temperature occur. Glycerol is 
 miscible with alcohol, only slightly soluble in ether (i 
 in 500), but readily dissolves in a mixture of alcohol and 
 ether. It is insoluble in chloroform, petroleum ether, 
 and carbon bisulphide. It is a good solvent for many 
 salts. It is readily oxidised by most oxidising agents ; 
 with dry potassium permanganate it burns explosively. 
 Electrolysis gives rise to formic, acetic, oxalic, and glyceric 
 acids and trioxymethylene. 
 
 Micro-organisms produce many changes in glycerol. 
 Yeast is said to convert it into proprionic acid. The 
 organisms in putrid meat or cheese, in the presence of 
 chalk, give rise to acetic and proprionic, butyric, valeric, 
 and capraic acids. Bacillus butyricus forms lactic and 
 butyric acid. Trinitro-glycerol (nitroglycerin), one of 
 the esters of nitric acid, is a powerful explosive ; it is 
 also used in pharmacology. Nitroglycerin is manufac- 
 tured by adding glycerin (glycerol) to nitric and sulphuric 
 acid mixed (3 parts nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-3 ; 5 parts 
 sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-842) ; and to nitrate i part 
 by weight glycerin in every 8 parts by weight of the 
 mixture. It is perfectly safe in fatty or oily solution. 
 
136 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 It is administered medically in cases of angina and 
 dyspncEa. 
 
 The ester of phosphoric acid, glycero-phosphoric acid 
 (CH2OH.CHOH.CH.OPO3H2), which is found in traces 
 in the urine and blood, is contained in lecithin (eggs, 
 etc.) and other phosphohpines, widely distributed through 
 the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The free acid is 
 unstable. Glycero-phosphates are largely used in medi- 
 cine to improve nutrition of the nervous system, etc. 
 
 The Glycerides of Fatty Acids occur, in animals, 
 stored in the connective-tissue cells of adipose tissue, 
 which is found principally in the subcutaneous tissue, 
 the bone marrow, beneath certain parts of the peri- 
 toneal, pericardial, and pleural serous membranes, and 
 in the interstitial tissue of the voluntary muscles. In 
 this adipose tissue fat the glycerides are for the most 
 part esters of stearic, palmitic, and oleic acid. 
 
 In certain animals the glycerides of other fatty acids 
 occur. In lard the liquid fatty acids have properties 
 indicating that 10 % of the acids entering into the com- 
 position of this fat are of the linoleic series. In the 
 fat of the horse and the hare there is similar evidence 
 for the presence of glycerides of other acids. It is further 
 remarkable that in certain species the fat of animals 
 kept in captivity differs from that of those Uving wild. 
 The evidence that points to the presence of linoleic acid 
 esters in the fat of the domesticated pig points to there 
 being more of such esters in the fat of the wild boar. 
 And the same difference is particularly well marked in 
 the rabbit (iodine value of fatty acids from tame rabbit 
 64, from wild rabbit loi), and the duck (iodiric value of 
 fat of tame duck 58, of wild duck 85). The fact, how- 
 ever, that in the case of cats, deer, etc., there is no such 
 difference in values, while making for caution in generalis- 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS i37 
 
 ing, is probably due to the selective character of these 
 animals as regards food. 
 
 In plants the glycerides of many other acids besides 
 stearic, palmitic, and oleic acid occur ; for instance, 
 linoleic and linolenic in linseed oil, erucic in colza and 
 rape oil, lauric in laurel oil, myristic in nutmeg oil, 
 arachidic in pea-nut oil, ricinoleic in castor oil, etc. 
 
 The fatty acid esters of glycerol occurring in Nature 
 contain in all cases three fatty acid radicals and are tri- 
 glycerides, with the one possible exception of an ester 
 containing two erucic acid groups, a dicrucin, which 
 has been separated from a sample of rape oil. Several 
 mixed triglycerides, or compounds of different acids with 
 the same molecule of glycerol, have been separated from 
 natural products. From mutton and beef fats, a distearo- 
 palmitin, a dipalmito-stearin, and a dipalmito-olein have 
 been separated. Similar mixed glycerides have been 
 obtained from olive oil. The melting points of simple 
 glycerides of fatty acids are higher than those of the 
 corresponding acids. The glycerides can be hydrolysed 
 by water alone, in the course of ages at atmospheric 
 temperatures, as is the case with bog butter (found in 
 bogs in Ireland and elsewhere) ; in a few hours with 
 super-heated steam, and more rapidly in the presence of 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Enzymes that hydrolyse fats occur in the seeds in 
 which vegetable oils are found, and during germination 
 become active in preparing the food for the growing 
 embryo. Enzymes with a lipolytic (fat splitting) action 
 are also well known in animal physiology ; the steapsin 
 of the pancreatic juice acts in an alkaline medium, and 
 is easily destroyed by an acid reaction. 
 
 The changes undergone by fats and oils when they 
 become rancid are probably initiated by enzymes that 
 
138 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 hydrolyse the glycerides. The presence in a fat of 
 other substances in which bacteria can grow increases 
 the probabiUty of rancidity ; butter, for instance, is 
 particularly prone to the change. A sterile fat may 
 become rancid — the growth of bacteria in an impure 
 fat, though it may promote a tendency to rancidity, 
 is not the cause of the change. 
 
 WAXES 
 
 As a scientific term, a wax has been defined as a 
 fatty acid ester of some alcohol other than glycerol. 
 Beeswax is composed only in part of wax ; wool fat is 
 a mixture of waxes ; liquids such as sperm oil — which 
 contains no glyceride — are liquid waxes. The principal 
 alcohols found in waxes are : — 
 
 Cetyl Alcohol (C16H34O) (melting point 50° C.) is 
 found in spermaceti as ester of palmitic acid, and is the 
 principal component of this wax. It also occurs on the 
 secretions of sebaceous glands of ducks and geese, and 
 in dermoid cysts. 
 
 ■ Octodecyl Alcohol (CigHsgO) (melting point 59° C.) 
 also occurs as an ester in spermaceti, and in the anal 
 glands of geese. 
 
 Cholesterol (CgvH^gO) is found in all animal fats or 
 oils in small quantities — o-i % to 05% — ^in bile, blood, 
 milk, yolk of egg, and in various animal tissues, notably 
 the medullated sheathes of nerve fibres, the liver, kidney, 
 epidermis, hair, and dermoid cysts. Cod liver oil con- 
 tains from 0-5% to 2"0%. In the form of a silicate it 
 occurs in birds' feathers. 
 
 Phytosterol. In oils derived from vegetable sources is 
 found a substance at first thought to be cholesterol, until 
 certain differences were noted. It is used as a means of 
 detecting adulteration of animal oils with vegetable oils. 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS i39 
 
 Sitosterol (C27H44O + H2O) is obtained from the oil 
 of wheat and rye. 
 
 PHOSPHOLIPINES 
 
 These are compounds of fatty acids containing phos- 
 phorus and nitrogen. For those compounds of fatty 
 acids that contain nitrogen but no phosphorus for similar 
 reasons the term lipine will be employed (Leathes). 
 
 Lecithiue (C42H84NPO9) (?). The protein compound 
 of lecithine has been referred to. Lecithine is the 
 name given to a substance obtained from the yolk of 
 eggs, from nerve tissue, the ova of fish, and other materials. 
 It consists of fatty acids and glycero-phosphoric acid. 
 Various preparations of lecithine are used in medicine, 
 and even the value of fresh eggs as part of the diet in 
 cases of nervous disorders is well recognised. In the 
 table given later, the high lecithine content in egg yolk 
 will be noted. 
 
 Lecithine is a mono-amino phospholipine. Exam- 
 ination of lecithine from various tissues shows consider- 
 able variation in the proportion of nitrogen. According 
 to the composition (choUne distearo-glycerophosphate), 
 all the nitrogen should be present in the form of choline, 
 which, however, does not appear to be the case. Leci- 
 thine is a yellowish, wax-like material, insoluble in 
 water, soluble i to 5 of ether, and i in 30 alcohol. It 
 is a constituent of the brain (11 %) and of egg yolk (7 %), 
 milk, human and cows', containing varying amounts. 
 The fatty acids obtained from lecithine by Hoppe Seyler 
 were believed to be the same as those occurring in 
 animal fats generally — ^stearic, palmitic, and oleic ; but 
 it has been observed that the iodine value of the acids 
 obtained from lecithine is too high for them to be only 
 these. 
 
140 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 FATS IN THE ANIMAL TISSUES 
 
 The fat found in the cells of the liver, and in those 
 organs in which fat is oxidised for the liberation of 
 energy, is largely composed of complex phospholipines, 
 which present solubilities different from those of simple 
 fats. Physiologically considered, the higher fatty acids 
 are the common centre of interest in simple glycerides 
 and in complex phosphohpines alike. It is that they 
 confer upon both these groups their significance in the 
 transformation of energy which constitutes the hfe of an 
 organism. 
 
 The fats found in animals are to a large extent derived 
 from the fats contained in the food they take. A dog, 
 in lean condition, after continued feeding on mutton 
 suet, stored on its tissues a fat which did not melt at 
 50° C. Pigs which were fed on barley meal were treated 
 with local anaesthetic, and small pieces cut from the layer 
 of fat in the back. In both cases the fat had the same 
 properties. One pig was then fed on barley meal and 
 linseed oil, and the other on barley meal and coco-nut 
 oil. After examination of the fat of each, it was observed 
 that in the one case (linseed oil) the fat was soft, and 
 had the smell of, and contained also sativonic acid 
 characteristic of, linseed. The pig which had coco-nut 
 oil yielded a fat with higher melting point, and also 
 chemically distinguishable from the fat of the other pig. 
 
 In each animal (Leathes) species there may be a 
 certain mean composition characteristic of the fat of 
 normal individuals of that species ; for instance, the 
 composition of beef suet, of mutton tallow, of lard, and 
 of goose fat, is, broadly speaking, constant, and each of 
 these kinds of fat differs from each of the others in a 
 way that is characteristic of the species from which 
 it is obtained. But this constancy does not depend 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS 141 
 
 probably so much upon the specific synthetic powers of 
 the species as upon the nature of its food, the fats that 
 this contains, and the way in which the fats are absorbed. 
 Because, as is well known, the fat of an individual 
 animal may be altered by feeding it upon fats different 
 from those that are usually contained in its food. 
 
 There is much evidence to show that whatever fat 
 is absorbed from the intestine can be found unaltered in 
 the connective tissue. A large part of the fats found in 
 animals has been built up by vegetable organisms. Even 
 in plants it is probable, though the proof is not so clear 
 as in the experiments on animals, that the fatty acids 
 are derived from substances that are formed by the break- 
 ing up of carbohydrates. Fats and oils occur in plants, 
 principally in the ripe seeds, nuts, or fruits. These parts, 
 before they ripen, contain carbohydrates but not oil, 
 and it is supposed these carbohydrates, supplemented by 
 those brought up from other parts in the sap, are trans- 
 formed into oil during the process. Sugar is found in 
 the sap ; and oil, or fatty acid, is not. 
 
 The synthesis of fatty acids from carbohydrates has 
 been proved to occur at any rate in animals, and the 
 chemical changes involved are fascinating in their 
 obscurity. After discussing various experimental data 
 Leathes goes on to say, " These results make it probable 
 that the liver is the organ in which the synthesis of 
 higher fatty acids is effected in animals. The doctrine 
 that fats are products of degeneration of proteins, which 
 was long maintained, was supported by arguments which 
 have mostly been shown to be misunderstandings of facts. 
 But to maintain that none of the material used in the 
 synthesis of higher fatty acids in plants or animals is 
 ever derived from a source in proteins would certainly 
 be going too far." 
 
142 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 The fats and oils are made use of both in plants and 
 animals for the storage of reserve energy. In plants 
 they are found in a large number of seeds, fruits, and 
 nuts, stored in large quantities ready for the use of the 
 embryo in germination. The seeds of flax, sunflowers, 
 the cotton plant, pines, and cedar trees, contain from 
 20% to 40%. Half, or more than half, of the food 
 value of human milk, and of the milk of cows, is con- 
 tained in the form of fat, and in some species of mammals 
 a much larger proportion. Cow's milk and human milk 
 contain about 4 % per cent, of fat ; the milk of sheep con- 
 tains nearly twice as much ; that of the reindeer and 
 elephant four or five times as much ; and porpoise milk 
 as much, it is said, as 46%. 
 
 In the animad body fat is stored principally in the 
 cells of the connective tissues, and in well-novuished 
 animals amounts commonly to 10 % to 12 % of the body 
 weight, more exceptionally to 20%. It has been shown 
 that this fat can be used as a source of energy as efficiently 
 as either proteins or carbohydrates, and in starvation it 
 is the stored fat that enables Hfe to be maintained for 
 many days. Under these conditions as much as 90 % of 
 the total energy developed in the body may be reckoned 
 to come from the oxidation of fat. The heart, the 
 organ that works hardest, contains in itself, including 
 all the proteins of which it is itself built up, material 
 the complete combustion of which would serve to run 
 this machine for not less than twenty-four hours, of which 
 not more than about 5 % is in the form of carbohydrate 
 and as much as 30 % in the form of fats. 
 
 The way in which the reserve energy stored in adipose 
 tissue is put into circulation and conveyed to the organs 
 in which the energy is liberated by the combustion of 
 the fat is very little understood. It seems probable that 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS i43 
 
 the lipolytic enzyme found in connective tissues may, in 
 the first instance, come into action ; the transportation 
 of fat across the barrier of a cell membrane requires 
 the hydrolysis of the fat in the case of the intestinal 
 epithelium, although the fatty acid and glycerine com- 
 bine again immediately after. The only point on which 
 we can speak with certainly is that the mobilised fat, 
 like the fat absorbed from the intestine, is, in the first 
 instance, taken up by the liver. It is the work of the 
 liver not only to desaturate fatty ■ acids, but also to 
 combine them with phosphorus and nitrogen for the 
 use of the body generally. 
 
