Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924054708502 CORNELL UNIVERS TY LIBRARY 054 708 502 A DIOTIONAET HYGIENE AND PUBLIC HEALTH, OOMPEISIKO SANITARY CHEMISTRY, ENGINEERING, AND LEGISLATION, THE DIETETIC VALUE OF FOODS, AND THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATIONS, ON THE PLAN OP THE " DICTIONNAIHE D' HYGIENE PUBLIQUE" OF PROFESSOR AMBROISE TARDIEU. ALEXANDER WYNTER BLYTH, ' M.E.C.S., r.CS., Etc. ANALYST FOR THE CODNTY OF DEVON, AND MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH FOR THE NORTH DEVON COMBINATION OF SANITARY AUTHORITIES. LONDON: CHARLES GRIFFIN AND COMPANY, STATIONERS' HALL COURT. MDCCCLXXVI. \^AVL rights reserved. 1 Al/lAJW li7C \'i^^\ THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EARL FORTESCUE, AS A TRIBUTE OF ESTEEM FOE HIS Disinterested AND well-directed efforts IN THE CAUSE OF SANITARY SCIEXCE, (WITH HIS KIND PERMISSION) IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED EV THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. The work now offered to the public aims at filling a vacant place in English sanitary literaturej namely, that of a book of reference which, in one volume of convenient size, shall contain tbe information on sanitary topics at present only to be gathered from the perusal of many separate and distinct treatises. It is not intended solely and entirely for any particular class. Sani- tation is imperial — it concerns every living unit of the State, and is of equal value to all. Therefore, although the special wants of the practical hygienist — the medical officer of health and public analyst — have naturally claimed the first place, and received the attention which their importance demands, the Author has throughout endeavoured to render intelligible to non-professional readers also, every subject suscep- tible of such treatment. At the outset, the task he proposed to himself was simply an adaptation for English readers of the well-known " Dictionnaire d'Hygitoe Publique " of Professor Ambroise Tardieu; and the kind permission of the veteran hygienist had been obtained to translate such portions of his great work as should be deemed suitable for the purpose. But this plan was soon and of necessity abandoned, both on account of the exclusively French character of the work, and of the rapid strides made by sanitary science since the publication of its last edition. None the less, however, does the Author feel it incumbent on him to acknowledge the dictionary of Professor Tardieu as the basis of his own, and as a great assistance to him in the execution of the work. PREFACE. Other valuable works to which tlie author is indebted are — The works of Glen, Lumley, and Chambers on Sanitary Legislation. The works of Bailey Denton, Eassie, Latham, and Eankine on Sanitary Engineering. The works of Parkes and Gordon on Military Hygiene. The works of Acton, Aitken, Allen, Atcherley, "William Budd, Chevallier, Cooley, Corfield, Guy, Hassall, Sir William Jenner, Letheby, Liebig, Mac- namara. Miller, Murchison, Normandy, Pereira, Parkes, Pavy, Pettenkofer, De Pietra-Santa, Kumsey, Angus Smith, Edward Smith, L6on Soubeiran, Taylor, Sir Henry Thompson, Ure, "Wanklyn, and Wilson, on various subjects connected with Hygiene. The Author's thanks are especially due to Dr. Angus Smith, the late Dr. Edward Smith, Mr. Atcherley, Mr. Bailey Denton, Messrs. Sutherland and Galton, Mr. James Lewis, and Mr. Edward Stanford, for permission to use extracts or diagrams, and to Dr. Slade King of Ilfracombe for preparing a list of errata. A special feature of the present work is that it contains, in a form admitting of easy and rapid reference, the whole of the Public Health Act, 1875, as well as sections and portions of other sanitary statutes, without alteration or abridgement, save in a few unimportant instances. Those who have to consult the Sanitary Acts, and know how diflBcult it frequently is to find any particular section, will, it is hoped, appreciate this arrangement. The value of an undertaking of this kind must always be in exact proportion to its accuracy and completeness ; and bearing these conditions in mind, the Author has spared no pains to fulfil both of them to the best of his ability. He ventures to hope that, whatever may be the shortcomings of his work in other respects, it will at least prove a useful one, and as such find a place on the library shelves of those interested in sanitary progress. Babnstaple, Feiruary 1876. LIST OF ILLFSTEATIONS. FIG. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 39. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. .'6, 37. 38, 39. 40. 41. 42, 43, 44. 45, 46. 47. 48. Flasks for determination of carbonic acid , Apparatus for analysis of air by absorption Bottle for preserving volumetric solutions from change Eudiometer .... Pipette, used in the analysis of air . Apparatus for ammonia analysis Caasella's atienometer, or air-meter Bothriocephalus cordatus Head of the bothriocephalus latus . Eggs of the bothriocephalus latus . Platinum dish used in milk-analysis Bulb to take the sinking-point of butter Beaker, &c., arranged to take the sinking-point of butter Mioroaoopioal appearances pf ground chestnut (after Atcherley) Microscopical appearances of chicory (after Atcherley) Microscopical appearances of cocoa (after Atcherley) Microscopical appearances of coffee (after Atcherley Cysticerous cellulose from measly pork The head of the Taenia mediocanellata from ration beef . The opalina, or first stage of the liver fluke affecting sheep Hydatids in various stages ..... Two eohinooocci, the one with the head contracted, the other with the head extruded An echinococcus viewed transversely The circle of booklets and the separate booklets of the echinococcus enl.arged The guinea worm, anterior extremity ..... The guinea worm, posterior extremity ... Diagram of the relative position of structures at the anterior extremity of the guinea worm ........ Various appearances of the posterior end of the guinea worm The young of the guinea worm ...... Wheat starch (after Atcherley) ...... Professor Kerr's aspect compass ...... Diagrams of Pettenkofer's experiment on the porosity of building materials Plan and elevation of the Herbert Hospital .... Plan of a ward . . ...... Plan of a ward in the Herbert Hospital ..... } Different methods of arranging hospital wards on the separate block system Plan and section of American ambulance tent (after Gordon) Plan of small hospital for infectious diseases .... Plan of temporary hospital ....... 30 31 33 33 53 55 98 111 111 112 127 127 149 161 171 172 191 198 198 198 198 233 233 233 233 233 2.38 269 270 270 270 270 284 268 288 289 List OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG, 49. Edmbnd'B ventilating cowl ..... 50. Thiers' automatic ship ventilator .... 51. Maize starch ....... 52. Microscopical appearances of lentil-flour (.'ifter Atcherley) 53. Mr Gravatt's Dumpy level ..... 54. Diagram explanatory of levelling . ,. 55. Diagram explanatory of levelling .... 56. The body louse ....... 57. The head louse ...... 58. The crab louse . . . , . .59. The madura foot, showing the ramification of the fungus . 60. The fungus causing the madura foot disease 61. Diagram of platinum dish for milk-analysis 62. Microscopical appearances of oatmeal (after Atcherley) . 63. Diagram of an apparatus for testing oils 68. The Peranospora in^estans, or potato disease fungus (after W. G. Smith) 7l' 72' f ^'^''i elevation, section, &c. , of a privy . 73. Microscopical appearances of rice (after Atcherley) 74. Microscopical appearances of sago (after Atcherley) 75. Section of a school showing Mott's system of warming and ventilating 76. Diagram showing the effect of position on the spinal column 77, 78. Various seats and benches used in American schools 79, ^0. Section and plan of bailey Denton's sewage-tank . 81. Diagram showing the proper method of joining sewers 82. Diagram illustrating the necessity for the ventilation of sewers 83. Diagram illustrating the necessity for the ventilation of sewer3 84. A ventilating chamber af&xed to a sewer . 85. Section of a grating supplied with a charcoal pan . 86 87 ) 88 ' r ^"'l^^'i^ Latham's spiral charcoal ventilators Section of a ventilating pipe to the connecting drain of a A patent method of connecting drains with sewers Brook's combined drain and soil pipe Diagram of an open channelling Vaidous forms of pipe drains Plan of a model abattoir 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95, 96. -97.' 98, 99, > Plan and section of a model abattoir 99 ) 100 103 fl*i''g''*™3 of ^estphal's balance 104. Tous-les-mois, polarised (after Atcherley) . 105. St. Vincent arrowroot (after Atcherley) 106. Potato starch polarised (after Atcherley) . 107. Different stages of development of the Taenia solium 108. The head (magnified) of the Taenia solium . 109. The circle of booklets of the Taenia solium 110. The mature proglottis of the Taenia solium 111. The cysticercus of the Taenia mediocanellata, natural size 112. The Taenia mediocanellata .... 113. The Cysticercus oellulosae from measly pork 114. The Taenia mediocanellata from ration beef 115. A filter-tank 116. Microscopical appearances of tapioca (after Atcherley) 117. Diagram of the tea plant (after Atcherley) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. 118. Tea leaves after haTing been used (after Atoherley) 119. Diagram of sloe, hawthorn, beech, and willow leaves 120. Diagram of the leaves of Chloranthus inoonspiouns and Camellia sasanqua 121. A common sink trap . . . . . 122, 123. Sections of Dean's patent drain trap .... 124. Sections of Banner's patent trap 125. Section of Banner's disinfecting app.iratus . 126. The Trichina spiralis . . . . 127. The same encysted .... 128. A good form of urinal ... . . 129. M'Kinnell's ventilating tube 130. Banner's patent ventilating cowl . 131 132 ) -,00' 134' f Sections and plans of Galton's ventilating grate 135. Mr. George's calorigen ....... 136. Mr. George's calorigen ....... 137. Section of a house ventilated and warmed on Drysdale and Hayward's system 138. A slow combustion stove ....... 139. Plate showing different living vegetable and animal forms found in water 140. Apparatus for estimation of nitrates in water .... PAGE 580 586 586 611 611 612 613 614 614 617 622 623 624 624 625 625 630 636 640 Map of the Geogbaphioal Distmbdtion of Health and Disease (by permission, from Keith Johnston's Physical Atlas) . . . To face paffe ISG DlAOKAM OF THE INTEBMITTENT DOWHWAKD FiLTEATION SEWAGE SYSTEM, as in opera- tion at Merthyr Tydfil (by permission of Mr Bailey Denton) To face page 524 EEEATA. Page 4, col. 1, line 2, for "receives" read "receive," ,, 4, col. 2, the formula for cafCeicacid sllould be C14H18O7. „ 11, col. 2, for "hence lllO'S must be added" read "hence llO'S c.c. must be added." „ 50, col. 2, for " amygdala oleum " read. " amygdalae oleum." „ 76, col. 1, 3d line from the bottom of the page, for " at figure 6 " read " at figure 9." ,, 120, col. 1, the formula for caramel should be CuHigOg. „ 210, in the table, 1st column, 3d Une, for " 100 " read " 120." „ 218, coL 3, near the bottom, for "offa " read " ofEal." „ 256, article "Glucose,"/or " effluvia" read "effluvium.'' „ 293, article "Hygifene," after the word "labourer " insert "and." „ 323, article " Lactin,"/or " or CiaHjjOnHjo" read "or CiaHajOnHjO." ,, 334, article " Lice,'' for " especially the pubis " read "especially the pubes." " 397, the formula of sinapine in article "Mnstard" should be C16H23NO5, and that of "myronate of potash" KaCauHsjNjSjOig. „ 400, last line in article "Mutual Aid Societies, "/or "and 1860" rcaci "1860 and 1875." „ 425, in article "Paraffine,"/or " a mat or garment " read "sand, earth, ashes, or a mat or garment." 475, col. 2, line 28, /or "1844 "read "1814." DIOTIONAEY OF HYGIENE. Abattoir— Abattoirs are pubHc Blanghter- houses established in Continental and otber towns. The subject is fully considered under Slaughter-houses. Ablution — Personal cleanliness is one of the most important habits to inculcate on a people. It cannot be, however, lost sight of, that in order to introduce among the poorer classes habits of cleanliness, a plentiful water-supply and cheap baths are requisite. The amount as well as the nature of the water-supply should be inquired into by every medical officer of health. The body should be washed all over every morn- ing with either cold or lukewarm water and soap. This custom is more necessary for workmen employed in laborious and dirty occupations than for men of sedentary lives; but all people perspire, and from every drop of perspiration the water evaporates away, and leaves a trace of solid matter on and around the sweat-pores. If this solid matter is not washed ofp, it accumulates, and may derange the health. It is then well to remember that dirt on the skin does not always come directly from without, but also from within. Cold ablution, that has been so indiscriminately recommended, is not half so efficacious or so safe as lukewarm. The Ger- man aurists, struck with the prevalence of deafness in England, ascribe it to our habit of washing the head and ears each morning with cold water. Absinthiuin— Wormwood— Theflower- ing herb of Artemisia Absinthium ; nat. order Compogitce; indigenous, growing in thickets and mountainous places. It occurs in bundles of the dried herbs, having a silky touch, disagreeable odour, and intensely bitter taste. The plant yields its bitterness to water and spirit, and contains a volatile oil, green in colour, with the odour of the plant ; also a bitter extract yielding ahsiii- thine (CuHzzOs) and absiuic acid. The absin- thineis the bitter principle. It is omitted now from the British Pharmacopoeia, and its place occupied by thfr active principle santonine. Absinthe is the name given to an intoii- oating drink used largely by all classes of society on the Ctmtinent^ An analysis recently made at the Conservatoire des Arts shows that absinthe now contains a large quantity of antimony, a poison which cannot fail to add largely to the irritant effects necessarily pro- duced on the alimentary canal and liver by constant doses of a concentrated alcoholic liquid. And we have recently received the re- sults of some experiments made by M. Magnau of Paris. By means of successive distillations he has been able to isolate various products — (1) a blue oU; (2) a yellowish oil ; (3) an oxygen- ated product. There was besides a yellowish residue left in the glass. These various sub- stances were tried on animals ; ten grammes of the yellow sediment given to a small dog pro- duced no effect; thirty centigrammes (about five grains) of the blue oil produced from eight to ten epileptiform attacks. The oxygenated product proved, however, the most power- ful toxic agent. Fifteen centigrammes of it, injected into the veins of a large dog, caused the most violent epileptic attacks, which fol- lowed in rapid succession, and ended in death. There was an extraordinary rise of tempera- ture, from 39° Centigrade to 42°, and the post mortem, showed various apoplectic centres. Dr. Deoaisne regards the terrible evil of this almost universal absinthe-drinking as the greatest national calamity that has ever be- fallen France, and has made an eloquent appeal to the Government to strike at once a decisive blow at the trade in this liqueur. Originally the only important ingredient in its composition besides alcohol was the essen- tial oil of absinthium, or wormwood; and though this without doubt added something to the mischievous effects of the liquor, it would be impossible to trace to it, or to the other comparatively trivial ingredients, the A ACA (2) ACI more serious of the special results which' are now observed to occur to victims of ahsinthe, though the habitual drinking even in 6mall doses of gooi, absinthe, is believed by Dr. Decaisne sooner or later to produce dis- orders in the human economy. Xow, various deleterious substances are added, the most important of "these being antimony. As at present constituted, therefore, and especially when drunk in the disastrous excess now com- mon in Paris, and taken, as it frequently is, on an empty stomach, absinthe forms a chronic poison of almost unequalled virulence, both as an irritant to the stomach and bowels, and also as a destroyer of the nervous system. The effect of absinthe is to produce a super- abundant activity of the brain, a cerebral ex- citement which at first is agreeable ; intoxi- cation comes on rapidly; the head swims, and the effect produced is nearly the same as that of poisoning by a narcotic, which cer- tainly does not occur with an equal dose of brandy. With the absinthe-drinker, as with the opium-eater, the excitement the spirit pro- duces diminishes daily in intensity. Each ' day he is obliged in augment the dose in order to bring himself up to the right pitch. The diseases brought on by the excessive drinking , of ardent spirits are produced with greater , rapidity by the use of absinthe. The amount of absinthe consumed in Lon- don has during the last few years been enor- mously on the increase. Acarus Farina, or Flour - Mite — This insect is found only in damaged flour, and is more frequently met with in the flour of the Leguminosa than that of Qraminece. A single acarus may occasionally be found in good flour ; but even one should be looked on with suspicion, and the flour should be after- wards frequently examined to see if they are increasing. It differs considerably in struc- ture from the Acarns sacchm'i. Acarus Sacchari, or Sugar-Mite— Found in nearly all the brown sugars of commerce, and is in size so considerable that it is plainly visible to the unaided sight. It may always be detected by the following proceeding: Two or three drachms or tea- spoonfuls of sugar should be dissolved in a large wine-glass of tepid water, and the solu- tion allowed to remain at rest for an hour or BO ; at the end of that time the acari will be found, some on the surface of the liquid, some adhering to the sides of the glass, and others at the bottom, mixed up with the copious and dark sediment formed of fragments of cane, woody fibre, grit, dirt, and starch granules, which usually subside on the solution of even a small quantity of sugar in hot water. The Acarus sacchari, when first hatched, is scarcely visible, and first appears as a rounded body or egg. This becomes elongated and cylindrical, until it is about twice as long as broad. After a time the legs and proboscis begin to protrude. The body is partially covered by setae, and the feet terminate in hooks. In its perfect state its structure is as follows.: The body is oval, or rather somewhat ovate, being broader behind than before. From its posterior part four long and stiff bristles proceed, two together on each side, and some eight or ten smaller ones are arranged nearly at equal distances around the circumference of the body. From the an- terior part a proboscis of complex organisation proceeds, and from^its inferior surface eight legs, jointed and furnished with spines or hairs at each articulation. The spine which issues from the last joint but one of each leg is very long, and extends much beyond the termina- tion of the leg itself. In most samples of sugar the acari may be seen of all sizes, that is, in all stages of their growth, and in every condition. In sixty-nine out of seventy-two samples of sugar examined by Dr. HassaU sugar acari were found. Acarus Siro— Acarus Domesticus, or Cheese-Mite — A very small insect, scarcely perceptible without the aid of the microscope, found in decayed cheese ; in fact, the dry and powdery parts of cheese con- sist almost entirely of these acari and their eggs, in different stages of development. The eggs of this insect are hatched in about eight days. The Acarus siro is furnished with a peculiar elongation of the snout, forming; strong-cutting, dart-shaped mandibles, which it has the power of advancing separately or together. They appear to be able to retain life for a lengthened period though deprived of food. Leewenhoek informs us that one lived for eleven weeks gummed on its back to the point of a needle. When kept without food, it is no uncommon sight to see them killing and devouring each other. Cheese is rapidly destroyed by them ; they crumble it into minute pieces, and emit a liquid sub- stance which causes the decayed parts to spread speedily. Exposure to a strong heat quickly kills them, or plunging the cheese in whisky will have the same effect.- Acetic Acid— 5ee Acid, Acbtio. ' Acid -The popular everyday significa- tion of this word means anything which is sour to the tastfe. Scientifically speaking acids are definite chemical compounds, which umte with alkaUes, form bases, and redden vegetable blues. They are now generally considered salts of hydrogen; thus, buI- ACI (3) ACI phtiric acid (H,SOi), hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3), are called respectively the sulphate, the chloride, and the nitrate of hydrogen. In a public-health sense they are chiefly interesting as being emanated in the process of various manufactures, and then acting injuriously both on vegetation and man. Besides this, most of the more common ones are to a degree disinfectants, and many of them have been, by accident or design, used as poisons. The gases evolved from manufactures of alkali used to contain so large a proportion of hydrochloric acid, that it had a most injurious effect on the vegetation of the surrounding district ; so much so, that an Act was passed » for the more , effectual condensation of such gas in alkali-works (26 & 27 Vict. c. 124). This Act, in the first instance, was continued to the 1st of July 1868 ; but by 31 & 32 Vict. c. 36, s. 1, it has been continued without limitation to time. A section of the Act provides for the appointment of an inspector of such works by the Board of Trade. (5ee Alkali Act.) Now this acid is so effectually condensed that the air emitted from the flues hardly makes a solu- tion of nitrate of silver turbid. The fumes from hydrochloric, sulphuric, sulphurous, nitric, and nitrous acids are quite irrespir- able if attempts are made to inhale them in an undiluted form. Diluted well with air, as in some processes for making steel, they appear tp irritate the lungs greatly, and have been said to cause pneumonia, bronchitis, and phthisical ulcerations of the tissue of the lungs. Amongst bleachers, and various workers in wool, bronchitis prevails, and the men look sallow and anaemic. This effect has been ascribed to the sulphurous acid dis- engaged. The effect of acids on vegetation is a sub- ject of practical importance, especially in rela- tion to the question as to whether a manufac- tory is properly condensing its gases, or whether it is not injuring the suiTounding country. The distance at which an acid-emitting manu- factory has been found to injure vegetation is about 2187 yards; prevailing winds may, however, carry the vapours farther than this in particular directions ; slight undulations in the ground, hedges, walls, belts of trees, and similar obstacles, modify and obviate the ac- tion in such a manner as to lead to the con- clusion that the gas does not mix uniformly with the air, but is absorljed in small globules of water, which are thrown forward by cur- rents of wind or air, and are driven over any wall or interruption to a distance in a curve from the top.— (Angus Smith. )' Eain washes acid gases down to the earth quickly ; so that. though the local action is more severe, it is less extended. The effect of acids on the vegetation is to be judged of by the general appearance of the plants, shrubs, and trees in the vicinity. The sources of error in this investigation are numerous, and are more especially due to the fact that dry cold winds, fungi, and insects, produce many spots and changes in leaves and plants similar to those from corrosive vapours. Acids shrivel and curl up the leaves, but do not, like winds, break the stalks, and render them ragged. The coloured spots on the leaves may be tested with litmus paper ; but care must be exercised and careful compari- sons instituted between the same leaves from healthy plants. Dr. A. Smith says, indeed, that many plants contain chlorides, even on the surfaces of the leaves, at a great distance from alkali-works, Mr. Eothwell affirms that in fields exposed to acid vapours, handfuls of dead grass may be pulled up in the spring, smelling strongly of the vapour, and that trees, under similar influences, become bark-bound. Dr. A. Smith gives, in his work on "Air and Kain," the following list of trees, in the order in which they are affected, on Mr. Bothwell's authority : — Forest Trees* Fruit Trees. 1. Larch. 1. Damson. 2. Spruce flr. 2. Qreeogage. 3. Scotch flr. 3. Halewood plum. 4. Black Italian poplar. 4. Jacob plum. 5. Lombardy poplar. 6. Pears. 6. Ash. 6. Apples. 7. Oak. 7. Cherries. S. Elm. 9, Birch. 10. Alder. 11. Sycamore. Shrubs, Evergreens, and Farm Crops. Wild Plants. I. British laurels. 1. Potatoes. 2. Portugal laurels. 2. Mangel. 3. -Aucuba Jajionica. 3. White clover and 4. Barberry evergreen. rhubarb. 5. Hazel. 4. Ecd clover. 6. Guelder rose. 5. Trefoil. 7. Sloe thorn. 6. Bye-grass. 8. Hawthorn. 7. Wheat. 9. Raspberries. 8. Oats. 10. Gooseberries. 9. Barley. 11. Blackberries. 10. Common turnips. 12. Gorse. 11. Swedes. 13. HoUies. As well as a Second list of plants affected by noxious vapours, mixing the classes according to the effects produced on each : — I. Fern, only in the summer. Scotch firs, spruce, and larches, a little in winter. Clover, wh. & red, receives damage in winter to roots. Trefoil, „ „ „ Kye-grass, „ „ „ Poplars, ,, „ „ Hawthorn, ,, ,, „ Potatoes, „ „ „ ACI (4) ACI II. Wheat re,ceives some damage in winter. Oats in May; whenih tlie grass state soon receives damage. Barley, Mangels. Common turnips. Uliubarb. III. m™^^'.'""'"'*"*^"'''"^'") These plants re- i.„Vi!; ■■■ ••■ / winter, bat mors S; ::: ::: J --—• Old grass meadows and pastures receive much damage in the winter. Ashes, oaks, hazels. Horse-chestnuts. Walnuts. Spanish chestnuts. Sloe thorn. Swedish turnip and cabbages. Damson. Other fruit trees. Beech. Elm. Birch. Alder. Syca- mores. As Disinfectants. — All the mineral acids are powerful if poured upon putrid matter, because they destroy it ; hut they are hardly suitable for common use, on account of their irritating nature to man. In 1773 Guyton Morveau wrote a large volume recommending muriatic acid as a disinfectant, and Dr. Carmichael Smith used nitrous acid at Winchester in 1780. Sulphurous acid is of real value, and has been used from the most ancient times as a disinfectant and fumigator. {See SuLPHUB.) Of the organic acids, vinegar, or impure acetic acid, still deservedly retains some repute as a disinfectant ; yet it is only a weak agent, at all events a poor protection against the germs of disease, for in vinegar itself infusoria and vegetable organisms develop. Most stinks are in all.probability compound ammonias, at all events the odorous gases of this nature usually have an alkaline reaction; therefore vinegar or other acid fumes probably neutralise them. The most valuable of the acid disinfectants are, however, carbolic and tar acids. The acids that have been used accidentally or designedly as poisons are sulphuric, hy- drochloric, nitric, arsenic, and phosphoric among the mineral ; oxalic, meconic, prussic, and a few others, among the organic acids. The most important of these will be con- sidered under their respective heads. The antidotes for poisoning by the mineral acids are chalk, magnesia, white of egg, oil, &c. Acid, Acetic — (HC2H302) — Sp. gr. 1'063. — This acid derives its name from acetum, vinegar. It exists naturally in the sap of the oak, and in other plants. It is usually obtained from the destmotire distillation of wood, or from the oxidation of alcohol. [Sge VlNEOAB.) The acid is often adulterated with water, sometimes aulphurio acid and lead — the latter to such an extent as sopetimea to be poisonous. The amount of acetic acid may be estimated by acidimetr}/, and the lead de- tected by passing a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen through it. The acid in its concentrated form is a poison, but cases of this kind of poisoning are rare ; the treatment would be the same as for the acids generally. {See AoiDS.) It is a valuable antiseptic, atid is used in pickling and pre- serving animal and vegetable substances and anatomical preparations ; it is also much em- ployed in the arts, manufactures, and for medicinal and other purposes. Acid, Benzoic— (HCfHjOj)— This acid is usually obtained by subliming it from gum benzoin ; occasionally by dissolving it out from the gum by means of an alkaline liquid. Its principal adulterations are — Mp- purie acid, detected by its diminished solu- bility in water (1 part of pure benzoic acid is soluble in 300 of water), by its exhaling the odour iirst of the tonquiu bean, and then of prussic acid ; succinic acid, recognised by the solubility being increased; sugar, detected by the odour of caramel, and the black and carbonaceous residue- while pure benzoic acid sublimes. Camphor and spermaceti are also used, and may be detected by the odour, and other well-known properties. Aoid, Ca,ffeic — According to Vlaanderen and Mulder, the formula for this acid is. CiiHeO,. It is an astringent principle ob- tained from coffee. The dry berry contains about 5 per cent, of it. Acid, Camphoric — (HsCioHiiOi) — Obtained from the oxidation of camphor by nitric acid. See Camphor. Acid, Carbolic (Fhenic Acid), (Phe- nyUc Acid) — (HCjHjO.) — Sp. gi-. of liquid, 1'065 ; fusing -point about 95° F. (35° C.) ; boiling-point, 369° (187° C.) This substance, when pure, is in crystals in the form of long, colourless needles. It is obtained from coal - tar. The commercial acid is, roughly speaking, of two kinds : one a cheap liquid, varying from a light-brown to a very dark, almost black, liquid ; and Cal- vert's carbolic acid, which is in beautiful white crystals, and is used for medicinal and other purposes. Properties. — The crystals, when pure, are white ; but in keeping frequently become pink, rose, or crimson.' It has a powerful tarry odour, and a very small quantity of water serves for its liquefaction. The crystals are very sparingly dissolved in water, but they 1 are freely soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and I ether. With bases the acid forms phen- ACI (5) ACI ates or oarbolates — e.g., carbolates of lime, potash, &o. • A slip of deal moistened with carholic acid, and then dipped into hydrochloric or nitric acid, turns in drjdng to a blue colour. A drop of the acid leaves a greasy stain on paper, which is, however, transient. Solu- tions of the acid do not redden litmus paper. The most important properties of carbolic acid are its disinfectant and antiseptic powers. Of late years it has taken its position in popular estimation as the best practical deodoriser and disinfectaut for drains, putrefying matter, &c. &c. ; and as a preventive of disease it has been placed in nearly all the urinals and water- closets of railway stations, in the hospitals, barracks, and other public places in the king- dom. It is invariably used in all kinds of contagious diseases to disinfect the excreta, and in a, diluted form is frequently, applied direct to the bodies of persons suffering from smallpox, scarlet fever, &c. Nor has its use been confined to this country. In France, M. Devergie has warmly supported it, and declared it to be the best disinfectant known. He has employed it successfully in purifying the Morgue. This is done by a con- tinuous stream of carboUsed water, containing 1 of the acid to 4000 parts of water. That it is extremely valuable for these several purposes it is impassible to doubt; that it is superior to every other disinfectant, as some have asserted, may well be questioned. One of the gravest objections is its poisonous character. It is obvious that it is unsafe to drench and saturate all sorts of places with such an active poison as carbolic acid. It certainly does not destroy when in a dilute form every form of contagion. Dr. H. J. Von Ankum, in the " Morandsohrift voor Natuur- wetenschappen," states that atmospheric air, to which the vapour of carbolic acid has been added, does not hinder the development of lower organisms in water with hay in milk or urine. Experiments have also been made with air saturated with carbolic acid on vaccine lymph, which has, after exposure to this agent for some time, still preserved its activity. This agrees with Pettenkofer's observation,* that carbolic acid preserves inert ferment cells, but they resume their activity upon vrith- drawal from its influence. In fact, its real action appears to be very similar to that of great cold, the substances are preserved as if frozen. On this account it. must be looked upon with suspicion as a disinfectant when any contagions germs are to be dealt with ; it may fix them for a time, but does it destroy them ? On the ot^er hand, as an antiseptic it • Allgemeine.Zeitung, Feb. 4, 1866. is of inestimable value. Mr. Crookes investi- .gated it with great industry, and found that a solution of 1 per cent, preserved meat, skin, gut, and other substances if steeped in the solution and then dried ; it also stopped fer- n^entation, and destroyed gnats, beetles, cater- pillars, mites, fish, and infusoria. Angus Smith has recommended it for the disinfection of sewers. M'Dougall has used a mixture of tar oil and lime for this purpose in Carlisle ; and in Leipzig a mixture of chloride of magnesium, lime, and tar has been tried, and found of some practical value. The two principal carbolic acid powders in use here for various purposes are M'Dougall's and Cal- vert's. M'DongaU's powder is composed of — Garbolate of lime, Sulphite of magnesia, Water, 33 69 8 Calvert's powder consists of carbolic acid (20 to 30 per cent.), alumina, and silica. These powders may be sprinkled about a room, added to sewage, or diffused in water, and applied in Solution. In disinfecting cholera or typhoid stools, very strong solutions should be used. See Disinfectants. One part dissolved in 100 of olive oil or gly- cerine is a good application to make to the bodies of patients suffering from smallpox, scarlet fever, or other disease in which cells or germs are supposed to be thrown off. It is used as a medicine both topically and internally — topically, as an application to the skin in the strong form as an escharotic ; and diluted, as a lotion to all kinds of foul sores, skin diseases, &c Internally it closely resembles creosote in its action, allays vomiting, and is said to be useful in diabetes. During the prevalence of the cattle plague it was extensively used. The appendix to the Eoyal Commissioners Beport on the Cattle Plague contains the fol- lowing :— According to the principles laid down, the air must be treated, and where there is no disease there is only a secondary use in treating anything besides the air. Several cowhouses have been treated with carbolic acid with very excellent results. The mode has been, first, to remove from the floor the mass of manure which too often adheres to it ; secondly, to sprinkle the floor with strong carbolic or cresylic acid ; next, to wash the walls, beams, and rafters, and all that is visible in the cowhouse, with lime, in which is put some carbolic acid, 1 to 50 of the water used, or with strong carbolic acid alone. Next, to make a solution, containing 1 of carbolic or cresylic acid to 100 of water, or perhaps still better, 60 of water, and to water the yard and fold until the who ACI (6) ACI place smells strongly of the acid. Only a few farms have been treated in this way, so far as 1 know, but in each it has been successful. It may be well to give the cattle a little of the weak solution of carbolic acid, but this has not been so fully tried as the exter- nal use. The washing of the mouth and entire ani- mal with the weak solution may be attended with good results, especially in the early stage of disease ; but I know nothing of cure, and speak only hope- fully of prevention. The animals seem to have an instinct for disinfection, and lick substances touched with this acid. They must not be allowed to drink it, as when strong, as already said, it blisters the skin, and especially the mouth and tongue. Mr. Crookes gives the results of his ex- periences as foUowa : — It appeared evident that if harm were to follow the injection of carbolic acid, the mischievous effect would be immediate ; but that if the fluid could pass through the heart without exerting its paralysing action on that organ, and could get into the circula- tion, no present ill efifects need be anticipated, I therefore detennined to push these experiments as far as possible, increasing the quantity of carbolic acid until it produced a fatal result. The next opera- tion was on cow No. 11, in which 3 ounces of solu- tion (containing 52^ grains of pure carbolic acid) were very slowly injected : no bad effect followed. Increasing the dose, cow No. 12 had injected into her vein 4^ ounces of solution (equal toT8j grains of car- bolic acid) ; this also was followed by no immediate ill effect. Cow No. 13 was then treated with 6 ounces of solution (containing 105 grains of pure carbolic acid), in two portions of 3 ounces each, five minutes' interval elapsing between each injection. The first 3 ounces produced a slight trembling, but not so severe as in the case of cow No. 10, as she seemed better in a few minutes. The second dose of 3 ounces was injected. This proved too much, or was pumped in too hurriedly ; for almost before I had finished, the animal trembled violently, its eyes projected, its breathing became laborious, it fell down and expired. The result could scarcely be attributed to the acci- dental injection of air into the vein, for the distress began with the injection of the first syringeful, and was only increased by the second ; nor is it likely that this accident would happen twice consecutively. I was particularly careful on this point, and the con- struction of the instrument rendered such an occur- rence scarcely possible with ordinary precaution. It is probable that the injection was pei-formed too rapidly, or that the vital powers were lower than usual. In the case of the remaining animal, No. 14, I decided to inject as large a dose as it would bear, stopping the operation at the first sign of trembling, and delivering the liquid very gradually. The first syringeful caused no bad symptoms, and I hnd just finished injecting the second dose when trembling commenced. It was rather violent for a short time, but soon went off, and in five minutes the animal appeared as well as before. This cow, therefore, bore without inconvenience the injection of 6 ounces of a 4 per cent, solution, containing 105 grains of pure carbolic acid. Careful observations with the thermometer were taken before each operation. There were no more diseased beasts on the farm, or I should have carried my experiments still further. On visiting the farm the next day, I was told that all the animals seemed better; and on testing them with the thermometer that statement was confirmed. I gave directions that each animal was to be drenched with half a wine-glassful (1 ounce) of carbolic acid in a quart of warm water every morning, but in other respects they might be treated as Mr. Tomlin- son, a skilful cow-doctor, should direct. Business now calling me to London, I was unable to watch the further progress of these cases. This is to be regretted, as a series of daily thermometric observa- tions would have been of great value in suggesting further experiments. I had, however, frequent ac- counts sent me. Cow No. 14 continued to improve slowly until convalescent ; she is now quite well. Nos. 10, 11, and 12 remained in apparently the same state for four days; they then changed for the worse, and died. , It is not improbable that, had I been able to inject a further quantity of carbolic acid during the four days in which they were thus hovering be- tween recovery and relapse, it would have turned the scale, and some of them, at all events, would be now alive and well. The following table gives the thermometric obser- vations : — TABLE showing Results of Injecting Carbolic Acid into the Blood of Animals suffering from the Cattle Plague, Grains of Carbolic Acid injected. Tempe- rature before Injection. 