 Acetonuria (acetone in the urine — a disease), then, 
 throws light on the oxidation of fats in animals, inas- 
 much as it appears to be a disorder of the last stages in 
 the breakdown of fatty acids. And it is remarkable 
 how the conditions in which this disorder is commonly 
 found are conditions in which another disturbance in 
 the metabolism of fat is common, the failure of the liver 
 in dealing with and forwarding to the rest of the body 
 the fat which has been called up from the reserves. 
 
 To sum up, then, by piecing together what is pro- 
 bable with what is known of the chemistry of the pro- 
 cesses by which the energy of fat molecules is rendered 
 available in the animal body, the fat is transported to 
 the liver, unsaturated unions are there introduced into 
 the fatty acids, and possibly there, too, the complex 
 compounds of fatty acids with phosphorus and nitrogen 
 built up. 
 
 That in certain circumstances fats may undergo 
 changes in animals — and possibly in plants too — the 
 result of which is that carbohydrates are formed, has 
 sometimes been argued. The evidence for such changes 
 in animals is indirect, based on the fact that oxygen 
 
144 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 may be retained in the body and not be accounted for 
 in the products of oxidation that leave it, that the 
 respiratory quotient, in other words, is lower than is 
 compatible with the complete oxidation of any of the 
 three classes of food. Such a condition, during hiberna- 
 tion, for instance, would be explained if it were shown 
 that fats containing io% of oxygen were being con- 
 verted into carbohydrate with 50% or more. But it 
 cannot be maintained that the formation of sugar from 
 fatty acids is impossible ; because sugar is synthesised 
 in animals, and as it is not known how this is carried 
 out, it is impossible to say that it is not by a condensa- 
 tion of some simple group that may arise in perhaps 
 the last stages of disintegration and oxidation of fats 
 no less than of proteins. There must be stages in which 
 both these classes of material are brought down to a 
 similar condition, final common paths in metabohsm ; 
 for the amino acids deprived of their amino groups are 
 already lower fatty acids, and their subsequent fate 
 can hardly be very different from that of lower fatty 
 acids, derived from fat. If, for instance, the synthesis 
 of sugar in animals proved to be brought about by con- 
 densation of formic aldehyde, who could say that this 
 was the penultimate product of the disintegration of 
 proteins only and not of fats as well ? 
 
 It is, of course, most conspicuously as a reserve fimd 
 of fuel for the growing and working cells that fats are 
 of importance. 
 
 The waxes and fats secreted in the leaves of plants 
 protect the underlying cells from loss or access of mois- 
 ture, and also from the solvent action of common enzymes. 
 The fatty substances which form a considerable part of 
 the bodies of tubercle bacilli not only exhibit a very 
 low iodine value, but offer a remarkable resistance to 
 
THE HYDROCARBONS i43 
 
 measures that are commonly efficacious in saponifying 
 fats. And there are reasons for thinking that the vitaUty 
 and power of resistance of such organisms is intimately 
 dependent upon the properties of the fats in which their 
 bodies are enclosed or with which they are impregnated. 
 In the higher animals, however, the bulk of the fabric 
 of the machine is of a protein nature ; not only the 
 working parts, but the framework of every cell, as of the 
 whole organism itself, appears to be built upon a basis 
 of protein material. 
 
 These are facts which seem to point to some of the 
 fats, at any rate, as being indispensably built into the 
 most intimate organisation of Uving matter. 
 
 Lecithine and cholesterol are found hardly less univers- 
 ally distributed where the phenomena of life are to be 
 observed than the proteins themselves. The fats, or, 
 more correctly, the lecithine and phospholipines, are 
 essential to the cohesion and physical constitution of 
 the protoplasm, so that any interference with the physical 
 state of these substances arrests the vital functions. 
 The cement which binds the organised matter together 
 is loosened by the solution in it of foreign substances, 
 and it is the loosening of the protoplasmic cement that 
 makes it impossible for the normal processes of life to 
 be carried out. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 The Enzymes : Salts and Minerals 
 
 Enzymes. — ^Throughout the foregoing pages reference 
 has frequently been made to enzymes and their action. 
 Enzymes are commonly called ferments ; each has its 
 distinctive name, due either to its particular action or 
 the organ or substance in which it is active. Bayliss 
 relates that in the early days of the history of physi- 
 ology bodies having properties similar to those of the 
 inorganic catalysts were prepared from the tissues of 
 living organisms. In 1830 Dubrunfaut prepared an 
 extract of malt, which converted starch into sugar, just 
 as strong acids were known to do. Later Payen and 
 Persez precipitated by alcohol from such extracts a sub- 
 stance which could be dried and preserved, and which 
 had a very powerful action on starch. This they called 
 diastase. They say : 
 
 " We have reasons, well founded on fact, to make the asser- 
 tion that in living plants and animals there take place thousands 
 of catalystic processes between tissue fluids. Enzymes in many 
 cases do not carry the hydrolytic process as far as acids do. 
 The amylase of malt converts starch into maltose, and appsir- 
 ently no further, whereas acids convert it into glucose ; trypsin 
 acts on proteins, leaving unattacked a complex polypeptide, 
 which can be further split into amino acids by acids or by the 
 enzyme erepsin. Minute quantities are active. Invertase, ac- 
 cording to O'Sullivan and Thompson, can hydrolise 200,000 times 
 its weight of saccharose ; rennet, according to Hammarsten, 
 can clot 400,000 times its weight of caseinogen in milk. When 
 we remember that these preparations consist, in all probability, 
 
 146 
 
THE ENZYMES i47 
 
 only to a small extent of the actual enzyme, their activity becomes 
 all the more astonishing. Unlike inorganic catalysts, enzymes 
 are destroyed by temperatures from 60° to 100° C. Enzymes 
 are colloids in that they do not, or with extreme slowness, pass 
 through parchment paper. Diastase from malt, however, was 
 found to be divided by dialysis into two distinct enzymes." 
 
 Bayliss presents a number of arguments to show 
 that enzymes are not proteins, as has been thought by 
 some. The greater number of enzymes are found in 
 cells ; some are extracted with water, others are not. 
 Many enzymes cannot be obtained at all unless the cells 
 are disintegrated : such as the zymase of yeast and the 
 various autolytic enzymes of animal tissues. In refer 
 ence to the reversibility of enzyme action, which is 
 important from a physiological standpoint, Bayliss 
 says: 
 
 " We know that many processes of the kind known as rever- 
 sible, or balanced, reactions take place in the living organism. 
 Particularly obvious are those cases where material is stored up 
 in an insoluble form, as starch or glycogen. The bodies are, 
 under certain conditions, synthesised from sugars, etc., and under 
 other conditions are hydrolised back again, when required." 
 
 Undue accumulations of glycogen in the liver are 
 doubtless due to the cessation of enzyme action, with 
 the result that no hydrolysis of the reserve glycogen can 
 take place (reverse action). 
 
 The physiological importance (says Bayliss) of the 
 reversibility of lipase (fat splitting enzyme) action is 
 pointed out by Loevenhart himself. In the process of 
 digestion and absorption of fat there is no doubt that 
 fat globules are found in the cells of the intestinal 
 mucous membrane, and that fat taken as food is hy- 
 drolysed in the lumen of the intestine." There must, 
 therefore, be some mechanism by which the products of 
 
148 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 hydrolysis can be resynthesised in the cells after absorp- 
 tion. It is obvious that if a lipase were present in 
 these cells it woiild be capable of considerable synthetic 
 action, since the fat produced, being insoluble, is depo- 
 sited out of the reactory system in the form of droplets. 
 Loevenhart has, in point of fact, been able to obtain a 
 lipase from intestinal mucous membrane of the pig after 
 thoroughly washing away the pancreatic enzymes. A 
 similar enzyme was obtained from the liver and other 
 places where fat storage occurs. In all these cases, 
 where the blood and lymph bathing the cells become 
 poor in fatty acid and glycerol, either owing to fat being 
 stored elsewhere or to its being used up by oxidation, 
 as in starvation, the lipase restores equilibrium by effect- 
 ing hydrolysis of the fat which had been previously 
 stored up. 
 
 There are, in addition, what are termed co-enzymes, 
 which may be separated by dialysis from the enzyme. 
 In such cases both the resulting fluids (in the case of 
 extracts) are inactive, but a small part of the co-enzyme 
 added to the other extract will restore activity. 
 
 Anti-enzymes, in contradistinction to the above, are 
 known, and are similar to those anti-toxins produced 
 by the injection of toxins into the hving organism, so 
 that we may regard enzymes as belonging to that class 
 of bodies which act in small Eimounts and which EhrUch 
 considers to be similar to foodstuffs and taken up by 
 the protoplasm of living cells in some intimate connec- 
 tion. Several anti-enzymes are normally present in the 
 blood, such as anti-trypsin and anti-rennet. Others can 
 be produced by the injection of enzymes subcutaneously ; 
 by this means anti-bodies to the following enzymes 
 have been obtained : lipase, emulsion, amylase, pepsin, 
 papain, urease. 
 
THE ENZYMES 149 
 
 A very interesting alnti-trypsin was found by Wein- 
 land in intestinal worms, which seems to have the func- 
 tion of protecting them from the action of the pan- 
 creatic juice. If raw egg albumin containing anti- 
 trypsin be acted upon by trypsin, it wiU be found that 
 for some hours no effect will be produced, but that gradu- 
 ally the trypsin begins to regain its activity in a way to 
 show that the recovery of the enzyme is a gradual one, 
 and the effect is not to be ascribed to difficulty of attack 
 on the part of the protein itself. 
 
 Protection of the Internal Mucous Membrane. — 
 Weinland states that anti-pepsin exists in the gastric 
 mucous membrane and anti-trypsin in that of the intes- 
 tines ; these bodies are supposed to confer upon these 
 tissues their immunity from attack by the digestive 
 juices. According to Klug, however, the actual body 
 which has the power of protecting the cells of the mucous 
 membrane is the mucin, which is always present in con- 
 siderable quantity. It is certain that if a copious secre- 
 tion of pancreatic juice is poured into the empty intes- 
 tine in consequence of the injection of secretin (a hquid 
 extract of the duodenal membranes) great damage is 
 done to the mucous membrane, resulting in desquama- 
 tion of the cells and haemorrhage. 
 
 The Coagulation of Blood. — According to Morawitz 
 there exists in circulating blood a body — thromhogen — 
 which can be converted by a thrombokinase, present in all 
 tissues, including the formed elements of the blood, into 
 a precursor of the enzyme which acts upon fibrinogen to 
 form fibrin. Thrombokinase is a proteolytic enzyme, the 
 process of coagiilation being the first stage of its action, 
 while the well-known fibrinolysis is the second stage. 
 
 Hydrolysis of Starch. — For the conversion of starch 
 into glucose three enzymes are necessary. Amylase 
 
ISO POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 transforms starch into dextrins ; these are converted by 
 dextrinase into maltose ; and maltose is changed finally 
 by maltase into glucose {see Carbohydrates). The same 
 kind of phenomena is observed in the series of proteo- 
 clastic enzymes met with by the food as it traverses 
 the alimentary canal. Erepsin acts upon the products 
 of the action of trypsin ; trypsin acts upon the products 
 of peptic digestion. 
 
 An enzyme has been prepared by Kossel and Dakin 
 from the liver, which has the property of converting 
 arginine into urea and diamine valerianic acid. Arginine 
 is found in considerable amount in germinating seeds, 
 especially those rich in protein. Urea, in its turn, is 
 hydrolysed by an enz5nne, urease, into ammonia, and 
 urease has been found in the seeds of the soy bean. 
 Urease has not yet been found in conjunction with 
 arginase, but it seems likely that, when looked for, they 
 will be discovered together, especially since ammonia is 
 such an important food for the growing plant. 
 
 THE SALTS AND MINERALS 
 
 In some food analyses the salts and minerals are 
 estimated, and in others are included in the general term 
 " ash." By ash is meant that portion of the plant or 
 animal which remains after all that will bum has passed 
 off. Less attention has been pEiid to the minerals, as 
 food compounds, than their importance demands. To a 
 large extent, works deahng with foods and feeding have 
 been written with special reference to horses, sheep, 
 and cattle, whose natural food generally contains suffi- 
 cient of the mineral elements. 
 
 Again, the countries in which most of the food 
 experiments with stock were carried out are celebrated 
 for their rich and varied natural pastures, as well as for 
 
SALTS AND MINERALS 151 
 
 a soil fertility and general composition that would appar- 
 ently assure a high and varied mineral content in the 
 natural and artificial fodders. It should not be for- 
 gotten that there are countries, or tracts of land, in 
 which, while vegetation and crops generally flourish, 
 they nevertheless differ very considerably in their com- 
 position compared with crops, etc., in the countries in 
 which the experiments were carried out. In Australia, 
 Africa, and America there are tracts of country the 
 soils of which, in combination with, perhaps, limited rain- 
 fall, produce crops, natural and artificial, in which the 
 mineral elements may be of low percentage, and some 
 may be lacking. 
 
 With reference to poultry, it is evident that where 
 they have free range in fields where the vegetation is 
 very varied, and where the conditions tend to high 
 mineral content, there is no doubt that the point is not 
 of such vital importance. In America, Africa, and Aus- 
 tralia, and in many European countries, the methods 
 adopted in commercial poultry keeping are such that 
 in only a limited number of cases is there much natural 
 grass and herbage in the runs. Such runs, even if appar- 
 ently well clothed with vegetation, are very soon depleted 
 of the more valuable plants. The point which is of vital 
 importance is whether or not the mineral elements, as 
 fed to the stock, and poultry in particular, are available 
 — that is, can be used in the various processes of meta- 
 bolism and katabolism. 
 
 Experiments have been made which are held to show 
 that certain minerals in their inorganic form are equally 
 available as if in the organic form. It is, however, very 
 significant that as regards human beings the value of 
 organic forms of mineral elements has of recent years 
 been demonstrated with startling effect. 
 
152 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 The lack of organic forms of minerals in fodders in 
 various countries is recognised, and stock-owners have 
 long had recourse to some substitute, such as common 
 and compound " licks," which contain sodium, calcium, 
 and phosphates, iron, etc. A well-known Australian 
 authority on stock has often stated that if magnesium 
 sulphate were a guinea an ounce its worth would be 
 fully recognised as an invaluable salt. Here the sulphur 
 compound, as in sodium sulphate, is in a form peculiarly 
 adapted to the animal organism. 
 
 I have described the proteins at some length, because 
 in a food sense many not generally dealt with in food 
 books are of undoubted importance, and as that great 
 authority, Mann, has pointed out, proteins in the absence 
 of salts are " dead." BayHss says, " In certain cases 
 bodies play the part of specific activators (of eiiZ3ane 
 action), e.g. asparagine (one of the a proteins) on amy- 
 lase." We may assume that other proteins play equally 
 important parts in enzyme action, and in general cata- 
 clastic actions. 
 
 Enzyme action is increased or inhibited by the pre- 
 sence or absence of salts. Bayliss says, " Amino acids 
 which are found in bodies upon which the enzyme acts, are 
 able to enter into a combination of such a kind with the 
 enzyme that this is withdrawn from the reacting system." 
 
 The body, whether of man, beast, or bird, is a battle- 
 field in which material is built up and broken down by 
 the aid of acids, enzymes, and ions. A study of ionto- 
 phoresis shows the important, nay vital, part played by 
 electricity — ^its anions and kations — and this action 
 depends largely upon the salts. 
 
 Bayliss says : 
 
 "The activity of the enzyme may be affected in other sfAys 
 without being actually removed. Trypsin, for example, is extra- 
 
SALTS AND MINERALS i53 
 
 ordinarily sensitive to the presence of alkali (hydroxidion), it 
 is practically inert in acid or neutral solutions, but is greatly 
 assisted by the presence of alkali, and up to certain limits in 
 direct ratio to the concentration of the latter." 
 
 The enzyme invertase is favoured by small amounts 
 of acid. Enzymes, being colloids, will naturally be sensi- 
 tive to the action of electrolytes. A detailed investiga- 
 tion has been made by Cole on the effects of these agents 
 on the digestion of starch by ptyalin. The action was 
 found to be increased by acids in low concentration 
 and by neutral salts of strong monobasic acids decreased 
 by larger amounts of acids or by neutral salts of weak 
 acids. On invertase the effects were similar, but not 
 identical. 
 
 Starkenstein has recently shown that the amylase 
 of hver is completely inert without the presence of 
 neutral salts. Terroine finds that the optional reaction 
 for the lipase of liver is that of -007 molar sodium 
 hydroxide. It is interesting to note that calcium ions 
 have been shown by Pottevin and by Kanitz to increase 
 the activity of both trypsin and lipase. If pancreatic 
 juice be dialysed, it loses its power of acting on starch 
 or maltose. The addition of certain electrolytes restores 
 this activity, and in experiment it was found that the 
 chlorine or bromine ion is the essential one. Thus 
 sodium and potassium chlorides are active, while the 
 sulphates are inactive. Starkenstein showed that dialysed 
 amylase from the liver is inactive, but is restored to 
 activity by sodium chloride. 
 
 Pancreatic juice can be activated by calcium salts. 
 The amount of calcium present in the juice as secreted is 
 sufficient to bring about very slow activation, but the 
 process can be considerably accelerated by adding more 
 calcium. In reference to oxidation processes in the body 
 
154 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 and to the action of oxydases, Bayliss says that a trace 
 of ferrous sulphate will enormously accelerate the re- 
 action in a mixture of lactic acid and hydrogen per- 
 oxide — a similar reaction takes place when the per- 
 oxidase of horse-radish is used instead of the iron. This 
 fact, in conjunction with that of the powerful effect of 
 the addition of manganese, or iron, to various oxydases, 
 and the apparently universal occurrence of one or the 
 other of these bodies in the ash of these enzymes, 
 suggests that the latter may be a means of rendering 
 iron, manganese, or a similar body in an oxidisable 
 system into an extremely active state. 
 
 According to Allen and Neuberg, mineral substances 
 play an important r61e in the so-called processes of inter- 
 mediary metaboUsm, especially in the glandular tissues, 
 and are largely concerned in the decomposition and 
 assimilation of organic substances. As is well known, 
 they govern esmotic pressure in the cell and tissues, and 
 in the blood and juices of the organism. They regulate 
 the reaction of the blood and tissue juices, as well as the 
 course of many fermentative processes, especially such 
 as occur in the alimentary canal. While as yet (Kastle) 
 very little is known as to the precise mode of action 
 of the several mineral substances contained in Uving 
 cells and tissues, and always found in intimate associa- 
 tion with the natural proteids, their importance to 
 metabolism and to the normal activity of living proto- 
 plasm, wherever this is met with, can scarcely be over- 
 estimated. This is indicated by the universal occur- 
 rence of various mineral substances in all living cells of 
 the plant and animal, and by their active participation 
 in all vital phenomena with which we are familiar, such 
 as the growth and formation of new tissue, the contrac- 
 tion of heart muscle, the irritability of muscle and 
 
SALTS AND MINERALS i53 
 
 nerve generally, the production of glandular secretions, 
 the storing up and utilisation of reserve material both 
 in the animal and plant, the fertilisation of the ovum, 
 its segmentation, and the nourishment of the embryo. 
 
 The part played by alkalies or by salts exhibiting a 
 faintly alkaline reaction in the intestinal digestion and 
 absorption of proteins and fats, and also in favouring the 
 cleavage of proteins and fats by the intracellular proteo- 
 lytic and lipolytic ferments respectively, to say nothing 
 of the fact that the oxidation of carbohydrate compounds 
 is greatly accelerated by the presence of alkali, is warrant 
 enough for their full recognition. Bayliss says that the 
 living organism is enabled by the use of enzymes to 
 bring about, under ordinary conditions of temperature 
 and moderate concentrations of acid or alkali, many 
 chemical reactions, which would otherwise require a high 
 temperature or powerful reagents. 
 
 In referring to the processes of the coagulation of 
 blood, Nolf says they consist essentially in the interaction 
 of three colloidal proteins in the presence of calcium 
 ions. 
 
 Calcium, phosphorus, iron, and sulphur are impor- 
 tant mineral constituents of food, as they are used in 
 building the essential structures of the body. As was 
 pointed out [see Proteins), iron has a great affinity for 
 oxygen, and by oxygenating the haemoglobin of the 
 blood into oxy-haemoglobin, the oxygen necessary to the 
 vital processes is carried in the arterial blood to all parts 
 of the system. The carbohydrates are oxidised to carbon 
 dioxide and water (COg + HjO), and thus iron in the 
 system liberates energy. 
 
 The alkahne carbonates and the phosphates serve the 
 important purpose of neutralising the accumulations of 
 sulphuric and phosphoric acid in the system due to 
 
156 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 protein metabolism. Were this not so, and in certain 
 diseases these accumulations are the main factors, life 
 would end. Animals fed, even for a few days, on alkali- 
 free food will die. 
 
 Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium salts 
 actuate muscular movement. Mineral salts promote the 
 action of the secretory glands. 
 
 Ox bone contains the following in per i,ooo parts : — 
 
 Calcium phosphate 
 
 . 857-2 
 
 „ carbonate 
 
 . 119-6 
 
 fluoride . 
 
 4-5 
 
 „ chloride . 
 
 3-0 
 
 Magnesium phosphate . 
 
 • 15-3 
 
 Iron (ferric oxide) 
 
 1-3 
 
 The importance of calcium, in its various forms, as 
 shown by the table, indicates the large percentage of 
 which the body frame is built. 
 
 Calcium is present also in the blood and tissues to a 
 small but equally important extent. Although little is 
 known as to the precise values in the organism of organic 
 and inorganic calcium compounds, there is httle doubt 
 that those of organic origin, such as are obtained from 
 bone, sea, and oyster shell are most desirable in the 
 supply of minerals to animals and birds. 
 
 Phosphorus, as has been shown, is in combination 
 with proteins and with fats, and in the case of poultry 
 is a specially important component of the egg. In- 
 organic phosphorus, as phosphates, occurs as bases of the 
 salts of magnesium, calcium, potassium, and iron. Flesh 
 contains, according to Wolf, 26% to 35% phosphorus, 
 in the dry matter content. Phosphorus has been shown 
 to be an important constituent of nervous and other 
 tissue. Part of the phosphorus in the body (bones and 
 
SALTS AND MINERALS i57 
 
 tissue) is in the inorganic form, and as such is held to be 
 inactive, although there is some doubt on this point. 
 Organic phosphorus, such as exists in vegetation, is 
 generally in small amount ; experiment has proved that 
 the deficiency can be made good by the use of inorganic 
 phosphorus. Organic phosphorus is concerned in the 
 formation of muscle, nervous tissue, gland and reproduc- 
 tive cells. Experiment has demonstrated that animals 
 suffering from phosphorus starvation draw this element 
 from their bones. 
 
 Iron has been shown as of vital importance, and yet, 
 according to Bunge, the average iron content of the 
 human body is but 3-2 grammes ; of this 80% is in the 
 blood as organic iron {see Haemoglobin — Proteins). With 
 poultry perhaps more than any other stock the import- 
 ance of iron is very marked. The beneficial effects of 
 free range on ironstone country is well known to breeders. 
 Much of the wheat land in the north of South Australia 
 has a high iron content, which probably gives cereals 
 grown there a better percentage than usual of iron. 
 
 Sodium is present in the body largely as the chloride, 
 notably in lymph, blood serum, and is secreted in sweat, 
 urine, etc. Its other forms are phosphate and carbonate 
 in the fluids chiefly. 
 
 Sodium chloride (common salt), although harmful to 
 fowls if given in excess, is, in proper proportions, highly 
 beneficial, not only to supply the chlorine of the hydro- 
 chloric acid of the gastric juice, but also for the function 
 of stimulating and regulation of muscular movements. 
 
 Potassium acts as a muscle regulator, and is found 
 chiefly in the blood corpuscles, liver, and muscles. 
 
 Magnesium is present as phosphate in the bones and 
 muscles. This mineral is of great importance in vege- 
 table growth. 
 
158 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 Sulphur has been referred to in the Proteins, and is 
 an important constituent of proteins and also of some 
 fats. 
 
 Keratin is a sulphur compound, and in hair contains 
 13% to 15%. Sulphur is present in all the albumins. 
 During putrefaction ethylsulphide, ethyl, and methyl 
 mercaptan and sulphuretted hydrogen are met with. 
 
 The following table is from Mann : — 
 
 Feathers (goose) 
 
 Horn (fihngs) 
 
 Egg-shell (hen) . 
 
 Serum albumin (horse) 
 
 Serum globulin (horse) 
 
 Egg albumin 
 
 Fibrinogen 
 
 Myosin 
 
 Casein 
 
 Globin 
 
 Edestin 
 
 Legumin 
 
 Gliadin 
 
 Zein . 
 
 Glutin 
 
 Amyloid 
 
 Sulphur % 
 2-59-3I6 
 
 3-39 
 4-25 
 1-89 
 
 1-38 
 i-i8 
 125 
 1-26 
 
 758 
 
 •42 
 
 •884 
 
 •385 
 
 1-027 
 
 •6 
 
 •25 
 1-56 
 
 Cystin % 
 
 6-8 
 762 
 2-53 
 I-5I 
 
 •29 
 117 
 
 Traces 
 •31 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 Explanation of Tables, etc. 
 
 CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF PROTEINS 
 
 In Table I. (pp. 160-163) are given details of the 
 chemical constitution of certain proteins from sources of 
 widely different origin. Although details of others are 
 given by Plimmer, Mann, and other writers, I have 
 selected those which have a direct bearing upon the 
 subject of this work. We have in this hst proteins of 
 both animal and vegetable origin. Those of vegetable 
 origin form part of the food which is converted in the 
 animal into the egg, blood, milk, or feathers, from which 
 the proteins of animal origin have been extracted. 
 
 As has been shown, there can be extracted from most 
 of these enzymes which have strong cataclastic action ; 
 these enzymes are generally inert in the absence of salts — 
 the proteins are " dead " in the absence of salts. No 
 more remarkable proof could be given of the fact that the 
 ultimate reduction of animal and vegetable is a group of 
 common factors. In the laboratory the chemist takes the 
 final step and produces synthetically the products of 
 living animal and vegetable organisms. It seems worthy of 
 the closest study that these foods and these animal pro- 
 ducts (the result of food) contain practically the same 
 elements in their constitution, and that the amounts show 
 remarkable conformity in quantity in a number of cases. 
 
 It is, of course, impossible to assert that the chemical 
 constitutions do or do not give the normal average content 
 
 159 
 

 
 
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
 
 
 
 Shebx 
 
 
 
 Prom "The Chemicai, Con- 
 
 
 Bv R 
 
 H. Aders Primmer. By permission 
 
 
 HISIONE 
 
 Al,BUMINS GW)Bin,INS 
 
 
 
 
 Globin of 
 
 Hemoglobin 
 
 of Horse 
 
 Blood 
 
 
 1! 
 
 MS 
 
 
 rl 
 ^3 
 
 11 
 
 Glycine 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 17 
 
 3-5 
 
 3-0 
 
 Alanine 
 
 4-19 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-7 
 
 4-5 
 
 2-2 
 
 3-6 
 
 Valine 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 + 
 
 I-O 
 
 Leucine 
 
 29-04 
 
 6-1 
 
 20-0 
 
 10-6 
 
 18-7 
 
 iS-o 
 
 Isoleudne 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Phenylalanine 
 
 4-24 
 
 4-4 
 
 3-1 
 
 i-S 
 
 3-8 
 
 2-5 
 
 Tyrosine . . 
 