52} 105 P. 105-4 103-8 104-8 103-7 Second Day. P. 103-8 102-8 104-4 103-1 Third Uay. Better. Better. Better. Better. J Died on ■} 6th day. ' f Died on \ 6th day. j Died on 1 6th day. Re&jvered. If future experiments prove that injection of car. bolic acid or other antiseptic will do good, it is an operation very easily performed. I have injected five animals and taken thermometric observations within an hour. Sulphite or bisulphite of soda apparently occasions some pain, as the animals struggle very much; with carbolic acid I found them tolerably quiet. I have calculated the pro- portion which the carbolic acid bore to the whole" quantity of blood in these operations. Taking the whole amount of blood in the animal at 150 pounds, there were injected into — No. ID, one part carbolic acid, in 40,000 of blood. »» 11. ,t „ 20,000 „ ,> 12, „ „ 13^300 „ M 14^ „ „ ( 10,000 „ It is worth mentioning incidentally, that in the case of cow No. 14 (which recovered) the proportion of carbolic acid injected into the blood would have been enough to keep from decomposition the whole quantity of that liquid for a considerable time. In Nos. 10, 11, and 12 the proportion of carbolic acid would probably not have been sufficient for that purpose. I am informed by Dr. Calvert that cresylic acid has much less coagulating power on albumen than carbolic acid, and my own experiments entirely confirm this statement. ACI (7) ACI We find in the " Gardeners' Chronicle," No- vember 9, 1867, a description given by the Hon. W, Hope of experiments made on dis- eased cattle at his farm near Barking, He says : — r thought that while there was life there was hope, and 1 determined to do more than any- body had done before ; where one man had used a hundredweight of lime I determined to use a ton, and where one man had used a pint of carbolic acid I determined to use a gallon. The dry substance I had at hand to deal with in large quantities was lime. This I slaked in small pyramids in the centre of the sheds; 1 also laid trains of it outside the sheds underneath the ventilators, and then slaked it. 1 also smothered the roads and paths at different points in layers of quicklime, three or four inches deep, so that every man and animal would be compelled to pass it. After scouring out the sheds, every cow's tail was dipped into a bucket of carbolic acid and water. Their heads and noses were dabbed over with it, also their sides and flanks. All the manure and litter from the cow's stall, as well as from the adjoining ones, was taken out at once, and the floor thoroughly cleansed and saturated with cai-bolic acid; and on the suggestion of Professor Srown 1 had four days previously commenced the use of sawdust saturated with carbolic acid, one or two shovelfuls of which were placed every day underneath the cow's head. This operation was also repeated in each stall, and the cows were then drenched with gruel and sulphite of soda. He then adds — Of the fifty-eight cows in shed P. and fifty-three in shed E. that 1 took the entire charge of, and treated as described, I did not lose one. Two that had been condemned to death were "smuggled " out, and exchanged for two others of less value. These two condemned had been in actual contact with diseased animals in every stage of the disease, in no less than three infected, and highly-infected, sheds, and were eren placed beside a diseased animal in a shed which had been emptied of diseased animals suffering from the most virulent type of the disease for a couple of days, and had only been disinfected for thirty-six hours. Poisoning ly Carbolic Add. — There have been numerous cases of poisoning by this acid ; in most cases it has been taken in mistake for medicine. The symptoms are, in the recorded cases, great prostration, inability to swallow, pain in the stomach and throat, black stools and dark urine, ■ speechlessness, coma, weak pulse, and death. Death usually takes place quickly. A young married woman, after taking about 7 oz., died without a struggle almost immediately. A child set. 7, after taking I an ounce, died * coma- tose in 1 hour and 15 minutes. Another case died t in three-quarters of an hour after tak- ingan ounce. But sometimes death takes place a ♦ Lancet, June 21, 1873. t Ibid., Feb. IS, 1873. considerable time afterwards. A young man, of 18 years of age, died in two days from the effects of a tablespoonfnl of acid. The patho- logical changes are usually limited to the tongue, pharynx, gullet, stomach, and intes- tines. In most cases these parts are covered by a white coating, which has been described as similar to whitelead. In one case, curiously enough, the action of the acid was limited to three feet of the small intestine, the whole of the vanal, from the lips to the first two inches of the duodenum, escaping unhurt. In some cases. Dr. Moxon has witnessed a kind of tan- ning of the stomach ; and in a case that Dr. Way brought before the Pathological Society, the mucous membrane of the stomach and the intestine for fifty inches was thickened. and altered, and of a bluish-white colour. In all cases the odour of the acid has been distinctly perceived in the stomach, sometimes in the brain, and often in the urine. Treatment. — The best treatment appears to be the prompt administration of bland oils, such as castor or sweet oil, in cases of poison- ing ; but unfortunately the action appears so rapid that, before assistance arrives, the case has gone too far. Besides, in most cases the power of swallowing is gone, and the stomach- pump is more likely to do harm than good. In the recorded cases, oil, gmel, brandy, and emetics appear to have been given with but little effect. Brandy should be avoided. There is generally great depression of tem- perature, which should be kept up by arti- ficial means. If the dose of acid is large, under any known treatment the patient will probably die. Tests. — The tests for carbolic acid have often failed, even when it has been smelt strongly in the animal fluids. The odour is, therefore, in cases of poisoning, the most reliable. The follo\ying are some other tests : A slip of deal, as already men- tioned, dipped in carbolic acid, then moistened with nitric or hydrochloric acid and dried, becomes of a bright blue colour. Perchloride of iron added to carbolic acid gives a beautiful mauve or purple colour. A small quantity of the acid put in a test- tube, a little saliva added, and then a few drops of tincture of guaiacnm, allowed to stand exposed to the air, then shaken, becomes of a bottle-green colour. A weak solution of carbolic acid, to which a little chlorimated lime has been added, and then liquor ammonia, shows a. bright blue colour. Carbolic acid may be distinguished from creosote by its solubility in glycerine. Creo- sote is insoluble in glycerine. See Disin- fection, &o. ACI (8) ACI Acid, Carbonic — This acid ia con- sidered partly in the article AiB, in which it is always present in minute quantity. Indeed its presence is essential to vegeta- tion. Besides the sources of respiration and combustion, it issues in a comparatively pure state from the earth in various places, e.g., the Grotto del Cane, in Italy, and .the Valley of Poison, in Java. It is also to be found in all springs, and it gives to them their sparkling character. In a solid state it is combined with various constituents of the earth's crust, as limestone, magnesia, &c. Its properties are well known. It is a colourless, uninflammable, irrespirable gas, having a slight pungent odour and feebly acid taste. Its chemical formula is CO^ ; its equi- valent is 44 ; its relative weight, 22 ; and specific gravity, 1'5203. It may be liquefied by pressure and cold, or, in a simpler manner, by generating it in closed strong vessels. It then forms -a liquid as transparent as water, requiring a pressure of 88'5 atmospheres to retain it in the fluid state ; and when allowed to escape into the air, freezes, from the rapid evaporation, into a snow-white solid. Its most marked properties are its weight and power of extinguishing both flame and Ufe. 100 cubic inches of it weigh, at 60° F. and 30° Bar., 47'303 grains. It may therefore be poured from one vessel to another like water, and it collects at the bottom of vessels, vats, mines, or other places where it is developed or intro- duced. An atmosphere containing one part of carbonic acid in 2500 acts upon the system like a narcotic poison. The tests and estimation of carbonic acid in air are described under that article. For carbonic acid in spring water, see Wateb, Analysis op. When combined with bases in the numerous carbonates, the following method is generally employed : Two flasks (the size and weight of which must be regulated by the capacity of the operator's balance) are connected as in the diagram. The weighed substance put into a, the other one, b, is half filled with concen- trated sulphuric acid. The tube e is closed by a little bit of indiarubber tubing drawn over it, and a small, accurately-fitting bit of glass rod inserted in the open end. 'VThen all is ready, the apparatus is accurately weighed, the glass rod removed, and by sucking at e, Buccessive portions of acid are made to pass over from h. The carbonic anhydridp escapes perfectly dried through d. At the end of the operation the stopper is removed out of a, and air sucked through d; the stopper re. placed, and the apgp-atus allowed to stand some hours, and then weighed again : the loss Fig. 1. indicates the carbonic acid. This process is not so suitable for bases which form insoluble salts with sulphuric acid, and in that case i» modified by having a bulb on u, containing dilute nitric acid, which is allowed to escape from time to time on to the substance in a. There are various other contrivances based upon the apparatus as above described ; but the principle is the same, and it would be out of place here to go into more detail. Another very convenient method of estimating carbonic acid is by fusion of the previously dried and weighed carbonate with vitrified borax, also previously weighed. The loss of weight indi- cates very accurately the carbonic acid. In cases of poisoning by this gas, the treat- ment of the drowned will be required, viz. , artificial respiration, ammonia to the nostrils, free exposure to air, and galv&nism. Acid, CitAo—See Crrma Acid. Acidimetry — This is the name of che- mical processes by which the amount of free acid in any liquid is determined. It is of great use in the arts, as well as to the food analyst, who by it determines the amount of acid in beer, wine, &o. If the liquid contains a free acid, and is not mixed with anything else but water, the specific gravity may be taken in the ordinary way, or determined by a hydrometer; the percentage of acid will then be found by the aid of the following tables : — ACI (9) ACI TABLE showing the Percentages of AifHTDKonB Aom oorresponding to various specific gravities of Aqueous Nitric Acid, by XJbb. Temperature 15° C. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhy- drous Acid. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhy- drous Acid. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhy- drous Acid. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhy- drous Acid. 1-500 79-7 1-419 59-8 1-295 39-8 1-140 19-9 1-498 78-9 1-415 59-0 1-289 39-0 1-134 ■ 19-1 1-496 78-1 1-411 58-2 1-283 38-3 1-129 . 18-3 1-494 77-3 1-406 57-4 1-276 37-5 1-123 17-5' 1-491 76-5 1-402 66-6 1-270 36-7 1-117 16-7 1-488 75-7 1-398 55-8 1-264 35-9 1-111 15 9 1-485 74-9 1-394 55-0 1-258 35-1 1-105 15-1 1-482 74-1 1-388 54-2 1-252 34-3 1-099 14-3 1-479 73-3 1-383- 53-4 1-246 33-5 1-093 13-5 1-476 72-5 1-378 62-6 1-240 32-7 1-088 12-7 1-473 71-7 1-373 51-8 1-234 31-9 1-082 11-9 1-470 70-9 1-368 51-1 1-228 31-1 1-076 11-2^ 1-467 70-1 1-363 50-2 1-221 30-3 1-071 10-4 1-464 69-3 1-358 4a -4 1-215 29-5 1-065 9-6 1-460 68-5 1-353 48-6 1-208 28-7 1-059 8-8 1-457 67-7 1-348 47-9 1-202 27-9 1-054 80 1-453 66-9 1-343 470 1-196 27-1 1-048 7-2 1-450 66-1 1-338 46-2 1-189 26-3 1-043 6-4 1-446 65-3 1-332 45-4 1-183 25-5 1-037 5-6 1-442 64-5 1-327 44-6 1-177 24-7 1-032 4-8 1-439 63-8 1-322 43-8 1-171 23-9 1-027 40 1-435 63 1-316 43-0 1-165 23-1 1-021 3-2 1-431 62-2 1-311 42-2 1-159 22-3 1-016 2-4 1-427 61-4 1-306 41-4 1-153 21-5 1-011 1-6 1-422 60-6 1-300 40-4 1-146 20-7 1-005 0-8 TABLE showing the Percentages of Htdrated Acid corresponding to various specific gravities of Aqueous Acetic Acid, by MoHB. ■KS = ? -t ■S2' ■52 t a^ ¥.< 9-^ 9^ -■2 Specific Specific "t Specific 5-S Specific S-a Specific Gravity. Gravity. n. Gravity. u Gravity. Si Gravity. ii tua" ^s 1^ ^ ^B" ^5- 1-0635 100 1-0735 80 1-067 60 1-051 40 1-027 20 1-0655 99 1-0735 79 1-066 59 1-050 39 1-026 19 1-0670 98 1-0732 78 1-066 58 1-049 38 1-025 18 1-0680 97 1-0732 77 1-065 57 1-048 37 1-024 17 1-0690 96 1-0730 76 1-064 56 1-047 36 1-023 16 10700 95 1-0720 75 1-064 55 1-046 35 1-022 15 1-0706 94 1-0720 74 1-063 54 1-045 34 1-020 14 1-0708 93 1-0720 73 1-063 53 1-044 33 1-018 13 1-0716 92 1-0710 72 1-062 52 1-042 32 1-017 12 1-0721 91 1-0710 71 1-061 51 1-041 31 X-016 11 1-0730 90 1-0700 70 1-060 50 1-040 30 1-015 10 1-0730 89 1-0700 69 1-059 49 1-039 29 1-013 9 1-0730 88 1-0700 68 1-058 48 1-038 28 1-012 8 1-0730 87 1-0690 67 1-056 47 1-036 2V 1-010 7 1-0730 86 1-0690. 66 1-055 46 1-035 26 1-008 6 1-0730 85 1-0680 65 1-055 45 1-034 25 1-007 5 1-0730 84 1-0680 64 1-054 44 1-033 24 1-005 4 1-0730 83 1-0680 63 1-053 43 1-032 23 1004 3 1-0730 82 1-0670 62 1-052 42 1-031 22 1-002 2 1-0732 81 1-0670 61 1-051 41 1029 21 1-001 1 ACI (10) ACI TABLE showing the Percentages of Anhydrous Acid corresponding to yarious specific gravities of Aqueous Hydrochloric Acid, by Uee. Temperature 15° 0. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Hydro- chloric Acid Specific Gravity. Percentage of Hydro- cliloricAcid. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Hydro- cliloricAoid.. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Hydro- chloricAcid. 1'2000 40-777 1-1515 30-582 1-1000 20-388 ' 1-0497 10-194 1'1982 40-369 1-1494 30-174 1-0980 19-980 1-0477 9-786 1-1964 39-961 1-1473 29-767 1-0960 19-572 1-0457 9-379 1-1946 39-554 1-1452 29-359 1-0939 19-165 10437 8-971 1-1928 39146 1-1431 28-951 1-0919 18-757 1-0417 8-563 1-1910 38-738 1-1410 28-544 1-0899 18-349 1-0397 8-155 1-1893 38-330 1-1389 28-136 1-0879 17-941 10377 7-747 1-1875 37-923 1-1369 27-728 1-0859 17-534 1-0357 7-340 ~ 1-1857 37-516 1-1349 27-321 1-0838 17-126 1-0337 6-932 1-1846 37-108 1-1328 26-913 1-0818 16-718 1-0318 6-524 1-1822 36-700 1-1308 26-505 1-0798 16310 1-0298 6-116 1-1802 36-292 11287 26-098 1-0778 15-902 1-0279 5-709 1-1782 35-884 1-1267 25-690 1-0758 15-494 1-0259 5-301 - 1-1762 35-476 1-1247 25 282 1-0738 15-087 1-0239 4-893 1-1741 35-068 1-1226 24-874 1-0718 14-679 1-0220 4-486 1'1721 34-660 1.1206 24-466 1-0697 14-271 1-0200 4-078 1-1701 34-252 1-1185 24-058 1-0677 13-863 1-0180 3-670 1-1681 33-845 1-1164 23-650 1-0657 13-456 1-0160 3-262 1-1661 .S3-437 1-1143 23-242 1-0637 13-049 1-0140 2-854 1-1641 33-029 1-1123 22-834 1-0617 12-641 1-0120 2-447 1-1620 32-621 1-1102 22-426 1-0597 12-233 1-0106 2-039 1-1599 32-213 1-1082 22-019 1-0577 11-825 1-0080 1-631 1-1578 31-805 1-1061 21-611 1-0557 11-418 1-0060 1-124 1-1557 31-398 1-1041 21-203 10537 11-010 1-0040 0-816 1-1537 30-990 1-1020 20-796 1-0517 10-602 1-0020 0-408 TABLE sho-wing the Percentages of Hydrated and Anhydrous Acids corresponding to various specific gravities of Aqueo-us Sulphuric Acid, by BiNEAD ; calculated for 15° C, by Otto. ■g ■ 1 , 1 g| 11 11- 1 O an fa a s 1 U CQ I"* 1 -4 t t 1 "si n if Percentage of Anhydrous Acid. 1-8426 TOO 81-63 1-675 75 61-22 l-.$98 50 40-81 1-182 25 20-40 - 1-842 99 80-81 1-663 74 60-40 1-3886 49 40-00 1174 24 19-68 1-8406 98 80-00 1-651 73 59-59 1-379 48 3918 1-167 23 18-77 1-840 97 79-18 1-639 72 58-77 1-370 47 38-36 1-159 22 17-95 1-8384 96 78-36 1-627 71 57-95 1-361 46 37-55 1-1516 21 17-14 1-8376 95 77-55 1-615 70 57-14 1-351 45 36-73 1-144 20 16-32 1-8356 94 76-73 1-604 69 56-32 1-342 44 35-82 1-136 19 15-51 1-834 93 75-91 1-592 68 5,''v59 1-333 43 35-10 1-129 18 14-69 1-831 92 75-10 1-580 67 54-69 1-324 42 34-28 1-121 17 13-87 1-827 91 74-28 1-568 66 53-87 1-,315 41 33-47 1-1136 16 13-06 1-822 90 73-47 1-557 65 53-05 1-306 40 32-65 1-106 15 12-24 1-816 89 72 65 1-545 64 52-24 1-2976 39 31-83 1-098 14 11-42 1-809 88 71-83 1-5.34 63 51-42 1-289 38 31-02 1-091 13 10-61 1-802 87 71-02 1-523 62 50-61 1-281 37 30-20 1-083 12 9-79 1-794 86 70-10 1-512 61 49-79 1-272 36 29-38 1-0756 n 8-98 1-786 85 69-38 1-501 60 48-98 1-264 35 28-57 1-068 10 8-16 1-777 84 68-57 1-490 .59 48-16 1-256 34 27-75 1061 9 7-34 1-767 83 67-75 1-480 58 47-34 1-2476 33 26-94 1-0536 8 6-53 1-756 82 66-94 1-469 57 46-53 1-239 32 26-12 1-0464 7 5-71 1-745 81 66-12 1-4586 66 45-71 1-231 31 25-30 1039 6 4-89 1-734 80 65-30 1-448 55 44-89 1-223 30 24-49 1-032 5 4-08 1-722 79 64-48 1-438 54 44-07 1-215 29 23-67 1-0256 4 3-26 1-710 78 63-67 1-428 53 43-26 1-2066 28 22-85 1-019, 3 2-445 1-698 77 62-85 1-418 52 42-45 1-198 27 .22 03 1-013 > 2 1-63 1-686 76 62 04 1-408 61 41-63 1-190 '26 21-22 1-0064 1 0-816 ACI (II) ACI 1-208 1174 1165 1-122 1-109 1-068 1023 1-008 TABLE showing the Percentagea of Crystallised Acid corresponding to various specific gra- vities of Aqueous Tartaric Acid, by Osann. Specific Percentage of Gravity. CrystaUlsed Add. 1-274 .... 61-42 40-00 34-24 30-76 26 00 22-27 14-28 5 00 1-63 The more generally useful method is, ho-w- ever, to prepare an alkaline fluid of known strength, and neutralise the acid. In order to do this, the operator requires burettes, tinc- ture of litmus, or litmus paper, a dilute acid of known strength, and a dilute alkaline fluid also of known strength. The acid solution must in all cases be diluted so as to contain an exact equivalent number in grammes or grains of the acid in 1000 o. o. or parts. For instance, 40 grammes of sulphuric, 36 '46 of hydrochloric, 63 of oxalic to the litre. These solutions are called normal acids. The normal alkaline solution is made so that one volume of it exactly neutralises one volume of the acid solution. Soda is nearly always used. In order to prepare it, a solution of soda is made, and diluted until about the specific gravity 1'05, which corresponds to 3'6 per cent, of soda. A portion of it is then run from a burette, until it exactly neutralises 30 c. 0. of a normal acid sblution. The exact point of neutrality is determined by litmus. Suppose 27 c. c. of soda neutralises 30 of the acid, then it is too strong ; to every 27 c. c. 3 c. o. of water must be added— i.e., lll'l to the litre. The solutions of normal acid must be pre- pared with great care ; the acids used must be absolutely pure. A solution of oxalic acid Fresenius does not think so good for acidimetry as hydrochloric acid, on account of the diffi- culties in drying the former. {See Acid, Oxa- lic.) The normal hydrochloric acid is thus prepared : — 900 c. c. of water are mixed with 180 c. c. of ordinary pure hydrochloric acid of 1-12 specific gravity. Fill a burette with the mixture, measure off two quantities of 20 c. c. each, precipitate the acid with nitrate of silver, carefully filter, dry, ignite, and weigh the ]pesulting precipitate : the two precipitates should agree very closely. Take the mean of them, and calculate from them how much water must be added to 1000 o. c. E.g., sup- pose 20 c. c. contained '810 grammes of hydro- chloric acid, therefore 1000 c. c. contains 40"5 grammes, consequently we have — 36 46 lOOO =1110-8 Hence lllO'S must be added to the litre of water. Normal sulphuric acid is prepared on a similar plan, only it is precipitated by chloride of barium. (The resulting sulphate, if multiplied by '34335, gives the sulphuric acid.) The actual analysis is performed by taking a determinate quantity, say 100 c. c, of the liquid to be examined, and dropping from a burette the alkaline liquid until exact neutrality, as determined by litmus paper or tincture of litmus, and the number of centi- .metres used will indicate the amount of free acid. The following table will be found useful : — ■WEIGHT of the Eespeotivb Acids equivalent to the given weight of the principal bases, Hydrogen being taken as unity. 51 acetic acid (anhydrous). 60 ,, ,, (crystallised or glacial), 99 arsenious acid (dry). 35 boracic acid (dry). 67 citric acid (crystallised), 86 gallic acid (dried at 212°). 94 „ „ (crystallised). 127^ hjdriodic acid (dry or gaseous), 27 hydrocyanic acid (anhydrous). 36 J hydrochloric acid (dry or gaseous). 109 „ „ (Uquid, sp. gr. 1-162). 166^ iodic acid. 54 nitric acid (anhydrous). 17 grains of pure ammonia 31 ,, anhydrous soda 40 „ hydrate of soda 53 ,, dry carbonate of soda 143 „ crystallised cai-bonate of soda 84 „ crystallised bicarbonate of soda 47 „ anhydrous potassa 5S „ hydrate of potassa 69 „ dry carbonate of pot^issa 100 „ crystallised bicarbonate of potassa 60 (pure chalk " I „ marble 28 ,, fiue caustic lime 37 „ hydrate of lime (ftesh) 44 „ dry carbonic acid (when the bicar- bonate of soda or potash is used for testing in the process of Fres- enius and Will) 22 „ dry carbonic acid (when a dry car- bonate is used) Kb < 63 (liquid, monohydrated, sp, gr. 1-517 to 1-621). • (liquid, sesquihydrated, sp. gr, 1-5033 to 1-504), ,, „ (liquid, binhydrated, sp, gr, 1-486). „ „ (liquid, sp. gr. 1-42). oxalic acid (anhydrous). M » (ciystallised). phosphoric acid (anhydrous). „ „ (glacial), succinic acid (dry or anhydrous crystals). 59 ,, „ (ordinary crystals). 40 sulphuric acid (anhydrous). 49 ,, „ (liquid, monohydrated, sp. gr. 1-8486). 75 tartaric acid (ciystallised). ^ 212 tannic acid (dried) en 72 90 36 63 72 81 60 AOI (12) ACI Acid, Xiactio (HsCeHioOe) — A trans- parent, inodorous, syrupy liquid with a sharp taste ; sp. gr. 2 '215. It was first obtained by Scheele from whey. It is an important constituent of the gastric juice. It is found in muscular tissue, in small quantities in the urine and sweat, and has, in cases of diabetes, been met with in the saliva. It also exists in some plants, e.g., Nux vomica. When milk is said to turn sour, this sourness is due to a special fer- mentation. The caseine acts like diastase or other ferments. Peculiar cells, like those of ' yeast, but smaller, make their appearance, and lactic acid appears in the liquid ; but as caseine is coagulated by acid, directly this change has taken place, the ferment caseine is coagulated, and the action stops, to be again renewed, hovrever, if chalk, &c., is added to neutralise the acid. Besides milk, many other organic liquids will undergo this fermentation. It is, indeed, a frequent result of the acetification of vegetable sub- stances. The most effective way of pre- paring the acid is that of Waokenroder. Digest together 25 parts of sugar of lead, 20 of powdered chalk, 100 of skimiied milk, 200 of water, at 75° F. In six weeks the chalk will be dissolved. The whole is then heated, but not to boiling; the cheese is separated, pressed, and the liquid decanted, clarified by albumen, and evaporated; the lactate of calcium crystallises. It may then be decomposed by sulphuric or oxalic acids. Acid, Meconio {ii^kuv, a poppy)— This acid is contained in opium. Its formula is H3C7H07,3H20. It strikes a blood-red colour with chloride of iron, and this fact forms the basis for a valuable test in suspected cases of opium poisoning. See Opium, Add, OKalio (Dihydrio Oxalate) (HjCaO^HjO^gO-l-Se) — This substance is made on a very large scale by heating a mixture of hydrate of potash and saw- dust. It may also be obtained by heating tartaric, citric, or malic acid with potassic hydrate, and by boiling starch or sugar with nitric acid. The process above mentioned of obtaining oxalic acid from sawdust (Robert Dale & Oo.'s patent) has so cheapened this acid, that whereas In 1851 it cost 16d. a pound, it now costs about half that. It occurs naturally in the wood-sorrel (OaiaMs acetosella), in the Ituniex acetoea, and In the leaf -stalks of the common rhubarb. It is of importance to obtain this acid per- fectly pure. The purification of the oxalic acid of commerce is very easy. The process is carried out as follows : — The impure acid is put into a flask, and treated with lukewarm distilled water, in such proportions as will leave a large amount of the acid undissolved, and shaken. Filter, crystallise, and let the crystals drain dry at the ordinary tempera- ture in blotting-paper. Another process is to decompose oxalate of lead by dilute sulphuric acid. If the acid is prepared in this way, it has the formula H2C2O42H2O, and its equiva- lent is accordingly 63. It is used by the analyst in various methods of analyses, especially in alkalimetry, acidi- metry, and in standardising various volumetric solutions. In order to detect the acid in the contents of the stomach (which in such a case would be strongly acid), the contents are boiled with distilled water, filtered, then treated with a solution of acetate of lead. If oxalic acid is present, it will be precipitated as an oxalate of lead. This precipitate must be well washed, and then suspended in water, through which pass a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, filter offi the black sulphide of lead, evaporate to dryness, weigh and test the residue. Another way is by treating the oxalate of lead by sul- phide of ammonium, and obtaining thus the oxalate of ammonia. Having obtained by either method a sub- stance supposed to be oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia, the following tests may be applied. Lime water gives a precipitate in solutions of oxalic acid of oxalate of lime, a white powder, insoluble in acetic acid, but soluble in strong mineral acids. If a little solid oxalic acid is treated with strong sulphuric acid in a test tube, it is decomposed, froths up, emitting carbonic acid and carbonic oxide, the latter burning with a blue flame. A solution of oxalic acid reduces the salts of gold. The former tests agreeing, with its physical pro- perties, wiU easily identify the acid if present. Acid, Fhemc—See Aoro, Cakbolio, Acid, Prussio (syn. Acid ECydro- cyanic) — (HCy = 27) — Observed specific gravity of vapour 0-9476, of liquid 07058 at 44 -a" (7°C.); melting-point, 5° F. (-15° C); boiling-pomt, 80°F. (26-5°C.);rel. weight 13 -5. This substance is a most deadly poison. In its concentrated state, it klUs with a lightning- like rapidity ; but In the dilute commercial form, even after a large dose, a few simple acts, such as walking to a bedroom door, put- ting a cork in a bottle, getting into bed, &o. have been performed. The symptoms are paleness, syncope, gasping for breath, con- vulsions, contracted pupils, nausea, insensi- bility, and death. The most appropriate remedy is ammonia, ACI (13) ACI both internally and applied to the nostrils. A little weak liquor ammonia may, if time permit, be injected under the sMn or into the veins. Chlorine water has also done good, and cold douches to the head. To detect the acid in the contents of the stomach, or in any fluid, if the smell, either of bitter almonds or of the acid itself, be per- ceptible, and the liquid hare ah acid reaction, simple distillation into a receiver, containing a little distilled water, will separate it in a tolerably pure state. If the reaction is alka- line, the liquid may contain cyanide of potas- sium — a very common salt. In such a case, a little sulphuric acid added to it, and then dis- tilled as before, will separate it in the form of dilute hydrocyanic acid. The dilute prussio acid obtained by either of the above processes may be tested as fol- lows : — Add a little liquor potassa, a few drops of a solution of sulphate of iron, and then a little perchloride of iron : the result is Prussian blue — ^the blue turned to brown by alkalies. This is very reliable evidence of prussic acid. Add nitrate of silver, =., white precipitate, curdy, insoluble in cold dilute nitric acid, soluble in ammonia and cyanide of potash, denotes cyanide of silver, and is also a very reliable test. A very accurate and convenient method is to take two accurately-fitting watch-glasses, moisten the one with a little sulphuric acid, add a few drops of the liquid for examination, invert the other one over it, which must con- tain a little sulphide of ammonium. (Or the two watch-glasses may be placed the one above the other, in the ordinary way, under a glass shade. ) After a little time the upper one is re- moved, dried, and perchloride of iron is added. If prussio acid is present, a blood-red colour is produced, which is discharged by bichloride of mercury, thus distinguishing it from the similar colour afltorded by meconie acid. The chief forms in which prussio acid is ordinarily met with are — 1. The dilute medicinal acid = 2 per cent, anhy- drous acid. 2. Soheele's acid = 2 per cent, anhydrous acid. 3. Cyanide of potassium, 2 J grains — 60 drops of medicinal acid. 4. Oil of bitter almonds = 13 per cent, anhydrous acid. Acid, Pyroligneous — Impure acetic acid, obtained from the destructive distilla- tion of wood. Owing to its impurities, which are of a tarry nature, it is a little more antiseptic than pure acetic acid. See Acid, Acetic. Acid, FyrogaUic (OsHeOjj-This sub- stance has no acid reaction. It forms bril- liant plates, freely soluble in water, alco- hol, and ether. It is prepared by subliming gallic acid, which may be mixed with pumice- stone, and put in a' retort, through which car- bonic acid gas is passed. Xt is used in photography, and in the ana- lysis of air and other gases, where it is of great value, from the fac^ that an alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid absorbs oxygen rapidly, and will completely remove it from air or other mixture of gases. Acid, Sulphurous (Sulphurous An- hydride) — Properly speaking, the latter is the proper name, as its chemical composi- tion is represented by the symbols SO^ ; and it is composed of 1 volume of sulphur united with 2 of oxygen, the three volumes, at the time of combination, being condensed into two. The theoretic specific gravity of the gas is 2'2112; observed specific gravity, 2'247 ; of the liquid, 1-38 at 60°(15° C.) ; melting-point, - 105° F. ( - 76° C); boiling-point,14°F. (10° C. ) This substance is ordin^ily in the form of a gas, but may be liquefied by intense cold. It is prepared for commercial purposes by deoxidising charcoal or sawdust by sulphuric acid, and distilling. It is accompanied in this case by half its volume of carbonic anhydride. In a pure state for the laboratory, 90 grammes of concentrated sulphuric acid are boiled with 15 grammes of copper clippings'; the result is sulphate' of copper, water, and pure sulphurous anhydride. It is also prepared by beating sulphur and oxide of manganese ; and whenever sulphur is burned in air, this gas is formed. Properties and Uses. — The gas has a pun- gent, suffocating odour, and if a person inhales it slightly or entirely undiluted, it rapidly causes death. In a dilute form it acts simply as an irritant, and causes running at the eyes and nose, sneezing, &c. It quickly extinguishes flame, and is not inflammable. By passing it through a tube, cooled by a freezing mixture, it may be condensed to a colourless transparent liquid, which dissolves bitumen. Water takes up 68 8 of its bulk of this gas at 32° F., 43-5at 59°F. (15°C.),and32 at 7.5° F. (24° C.) Thus it is extremely soluble. When passed into water it combines with it, and is then converted into the real acid— sulphurous acid (H2SO3)— but this compound has never been isolated. Sulphurous acid combines with bases, forming sulphites, bisulphites, and hypo- sulphites. This gas is extensively used by the bleachers of straw, wool, silken goods, isinglass, sponge, and other goods. It is a most excellent anti- septic. It is used in this country to keep casks sweet before putting cider, &c., in ACI (14) AGO them; and in Italy, also, a little sulphur is burnt in the casks to purify them. Meat, sealed up in canisters, filled with sulphurous acid, and with the addition of nitrogen, or a little nitric oxide, keeps fresh for years. Another way which Mr. Gamgee has intro- duced, is to kill the animal with carbonic oxide, and then the meat is preserved in can- isters filled with carbonic oxide and sulphurous acid gas. A piece of meat, about an inch broad and thick, and about three inches long, was sealed up by Dr. Angus Smith in a bottle, and was good at the end of twenty-eight days, but its colour had changed to pink. As a disinfectant, either as a fumigating agent, or in solution, it deservedly takes a high place. As a fnmigator, it has been used from the earliest times, and is mentioned by XJlysses in Homer (Odyssey, Bk. xxii. 1. 492). It is used to fumigate sick-rooms, destroy odours, and has been lately employed in rather a large scale to sewers. {See Sewebs.) It does not appear to remove all odours, but certainly the greater number of them. It acts chemically as a deoxidiser, and then it appears to oxidise afterwards by part- ing with its own oxygen. Sometimes, also, when mixed with vegetable matter, it is entirely decomposed, and- sulphuretted hydro- gen is given off. Its exact action on the low forms of animal life is hardly known. Certain it is, that, even much diluted, it stops the airfEeboid movements of living cells, destroys or kills vibrios, and acts deleteriously on vege- tation. It has been suggested that, as the acid is always present in towns, it is the cause of the decay of the teeth, principally from the fact that, in works where this gas is ema- nated, the workmen lose their teeth. It is a most valuable agent as a parasiticide — especially the vegetable parasites — and as such is used in cutaneous affections with the most beneficial effect, whether the disease exists in man or animals. It has also been used in the Cattle Plague by Dr. Dewar and others, and they have spoken very highly of its effects in this disease. By the chemist, among other uses, it is employed to reduce per- oxide of iron to protoxide. The sulphites have a very similar action as disinfectants, and are sometimes more con- venient. In order to disinfect clothes, letters, and other articles, the articles may be sus- pended over pieces of lighted brown paper, previously coated with sulphur, or over a shovel, or dish of red-hot coals, upon which sulphur is sprinkled, or in which a crucible is immersed containing a lump of sulphur. To thoroughly disinfect a room, it should be almost hermetically sealed, and a very large quantity of sulphur burnt. In such a case, if this agent is used, there may be some destruc- tion of property, for it discharges vegetable colours, attacks iron, and is absorbed by cloth, leather, &o. Indeed, in cases of contagious fevers, it can rarely be used in sufficient quan- tity to be really efficient. See DisiNrECT- ANTS. ■ Aconite — Aconite Boot — Aconiti radix — Natural order, Banunculacece. — The root, dried, of Aconitum, Nwpellus, imported from Germany, or cultivated in Britain, and collected in winter or early spring before the leaves have appeared. Numerous cases of poi- soning have occurred from this root being mis- taken for horse-radish ; but there are striking differences, horse-radish root being of a long cylindrical shape, of the same size and thick- ness for many inches, and whitish-yellow out- side, having a powerful pungent odour when scraped, whilst aconite root is shoet and CONICAL, tapering rapidly to a point. Exter- nally its colour is of an earthy brown, but white inside, having a strong earthy odour. Aconitia — Aconitina — An alkaloid ob- tained from aconite. The plant is about five feet in height. The leaves are deep green on the upper surface, lighter beneath, smooth, palmate, five partite, the segments wedge- shaped and pinnately cut. The root is fusi- form, like a carrot, from one to three inches long, not thicker than the finger at the crown, with fieshy fibres, dark brown on the surface, whitish within. The fiowers are purple, hel- met-shaped, numerous, and in dense racemes. AH parts of the plant are bitter and acrid, causing a tingling of the lips and skin, followed by numbness. They contain the alkaloid aco- nitia (030114,^0,), united with aconitic acid (CoHeOo). Another base is also present, which has been named Aconella, resembling narcotine in its composition and properties, capable of crystallisation, but not possessing the active properties of aconitia. Aconitia is a white, unorystallisable solid, soluble in 150 parts of cold and 50 parts of hot water, and much more soluble in alcohol and ether; alkaline, neutralising acids, and precipitated from them by the caustic alkalies. It is a very active poison, entirely soluble in pure ether, and leaves no residue when burned with free excess of air. The separation of this poison in a post-mor- tem examination seems at present almost an impossibility, owing to the changes which it undergoes in the organism, as well as by its decomposition during the process of evaporation and exposure to the air, by which it becomes converted into ammonia. Nov are there any peculiar chemical reactions by which it can be readily identified. Its ACT ("s: ACT physiological— that is, its benumbing and para- lysing — effects are the only prominent ones. The following are the principal tests. Cold nitric or sulphuric add applied to the solid produces no reaction ; but if heated with the latter acid, it produces a brown colour. The caustic aUcaUes produce with its solutions a white precipitate, which is redissolved on the addition of more water, by which It is distin- guished from atropia. Chloride of gold produces an abundant yel- low amorphous precipitate. Chloride of platinum produces NO precipi- tate with this alkaloid, which is characteristic. In cases of poisoning, an emetic should at once be given, and the patient placed in the recum- bent position, applying friction over the heart, and chafing the limbs. If the patient can swallow, s stimulant should be given. Aconitia is often very' impure : sometimes it is mixed with delphinia, and sometimes it con- tains aconeUaj the other principle contained in the root, and precipitated with the aconitia. Pure aconitia in -^-g gr. dose will destroy a dog ; but 1 gr. of the spurious alkaloid can often be given without much effect. Act Adulteration (35 & 36 Vict. c. 74)— This Act is now repealed, and the Sale of Food and Drugs Act substituted in its stead. See Adulteeation. Act, Alkali— jS^ee Alkali Act. . Act, Artisans and Iiabourers DweUings, 1868 (31 & 82 Yict. u. 130), Artisans Dwellings, 187S—See Habi- iatioks. Act, Bakehouse (26 & 27 Vict. c. 40)— See Bakehouse. . Act, Bakehouse Regulation (26 & 27 Vict. c. 40)— B(5th rural and urban authori- ties have to carry out, and are subject to the provisions of, this Act. See Bakehouse. Acts, Baths and VTashhouses— These are " An Act to Encourage the Establishment of Public Baths and 'Washhouses" (9 & 10 Vict. c. 74), and an Act amending the same (10 & 11 Vict. c. 61). These Acts may or may not be adopted by an urban authority. See Baths. Act, Coal Mines Regulation, 1872 (35 & 36 Vict. c. 7)— See Mines, Sanitaet Legislation, &o. Acts, Common Iiodging-House, 1851 (14 & 15 Vict. c. 28), 18S3 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 41)— Both these Acts are repealed, and in- cluded in the Public Health Act, 1875, except . those portions which relate to the Metro- politan Police District. Acts, Contagious Diseases — See Con- tagious Diseases Act, Yenebeal Diseases, Pkostiiution, &c. Act, Diseases Prevention- The whole of this Act, except so far as relates to the Metropolis, has been repealed, and is included in the Public Health Act, 1875. See Diseases, Prevention of. Acts, Factory- See Factory ; Trades, Injurious. Acts, Ziahouring Classes Iiodging- Houses. — Under this general appellation are included the Labouring Classes Dwelling- Houses Act, 1851 (14 & 15 Vict. c. 34), the Labouring Classes Dwelling-Houses Act, 1866 (29 & soviet, c. 28), Labouring Classes Dwell- ing-Houses Act, 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 28). The whole of these Acts apply only to urban districts, and may or may not be adopted ; but where they are in force, the provisions must be duly carried out by the urban authority. Acts, Iiand Clauses, Consolidation of— See Lands, Purchase of. Acts, IiOCal — There are various local Acts still in force in different places. The Local Government Board has now the power by provisional order to wholly or partially repeal, alter, or amend any Local Act (with the exception of a Local Eiver Conservancy Act). Any such provisional order may pro- vide for the extension of the provisions of the Local Act referred to therein beyond the dis- trict within the limits of such Act, or for the exclusion of the whole or a portion of any such district from the application of such Act ; and may provide what local authority shall have jurisdiction for the purposes of the Public Health Act in any area which is by such order included in or excluded from such district (P. H., s. 303). All Acts whatever done by authorities by virtue of the powers conferred upon them by a Local Act are valid, notwitl^tanding the passing of the Public Health Acts, 1872 and 1875 (P. H. 338). Where a local sanitary Act is in force within the district of a local authority, pro- ceedings may be instituted at discretion, either under the Local Act or under the General Act (i.e., P. H.) ; but no person may be punished for the same offence both under a Local Act and under the Public Health Act, nor is the local authority, by reason of the existence of a Local Act in their district, exempted from the performance of any duty or obligation to which they are subject under the Public Health Act, 1875 (P. H. 340). Acts, IiOcal Government, 1858 (21 & ACT (I6) ACT 22 Vict.), 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. o. 61), and 1863 (26 & 27 Vict. c. 17)— These Acts have been repealed, and are included in the Public Health Act, 1875. See Local Boasds, TTEBAif -Sanitabt Authomtt, &c. Act, Markets and Fair Clauses, 1847 (10 & 11 Vict. c. 14)— See Markets. Acts, Nuisance Removal, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 121), I860 (23 & 24 Vict. c. 77), 1863 (26 & 27 Vict. «. 