 1-33 
 
 i-i 
 
 2-1 
 
 17 
 
 2-S 
 
 3-5 
 
 Serine 
 
 ■56 
 
 — 
 
 •6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0-8 
 
 Cystine 
 
 •31 
 
 0-3 
 
 2-S 
 
 — 
 
 0-7— i-S 
 
 i-i 
 
 Proline 
 
 2-34 
 
 2-3 
 
 I-O 
 
 1-9 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-6 
 
 Oxyproline 
 
 I -04 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Aspartic Acid . . 
 
 4-43 
 
 1-5 
 
 3-1 
 
 4-5 
 
 2-S 
 
 2-0 
 
 Glutamic „ 
 
 173 
 
 8-0 
 
 77 
 
 6-0 
 
 8-S 
 
 10-4 
 
 Tryptophane 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 — 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Argiuine . . 
 
 5-42 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Lysine 
 
 4-28 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Histidin . . 
 
 10-96 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ammonia . . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
OP THE PROTEINS 
 I. 
 
 STIXUTION OP THE PROTEINS" 
 
 OP Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co. 
 
 Vegetabi,e 
 
 Globuuns Glutelins 
 
 4 
 
 it 
 
 11 
 
 Glycinin 
 
 from Soy 
 
 Bean 
 
 
 s 5 
 
 S42 
 
 ft''" ■** 
 
 3-8 
 
 2-5 
 
 •38 
 
 •97 
 
 0-3 
 
 I'O 
 
 I-O 
 
 •4 
 
 3-6 
 
 4-5 
 
 2-08 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2-8 
 
 2-S 
 
 •3 
 
 + 
 
 •6 
 
 — 
 
 •68 
 
 — 
 
 I-o 
 
 1-8 
 
 — 
 
 20-9 
 
 1 2-9 
 
 8 -00 
 
 8^45 
 
 6-2 
 
 8-2 
 
 1 5-0 
 
 4-1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2-4 
 
 4-0 
 
 375 
 
 3-86 
 
 1-8 
 
 2-0 
 
 3-2 
 
 i-o 
 
 2'I 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-55 
 
 1-86 
 
 3-8 
 
 2-8 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-9 
 
 •4 
 
 •2 
 
 •53 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 •3 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1-7 
 
 2-8 
 
 3-22 
 
 3-78 
 
 5-0 
 
 2-3 
 
 5-4 
 
 4-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 4-5 
 
 3-2 
 
 S-30 
 
 3-89 
 
 07 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 0-7 
 
 e-s 
 
 I3-0 
 
 i3'8o 
 
 19-46 
 
 127 
 
 i6-3 
 
 18-4 
 
 24-0 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 — 
 
 + 
 
 
 — 
 
 + 
 
 1 1 -2 to 
 
 14-4 
 i-oto 1-7 
 
 '~~ 
 
 I0-I2 
 
 4-29 
 
 S-I2 
 271 
 
 7-1 
 
 3-0 
 
 4-6 
 5-1 
 
 — 
 
 4-4 
 
 2-2 
 
 I'l to 2-4 
 
 — 
 
 2-42 
 
 1-39 
 
 3.0 
 
 i-i 
 
 — 
 
 1-2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1-99 
 
 2-56 
 
 2-1 
 
 — 
 
 
 2-5 
 
TABLE 
 
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
 
 Sheet 
 
 From "The Chemicai, Constitution of 
 
 Gliadins 
 
 
 Gliadin 
 of Wheat 
 
 Gliadin 
 of Rye 
 
 Hordein 
 of Barley 
 
 Glycine 
 
 •2 to ■/ 
 
 ■13 
 
 — 
 
 Alanine 
 
 2-0 to 27 
 
 1-33 
 
 •43 to 1-4 
 
 Valine 
 
 •4 to -31 
 
 — 
 
 •13 to 1-4 
 
 Leucine 
 
 5-61 to 6-00 
 
 6- 30 
 
 5-67 to 7-0 
 
 Isoleudne 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Phenylalanine 
 
 2-6 to 2'35 
 
 270 
 
 5-03 to s-s 
 
 Tyrosine 
 
 1-2 to 2-40 
 
 I-I9 
 
 1-67 to 4-0 
 
 Serine 
 
 ■13 to -2 
 
 •06 
 
 i-o 
 
 Cystine 
 
 •45 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Proline 
 
 2-4 to 7-06 
 
 9-82 
 
 5-9 to 1373 
 
 Oxyproline 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Aspartic acid. . 
 
 1-58 to 1-3 
 
 •25 
 
 1-3 
 
 Glutamic 
 
 31-5 to 37-33 
 
 33-81 
 
 36-35 to 41-3 
 
 Tryptophane . . 
 
 i-o 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 Arginine 
 
 2-8 to 3-16 
 
 2-22 
 
 2-i6 to 3-2 
 
 Lysine 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Histidin 
 
 •61 to 1-2 
 
 •39 
 
 -5 to 1-28 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 4'i to 5-II 
 
 5-II 
 
 4-4 to 4-87 
 
I. {continued). 
 OP THE PROTEINS 
 
 II. 
 THE Proteins." By r. Aders Pummer 
 
 Phosphoproteins 
 
 Sci,EROPROTEmS 
 
 Zein 
 of Maize 
 
 Caseinogen 
 
 from 
 Cows' Milk 
 
 Viiellin 
 from Eggs 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 Keratin 
 of Goose 
 Feathers 
 
 Keratin 
 
 of Egg 
 
 Membrane 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 to I-I 
 
 i6-5 
 
 2-6 
 
 + 
 
 ■5 to. 2-23 
 
 •9 
 
 to -05 
 
 -8 
 
 1-8 
 
 + ? 
 
 + to -29 
 
 i-o 
 
 to 2-4 
 
 I-o 
 
 •5 
 
 — 
 
 1 1 '2 to i8-6o 
 
 IO-5 
 
 3-3 to II-O 
 
 2-1 
 
 8-0 
 
 — 
 
 4-87 to yo 
 
 3-2 
 
 -7 to 2-8 
 
 •4 
 
 — 
 
 + ? 
 
 3-55 to lo-i 
 
 4-5 
 
 -4 to 1-6 
 
 — 
 
 3-6 
 
 — 
 
 •57 
 
 ■23 
 
 -OS 
 
 •4 
 
 •4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 •06 
 
 -6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — , 
 
 1-5 to 6-53 
 
 •31 
 
 -5 to 4-0 
 
 5-2 
 
 3-5 
 
 11-8 ? 
 
 — 
 
 •25 
 
 •25 
 
 3-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 i-o to I '41 
 
 1-2 
 
 -6 to -7 
 
 ■6 
 
 i-i 
 
 1-8 ? 
 
 11 -8 to 18-28 
 
 I I-O 
 
 1-5 
 4-84 
 
 i-o to 1-0 
 
 •9 
 
 2-3 
 
 3^o ? 
 
 i-l6to 1-9 
 
 I-o to 1-2 
 
 7-6 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5 -So 
 
 2-1 to 2-4 
 
 2-8 to 5-0 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 •43 to -9 
 
 2-59 
 
 2-1 
 
 •4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2-6 to 3'6i 
 
 I -60 
 
 1-2 
 
 •4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
i64 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 of substances. For instance, glutanic acid is present 
 in all the substances in the table ; may not the percentage 
 differ according to time of life, nature of food, etc. ? 
 Are we not to find in the presence or absence, beyond the 
 normal, of any constituent, proof that the foods we are 
 using do not result in a sufl&cient supply to the animal 
 organism ? 
 
 Hydrolysis (analysis) of various proteins show us cer- 
 tain constituents ; in the case of the animal these are 
 derived from the food, at any rate to some extent. How 
 far are they beneficial to the organism ? Does their 
 presence or absence increase or inhibit chemical or enzyme 
 action in metabolism ? 
 
 In Table II. are given the products of the hydrolyses 
 of vignin of the cow-pea, legumin of the vetch and of the 
 pea. These are three proteins of seeds commonly fed 
 to poultry. In the fourth column is given the hydrolysis 
 products of chicken muscle. One cannot but be struck 
 with the close agreement of the figures for the four sub- 
 stances as regards each chemical constituent. In chicken 
 muscle, which is the only flesh of which I have any 
 details, it would appear that this flesh (muscle) is a 
 simple transformation of vegetable proteins — Whence the 
 general agreement between the constitution of muscle, 
 protein, and of the principal vegetable proteins. The 
 differences noted in comparing chicken muscle protein with 
 those of globin, eggs, serum, and lact-albumin, etc., may 
 be due to the fact that they are originally of secondary 
 nature, produced in the body as the result of chemical and 
 enzyme action. 
 
 We know from a study of organotherapy that extract 
 preparations of many organs of the animal body accelerate 
 the functions of torpid or diseased organs when injected 
 or taken per os. May not the same beneficial results 
 
EXPLANATION OF TABLES, ETC. 165 
 
 accrue from a change to a food which supplies something 
 hitherto lacking ? It seems to me that this must be so, 
 and that some day chemist and physiologist will show 
 that the presence or absence, beyond a normal amount, of 
 any chemical constituent of protein, carbohydrate, or fat 
 is important. 
 
 TABLE n. 
 
 SHOWING HYDROIvYSIS OP THE UNDERMENTIONED 
 
 SUBSTANCES 
 
 By T. B. Osborne and P. W. Heyi; 
 {American Journal of Physiology, Nos. III. and iv., 1908) 
 
 
 
 LEGUMIN 
 
 
 
 Vignin 
 
 of the 
 
 Cow-Pea 
 
 
 
 Chicken 
 
 
 Vetch 
 
 Pea 
 
 Muscle 
 
 Glycocoll (Glycine) 
 
 _ 
 
 ■39 
 
 •38 
 
 •68 
 
 Alanine . . 
 
 •97 
 
 i-iS 
 
 2-o8 
 
 2-28 
 
 Valine . . 
 
 •34 
 
 1-36 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 Leucine . . 
 
 7-82 
 
 8-8o 
 
 8-00 
 
 11-19 
 
 Proline .. 
 
 S-2S 
 
 4-04 
 
 3-22 
 
 4-74 
 
 Phenylalanine . . 
 
 5-27 
 
 2-87 
 
 3-75 
 
 3-53 
 
 Aspartic acid . . 
 
 3-97 
 
 3-21 
 
 5 -30 
 
 3-21 
 
 Glutaminic acid 
 
 16-89 
 
 18-30 
 
 16-97 
 
 16-48 
 
 Serine . . 
 
 not foimd 
 
 ? 
 
 ■53 
 
 ? 
 
 Oxyproline 
 
 not found 
 
 not 
 
 not 
 
 not 
 
 
 
 determitied 
 
 determined 
 
 determined 
 
 Tyrosine . . 
 
 2-26 
 
 2-42 
 
 i^SS 
 
 2-l6 
 
 Cystine . . 
 
 not 
 
 not 
 
 not 
 
 not 
 
 
 determined 
 
 determined 
 
 determined 
 
 determined 
 
 Arginine 
 
 7-20 
 
 1 1 -06 
 
 11-71 
 
 6-50 
 
 Histidine 
 
 3-o8 
 
 2-94 
 
 1-69 
 
 2-47 
 
 Lysine . . 
 
 4-28 
 
 3-99 
 
 4.98 
 
 7-24 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 2-32 
 
 2-12 
 
 2-05 
 
 1-67 
 
 Tryptophane . . 
 
 present 
 
 present 
 
 present 
 
 present 
 
 It is evident that the functions of life are adaptive, 
 and that one food constituent, to some extent, may serve 
 in the place of another, because the one can be converted 
 by synthesis within the animal into the substance required. 
 In the case of these chemical constituents they are ir- 
 
i66 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 reducible dissociation products, and probably few are 
 capable of transformation in the animal. May it not 
 be found that the action of any one is beneficial, in 
 normal conditions, to enzyme action ? It seems that the 
 solution of the cause of incomplete metabolism which is 
 characteristic of many diseases is due to starvation, per- 
 haps through generations and therefore cumulative, of 
 some chemical constituent the lack of which has resulted 
 in atrophy, disease, etc., of whatever part of the body is 
 concerned in the secretion and discharge of the various 
 enzymes. 
 
 Table III. shows the remarkable agreement in nitro- 
 gen content of albumins, phosphoproteins, globulins, and 
 other proteins of widely different origin. In this table 
 are given what I term secondary or transformed sub- 
 stances — some from the plant, others from the animal. 
 The agreement is the more remarkable, as the chemical 
 classification does not depend primarily on the nitrogen 
 content, but on the physical behaviour of the substance. 
 
 In Table III. the sulphur content of various proteins 
 is given (see also table, p. 158). Here we find that, 
 with the exception of amyloid, globin, and egg globuHn 
 the agreement is within close limits. The fact that sul- 
 phur is so universally present in animal and vegetable 
 substances alike accentuates what has been said under 
 Mineral Salts, etc. The importance to the organ of 
 sulphur is well recognised. The factor which leads to 
 abnormal conditions such as cystinuria is perhaps depen- 
 dent upon sulphur metabolism in the absence or undue 
 presence of some of the other chemical constituents 
 given in Tables I. and II. The suitability to the 
 organism and the beneficial action of the numerous 
 sulphates in pharmacology emphasise the importance of 
 this mineral. 
 
EXPLANATION OF TABLES, ETC. 167 
 
 TABLE in. 
 
 SHOWING NITROGEN CONTENT OP THE FOLLOWING 
 PROTEINS 
 
 Group 
 
 Protein 
 
 Source 
 
 Nitrogen % 
 
 ALBUMINS AND 
 
 Leucosine 
 
 Wieat 
 
 . 16-93 
 
 Phosphoproteins 
 
 Conalbumin . . 
 
 Egg-white 
 
 i6.ii 
 
 
 ViteUin 
 
 Egg-yolk 
 
 . 16-28 
 
 
 Ovalbvunin 
 
 Egg-white 
 
 • 15-51 
 
 
 Caseinogen 
 
 Milk . . 
 
 15-62 
 
 Gl,OBUI,INS . . 
 
 Legumelin 
 
 Pea, etc. 
 
 16-09 
 
 
 Globulin 
 
 Wheat .. 
 
 . 18-39 
 
 
 Legumin 
 
 Pea 
 
 . 17-97 
 
 
 Edestin 
 
 Hemp-seed 
 
 18-64 
 
 
 Glutenin 
 
 Wheat .. 
 
 ■ 17-49 
 
 Al,COHOI,-S0I,UBI,E 
 
 Zein . . 
 
 Maize . . 
 
 . 16-13 
 
 Proteins 
 
 Protein 
 
 (alcohol sol.) 
 
 Oats .. 
 
 - 15-67 
 
 
 Hordein 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 17-21 
 
 
 Bynin . . 
 
 Malt .. 
 
 . 16-26 
 
 
 Gliadin 
 
 Wheat and rye 
 
 . 17-66 
 
 SULPHUR CONTENT IN THE 
 
 FOLLOWING 
 
 PROTEINS 
 
 Group 
 
 Substance 
 
 Source 
 
 Sulphur % 
 
 ALBUMINS . . 
 
 Globin 
 
 Haemoglobin 
 
 •42 
 
 
 Albumin 
 
 Serum 
 
 1-91 
 
 
 Albumin 
 
 Egg 
 
 . . 1-62 
 
 
 Leucosin 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 .. 1-28 
 
 Gi,OBUr,iNS 
 
 Globulin 
 
 Blood . . 
 
 i-ii 
 
 
 Edestin 
 
 Hemp-seed 
 
 -91 
 
 
 Globulin 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 ■69 
 
 
 Globulin 
 
 Egg 
 
 •40 
 
 Al,C0HOI,-S0I,UBI,E 
 
 Zein . . 
 
 Maize 
 
 -60 
 
 Proteins 
 
 Gliadin 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 I-I4 
 
 
 Glutenin 
 
 Wheat . . 
 
 1-08 
 
 
 Caseinogen 
 
 Milk 
 
 •76 
 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 Commercial 
 
 .70 
 
 
 Amyloid 
 
 Liver, spleen, 
 heart 
 
 2-89 
 
 
 Fibrinogen 
 
 Blood 
 
 .. 1-25 
 
 THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EGG 
 
 Table IV. is of interest from two points of view — the 
 chemical and the food view. The chemical view interests 
 
i68 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 us because we see the same dissociation products men- 
 tioned which have been discussed analytically in the 
 foregoing pages. In the constitution of the albumin or 
 white we see the glucose content, which shows us that 
 egg-white is not a pure albumin, as is generally thought, 
 but is in reahty a glyco-protein — ^that is, it contains 
 attached to the protein molecule a carbohydrate radical. 
 In Column 2, Table I. (p. i6o), the percentage of glu- 
 tamic acid is given at 8. 
 
 The salts, etc., in yolk and white, on which fertilisation 
 and subsequent segmentation depend, are ample testi- 
 mony of the neclessity for a proper supply of these in the 
 food content. It is not generally recognised that, as in the 
 case of a cow in milk, the la5dng hen must draw on her 
 system for the necessary salts if they are not supphed 
 in the food. It does not occur to people that food lack- 
 ing salts cannot be converted into eggs. The hen may 
 for a time draw on her body for the required salts, and 
 then one of two things must happen — she must cease 
 laying or she must die. 
 
 Food Value. — Much has been written concerning the 
 egg and its importance as an article of food. In such 
 treatises and accounts the egg was referred to as a sub- 
 stance for allaying hunger, as a delicacy, or as to its com- 
 parative food value. A glance at the table showing its 
 composition shows, in addition to fats, albumins, mineral 
 salts, etc., two important substances — lecithine and 
 cerebrin. I do not intend to discuss the probable im- 
 portance to the embryo of a normal egg composition. I 
 have all through insisted upon the influence of cumulative 
 effects. 
 
 Medicinal Lecithine, which has been referred to in 
 " Fats " and also in " Proteins," is administered as medi- 
 cine in cases where the phosphates excreted by the urine 
 
EXPLANATION OF TABLES, ETC. 169 
 
 are high ; in neurasthenia, various nervous diseases, 
 diabetes, tuberculosis, tabes and general paralysis ; also 
 in all diseases producing a disturbance of nutrition, 
 improves weight, augments blood corpuscles, etc. In 
 fact, it is of service in those cases where there is a defi- 
 ciency in the body of lecithin or cholesterin — lecithine is 
 choleric distearo-glycerophosphate. 
 
 Cerebrin is present in the brain ; its sugar is cere- 
 brose. Extracts are made and administered in nervous 
 diseases. Sheep's brains are generally used. 
 
 If people ate more eggs and insisted on having them 
 absolutely fresh, there would be little need for adminis- 
 tering these pharmacological preparations. Brain-work 
 and nervous functions demand abstention from sub- 
 stances which destroy lecithin and like important food 
 and body constituents. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 SHOWING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OP THE EGG 
 
 (Simon) 
 
 Generai, Composition of the Yoi,k 
 
 Water 
 
 Solids . . 
 
 Fats (olein, palmitin and stearin) 
 
 vitelline and other albumins . . 
 
 Lecithin . . 
 
 Cholesterin 
 
 Cerebrin . . 
 
 Mineral salts 
 
 Colouring matters, glucose 
 
 Anai,ysis of the Mdjerai, Sai,ts 
 
 Sodium (NajO) 
 Potassium (K^O) 
 Calcium (CaO).. 
 Magnesium (MgO) 
 Iron (FejOj) .. 
 Phosphoric add (PjOb) 
 Phosphoric acid, combined 
 Silicic acid (SiOj) 
 Chlorine (CI) .. 
 
 : Per cent. 
 
 47-19 
 
 to 
 
 51-49 
 
 48-51 
 
 to 
 
 42-51 
 
 21-30 
 
 to 
 
 22-84 
 
 15-63 
 
 to 
 
 15-76 
 
 8-43 
 
 to 
 
 10-72 
 
 ■44 
 
 to 
 
 1-75 
 
 -30 
 
 
 — 
 
 3-33 
 
 to 
 
 3-36 
 
 ■553 
 
 
 ~ 
 
 S-I2 
 
 to 
 
 6-57 
 
 8-05 
 
 to 
 
 8-93 
 
 12-21 
 
 to 
 
 13-28 
 
 2-07 
 
 to 
 
 2-11 
 
 I-I9 
 
 to 
 
 I -45 
 
 5-72 
 
 
 — 
 
 63-81 
 
 to 
 
 66-70 
 
 •55 
 
 to 
 
 1-40 
 
 Traces 
 
170 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 TABLE IV. {continued) 
 
 Composition of the Aibumen (Egg-white) Per cent. 
 
 80-00 to 86-68 
 
 Water . . 
 
 SOUDS . . 
 
 Albumins . . 
 
 Extractives 
 
 Glucose 
 
 Fats and soaps 
 
 Mineral salts 
 
 I<ecithins and cholesterin 
 
 Analysis op the Minerai, Ash 
 
 Sodium (Na^O) 
 Potassium (KjO) 
 Calcium (CaO). . 
 Magnesium (MgO) 
 Iron (FeaOs) .. 
 Chlorine (CX) .. 
 Phosphoric acid (P2O6) 
 Carbonic acid (COj) . . 
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 
 Silicic acid (SiOj) 
 Fluorine (F) . . 
 
 to keratin, impregnated with lime salts : 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 Calcium phosphate 
 Magnesium phosphate . . 
 Calcium fluoride 
 
 13-22 
 
 to 20-00 
 
 11-50 
 
 to 12-27 
 
 •38 
 
 to -77 
 
 •10 
 
 to -50 
 
 Traces 
 
 • 30 
 
 to -66 
 
 Traces 
 
 I 
 
 23-56 
 
 to 32-93 
 
 27-66 
 
 to 28-45 
 
 1-74 
 
 to 2-90 
 
 1-60 
 
 to 3-17 
 
 ■44 
 
 to -55 
 
 23-84 
 
 to 28-56 
 
 3-i6 
 
 to 4-83 
 
 9-67 
 
 to 11-60 
 
 1-32 
 
 to 2-63 
 
 -28 
 
 to -49 
 
 Traces 
 
 substance similar 
 
 Per cent 
 
 . 
 
 6 to 7 
 
 
 58 to 63 
 
 
 I to 2 
 
 
 The shell membranes and vitelline membrane of the yolk are 
 composed of a keratin-like substance. 
 
 ORDINARY ANALYSES OF EGGS (TABLE V.) 
 
 I have included this table, compiled from details of 
 the analyses of a considerable number of eggs. It will 
 serve several purposes. It will show that, after all, there 
 is scarcely any difference in the food values of eggs of 
 different breeds — the differences are due to the compara- 
 tively small numbers investigated. 
 
 From the point of view of the poultry breeder, he 
 can see at a glance what quantity of available food con- 
 stituents must be given to the hen over and above her 
 vital needs in order that she may produce one egg. It is 
 
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172 POULTRY FOODS AND FEEDING 
 
 as well to again remind breeders of the importance of 
 water and mineral salts : both should be largely of 
 vegetable origin — succulent, juicy, green foods. I have 
 not included the shell, which averages ii per cent, of 
 the weight of an egg. Taking an average egg as weigh- 
 ing 2 oz., more than i oz. of water and protein are 
 required for the white, and ^ oz. of fats, proteins, etc., 
 for the yolk. It must be remembered that such analysis 
 is rough and takes no account of chemical actions, nor 
 of the real constitution of eggs in relation to the food 
 obtained by the hen. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FOODS (TABLE VI.) 
 
 In Table VI. I have given the percentage composi- 
 tion of various crude substances in a long list of foods 
 commonly fed, in various countries, to poultry. As this 
 work relates particularly to the feeding of poultry, I 
 have not given tables showing digestible co-efl5cients, 
 as is the practice with some authors. The digestibility 
 tables have been worked out with sheep, cattle, horses, 
 etc., but not with poultry. While such tables may be 
 accepted as a rough guide, to quote them in connection 
 with poultry feeding, as is sometimes done, would be 
 misleading. Fowls digest some food constituents more 
 completely than do other classes of stock, and, on the 
 other hand, foods of value for some stock are of quite 
 different value, sometimes none, when fed to poultry, 
 and often to particular species. 
 
 As previously remarked, it is generally admitted that 
 there are many sources of error in these food tables, 
 but they are the best available. They serve, at any 
 rate, as a valuable guide to the reasoning poultry breeder. 
 Reference to chapters on Foods and Feeding (Part I.) will 
 make this table easy of comprehension. 
 
EXPLANATION OF TABLES, ETC. 173 
 
 While I wish to avoid any semblance of discussing 
 other works dealing with foods, it must be definitely stated 
 that most of them, especieilly relating to poultry, are 
 purely theoretical and show conspicuous absence both of 
 scientific treatment and practical knowledge. I will give 
 but one instance, which is a glaring one. It is frequently 
 advised to give daily to each laying hen as much as 2 oz. 
 of cut green bone. No practical man who has weighed 
 out 2 oz. would write such rubbish. The hen is not 
 living that could stand such feeding. Unfortunately 
 there are many who follow such advice to their great 
 sorrow. While simple foods are to be recommended, 
 there is none in this list which has not its proper place 
 and use. No one food is sufficient, and there are others 
 which should be used very occasionally and with due 
 caution as to quantity. 
 
 In Table VII. I have included some foods, and in 
 order to show the mineral salts, etc., in detail, I have used 
 the figures of other analyses, and therefore the protein, 
 fat, and other contents will show slight, but not impor- 
 tant, differences. The main feature of this table is the 
 section relating to the minerals. Although I have, in a 
 general way, in dealing with different food substances, 
 referred to their mineral contents, this tabulated state- 
 ment will enable the student to make comparisons. He 
 can then gauge the value for a particular purpose of 
 any food he may propose to use. Only the principal foods 
 have been included, otherwise the table would be un- 
 wieldy. There is no need to discuss the various items : 
 the table should be referred to when reading the descrip- 
 tions of protein, fat, etc., and particularly that part relat- 
 ing to the salts and minerals. 
 
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 1 
 
 
 Fibre 
 
 W W hH M M 
 
 Salts, 
 
 Minerals, 
 
 etc. 
 
 ^co Y^S Y^^o g v^'S 1 T 9 r' ?\ ^' 9 7l- 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 {Sugar, 
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 Seeds, Grain, etc. 
 
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 Barley 
 
 Peas and Beans 
 MiUet Seed 
 Hemp Seed 
 
 Dari 
 
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 Skinless Oats .. 
 Flax Seed (Linseed) . . 
 
 Rye 
 
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 Sorghum 
 Lentils . . 
 
1 
 
 O^ro O t^ Tj- lo 
 
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 oP fn 0\ ^ ^t- 
 
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 Salts, 
 
 Minerals, 
 
 etc. 
 
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 Carbo- 
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 Starch, 
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 X 2-25 
 
 = carbohydrates 
 
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 Seeds, Grain, etc. 
 Vetches 
 
 Cotton Seed . . 
 Rape Seed 
 Buckwheat 
 Carob Beans . . 
 
 Mil,!, Products 
 Hulled Oats . . 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Linseed Meal . . 
 Pollard (Wheat) 
 Bran (Wheat) . . 
 Bread (White).. 
 Oilcake (Cotton Seed) . . 
 
 Do. (decorticated) 
 Linseed Meal (extracted) 
 Olive Cake 
 Rape Cake 
 
 Rape Meal (extracted) 
 Sunflower Seed Cake.. 
 
 
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 Minerals, 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 M 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 {Sugar, 
 Starch, 
 etc.) 
 
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 Fats, Oils, etc. 
 
 X 2-25 
 
 =carbohydrates 
 
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 Animai, Foods 
 Dry Meat Meal 
 Lean Beef 
 
 Fresh Bone (Green) .. 
 Dried Fish 
 Milk (av.) 
 
 Do. (separated) 
 Buttermilk 
 Egg, Yolk 
 
 „ White 
 Blood Meal 
 Greaves . . 
 
 VEGETABLE FOODS 
 
 Cabbage, Kail, etc. . . 
 