117), 1866 (29 & 30 Vict. c. 4), are all repealed, except so far as relates to the Metropolis, and included in the Public Health Act, 1875. Act, Petroleum, 1871 (34 & 35 Vict. c. 105)— See Petroleum. Act, Pharmacy, 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. 53)— See Poisons. Acts, Public Health, 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 63), 1872 (35 & 36 Vict. c. 79), and its Amendment Act of 1874, are included in the Public Health Act of 1875, and are alto- gether repealed with a few exceptions relating to the Metropolis. See Districts; Sanitary ; Medical Oeeiceb op Health ; Inspectoe op Ndisances, &c. &c. Act, FubUc Health, 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 55) — This important Act became law on the nth of August 1875. It repeals and embodies the Public Health Acts, the Local Government Act, the Kuisauce Removal Acts, the Sanitary Acts, the Sewage Utilisation Acts, and the Diseases Prevention Act, either entirely or partially, as set forth in detail in the first and second parts of the fifth schedule of the Act, as follows : — SCHEDULE V. Part I. Enactments which have been already repealed are in a few instances included in this repeal, in order to avoid the necessity of reference to previous statutes. Session and Chaptee. U & 12 Vict. c. 63. 11 & 16 Viot. c. 28. 16 & 17 Vict. 0.41. IS & 19 Vict. c. 116. 18 & 19 Vict. c. 121. 21 & 22 Vict. c. 98. 23 & 24 Vict. c. 77. 24 ft 25 Vict. u. 61. 26 ft 27 Vict. c. 17. 26 ft 27 Vict. 0. 117. 28 429 Vict. c. 75. 29 ft SO Vict. c. 41. 29 ft 30 Vict. c. 90. 30 ft 31 Vict. c. 113. 31 ft 32 Vict. c. 115. 32 ft 33. Vict. c. 100. 33 & 34 Vict >:. 63. 36 & 36 Vict. c. 79. 87 ft 88 Vict, c, 89. Title or Short Title. The Public Health Act, 1848. The Common Lodging-Houses Act, 1851. The Common Lodging-Houses Act, 1853. The Diseases Prevention Act, 1855. The Nuisances Removal Act for England, 1865 The Local Government Act, 1868. An Act to amend the Acts for the Removal of Nuisances and the Prevention of Diseases. The Local Government Act (1858) Amendment Act, 1861. The Local Government Act Amend- ment Act, 1863. The Nuisances Removal Act for England (Amendment) Act, 1863. The Sewage Utilisation Act, 1865. The Nuisances Removal (No. 1) Act 1866. The Sanitary Act, 1866 The Sewage TTtilisation Act, 1867. The Sanitary Act, 1868. ... The Sanitary Loans Act, 1869. The Sanitary Act, 1870 ... The Public Health Act, 1872. The Sanitary Law Amendment Act 1874. Extent of Repeal. The whole Act. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolitan Police District. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolitan Police District The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis. The whole Act. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis, The whole Act. The whole Act. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis. The whole Act, except so far as re- ■lates to Scotland and Ireland. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis. ' Parts I. , II., and III. , except so far as relates to the Metropolis or to Scotland or Ireland. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to Scotland or Ireland. The whole Act, except so fiir as re- lates to the Metropolis. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis The whole Act, except bo far as re- lates to the Metropolis. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolis. The whole Act, except so far as re- lates to the Metropolitan Police District. Of the above Acts, the following (namely), "The Public Health Act, 1848," and "The Local Gnvi-rn mcnt Act, 1868," and " The Local Government Act (1858) Amendment Aot,'1861," and "The Local Govpfn ment Act Amendment Act, 1863," are in this Act referred to as " The Local Government Acts " ""'"'™- ACT (17) ACT Pabt II. Srssion ahd Chapiek. Title oe Short Title. Extent of Bbfeal. 12 & 13 Vict. c. 94 The Public Health Supplemental The whole Act, except— Act, 1819. Section 1 (confil'mation of certain provisional orders of the Greneral Board of Health), and section 12 (short title of Act), and the schedule. 13 & U Tict. <;. 90. ThefiPviblio Health Supplemental The whole Act, except— , Act, 1850 (No. 2). Section 1 [certain provisional orders of General Board of Health con- firmed), and section 7 (short title of Act), and the schedule. 16 & 16 Vict. .;. 42. The first Public Health Supplemental Sections 6 to 12, both inclusive (first Act, 1852. election or first selection and elec- tion of certain local boards), and section 13 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 63, ss. 68, 69, as to repair of highways), and section 14 (interpretation of year), and section 15 (Act incorpo- rated with Public Health Act). The Act does not extend to Scotland or Ire- land, nor to the Metropolis, except where ex- pressly stated. It contains 343 sections or clauses, and is divided into eleven parts, as follows : — I. FrdimAnary. — This part is almost en- tirely composed of definitions of various words and titles used, II. AvXhorities for Execution of the Act. — This pajrt provides for the division of the whole of England into rural and urban sanitary dis- tricts, describes the authorities, and lays down their powers. III. Seweras/e and Drainage. — This division provides authorities with the necessary powers for constructing sewers antl dealing with sew- age, and, generally speaking, confers on local authorities power to enforce drainage where necessary. It enacts penalties for building houses with- out privy accommodation, and givfes power to enforce closets or privies where necessary. It provides for the scavenging and cleans- ing of streets, the purification of houses, and, generally, the removal of filth. It contains important sections relative to the supply, storing, and protection of water ; it regulates lodging-houses, defines nuisajioes, forbids the unauthorised establishment of offensive trades in urban districts, gives powers vrith regard to unhealthy or unsound foods, contains provisions as to the establish- ment of hospitals, the prevention of infectious and epidemic disease, and the establishment of mortuaries. IV. Local Government Provisions. — This portion of the Act relates entirely to urban districts, and regulates certain matters rela- tive to highways, streets and buildings, mar- kets, public pleasure-grounds, and police. V. General Provisions. — The general provi- sions of the Act are those relative to contracts, the purchase of lands, arbitration^ bylaws, the conduct of business, the appointment and the duties of the officers of local autho- rities. VI. Rating and Borrowing Powers. — This division defines the expenses of the different authorities, malces provision for meeting those expenses by rates, gives power to borrow for certain sanitary purposes, and provides for the efficient audit of the accounts. VII. Legal Proceedings. — This portion of the Act contains sections setting forth in de- tail the legal procedure for the prosecution of o&ences, and the recovery of penalties ; pro- viding an appeal in certain cases to Quarter Sessions, in others to the Local Oovemment Board ; it also lays down the exact manner in which notices are to be served. VIII. Alteration of Areas and Union of Dis- tricts. — This portion gives very large powers to the Local Government Board in regard to the alteration of areas and the union of districts^ not alone for sewerage and general purposes, > but also for the purpose of appointing a medi- cal officer of health ; it also provides for the constitution, expenses, &c., of port sanitary authorities. IX Local Government Boa/rd. — This part of the Act is exclusively devoted to sections re- lating to the powers, orders, and proceedings of the Local (Jovernment Board. X Miscellaneous and Temporary Provisions. — The miscellaneous provisions are those rela- tive to entry on lands, penalty for obstructing theexecution of the Act, compensation in cer- tain cases, hop-pickers, &c. The temporary provisions relate to the clerk and treasurer of certain authorities, to special district rates, B ACT (i8) ADIT to main sewerage, district and^joiut sewerage boards, and a feV other matters. XI. Saving Clauses and Repeal of Acts. — This division, as its title implies, contains various saving clauses, and is followed by the schedules. The various sections of the Public Health Act and its schedules will be found, either in detail or in substance, throughout this work ; and in quoting the Act the abbreviation P. H. will be' employed. Act Regulatings Sale of Intoxicat- ing Iiiquors (35 & 36 Vict.*o. 9i)—See Al- coholic Bevebages. Act, Sanitary, 1866 (29 & 30 Vict. c. 90)— The first, second, and third parts of this Act are repealed, except so far as relates to the Metropolis, or to Scotland or Ireland-; the whole of the Sanitary Act, 1868 (31 & 32Tict. c. 115), and the whole of the Sanitary Act, 1870, except so far as relates to the Metro- polis, is repealed, and the main provisions of the whole three Acts are included in the Pub- lic Health Act, 1875. Act, Sanitary Iioans, 1869 (32 & 33 Vict. t. 100) — The whole of this Act, except so far as relates to the Metropolis, is repealed ; its main provisions are embodied in the Public Health Act, 1875. See Expenses, ■Water- supply, &o. Acts, Sewage TTtilisation (28 &'29 Viet. c. 75, and 30 & 31 Vict. c. 113)— The whole of these Acts are repealed, except so far as relates to Scotland or Ireland. Act, Towns Improvement Clauses, 1847 (10 & 11 Vict. «. 34)— The following provisions of this Act are incorporated in the Public Health Act, 1875, and refer exclusively to urban districts : — 1. With respect to naming the streets and numbering the houses. 2. With respect to improving the line of the streets and removing obstructions. 3. With respect to ruinous or dangerous buildings. 4. With respect to precautions during the construction and repair of the sewers, streets, and houses. 5. With respect to the regulation et slaughter-houses. Notices for alterations under the 69fch, 70th, and 71st sections, directions under the 73d section, and orders under the 74th section of the said Towns Improvement Clauses Act, may, at the option of the urban authority, be served on owners instead of occupiers, or on owners as well as occupiers, and the cost of works done under any of these sections may. when notices have been so served on owners, be recovered fron^ owners instead of occupiers ; and when such cost is recovered from occu- piers, so much thereof may be deducted from the rent of the premises where the work is done as is allowed in the case of private im- provement rates under the Act. (P. H., 160.) Act, Towns Police Clauses, 1847 (10 & 11 Vict. 0. 89)— The following pro- visions of this Act are incorporated with the Public Health Act, 1875 :— 1. With respect to obstructions and nui- sances in the streets. 2. With respect to fires. 3. With respect to places of public resort. 4. With respect to hackney carriages. 5. With respect to bathing. The Act applies to urba/n districts only (P. H., 171). Act, 'Watching and Iiighting (3 & 4 Will. IV. 0. 90) is now superseded by the Public Health Act (38 & 39 Vict. e. 55, n. 163). See Gas. Act, 'Water-Works Clauses, 1863 — This Act is incorporated with the Public Health Act (38 & 39 Vict. c. 55, s. 57), and also certain clauses' of the Water- Works Act, 1847. See Watee. Adipocere— 5ee Saponipioation. Adulteration— This term is only properly applied to the adding of substances to articles of commerce, food, or drink, for the purposes of deception or gain ; but the term by magis- trates and analysts is often practically applied to accidental impurity, or even in some cases to actual substitution.* The Society of Public Analysts have unani- mously adopted the following definition of an adulterated article. An article shall be deemed to be adul- terated — A. In the case of food or drink — 1. If it contain any ingredient wliicli may render sucll article injurious to tlie health of a consumer. 3. If it contain any substance that sensibly in- creases its weight, bulk, or strength, or gives it a fictitious value, unless the amount of such substance present be due to circumstances necessarily apper- taining to its collection or manufacture, or be neces- sary for its preservation, or unless the presence thereof be acknowledged at the time of sale. 3. If any important constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted or omitted, unless acknowledg- ment of such abstraction or omission be made at the time of sale. B.B., a person was fined under the Adulteration Act for selling as citrate of magnesia a substance which did not contain a particle of that salt, and a hawker for seUing cigars In which there was no tobacco at all. ADU (19) ADTJ 4. If it be an imitation of, or be sold under the name of, another article. B, In the case of drugs — ■ 1. If when retailed for medicinal purposes under a name recognised in the British Pharmacopoeia it be not equal in strength and purity to the standard laid down in that work. 2. If wten sold under a name not recognised in the British Pharmacopoeia it differ materially from the standard laid down in approved works on Materia Medica, or the professed standard under which it is sold. Limits. — The following shall be deemed limits for the respective articles referred to:— Milk shall contain not less than 9*0 per cent., by weight, of milk solids not fat, and not less than 2-5 per cent, of butter-fat. Skim Milk shall contain not less than 9 '0 per cent, by weight of milk solids not fat. Butter shall contain not less than 80'0 per cent. of butter-fat. Tea shall not contain more than 8'0 per cent, of mineral matter, calculated on the tea dried at \ 00° C. , of which at least 3-0 per cent, shall be soluble in water, and the tea as sold shall yield at least 30 per cent, of extract. Cocoa, shall contain at least 20 per cent, of cocoa- fat. Tinega/r shall contain not less than 3*0 per cent, of acetic acid. » The practice of fraudulent adulteration has existed for ages. In our own country an enactment to prohibit adulteration was in force as early as 1267, and punishments for it were provided in 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. &c. Public attention was drawn to it in 1822 by Accum's * * Death in the Pot ; " and in 1855 Dr. Hassall, an excellent microscopist, published his "Food and its Adulterations." Later, a variety of works by Letheby, Pavy, Hassall, Parkes, and others, on food, &c., have appeared, which, with the aid of the evidence brought before the Commissioners of the House of Commons, and the " Lancet " Sani- tary Commission, have enabled the public to better appreciate the nutritive value of pure food, and the nature of some of the adulter- ations practised, and finally led to the impor- tant Adulteration Acts. The sophistications may be divided into several distinct classes : — 1. To give weight or volume, such as water added to butter ; plaster-of-Paris to flour, &g. ; red earths to annatto^ sand to tea leaves, &c.; water to milk, &c. : all these, therefore, are 'Substitutions of worthless or very cheap articles which take the place of the real. 2. To give a colour which either makes a good article more pleasing to the eye, or else disguises an inferior one— e.ff., Prussian blue, black-lead, &c., to green teas'; annatto to cheese, &c.; arsenite of copper to sweetmeats, Ac, 3. Substitutions of a cheaper form of the article, or the same substance from which the strength has been extracted put in the place of the real — e.g,, tea mixed with spent leaves, &c. 4. A very small class, where the adulteration is really added with no fraudulent intent, but to enhance the quality of the goods sold— e.^., alum to bread, when added in small quantities. See Bbead. The following is a list of the principal adulterations practised : — Name. Nature of AdTilteration. Aconitia 'With other alkaloids — e.fir., del- phinia, aconella, &c. Ale Common salt, Cocculus Indicus, grains of paradise, quassia, and other bitters, sulphate of iron, alum, &c. Allspice Mustard husks. Anchovies Other fish and colouring-matters — e.ff., Armenian bole, Venetian red, &c. Annatto All sorts of starch, soap, red fer- ruginous earths, carbonate and sulphate of lime, salts, &c. Arrowroot... Various other fecula, such as sago, tapioca, potato, and others. Balsam of copaibsB Turpentine and fixed oils. Beef (potted) Armenian bole. Bismuth Carbonate of load, sometimes arsenic. Bloaters (potted)... Armenian bole. Brandy "Water, burnt sugar, &c. Bread Potatoes (mashed), alum, inferior flour, &c. &c. Butter. Water, salt, colouring-matter, lard, tallow, and other fats. Cajuput oil Copper, camphor dissolved in oil of rosemary, and coloured with copper (as a substitute). Calamine Coloured sulphate of baryta. Calomel Sulphate of baiyta, chalk, white precipitate, white-lead, pipe- clay, &c. &c. Calumba. Tinged bryony root, root of J?Va- sa'a Walterij and others. Gamboge Stai-ch, &c. Camphor. A substitution of Borneo camphor has been made. Cantharides Golden beetle, artificially-coloured glass, &c. Carbonate of lead Sulphate of baryta, sulphate of lead, chalk, &c. &c. "^^nSir ^*^°*'^^" } Sulphate of baryta, boneblack, &c. Cassia (senna) Leaves of Salenostemma argel, and other foreign leaves. Castor oil Other oils, often small quantities of croton oil. Cayenne Ground rice, vermilion, Venetian red, tmTneric. Champagne Gooseberry and other wines as a substitute, difi'tirent colouring- matters, &c. Cheese. Annatto, bole (Armenian), and other colouring-mattei'S. Chicory Colouring-matters, ,Euch as fer- ruginous earths and burnt sugar, Venetian red, &c. ; and different fiours, such as wheat, rye, beans, &c. ; and sometimes sawdust. Cider Lead (as an impurity, not inten- tional). Cigars Substitutions of hay and other rubbish, inferior tobaccoes, &c. Cinnamon Cassia, clove stalks, and different flours. Claret Bi-andy, and substitution of in- ferior wines. Cloves Clove stalks. Cocoa and cho- 1 Cheaper kinds of arrowroot, such colate j" as Tous-les-imois, Maranta, and East Indian, animal matter, corn, sago, tapioca, &c. ADTT (20) ADU Name. Nature of Adulteration, Coffee , Chicoiy, roasted wheat, lye flours, and colouring-matters, such as burnt sugar, &c. Cod-liver oil... Other oils mixed with it, Colooynth (ex- "i The extract is not uufrequently tract comp.),.. j made with the pulp and seeds. Confectionery Injurious colouring-matters, such asarsenite of copper, chromate of lead, &c. Confection, aro-") Expensive ingredients omitted, matic j* turmeric substituted for saffron, &G. &c. Copal G-um dammar, resin, &o. Curry powder Red-lead, ground rice, salt. Cuspariabark The bark of Strydinos mix vo- mica has been substituted. Custard and egg) Turmeric, chrome yellow, and powder y different flours. Elaterium Starch, flour, chalk, &c, Epsom salts Chloride of magnesium, chalky &c. Ether. Alcohol. Flour Other and inferior flours, as the flour i^'om rice, bean, Indian corn, potato, &c., sulphate of lime, alum. Gelatine Salt and sugar. Gin Water, sugar, flavouring-matters • of different kinds, turpentine, alum, tartar. Ginger. Turmeric and husks of mustard, flour from wheat, sago, &,c. Guaiacum resin Other resins. Honey. Flour, cane-sugar. Hops Cocculus Indicus, grains of para- dise, Ac. &c. Iodide of potash... Water, carbonate of potash, chlo- rides of soda and potash, iodate of potash, iodine, &c. Iodine Water, plumbago, charcoal, black oxide of manganese, &c. Xpecacuanha Other roots,' extraneous woody fibre ; also in powder, chalk, flour, &c., have been added. Isinglass Gelatine. Jalap.- Raspings of guaiacum, false jalap root, &c. Lard.,-. Carbonate of soda, salt, potato, flour, lime, Lemon juice ....A mixture of sugar-and-water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, has been substituted. Liquorice Rice, chalk, gelatine, and different flours. M^Enes^a(oxide) ) j^.j^^^ carbonate of magnesia. Magnesiacarb Lime, sulphate, &c. &c. Marmalade Apple or turnip pulp. Mercury Lead, tin, zinc, bismuth, &c. " ^dlde of" } ^^^ ^°^^^^ '^^ mercury. ' „ oxide of... ..Brick-dust, red-lead, &c. ,, white ) Chalk, carbonate Of lead, plaster- precipitate of..S of-Paris, Ac. &c. Milk Water. Mustard Turmeric, wheat flour. Myrrh.,.'. Gum bdellium, and other gum resins. Oatmeal Barley flour, rubble. Opium Stones, sand, clay, vegetable ex- tracts, sugar, treacle, water, &c, Pareira root Different roots substituted. Pepper Linseed - meal, different flours, mustard husks, £c. Pickles :.. Salts of copper, acetate of copper, &c. Porter and stout ..Sugar, treacle, water, and salt. Potash Carbonate, sulphate, and chloride of potash, lime, iron, and alu- mina, „ acetate of, ..Sulphates and chlorides of pot- ash. „ carbonate of. Sulphates and chlorides of potash. Name. Nature of Adulteration. P'"»='''"^''°°; } carbonate of potash. ,, citrate Sulphates of potash. „ chlorate of.. Chloride of potassium. ,, tartrate of.. .Tartrate of lime. ,, niti-ate of.. ..Sulphate or chloride of potash. Preserv.es.''. Salts of copper. Quinine Sulphate of lime, chalk, magnesiA, cane-sugar, sulphate of cincho- nine, &c. &c. .Rhubarb Turmeric, and inferior varieties substituted for Turkey. Rum Water, cayenne, burnt sugar. Sago Potato flour. Sauce Treacle, salt, cochineal, Armenian bole, and other colouring-mat- ters; Scammony Chalk, starch, guaiacum, jalap, dextrin, &c. Senega Ginseng, gillenia. Senna Leaves ot Cyanchum aroA. Sherry. Sulphates of potash, soda, brandy, burnt sugar, &c. Snuff. Carbonate of ammonia, glass, sand, colouring-matters, &c. ^°nate of^'''^''^°" } ^**'****°^'^ ^^^ sulphate of soda. Soda, carbonate of. Sulphate of soda. , , phosphate of. Phosphate of lime. Spices Colouring materials, substitu- tions, and different flours. Squills Wheat flour. Sugar Sand, flour, &c. Sulphur Sulphurous acid (as an impurity). Sulphiuric acid Lead, water, arsenic, hydrochloric acid. Tapioca...- Mixing inferior starches with the true tapioca. Tea Sand, iron filings,* exhausted tea leaves, foreign leaves ; and in green, teas, black-lead, Prussian blue, China clay. Tobacco Sometimes inferior tobacco mixed with good, water ; other adul- terations rare. Turmeric Yellow ochre, carbonate of soda or potash. ZTucB wtsi (bear-) Leaves of red whortleberry and berry leaves)...) others. Vinegar Sulphuric acid, and metallic im- purities. "Wines Water, jerupiga, bitartrate of potash, substitution of inferior wines, brandy, spirits, and various other matters. Zinc, oxide of. Chalk, carbonate of jnagnesia. The Sale of Food and Drugs Act has now taken tlie place of several Acts passed during the present century to prevent adulteration. There yet remains an Act prohibiting the mixture of Injurious ingredients with intoxi- cating liquors, and one or two statutes regu- lating trade frauds, as, for example, the Adulteration of Seeds Act, 1809. These Acts hiive not been incorporated in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act. SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS (38 & 39 Vict, c, 63). An Act to repeal ike Adulteration of Food Acts, and to tnaJce better provision for the Sale of Food and Drugs in a pure state. (11«A Augmt 1875). Whereas it is desirable that the Acts now in force relating to the adulteration of food should be re- _ * By " iron filings " is meant an earth strongly impregnated with iron ; it is without doubt a Chinese adulteration. See Tba. ADTT (21) ADU pealed, and that the law regarding the sale of food and drugs in a pure and genuine condition should be amended : Be it therefore enacted by the Queen's most Ex- cellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the liOrds Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this' present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : 1. Prom the commencement of this Act the statutes of the twenty-third and twenty-fourth of Tictoria, chapter eig-hty-four, of the thirty-first and thirty- second of Victoria, chapter one hundred and twenty- one, section twenty-four of the thirty-third and thirty-fourth of Tictoria, chapter twenty-six, section three; and of the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth of Vic- toria, chapter seventy-four, shall be repealed, except in regard to ^ny appointment made under them and not then determined, and in regard to any offence committed against them or any prosecution or other act commenced and not concluded or completed, and any payment of money then due in respect of any provision thereof. 2. The term "food" shall include every article used for food or drink by man, other than drugs or water ; The term " drug" shall include medicine for inter- nal or external use : The term "county" shall include every county, riding, and division, as well as every county of a city or town not being a borough : The term "justices" shall include any police and stipendiary magistrate invested with the powers of a justice of the peace in England and any divisional justices in Ireland. Description of Offences. 3. No person shall mix, colour, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, colour, stain, or powder, any article of food with any ingre- dient or material so as to render the article injurious to health, with intent that the same may be sold in that state, and no person shall sell any such article so mixed, coloured, stained, or powdered, under a penalty in each case not exceeding fifty pounds for the first offence ; every offence, after a conviction for a first offence, shall be a misdemeanour, for which the pei-son, on conviction, shall be imprisoned for a period not exceeding six months with hard labour. 4. No person shall, except for the purpose of com. pounding as hereinafter described, mix, colour, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, colour, stain, or powder, any drug with any ingredient or material so as to affect injuriously the quality or potency of such drug, with intent that the same may be sold in that state, and no person shall sell any such drug so mixed, coloured, stained, or powdered, under the same penalty in each case re- spectively as in the preceding section for a first and subsequent offence. 5. Provided that no person shall be liable to be convicted under either of the two last foregoing sec- tions of this Act in respect of the sale of any article of food, or of any drug, if he shows to the satisfac- tion of the justice or court before whom he is charged that he did not know. of the article of food or drug sold by him being so mixed, coloured, stained, or powdered as in either of those sections mentioned, and that he could not with reasonable diligence have obtained that knowledge. 6. No person shall sell to the prejudice of the pur- chaser any article of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance, and quality of the article demanded by such purchaser, under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds ; provided that an offence shall not be deemed to be committed under this sec- tion in the following cases ; that is to say — (1.) Where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been added to the food or drug because the same is required for the produc- tion or preparation thereof as an article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage or con- sumption, and not fraudulently to increase the bulk, weight, or measure of the food or drug, or conceal the inferior quality thereof ; (2.) Where the drug or food is a proprietary medi- cine, or is the subject of a patent in force, and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the patent ; (3.) Where the food or drug is compounded as in this Act mentioned ; (4.) Where the food or drug is unavoidably mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection or preparation. 7. No person shall sell any compound article of food or compounded drug which is not composed of ingredients in accordance with the demand of the purchaser, under a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. 8. Provided that no person shall be ^ilty of any such offence as aforesaid in respect of the sale of an article of food or a ding mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health, and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight, or measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of deli- vering such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the same a notice, by a label dis- tinctly and legibly written or printed on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is mixed. 9. No person shall, with the intent that the same may be sold in its altered state without notice, ab- stract from an article of food any part of it so as to affect injuriously its quality, substance, or nature, and no person shall sell any article so altered without making disclosure of the alteration, under a penalty in each case not exceeding twenty pounds. Appointment and Duti^ of Analysts, and Proceedings to obtain Analysis. 10. In the city of London and the liberties thereof the Commissioners of Sewers of the city of London and the liberties thereof, and in all other parts of the metropolis the vestries and district boards acting in execution of the Act for the better local manage- ment of the metropolis, the court of quarter sessions of every county, and the town council of every borough having a separate court of quarter sessions, or having under any general or local Act of Parlia- ment or otherwise a separate police establishment, may, as soon as convenient after the. passing of this Act, where no appointment has been hitherto made, and in all cases as and when vacancies in the ofhce occur, or when required so to do by the Local Go- vernment Board, shall, for their respective city, dis- tricts, counties, or boroughs, appoint one or more persons possessing competent knowledge, skill, and experience, as analysts of all articles of food and drugs sold within the said city, metropolitan districts, counties, or boroughs, and shall pay to such analysts ADU (22) ADU such remuneration as shall be mutually agreed upon, and may remove him or them as they shall deem proper ; but such appointments and removals shall at all times be subject to the approval of the Local Government Board, who may require satisfactory proof of competency to be, supplied to them, and may give their approval absolutely or with modifications as to the period of the appointment and removal, or otherwise : Provided that no person shall hereafter be appointed an analyst for any place under this sec- tion who shall be engaged directly or indirectly in any trade or business connected with the sale of food or drugs in such place. In Scotland the like powers shall be conferred and the like duties shall be imposed upon the commis- sioners of supply at their ordinary meetings for counties, and the commissioners or boards of police, or where there are no such commissioners or boards, upon the town councils for boroughs within their several jurisdictions; provided that one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State in Scotland shall be substituted for the Local Government Board of England. In Ireland the like powers and duties shall be conferred and imposed respectively upon the grand jury of every county and town council of every borough; provided that the Local Government Board of Ireland shall be substituted for the Local G-overnment Board of England. 11. The town council of any borough may agree that the analyst appointed by any neighbouring borough or for the county in which the borough is situated, shall act for their borough during such time as the said council shall think proper, and 'shall make due provision for the payment of his remuner- ation, aad if such analyst shall consent, he shall duiing such time be the analyst for such borough for the purposes of this Act. 12. Any purchaser of an article of food or of a drug in any place being a district, county, city, or borough where there is any analyst appointed under this or any Act hereby repealed shall be entitled, on payment to such analyst of a sum not exceeding ten shillings and sixpence, or if there be no such analyst then acting for such place, to the analyst of another place, of such sum as may be agreed upon between such person and the analyst, to have such article analysed by such analyst, and to receive from him a certificate of the result of his analysis. 13. Any medical officer of health, inspector of nuisances, or inspector of weights and measures, or any inspector of a market, or any police constable under the direction and at the cost of the local authority appointing such officer, inspector, or con- stable, or charged with the execution of this Act, may procure any sample, of food or drugs, and if he suspect the same to have been sold to him contrary to any provision of this Act, shall submit the same to be analysed by the analyst of the district or place for which he acts, or if there be no such analyst then acting for such place to the analyst of another place, and such analyst shall, upon receiving payment as is provided in the last section, with all convenient speed analyse the same, and give a certificate to such officer, wherein he shall specify the result of the analysis. 14. The person purchasing any article with the intention of submitting the same to analysis shall, after the purchase shall have been completed, forth- with notify to the seller or his agent selling the article his intention to have the 'same analysed by the public analyst, and shall offer to divide the article into three parts to be then and there separated, and each part to be marked and sealed or fastened up in such manner as its nature will permit, and' shall, if required to do so, proceed accordingly, and shall deliver one of the parts to the seller or his agent. He shall afterwards retain one of the said parts for future comparison, and submit the third part, if he deems it right to have the article anal;ysed, to the analyst. 15. If the seller or his agent do not accept the offer of the purchaser to divide the 'article purchased in his presence, the analyst receiving the article for analysis shall divide the same into two parts, and shall seal or fasten up one of those parts, and shall cause it to be delivered, either upon receipt of the sample or when he supplies his certificate to the purchaser, who shall retain the same for production in case proceedings shall afterwards be taken in the matter, 16. If the analyst do not reside within two miles of the residence of the person requiring the article to be analysed, such article may be forwarded to the analyst through the post office as a registered letter, subject to any regulations which the Postmaster- General may make in reference to the carrying and delivery of such article, and the charge for the post- age of such article shall be deemed one of the charges of this Act or of the prosecution, as the case may be.* 17. If any such officer, inspector, or constable, as above described, shall apply to purchase any article of food or any drug exposed to sale, or on sale by re- tail on any premises or in any shop or stores, and shall tender the price for the quantity which he shall require for the purpose of analysis, not being more than shall be reasonably requisite, and the person exposing the same for sale shall refuse to sell the same to such officer, inspector, or constable, such person shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds. 18. The certificate of the analysis shall be in the form set forth in the schedule hereto, or to the like effect. 19. Every analyst appointed under any Act hereby * The following regulations have been laid down by the Postmaster-General in regard to the convey- ance and delivery of such articles as are permitted by the Act to be forwarded to duly-appointed ana- lysts as registered letters through the post: Each packet must be addressed according to the official designation of the analyst, as " Public Analyst," or otherwise, and the nature of its contents must be stated on the front of the packet. Any postmaster at whose office a packet for a public analyst shall be tendered for registration may refuse to accept it for this purpose unless it be packed in so secure a man- ner as to render it at least unlikely that its contents will escape and injure the correspondence. Liquids for analysis shall be 6ontained in stout bottles or bladders, which shall be enclosed in strong wooden boxes with roui]^ded edges — the boxes being covered by stout wrappers of paper or cloth ; and no such package shall exceed 8 inches in length, 4 inches in width, or 3 inches in depth. No packet whatever addressed to a public analyst shall exceed the dimen- sions of 18 inches in length, 9 inches in width, or 6 inches in depth. The postage and registration fee on each packet must be prepaid. ADU (23) ADU repealed or this Act shall report quarterly to the authority appointing him the number ot, articles analysed by him under this Apt during th^ foregoing quarter, and shall specify the result of each analysis and the sum paid to him in respecc thereof, and such report shall be presented at the next meeting of the authority appointing such analyst, and every such authority shall annually transmit to the Local Go- vernment Board, at such time and in such form as the Board shall direct, a certified copy of such quar- terly report. Proceedings against Offenders. 20. When the analyst having analysed any article shall have given his certificate of the result, from which it may appear that an offence against some one of the provisions of this Act has been committed, th^ person causing the analysis to be made may take proceedings for the recovery of the penalty herein imposed for such offence^ before any justices in petty sessions assembled having jurisdiction in the place where the article or drug sold was actually delivered to the purchaser, in a summary manner. Every penalty imposed by this Act shall be recov- ered in England in the manner prescribed by the eleventh and twelfth of Victoria, chapter forty-three. In Ireland such penalties and proceedings shall be recoverable, and may be taten with respect to the police district of Dublin metropolis, subject and according to the provisions of any Act regulating the powers and duties of justices of the peace for such district, or of the police of such district ; and with respect to other parts of Ireland, before a justice or justices of the peace sitting in petty sessions, subject and according to the provisions of "The Petty Ses- sions (Ireland) Act, 1851," and any Act amending the same. Every penalty herein imposed may be reduced or mitigated according to the judgment of the justices. 21. At the heai'ing of the information in such proceeding the production of the certificate of the analyst shall be sufficient evidence of thefacts therein stated, unless the defendant shall require that the analyst shall be called as a witness, and the parts of the articles retained by the person who purchased the article shall be produced, and the defendant may, if he think fit, tender himself and his wife to be examined on ^is behalf, and he or she shall, if he so desire, be examined accordingly. 22. The justices before whom any complaint may be made, or the court before whom any appeal may be heard, under this Act may, upon the request of either party, in their discretion cause any article of food or drug to be sent to the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, who shall thereupon direct the chemical officers of tijejr department at Somerset House to make the analysis, and give a certificate to such justices of the result of the analysis ; and the expense of such analysis shall be paid by the com- plainant or the defendant as the justices may by order direct. 23. Any pei'son who has been convicted of any offence punishable by any Act hereby repealed or by this Act by any justices may appeal in England to the next general or quarter sessions of the peace which shall be held for the city, county, town, or place wherein such conviction shall have been made, provided that such person enter into a recognisance within three days next after such conviction, with two sufficient sureties, conditioned to try such appeal, and to be forthcoming to abide the judgment and determination of the court at such general or quarter sessions, and to pay such costs as shall be by such court awarded ; and the justices before whom such conviction shall be had are hereby em- powered and required to take such recognisance ; and the court at such general or quarter sessions are hereby required to hear and determine the matter of such appeal, and may award such costs to the party appealing- or appealed against as they or he shall think proper. ' In Ireland any person who has been convicted of any offence punishable by this Act may appeal to the next court of quarter sessions to be held in the same division of the county where the conviction shall be made by any justice or justices in any petty sessions district, or to the recorder at his next sessions where the conviction shall be made by the divisional jus- tices in the police district of Dublin metropolis, or to the recorder of any corporate or borough town when the conviction shall be made by any justice or justices in such corporate or borough town (unless when any such sessions shall commence within ten days from the date of any such conviction, in which case, if the appellant sees fit, the appeal may be made to the next succeeding sessions to be held for such division or town), and it shall be lawful,for such court of quarter sessions or recorder (as the case may be) to decide such appeal, if made in such form and manner and with such notices as are required by the said Petty Sessions Acts respectively hereinbefore men- tioned as to appeals against orders made by justices at petty sessions, and all the provisions of the said Petty Sessions Acts respectively as to making appeals and as to executing the orders made on appeal, or the original orders where the appeals shall not be duly prosecuted, shall also apply to any appeal made under this Act. 24. In any prosecution under this Act, where the fact of an article having been sold in a mixed state has been proved, if the defendant shall desire to rely upon any exception or provision contained in this Act, it shall be incumbent upon him to prove the same. 25. If the defendant in any prosecution under this Act prove to the satisfaction of the justices or court that he had purchased the article in question as the same in nature, substance, and quality as that demanded of him by the prosecutor, and with a written warranty to that effect, that he had no reason to believe at the time when he sold it that the article was otherwise, and that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he shall be discharged from the prosecution, but shall be liable to pay the costs incurred by the prosecutor, unless he shall have given due notice to him that he will rely on the above defence. 26. Every penalty imposed and recovered under this Act shall be paid in the case of a prosecution by any officer, inspector, or constable of the authority who shall have appointed an analyst or agreed to the acting of an analyst within their district, to such officer, inspector, or constable, and shall be by him paid to theauthorityfor whom he acts, and be applied towards the expenses of executing this Act, any statute to the contrary notwithstanding ; but in the case of any other prosecution the same shall be paid and applied in England according to the law regu- ADX7 (24) ADU lating the application of penalties for offences punish- able in a summary manner, and in Ireland in the manner directed by the Fines Act, Ireland, 1851, and the Acts amending the same, 27. Any person who shall forge, or shall utter, knowing it to be forged for the purposes of this Act, any certificate or any writing purporting to contain a warranty, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be punishable on conviction by imprisonment for a term of not exceeding two years with hard labour ; Every person who shall wilfully apply to an article of food, or a drug, in any proceedings under this Act, a certificate or warranty given in relation to any other article or drug, shall be guilty of an offence under this Act, and be liable to a penalty not ex- ceeding twenty pounds ; Every person who shall give a false warranty in writing to any purchaser in respect of an article of food or a drug sold by him as principal or agent, shall be guilty of an offence under this Act, an4 be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds ; And every person who shall wilfully give a label with any article sold by him which shall falsely describe the article sold, shall be guilty of an offence under this Act, and be liable to a penalty not ex- ceeding twenty pounds. 28. Nothing in this Act contained shall affect the power of proceeding by indictment, or take away any other remedy against any offender under this Act, or in any way interfere with contracts and bar- gains between individuals, and the rights and reme- dies belonging thereto. Provided that in any action brought by any person for a breach of contract on the sale of any article of food or of any drug, such person may recover alone or in addition to any other damages recoverable by him the amount of any penalty in which he may have been convicted under this Act, together with the costs paid by him upon such conviction and those incurred by him in and about his defence thereto, if he prove that the article or drug the sub- ject of such conviction was sold to him as and for an article or drug of the same nature, substance, and quality as that which was demanded of him, and that he purchased it not knowing it to be otherwise, and afterwards sold it in the same state in which he purchased it; the defendant in such action being nevertheless at liberty to prove that the conviction was wrongful, or that the amount of costs awarded or claimed was unreasonable. Expenses of Executing the Act, 29. The expenses of executing this Act shall be borne, in the city of London and the liberties thereof, by the consolidated rates raised by the Commission- ers of Sewers of the city of London and the liberties thereof, and in the rest of the metropolis by any rates or funds applicable to the purposes of tho Act for the better local management of the metropolis, and otherwise as regards England, in counties by the county rate, and in boroughs by the borough fund or rate ; And as regards Ireland, in counties by the grand jury cess, and in boroughs by the, borough fund or rate ; all such expenses payable in any county out of grand jury cess shall be paid by the treasurer of such county ; and The grand jury of any such county shall, a,t any assizes at which it is proved that any such expenses bare been incurred or paid without previous appli- cation to presentment sessions, present to be raised off and paid by such county the moneys required to defray the same. Special Provision as to Tea. 30. From and after the first day of January one thousand .eight hundred and seventy-six all tea im- ported as merchandise into and landed at any port in Great Britain or Ireland shall be subject to ex- amination by persons to be appointed by the Com- missioners of Customs, subject to the approval of the Treasuiy, for the inspection and analysis thereof, for which purpose samples may, when deemed neces- sary by such inspectors, be taken and with all con- venient speed be examined by the analysts to be so appointed; and if upon such analysis the same shall be found to be mixed with other substances or ex- hausted tea, the same shall not be delivered unless with the sanction of the said commissioners, and on such terms and conditions as they shall see fit to direct, either for home consumption or for use as ship's stores or for exportation ; but if on such in- spection and analysis it shall appear that such tea is in the opinion of the analyst unfit for human food, the same shall be forfeited and destroyed or otherwise disposed of in such manner as Gie said commissioners may direct 31. Tea to which the term " exhausted " is applied in this Act shall mean and include any tea which has been deprived of its proper quality, strength, or virtue by steeping, infusion, decoction, or other means. 32. For the purposes of this Act every liberty of a cinque port not comprised within the jurisdiction of a borough shall be part of the county in which it is situated, and subject to the jurisdiction of the justices of such county. 33. In the application of this Act to Scotland the following provisions shall have effect — (1.) The term "misdemeanour" shall mean "a crime or offence : " (2.) The term "defendant" shall mean "de- fender " and include " respondent : " (3.) The term "information" shall include "com- plaint:" (4.) This Act shall be read and construed as if for the term "justices," wherever it occurs therein, the term "sheriff'' were substituted : (5.) The term "sheriff" shall include "sheriff- substitute : " (6.) The term "borough" shall mean any royal burgh and any burgh returning or contributing to return a m.embeT to Parliament : (7.) The expenses of executing this Act shall be borne in Scotland, in counties, by the county general assessment, and in burghs, by the police assess- ment : (8.) This Act shall be read and construed as if for the expression "the Local Government Board," wherever it occurs therein, the expression " one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" were substituted : (9.) All penalties provided by this Act to be re- covered in a summary manner shall be recovered before the sheriff of the county in the sheriff court or at the option of the person seeking to recover the same in the police court, in any place where a sheriff officiates as a police magistrate under the provisions of "The Summary Procedure Act, 1861 " ADxr (25) AGxr or of the Police Act in force for the time in any place in which a Bheriff officiates as aforesaid, and all the jurisdiction, powers, and authorities necessary for this purpose are hereby conferred on sheriffs : Every such penalty may be recovered at the in- stance of the procurator fiscal of the jurisdiction, or of the person who caused the analysis to be made from which it appeared that an offence had been committed against some one of the provisions of this Act : Every penalty imposed and recovered under this Act shall be paid to the clerk of court, and by him shall be accounted for and paid to the treasurer of the county general assessment, or the police assess- ment of the burgh, as the sheriff shall direct : (10.) Every penalty imposed by this Act may be reduced or mitigated according to the judgment of the sheriff : (11.) It shall be competent to any person aggrieved by any conviction by a sheriff in any summary pro- ceeding under this Act to appeal against the same to the next circuit court, or where there are no circuit courts to the High Court of Justiciary at Edinburgh, in the manner prescribed by such of the provisions of the Act of the twentieth year of the reign of King George the Second, chapter forty- three, and any Acts amending the same, as relate to appeals in matters criminal, and by and under the rules, 'limitations, conditions, and restrictions con- tained in the said provisions. 34. In the application of this Act to Ireland — The term "borough" shall mean any borough subject to the Act of the session of the third and fourth years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter one hundred and eight, intituled "An Act for the Regulation of Municipal Corporations in Ireland : " The term "county" shall include a county of a city and a county of a town not b^ing a borough ; The term "assizes" shall, with respect to the county of Dublin, mean "presenting term:" The term "treasurer of the county" shall include any person or persons or bank in any county per- forming duties analogous to those of the treasurer of the county in counties, and, with respect to the county of Dublin, it shall mean the finance com- mittee : The term *' police constable" shall mean, with respect to the police district of Dublin metropolis, constable of the Dublin Metropolitan Police, and with respect to any other part of Ireland, constable of the Boyal Irish Constabulary. 35. This Act shall commence on the first day of October one thousand ei^ht hundred and seventy- five. 36. This Act may be cited as "The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875." Schedule. J'orm of Certificate. To* I, the undersigned, public analyst for the , do hereby certify that I received on the day of 18 , from f , « Here insert the name of the person submitting the article for analysis. t Here insfert the name of the person delivering the sample. a sample of for analysis (which then weighed * ), and have analysed the same, and deckle the result of my analysis to be as follows : — I am of opinion that the same is a sample of genuine or I am of opinion that the said sample contained the parts as under, or the percentages of foreign ingi'e- dients as under. Observations, f As witness my hand this A.B., day of Ague may be tjms defined : Febrile phe- nomena, occmring in paroxysms, and observ- ing a certain regular succession, character- ised by unnatural coolness, unnatural heat, and- unnatural cutaneous discharge, ■which prove a temporary crisis, and usher in a. re- mission. These phenomena are developed in an uninterrupted series or succession more or less regular, which pass into each other by insensible steps. It is a paludal fever, -which has always been observed to be the disease of marshy, moist districts, and to be most pre- valent in low, swampy, and humid countries, where seasons of considerable heat occur. The neighbourhood of marshes, or of a dis- trict which has been at some recent time under water; the banks of great lakes, and the shores of rivers and seas where the water flows sluggishly, and in some places stag- nates ; shallow rivers ; extensive flat tracts of wood, where moisture is constantly present, and the surface constantly exhaling humidity, — ^these are the terrestrial physical conditions in which paludal and littoral fevers are found to abound. It must be admitted though, that these diseases do not prevail in all marshy districts. The poison generated in these dis- tricts is absorbed, and affects the blood as cholera, typhus, and other miasmatic poisons do, 'No exact knowledge of the nature and source of this poison — which, in the absence of any better name, is known as mala/ria — has * When the article cannot be conveniently weighed, this passage may be erased, or the blank may be left unfilled. t Here the analyst may insert at his discretion his opinion as' to whether the mixture (if any) was for the purpose of rendering the article portable or palatable, or of preserving it, or of improving the appearance, or was unavoidable, and may state whether in excess of what is ordinary, or otherwise, and whether the ingredients or materials mixed are oi; are not injurious to health. In the case of a certificate regarding milk, btitter, or any article liable to decomposition, the analyst shall specially report whether any change had taken place in the constitution of the article that would interfere with the analysis. AGTT (26) AGTJ yet been obtained ; indeed, it has yet to be proved that malaria bas a substantial exist- ence. No poisonous principle has yet been chemically demonstrated in the air of ma- larious regions ; but the general impression is that malana exists in the form of a gaseous fluid in the atmosphere of certain regions. The fever may exist without any alteration of structure being set up ; but in the milder forms of this disease a greater number of organs and tissues are morbidly altered than ' perhaps in any 'other disease, as the liver, spleen, lungs, heairt, brain, and the serous and mucous membranes of the body generally. The specific action of the malarial poison, •within certain limits, may be said to be in the inverse ratio of the'intensity of the fever which attends its action. The affections of the liver and spleen also vary greatly ac- cording to the country, for in some parts of India the spleen is the ol-gau chiefly attacked, while in other districts it is the liver. Patients in this country generally , recover under medical treatment without any mani- fest derangement either of structure or of function of any organ or tissue. When, how- ever, long neglected, the .liver may suffer. Notwithstanding the opinion of Finke and Professor Colin, there appears to be consider- able ground for the supposition that ague may be caused by the drinking of marsh and surface water. Mr. Bettington of the Madras Civil Service, in an interesting essay (" Indian Annals," 1856, p. 526), says, "It is notorious that the water produces fever and affections of the spleen." Indeed, in that publication we find some remarkably strong evidence on this point. He refers to villages placed under the same conditions as to marsh-air, but in some of which fevers are prevalent, in others not, the only difference being that , the latter are siipplied with pure water, the former with marsh or mullah water, full of vegetable cUbris. In one village there are two sources of supply — a spring and a tank, fed by surface and marsh water. Those only who drink the tank-water are attacked by fever. And again, in TuUiwaree no one used to escape the fever. Mr. Bettington dug a well ; the fever disappeared, and during the last fourteen years has not reappeared. Similar facts have been noticed in this country. Mr. Blower of Bedford, twenty years ago, called attention to a case in which the ague of a village had been much lessened by digging wells ; and be refers to one instance in which, in the parish of Houghton, almost the only family which escaped ague at one time was that of a farmer who used well-water, while all the other persons drank ditch-water. At YersaiUes, a sudden attack of ague in a regiment of cavalry was traced to the use of surface-water taken from a marshy district. In the "Indian Annals," 1867, Dr. Moore gives his opinion that malarious disease may be thus produced; and M. Commaille has quite recently stated (Eec. de M6m. de M6d. Mil., Nov. 1868, p. 427) that in Marseilles paroxysmal fevers, formerly unknown, have made their appearance since the supply to the city has been taken from the canal of Mar- seilles. Dr. Townsend, the Sanitary Commis- sioner for the Central Provinces of India, teUs us, in his able report for 1870, that the natives have a current opinion that the use of river and tank water during rainy seasons (when the water always contains much vegetable matter) wiU almost certainly produce fever {i.e., ague). Boudin (Traits de Gfographie et de Statis- tictues M^dicales, 1857, t. i. p. 142) records an extremely strong and extraordinary case. 800 soldiers in good health embarked in three vessels to pass from Bona, in Algiers, to Mar- seilles, in the year 1834. They all arrived at MarseUles the same day^. In two vessels there were 680 men, without a single sick man. In the third vessel, the Argo, there had been 120 men (soldiers) ; 13 died during the short pas- sage, and of the 107 survivors no less than 98 were disembarked with all forms of paludal fevers. Boudin himself saw the men, so the diagnosis was doubtless correct. The crew of the Argo had not a single sick man. The crew and soldiers of all the boats were exposed to the same atmospheric conditions — the in- fluence of air must .therefore be excluded. There is no mention of food ; but it has never been suggested that food has ever been con- cerned in the production of malarious fever. The water was, however, very different: in two of the ships it was good, while the Argo had been supplied with marsh-water, which was both offensive to the smell and disagree- able to the taste. This was supplied to the soldiers, while the crew drank pure water. The evidence here appears particularly strong. Notwithstanding this. Professor Colin, well known for his researches on intermittent fever (De I'lugestion des Eaux Mar^cageuses comme Cause de la Dysenterie et des FiSvres Intenuittentes, par L. Colin, Paris, 1872) questions the production of paroxysmal fevers by marsh-water. He particularly calls atten- tion to numerous oases in Algiers and Italy, where impure marsh-water gives rise to indi- gestion, diarrhoea, and dysentery, but in no case to intermittent fever, and in all his obser- vations he has never met with an instance of such an origin of ague. He denies this power, and without contesting the celebrated case of the Argo, he views it with considerable suspi- cion, and questions whether Boudin has given AGU (27) AIR the exact details. Finke (Oesterleu's Handb. der Hygiene, 2d edit., 1857)_ also states that in Hungary and Holland marsh- water is daily taken without injury. — (Parkes. ) The inhalation of the fumes of oxide of zino appears to produce a variety of ague, termed by Thaokrah " brass ague," and by Dr. Green- how " brassfounders' ague," to which workers in this metal are subject. The symptoms are tightness and oppression of the chest, with in- definite nervous sensations, followed by shiver- ing, an indistinct hot stage, and profuse sweating. These attacks are not periodical. It may be doubted whether the malarious poison is in the form of a gas, for the observa- tions of microscopical observers show the ex- treme minuteness of the germs of disease : they are probably not more than Tahrx! "f ^^ i'^"!' in size, and it is highly probable that the real cause of ague is the entry into the blood of some low forms of spores of fungi, or of some minute animalcules. Ague is always to be found where fungi grow, and is always asso- ciated with great impurity of what Petten- kofer calls "the ground -air" — that is, the air contained in the interstices of the soil, no in- considerable volume of which is drawn into every house which has a fire on the floor which rests on the earth. That animalcules, &c., may exist in the blood is proved by the wonderful discovery by Dr. Lewis {see Filaeia) of hair- like worms in the circulation; and in consi- dering this point, we should bear in mind that the remedial agents employed to check ague — quinine, arsenic, &c. — are drugs capable of destroying animal life, and it is possible that they exercise a beneficial effect by destroying these spores or animalcules. Thorough and efficient drainage— and it must be remembered that drainage purifies both the ground-air and the ground-water — and good water, free from vegetable contamination, are the most satisfactory means employed to drive malarial fevers from a district ; and that these means may be employed with certainty of suc- cess is proved by the fact that during the last two hundred years cases of ague have in this country been greatly on the decrease, as good drainage has become more general and per- fect, and as— speaking generally— the supply of water to the houses has greatly improved, both in quality and quantity, so the number of patients suffering from paludal poisoning has steadily diminished. We are reminded of the pTevalenoe of inter- mittent fevers two centuries ago by the well- known words of Oliver Cromwell — himself a victim to ague — " Matrem pietJBsimam, fra- tres, sorores, servos, ancUlas, nutrices, oonduc- titias, quotquot erant intra eosdem nobisoum parietes, ac fere omnes ejusdem ao vicinorum pagorum incolas, hoc veneno infectos et de- cumbentes vidi." And when we remember that the country surrounding London in Crom- well's time was as marshy as the fens of Lin- colnshire, we cannot feel surprise at the extra- ordinary mortality from ague. See Maeshes, Fevbes, Malakias, &o. Air — It was long thought that air was an element, a, kind of ether, biit we now know that it is just as material as a bit of iron or lead; and the time may yet come when, by the aid of immense pressure and intense cold, the air may be condensed into a liquid. As yet it has, however, never been made visible, like carbonic acid gas, nitrous oxide, and some other gases. It is transparent, inodorous, and without colour. A cubic foot, at 60° F. and 30° Bar., weighs 536 '96 grains; a. litre, at the same temperature and pressure, weighs 1 '299100 grammes. Its average composition in England is as follows :— Oxygen Nitrogen Carbonic anhydride Aqueous vapoui' . Nitric acid AmmoDia • . , Carburetted hydrogen I Sulphuretted hydrogen t Sulphurous anhydride 20 61 77 95 •04 1-40 }• aces. Before entering upon a. description of each of these constituents, it will be well to consi- der a few of the properties of air, one of the most important of which is its power of pene- tration, and its universality. Air is indeed present everywhere ; there is' scarcely a solid, however compact it may appear to be, which does not contain pores, and these pores filled with air. The soil contains no small quantity ; indeed, if it were not so, the num- berless insects, worms, &c., which burrow in its interstices would cease to exist. The most compact mortar and walls are penetrated with it, and water of natural origin contains a large quantity of air in solution. . The atmosphere is supposed to extend to a very great height, from 200 to 300 miles'; it used to be consi- dered only five miles high, but observations on shooting-stars, &c., show that this opinion is erroneous. Owing to the force of gravity, the air is much denser near the earth, and gets more attenuated, layer by layer, as you ascend. If, then, the atmosphere were possessed of colour, it would be very dark just round the globe, and the tint would gradually fade into space. The air is by no means wholly gaseous; it contains, indeed, an immense amount of life, and small particles derived from the whole creation. In the air may be found ani- AIR (28) AIR maloulea, spores, seeds, pollen, cells of all kinds, yibriones, elements of contagia, eggs of insects, &c., aiid a few fungi, besides formless dust, sandy and other particles of local origin ; for e±ample, no one can ride in a railway car- riage without being accompanied with dust, a great portion of which is attracted by a mag- net, and is, indeed, minute particles of iron derived from the rails. The purest air has some dust in it.' There probably never fell n beam of light from the sun since the world was made which did not show, were there eyes to see it, myriads of motes ; these, however, generally speaking, are quite inno- cuous to man (see Dust) — some, indeed, may possibly be beneficial. Another most impor- tant property of air is its mobility; on the calmest day, and in the quietest room, there are constant currents of air which rapidly dilute any noxious odours or gases. Oxygen. — The uniformity of the actual amount of oxygen in the air of different places , is remarkable. Normal air contains 20'96 of oxygen in 100 parts, and any differences that may exist in various ocalities are almost always, when analysed by accurate chemists, to be found in the second decimal place. For example, Eegnault analysed the following specimens : — 20-999 20-966 20-993 100 from Paris from 20-913 to 9 „ Lyons and around » 20-918 „ 30 „ Berlin 20 908 „ 10 „ Madrid . 20-916 „ 23 „ Geneva and Switzer land . 20-909 „ 15 ,, Toulon and Mediter ranean 20-912 „ 5 ,, Atlantic Ocean ' 20-918 „ 1 ,, Ecuador . 2 „ Fichincha M 20-949 „ Mean of all foregoing . 20-949 ,, of the Paris specimens 20-96 Nitrogen. — This gas is one of the most in. different of the elements ; while oxygen, to which it is united, is one of the most energetic. It is generally considered to be a mere dilutant of the oxygen, and to serve the purpose of moderating its action both on combustion and life. The average amount of nitrogen is 79 "00 per 100 in normal air. Ca/rbomc Acid (see AoiD, Cabbonio).— This gas, theoretically speaking, is not a con- stituent of normal air, but the actual fact is that it nearly always exists in minute propor- tions eVen in the best air ; and if we think of the sources of this gas, the reason of its pre- sence is obvious. The processes of respiration, combustion, and decay of vegetable and other organic matter, besides other less obvious and less constant sources, are continually, though silently, eyolving it. The following examples of carbonic acid gas in pure air are compiled from Dr. Angus Smith's classical work on " Air and Kain : " — . Per cent. Mean of 18 analyses, by Saussure, on the Lake of Geneva . . . '0439 Mean of 18 analyses, by Saussure, at Chambeisoy -0460 It appears from De Saussure's analyses that there is more carbonic acid on the mountains than in the plains. Name of Mountais. ^a _ La D0I6 1267 877 331 1267 908 945 963 ■0461 -0567 -0544 -0491 -0481 •0413 •0443 -0454 -0369 •0360 -0422 •0395 •0474 Grand Saleve-3ur-Crevin Hermitage (Petit Saleve) LaDoft •0482 •0482 ■0446 Vasserode E0us-la-Dol6. . Grand Saleve - sur -) Grange, Tournier...{ •0446 ( -0367 1 -0359 ■0414 •0415 ■0387 ■0322 •0355 •fi315 In towns the carbonic acid varies, but is generally higher than in open places. Air of Madrid outside the walls. Mean of 12 analyses, by Luna Mean of 12 analyses within the walls of Madrid, by Luna The mean of 14 analyses, by Angus Smith, in Manchester (suburbs) .... In Manchester streets — Usual weather During fogs About middens, of which there are thousands (Manchester) Mean of carbonic acid in London streets (Angus Smith) 051 -0403 ■0679 ■03S0 In close places in London, the mean of 18 experiments by Dr. Angus Smith give "1288 per cent. His highest number is '320; his lowest, '040. • In Leicester — FsTcenfc. Case of overcrowding, with three gaslights (Weaver) -628 Crowded girls' schoolroom (Pettenkofer) . ^723 In a stable, ^cole Militaire ....•? Carbonic acid is of great interest in a sanitary point of view, as it is quickly and readily estimated, and is an indu-ect measure of the purity of the air. The reason for which is pretty obvious, since the carbonic acid which the sanitary oflcer tests for is almost invari- ably derived from respiration, and therefore accompanied .with organic matters derived AtB (29) AIR from the Inngs and skin. In fact, a consider- able quantity of carbonic acid gas is breathed by workers in certain manufactories, e.g., soda-water, &c., without injury, although in large quantities, and undiluted, it ia rapidly fatal ; while comparatively speaking small quantities in theatres, assembly-rooms, and other places, where human beings are crowded together, have a very depressing effect, be- cause there are other impurities in the air. Ozone. — This is generally considered to be an aUotropic form of oxygen. Three atoms of oxygen are condensed into one molecule, as is represented by the formula O5. It exists ■ in variable quantity in the air, and probably is of some importance. For fuU details and tests, see Ozone. The Air of TownshAs generally traces of sul- phuric, hydrochloric, sulphuretted, and other acids, derived from combustion and different manufactories, besides a considerable quantity of suspended particles of carbon-dust, derived from traffic and emanations from humanbeings. The air, even of small towns, has more organic matter than country-places (see Ratn-'Watee, Analysis of), which is easily shown by estimating the ammonia and albuminoid am- monia in air. The carbonic acid is of course increased. The oxygen is decreased, but ordy to a small amount. For example, the mean of the 22 analyses by Dr. A. Smith of the worst places in Perth gave 20 "938 ; while on the sea- shore and the heath the mean of several ana- lyses gave 20'999. Odorous particles of all kinds are more common in towns. The Air of the Country and Open Places .varies a little, according to elevation, vegeta- tion, whether populated or not, &o. But the general result is that the oxygen is greater, and the carbonic acid less, than in towns, while the air is free from- the acid emanations and carbon so copiously poured out from towns. Of all places, heaths and mountains, as would be expected, possess the best and purest 'air. Dr. Angus Smith's analysis of mountain- ous districts in Scotland gave a mean of 20-94 oxygen, while the carbonic acid of the same mountains, taken, however, at a different time, gave -0331. Dr. Pietra-Santa observes that the air of hills or mountains, at the height of 2300 feet, is lighter than common air, contains in equal volume a smaller proportion of oxygen, and is impregnated with a more considerable amount of aqueous vapour ; it also contains a good deal of ozone. He considers such a climate pecuUarly soothing to persons suffer- ing from certain maladies, such as chest Tlie Aw of Mines.— The greatest variety of atmosphere occurs in mines, the quality of the air rapgingfrom that of fair purity to that of excessive contanoination by gases, dust, and smoke. Dr. Angus Smith made 339 analyses of the air of mines. Of these, 38 had the normal amount of oxygen. The mean of the 38 normal specimens was 20"94 oxygen. The mean of 31 normal specimens in which the carbonic ^id was estimated was "083. The mean of the whole 393 specimens was 20 "26 per cent, oxygen; carbonic acid, "785. The highest oxygen found was 21*04 per cent. ; the lowest was 18"27 per cent. The least car- bonic acid found was "02 per cent. ; the greatest number for carbonic acid was 273 per cent. The analyses were divided into three groups — those that showed the air normal, or nearly so ; those that were decidedly impure j and those that were exceedingly impure : — Fercout. The first class, or normal, gave the carbonic acid 10*67 The second class .... 24-69 The third „ . . . 34 63 Thus it may be seen that the air of mines varies from comparative purity to intense pollution ; for besides the impurities from respiration, the combustion of lamps, &c., in most mines there are nearly always blasting operations, which, when gunpowder is used, disengage clouds of dust from the rock, besides its own solids and gases. For example, 12 ounces (240 grammes) of gunpowder exploded will give as Litres. 34-5799 26-9969 2-6473 •7944 •3939 •3414 6.'>6S38 Litres. 144-710 43-311 11-189 7-296 1-049 12-751 2-494 •466 9-790 Carbonic acid Nitrogen Carbonic oxide . Hydrogen . Sulphuretted hydrogen Oxygen As solids — Sulphate of potash Carbonate of potash . Hyposulphite of potash Sulphide of potassium Sulphocyanide of potassium Nitrate of potassium . Carbon charcoal Sulphur Carbonate of ammonia 233 056 These gases and matters are aU at times breathed by the miners, besides the dust of arsenic and other metals. See Mines. TheEffects of Impure Air.— T!heamoxmi of air inhaled and exhaled by an adult in the twenty- four hours averages 360 cubic feet, or 2000 gallons. This forms in amount a great contrast to what we take in the shape of liquid or solid, which does not amount to more than 5J pints. Ant (30) AIB •wHieh is equal to ^^ of the volume of air passing through the lungs. It -will bs readily understood, after these figures, the impor- tance of pure air, and how minute differences in composition are really of great importance, since the lungs act, a^ it were, as immense strainers or filters, and catch the floating par- ticles, while they rapidly absorb deleterious gases. I The amount of air required by each person in a room is no less than 2100 feet per hour. When the ventilation does not allow of this constant change, it smells stuffy, the furniture becomes coated with a film of organic matter unless constantly cleaned, and the car- bonic acid becomes increased to more than its normal amount. The effect of constantly breathing impure air necessarily varies as to its state of pollu- tion and other circumstances. When the im- purity is moderate, the first effect is headache, lassitude, and k general paleness of the face and skin, owing to a diminution of the red globules -of the blood. If the food is insuffi- cient, other evils, such as scrofula and con- sumption, are very common. For instance, Dr. Guy showed the great mortality ^from con- sumption in those trades in which workmen pursued their calling in hot, close, gas-lit rooms, in comparison to those who passed most of their time in the open air. ■ If the air is vitiated to a large extent, it is quickly fatal, not alone probably from the carbonic acid ejihaled, but from the exhalation from the skin and lungs. In the Black Hole of Calcutta, as weU as in the case of the Aus- trian prison after the battle of Austerlitz, where 260 out of 300 prisoners died rapidly, the symptoms were rather those of blood- poisoning than anything else. There was great fever, restlessness, -and eruptions and boils appeared among the survivors. The effect of impure air is not alone seen on man, but also on animals. Cows, horses, and sheep, if penned up in close stables or outhouses, show a great mortality from phthisis and other diseases. The effect of dust in air, affecting the work- men employed in various arts, will be con- sidered under Dust. Analysis of the Air.