 Rape 
 
 Mustard 
 
 Mangel Leaves 
 
 Sugar Beet Leaves . . 
 
 Clover, Red . . 
 
 „ Incarnatum . . 
 White . . 
 Lucerne . . 
 
g 
 
 o o o o o 
 ^6\p^N 6 6 6 ^ b ^bsbsw 
 
 t'sCO 00 CO ^^0\0\ 0\ tN.00 00 0\ 
 
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TABLE 
 
 SHOWING COMPOSITION 
 (Data from 
 Crude Materiai,, per cent. 
 
 Food 
 
 Water 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fat, 
 Oil, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 Salts, 
 etc. 
 
 Husk 
 
 and 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Milk (cows') 
 
 
 87-00 
 
 4-00 
 
 3-50 
 
 4-80 
 
 0-70 
 
 
 
 „ (separator) . 
 
 
 90-60 
 
 3-10 
 
 •30 
 
 5-30 
 
 0-70 
 
 — 
 
 Egg, Yolk 
 
 
 53-00 
 
 16-00 
 
 30-00 
 
 — 
 
 I -00 
 
 — 
 
 „ White 
 
 
 84-80 
 
 11-45 
 
 2-00 
 
 -55 
 
 1-20 
 
 — 
 
 „ Whole 
 
 
 73-67 
 
 12-55 
 
 12-11 
 
 -55 
 
 1-12 
 
 — 
 
 Chicken Flesh . 
 
 
 76-22 
 
 19-72 
 
 1-42 
 
 1-27 
 
 1-37 
 
 — 
 
 Blood (Ox) 
 
 
 80-82 
 
 18-12 
 
 •18 
 
 -03 
 
 •85 
 
 — 
 
 Beef (Lean) 
 
 
 74-40 
 
 20-50 
 
 3-50 
 
 — 
 
 I -60 
 
 — 
 
 Endives . . 
 
 
 92-50 
 
 1-26 
 
 -54 
 
 3-55 
 
 -98 
 
 1-17 
 
 Cabbage . . 
 
 
 90-50 
 
 2-40 
 
 •40 
 
 3-80 
 
 1-40 
 
 1-50 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 
 94-33 
 
 1-41 
 
 •31 
 
 2-19 
 
 1-03 
 
 -73 
 
 Beet 
 
 
 90-90 
 
 1-40 
 
 •20 
 
 5-50 
 
 I-IO 
 
 •90 
 
 Lucerne (Hay) 
 
 
 10-95 
 
 17-60 
 
 3-08 
 
 39-31 
 
 6-43 
 
 22-63 
 
 Potato 
 
 
 50-50 
 
 6-50 
 
 — 
 
 41-00 
 
 2-00 
 
 — 
 
 Turnip 
 
 
 90-50 
 
 I-IO 
 
 -20 
 
 6-20 
 
 -80 
 
 1-20 
 
 Red Clover Hay. 
 
 
 11-25 
 
 10-50 
 
 2-23 
 
 44-92 
 
 6-91 
 
 24-19 
 
 Rape (Green) 
 
 
 90-50 
 
 2-40 
 
 0-40 
 
 3-80 
 
 1-40 
 
 1-50 
 
 Red Clover (Greer 
 
 
 
 72-00 
 
 5-00 
 
 -80 
 
 13-30 
 
 2-40 
 
 6-50 
 
 Lucerne (Green) . 
 
 
 80-00 
 
 4-94 
 
 •74 
 
 7-90 
 
 1-72 
 
 4-70 
 
 Hay (Wheaten) . 
 
 
 8-82 
 
 5-96 
 
 1-81 
 
 55-15 
 
 s-78 
 
 22-48 
 
 Wheat 
 
 
 12-00 
 
 12-0O 
 
 1-80 
 
 70-10 
 
 1-80 
 
 2-30 
 
 Oats 
 
 
 10-00 
 
 15-00 
 
 5-So 
 
 48-00 
 
 2-50 
 
 19-00 
 
 Barley 
 
 
 13-00 
 
 12-00 
 
 1-40 
 
 56-00 
 
 3-60 
 
 14-00 
 
 Maize 
 
 
 11-00 
 
 10-50 
 
 8-00 
 
 66-50 
 
 1-50 
 
 2-50 
 
 Peas and Beans . 
 
 
 14-00 
 
 24-00 
 
 1-50 
 
 48-00 
 
 2-50 
 
 10-00 
 
 Rice 
 
 
 13-00 
 
 6-60 
 
 -40 
 
 80-00 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Soy Beans 
 
 
 10-80 
 
 34-00 
 
 16-90 
 
 28-80 
 
 4-70 
 
 4-80 
 
 Lentils 
 
 
 12-35 
 
 25-70 
 
 1-89 
 
 53-46 
 
 3-04 
 
 — 
 
 Skinless Oats 
 
 
 10-00 
 
 18-00 
 
 6-00 
 
 60-00 
 
 3-00 
 
 3-00 
 
 Flax Seed.. 
 
 
 9-20 
 
 22-50 
 
 33-70 
 
 23-20 
 
 4-30 
 
 7-IO 
 
 Hulled Oats 
 
 
 9-00 
 
 18-00 
 
 6-00 
 
 63-50 
 
 2-00 
 
 1-50 
 
 Oatmeal . . 
 
 
 9-00 
 
 18-00 
 
 6-00 
 
 63-50 
 
 2-00 
 
 1-50 
 
 Linseed Meal 
 
 
 9-20 
 
 32-90 
 
 7-90 
 
 35-40 
 
 5-70 
 
 8-90 
 
 Bran (Wheaten) . 
 
 
 14-00 
 
 15-50 
 
 4-00 
 
 44-00 
 
 6-00 
 
 16-50 
 
 Bread (White) . 
 
 
 32-50 
 
 8-8o 
 
 1-80 
 
 56-40 
 
 •50 
 
 ^~" 
 
VII. 
 
 OP SOME POODS, Etc. 
 Various Sources) 
 
 Minerals, in 1,000 Parts Dry Substance 
 
 Potas- 
 sium 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Mag- 
 nesium 
 
 Phos- 
 phorus 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Ash 
 
 11-60 
 
 3-44 
 
 9-09 
 
 0-88 
 
 6-50 
 
 0-57 
 
 7-91 
 
 56-7 
 
 1 1 -60 
 
 3-44 
 
 9-09 
 
 0-88 
 
 varies 
 
 0-57 
 
 7-91 
 
 56-0 
 
 •92 
 
 ■58 
 
 1-30 
 
 -21 
 
 6-54 
 
 — 
 
 1-80 
 
 — 
 
 3-14 
 
 3-15 
 
 •27 
 
 •27 
 
 •44 
 
 -21 
 
 2-88 
 
 — 
 
 5-55 
 
 4-53 
 
 2-10 
 
 •51 
 
 5-78 
 
 •13 
 
 4-85 
 
 34-8 
 
 1472 
 
 3-00 
 
 -35 
 
 1-17 
 
 8-OI 
 
 3-70 
 
 1-90 
 
 — 
 
 •76 
 
 4-49 
 
 -10 
 
 -06 
 
 •52 
 
 .30 
 
 3-43 
 
 — 
 
 15-12 
 
 2-69 
 
 -08 
 
 -99 
 
 7-02 
 
 3-10 
 
 2-36 
 
 — 
 
 25-30 
 
 35-30 
 
 11-86 
 
 4-33 
 
 10-90 
 
 3-87 
 
 4-19 
 
 — 
 
 25-10 
 
 8-05 
 
 16-16 
 
 2-34 
 
 7-11 
 
 3-72 
 
 8-53 
 
 108-05 
 
 27-63 
 
 7-54 
 
 14-68 
 
 6-19 
 
 9-19 
 
 3.76 
 
 7-65 
 
 — 
 
 8-45 
 
 21-60 
 
 2-49 
 
 -11 
 
 2-56 
 
 •50 
 
 2-94 
 
 59-7 
 
 16-41 
 
 ■97 
 
 21-44 
 
 2-23 
 
 3-38 
 
 1-72 
 
 2-98 
 
 73-8 
 
 18-90 
 
 •83 
 
 •72 
 
 1-13 
 
 2-79 
 
 -99 
 
 1-31 
 
 37-9 
 
 30-20 
 
 5-85 
 
 6-07 
 
 x-79 
 
 4-45 
 
 3-59 
 
 4-06 
 
 80-1 
 
 18-38 
 
 -97 
 
 17-11 
 
 4^53 
 
 2-89 
 
 •90 
 
 2-62 
 
 68-6 
 
 22-35 
 
 2-29 
 
 12-64 
 
 1-86 
 
 4-03 
 
 4-62 
 
 6-15 
 
 80-8 
 
 18-3S 
 
 I -00 
 
 17-12 
 
 4-52 
 
 2-89 
 
 •89 
 
 
 68-6 
 
 14-43 
 
 .96 
 
 21-46 
 
 2-19 
 
 2-74 
 
 1-70 
 
 — 
 
 73-8 
 
 6-08 
 
 •55 
 
 2-21 
 
 -80 
 
 1-13 
 
 •53 
 
 — 
 
 53-7 
 
 S-04 
 
 •26 
 
 •41 
 
 1-41 
 
 4-08 
 
 •99 
 
 •58 
 
 20-8 
 
 4-65 
 
 •35 
 
 •84 
 
 1^34 
 
 3-77 
 
 •23 
 
 -35 
 
 32-0 
 
 2-70 
 
 -61 
 
 •11 
 
 1-50 
 
 2-85 
 
 -24 
 
 — 
 
 19-9 
 
 3-59 
 
 •12 
 
 •23 
 
 1-36 
 
 2-89 
 
 -05 
 
 •13 
 
 14-5 
 
 12-50 
 
 •29 
 
 1-30 
 
 1-57 
 
 6-16 
 
 •49 
 
 -65 
 
 36-3 
 
 •70 
 
 •16 
 
 •99 
 
 •26 
 
 •91 
 
 •01 
 
 -004 
 
 319 
 
 11-62 
 
 •23 
 
 I-I9 
 
 1-69 
 
 5-06 
 
 1^34 
 
 •08 
 
 31-4 
 
 3-47 
 
 1^35 
 
 •63 
 
 -24 
 
 3-63 
 
 
 •46 
 
 
 3-6i 
 
 •58 
 
 •97 
 
 -86 
 
 3-45 
 
 •05 
 
 -98 
 
 18-3 
 
 11-82 
 
 -68 
 
 3^50 
 
 5-51 
 
 8-06 
 
 •78 
 
 •46 
 
 58-4 
 
 3-6i 
 
 -58 
 
 •97 
 
 -86 
 
 3-85 
 
 •05 
 
 -98 
 
 18-3 
 
 3-6i 
 
 •58 
 
 •97 
 
 -86 
 
 3-85 
 
 •05 
 
 -98 
 
 18-3 
 
 11-82 
 
 •68 
 
 3-50 
 
 5-Si 
 
 8-06 
 
 •78 
 
 •46 
 
 58-4 
 
 14-58 
 
 •30 
 
 1-27 
 
 6-22 
 
 13-54 
 
 -02 
 
 
 61-6 
 
 1-25 
 
 3^i4 
 
 "~~ 
 
 •29 
 
 1-58 
 
 1-25 
 
 6-53 
 
 21-5 
 
INDEX 
 
 a PROTEINS, 24, 40 
 
 Acetic acid, 132 
 
 Acetonuria, 143 
 
 Acids, fatty, 132 ; unsaturated, 133 
 
 Age, cells and, 116 
 
 Alanine, no 
 
 Albumin, danger of heavy quantities 
 of, 41 ; as food, 114 
 
 Albuminoids, Mann ort, 115 
 
 Albumins, 43, 105, 109, 114 et seq. 
 
 Albumins of milk, for poultry, 34 
 
 Alcohols in waxes, 138 
 
 Alfalfa, use with maize, 11 (see 
 Lucerne) 
 
 Alkalies, importance of, in organ- 
 isms, iss 
 
 America, use of clover meal in, 27 
 
 Amino acids, no et seg. 
 
 Amyloid, 123 
 
 Amylopsin, action of, 4 
 
 Analysis, food, classification of, 38 
 
 Animal foods, essential in poultry 
 feeding, 32 ; and kidney trouble, 
 
 33 
 Animal tissues, fats in, 140 
 Anti-enzymes, 148 
 Anti-pepsin, 149 
 Anti-rennet, 148 
 Anti-trypsin, 148, 149 
 Arachidic acid, 133 
 Arginine, 112; in seeds, 150 
 Armstrong, on simple carbohydrates, 
 
 43 ; on conversion of galactose 
 
 into glucose, 129 
 Artificial feeding, i 
 " Ash," definition of, 150 
 Aspartic acid, m 
 Australia, rabbits as poultry food 
 
 in, 33 
 Avenalin, 118 
 Avenin, in oats, 20 
 
 Bacterial action in process of di- 
 gestion, 5 
 
 M 
 
 Bad feeding, effects on breeding of, 
 
 57 
 
 Balanced rations, 39 
 
 Barley, constituents of , g ; in poul- 
 try feeding, 9 ; torrefied, 9 ; 
 "skinless," 10; green, 10; 
 green, as poultry food, 29; as 
 undesiriable fat producer, 46; 
 fibre in, 54 
 
 Barley-meal, how to use, with poul- 
 try, 9 ; fat in pigs fed on, 140 
 
 Bayliss, on action of enzymes, 146-7, 
 
 " Beeswings " (bran), 19 
 
 Beet, as poultry food, 31 ; for 
 chickens, 96 
 
 Berseem, Egyptian clover, 28 
 
 Bile, constituents and action of, 4 
 
 Blood, in poultry food, 36; pro- 
 teins of, 41 ; coagulation of, 
 149 ; action of salts in coagula- 
 tion of, ISS 
 
 Blood-poisoning from unsound green 
 bone, 36 
 
 Bone, proteins of, 41 ; importance 
 of, 51 ; composition of, 51-2 ; 
 dry and crushed, for laying 
 hens, 77 
 
 Bone grit, 77 
 
 Bone structure, necessity for good, 
 
 SI 
 
 Bran, wheaten, as poultry food, 19 ; 
 "beeswings," 19; best kinds 
 for poultry, 19; use in mash, 
 19 ; laxative action of, 19 ; con- 
 tent of, 20; use in flesh pro- 
 duction, 20; why scalding is 
 necessary, 44; phosphorus of 
 potash in, 53 ; value as food of, 
 S4 ; in mash, 66 
 
 Brans, phosphorus in, S3 
 
 Breeding stock, feeding, 8s 't seg. ; 
 tests for condition of, 90 ; 
 periodic examination of, 91 
 181 
 
l82 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Buckwheat as poultry food, 17 
 Bullock's liver as poultry food, 34 
 Butter, salts and acids in, 131 
 Butyric acid, normal, 132 
 By-products, milling, l8 et seq. 
 