~Foi health purposes ■much information may be obtained on the composition of the air from chemical examina- tion of the rainfall of the different parts of a district, for the rain washes down the impuri- ties in the air to the ground as -it descends. See Eain. The ordinary analysis of air embraces the estimation of the following constituents : oxy- gen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, aqueous vapour, and ammonia. Aqueous Vapour, DeterminaUon of. — To determine the water, an aspirator must be used. They are easily made, and not expen- sive.- The above is a diagram of the arrange- ment generally adopted (fig.' 2). u, is an aspirator made of galvanised iron or sheet zinc. It holds from 50 to 100 litres. A known volume of air by this means is drawn through the tubes marked 6, c, d, e, which may be filled with pumice - stone, moistened with strong sulphuric acid; but if the carbonic acid is to be estimated as well, b and c are AIB (31) AIR filled "with moist hydrate of lime (potash used to be employed, but hydrate of lime is to be pre- ferred, as the potash absorbs oxygen as well), and d and e as above. Each of the tubes is ac- curately weighed previous to connecting them with the apparatus. It is obvious that each of the tubes must be connected by perfectly air-tight joints. They are usually coated with sealing-wax. The gain of weight in d, e gives the water, in i and c, the carbonic acid. " Carbonic Aeid. — For the exact determina- tion of the carbonic acid the following method, known as Pettenfcofer's, is better. It may be shortly defined as follows : Baryta- water of definite strength is prepared and accurately standardised by a standard solution of oxalic acid. A portion of this baryta-water is then made to act upon a definite quantity of air. It will absorb the whole of the carbonic acid in that air. In consequence, the alkalinity of the liquid will be diminished ; it will take less of the oxalic acid solution than before, which shows so much less caustic baryta, and from which the carbonic acid absorbed may be easily calculated. The Actual Analysis. — Two kinds of bar3rta- water may be used, the one containing 7 grm. to the litre, the otherthree tifiies that strength. 1 CO. of the stronger = 3 mgrms. of carbonic acid, 1 c.c. of the weaker, 1 mgrm. The baryta- water is best kept in the bottle represented in fig. 3. Fig. 3, The bottle a contains the baryta-water. It has an accurately-fitting double-perforated caoutchouc stopper. The left-hand tube is connected with tube 5, containing pumice- stone, moistened with potash, while the right- hand one is a siphon. When required for use, the stopcock / is opened, and suction applied by a glass tube to F. The siphon is thus filled, and the stopcock closed. If a pipette is re- quired to be filled, its nozzle is inserted at F, the stopcock compressed, and the fluid imme- diately rises into the pipertte. The air entering the bottle as the fluid decreases in o is of course thoroughly deprived of its carbonic acid by the tubes at b. The first thing to be done is to standardise the baryta solution by a solution of oxalic acid, containing 2'8636 grammes of crystallised oxalic acid to the litre. (See AoiD, Oxalic.) Thirty 0.0. of baryta solution are run into a small flask, and the oxalic acid run in from a Mohr's burette with float, the vanishing-point of the alkaline reaction being ascertained by delicate turmeric paper. As soon as a drop placed on turmeric paper does not give a brown ring the end is attained. The actual analysis is performed by filling a bottle of known capacity, with the aid of a pair of bellows, with the air to be analysed, then distributing over its sides 45 0.0. of the AIR (32) AIB baryta-water, it is left for lialf an hour. The turbid water is poured into a cylinder, closed securely, and allowed to deposit ; then take out 30 cc, by *a pipette, of the clear fluid, run in the solution of oxalic acid, multiply the volume used by 1'5, and deduct the produce from the cc. of oxalic acid used for 45 c. c. of the fresh baryta- water. A differ- ent method to this has been suggested by Dr. Angus Smith — viz., tp measure the carbonic anhydride by the turbidities of the baryta- water ; in fact, a colorimetric test, as it were. Lastly, Mr. "Wanklyn hassuggested the follow- ing methodj which is probably the simplest of aU:— A solution of carbonate of soda is first made as follows : 4-47 grammes of gently-ignited carbonate of soda are dissolved in one litre of water, giving a solution of such a strength that one cubic centimetre contains exactly one cubic centimetre of carbonic acid (=1-97 milligrammes of COj), alarge quantity baryta- water (strength about 0*1 p'er cent.) is prepared. If now 100 cubic centimetres of clear baryta- water be treated with one cubic centimetre of car- bonate of soda just described^ a certain degree of turbidity is produced. If two cubic centimetres of the solution be taken, another degree of turbidity is produced, and so on. If then a bottle capable of holding 2000 cubic centimetres of air, together with 100 cilbic centim-etres of baryta-wa,ter, be filled with the sample of air to be tested, there will be a certain depth of turbidity produced in shaking up. Having got the air to expand itself on 100 cubic centimetres of baryta-water, the degree is to be found by comparison with another 100 cubic centimetres of baryta-water in which a like turbidity has been in- duced by means of the standard solution of carbonate. Every cubic centimetre of soda solution counts for a cubic centimetre of carbonic acid in two litres of air. A consumption of one cubic centimetre will cor- respond to O'Od volumes of carbonic acid per cent. Good air should accordinf^y not take more than one cubic centimetre of the soda solution : air which takes two cubic centimetres being already bad. In order practically to execute this determination of carbonic acid, the following apparatus is required': Several bottles capable of holding 2*210 cubic centi- metres, and well stoppered (failing bottles of exactly the right capacity, "Winchester quart bottles will answer) ; a small pair of bellows ; several colourless glass cylinders marked at 100 cubic centimetres capacity. The nesslerising cylinders will answer for this purpose. A graduated pipette or burette to deliver tenths of a cubic centimetre of solution; the standard solution of carbonate of soda and the baryta-water, which may be of moderate strength. The testing is managed thus : ' Winchester quart bottles having been marked clean, are rinsed with distilled water, and allowed to drain a little. They are then closed with their stoppers, and are ready for use. The operator having provided himself with two or three of these bottles, and a small pair of bellows, enters the room, the air of which is to be tested. , The stopper is then removed from one of the bottles, and some air of the room blown through with the bellows, and then the stopper is replaced, and the bottle carried away to be tested. The testing is done by pouring into the bottle 100 cubic, centimetres of clear baryta-water, shaking up for two or three minutes, and then pouring out into a cylinder of colourless glass, and observing the depth of turbidity in various lights, and against varioijis backgrounds. The turbidity is to be exactly imitated by means of the standard solution of car- bonate of soda. In order to imitate the turbidity pro- duced by aWinchester quart full of good air, only one cubic centimetre of this solution of carbonate of soda is required. If two cubic centimetres, or more than two are required, the air is bad, and the ventilation is de- fective. In place of the first cubic centimetre of solution of carbonate of soda, the carbonic acid natu- rally present in a Winchester quart of good average air may be used, and a little practice and intelligence will suggest the necessary precautions. For rough everyday work the process of Angus Smith is extremely useful. It depends upon the fact that the amount of carbonic acid in a given quantity of air will not produce a precipitate in a certain given quantity of lime or baryta water, unless the carbonic acid is in excess. The following is one of his tables. Columns 1 and 2 give the rates of carbonic acid in the quantity of air which will produce no precipitate in half an ounce of lime-water. Column 3 is the same as column 2 ; but 14*16 cc. (half an ounce) is added to give the cor- responding size of bottle, and column 4 gives the size of the bottle in oimces : — To be used when the point of observation is "No precipitate." Half an ounce, of baryta-water, con- taining about '08 gramme baryta. Air at 0° C, and 760 millims. Bar. Carbonic Acid Volume of Air Size of Bottle Size of Bottle in the All in Cubic in Cubic in Ounces per cent. Centimetres. Centimetres. Avolrdupola. •OS ' 185 199 7-06 04 139 164 6-42 05 111 125 4-44 06 03 107 3-78 OT 79 93 3-31 08 70 ■ 84 2-96 09 62 76 2-69 10 66 70 2-46 11 51 65 2-29 12 46 60 2-14 13 43 67 2 01 14 40 54 1-90 15 87 61 1-81 20 28 42 1-48 25 22 36 1-29 30 19 33 116 40 14 28 1-04 SO 11 25 '89 60 9 23 '83 70 8 22 •78 80 7 21 •75 90 6 20 •72 ^ 1-ou 6-5 19-7 '70 Oxygen. — The method employed by Angus Smith, in hia numerous analyses of the ^, AIU (33) AIK ■was that of explosion. Bunsen's eudiometers were used, five or six of them at once, and exploded by a large battery and Enhmkoff's coil ; he preferred it to Liebig's method given below, as more expeditious, and perhaps more accurate. The following are the principles of the former method (Miller's Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 53) : " By means of the eudiometer various gaseous mixtures may be analysed with great exactness. Many different forms of this instrument are in use. One of the most con- venient is Hoffmann's. It consists of a stout siphon tube (fig. 4). Into the sides of the tube, near the sealed end, two platinum wires, a, h, are fixed for the purpose of transmitting an electric spark through the cavity of the tube. The sealed limb is accurately gradu- ated to tenths of a cubic centimetre, or other 1 Fig. 4. suitable divisions. Suppose it is desired to ascertain the proportion of oxygen in atmos- pheric air : The instrument is first filled with mercury, after which a small quantity of air is introduced; the bulk of this air is accu- rately measured; taking care that the liquid metal stands at the same level in both tubes, which is easily effected by adding mercury, or by drawing off the mercury, if needed, through the caoutchouc tube which is fixed upon the small inlet tube, just above the bend, and which is closed by means of a screw tap c. A quantity of pure hydrogen, about equal in bulk to the air, is next introduced, and the bulk of the mixture is again accurately mea- sured. The open extremity of the tube is now closed with a cork, below which a column of atmospheric air is safely included. This portion of air acts as a spring which gradually checks the explosive force, when the com- bination is effected by passing a spark across the tube by means of the platinum wires. The mixture is then exploded by the electric spark. The remaining gas now occupies a smaller volume, owing to the condensation of the steam which has been formed. Mercury is, therefore, again poured into the open limb, until it stands at the same level in both tubes, and the volume of the gas is measured a third time. One-third of the reduction of bulk experienced by the gas will represent the entire volume of oxygen which the mixture contained." Liebig's method is as follows. It is based upon the fact that an alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid absorbs oxygen: — 1. A strong measuring tube holding 30 o.c, and divided into i ot -f^ c.c. is filled to i with the air intended tor analysis. Ihe remaining part of the tube is filled with mercury, and the tube is inverted over that fluid in a tall cylinder widened at the top. 2. The volume of air confined is measured — a quantity of solution of potassa of 1'4 sp. gr. (1 part of dry hydrate of potassa to two parts of water), amounting to from ^5 to ^ , of the volume of the air, is then in- 1 troduced into the measuring tube by \ means of a pipette with the point bent upwards (fig. 5), and spread over the entire inner surface of the tube by shaking the latter. When no further diminution of volume takes place, the decrease is read off. The carbonic acid is thus removed. 3. A solution of pyrogaUic acid, containing 1 gramme of the acid in 5 or 6 c.c. of water, is introduced into the same measuring tube by means of another pipette similar to the above. The mixed fluid (the pyrogallic acid and solution of po- tassa) is spread over the inner sur- face of the tube by shaking the latter, and, when no further diminution of volume is ob- served, the residuary nitrogen is measured. 4. The solution of pyrogallic acid, mixing with the solution of potassa, of course dilutes it, causing thus an error from the diminution of its tension ; b'ut this error is so trifling that it has no appreciable influence upon the results. It may, besides, be readily corrected by introducing into the tube, after the absorption of the oxygen, a small piece of hydrate of potassa, corresponding to the amount of water in the solution of the pyrogallic acid. 5. There is another slight error on account of a portion of the fluid adhering to the inner surface of the tube, so that the volume of the gas is never read off with absolnte accuracy. It is unnecessary to add that the usual cor- rections for temperature, pressure, &c., must be made. C u rig. 5. ALB (34) ALC Nitrogen. — The nitrogen is usually deter- mined by subtracting the ^queous vapours, oxygen and carbonic acid, from the volume of air examined, and if the foregoing principles have been accurately determined, the sources of error are immaterial. The Ammonia and Organic Matter are beat f'etermined by drawing a known volume of air through absolutely pure water, water, i.e. , free from organic matter and ammonia. To obtain this, it is best to redistil distilled water, reject- ing the first portions, then adding an alkaline solution of permanganate, and rejecting any portions of the distillate which give the least trace of colour to the Kessler test ; the water through which the air is drawn should be kept cool, and afterwards submitted to the process described under Wateb Analysis. Solid bodies, such as vibriones, germs, fungi, dust, &c., may be obtained by using an aspir- ator, and drawing the air either through a, drop of glycerine or water.. Organic matter may also be obtained by suspending glass vessels filled with iced water over or in the places to be investigated and submitted to the microscope. High powers, such as immer- sion lenses, are requisite for the investigation of germs, &c. See also Cliu ATE, &c. Albumen — This word literally means white of egg, which is its most convenient source. It is a nitrogenous substance of highly complex chemical composition, existing in large quantity in all animal bodies, in eggs, in certain vegetables, especially carrots, tur- nips, cabbages, green stems of peas, and olea- ginous seeds. There are slight but marked differences in most of the albumens found natu- rally. The albumen of the egg, the albumen in the blood, the albumen found in the urine of persons suffering from disease, and vege- table albumen, all exhibit a slight difference in their reactions ; probably they are all united withbases,andare albuminates. Purealbumen, as obtained by precipitating white of egg with hydrochloric acid, dissolving the precipitate in water, then again precipitated by chloride of ammonium, and when freed from fat by alcohol and ether, has a slight 'acid reaction in solution, is tasteless and colourless, and exerts a left-handed rotatory power on polar- ised light. Its oonjposition, according to Lie- berkuhn, is as follows : — Carbon Hydrogen . Nitrogen . Oxygen . Sulphur . 63-3 71 16-7 221 18 100 addition of a very minute portion of caustic soda or potash, it readily dissolves. It is also soluble in a strong solution of nitrate of potash. When submitted to distillation, firsj with hydrate of potash, and then with an alkaline solution of permanganate of potash, the albu- men of hen's egg gives in every 100 c.c. — Ammonia to Hydrate of Fotasll. 0*32 gramme. Ammonia . by Fennanganate of Potasll. 1-30 gramme. There is considerable difficulty in dissolving absolutely pure albumen in water, but with an A hundred parts of dry albumen give about ten parts of NH3. One of the most remarkable properties of albumen is its coagulation by heat ; this takes place at a temperature varying from 145° to 165° F. It is then white and opaque, and when dried, homy and brittle. Albumen in solution gives precipitates with most acids (except acetic and phosphoric), with corrosive sublimate, and many other metallic salts, and alcohol. Uses. — It is of great value as an article of diet ; it is employed in photography as a var- nish, and has various other uses, such as a clarifler for wines, syrups, &c. ; and for fixing the colours in calico-printing, in the prepara- tion of gloves, &c. Prepa/ration, — In France it is prepared on some considerable scale at the abattoirs, by separating it from the blood of slaughtered animals, and spreading it in thin layers to dry. See Food. Albuminates in Food— 5ee Food. Albuminose — The pepsin of the gastric juice, acting in presence of an acid, turns nearly every description of animal and fibrinous matter into a liquid called albuminose by Mialhe, but by Lehmann peptone. It differs from albumen in the following impor- tant particulars : it is not coagulable by heat, and the slight precipitate which falls upon the first addition of an acid is di8S9lved in an excess of acid ; it does not easily decompose, and is capable of dialysis, i.e., transudation through animal merfibrane. See Food. Albuminous Matters of Food — See Food. Albuminuria, after Bathing — See Bath. Alcohol — The term alcohol, in its ordi- nary acceptation, means the volatile, inflam- mable spirituous liquid which is the intoxicat- ing principle of wines, beers, and spirits ; but in a chemical sense it is applied to all neutral compounds of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, which by the action of acids form ethers. ALC (35) ALO TABLE exhibiting the Pboperties of the Pbincieal Alcohols. Alcohols. Formula. Specific Gravity. ^1 BoiUng-Point. Liquid. Vapour. rahr. Cent. 1. Wood spirit, or me- thylio alcohol 2. Spirit of -wine, or ethylic alcohol 3. Tritrylic or propylio .. 4. Tetrylio or bntylic .... 5. Fusel oil, or aniy- Hc CH4O CsHeO CsHsO C4H10O C5H12O C6H14O CjHieO CsHisO CigHaeO CI8H34O C27H58O CaoHeaO 0-798 ■ 0.7938 0-817 0-8032 0-8184 0-833 0-819 0-823 1-12 1-6133 2-02 2-589 3-147 3-53 4-5 16 23 30 37 44 51 58 65 149-9 173- 206- 233- 269-6 299-309 351- 356- 65-5 'rs-3 96-7 111-7 132-0 148-154 176-7 180-0 6. Hexylio or caproio 7. Heptylic 8. Octylic or caprylio .... 16. Ethalorcetylic 27. Cerotin or cerylic 30. Melissinor meUisylic. Each term of the series becomes denser, bo that at one end we have a light volatile fluid, and at the other a waxy-looking solid. Ordinary vinous alcohol (the second in the table) is the most important. It is forhied during the fermentation of the saccharine principles contained in the fruits, stalks, or roots of certain plants, especi&lly the raisin, the sugar-cane, the red-beet, the cereals, the potatoes, and other amylaceous substances. It is most usually obtained from malt. When perfectly pure, and unmixed with water, it is called absolute alcohol; when mixed with 16 per cent, of water, it is called rectified spirit ; when -with 51 per cent, of water, proof -spirit. Absolute Alcohol is a most powerful solvent of alkaloids, volatUe oils, iodine, and its speciSc gravity should be 0-795. Its purity is easily as- certained. A small portion of the liquid should be digested on common salt, which should be insoluble in it. If any dissolves, there is water with the alcohol. It should not become cloudy on the addition of water ; it should be entirely volatilised with heat, lea-ving no stain behind, and should not give a blue colour with anhy- drous sulphate of copper. If all these tests are satisfactory, the liquid is free from oily matters and other impurities. Sectified Spirit should be of the specific gravity 0-838. If of any other specific gravity, the amount of water present can be seen by the table. On applying a light to a small portion, when pure, it burns with a pale-blue flame, without smoke ; it does not give a red colour with sulphuric acid. Four fluid oimces, to which half a grain of crystallised nitrate of silver in solution has been added, on exposure for twenty-four hours to a bright light, and then decanted from the black powder which forms, undergoes no further change. The proportion of alcohol to water, in any mixture of pure spirit and water, may easily be ascertained by taking the specific gravity, and referring to the following^Sble; — PROPORTION of Absolute Alcohol by Weight in 100 parts of Spirit of different specific gravities at 60° F. (15-5 C.) Alcohol Specific • Alcohol Specific Alcohol Specific Alcohol Specific per cent. aravity. per cent. Gravity. per cent. Gravity. per cent. Gravity. 1-0000 9 ■9855 19 •9728 29 •9593 0-5 •9991 io ■9841 20 •9716 30 •9578 1 •9981 11 ■9828 21 •9704 31 •9560 2 ■9965 12 ■9815 22 •9691 32 •9.544 3 ■9947 13 ■9802 23 •9678 33 •9528 4 •9930 14 •9789 24 •9665 34 •9511 5 •9914 15 •9778 25 •9652 35 •9490 6 ■9898 16 •9766 26 ■9638 36 •9470 7 ■9884 17 •9753 27 •9623 37 •9452 8 ■9869 18 •9741 28 •9609 38 •9434 ALO (36) ALC PEOPOETION of Absolute AiOOHOL by Weight in 100 parts of Spirit of different specific gravities at 60 F. (15'5 0.)—co»Mmied. Alcohol , Specific Alcohol Specific Alcohol Specific Alcohol Specific per cent, Gravity. per cent. Gravity. per cent. Gravity. per cent. Gravity. ,39 •9416 . 55 •9069 71 •8696 86 •8331 40 •9396 56 •9047 72 •8672 87 •8305 41 •9376 57 • ^9025 73 •8649 88 ■8279 42 •9356 58 •9001 74 •8625 89 •8254 43 •9335 59 •8979 75 •8603 90 •8228 44 •9314 60 •8956 76 •8581 91 •8109 45 •9292 61 •8932 77 ■8557 92 •8172 46 •9270 62 •8908 78 •8533 93 •8145 47 ■9249 63 •8886 79 •8508 94 •8118 48 •9228 64 •8863 80 •8483 95 •8089 49 •9206 65 , •8840 81 •8459 96 •8061 50 •9184 66 •8816 82 •8434 97 •8051 51 •9160 67 •8793 83 •8408 98 •8001 52 •9135 68 •8769 84 ■8382 99 •7969 53 ■9113 69 •8745 85 •8357 100 •7938 54 •9090 70 •8721 See AicoHOLisM, Alooholometet, Alcoholic Bevebages. Alcohol, X!£Fects of; Alcoholism— L Effects of Alcohol in Health. — The amount of absolute alcohol taken by tem- perate people, in the twenty-four hours, in the different forms of beer, wine, and spirits, varies generally from one to two ounces. More thali this, at all events in the great majority of people, causes slight alcoholic . symptoms. If the excess of this quantity is small, the symptoms will be in no way evi- dent to others, but may be appreciated by the individual himself, and consist in firstly a slight excitement of the faculties of the brain, a feeling of warmth and pleasure, followed by a general feeling of torpor and transient drowsiness, with a slight blunting of the sensibilities. The couple of pints of beer, four or five glasses of wins, or two ounces of brandy, that men and women engaged in the ordinary business of life take daily, have not been proved to exercise the slightest injury — in most people, indeed, digestion is aided, and more work done, by these moderate doses. On the other hand, the slightest habitual excess, that excess which we have spoken of, the symptoms of which are not perceptible to others, all evidence — historical, pathological, and physiological — shows to be injurious. The experiments of Anstie, Farkes, and Count Wol- lowioz, appear to show that any quantity of alcohol exceeding an ounce and a half taken by an adult, showed itself in the urine, which these writers consider a sign that the system has taken more alcohol than can be used in the body itself. The action in slight doses is, that it has a sedative effect upon the nerves, and reddens slightly the lining membtane of the stomach, stimulates the secretion of the gastric juice, and thus may in small doses, and no doubt does, promote the appetite. In excess, all these effects are turned to evil, an inflam- matory condition of the stomach supervenes, compression of the gland-ducts, from thicken- ing of the tissue around it, excessive mucous secretion, and great loss of appetite. When carried into the circulation, it greatly increases the force of tbe heart's action, and at the same time paralyses, as it were, the inhibitory ner- vous supply to the arteries and small vessels, so that they no longer oppose themselves to the blood-current, but dilate. This action, to a small degree, occurring in persons of a weak and languid circulation, is no doubt beneficial ; on the other hand, when in excess, it is the most dangerous, and is a cause of a greater portion of the diseases of the heart and great vessels. There appears to be a slight fall of tempera- ture with moderate doses of alcohol, a very decided fall with excessive doses ; the muscu- lar and nervous system are transitorily stimu- lated, and may do more work when small doses are given in cases of fatigue, but in other cases there is a marked torpor of the nervous, and a want of co-ordination of the muscular system.* The pathological changes have been well studied by Dickinson and others. Dickinson, in a paper "On the Morbid Effects of Alcohol in Persons who trade in Liquor," gave the results of an examination of 149 traders in liquor, as compared with 149 persons of various trades. The general results were, diseases of the liver, mostly cirrhosis, more common in the aloo- ALC (37) ALO holio. In the lungs, tubercle affected sixty- one persons of the alcoholic, forty-four of the non-alcoholic. Tubercle in the brain, liver, kidneys, spleen, bowels, mesenteric glands, and peritoneum was twice as common in the alcoholic as in the non-alcoholic. The con- clusion is therefore inevitable, that alcohol engenders tubercle in the brain, inflammations, atrophy, hsemorrhages ; in the heart and ves- sels, atheroma, hypertrophy, and other affec- tions, were all more common in the alcoholic than iti the non-alcoholic series. The evi- dence in kidney disease was not so conclu- sive, but some forms of kidney disease ap- pear to be increased. The author sums up thus : — Alcohol causes fatty infiltration and fibroid en- croachment ; it engenders tubercle, encourages sup- puration, and retards healing ; it produces untimely atheroma, invites heemorrhage, and anticipates age. The most constant fatty change, replacement by oil of the material of epithelial cells and muscular fibres, though probably nearly universal, is most noticeable in the liver, the heart, and the kidney. There would appear also to be special dis- eases produced by alcohol besides the more common and generally -known ones of delirium tremens, alcoholism, &c. &c., e.g. — M. Galezowski has described a peculiar affection of the eyes, which he calls " alcoholic amblyopia," especially prevalent during the siege of Paris. In the Ave months of the siege fifty patients presented themselves, while during the twelve months preceding the siege only nineteen were met with. The disease was ascribed to the habit of taking alcoholic drinks in the morning, fasting. Haudiield Jones and Wilks have also de- scribed cases of alcoholic paraplegia. It would also appear tolerably well estab- lished that alcohol either causes or increases insanity, though there may be another expla- nation of the fact that many mad people have been great drinkers. A large proportion of those subject to insanity are driven by their morbid minds to drink, so that it may be "insanity causes drink," not "drink^causes insanity." The following table is given by Dr. Joseph Williams : — Total Proportion caused by lutempenmce. .AdraiSBioiL Charenton 855 134 Bicetre and Salpetriere 2012 414 Bordeaux 156 20 Turin, 1830-91 1.58 17 „ 1831-36 39U 76 Gard . . 209 4 United States . 661 146 Palermo . 189 9 Caen 60 16 Dundee . 14 4 M. Parchappe 167 46 M. Batteu 288 64 60 ;9 940 The effects of alcoholism are in a pre-eminent degree to cause disease, to shorten life, and to prematurely age. Ifothing can prove this better than the following statistics : — A Temperate Person's chance of Living is, At 20 _ 44-2 years. „ 30 — 36-5 „ ,, 40 =28-8 „ „ 60 = 21-25 „ „ 60 — 14-285 „ An Intemperate Person's chance of Living is. At 20 — 15-6 years. „ 30-13 8 „ „ 40 _ 11-6 „ „ 60— 10-8 „ „ 60- 8-9 „ The average duration of life after the commencement of habits of intemperance Among mechanics, working and labouring men 18 yeara. ,, traders, dealers, and merchants, 17 „ ,, professional men and gentlemen, IS ,, „ females, . . . 14 „ Nelson's Statistics. The Effects of Alcohol in Ditease. — This sub- ject has not been scientifically investigated. Dr. Wilks has prescribed it, however, in the form of rectified spirit, but the cases as yet are too few to form a correct estimate. The truth really is that it has been prescribed, even by the most eminent men, under the forms of beer, wine, and spirits, the strength, adultera- tions, and composition of which are seldom in any given sample kno-wn, in the most opposite affections, and as a result, it has been on the one hand extrav,igantly given, and lauded to a most unwarrantable 'degi'ee, while on the other hand, by another class of observers it has been entirely withheld. These facts, no doubt,prompted thefollowing document, which was published in 1871, and signed by a long list of some of the most eminent members in the profession ; others, however, equally emi- nent, refused, and withheld their signature on various grounds : — As it is .believed that the inconsiderate prescrip- tion of large quantities of alcoholic liquids by medical men for their patients has given rise, in many in- stances, to the formation of intemperate habits, the undersigned, while unable to abandon the use of alcohol in the treatment of certain cases of disease, are yet of opinion that no medical practitioner should prescribe it without a sense of grave responsibility. They believe that alcohol, in whatever form, should be prescribed with as much care as any powerful drug, and that the directions for its use should be bo fi-amed as not to be interpreted as a sanction for excess, or necessarily for the continuance of its use when the occasion is past. They are also of opinion that many people im- mensely exaggerate the value of alcohol as an article of diet ; and since no class of men see so much of its ill effects, and possess such power to restrain its abuse, as members of their own profession, they hold that every medical practitioner is bound to exert his utmost influence to inculcate habits of great modera- tion in the use of alcoholic liquids. ALC (38) ALC Being also firmly convinced that the great amount of drinking of alcoholic liquors among the working classes of this country is one of the greatest evils of the day, destroying more than anything else the health, happiness, and welfare of those classes, and neutralising to a large extent the great indus- trial prosperity which Providence has placed within the reach of this nation, the undersigned would gladly support any wise legislation which would tend to restrict within proper limits the use of alcoholic beverages, and gradually introdude habits of tem- perance. It is still a matter of dispute as to how alco- hol is eliminated from the body, and whether any of it is destroyed, notwithstanding the researches of Percy, Strauch, Masing, lalle- mand, Duroy, Parkes, DuprS, Anstie, Thu- dichum, and others. Among the most recent are those of Subbotur on rabbits. The general result is contradictory. Some afSrm that it is eliminated as aldehyd, others as carbonic E^cid ; but the former supposition is almost disproved, and the experiments of Dr. E. Smith show that the carbonic acid is decreased by brandy and gin, and increased by rum. The only probable supposition which facts support tends to show that the alcohol is turned into acetic acid in the body, some of which unites with potash and other bases and some is destroyed. All pretty well agree that in the form of spirits alcohol is of no value whatever as a food ; but in the form of beer and wine it has slight dietetic powers, natu- rally varying with the amount and nature of the different substances held in solution in these beverages. See Alcoholic Bbvekages. Drunkenness and the consumption of spirits would appear to be on the increase by the dif- ferent returns in our own country and abroad. The imports of spirits in the seven years from 1850 to 1857 amounted to 70,740,980 galls., whilst the imports in the seven years follow- ing—viz., from 1857 to 1864 — amounted to 78,016,071 galls., showing an increase of 7,305,091 galls. The population has, however, increased in the time, and a deduction on that account, and a correction in one or two other heads, are required ; still, that there is increase is indisputable. In France, the following figures by M. Hus- Bon show a remarkable increase ; — The Mean Consumption of Spirits for each Inhabitant, Litres. Lttrea. From 1825 to 1830 8 98 yearly .0ii4 daily. „ 1831 „ 1835 8-74 , „ -023 „ 1886 „ li'40 10-15 ,, ■(j27 „ 3841 „ 18(5 lilt „ -031 „ „ 1846 „ 1850 11t3 „ 030 „ „ 1851 „ 1864 14-25 „ -039 „ In the United States, the consumption dur- ihg the period from 1807-1828 averaged 27 litres for every inhabitant, which is even greater than the highest of the above figures. The demoralisation also of the French army in the late Franco-Prussian war is almost unanimously ascribed to the excessive use of spirituous liquors. Drunkenness, as modi/kd by Race. — The Mas- sachusetts Board of Health in 1870 under- took an elaborate inquiry into drunkenness as it existed in different parts of the world, and issued a report on it which has been analysed and summarised by Dr. Druitt (Medical Times and Gazette, April 15, 1872). The answers they obtained as to the effects of drink from the 164 physicians in Massachusetts were extremely conflicting, but the information gained as to the comparative sobriety was in- structive. Dr. Druitt thus summarises the evidence : — We may arrange the various populations, con- cerning whom the correspondents of the Massacliu- setts Board sent reports under four categories in descending scale, beginning with (1) those who ab- stain ; (-2) those who drink, but in such moderation 'that drunkenness forms no feature of the place or people ; (3) populations amongst whom drunkenness is pretty common, but of an innoceilt, jolly, and not criminal character; and (4) populations disgraced by di-unkenness, accompanied with brutality and crime. 1. Under the total abs'tinence head we may arrange the Mussulman populations of Constanti- nople, Alexandria, Zanzibar, and .the people of Hayti. / 2. The population is shown to drink, but without any features of excess, by the answers received ftom Ancona and Florence, Athens, Cadiz, Teneriffe, Punchal, Payal, Malta, Beerut, Geneva, -Vienna, Bremen, Leipsic, Nicaragua, Pernambuco. St Juan, Pare, Trinidad, Lima, and Honolulu. 3. People are shown to drink too freely, but inno- cently and without violence, by the answers from Trieste, Basel, Berne, Zurich, Frankfort, Copen- hagen, Elsinore, Yokohama, Hiojo, and Santa Cruz. 4. In the lowest category rank the answers from Liverpool, Manchester, Dublin, Edinburgh, Rot- terdam, Utrecht, Odessa, Toronto; Cologne, Co- lombo. So that highest in the ^cale of temperance come the Turks and Arabs ; next the Iberians, Levan- tines, Greeks, and Latin races; lower down, the Japanese, Scandinavians, Belgians, and the Irish Celt ; lowest of all, the so-called Anglo-Saxon of either continent. It would seem from this that a great deal depends upon the nature of the liquid im- bibed, whether wine, beer, 6r spirits. See Alcoholic Beveeages. It therefore appears unhappily too true that there is really an increase in the con- sumption of spirituous liquors in most coun- tries, and as a natural, though not inevitable, sequence, an increase of drunkenness. Fro- AliO (39) ALC feasor Levi gives the following statistics on this subject in regard. to England: In 1860, the committals for drunkenness in England and Wales were 88,000 ; and in 1870, 134,000, an increase of 50 per cent. In Manchester the increase from 1860 to 1870 was 375 per cent., or, computed according to the increase of population, 35 '3 per cent. In London, drunkenness is in the proportion of 5*43 per 1000 ; in Leeds, 7-40 ; in Manchester, 31-13; and in Liverpool, 42 '82. It must be remem- bered, however, that these figures are baaed upon mere committals, which greatly depend on the activity of the police, and the noisy or quiet character of the drunkard. Whether Alcohol is necessa/ry or not. — AH experience, both at home and abroad, shows, by facts that cannot be disputed, that a person can do quite as hard work without alcohol as with it ; and probably, as the limits be- tween moderation and excess are easily passed, and as the generality of mankind, even with- out intending it, err on the latter side, the result is that a comparison between total abstainers and even temperate men generally terminates in favour of the former. It would appear that total abstainers live longer, are better citizens, and can do more work than the rest of mankind. The figures of the United Kingdom Temperance and General Provident Institution go far to prove the above. This insurance society is divided into two sections. One section consists of abstainers, the other of persons selected as not known to be intemperate. The claims for five years anticipated in the temperance section were £100,446, but the actual claims were only £72,676. In the general section the antici- pated claims were £196,352 ; the actual claims no less than £230,297. In war, the march of 2000 miles in the War of Independence by Cornwallis and his troops (1783), the Maroon War of Jamaica, the 400 miles' march of an English army across the desert from Komer, on the Red Sea, a march of 1000 miles in the Kaffir War, experience at sieges, in action, in hot, temperate, and cold climates, where ab- stinence was either forced through circum- stances, or followed, shows to every unpreju- diced mind that soldiers endure more fatigue, are healthier, and fight better without stimu- lants than with them, and this fact is endorsed by every commander of the present day. The excess and abuse of spirits, as before remarked, lost the French their militaryprcs^ein the late war. In very hot and very cold climates the Indian observers and the Arctic explorers aU unite in condemning its use in the slightest excess, or even in moderate doses. It does not warm the body in cold climates, and the reaction that follows the exciting of the circulation is followed by a dangerous depres- sion; whUst in hot, it combines with the climate, and quickly produces disease. In this country and others, various attempts have been made to repress the growing evil of drunkenness. Mr. Dalxymple introduced a bill in 1871, which, if it had passed, would have committed the poorer class of habitual drunkards to a reformatory, while, prac- tically, it would have allowed the opulent drunkard to go free, unless he was conTicted of drunkenness. The American law makes no invidious distinction in this way, but treats all alike. The following is an American statute on the subject : — ReeUed Statutes of New Fort.