 Cabbage, as poultry food, 28 ; sul- 
 phur in, 53 
 
 Calcium, in gastric juice, 3 ; in 
 bones, 51 ; value of, in blood, 
 £2 ; in legumes, 53 ; importance 
 of, in foods, 155, 156 
 
 Calcium salts, action on pancreatic 
 juice of, 153 
 
 Capric acid, 132 
 
 Caproic acid, normal, 132 
 
 Carbohydrate content of wheat, 7 
 
 Carbohydrates, action of bacteria 
 on, 5; what they are, 43; how 
 used in system, 43 ; simple, 
 43-4 ; in living organisms, 48, 
 126 et seq. ; formed from fats, 
 
 ^ »43 
 
 Carbonate of soda, use of, when 
 " cramming," 84 
 
 Carbon dioxide in system, 52 
 
 Carrots as poultry food, 32 
 
 Caseinic acid, 113 
 
 Cells, ageing of, 116 
 
 Cellulose, in barley husks, 9 ; in 
 fibre and husk, 54 ; action of 
 acids on, 54 
 
 Cereals as food, 6 ; nitrogen con- 
 tent, affected by climate, 6; 
 phosphorus and potash in, 53 
 
 Charcoal, wood, for laying hens, 
 
 77 
 Chicken muscle, hydrolysis of, 
 
 Table II., 165 
 Chicken-pox, Epsom salts and, 81 
 Chicken-runs, 96 
 Chickens, necessity of phosphorus 
 
 for, S4 ; feeding, 91 et seq. 
 Cholesterol, importance of, 145 
 ChoumoelUrr 28 
 Chyme, formation of, 4 
 Clover, richness of mineral salts in, 
 
 8 ; food value of, 27 ; varieties 
 
 of, 27 
 Clover, incarnate, constituents of, 27 
 Clover, red, constituents of, 27 
 Clover, white, constituents of, 27 
 Clovers, use of, with maize, 11 
 
 Coagulation of blood, 149 ; action 
 of salts on, 155 
 
 Cobbett's corn, 12 
 
 Cock superfluous for egg-produc- 
 tion, 65 
 
 Cockerels as " milk " or " spring " 
 chickens, 97 
 
 Coco-nut oil, fat in pig fed on, 140 
 
 Cod-liver oil, 133 
 
 Co-enzymes, 148 
 
 Cohnheim, on albumins, 114; on 
 cells, 116 
 
 Collagen, 122 
 
 Condiments, no necessity for, 80 
 
 Condition of breeding stock, tests 
 for, 90 
 
 Conjugated proteins, 109 
 
 Cotton-seed meal, phosphorus in, 53 
 
 Cow, value of salt to, 50 
 
 Cramming, hand, 83 ; machine, 83 
 
 Crates, fattening, 81, 82 
 
 Crop impaction, oats and, 10 ; 
 lucerne hay and, 25 ; fibre and, 
 
 ^ SS 
 
 Crushed grain, proneness to fer- 
 mentation, 18 
 Cured foods, 23 et seq. 
 Cutin in fibre and husk, 54 
 Cystine, iii 
 Cystinuria, sulphur and, 166 
 
 Dari as poultry food, 18 
 Dextro-glucose, 127 
 Dextrose, 127 
 
 Dhurra as poultry food, 18 
 "Digestibility" experiments, 39 
 Digestion, process of, 2 
 Digestive organs of poultry, 62 
 Disaccharides, the, 128 
 Douglas mixture as tonic, 81 
 Drinking vessels, 69, 77 
 Drinking water, freshness of, 56; 
 to be kept in shade, 77 ; Douglas 
 mixture in, 81 ; for chickens, 94 
 Dry-feeding, revival of, 78 ; test of, 
 
 78-9 ; egg-production and, 79 
 Duck, swimming water for, 62 
 Ducklings for table purposes, 99 
 Ducks, lucerne for, when " off their 
 feed," 26; animal food neces- 
 sary to, 32 ; meat meal for, 35 ; 
 blood for, 37 ; necessity of meat 
 proteins for, 40 ; crop of, 63 ; 
 feeding, 98 et seq.; stock, 191 
 
INDEX 
 
 183 
 
 Ducks' eggs as commercial com- 
 modity, 98 
 
 Edsstin, 118 
 
 Egg, chemical composition of, Table 
 IV., 167, 170; food value of, 
 168 
 
 Egg-albumin, action in body of, 
 lis; coagulation of, 117; con- 
 stituents of, 168, 170 
 
 Egg-laying Competition Yards in 
 South Australia, size of the, 
 68 
 
 Egg-laying Competitions, food and 
 results of, 70, 71 
 
 Egg-laying tests, object of, 70 
 
 Egg-production, importance of wheat 
 in, 6, 11; baked wheat and, 8 ; 
 oats and, 10, 11, 76; peas in, 13, 
 76; green lucerne and, 25; meat 
 food and, 34 ; value of protein 
 in, 40 ; bad effect of starchy 
 foods on, 46; necessity of fat 
 in, 48 ; housinig conditions and, 
 60 ; feeding for, 64 ; at Rose- 
 worthy Poultry Station, 72 ; 
 changes of diet and, 76 ; green 
 food and, 76 ; insufficient nest 
 accommodation and, 76 ; dry- 
 feeding and, 79 
 
 Egg-white, constituents of, 114 
 
 Egg-yolk, lecithine in, 139 
 
 Eggs, as stores of nutriment, 2 ; 
 analysis of, Table V., 170-1 
 
 Endives, richness of mineral salts 
 in, 8 
 
 Enzymes, in gastric juice, 3 ; action 
 of, 146 et seq., 152-3 
 
 Epsom salts, value of, 81 
 
 Erucic acid, 134 
 
 Ether-soluble parts of food, 46 
 
 Fat, not a sign of energy, 45 ; 
 as "fuel," 47; how stored in 
 body, 47 ; useless without pro- 
 tein, 47 ; importance of due 
 proportion of, 48 ; constitution 
 of, 49 ; chemical meaning of, 
 131 ; energy from oxidation in 
 body of, 142 
 
 " Fat " content, of barley, 9 ; of 
 oats, 10 ; soy bean, 15 ; import- 
 ance of, in foods, 47 
 
 Fats, action of stomach on, in pro- 
 cess of digestion, 4 ; 46 «/ seq. ; 
 constituents of, 131 ; in animal 
 tissues, 140 
 
 Fattening, use of oats for, 1 1 ; ob- 
 jectionable action of maize in, 
 12 ; use of milk for, 33 ; sweet 
 tallow for, 37 ; use of greaves 
 for, 37 ; use of " fat " in foods 
 for, 48 ; excess of water in, 56 ; 
 crates for, 81 ; quality the object 
 of, 81 ; best food for, 82 
 
 Fatty acids, in foods, 47 ; 132 ; 
 glycerides of, 136 
 
 Feeding, object of, 2 
 
 Ferments (see Enzymes) 
 
 Fibre, constituents of, 54 
 
 Fish meal as food for poultry, 36 
 
 Flax seed, glyceryl in, 131 (see 
 Linseed) 
 
 Flesh-forming, protein as the chief 
 factor in, 40 
 
 Flesh-production, feeding for, 81 
 
 Fodders, variety of quality of, 6 ; 
 lack of mineral salts in, 152 
 
 Food ratio in Egg-laying Competi- 
 tions, 72 
 
 Foods, ingredients of, 38 
 
 Foods, poultry, composition of. 
 Tables VI. and VII., 172-9 
 
 Force feeding, 83 
 
 Formic acid, 132 
 
 Free range, advantages of, 60 ; not 
 commercially successful, 60, 61 ; 
 for goslings, 62 ; for turkeys, 
 62 ; for chickens, 96 
 
 Fructose, 128 
 
 Galactose, 128; conversion into 
 
 glucose, 129 
 Garlic for chickens, 95 
 Gastric juice, constituents of, 3 
 Geese, free range for, 62 ; crop of, 
 
 63 
 
 Gelatin, low heat-value of, 41 
 
 Ginger, use of, 81 
 
 Gizzard, 3, 4; and digestion, 62; 
 value of lining of, 63 
 
 Gliadins, 109 
 
 Globin, 119 
 
 Globulins, 109, 118 
 
 Glucoronic acid, 127 
 
 Glucose, importance of, 43 ; com- 
 mercial, from maize, 44 ; con- 
 
i84 
 
 INDEX 
 
 version of cellulose into, 54 ; 
 113; constituents of, 127; con- 
 version of galactose into, 129 
 
 Glucosides, the, 130 
 
 Glutaminic acid, 112 
 
 Glutelins, 109, 118 
 
 Gluten, in hard and soft wheat, 7 ; 
 as poultry food, 21 
 
 Glyoerides of fatty acids, 136 
 
 Glycero-phosphates, 136 
 
 Glycerol, properties of, 135 
 
 Glyceryl, 131 
 
 Glycine, no 
 
 Glycinin, ii8 
 
 Glyco-proteins, 120 
 
 Glycogen, 130; in liver, 147 
 
 Goose, a grazing animal, 60 
 
 Goslings, free range for, 62 
 
 Grain, in litter, §S, 69 j sprouted, 
 30 ; for breeding stock, 87 
 
 Grain food, variety necessary, 60 ; 
 how to give, 61 ; for chickens, 
 
 93 
 
 Grass, potash salts in, 53 
 
 Greaves, use of, for fattening, 37 
 
 Green barley, 10 
 
 Green bone, as food for poultry, 36 ; 
 how to use, 36 ; source of danger 
 of, 36 ; proteins of, 41 
 
 Green fodders as poultry food, 23 
 
 Green food, necessity for, 61 ; in 
 egg-production, 76 ; for breed- 
 ing stock, 89 ; for chickens, 95 ; 
 for ducks, 99 
 
 Green foods, 29 et seq. 
 
 Grit, good supply of, 77 ; for " fat- 
 tening " fowls, 83 ; for chickens, 
 95 ; for ducks, 99 
 
 Gums as carbohydrates, 44 
 
 HAEMOGLOBIN, 119; of goose and 
 
 fowl, 120 
 Hsmophilia, sodium and, 52 
 Hay, lucerne, 25, 26, 27 ; clover, 
 
 food values of, 27 ; oaten, as 
 
 poultry food, 30 ; wheaten, as 
 
 poultry food, 30 
 Hay chaff, value as food of, 54 
 Hays, 23 et seq., 30 et seq. 
 Hemp seed as poultry food, 16 
 Hexoses, 128 
 Histidine, 113 
 Histones, 108, 119 
 Housing of poultry, 59 
 
 Hulled oats, 10 
 Husk, constituents of, 54 
 Hydrocarbons, 46 et seq., 131 
 Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 3 
 Hydrocyanic acid, 130 
 
 Indian Runners, breeding, 98 
 Indol, 5 
 " Inglavin," 63 
 
 Iron, importance of, in system, 52 ; 
 importance of, in foods, 155, 
 
 Isobutyric acid, 132 
 Isoleucine, no 
 
 Kail, varieties of, 28 ; as poultry 
 
 food, 28-9 ; sulphur in, 53 
 Keratin, sulphur in, 53 ; 123, 158 
 Keratinoid, 123 
 Kossel on albumins, 115 
 Kybylbolite Competition Yards, 68 
 
 Lactose, 129 
 
 Laurie acid, 133 
 
 Laying hens, plentiful water supply 
 for, 56 ; proper condition of, 74 ; 
 grit and charcoal for, 77 
 
 Leathes, on fat storage in body, 47 ; 
 on fats, 131 ; on animal fat, 
 140, 141 
 
 Leaves, minerals in, 53 
 
 Lecithine, constituents and value of, 
 139 ; importance of, 145 ; medi- 
 cinal, 168 
 
 Leghorn cockerels, disposal of sur- 
 plus, 97 
 
 Legumes, the, 24 et seq. ; calcium 
 
 in. 53 
 
 Legumin, 118 
 
 Leguminous seeds, 13 et seq. 
 