— Title II. of the custody and disposition of the estates of idiots, lunatics, person's of unsound mind, and drunkards. Section II. — Whenever the overseers of the poor of any city or town in this State discover any person resident therein to be an habitual drunlcard, having property to the amount of 250 dollars, which may be endangered by means of such drunkenness, it shall be their duty to make application to the Court of Chancery for the exercise of its powers and juris- dictions. Section III. — If such drunkard have property to an amount less than 250 dollars, the overseers may make such application to the Court of Common Fleas of the county, which is hereby vested with the same powers in relation to the person and real and personal estate of such drunkard as are by this title conferred in the. Court of Chancery, and shall in all respects proceed in like manner, subject to an appeal to the Court of Chancery. In England the Total Abstinence Society have made great efforts to inculcate their doctrines. Unfortunately, however, zeal so often leads their votaries beyond the bounds of discretion, that it brings them into ridicule, although they certainly have reason and ex- perience on their side. At Versailles, the mayor in 1850 estab- lished temperance prizes, varying from 2000 francs to 50. These were conferred upon the most honest, frugal, and temperate workmen in Versailles. Alcoholometry — This word signifies the determination of the amount of alcohol in any given liquid. This may be done in a great variety of ways. 1. By using Instruments called hydrometers, which, by sinking to a certain depth, indicate the specific gravity. The Eevenue use Sykes' hydrometer, but there are others made of glass which are in use, and are much cheaper. ALC (40) ALC 2. By distilling the alcohol in a more or less pure state from the liquid supposed to contain it, and then taking its specific gravity. 3. Groning's method — from the tempera- ture of the vapour. 4. From the boiling-point. 6. From the expansion of the liquid when heated, 6. From the tension of the vapour. (Geiasler's alcoholometer.) , TABLE showing the Dbhsities and VALrES of Spikitb at 60° F. corresponding to every indication of Sykes' Hydrometer. Sykes' Hydro- meter iDdlca- Strength per cent. • Specific Gravity. Per cent, of Absolute Alcohol, Sykes' hydro- meter indica- Strength per cent. Specific Gravity. Per cent, of Absolute Alcohol. By By By By tion. Measure. Weiglit. tion. Measure. •W'eight. O.P. 0.*. 67-0 •81520 95 '28 92-78 51 11-4 •90551 63-54 55-70 1 66-1 ■81715 94-78 92-08 52 10-0 -90732 62-74 54-89 2 65-3 •81889 94 -SI 91-42 53 8-6 •90913 61-94 54-09 3 64-5 ■82061 93-84 90-78 54 7-1 •91107 61-09 53-23 4 63-6 ■82251 93-33 90^07 55 5-6 •91299 60-24 52-38 5 62-7 ■82«1 92-80 89-36 56 4-2 -91479 59-43 51-57 6 61-8 •82622 92-29 88-67 57 2-7 ■91666 58-58 50-73 7 60-9 ■82800 91-77 87-99 58 1-3 •91839 57-78 49-94 8 60-0 •82978 91-25 87-30 n.p. 9 59-1 •83151 90-74 86-63 59 0-3 ■92037 56-86 49-04 10 58-2 ■83323 90-23 85-96 60 1-9 ■92228 55-96 48^17 11 57-3 •83494 89-72 85-30 61 3-4 ■92408 55-10 47-33 12 56-4 ■83661 89-21 84-65 62 5-0 •92597 5419 46-46 13 55-5 •83827 88^70 84-00 63 6-7 •92798 53-22 45-53 14 54-6 •83993 88-17 83-33 64 8-3 ■92984 52 30 44-65 15 53-7 ■ ■84153 87-67 82-70 65 10-0 ■93176 51-36 43-76 16 52-7 •84331 87-10 81-99 66 11-7 •93367 50-39 42-84 ■17 51-7 ■84509 86 ^51 81-26 67 13-5 - ■93586 49-34 41-86 18 50-7 ■84680 85-95 80-58 68 15-3 •93758 48-31 40-90 19 49-7 •84851 85-39 79-89 69 17^1 ■93949 47-29 39-96 20 48-7 •85022 84-81 79-19 70 18^9 ■94135 46-29 39-04 21 47-fi •85205 8419 78-44 71 20-8 •94327 45-20 38-04 22 46-6 •85372 83-61 77-74 72 22-7 •94518 44-09 37-03 23 45-6 •85537 83-04 77-07 73 24-7 ■94709 42-96 36-01 24 44-6 ■85700 82-47 76-39 74 26-7 •94899 41-82 34-98 25 43-5 ■85878 81-85 75-66 75 28-8 •95092 40-63 33-92 26- 42-4 •86055 81-21 74-92 76 31-0 ■95288 39-40 32-82 2r 41-3 •86229 80-59 74-19 77 33-2 •95484 38-10 31-68 28 40-2 ■86402 79-97 73-47 78 35-6 ■95677 36-76 30-50 29 391 •86574 79-34 72-75 ' 79 38-1 •95877 35-32 29-24 30 380 •86745 78-71 72-03 80 40-6 ■96068 33-90 28-01 31 36-9 ■86915 78-08 71-32 81 43-3 •96259 32-41 26-73 32 .35-7 •87099 77-40 70-54 82 46-1 •964.57 30-77 25-32 33 34-5 ■87282 76-71 69-77 83 49-1 ■96651 29-08 23-88 34 33-4 ■87450 76-08 69-06 84 52-2 •96846 27-31 22-38 35 32-2 ■87627 75^41 68-32 85 55-5 ■97049 25-39 20-77 36 31 '0 ■87809 74-72 67-55 86 59-0 •97254 23-41 19-11 37 29-8 •87988 74-03 66-79 87 62-5 •97458 21-39 17-42 38 28-5 •88179 73-29 65-98 88 66-0 •97660 19-41 15-78 39 27-3 •88355 72-60 65-23 89 69-4 •97857 17-46 14-16 40 260 •88544 71-86 64-43 90 72-8 •98057 15-51 12-56 41 24-8 •88716 7117 63-68 91 76-1 •98261 13-58 10-97 42 23-5 •88901 70-43 62-89 92 79-2 ■98452 11-85 9-56 43 22-2 •89086 69-69 62-10 93 82-3 ■98657 10-04 8-08 44 20'9 ■89268 68-95 61-32 94 85-2 ■98866 8-28 6-65 45 19-6 ■89451 68-21 60-53 95 88-0 ■99047 6-83 5-48 46 18-3 •89629 67-47 59-76 96 90-7 ■99251 5-25 4-20 47 16-9 •89822 66-67 58-92 97 93-3 ■99448 3-80 3-03 48 15 '6 ■89997 65-93 58-15 98 95-9 •99658 2-31 1-84 49 14-2 •90182 65-14 57-34 99 98-2 •99851 •997 •793 50 12-8 •90367 64 '34 56-52 100 ... 1-00000 ... ALC (41) ALC 7. 'From the difference between tjie specific gravity before and after ebullition. 8. Brande's method. 9. Organic analysis. 1. Sykes'-hydrometer is a useful instrument, and is employed by the Revenue. There are tables always sold with the instrument, and full directions for use. The one on the pre- ceding page may, however, be useful. It is taken from Loftus's " Inland Kevenue Officers' Manual." 2. The second method, for medical officers of health and analysts, is the best, as it is especially applicable to beer, wine, sweetened spirits, &o. &c. . 300 parts of the liquid to be examined is accurately measured and distilled in a retort, until exactly a third has passed over. Sometimes salt is added to the liquid, in order to raise its boiling-point. The specific gravity of the distillate is now taken, and the percentage found from the foregoing table. In practice it is, however, generally con- venient to operate on smaller quantities than the foregoing. Take 100 centimetres; distil over 'about a third ; dilute it with water until it weighs 50 grammes ; bring up the tempera- ture to 16-5° C. (or 60° F.) ; then fill a 50- gramme-specific-gravity bottle, and weigh and calculate by the aid of the talsle as before, or the following short one may be used : — Pereentage Specific | by Weight Gravity. 1I-6 . 9991 1 9981 2 9965 3 9947 4 9930 6 SOU 6 9898 7 9884 8 98B9 9 9865 10 9841 Percentage by Weight. 11 12 13 14 15 IS 17 18 19 2D Specific Gravity. •9828 ■9815 •98-1!! •9789 ■9778 •9766 •9753 ■9741 •9728 ■0718 It is imneoessary to add that, as the dis- tillate weighed 50 grammes, the strength of the distillate must be halved to arrive at the strength of the original liquid. For instance, if the specific gravity of a distillate of 50 grammes is '9884, the strength of the beer or other 'liquid is not 7 per cent., but 3 5. 3. GrSning's method is based on the fact that the temperature of the vapour is an exact measure of the strength of the alcohol, but it is more valuable to the distiller and rectifier than to the analyst or health officer. The bulb of a thermometer is put (on the small scale) into a flask with a bilateral tube, and the temperature of the vapour carefully noted. The following table may be used : — TABLE showing the Alcoholic Content BT TOLUME of BOILINC SPIKITS AND OF THEIR Vapouk. From the temperature of the latter, as observed by a thermometer. ' By Gboning. Temp, of the Vapour Alcoholic Alcoholic Alcoholic Alcoholic Content of Content of Temp, of theDiB- tne BoU- theDis- tillateper ing Liquid (R) tULvte pei- ing Liquid cent. percent. cent. percent. 170^0 93 92 189-8 71 • 20 171 •S 92 90 192-1) 68 18 172'0 ■ 91 85 ■ 194 66 15 172-8 90i 80 196-4 61 12 1740 90 75 198-6 65 10 1746 89 70 201-0 SO 7 176-0 87 65 203^0 42 ■ 6 178-3 85 60 205-4 36 3 180^8 82 40 207-7 28 2 183 80 35 210-0 13 1 186-0 78 30 212-0 187-4 76 25 4. The Boiling-Point. — ^Within certain limits the boiling-point of alcoholic liquids is not materially altered by admixture with saline and organic matter. A thermometer with a movable scale is employed. Before using it the thermometer is immersed in boiling dis- tilled water, and the 212° of the scale accu- rately adjusted to the level of the mercury ; it is then ready for several hours' operation, or even an entile day, if no considerable vari- ations of atmospheric pressure are expe- rienced. The other methods — viz., the expansion of the liquid and the tension of the vapour — require special instruments, ' such as Silber- mann's dilatatometer, and Geissler's alcoholo- meter, and though in their way excellent, are not likely to be used by medical officers of health. The following tables -will be found useful : — TABLE exhibiting the Boiling-Points of Mixtures of Alcohol and "Water of the given strengths. By Gronikg. Boiling-Fomt Alcohol per cent. Boilinff-Polnt Alcohol percent. per Volume. per Volume. 206 34 6 179 96 65 199-22 10 179-42 ■60 195 8 15 178-7 65 192-38 20 177 62 70 189-60 25 176-54 75 18716 30 175-46 80 185- 35 174-92 85 183-38 40 174-2 90 182-12 45 173-14 95 181 68 60 172- loo ALC (42) ALC TABLE showing the Boiling-Points op Undeb-Pbooe Spirit. — (ITbe.) BoUine-Point FercentAgd Corresponding fltrength. Specific Gravity, 17S-r. Proof. ■9200 17975 10 O.P. 9321 180-4 20 ,, 9420 1821 3or „ 9516 183-4 40 „ 9600 185-6 50 „ 9665 189- 60 „ 9729 191-8 70 , 9786 196-4 80 „ 9850 202- 90 „ 9920 Brande's method has no claim to accuracy, but it is extremely expeditious, and therefore often convenient. The liquid is put into a graduated glass tube, decolourised by a strong solution of subacetate of lead and po-wdered litharge, and then saturated -with carbonate of potash. After remaining at rest a little time the alcohol floats to the surface in a -well-marked stratum, the volume of -which is then read oS. In certain cases a very small quantity of alcohol may have to be operated on. There would then appear no other way of determin- ing it than by actual organic analysis, and calculation of it as carbonic anhydride and water. Alcoholic Beverages, Effects of— The more commonly used spirits — brandy, whisky, gin, and rum — have an action simi- lar to alcohol. But the flavouring-matters, essential oils, and adulterations that they contain modify their action considerably. The alcohol also often contains minute traces of ether, and is mixed -with small quan- tities of butyl, propyl, and amy! alcohols. They are the worst form of alcoholic bever- ages, as they are frequently taken un- diluted; and the e-vidence appears clear that intemperance from spirits shortens life more than intemperance from other in- toxicating drinks. The different species of beer, porter, &c., when pure and unadul- terated, appear to act to a very slight degree as a food. Liebig observed that less bread was eaten in families where beer was drunk. The starchy and extractive matters in the beer act like sugar, &c,, and tend to raise fat; indeed, those who drink freely of this liquid, it is well known, generally become corpulent. The hit- ter also is stomachic and tonic. The action of the free acids is not known. Certain it is, how- ever, that some people cannot drink a glass of beer without experiencing rheumatic pains in the joints, which has been ascribed to the acidity. The heavy, low-priced beer occasions drunkenness of a peculiarly brutal character. Wines are so various that little can be said of them in a general way. The clarets and subacid wines are highly antiscorbutic, and the light wines are to be recommended in preference to the stronger. Port, sherry, beer, stout, &c., appear to predispose to gout sooner than claret, light German, and other wines. There may be a little nourishment in the albuminous principle of the wine, but this is not proved. It is probable that the vege- table salts, the ethers and sugar, play the most important part in the system. Red subacid wines have been proposed to be introduced as a drink in the navy on account of their anti- scorbutic powers. Some of the Indian alcoholic drinks appear to cause a temporary madness. For the effects of robur, absinthe, &c,, see Absinthe, Eobur. The following is Mr. Brande's table, cor- rected by Dr. Henderson, and will show the strength of wines and spirits in use in thla country and elsewhere. PROPORTION of AiiCOHOI,, sp, gr. 0-825, in 100 parts by measure of the following Wines and Malt and Spirituous Liquors: 1. Lissa . 26-47 20. Vidonia . 19-25 24-35 21. Alba Mora 17-26 Average 26-41 22. Malaga 17-26 H. 16-90 23. White Hermit- 2. BaisiQwine . 26-40 age 17-43 II 26-77 23-20 24. BoussilloQ 19-00 17-29 Average 25-12 Average 18-13 3. Marsala 26-03 25-05 25. Claret . 17-11 16-32 Average 25-09 • 14-08 H. 18 40 12-91 4. Port, average of Average 16-10 six kinds . 23-48 H. 1201 Highest 25-83 26. Malmsey Ma- Lowest . 21-40 deira . 16-40 5. Madeira 24-42- 27. Lunet . 15-62 • 23-93 28. Scheraaz 15-52 „ (Sercial) 21-45 29. Syracuse 15-28 19-24 30. Sauterne 14-22 Average 22-27 31. Burgundy 16-60 6. Currant wine 20-65 II 16-22 7. Sherry . 19-81 19-83 11 14-62 11-05 II • ■ 18-79 Average 14-67 ' 18-25 32. Hock . 14-37 Average 19-17 13-00 8. Toneriffe 19-79 ,', (old, in caik) 8-88 9. Colares . 19-75 Avei-age 12-03 10. LacrymaOhrisli 19-70 Eiidesheimer— 11. Constantia(wli.)19-75 1811, H. 10-72 (i-ed) 18-92 1800, H. 12-22 H. 14-60 Average, H. 11-47 12. Lisbon . 18-49 Johannisberger, 13. Malaga 18.94 H. . 8-71 14. Bucellas 18-49 33. Nice 14-63 15. Red Madeira 22-30 34. Bardac . 13-86 ^ 18 40 85. Tent 13-30 ' Average 20-35 36. Champagne(still)13-80 16. Oape Muscat . 18-25 „ (sparkling) 12 80 17. Cape Madeira 22-94 (red) 12-66 ti 20-60 11-30 II 18-11 Average 12-61 Average 20-61 37 Red Hermitage 12-32 18. Grape wino . lR-11 38 Vin de Grave 13 94 19. Oaloavella . 19 20 ii> 12-81) 18-10 Average 13-37 "Average 18-65 39 Frontignao . 12-79 ALG (43) ALG 40. C6teR5tie . 12-32 41 . Gooseberry wine 1 1 '84 42. Oi'angewme,aTe- rageofsix sam- ples made by Lond,on mauu- facturer . 11-26 43. Tokay , .9-88 44. Elder wine . 9 87 45. Rhlnishwine,H. 8-71 46. Cider, highest average . 9*87 Lowest 6*21 47. Perry, average of four samples 7 "26 48. Mead . .7-32 49. Ale, Burton . R-ss ,, Edinburgh ,, Dorchester Average 50. Brown stout . 51. London porter, average London small- beer, average 52. Brandy . 53. Kiuu 54. Gin . . 55. Scotch whisky 54-32 56. Irish whisky . 53-90 6-20 5-56 6-87 6-80 4-20 1-28 53-39 53-68 51-60 36 & 36 YICT. c. 94. An Act for Regulating the Sale of Intoxicating irt^wor*.— (lOiA August 1872.) Adulteration. Sect. 19. — (1.) Eveiy person who mixes or causes to be mixed with any intoxicating liquor sold or ex- posed for sale by him any deleterious ingredient, that is to say, any of the ingredients specified in the first schedule to this Act, or added to such schedule by any Order in Council made under this Act, or any Ingredient deleterious to health ; and (2.) Evei-y person who knowingly sells, or keeps, or exposes for sale any intoxicating liquor mixed with any deleterious ingredients (in this Act referred to as adulterated liquor), shall be liable for the first offence to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one month, with or without hard labour ; and for the second and any subsequent ofTence to a penalty not exceeding one hundred pounds, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months, with or without hard labour, and to be declared to be a disqualified per- son for a period of not less than two years nor ex- ceeding ten years, and shall also in the case of the first as well as any subsequent offence forfeit all adulterated liquor in his possession with the vessels containing the same. Where the person so convicted is a licensed person, he shall furthei', in the case of a second or any subsequent offence, be liable to forfeit his license, and the premises in respect of which such license is granted shall be liable to be declared to be disqualified premises for a period of not less than two years nor exceeding five years. ^ In the case of a first offence and any subsequent offence until the license is forfeited, the conviction shall be recorded on the license of the person con- victed. Where a licensed person is convicted of any offence under this section, and his license is not forfeited for such offence, the pjjlice authority of the district shall cause a placard stating such conviction to be affixed to the premises. Such placard shall be of such size and form, and shall be printed with such letters, and shall contain such particulars, and shall be affixed to such parts of the licensed premises the police autho- rity may think fit, and such licensed person shall keep the same affixed during two weeks after the same is first affixed ; and if he fails to comply with the pro- visions of this section with respect to keeping affixed such placard, or defaces or allows such placard to be defaced, or if the same is defaced, and he fails forth- with to renew the same, he shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding forty shillings for every day on which the 'same is not so undefaced, and any con- stable may affix or reaffix such placard during the said two weeks, or such further time as may be directed by a court of summary jurisdiction. 20. Every licensed person who has in his posses- sion or in any part of his premises any adulterated liquor, knowing it to be adulterated, or any delete- rious ingredient specified in the first schedule here- to, or added to such schedule by Order of Her Majesty in Council, for the possession of which Jie is unable to account to the satisfaction of the court, shall be deemed knowingly to have exposed for sale adulte- rated liquor on-such premises. S2. Any of the following officers, that is to say, any superintendent of jiolice, or other constable authorised in writing by the police authority so to do, and any officer of Inland Bevenue, may procure > samples of any intoxicating liquor from' any person selling or keeping or exposing the same for sale (in this section refei'red to as the vendor); he may pro- cure such samples either by purchasing the same, or by requiring the vendor to show him and allow him to inspect all or any of the vessels in which any in- toxicating liquor in the possession of the vendor is stored, and the place of the storage thereof, and to give him samples of such intoxicating liquor on pay- ment or tender of the value of such samples. If the vendor, or his agent or [_servant, when re- quired in pursuance of this section, refuses or fails to admit the officer, or refuses or wilfully omits to show all or any of the vessels in which intoxicating liquor is stored, or the place of the storage thereof, or to permit the officer to inspect the same, or to give any samples thereof, or to furnish the officer with such light or assistance as he may require, he shall bo liable to the same penalty, forfeiture, and disqualifi- cations as if he knowingly sold or exposed for sale adulterated liquor. When the officer has by either of the means afore- said procured samples of intoxicating liquor, he shall cause the same to be analysed, at such convenient place and time, and by such person, as the Commis- sioners of Inland Revenue may appoint; provided always that a reasonable notice shall have been given by such officer to the vendor by whom such sample was furnished, to enable such vendor, if he think fit, to attend at the time when such sample is open for analysis j and if it appear to the person so analysing that the said samples of intoxicating liquor are adul- terated liquor within the meaning of this Act, he shall certify such fact, and the certificate so given shall be receivable as evidence in any proceedings that may be taken against any person in pursuance of this Act, subject to the right of any person against whom proceedings are taken to require the attend- ance of the person making the analysis for the pur- pose of cross-examination. The vendor may require the officer, in his pre- sence, to annex to every vessel containing any samples for analyses the name and address of the vendor, and to secure with a seal or seals belonging to the vendor the vessel containing such samples, and the name'and address annexed thereto, in such manner that the vessel cannot be opened, or the name and address taken off, without breaking such seals ; and a corresponding sample, sealed by such ALD (44) ALG officer with his own seal, shall, if required, be left with the vendor for reference in case of disputes as to the correctness of the analysis or otherwise; and the certificate of the person who analyses such samples shall State the name and address of the vendor, and that the vessels were not open, and that the seais securing to the vessels the name and ad- dress of thq vendor were not broken, until such time as he opened the vessels for the purpose of making his analysis ; and in such case as aforesaid no certi- ficate shall be receivable in evidence unless there is contained therein such statement as above, or to the like effect. Any expenses incurred in analysing any intoxicat- ing liquor of a vendor in pursuance of this section shall, if such vendor be convicted of selling or keep- ing, or exposing for sale, or having in his possession adulterated liquor, in contravention of this Act, be deemed to be a portion of the costs of the proceed- ings - against him, and shall be paid by him accord- ingly. In any other event such expenses shall be paid as part of the expenses of the officer who pro- cured the sample. FmsT Schedule. Ddeterious Ingredients. CoccMl«s7«diCMS,chloride of sodiumjOthei-wise com- mon salt, copperas, opium, Indian hemp, strychnine, tobacco, darnel seed, extract of logwood, salts of zinc or lead, alum, and any extract or compound of any of the above ingredients. Aldehyd — A name g^ven by chemists to a cla3S of bodies intermediate between the alcohols and the acids. Each of the alcohols may be made to furnish its aldehyd. {See AiiCOHOL.) Thus we have acetic, propionic, butyric, and valeric aldehyd. They are less oxidised than the acids, and the general prin- ciplfe in preparing them is by gradual oxidation. Thus, if the vapour of alcohol is transmitted, mixed with air, through a porcelain tube, heated to low redness, or if it is acted upon by chromic or nitric acid, aldehyd is formed. The most usual way, however, is that of Liebig, who distilled alcohol with sulphuric acid and black oxide of manganese. Aldehyd, thus prepared, is a volatile liquid, inflammable, neutral to test-paper, forming a crystalline substance with ammonia, and a brown resinous mass with liq. potassse. It reduces the salts of silver, and with chlorine forms chloral. It is a test for alcohol, which may, by any of the above processes, be converted into aldehyd. Ale— See Beek, Algae — ^A tribe of subaqueous plants, in- cluding sea-weeds {Fiicus), and the lavers ( Hlva) growing in salt water, and the fresh-water confervas. Those sea-weeds which are of com- mercial value belong to the great division of the jointless algce, of which 160 species are known as natives of the British Islands. In the manufacture of kelp all the varieties of this division may be used. The edible sorts (see Algm, Marine) belong to the same group, as do also those which the agriculturists em- ploy for manure. The following table, giving the results of several analyses of different kinds of algse, will show the remarkably large quantity of nitrogen contained in these plants :— Ghondrus crispus, bleached, from Bew- ly Evans , Ghondrus crispus, un- bleached, Bally- castle Gigartina mamillosa, Ballycastle Ghondrus crispus, bleached, 2d experi- ment Ghondrus crispus, un- bleached, 2d experi- ment Laminaria digitata, or dulse tangle.. Rhodomeniapalmata.. Porphyra laciniata. Iridsea edulis , Alaria esculenta .. ., Water. ObSx. Per cent. NitroRen in Dry Matter. 17-92 82-08 1-634 21-47 78 53 2-142 21-65 78-46 2-198 19 79 80-21 1-485 19-96 80-04 2-510 21-38 16-56 17 41 19-61 17-91 78-62 83-44 82-59 80-39 82-09 1688 3-465 4-650 3-088 2-424 tainedia Dry Matter. 9-537 13-387 13 737 9-281 15-687 9-925 21656 29-062 19-300 15-160 It would then appear from these gratifying results that sea-weeds are among the most nutritious of vegetable substances — richer in nitrogenous matter than oatmeal or Indian com. The varieties at present used are the following : Porphyra laciniata and vulgaris, called laver in England, stolce in Ireland, and slouk in Scotland. Ghondrus crispus, called carrageen or Irish moss, and also pearl-moss and sea-moss. Laminaria digitata, known as the sea-girdle in England, tangle in Scotland, and red-ware in the Orkneys ; and Laminaria saccha/rina, Alaria esculenta, or bladder-lock, called also hen-viare, and honey-ware by the Scotch. Viva latissima or green laver — Bho- domenia palmata, or dulse of Scotland. These are the principal varieties which are eaten by the coast inhabitants of this country and the Continent ; indped in parts of Scot- land and Ireland they form a considerable portion of the diet of the poor. The lavers, under the name of " marine sauce, " were once esteemed a luxury in London.' The first thing to be done in preparing them for food is to steep them in water, to remove the saline matter, and in some cases a little carbonate of soda added to the water will remove the bitterness. They should then be stewed in ALI (45) ALE water or milk until they become tender and mucilaginous. Pepper and vinegar are the best condiments to flavour them with. Algce in Water. — In nearly aU waters algse are present, and they cannot be held to indicate any great impurity; to condemn water because of their presence would be really to condemn all waters, even rain, in which minute algoid vesicles [protococci] are often found. Aliments— %e Food. Alkali — The term alkali is of Arabic origin ; it was given in the first instance to carbonate of soda, or sodic carbonate, which was then obtained from the ashes of sea- weeds ; but it is now 'extended to a class of substances possessing many qualities exactly the reverse of those of acids. An alkali is soluble in water, and produces a liquid, soapy to the touch, and of a peculiar nauseous taste ; it restores the blue colour to vegetable infu- sions which have been reddened by an acid. It turns many of these blue colours into gi'een, as in the cases of a solution of red cabbage and of syrup of violets ; and it gives a brown colour to vegetable yellows, such as those of turmeric and rhubarb. For the regulations applicable to alkali-works, see Alkali Acts. Alkali Acts— The principal Alkali Act is the 26 & 27 Vict. c. 24, amended by 37 & 38 Vict. c. 43, the amended Act coming into operation in 1875. Every alkali-work must be carried on so as to ensure the condensation of not less than 95 per cent, of muriatic acid evolved therein ; and it must be so condensed that in each cubic foot of air, smoke, or chimney gases escaping from the works into the atmosphere there is not contained more than one-fifth part of a grain of muriatic acid. Penalty for first conviction, £50;. for second and other of- fences, £100, or less (26 & 27 Vict. ... 124, s. 4 ; 37 & 38 Vict. c. 43, ». 4). The owner of every alkali-work is also bound to "use the best iiraoticable means of preventing the discharge into the atmosphere of all other noxious gases arising from such work, or of rendering such gases harmless when discharged." The noxious gases are defined to be sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid (except that arising from the combustion of coals), nitric acid, or other noxious oxides of nitrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and chlorine (37 & 38 Vict. 0. 43, s. 5 and 8). The owner is liable for any offence against the Alkali Acts, unless he prove that the offence was committed by some agent, ser- vant, or workman, and without his knowledge, in which case the agent, &c., is liable (26 & 27 Vict. .;. 124, ». 5). Every alkali- work must be registered: penalty for neglect, £5 per day (ibid. a. 6). Powers are given to owners to make special rules for the guidance of their workmen (ibid. s. 13). Alkalimetry— This is the reverse of aci- dimetry, and signifies the chemical determi- nation of alkali in any given sample or solu- tion. This maybe determined by several methods. If the alkali is dissolved in pure water, the specific gravity may be taken, and, by the aid of the following tables the percentage com- position ascertained. If the alkali is in the form of carbonate, the carbonic acid may be expelled by an acid, and from the loss the amount of alkali ascer- tained.— (Fbesenius and Will.) Inthecaseof ammonia, the colorimetric method described under 'Watek Analysis may be use^. The more usual method, however, is based upon the capacity of the base to saturate acids. (For the method of Fresenius and Will, see Acid, Oaebonio.) This method only requires one fiuid of known strength, e.g., a standard sulphuric acid. (a) In order to prepare this, 5 grammes of car- bonate of soda are ignited gently in a platinum crucible, and ttien accurately weighed, next dissolved iu about 200 c.c. of water, and lastly coloured blue with tincture of litmus. (b) 60 grammes of concentrated Bulpburic acid are mixed with 500 c.c. of distilled water, and cooled. The acid is now added from a burette to the point of saturation to the 5-grammes solution of soda. If the carbonate was not exactly 5 grammes, a rule-of -three sum will easily cal- culate it into 5 grammes. Having obtained thus the number of centimetres of the acid which saturates 5 grammes of carbonate of sodn , the acid must be diluted, so a£ to give a fluid .50 CO. of which exactly saturates S grammes of carbonate of soda. For example, if 40 c.c. of the acid does this, 10 c.c. of water must be added to each 40 of acid, when the acid is thus prepared : — Gnus. 50 c.c. of the stand, acid saturate 5*000 carb. of soda, „ „ ,, 2-925 soda ,, ,, ,, 6-519carb.ofpotassa. „ ,, ,, 4*443 potassa. In the actual analysis it is convenient to stain the acid with litmus, and to add drop by drop from a burette to the point of saturation. If this is done twice, and the mean taken, the results are fairly accurate. (Tables I., II., III.) ALE (46) ALK TABLE I. Peeoentaqeb or Anhtdbous Potasba corresponding to different speoiflc gravities of Solution of Fotassa. ' Daltos. TVsmtMiss (at 15°). Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhydrous Potassa. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhydrous Potassa. Specific Gravity. Percentage of ^nliydrous Potassa. 1-60 1-52 1-47 1-44 1-42 1-39 1-36 1-33 1-28 1-23 1-19 1-15 1-11 1-06 46-7 42-9 39-6 36-8 34-4 32-4 29-4 26-3 23-4 19-5 16-2 13-0 9-5 4-7 1-3300 1-3131 1-2966 1-2803 1-2648 1-2493 1-2342 1-2268 1-2122 1-1979 ' 1-1839 1-1702 1-1568 28-290 27-158 26-027 24-895 23-764 22-632 21-500 20-935 19-803 18-671 17-540 16-408 15-277 1-1437 1-1308 1-1182 1-1059 1-0938 1-0819 1-0703 1-0589 1-0478 1-0369 1-0260 1-0153 1-0050 14-145 13-013 11-882 10-750 9-619 8-487 7-355 6-224 5-002 3-961 2-829 1-697 0-5658 TABLE II. Pekoentages op Anhtdbous Soda corresponding to different specific gravities of Solution of Soda. Daltos. Tdnneemahh (at 15°). Specific Gravity. Percen- tage of . Anhy- drous Soda. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhydrous Soda. Specific GraMty. Percentage of Anhydrous Soda. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Anhydrous Soda. 1-56 1-50 1-47 1-44 ■ 1-40 1-36 1-32 1-29 1-23 1-18 112 1-06 41-2 36-8 34-0 310 29-0 26-0 23-0 190 • 16-0 130 9-0 4-7 1-4285 1-4193 1-4101 1-4011 1-3923 1-3836 1-37.51 1-3668 1-3586 1-3505 1-3426 1-3349 1-3273 1-3198 1-3143 1-3125 1-3053 30-220 29-616 29-011 28-407 27-802 27-200 26-594 25-989 25-385 24-780 24-176 23-572 22-967 22-363 21-894 21-758 21-154 1-2982 1-2912 1-2843 1-2775 1-2708 1-2642 1-2578 1-2.515 1-2453 1-2392 1-2280 1-2178 1-2058 ■ 1-1948 1-1841 1-1734 1-1630 20-550 19-945 19-341 18-730 18-132 17-528 16-923 16-319 15-714 15-110 14-506 13-901 13-297 12-692 12 088 11-484 10-879 1-1528 1-1428 1-1330 1-1233 1-1137 1-1042 1-0948 1-0855 1-0764 1-0676 1-0587 1-0500 ■ 1-0414 1-0330 1-0246 1-0163 1-0081 10-275 9-670 9-066 8-462 7-857 7-253 6-648 6-044 5-440 4-835 4-231 3-626 3-022 2-418 1-813 1-209 0-604 ALK (47) AI.E TABLE III. Pekcentages oe Ammonia (NH3) corresponding to different specific gravities of Solution of Ammonia at 16°.— (J. Otto.) Specific Gravity. Percentage of Ammonia, Specific Gravity. Percentage of Ammonia. Specific Gravity. Percentage of Ammonia. 0-9517 12-000 0-9607 9-625 0-9697 7-250 0-9521 11-875 0-9612 9-500 0-9702 7-125 0-9526 11-750 0;9616 9-375 0-9707 7-000 0-9531 11-625 0-9621 9-250 0-9711 6-875 0-9536 11-500 0-9626 9-125 0-9716 6-750 0-9540 11-375 0-9631 9-000 0-9721 6-625 0-9545 11-250 0-9636 8-875 0-9726 6-500 0-9550 11-125 0-9641 8-7* 0-9730 6-375 0-9555 11-000 0-9645 8-625 0-9735 6-250 0-9556 10-950 0-9650 8-500 0-9740 6-125 0-9559 10-875 0-9654 8-375 0-9745 6-000 0-9564 10-750 0-9659 8-250 0-9749 5-875 0-9569 10-625 0-9664 8-125 0-9754 5-750 0-9574 10-500 0-9669 8-000 0-9759 5-625 0-9578 10-375 0-9673 7-875 0-9764 5-500 0-9583 10-250 0-9678 7-750 0-9768 5-375 0-9588 10-125 0-9683 7-625 0-9773 5-250 0-9593 10-000 0-9688 7-500 0-9778 , 5-125 0-9597 9-875 0-9692 7-375 0-9783 5-000 0-9602 9-750 Alkaloids — The volaiile alkaloids may- be extracted by simply digesting the plant containing them in a weak solution of potash or soda, and distilling them in a suitable retort -with condenser. The distillate is then neutralised vith sulphuric acid, evapo- rated, and then the residue digested with alcohol, which dissolves out the sulphate of the organic base required. The sulphate of the alkaloid may then be decomposed by agitating it -with a strong solution of caustic potash and ether, and obtained in a state of purity from the ether which rises to the top. Non-ivolatile alkaloids are obtained by powdering or rasping the vegetable, and digesting it in dilute acids. Ammonia, mag- nesia, or carbonate of. soda is added to the filtered 'liquid ; the resulting precipitate is filtered off, and treated with boiling alcohol ; the alkaloid crystallises out on cooling, and may be purified by animal charcoal. The above are general modes of extracting alka- loids, which must be varied for particular purposes. In the search for an organic base in cases of suspected poisoning by these substances, Stas recommends the adoption of the following method : To the contents of the stomach add twice their weight of concentrated alcohol, then from 10 to 30 grains of tartaric acid, and heat the mixture in a flask to 160° or 170° ; allow it to cool completely, and wash the re- sidue with strong alcohol. Evaporate the filtrate in vacuo, or in a current of air, at a temperature not exceeding 90°, filtering the solution if any fat separates ; treat the dry residue with cold absolute alcohol. Evaporate in vacuo. Dissolve the acid residue in a few drops of water, adding hydropotassic or hydro- sodic carbonate (bicarbonate), till it ceases to produce effervescence ; then a^tate with four or five times its bulk of fine ether. When clear, allow a portion of this ethereal solution to evaporate spontaneously in a very dry place. In this way the base is obtained in a state of purity sufficient to allow of its exami- nation by its characteristic reagents. If sul- phuric acid be added to the ethereal solution, the sulphates of the following volatile bases may be separated in a crystalline form : Ammonia, tetrylia, nicotylia, aniline, quino- line, and picoline. Conylia sulphate is slightly soluble in ether. Stas states that he has thus successfully isolated morphia, codeia, strych- nia, brucia, veratria, emetia, atropia, hyo- soyama, aconitina, and colchicine, all of which, when uncombined with acid, are suffi- ciently soluble in ether to admit of extraction by the foregoing method. Many organic bases are also dissolved by chloroform, which may often be advantageously substituted for ether in Staa's process. The liquid is filtered, if necessary, and agi- tated with about one-thirtieth of its bulk of chloroform. The chloroform • speedily sepa- rates in the form of a heavy oily Uyer, which ALK (48) ALK can be decanted ; it will be found to contain nearly the whole of the base, which may after- wards be purified by the usual methods. The following bases are especially soluble in chlo- roform; Veratria, quinia, brucia, narcotine, atropia, and strychnia ; cinchonia is but sparingly soluble, and morphia still less so. The following is a summary of the best known, routine process of identification of an alkaloid : — The presence of the alkaloids and their salts, in clear soh,twns, rtuxy he thus determvned : — 1. (Fkbseniits.)— 1. The solution is rendered very slightly alkaline with dilute solution of potassa or soda, added drop by drop. (a) No precipitate is formed ; total absence of the alkaloids. (See 4, below) (6) A precipitate is formed ; solution of potassa or soda is added, drop by drop, until the liquid exhibits a strong alkaline reaction. (A) The precipitate redissolrea ; absence of brucia, cinchonia, narcotina, quina, strychnia, and veratriay probably presence of morphia. (B) Precipitate does not redissolve, or not com- pletely ; probably the presence of one or more of the first six of the above-named alkaloids. The fluid is filtered from the precipitate, mixed with either bi- carbonate of soda or of potassa, gently boiled nearly to dryness, and treated with water. If it dissolves completelj^, absence of Taorphia ,• an insoluble resi- due indicates hokphia. 2. The precipitate (1 b, B) is washed with cold dis- tilled water, dissolved in a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid, neutralised with a saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda, and allowed to repose a few hours. * (a) Noprecipitate ; absence of cincftonia, narcotina, and quina. The solution is gently evaporated nearly to dryness, and treated with cold water. If it dis- solves completely, pass on to 4 ; if there is an in- soluble residue, it may contain brnda, strychnia, or veratria. {See 3.) (b) A precipitate ; the filtered fluid is treated as directed at 2 a ; the pr'ecipitate is washed with cold distilled water, dissolved in a little hydrochloric acid. Ammonia is added in excess, and subsequently a sufficient quantity of ether, agitation being had recourse to, (A) The precipitate formed by the ammonia redis- solves completely in the ether, and the clear liquid separates into two layers ; absence of cinchonia ; probable presence of quina or narcotina. (B) The precipitate produced by the ammonia does not redissolve in the ether, or not completely. Pro- bable presence of oinohohia, and perhaps also of quina or narcotina. The filtered liquid may be tested for these alkaloids as at a. 3. The insoluble residuum after the evaporation of the solution 2 a, or of the filtrate 2 &, is now dried in a water-bath, and digested with absolute alcohol. (a) It dissolves completely ; absence of strychnia ; probable presence of beuoia, qoina (?) or veratria. The alcoholic solution is evaporated to dryness, and if quina has been already detected, the residue is * Before setting the glass aside the liquor should be well mixed, and the glass-stirrer vigorously rubbed against the sides of the vessel. divided into two portions, one of which is tested for brucia, the other for veratria. (6) It does not dissolve, or not completely. Probable presence of strychnia, and perhaps also of brucia and veratria. The filtered fluid is divided iqto two portions, and tested separately as at a. 4. The original liquid (1 a) may contain salicine, a proximate vegetable principle, closely allied to the alkaloids ; a portion is boiled with hydrochloric acid for some time ; the formation of a precipitate shows the presence of salicine. (See 2, below.)* II. (Laeooqub and Thibierge). — Terchloride of gold is recommended by writers as a more de- cisive test for the alkaloids than the "double chloride of gold and sodium," commonly employed for this purpose. The foUowiog are the colours of the precipitates whjch it produces with the aqueous solution of their salts : Bbucia, milk- brown, passing into cofi'ee-brown, and lastly choco- late-brown ; oiNCHONiA, sulphur-yellow; morphia, yellowj then bluish, and lastly violet. In this last state the gold is reduced, and the precipitate is in- soluble in water, alcohol, the caustic alkalies, and sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. It forms with aqua regia, a solution which is precipitated by protosulphate of iron. Quina, buff-coloured ; strychnia, canary-yellow; veeatbia, pale greenish- yellow. All these precipitates, with the exception mentioned, are very soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether, and only slightly soluble in water. Those with morphia and brucia are sufficiently marked to prevent these alkaloids from being mistaken for each other, and those with brucia and strychi^a are, in a like manner, easily distinguishable. The best methods of discrimirtating the poisonoits alkaloids in the solid state a/re — (1) Their behaviour with nitric and sulphuric acid ; (2) the amount of ammonia they sTolve when distilled with an alkaline solution of permanganate of potash ; (3) the temperature at which they sublime. These three methods should always be com- bined, and thoy canno't fail to identify the alkaloid. I. The behaviour of the principal alkaloids with sulphuric and nitric acid may be seen by a glance at the following table (Gut) : — Cantharidine . Strychniine..., Brucine..., Morphine Atropine Aconitine Pici'Otoxine .,, Veratrine Digitaline... { Solanine Sulphuric Acid. Cold. Warm. Hot. yellowif yellows brown u browns brown black yellow brown oranges scarlet claret red- red- red- browni brown2 browns yellows browns browns Nitric Acid. pink redS omngeS * Tor further information on this subject see the admirable System of Qual. Chem. Anal., by Dr 0. E. Presenius (J. and A. Churchill). t The BmBll figures 1, 2, S, show degrees of in- tenseness. ALK (49) ALL II. An entirely different, extremely deli- cate, and valid method of discriminating the different alkaloids, is the estimation of the ammonia they evolve on distillation with a strongly alkaline solution of permanganate of potash. This method is the natural result of Wanklyn's observation that organic sub- stances in general, when they do not contain ■ the nitrogen in the nitro state or urea, evolve it as ammoiiia, some giving up all their nitro- gen, others only a part. The mode of procedure is of the simplest nature. A small flask, with a bilateral tube (see fig. 6, p. 53), is charged with about 25 c.c. of the solution of permanganate of potash, described under 'Wateb-Anai.tsis, and con- nected with a small Liebig's condenser. A minute quantity of the alkaloid, carefully and accurately weighed, is now introduced, and the mixture slowly distilled. The best results are obtained by treating from 1 to 5 milli- grammes in this way ; but quantities so small as ^jth of a milligramme will, in skilled hands, give accurate results. The ammonia is found in the distillate, is nesslerised and estimated colorimetrioally as described under Ammonia, TVatek-Anaitsis, &c. The poisonous alkaloids may be for practical purposes divided into four classes : — (a) Those which yield from - 5 to 2 per cent, of ammonia. (6) Those which yield from 2 to 3 per cent, of ammonia. (c) Those which yield from 3 to 5 per cent, of ammonia. {d) Those which yield a larger quantity than 5 per cent., e.g. — I, NHg per cent, SoLANiNE yields halt its nitrogen as am- monia 0"D8 II. Morphia yields half its nitrogen as am- monia 2'98 Codeine do. do, 2-87 Papaverine do. do. 2-50 Vebaikia do, do 2-87 III. Atropia yields all its nitrogen as am- monia 5"73 Narcotine do, , do, 4*11 Strychnine yields half its nitrogen as ammonia 5'09 Brucine do, do, 4-32 Aconite do, do, 3'5 CONEINE do. do. 4-6 IV. Nicotine yields half its nitrogen as am- monia 10*49 III. The exact heat at which the poisonous alkaloids melt and sublime has been very carefully worked out by various observers, especially Dr. Guy. A very minute speck of the substance may be placed on a porcelain plate or copper disc, and a square or circle of microscope covering-glass pladed over it, sup- ported by a thin ring of glass, or any other convenient substance. ■ Heat is applied, and the temperature, as observed by a thermo- meter, at which any change takes place, care- fully recorded. Fahr. Cent. Cantharidine sublimes as a white vapour, without change of form or colour 212° 100° Sublime. Melt. Fahr. Cent, Fahr. Cent, {Sublime, ^ melt, and I 330° 165" 340° 171° yield car- > bonaceous | 345° 174° 430° 224° residue, J Melt. Sublime. AC0NIT1NE...^ Atropine j Melt.change Veratrine.. I colour, Brucine y sublime, ■ Digitaline,, j and deposit PiOROTOxiNE I carbon. SoiANiSE.....y Fahr. Cent. Fahr, Cent, /■ 140° 60° 400° 204° ' 150° 66° 280° 138° 200° 93" 360° 182" 240° 118° 400° 204° .Slfl° 154" 310° 154° 820° 100° 320° 160° 1,420° 216° 420° 216° In all cases the solubility of the alkaloids will materially assist the diagnosis. The fol- lowing is a summary of the relative solubility of the more important, the figures giving the number of parts of the liquid required for solution : — Absolute ^^(toAoi.— Strychnine insoluble; brucine soluble. Amylic Alcohol. — Solanine (1061); digitaline sparingly soluble ; inorphine (133) ; strychnine (122) ; veratrine, brucine, atropine, aconitine, and piorotoxine freely soluble. Bemole. — All the poisonous alkaloids except solanine are soluble in benzole. Chloroform. — Solanine (50,000); morphine (6550) ; strychnine (8) ; the rest freely soluble. .BiAer.— Solanine (9000); morphine (7725) ; strychnine (1400); aconitine (777); brucine (440) ; veratrine (108) ; atropine, picrotoxine, and digitaline very soluble. Water (coW).— Strychnine (8333) ; vera- trine (7860); morphine (4166); aconitine (1783) ; solanine (1750) ; brucine (900) ; atro- pine (414) ; picrotoxine (150) ; digitaline very soluble. Allspice, Pimento, or Jamaica Pepper — Tiie berry or fruit of the Eugenia Pimento, one of the Myrtacece. This beauti- ful tree is planted in Jamaica in regular walks, which are called Pimento walkt. The fruit, which is gathered while still green, but not until it has attained fuU size, is usually D ALL (SO) ALM sun-dried, but sometimes kiln-dried on sheets. During this process the oolonr of the fruits changes from green to reddish brown. The thoroughly-ripe berry is glutinous, and be- comes dark purple in colour, and hence in that state it is unfit for preservation. The essential oil of pimento is a mixtiire of two oils — a light and a heavy oil. The pimento berry is divisible into husk and seed, or seeds proper. The following are the characteristics of the husk : It is thick, and when dry, soft and brittle ; it sends oS from its inner surface a prolongation which forms a septum, and divides the interior into two parts or cells. Viewed under the microscope, a vertical section of the busk presents the fallowing structures : On the outer part of the section are seen several large cells or receptacles for the essential oil. These are often two or three deep. More internally, numerous stel- late cells, attached to and imbedded in cellular tissue, occur. Next to these may be seen bundles of woody fibre and delicate spiral vessels, while the deepest or innermost part of the section consists of cellular tissue only. The two cells formed by the husks are each occupied by a small flattish seed of n dark brown or chocolate colour. If we macerate this, we may succeed, after somfe little difficulty, in separating two membranes from the surface of the seed. The external of these, very thin and delicate, consists of a single layer of elopgated and angular cells. The internal tunic — to which the dark colour of the surface is due — ^is composed of several layers of large, corrugated, coloured cells. When viewed under the microscope they exhibit the characteristic port- wine tint. If we divide the seed proper in vertical sections, the following structures are dis- played : Eunning round the outer part of. the section is a single layer of large recep- tacles, the remaining thickness being made up of angular and transparent cells, the cavities of which are filled vrith numerous well-defined starch granules. The various structures here mentioned, when the pimento berries are reduced to powder, become disunited, broken up, and intermixed. The port-wine-coloured cells are particularly conspicuous, and afford a charac- ter by which the nature of the powder may be at once determined. — (Hassall.) As this spice is remarkably cheap, it is not much adulterated, though we occasionally find it sophisticated with mustard husk. This adulteration can be detected by means of the microscope. The structural peculiarities of nrtiatard will be found in the article on that condiment. ANALYSIS of the Composition of the Pimento Bekkt. Published in Joum. de Chim. Med., i. 210, by M. Bonasteo. Volatile oil Green oil Solid fat oil Astringent extract Gummy extract Colouring-matter Kesinous matter Uncrystallisable sugar Malic or gallic acid Lignin Saline ashes Water Loss Red matter insoluble in water.. Pellicular residue Brown flocculi Total 1000 10 8-4 09 11-4 3 4'0 1-2 30 06 SOO 2-8 3 6 1-6 6 2-5 1-2 39-8 7-2 8 1-6 i'-'o 3 1-8 8 3 16 3-2 100-0 Almonds — There are several varieties of almonds. The principal are the seed of the bitter almond tree, Amygdalus communis, var. amara, brought chiefly from Mogadore; Amygdala dulcis, sweet almond, Jordan al- monds ; the seed of Amygdala communis (the sweet variety), the sweet almond tree, grow- ing in Syria, Persia, also in Northern Africa and in Southern Europe from trees cultivated about Mahiga. From the seeds of Amygdala communis an oil is expressed. Amygdala oleum. The almond seed is above an inch in length, lanceolate acute, with a clear cinnamon-brown seed-coat, and a sweetish nutty-flavoured ker- nel; the bitter almond is the smaller of the two. The oil is of a very pale yellow colour, made by expression, and whether obtained from the sweet or bitter variety is the same in properties and composition, beiog nearly inodorous, or having a nutty odour with an oleaginous taste. Both varieties of almonds contain about 50 per cent, of the fixed oil, chiefly oleine, an albuminous principle, soluble in water, called emulsime, with sugar, gum, and woody fibre ; the bitter variety, in addition to these, pos- sesses a peculiar white crystalline principle, amygdaline (CjoHsjNOn-l-SHsO), soluble in water and alcohol, the solutions having a slightly bitter taste. It is to the presence of this body that the peculiar properties of the bitter almond are due, for when amygdaline is acted upon by the enmlsine, as occurs on mois- tening the almond, a species of fermentation ensues, and hydrocyanic acid (HON) and volatile oil of hitter almonds, or hydride of benzoyl (C7HBOH), are formed, with a little glucose and formic acid, and hence poisonous ALU (50 AMB efifects may result from such a decomposition, ■which' may be thus represented — CjoHjrNOn + 2HaO = CNH + CyHsO + 2C6Hi20g The volatile oil, when deprived of prussio acid, is not poisonous, and resembles in appear- ance other volatile oils ; it is chiefly composed of hydride of benzoyl (Cj-HjOH) : on exposure it absorbs Oxygen, and is converted into ben- zoic acid (C7H6O2). It is procured by distil- ling the marc left after the expression of the fixed oil from bitter almonds with -water ; that sold in shoi>3 is intensely poisonous from the large amount (from 4 to 8 per cent.) of prussic acid contained in it. 100 drops of oil of almonds are equal to 13 grains of anhydrous acid, or 11 drachms (nearly IJ ounce) of ordinary acid. 100 grains of bitter almond pulp are equal to 2 of the oil, or i grain of anhydrous acid, or 12J drops of "medicinal acid. From 15 to 30 drops of oil of bitter almonds have proved fatal. Alum — Sulphate of alumina and ammo- nia crystallised. Its chemical composition may be thus represented — NH4AI (SOJj 12 H2O. A number of other salts may be pro- cured which have the same crystalline form as ammonium alum, forming a remarkable series of isomorphous compounds, a few of which we here enumerate : — Potassium alum, KAI2SO4I2H2O Sodium alum, KaA12S04l2H20 Iron alum, KFe2S04l2H20 This salt is occasionally found native in volcanic districts in the form of a white efflor- escence produced by the action of the sulphuric acid of the volcano upon the compounds of aluminum and potassium contained in the lava and trachytic rocks ; for commercial pur- poses, however, it is generally manufactured artificially. It forms transparent, white, regular octahe- dral crystals, having an acid, sweet, astringent taste ; it is slightly efflorescent in air, from the loss of some of its water by crystallisation. It is precipitated by chloride of barium, and by the addition of alkalies and their carbonates, but redissolved by excess of the former. Alum is used extensively in dyeing, and for the adulteration of several kinds of food. This drug appears to be of especial use to the pub- lican. Alum, in conjunction with other sub- stances, quickly clears gin which has become turbid from the addition of water ; to porter it gives the creamy "head" so much prized by lovers of that beverage ; and to beer gene- rally a " smack" of age. Nor is it confined to these more humble drinks, but is extensively used to give to port wine the brilliancy looked upon with such favour by the connoisseur. "We also find it in American lard, and its fre- quent presence in bread is a matter of the greatest notoriety. The adulterations of these several articles will be found fully considered under their respective headings. It is also in some degree a disinfectant, and is used to purify water. The sulphate of alumina has been in this way applied to filters, especially in India. It exercises a peculiar influence on animal bodies, such as cells, ani- malculsB, &o., which may be compared to a kind of tanning : it thus renders them innocu- ous and inert. The general method of detecting alum in articles of diet is, if they are solid— c.p'., bread — to burn them down, and look for alumina in the ash ; if liquid, to evaporate to dryness, bum the residue, and proceed, as will be described under the different headings of Bkhad, Beek, &c. &c. Aluminum has recently been success- fully used for the estimation of nitric acid in water; a complete description of the process will be found in the article on 'Wateb. Amabele — Amabele consists of crushed miUats. See Millets. Amasi— The natives of Central Africa never make use of new milk until they have first caused it to become sour, by putting it into vessels charged with the remains of former operations ; this drink is considered by them fax more wholesome than fresh milk. They have given it the name of Amasi. Ambulance — An ambulance is an hos- pital in miniature, attached to an army and following its movements. It is a term origi- nally used by the French, but has now taken a place in our own tongue. The French ambulance is composed of a surgeon-in-chief, an apothecary, a controlling officer, a certain number of assistant-surgeons, assistants, and nurses. It is well provided with surgical instruments and appliances. Every wounded or sick person is received first by the ambulance. After his wounds have been attended to, he is either restored to his corps, or, if the case is serious, transferred to the nearest hospital. On the battle-field the ambulance is divided into ambulance volante, and dipdt d'ambulance. The flying ambulance consists of two sur- geons, a controlling officer, and of two nurses. Its duties are to promptly aid and convey the sick from the field. A light covered waggon is attached to the ambulance, in which the wounded are placed. The stationary ambu- lance is established in a shady place, close, if possible, to drinking-water; its site is marked by a red flag, and the wounded are conveyed AMM (52) AMSE to the cover of its tent as quickly as possible by the staff and assistants of the flying ambu- lance. The d6p6t d' ambulance has 1 principal medical officer, 4 medical officers, 1 purveyor, 2 ward-masters, 10 orderlies, 1 ambulance-- ■waggon complete, 30 mattresses, 30 stretchers, 60 coverlets, 10 sets of furniture, 10 litters, 12 spring carriages. Ammonia (NHj) = I7.— This substance derives its name from sal-ammoniac, so called from the circumstance of its having been obtained first in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, It is also familiarly termed voUtile alkali, spirit of hartshorn, &o. Its observed specific gravity is 0'59; boiling-point, -37° F. (-38° C); melting-point, -103° F. ( - 75° C. ) At the ordinary pressure and tem- perature ammonia is a gas, but it may be liquefied by exposure to intense cold, or by the pressure of its own atmosphere. It derives its importance, in a sanitary point of view, from its presence and amount in air and water giving a very fair estimate of the purity of these two essentials of life. When- ever moist nitrogenous matters decompose, ammonia is one of the' products. It is found in clayey and peaty soils, and in minute quan- tity in good air and water. There are many cliemical bodies formed on the type of am- monia, and it is probable that most of the disgusting odours from sewers, drains, &c., are really stinking ammonias. In analysis two kinds of ammonia are re- cognised, both identical in composition, but differing in their mode of origin. They are usually distinguished as Ammonia and Albu- minoid Ammonia. The first is obtained by boiling or evaporating down an organic fluid, and keeping for some time at a temperature of 150° C, with excess of hydrate of potash. The second, on further boiling it with a strong solution of potash and permanganate of potash. There are certain animal fluids— in which the quantity of ammonia yielded by each method bears a certain ratio to the other, which is characteristic as well as the actual amount evolved. "We are mainly indebted for these facts in their prac- tical application to Professor Wanklyn. In aU probability they will in future be found of great utUity in the analysis of most animal fluids, e.g., there is no quicker way of estimating the caseine of milk than by turning it into ammo- nia {see Milk), and there is no easier way of finding minute traces of albumen in urine than by follovring out the same process.* « The same process may be used to discriminate the different alkaloids. See Alkaloids. The following table was drawn up by Mr. Wanklyn. 100 cubic centimetres gives of Urine, human . Milk of cow Blood of slieep Liquid white of egg (lien) -32 Dry solid gelatine Ammonia Ammonia by by Potash Pennanganata at 160° C. ofPotnah. 90 gram. OO.'i 13 „ ' 0-28 0-46 „ 2-20 1-30 10-00 " Of all the animal fluids," says Mr. Tank- lyn, "I know of only one which yields a large proportion of ammonia to caustic potash, and that fluid is urine. On the other hand, urine is distinguished by the smallness of the yield to ammonia by permanganate of potash." Gelatine gives no ammonia, or only the least trace, to potash ; a good quantity to perman- ganate. The method employed is similar to the am- monia process of water-analysis; but very minute quantities are taken. 5 c.c. of the ani- mal fluid are diluted with 500 c. o. of water, and 5 C.C. of this liquid are put into a flask with a strong solution of hydrate of potash, evapo- rated down to dryness, and kept at 150° 0. for some time, then some solution of alkaline per- manganate is added, and the different portions of the distillate are estimated by the Nessler test. (SeeWATEK, Analysis OF.) Thefollowing apparatus is convenient (fig. 6) : o is a small flask with a lateral tube, which is fitted to h, the tube of a Liebig's condenser g, by means of a cork ; it is heated by means of a sper- maceti bath X, the temperature being regu- lated by a thermometer h, and the distil- late is received in a flask i. This appara- tus, by the use of a little larger flask, is also the most convenient for the distillation of beer and wine, as well as for the contents of the stomach in the case of the volatile poisons, e.g., prussio acid. Ammonia exists in air in minute quantity {see Aie), as well as in every kind of natural water. See 'Watek. The tests for ammonia are as follow : Free ammonia in a liquid is expelled by boiling, and, if the vapour is condensed, it will give a coloration if in small quantity ; if in large, a precipitate with the Nessler test. (See Nesslbr.) Free ammonia in a solution of iodine in iodide ot potash forms, if in some quantity, the explosive black iodide of nitro- gen. If a saturated solution of arsenious acid is mixed With a solution of nitrate of silver (strength 2 per cent.), a trace of ammonia causes the formation of a yellow triargentic arsenite. Free alkalies and alkaline earths do the same, so they must be known to be absent before applying the test. Ammonia salts give off free ammonia on boiling with caustic potash. Ammonia is estimated by the colo- AMY (53) ANO rimetrio test, described under Wateb-Abta- LTSIS, or gravimetrioally by precipitating it with platinic chloride ; a yellow insoluble double salt falls, containing in 100 parts 7 '62 of ammonia; its chemical composition is (2H4NCIPICI4). It may be also estimated indirectly by distUling the substance with caustic potash and permanganate, and then determining the alkalinity of the resulting liquid in the usual way. Most of the salts of ammonia in commerce are now obtained from the refuse liquid at the gas-works. Fig. 6. Axaygdalxae—See Almokds. Analysis— This term, used in a general sense, means the resolution of anything, whe- ther an object of the senses or of the intellect, into its component parts ; in chemistry, the resolution of a compound body into its consti- tuent parts or elements. Analysis is divided by chemists into two great classes — quali- tative and quantitative analysis. By qualita- tive analysis, merely the nature of a compound is known; thus, for instance, that chlorate of potash contains chloric acid and potassium : by quantitative analysis, not alone the quality, but also the quantity, of the component parts is known ; for instance, the exact amount by weight of caseine, water, sugar, ash, and fat that make up 100 parts of milk is an example of quantitative analysis. For success in analysis, knowledge of the theory and a considerable amount of prac- tice of chemistry is required. Most chemical operations, especially those of a quantitative nature, require, besides great patience and skill, often no small leisure. The essen- tial instruments of the laboratory are— (1) a balance to weigh to a milligramme ; (2) weights of the most accurate kind (a somewhat indif- ferent balance may be made to answer, pro- vided good weights are employed) ; (3) good measuring instruments, such as graduated burettes, flasks, &c. ; (4) beakers, evaporating dishes, retorts, &c. ; (5) a supply of gas and water ; (6) one or two platinum dishes. "With such a supply, and provided with stands, holders, flasks, and so on, nearly any ordi- nary analysis may be perfoi-med. Full infor- mation on the principal analytical operations that are required by health officers arid ana- lysts will be found under the different head- ings. 5ee especially Milk, "Watek, Bbead, &c Analyst, Appointment of— See Adul- TEBATION. Anchovies — Various kinds of fish are sub- stituted for the true or Gorgona anchovy, but before vre consider the numerous adulterations lo which this favourite delicacy is subjected, we give a description of this fish.- Generic Characters. — Distinguished from the herring, in having the head pointed ; the upper jaw the longer, the mouth deeply divided ; the opening extended backwards behind the line of the eyes ; the gape branchial apertures very large ; the ventral fins in advance of the line of the commencement of the dorsal ; abdomen smooth ; branchiostegous rays, twelve. I have fallowed Dr. Fleming in preserving to the anchovy the old name by which it was formerly known. It was called Lycostomus, from the form of its mouth ; and EnoraulU encrasicolus, Because from its bitterness it was supposed to carry its gall in its head. For this reason the head as well as the entrails are removed when, the fish is pickled. The anchovy is immediately recognised among the species of the family to which it belongs by its sharp-pointed head, with the upper jaw con- siderably the longer. The length of the head com- pared with the length of the body alone, is as one to three ; the depth of the body about two-thirds the length of the head, and compared to the length of the whole fish is as one to seven ; the first ray of the dorsal fin arises half-way between the point of the nose and the end of the fleshy portion of the tail ; the third ray of the dorsal fin, Which is the longest, is of the same length as the base of the fin ; the pectoral ANE (54) ANE fin small ; the ventral fins arise in a vertical line in advance of the commencement of the dorsal fin, which is over the space between the ventral and anal fins ; the base of the anal fin is as long as the distance from its commencement to the origin of the ventral fins ; the rays short ; the tail deeply forked. The fin-rays in number are — D. 14 ; P. 15 ; V. 7 ; A. 18 ; C. 19.- The breadth of the eye is one-fifth of the length of the whole head ; the peculiarity in the comparative length of the jaws has been previously noticed ; the giU-covers are elongated ; the scalfis of the body large and deciduous ', the oolour of the top of the head and back blue, with a tinge of green ; irides, gill-covers, sides, and belly, silvery White ; the fins delicate in structure, and greenish white ; the membranes con- necting the rays almost transparent. From four to five inches is the ordinary size, but many as large as seven inches and a half have been taken in the Cornish seas.— (Yasbell's British Fishes.) The adulterations practised are principally the substitution of inferior fish for the true anchovy, and the addition of colouring-matters to the brine or liquor in which they are pre- served. True anchovies come over here in barrels, preserved in strong brine, and then they a.re bottled by the wholesale pickle mer- chants. In the preserving liquor Armenian bole and Venetian red have been found. Dutch, French, Sicilian fish, sardines, and even sprats have been substituted for the true anchovy ; it is only by a perfect acquaintance with the characters of the fish that these frauds. can be detected. It must be remem- bered that the process of preserving will consi- derably modify the appearance of the anchovy, for the head, intestines, scales, and pectoral fins wiU have been removed; the principal points of guidance are then the colour of the flesh, the size of the fish, and the number of dorsal, caudal, and anal rays. And with re- gard to the latter. Dr. Hassall declares, when preserved, that' as many as sixteen dorsal, nineteen anal, and twenty-six caudal rays may be counted. Anemometer {anemos, the wind, and metron, a measure) — An instrument for measuring the force of the wind. There are different sorts, some measuring the velocity, others the pressure, and some again of a very delicate construction, used for estimating the ventilation of public buildings. For measur- ing the velocity of the wind a hemispherical cup anemometer, invented by Mr. Bobinson, is generally considered the simplest and the best. Two horizontal rods of iron cross each other at right angles, and are supported on a vertical axis, which turns freely ; to the ends of these two horizontal rods four cups or hemispheres are screwed. These cups, when placed in the wind, revolve, and the arms are of such a length' that when a mile of wind has passed the anemometer, 500 revolutions are registered by the instrument. Should any doubt be entertained regarding the accuracy of the machine, it may be tested by rapidly conveying it through the air on a perfectly calm day, for the distance of a mile and back again, and noting the number of revolutions registered. .An endless screw, on an upright axis, sets in motion a system of index-wheels, by which the number of revolutions made in a given time is shown and read in the same way as a gas-meter. To find the number of miles tra- velled during a day, hour, or any specified time, it is only necessary to multiply the revolutions registered during that time by 2, and divide by 1000. To ascertain the rate of the wind per hour, observe the revolutions made, say in two minutes, multiply by 60, and divide by 1000; e.g., suppose 800 revolu- tions were made in two minutes, the velocity of the wind would be at the rate of 48 miles per hour. To learn the force or pressure which the wind exerts, it is necessary to use an Ostler's anemometer, or a Lind's wind-gauge. Ostler's instrument is of simple construction. It con- sists of a plate a foot square, acting on a spiral spring, to which an index showing the degree of pressure is attached. The plate is kept perpendicular to the wind by a vane. The pressure given in pounds avoirdupois on the square inch is registered by means of clockwork on a piece of paper, fitted on a turning drum. Lind's wind-gauge consists of a tube about half an inch in diameter, in the form of a siphon, one end of it being bent so as to face the wind. It turns freely on a vertical axis, and a vane keeps the mouth of it directed to the wind. It is half -filled- with water, and when the wind blows into the mouth of the instrument it drives the water up the other leg, to which a scale showing the pressure is attached. The zero of the scale is the level at which the water stands when the air is calm. It may also be made to measure maxi- mum gusts of wind by filling into the tube a chemical solution, which colours bits of pre- pared paper, placed at different levels on the scale limb of the instrument. For ascertaining the ventilation of public buildings, &c.. Combe's instrument should be used. Combe's anemometer is also one of the best to ascertain the velocity of currents of air. It is made of metal, with four small mica sails, like the sails of a little windmill, which turn on an axis, furnished with an endless screw, and supported on two copper uprights. This, again, turns various toothed wheels, two of ANE (55) ANE which have plates showing the number of revolutions performed by each ; and there are two small needles, which travel round circles, properly divided. From zero, upwards, these needles register the observations. Two threads, held by the experimenter, engage or disen- gage the wheels, so that it can be stopped or set going at pleasure. In order to make an anemetrical observation, the two needles are placed at zero; and, to make the operatfon quicker, the anemometer can be disengaged, so that the wheels can be stopped .at zero instantly. To make the observations exact, it is necessary to place the anemometer in a well of a certain depth, and perfectly regular, when the swiftness of the currents can be measured. 'Without these precautions the current of air is subject to contractions and irregularities, which are opposed to all certain results. When there is a difficulty in finding a position to make successful experiments, an iron tunnel, of which the section is known, is made, which is placed upon the banks of a canal, when care must be taken that the out- side air does not pass into the anemometer without passing through it. To effect this, there is placed exactly in the centre of the tunnel a platinum plate, which acts as a wall, where it is fastened by a screw. The two threads ought always to be on the outside, and be perfectly free in their movements. If the observer takes one of these threads in each hand, the mill stops. An assistant holds a watch in his hands ; if it does not mark the minutes, he must observe the exact moment the needle passes one of the divisions, and he then gives the signal to disengage the mill, by pulling one of the threads. As the needle marks the wished-for number of minutes, he again gives the signal, by pulling the other thread, and the mill stops. The anemometer is then taken from the tunnel, and the result is easily read on the dial, counting from zero. If the second wheel has advanced three teeth, and the first from the twelfth division, the anemometer shows 312 turns. Where two observations are made, the experiments should be made again. If it is shown that there is a variation — that is to say, when the needle is stopped by a spring, the observer puts this needle upon 12, and, at the moment when it stops, he prders the anemometer to be disen- gaged, and at the end of two or three minutes he sHiops it. To deduct the real velocity of the currents of air from the number of turns observed, a special instriimenb is employed, on the outside of which is a very simple form — re ■ representing the number of turns ob- served, and V the velocity of the air. General Morin has made numerous obser- vations with an anemometer, which he has constructed on the principle of M. Combe's ; but he has added two enamelled dials, two needles joined to cups, a third minute-wheel, and an indicator, by which 500,000 turns may be observed, and the number of turns of the miU determined in the interval. This arrange- ment also gives prolonged observations, and includes fractions, at equal intervals, making errors almost impossible. A modification of this inst^ment was sug- gested by Dr. Parkes, the result being a very handy air-meter, known as " CaseUa's " (fig. 7). The manufacturer's description of it is as fol- lows : — "The object of this little instrument is to give correct means of measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through coal and other mines, and the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public bmldings. ANI (S6) ANN "It w&a first constructed for Dr. Paikes, F.K.S., of the Royal Victoria Hospital, Net- ley, for measuring the sta^e of ventilation in that large military establishment. "The graduations for each instrument are obtained by actual experiment by means of machinery made for the purpose, so that the indications of all are as comparable with each other as the weight or measure of ordinary substances. " The indications are shown by means of the large dial and hand, and fire smaller ones, as shown in the annexed plate. The whole cir- cumference of the large dial is divided into 100 parts, and represents the number of feet up to 100 traversed by the current of air. The five smaller dials are each divided into ten parts only, one revolution of each being equal to ten of the preceding dial, and repre- senting 1000, 10,000, 100,000, 1,000,000, and 10,000,000 respectively. By means of the large dial, the low velocity of fifty feet per minute may be measured, and by the smaller ones continuous registration is extended up to 10,000,000 feet, or equal to 1893 miles, being practically beyond what the most extended observations can require, whilst jewelling in the most sensitive parts ensures the utmost delicacy of action. " By moving the small catch a backwards or forwards, the work is put in or out of gear, without affecting the action of the fans ; this prevents the injurious effect of stoijping them suddenly, and enables the observer to begin or end his observations to a second. A small handle with universal joint accompanies the instrument, and may be screwed in at the base ; by putting a stick through this, it may be raised or lowered to any required height, and used in any positioiji. "A simple table accompanies each air-meter, by means of which (in strict observations) allowance- may be made for the difference caused by inertia at high and low velocities." Aniline (Kyajiol, Fhenylamine, Fhenylia, Crystalline, or Benzidam), (CeHj.HjN), or (Ci^H^N = 93)-Sp. gr. of liquid, 1-020, of vapour, 3-210. This base may be prepared from several sources, and by a variety of reactions, and it is contained in small quantity among the product of destructive distillation of coal in the process of gas-making. Aniline is a nearly colourless limpid liquid, of an agreeable vinous odour, and an aro- matic burning taste. It is very acrid and poisonous. When exposed to the air it rapidly absorbs oxygen. Most of the salts of aniline readily crystallise. With chromic acid, the salts of aniline strike a green, blue, or black colour, according to the degree of concentration of the solutions. Aniline produces a white precipitate in a solution of corrosive sublimate, and a green crystalline precipitate in one of cupric chloride. Nitrobenzol is converted into aniline by sulphide of ammonium, sulphuretted hydro- gen being decomposed whilst sulphur is de- posited. The poisonous properties of nitro- benzol depend on aniline, which it is capable of being converted iuto by the animal organ- ism. Dr. Letheby was the first to call atten- tion to this substance as a poison, from several cases which had come under his observation, and it is to that gentleman that the method of its elimination and identification is due. He considers nitrobenzol to be a powerful narcotic poison, attended, when taken inter- nally, or even inhaled, with drowsiness, con- vulsions, and coma. Several days may some- times elapse before its fatal termination. When death is rapid, the smell of nitrobenzol is perceptible in every tissue of the body ; but in lingering cases, no smell is observable, it having been converted into aniline, the colour- ing effects of which are sometimes recognised in the skin, 'gums, lips, and nails. To extract the poison. Dr. Letheby directs the matters to be bruised in a mortar, with a little dis- tilled water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and then distilled from a retort, nitrobenzol passes over into the receiver unchanged, and can be detected by. the hitter almond-like smell; the residue in the retort is treated with strong alcohol to extract the sulphate of aniline ; the alcoholic solution is treated with acetate of lead to precipitate organic matter, and the excess of lead separated by sulphate of soda ; the filtered solution is next treated with caustic potash, and distilled to dryness in an oil bath. The distillate contains the aniline, which is detected by the nascent oxygen of a galvanic battery thus : A drop or so of the solution of aniline in 1000 of dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 7 of water) is placed on a clean piece of pla- tinum foil and touched with the negative pole of a galvanic