 Lentils, constituents of, 14 ; as poul- 
 try food, 14 
 
 Leucine, no 
 
 Lignin in fibre and husk, 54 
 
 Lime, in bone, 51 ; necessary to 
 laying hens, 54 
 
 Linoleic acids, 134 
 
 Linseed, heat-producing power of, 
 16 ; linseed tea, 16 ; value of, in 
 poultry feeding, 16 ; for breed- 
 ing stock, 88 
 
 Linseed meal, phosphorus in, 53 
 
 Linseed oil, oxygen and, 133 ; acid 
 of, 134; fat in pig fed on, 140 
 
INDEX 
 
 185 
 
 Linseed-oil cake for breeding stock, 
 00 
 
 Linseed tea, how to make for poul- 
 try, 16 
 
 Liver, action on fats of, 141, 143 ; 
 grlycogen in, 147 
 
 Lucerne, richness of mineral salts 
 in, 8; use of, with maize, 11, 
 12; "King of Fodders," 35; 
 varieties of, 25 ; as poultry food, 
 25 ; hay, 25 ; to feed to poultry, 
 25 ; influence on egg^roduction 
 of green, 25, 26 ; for ducks, 26 ; 
 content of, 27 
 
 Lysine, 112 
 
 Magnesia in bone, 51 
 
 Magnesium, in gastric juice, 3 ; in 
 bones, 51; importance of, 157 
 
 Maize, constituents of, ii ; deterior- 
 ation of, II ; ill effects in pig 
 breeding of, 11; oil in, 11; 
 objectionable as sole fattening 
 food, 12 ; as occasional food for 
 chickens, 12; as green food, 12, 
 29 ; starch grains of, 44 ; for 
 breeding stock, 88 
 
 Maltose, formation of, in digestion, 
 
 3; 129 
 Mangels, as poultry food, 31 ; for 
 
 chickens, 96 
 Mann, on protein starvation, 41 ; 
 
 on necessity of salts in albumins, 
 
 43; on albumins, 115; on cells, 
 
 1x6 
 Mannose, 128 
 Market egg-production, best foods 
 
 for, 80 
 Mash, oats in, 11 ; pea-meal and 
 
 lentils in, 14 ; bran in, 19 ; 
 
 pollard in, 20 ; lucerne in, 26 ; 
 
 potatoes in, 32 ; skim milk for, 
 
 33 ; meat-meal in, 35 ; green 
 
 bone in, 36 ; when to give, 61 ; 
 
 how made at State Poultry 
 
 Stations, South Australia, 66-7 ; 
 
 undesirable use of, 87 ; for 
 
 chickens, 96 ; for ducks, 99 
 Mastication, process and object of, 2 
 Maysin, 118 
 
 Meal as fattening food, 82 
 Meat, in poultry food, 34 ; deficiency 
 
 of lime salts in, 51 ; for breed- 
 
 ing stock, 89 ; for chickens, 95 ; 
 for ducks, 99, 100 
 
 Meat-meals, as poultry food, 34 ; as 
 made and used by South Aus- 
 tralian State Poultry Stations, 
 35 ; proteins of, 41 ; in mash, 
 67 
 
 Melanins, 123 
 
 Metaproteins, 109 
 
 Milk, as drink, 33 ; how to give 
 to poultry, 33 ; albumins of, 34 ; 
 high mineral salts content of, 
 SO ; in fattening, 82 ; sour, for 
 chickens, 94 ; for ducklings, 100 ; 
 fats in, 142 
 
 Milk chickens, 97 
 
 Millet as poultry food, 18 
 
 Milling products, 18 ei seg. 
 
 Mineral content of foods, S3 «' ^'S- 
 
 Mineral salts, in vegetables, 32 ; 
 of food, 49 et seq. 
 
 Minerals, as food compound, iso ; 
 importance to poultry of, 151 ; 
 universality of, in organisms, 
 154; in foods. Table VIL, 178-9 
 
 Moulting season, use of linseed in, 
 16 
 
 Mucin in saliva, 3 
 
 Mucins, the, 121 
 
 Mucoids, the, 122 
 
 Mustard as poultry food, 29 
 
 Musty food, dangers of, 21, 22 
 
 Myristic acid, 133 
 
 " Narrow" feeding, 39 
 
 Natural food, i 
 
 Ninety-day maize, 12 
 
 Nitrogen content, of cereals, affected 
 
 by climate, 6 ; of proteins. Table 
 
 IIL, 167 
 Nitrogen-free elements, 38 
 Nucleo-proteins, 121 
 
 Oaten hay, 30 
 
 Oatmeal, active principle of, 20 ; 
 
 food value of, 20 
 Oats, as muscle-former, 10 ; as 
 
 "perfect poultry food," 10; 
 
 constituents of, 10 ; hulled, 10 ; 
 
 " shelled," 10; skinless, 10; use 
 
 of, in mash, 1 1 ; varieties of, 11; 
 
 rolled, food value of, 20 ; green. 
 
i86 
 
 INDEX 
 
 as poultry food, 29 ; fibre in, 
 
 54 ; in egg-production, 76 ; for 
 
 chickens, 96 
 Oil in maize, 11 
 Oily seeds, 15 «/ seg,. 
 Oleic acid, 134 
 Onion for chickens, 95 
 Ornitburic acid, 112 
 Osborne, on vegetable proteins, 42 ; 
 
 on seed proteins, 124 
 Osteoporosis, cause of, 50 
 Over-feedin.g, ill effects of, 90 
 Ox-bone, mineral salts in, 156 
 Oxygen, distribution in system of, 
 
 52 
 Oxyprolme, 113 
 
 Palmitic acid, 133 
 
 Pancreatic juice, constituents and 
 
 action of, 4 ; action of calcium 
 
 salts on, 153 
 Patent foods, ill effects of, 87 
 Pea, hydrolysis of. Table II., 165 
 Pea-meal in mash, 14 
 Peas, as poultry food, 13 ; protein 
 
 content of, 13 ; fowls and, 14 ; 
 
 and egg-production, 76 
 Pectin bodies in fruit, 45 
 Pekin ducks, breeding, 98 
 Pentoses, 128 
 
 Pepper, no necessity for, 80 
 Peppercorn and young chickens, 93 
 Pepsin, action of, in stomach, 3 
 Peptones, 109 
 Fttits poussins, 97 
 Phenylalanine, iii 
 Phospholipines, 139 
 Phosphoproteins, 109, 124 
 Phosphoric acid, in bone, 51 ; danger 
 
 of accumulation of, in body, 52 
 Phosphorus, high content in bran, 
 
 19 ; in cereals, 53 ; necessary to 
 
 chickens, 54 ; importance of, in 
 
 foods, iss-6 
 Phytin in bran, 19 
 Pie-melons as poultry food, 32 
 Pigs and bone structure, 51 
 " Pip," the, 93 
 Plants, proteins in, 106; oils in, 141, 
 
 142 
 Pollard, use of, in mash, 20, 66 ; how 
 
 to mix with bran in mash, 44 
 Polypeptides, 109 
 
 Potash salts in grasses and cereals, 
 
 S3 
 
 Potassium, in gastric juice, 3 ; where 
 found in animal organism, 50; 
 action of, in body, 157 
 
 Potatoes, as poultry food, 31 ; use 
 of, in mash, 32 ; starch grains 
 of, 44 ; starch in, 130 
 
 Poultry foods, composition of, Tables 
 VI. and VII., 172-9 
 
 Proline, 113 
 
 Proprionic acid, 132 
 
 Protamines, 108 
 
 Protein, of pea, similar to that of 
 fowls' flesh, 13 ; what it is, 40 ; 
 importance of, 40 ; essential 
 constituents of, 41 ; of animal 
 and vegetable origin, 41 ; neces- 
 sity of variety in foods of, 42 
 
 Protein content, of pea, 13 ; of soy 
 bean, 15 
 
 Protein starvation, 41 
 
 Proteins, insoluble, action of pepsin 
 on, 3 ; action of bacteria on, 5 ; 
 in nature, 104 ; groups of, 105 ; 
 vegetable, 106 ; classification of, 
 108 ; derivatives of, 109 ; chemi- 
 cal constitution of, Table I., 
 160 ; nitrogen and sulphur con- 
 tent of. Table III., 167 
 
 Proteoses, 109 
 
 Protoplasm, 104 
 
 Proventriculus, the, 62 
 
 Ptyalin in saliva, 3 
 
 Pullets, as layers, 65 ; test for, 98 ; 
 question of forcing, 98 
 
 Pumpkins as poultry food, 32 
 
 Quality of cereals, etc., importance 
 of, 21 
 
 Raffinose, 129 
 
 Rape, mineral salts in, 29 ; sulphur 
 '"■ S3 ; glyceryl in, 131 
 
 Rape cake, 17 
 
 Rape seed, content of, 17 
 
 Rapic acid, 134 
 
 Ratios, food, 39 
 
 Rennet, property of, 3 
 
 Rennin, action of, 4 
 
 Rice, non-desirable food for poultry, 
 12 ; as fattening food, 13 ; de- 
 ficiency of minerals in, 53 
 
 Rolled oats, food value of, 20 
 
INDEX 
 
 187 
 
 Roosting, open-air, 59 
 
 Roots, 31 
 
 Roseworthy Poultry Station, food 
 used at, 70 
 
 Runs for chickens, 96 
 
 Rye, constituents of, 8 ; action on 
 fowls of, 9 ; low mineral content 
 of, 9 ; as poultry food, 76 
 
 Saccharic acid, 127 
 
 Saccharose, 128 
 
 Saliva, its purpose and constituents, 
 3. 5 
 
 Salt, common, value of, to milking 
 cows, 50 ; necessity of, for 
 fowls, 51 (see Sodium chloride) 
 
 Salts, in vegetable foods, 24 ; 
 mineral, importance of, 49 ; im- 
 portance of, in organisms, 155 ; 
 in egg, 168 
 
 Sclero-proteins, 109 
 
 Scratching litter, 69, 79, 80 
 
 Seed proteins, biological relations 
 of, 124 
 
 Seeds, proteins of, 107-8 ; oils in, 
 142 
 
 Selection in breeding, 86 
 
 Separator (skimmed) milk, consti- 
 tuents of, 33 ; in poultry feed- 
 ing. 33 
 
 Serine, m 
 
 Sheep's pluck as poultry food, 34 
 
 Shelled oats, 10 
 
 Shells for laying hens, 54 
 
 Size, craze for, 96 
 
 Skatol, 5 
 
 Skinless barley as poultry food, 10 
 
 Skinless oats as food for poultry, 10 
 
 Sodium, in gastric juice, 3 ; where 
 found in animal organism, 50 ; 
 value as an alkali, 52 ; in 
 body, 157 
 
 Sodium chloride, use of, for fowls, 
 157 {see Salt, common) 
 
 Soup from meat-meal, 67 
 
 Sour milk for poultry, 33 
 
 South Australia, State Poultry 
 Stations of, methods, 65 ; tur- 
 keys in, 102 
 
 Soy bean, use of, as poultry food, 
 14 ; Russian ducks and, 15 ; 
 contents of, 15 ; richness in 
 minerals of, 53 ; for breeding 
 stock, 88 ; glyceryl in, 131 
 
 Sprouted grain, 30 ; for breeding 
 stock, 90 
 
 Starch, action of ptyalin on, 3 ; 
 effect of hot water on grains 
 of, 44 ; conversion into sugar 
 of, 44 ; effect on digestion of, 
 44 ; food value of, 45 ; forms 
 of, 130 ; hydrolysis of, 149 
 
 Starch content, of wheat, 7 ; of 
 rye, 8 ; of barley, 9 ; as food- 
 value factor, 45 
 
 Starches, vegetable, 44 
 
 Starch-paste, formation of, in pol- 
 lard, 44 
 
 Steapsin, action of, 4 
 
 Stearic acid, 133 
 
 Stock ducks, feeding, loi 
 
 Stomach, process of digestion in, 
 3. 4 
 
 Straw litter for breeding stock, 
 87 
 
 Straws, crude fibre in, 54 
 
 Sucrose, 128 
 
 Sugars in plants, 45 
 
 Sulphur, essential in system, 53 ; 
 high content of, in Brassica, 
 S3-4 ; importance of, in foods, 
 ^SS, 158 
 
 Sulphur content of proteins. Table 
 III., 167 
 
 Sulphuric acid, danger of accumu- 
 lation in body of, 52 
 
 Sunflower seed, as poultry food, 15, 
 17; constituents of, 17; glyceryl 
 in, 131 
 
 Surplus food, use of, by poultry, 2 
 
 Tallow, sweet, for fattening, 37 
 
 "Tata" albumin, 117 
 
 Thrombogen in blood, 149 
 
 Tonics, no necessity for, 81 
 
 Torrefied barley, 9 
 
 Trisaccharides, 129 
 
 Trypsin, action of, 4 
 
 Tryptophane, 113 
 
 Tuberin, 118 
 
 Tubers, 31 
 
 Turkeys, insect food for, 60 ; free 
 
 range for, 62 ; breeding and 
 
 feeding, loi 
 Turnips, as poultry food, 32 ; for 
 
 chickens, 96 
 Tyrosine, iii 
 
z88 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Unnamed globulins, itS 
 Unsaturated acids, 133 
 Urine, no separate discharge of, in 
 birds, s 
 
 Valerianic acid, 133 
 
 Valine, 110 
 
 Vegetable albumins, 117 
 
 Vegetable foods, 22 et seq. 
 
 Vegetable proteins, 41, 42 
 
 Vegetable starches, 44 
 
 Ventilation of poultry houses, 59 
 
 Vetches, as poultry food, 14; con- 
 tent of, 14 ; hydrolysis of. Table 
 II., i6s 
 
 Vicilin, 118 
 
 Vignin, hydrolysis of. Table II., 165 
 
 Vitellin, 119 
 
 Water, in food-stuffs, 55 ; in 
 animals, 56 ; necessity to fowls 
 of fresh, 56, 61 
 
 Water content of foods, 38, 55-6 
 
 Water vessels, cleanliness of, 56 
 
 Wax, definition of, 138 
 
 Waxes, bases of, 131 ; alcohols in, 
 
 '38 
 
 Wheat, best grain food for poultry, 
 6 J classes of, 6; carbohydrate 
 content of, 7; test for starch 
 in, 7 ; fibre content, 7 ; water 
 content, 8 ; mineral content, 
 8 ; fondness of poultry tor, 8 ; 
 "good" and "bad," 8; how 
 to feed to poultry, 8; green, 
 as poultry food, 29 ; starch 
 grains of, 44 ; soft, starchy, as 
 fat producer, 46 ; water-absorb- 
 ing power of, ss ; proteins in, 
 107 
 
 Wheat bran, as poultry food, 19 ; 
 in mash, 66 ; value of, 76 
 
 Wheat embryo, constituents of, 107 ; 
 121 
 
 Wheat flour, deficiency of iron and 
 phosphorus in, 53 
 
 Wheaten hay. 30 
 
 " Wide " feeding, 39 
 
 Yeast, action on glycerol of, 135 
 Yolk of egg, water in, 56 
 
 Printed by C«ssell & Coufamt, Liuited, La Belle Salvage, London, E.G.