battery (a single Grove's cell), whilst the positive pole is in contact with the platinum plate. The liquid instantly acquires a bluish tint, then a violet, changing to pink — the colour being more intense when the aniline solution is stronger! Men employed in works where ttniline is extensively used are some- times subject to symptoms of poisoning, such as neuralgia, giddiness, and insensibility, from inhaling it j and the contact of aniline colours with the skin is said occasionally to produce a peculiar eruption. Annatto — This article, although not used as food, is yet added to several articles of consumption. It is the colouring - matter ANN (57) ANN obtained from the seeds of a plant named £ixa Orellana, and ■which forms the type of the small natural order Bixinece. Annatto is chiefly prepared in Brazil and Cayenne. The colouring-matter is situated on the outside of the seeds, which are enclosed in pods, and is of two kinds — an orange-coloured, strongly tinctorial resin called bixin (CieHjjOj), as- sociated with a yellow one called orellin. Bixin is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, the £zed oils, and the alkalies ; when in solution by an alkali, on addition of an acid, it falls as an orange precipitate. Upon this fact is based the method of purifying it. The commercial annatto is dissolved in an alkaline liquid, e.g., a solution of pearl-ash ; dilute sulphuric acid is added to neutralisation, and the resulting precipitate collected. Genuine commercial annatto consists of 28 per cent, of resinous colouring-matter, and 20 per cent, of extrao- -tive matter. Characters, Microscopical and Chemical. — "When annatto is examined by the microscope, the outer red portion presents an almost homogeneous appearance, and the surface of the seed proper consists of narrow or elongated cells or fibres rertically disposed, while the inner white portion consists of cells filled witli starch corpuscles, well defined, of medium size, and resembling in the elongated and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea and bean. "When the annatto is manufactured, and an imadulterated sample is examined, but little structure is met with. Portions of the outer cells may be seen; and in those specimens, which in the course of their preparation have not been subjected to the action of boiling water, a few starch granules may be noticed. Dyers, soapmakers, and painters use an- natto. The two former frequently purchase it in the state in which it is imported, adding the alkali as a solvent when they use it. In these cases it does not pass through the so- called English manufacturer's hands at all. Since annatto, when manufactured, presents so few evidences of structure, by means of the microscope we can easily detect the presence of most foreign vegetable substances, such as turmeric powder, the starch of wheat, rye, barley, and sago flours. The salt and alkali present in the annatto generally greatly alter the appearance of the turmeric. Most of the colouring-matter of the cells is discharged, so that the starch corpuscles contained within them become visible. Loose starch granules of turmeric may also be frequently seen, and in consequence of the action of the alkali much enlarged. The microscopic characters of turmeric powder, wheat, rye, barley, and sago starch will be found fully described under their respective names. Annatto is used also to colour nulk, butter, and cheese. Dr. John found the pulp surrounding the fresh seed to consist of 28 parts of colouring resinous matter, 26'5 pf vegetable gluteii, 20 of ligneous fibre, 20 of colouring extractive matter, 4 formed of matters analogous to vegetable extractive, and a trace of spicy and acid matters. The colouring-matter is soluble in alkalies and alcohol, less so in water. Annatto is adulterated to an extraordinary extent, and this adulteration is of the grossest possible description. In fact, there is scarcely an article we are acquainted with that is so largely and so generally tampered with. The substances are numerous, sonle organic, others inorganic. The organic substances used are turmeric, rye, barley, and wheat flours. The inorganic ones are sulphate of lime, carbonate of lime, salt, alkali, an oily substance (probably soap), red ferruginous earths, mostly Venetian red, red-lead, and copper. "When large quantities of flour and lime are used, the colour of the annatto is so reduced that it becomes necessary to use salt, alkalies, and the red earths to restore it to its original standard. Salt heightens the intensity of vegetable reds, hence its use. Lead is probably introduced into the annatto through the Venetian' red used. Copper is added to prevent the annatto becoming at- tacked by fungi. The extent to which annatto is adulterated will be shown by the following fact. On ex- amination of thirty-four samples of annatto of various kinds, as imported and obtained from English manufacturers, and as purchased from dealers, two only were found genuine. As annatto is used to colour different articles of diet, when adulterated its use may often prove detrimental to health. Accum, Mitchell, Bemays, Normandy, and Hassall appear to have detected in cheese, adulterated with annatto, sufficient red-lead to cause injurious effects to ensue from eating it; but from recent investigations, it would seem extremely doubtful whether red-lead is now employed to the extent they state. Annatto, after being kept some time, becomes attacked by maggots. In order to estimate the commercial value, and detect adulteration in a sample, the quickest and best way is the following : "Weigh accurately a gramme in a small plat- inum dish; dry in the water-bath for a couple of hours, then weigh : the loss is the Water. Finely powder and digest it for some hours in alcohol; then boil, filter, and treat with successive portions of alcohol, until all the colouring-matter is dissolved ; filter, evaporate the filtrate down, and weigh: the result is ANT (58) APP the resin. The insoluble portion ■will, in a good commercial specimen, consist of woody matter, extractive, gluten, &o. For the ash, ■weigh another gramme in a platinum dish; dry for a short time over the water-bath; then powder ahd burn until it ceases to lose weight. It is prudent to fuse a little on charcoal, with carbonate of sodu, before the blow-pipe, before burning it in a platinum vessel, as there may be lead in the annatto. The ash should then be submitted to the various reagents in ^)rder to detect lime, iron, alumina, &c. &c. If the ash is not excessive; and the resin about 28 per cent., it is a fair specimen. A correct determina- tion of ash and resin is all that is required to definitely pronounce on the purity or im- purity ojf the sample. The following is an analysis of a fair com- mercial sample by the author. No. 1. The sample was in the form of a paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar but not disagreeable: — ■Water 24^2 Besinous colouring-matter ....'i^S'S Ash 22 5 Starch and extractive matter 24^5 100-0 The following is an analysis of an adulter- ated specimen. The sample was in a hard cake of a brown colour, with the maker's name stamped upon it, and marked patent ; texture hard ahd leatheiy, odour disagreeable : — ■Water , 13-4 Bcsin 110 Ash— consisting of iron, chalk, salt,) ^g,g alumina, silica ) Extractive matter 27-3 100 Thus, in the one the resin was 28 per cent., the ash 22 ; in the other the resin was only 11 per cent. , the ash no less than 48. Antidote — In medicine, toxicology, &c., a substance administered to counteract or lessen the effects of poison. The principal prisons, ■with their antidotes, are noticed under their respective heads. Antidotes may be divided into direct and in- direct antidotes : the former neutralising or destroying the injurious action of the poison on meeting it in the system ; the latter coun- teracting the injurious physiological effects of the drug. The following list gives the most important antidotes to the chief poisons : — Direct Antidotes. FolBOnfl. AutfdoteB. Acifls Magnesia, chalk, and dilute solu- tions of alkaline carbonates, ^Sinl ^ara'^'l^-^S"'--''"*-''^'^'- »»* »"■ Alkaloids Finely-divided animal charcoal. Antimony Preparations containing tannin in solution, as decoction of cinchona. FoiBOQS. Antidotea. Arsenic None. Charcoal may be given, or magnesia, or hydrated peroxide of iron. Baryta salts Soluble sulphates. Chlorine Ammonia, magnesia. Cyanides and hy- ■) Solution of chlorine, mixed oxides drocyanic acid J of iron. Iodine Starch. . Lead salts Sulphate of soda, or magnesia. Mercurialsalts ■White of egg. Opium Animal charcoal absorbs morphia, &c. Phosphorus Oil of turpentine. Silver, nitrate of ...Chlorides of alkalies. Zinc, sulphate of... Bilute solution of carbonate of soda. Belladonna s Henbane >Li ■E:)nojdg e« rH "P o . . =■ ?H tH S5 CO ■ CO TP ' rH rH i « t» CO O' m eo ■* b. fe CO Wim I^ 9 ^ ■^ 04 CO CO CO => CD tH S CO OS oa ITS !>. iH b- t— c rH b- 10 00 ■* OS iO CQ l-H fH 00 ■ eo O Ca . ^£) CO in tH a cc Cl CO C id •iaima : «P ■^ Tp »o ^ t- CO <^ io i^ (M 003 ,,i 0-6 „ -002 „ BAS, (77) SAR Correction for Fem^eratwre.^^lhe barometer' is always registered as it the temperature of the mercury were 32° Fahr. If the tempera- ture of the mercury be above this, the metal expands, and reads higher than it would do at 32°. The amount of expansion of mercury is -0001001 of its bulk for each degree ; but the linear expansion of the brass scale must also be considered. Schumacher's formula is used for the correction, viz. — A=obserTed height of barometer, in inches. £=temperature of attached thermometer (Fahr.) m=expansion of mercury per degree, Viz., -OOOlOOl, J=linear expansion of scale, viz.,. '000104344 ; nor- mal temperature being 62% m,(t-S2')~l(t- 62°) Sir H. James' work, which is distributed to army medical officers, contains tables which greatly facilitate the correction for tempera- ture. The one which we give here will doubt- less be found of use. • Coi'rection for Sea-Level. — As the mercury falls 'about .^^ ('001 inch) for every foot of ascent, this amount multiplied by the number of feet must be added to the height, if the place be above sea-level. The temperature of the air has also to be taken into account if great accuracy is required. TABLE I. — Foe Eeduotiok of Babometbb to Feibzing-Point. The number opposite the temperature of attached thermometer is to be deducted. Correction for Barometer at ■Fahr. Deg. 27 Inches. 28 Inches. 29 Inches. 30 Inches. 32 ■0086 •0088 • •0091 •0094 34 •0134 , -0138 ■0143 •0148 36 •0183 •0188 ■0194 •0201 38 •0231 •0238 •0246 •0255 40 •0279 ■0288 •0298 ■0309 42 •0327 •0338 •0350 ■0362 44 •0375 ■0388 •0402 ■0416 46 •0423 ■0438 •0454 •0470 48 ■0471 ■0488 •0506 •0523 50 ■0519 ■0538 •0558 •0577 52 •0568 •0588 •0609 •0630 54 •0616 •0638 •0661 •0684 56 •0664 •0688 •0713 . •0738 58 •0712 ■0738 ■0765 •0791 60 •0760 •07^8 ■0817 ■0845 62 •0809 •0838 •0868 •0898 64 •0857 •0888 •0920 •0951 66 •0906 •0938 •0971 •1005 68 ■0954 •0988 ■1023 ■1058 70 •1000 •1037 •1075 •1112 72 •1049 •1087 •1126 •1165 74 •1097 •1137 •1178 •1218 ■76 •11*6 ■1187 •1229 •1272 78 •1194 •1237 •1281 •1325 80 •1241 ■1286 •1332 •1378 82 •1289 •1336 •1384 •1432 84 •1338 •1386 •1435 •1485 86 •1385 •1435 •1486 •1638 88 •1433 •1485 •1538 •1591 90 •1482 •1535 •1589 •1644 Measurement of Heiglits.—'Wien ^ heights are ascended a certain amount of air is left below, so the barometer falls. The diminu- tion is not uniform, for the higher the ascent the less weighty the air ; and a greater and greater height must be ascended to depress the barometer one inch. This is illustrated by the following table (the height can be readily taken from this table by calculating the number of feet which must have been ascended to cause the observed fall, and then making a correction for temperature by mul- tiplying the munber obtained from the table, which may be called A, by the formula — t is the temperature of the lower and i of the upper station) — 1-f t + V -U ;iioo -HA BAB (78) BAB To lower from 31 in. to 30= 857 ft. must be ascended. „ 30 „ 29= 886 „ 29 y, 28= 918 „ 28 „ 27= 961 „ „ 27 „ 26= 988 „ „ 26 „ ■ 25=1025 ,, „■ 25 „ 24=1068 „ 24 „ 23=1113 ,, 23 „ 22=1161 ,, „ 22 ,„ 21=1216 „ 21 „ 20=1276 „ 20 „ 19=1341 „ 19 „ 18=1413 „ The measurements of heights in this way is of great use to. medical officers ; the aneroid barometer can be used asfligh as 5000 feet, and a delicate instrument will measure as little as 4 feet. A great many plans are in use for calculating heights ; it can easily be done by logarithms, but it is not always that it is con- venient to obtain a table of logarithms.* The simplest rule of all is one derived from La- plaofe's formula. In the Proceedings of the Eoyal Society, 1865, No. 75, p. 283, Mr. Ellis has lately stated this formula as follows : Multiply the difference of the barometric readings by 52j400, and divide by the sum of the barometric readings. If the result be 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000, add 0, 0, 2, 6, 14 respectively. Subtract 2J times the dif- ference of the temperature of the mercury. Multiply the remainder by a number obtained by adding 836 to the sum of the temperatures of the air, and dividing by 900. A correction must also be given for latitude, which can be done by Table IV., p. 80. Messrs. Negretti and' Zainbra, in their " Treatise on Meteorological Instruments " (1864), give tables for estimating the approxi- mate height due to barometric pressure, and these are the easiest formula we know of. We give them here. (Tables II. , III ., I V. , and T. ) A good mercurial barometer with an attached thermometer, or an aneroid compensated for tempeAture, and a thermometer to ascertain the temperature of the air, are required. Two barometers and two thermometers, which can be observed at the same moment at the upper and lower stations, are desirable. Supposing, however, there is but one baromet&r, take the height at the lower station and correct for temperature to 32°, according to the table for reduction of barometer to freezing-point, p. 77. Take ■ the temperature of the air. Ascend as rapidly as possible to the upper station, and take the height of the barometer (correcting it to 32°) and the temperature of the air ; then use Tables II., III., IV., and V. * There is, however, a convenient little hook by Sang of logarithms to Ave places, which will go in the waistcoat-pocket. If the height is less than 300 feet, Tables III., IV., v., need not be used. Table II. is calculated from the formula, height in feet = 60,200 (log. 29-922 - log. B) -t- 9S2; where 29 '922 is the mean atmospheric pressure at 32° Fahr. and the mean sea-level in latitude 45°, and B is any other barometric pressure, the 952 being added to avoid minus signs in the table. Table III. contains the correction necessary for the mean temperature of the stratum of air between the stations of observation, and is computed from Begnault's coel&cient for the expansion of air, which is '002036 of its volume at 32° for each degree above that tem- perature. Table IV. is the correction due to the dif- ference of gravitation in any other latitude, and is found from the formula x = l + '00265 cos. 2 lat. Table V. is to correct for the diminution of gravity in ascending from the sea-level. Kegretti and Zambra say : " To use these tables, the barometer readings at the upper and lower stations having been corrected and reduced to temperature 32° Fahr., take out from Table I. the numbers opposite the cor- rected readings of the two barometers, and subtract the lower from the «pper. Multiply this difference successively by the factors found in Tables III. and IV. The factor from Table IV. may be neglected unless precision is desired. Finally, add the correction taken from Table V." In the table the barometer is only read to lOths, but it should be read to lOOths ('01) and lOOOths ('001), and the number of feet corre- sponding to these amounts calculated from the tables.*' * Example.— On the 21st October 1862, when Mr. Welsh ascended in a balloon at 3h. 30m. p.m., the barometer, corrected and reduced, was 18'85, the air temperature 27' ; while at Greenwich, 159 feet above the sea, the baromete^ at the same time was 29 '07 inches, air temperature 49", the balloon not being more than five miles S.W. fi'Om over Greenwich ; required its elevation. Feet. Barometer in balloon, 18'85, Table II. . 13,007 „ at Greenwich, 29-97, „ Mean temperature, 88°— Table III. Factor Latitude, 61i°— Factor fi-om Table IV. Correction from Table Y. Elevation of Greenwich ,, balloon . 12,124 1,012 12, 269 99,941 12,262 12,459 BAH (79) BAK TABLE II.— Appboximate Hezsht dub to Baeombtbio Peessube. Inches of , Feet. Inches of Feet. Inches of Feet. Barometer. .Barometer. Barometer. 31-0 27-3 3,323 23-6 7,131 30-9 84 27-2 '3,419 23-5 7,242 30-8 169 27-1 3,515 23-4 7,353 307 254 27-0 3,612 23-3 7,465 30-6' 339 26'9 3,709 23-2 7,577 30-5 425 26-8 3,806 23-1 7,690 30-4 511 267 3,904 23-0 7,803 30-3 597 26-6 4,002 22-9 7,917 30 '2 683 26-5 4,100 22-8 8,032 30-1 770 26-4 4,199 227 8,147 30 857 26-3 4,298 22-6 8,262 29-9 944 26-2 4,398 22-5 8,378 29-8 1,032 261 4,498 22-4 8,495 29-7 1,120 26 4,588 22-3 8,612 29-6 1,208 25-9 4,699 22-2 8,729 29-5 1,296 25-8 4,800 221 8,847 29-4 1,385 257 4,902 22-0 8,966 29-3 1,474 25-6 5,004 21-9 9,085 29-2 1,563 25-5 5,106 21-8 9,205 29-1 1,663 25-4 5,a09 217 9,325 29-0 1,743 25-3 5,312 21-6 9,446 28-9 1,833 25-2 5,415 21-5 9,567 28-8 1,924 25-1 5,519 21-4 9,689 28-7 2,015 25-0 5,623 21-3 9,811 28 6 2,106 24-9 5,728 21-2 9,934 28-5 2,198 ^4-8 5,833 21-1 10,058 ■ 28-4 2,290 247 5,939 210 10,1«2 28-3 2,382 24-6 6,045 20-9 10,307 28-2 2,475 24-5 6,152 20-8 10,432 28-1 2,568 24-4 6,259 207 10,558 280 2,661 24-3 6,366 20-6 10,684 27-9 2,754 24-2 6,474 20-5 10,812 27-8 2,848 24-1 6,582 20-4 10,940 27-7 2,942 24-0 6,691 20-3 11,069 27-6 3,037 23-9 6,800 20-2 11,198 27-5 3,132 23-8 6,910 201 11,328 27-4 3,227 237 7,020 • 20-0 11,458 BAB (80) BAB TABLE III.— OoBKEcnoiT dub to Mean TEMPEEAinBE of Aie ; The temperature of the upper and lower station heing added and divided' by 2. Mean Tempe- rature. factor. Mean Tempe- rature. Tactor. Mean Tempe- rature. Factor. 10 0-955 35 1006 60 1-057 11 0-957 36 1-008 61 1-059 12 0-959 37 1-010 62 1-061 13 0-961 38 1-012 63 1-063 14 0-963 39 1-014 64 1-065 15 0-965 40 1-016 65 1-067 16 0-967 41 1-018 66 1-069 17 0-969 42 1-020 67 1-071 18 0-971 43 1-022 6« 1073 19 0-974 44 1024 69 1-076 20 0-976 45 1-026 70 1-077 21 ■ 0-978 46 1-028 71 1-079 22 . 0-980 47 1-031 72 1-081 23 0-982 48 1-033 73 1-083 24 0-984 49 1-035 74 1086 ' : 25 0-986 50 1-037 75 1-088 26 0-988 51 1-039 76 1-090 27 0-990 52 1-041 77 1-092 28 0-992 53 1-043 78 1-094 29 0-994 54 1-045 79 1-096 30 0-996 55 1-047 80 1-098 31 0-998 56 1-049 81 1-100 32 1-000 57 1-051 82 1-102 33 1-002 58 1-053 83 1-104 34 1-004 59 1-055 84 1-106 TABLE rV.— COBBEOTION DUB TO DnTEBENOE 01 GRAVITATION IN DlBTEBENT LATITUDES. Latitude.. Factor. Latitude. Factor. Latitude. Factor. 80 0-99751 50- 0-99954 20 1-00203 75 0-99770 45 1-00000 15 1-00230 70 0-99797 40 1-00046 10 1-00249 65 0-99830 35 1-00090 5 ] -00261 60 0-99868 30 1-00265 1-00265 55 0-99910 25 1-00170 TABLE V. Height in corrective Height in Oorreotive Height in Corrective 1000 Feet. Additive. 1000 Feet. Additive. 1000 Feet. Additive. 1 3 6 17 11 33 2 5 ' , 7 20 12 37 3 8 ' 8 23 13 41 4 U 9 26 14 44 S 14 10 30 15 48 BAB, (8i) BAB TABLE VI. — Showino the Weight in Geains of a Cubic Foot of Dkt Aib under pressure of 30 inohes'of Mercury for every degree from to 100. Temp. Fatar. Weight of Cubic Foot of Pry Air. Temp. . tahr. Weight of Cubic Boot of Dry Air. Temp, rahr. WeiRlit of Cubic Foot of Dry Air. Temp. Fahr. WeiBht of Cubic Foot of Dry Air. 0rains. Grains. Grains. Grains. 606-37 26 573-87 51 545-74 76 520-25 1 605-05 27 572-69 52 544-67 77 .519-28 . 2 603-74 28 571-51 53 643-61 78 518-31 3 ■ 602-43 29 570-34 54 642-55 79 617-35 4 '601-13 30 569-17 55 541-50 80 N 516-39 5 . 599-83 31 568-01 56 640-45 81 615-43 6 598-54 32 566-85 57 539-40 82 514-48 7 597-26 • 33 ' 565-70 58 638-36 83 513-53 8 595-98 34 564-56 59 637-32 84 512-69 9 594-71 35 563-42 60 536-28 85 511-65 10 593-44 36 562-28 61 535-25 86 510-71 11 692-18 37 561-15 62 534-22 87 609-77 12 590-92 38 660-02 63 533-20 88 608-84 13 589-67 39 558;89 64 532-18 89 607-91 14 588-42 40 557-77 65 531-17 90 506-99 15 587-18 41 556-66 66 530-16 91 606-07 16 585-95 42 555-55 . 67 529-15 92 505-15 17 584-72 43 554-44 68 528-14 93 504-23 18 583-49 44 553-34 69 527-14 94 503-32 19 582-27 45 552-24 70 526-15 95 502-41 20 581-05 46 551-15 71 625-16 96 501-50 21 579-84 47 550-06 72 624-17 97 500-60 22 ■578-64 48 548-97 73 623-18 • 98 499 70 23 677-44 49 547-89 74 522-20 99 498-81 24 576-24 50 546-82 75 ■ 521-22 100 497-93 25 575-05 When flying levels are taken across a country, the following formula is sufficiently correct : — Let the quantities observed be denoted as follows : — Height of the mercu--\ rial column in the V barometer ) Teftiperature of mer-^ cury in degreesf Pahr.,as shown byat-f tached thermometer) Temperature of air in ^ d'egrees of Fahr.. &s( shown by the de-f tached thermometer) At the Lower Station. Then the height of the higher station above the lower in feet = 60360 |log. H - log. ft - -000044 (r - < J- - V^ 986 / For rapid calculation, the following, though less exact, is convenient : — Height in feet = 56300 (log. H - log. ft). In the absence of logarithms, the following formula may be used for heights not exceed- ing about 3000 feet. Correct the barometric reading at the higher station as follows : — \ lOOUO/ Height in feet = 62428 nearly. g- ft- /. a + h' \ IX r- + (' - 64\ Barracks — The parts of a barrack consist of — 1. The bairaok-room, and non-commis- Bione4 officers' (sergeants, &c. ) room screened qfi ; 2. quarters of the married privates ; 3. quarters df the staS-sergeant and sergeants' mess ; 4. quarters of the officers ; 5. kitchens ; 6. ablution rooms ; 7. latrines and urinals ; 8. orderly room and guard-room ; 9. cells ; 10. tailors' shop an* armoury commissariat stores, canteen; 11. reading-room (in many barracks), schools, magazine. The hygiene of barracks is evidently sub- ject to the same principles as habitations [see Habitations), yet there are some special points which require notice. About fifteen years ago the barracks of this country were so ill-constructed, so confined as to cubic space, .and therefore so impure as F BAR (82) BAT to air, that the mortality from destructive lung diseases and fevers, especially typhoid, was greater than that of almost any civil pppulation of equal age, aiid excited the at-,, tention of the "War Office. A committee was therefore appointed in 1855, to report upon the state of the barracks at that date ; this led to the Organisation of the Barrack Improvement Commission, which in 1861 pub- lished a bine book, entering into gi-eat detail on the (Jonstruction, ventilatioji, and sewerage of new barracks. These two reports are now bearing fruit. Of late years, both in England and India, no expense has been spared to render the barracks healthier. The Commission found that no regular plan or principle had been followed in the older edifices; they especially condemned building the barracks so as to en- close a square, which certainly very effectively prevents ventilation. They recommended that the barracks should consist of numerous detached buildings arranged in lines — the lines, when possible, running north and south,* so that each side has the benefit of the sun. The barrack unit, that is, the barrack-room, is recommended to be narrow, with opposite windows, to have only two rows of beds, and 100 feejt of cubic space to each bed. Many of these recommendations are carried out. In recently-built barracks there is an excellent system of warming and ventilation, an ample water supply, and there are great facilities for personal cleanliness and cooking purposes. The soldier, however, still sleeps and lives in the same room, although in some barracks there are reading-rooms, which take the place of a day-room. Seven per cent, of the soldiers are permitted to marry. They inhabit separate quarters ; but to each family one room alone is allotted, which is decidedly contrary to sanitary principles. The latrines are Jenuing's or Macfarlane's patents, placed at some little distance from the barracks, connected with them by a covered way. These latrines are troughs made of metal or earthenware about one-third full of water. Twice a day the trap is lifted and the soil flushed into a tank ; the seats and floor are kept scrupulously clean. lii barrkcks in hot climates the same princi- ples are applicable, namely, narrow buildings with cross ventilation— they are generally re- commended to be raised from off the ground, to face the prevailing winds, to be painted either white or a light yellow ; and there are frequently required special arrangements for ventilation, such as Pwrikahs, Thermanditotes, &o., and sprays of water to cool the air. The importance of frequent ablution in hot climates also necessitates the construction of numerous baths. See Habitations, Overokowding, &c. Baryta, Hydrate of— Hydrate of bary- ta is prepared by digesting caustic baryta or barium oxide with a little water. It can be obtained crystallised as follows : — 1. From a concentrated solution of either nitrate or chloride of barium, precipitated with a rather strong solution of pure potassa, or of pure soda, perfectly free from carbonic acid. 2. A strong solution of sulphide of barium is boiled with successive portions of black oxide of popper, until it ceases to give' a black precipitate with a salt of lead; the liquid after filtration yields crystals of the hydrate on cooling. Its principal use to the medical officer of health is in the estimation of carbonic acid in air, as it is one of the most sensitive tests for that substance, the least trace of carbonic acid being absorbed by it, and forming the white insoluble carbonate of baryta. Two kinds of baryta-water are generally used in Pettenkofer's process : one containing 21 grms. the other 7 to the litre. 1 c.c. of the weaker one corresponds to one milUgramme of car- bonic acid. 1 c.c. of the stronger = 3 mgrm. of carbonic acid. See AiK, Analysis of. Baryta-VTater— Baryta-water is a solu- tion of hydrate of baryta in water. Bastards — A product of the manufacture of loaf-sugar. See Sugar. Batata (Convolvulus batatas), or Sweet Potato — The batata was introduced here by Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Hawkins, and a good crop was grown at Formby in Lanca- shire. Batatas are used largely in Central America, but they do not bear the cold of our winter ; and hence to successfully cultivate them in England appears impossible. The tubers contain about 32 per cent of solid matter; 16 of which is starch, 10 sugar, 1"5 albumen, I'l gum, "3 fat, 2 9 mineral matter. See Potato. Baths, Bathing— The beneficial effects of the bath, both moral and physical, are too obvious to be enlarged upon. Gibbon says that for centuries Rome needed no physician but the bath ; and there is no doubt that the bath is a preventive as well as a remedial agent. The skin is continually subjected to abra- sion, and the processes of reproduction and decay ; hence the cuticle is being constantly thrown off as effete and useless matter in the BAT (83) BAT shape of very minute scales or dust, and this becoming mixed with the oily and saline matters of the akin, is suflnciently adhesive to attach itself to the surface of the body and clothing, and to attract waste particles of the dress, and dust and soot floating in the atmosphere. ITnless the skin, therefore, be frequently washed, the channels of perspira- tion become choked, and the clothing unfit to be worn. The result of the pores of the skin being thus obstructed is impeded transpira- tion, by which its functions as a respiratory organ are suspended. This, adhering pellicle of refuse matter forms a favourable medium for the absorption and transmutation into the body of effluvia, miasmata, poisdnous gases, and the infectious and contagious matters of disease. Should the skin long continue dirty, the blood is deprived of one of its sources of oxygen, and one of its outlets of carbon, and matters which should be thrown out by the skin are retained in the system, and serious effects may ensue ; besides this, bathing pro- mote^ personal comfort and personal beauty. The ranges of the temperature of water appropriate to the respective baths, according to the common nomenclature, are shown in the following table : — Cold bath . Temperate bath Tepid bath . "Warm bath . Hot bath . Temp. Fahr. 33° to 75' 76° „ 82° f2° „ 9u° 90° „ P8° 98° „ 112° Cold-bathing in this country is only suited to the healthy and' vigorous, and can only be safely practised in the warmer months of the year, and in a mass of water sufficient to per- mit of the heat of the body being maintained by Swimming or other active exercise. The cold bath, medically considered, is tonic, stimulant, and restorative when judiciously taken, and when not too long continued or too often repeated. When beneficial, the pa- tient feels a pleasant glow on the surface of the body immediately following it : if a sensa- tion of coldness or shivering ensues, it acts injuriously and should not be repeated. If the bather remains too long in the water, it has a sedative effect. The sedative effect of sea and mineral waters is much less than that of pure water, or of spring or river water. Dr. George Johnson, in a paper read before the Clinical Society of London in November 1873, drew attention to the curious fact that many persons after remaining in the water from fifteen to thirty minutes are subject to temporary attacks of albuminuria. It is the opinion of this gentleman that the presence of albuminuria in these 'cases was directly due to suppressed action of the skin. The water should be soft and pure, and good soap sparingly but regularly employed whenever the skin requires it. Workers in particular trades find the fre- quent use of the bath absolutely essential to health. The following workmen especially are compelled frequently to bathe — workers in lead, hatters, starchers, makers of blankets, tanners, leather dressers, dyers, and quiok- silverers. Paris appears to be much better off foi- bathing accommodation than London, for we find that in 1852 there were 5958 bathing places in that city. M. Chevallier has pro- posed that the steam escaping from engines in large manufactories, should be utilised for warming the water of baths ; by adopting this process a considerable saving would be effected in fuel, &c. That this idea is not impracti- cable is proved bythe fact that this course has been adopted at more than one manufactory in France for the use of the men engaged, and with the most successful and beneficial results. It has been often observed, and with truth, that one particular in which the therapeutic machinery of our English hospitals falls .lamentably short of that of Continental hospitals, is in the matter of baths. The first step to remedy this was taken by the University College Hospital in 1873, the authorities of which erected, at a cost of £1800, baths available for a variety of not only skin complaints, but other diseases, such as rheumatism, paralysis, neuralgia, syphilis, sciatica, and many others. Baths, Mud {iUutation), were common among the ancients, the mud on the seashore and the slime of rivers being especially prized for this purpose. The Tartars and Egyptians still use them in certain diseases, and they are largely taken at Driburg, Memberg, Eil- son, Neundorf, Pyrmont, and Sp.i. The chief varieties of mud-baths appear to be — 1. Mud or slime deposited from mineral waters, used either for complete immersion or for poultices, as at Acqui and St. Amand. 2. Simple peat earth or other earths. 3. Peat earth impregnated with mineral water. Mud-baths appear to act as a strong stimu- Lint to the skin, partly from their heat and partly from the increased pressure and fric- tion. After being used a few times they sometimes bring out rashes, and are believed to excite anew old infiammations. They not unfrequently induce a feeling of weariness, and distaste for food. In general torpor and atony of the system, in paralysis, neuralg;a, and in old affections of the joints, they are said to have been useful. BAT (84) BEA Baths, Salt {Sak Badcr)— Sea-bathing is extremely popular in Kngland, but neither the strong salt-baths of Droitwioh nor the weaker ones of Woodhall Spa, Ashby-de-Ia- Zonch, and a few others, are as well known as they deserve to be. There can be little doubt of the stimulating action of saline solu- tions on the akin and whole system. Sea- bathing is rarely pursued systematically except in the summer months, and artificial salt-batl^s may be said td be unknown amongst the poorer classes. Physicians, moreover, when ordering salt-baths, seldom specify the strength. The Atlantic Ocean contains from three to four per cent, of saline matters, hence the ordinary quantity of two to six pounds of salt for an adult bath, containing perhaps sixty gallons, is absurd. Artificial baths, to be of any use whatever, will require to be made the strength of sea-water, twice its strength, or three times its strength, according to cir- cumstances. In Germany the Stassfurt salt has been lately much commended; its average composition is as follows : — "^ ■ Per cant. Chloride of potassium . . 16'8 „ magnesium . . 26-5 ,, sodium Bulpbatc of magnesium Water, 4c. 13-6 116 31-6 Its great advantage is its cheapness — one pound in Germany only, costs two pfennings (one-fifth of a petmy). If sea-water is desired to be imitated, a mixture of salts, such as Tidman's sea-salt, is easily purchased, which, if added in proper quantity to water, really makes a bath possessing most of the proper- ties of sea-water. By a careful study of the composition of various natural saline baths given in article Water, these waters may be more or less successfully imitated and used. There are a variety of medicated baths, a description of which belongs more properly to a treatise on medicine. The first bath opened in England for the purpose of hot-bathing is said to have been in Bagnio Court, now Bath Street, Newgate Street; this was established in 1679. Peer- less Pool (Perilous Pool), mentioned by Stow (1600), was enclosed as a'bathing-place in 1743. The first jjublic baths and wash-houses opened in London were established by Mr Bowrie in the neighbourhood of the London Docks in 1844 ; and in the same year, through the instrumentality of Catherine Wilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room and appliances for poor people for washing, public baths and wash-houses were founded in Liverpool. An. Act was passed in 1846 to encourage the establishment of public baths and wash-houses " for the health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns and districts in England and Ireland." Since then, public baths and wash-houses have been e&tablished in every district in London, and in most of. our large towns. Any local authority may, if they think fit, supply water from any waterworks, purchased or conducted -by them, .to any public baths or wash-houses, on terms to be agreed upon by the local authority and the persons desirous of being supplied. A local authority may also construct works for the gratuitous supply of any public baths estab- lished otherwise than for private profit, or supported out of any poor or borough rate. — (P. H., s. 65.) The Baths and Wash-houses Acts (9 & 10 ' Vict. 0. 74, 10 & 11 Vict. c. 61) maybe adopted by urban sanitary authorities ; they encourage and give facilities for the establishment of baths and wash-houses. An urbam sanitary authority, having any seashore or river strand within its district, may make bylaws with regard to the use of bathing-machines, the establishment of bathing-places, indecent exposure, the distances at which boats let to hire shall be kept from persons bathing, &c., &c.— (P. H., s. 171 ; 10 & 11 Vict. 0. 89, B. 69.) It is unlawful for men to bathe near a public footway frequented by women, unless the men are hidden from view by a screen or covering ; and if they expose themselves in this manner, they are liable to an indictment for indecency, notwithstanding that at that particular place people have long been accus- tomed to bathe. It is also indictable for a man to undress himself on the sea-beach and bathe in the sea, in a place where he can be distinctly seen from inhabited houses, although such houses may have been recently erected, and although it may have been customary for men to bathe there (Glen). Bathing is pro- hibited in streams, reservoirs, conduits, aque- ducts, or other waterworks belonging to or under the control of a sanitary authority. Penalty £5 or less. Beans— The different species of edible beans, speaking generally, are characterised by containing a considerable amount of nitro- genous substances, hence their dietetic value. The nitrogenous substance in ordinary beans is called legumin or vegetable casein. It exists in combination with sulphur and x^hosphonis. Beans contain more salts than the cerealia, especially those of potash and lime. BEA (8S) BEE The following table shows the Composition OF THE Kidney and the Beoad Bean : — PluseoloB Vul- ViciaPaba- 'Ei&ey-Bean. BroAdBean. Water ' 16- 12^8 Legumin, albumen, ami 1 glaten - like suo- V 22-5 22^ stances . 1 CeUulose . ii 6^ StaroH, dextrine, sugar . and 1 49 9 52 6 Bat . 2-0 16 Clilorophyil Salts . 24 2o Potash ■^8 ■62 Soda . •24 •34 Lime . ' -as •15 Magnesia . •18 • -2 Iron , •001 •03 Phosphoric acid •64 ■9 Sulphuric aciil . •07 •08 Chloride of potash — — „ sodium _ — Chlorine . •025 •06 The results of an Analysis op Indian Beans ifl thus given by Forbes Watson : — Srga Hispida (abean)— Bhoot of India. Water . Nitrogenous ) substances J Tat Starch . Mineral matters Dolichou (a bean)— Wall orOhotWaU, or Cooltree, of India. 10-25 38-83 lO'Sl 26:65 4-14 Erum Lens, a lentil, called! DboU^ like tbe CnjanUH or MuBaooT, In Hlndnstaui.* 12 03 2^20 59 38 319 11-84 25^15 126 69-85 1-92 Beans are not very digestible, about 6-5 per cent, passing away unaltered ; and on an examination of the faeces, starch cells, giving a blue reaction with iodine, may be found ; be- sides this, a great deal of flatulence is said to be produced by the sulphuretted hydrogen formed from the legumin. In preparing bean s for the table, they should be boiled slowly, and for a long time. Old beans, no matter how long boiled, will not soften ; in fact, on pro- longed boiling, they become hard. Both men and animals can be nourished upon beans alone for some time. Added to rice, they form the staple food of lai-ge populations. The Hindoo mixes lentils with ghee and rice ; the Arabs eat Egyptian horse-beans, and frijoles (a species of black bean) are exten- sively consumed in Yucatan and Central America. , Bean-flour has been used for the adultera- tion of wheaten flour ; it can be detected by it^ microscopic characters. The meshes of cellulose are very much larger than those of the fourth coat of wheat, with which it has sometimes been confounded, and the starch • This is not liked much by the Hindoos, on ac- count of its blood-red colour. _ . grains are also quite different (fig. 11) ; they are oval or renif orm, or with one end slightly larger ; they have no clear hilum or rings, but many have a deep central longitudinal cleft running in the longer axio, and occupying two- thirds or three-fourths of the length, but never reaching completely to the end : this cleft is sometimes a line, sometimes a chasm, and occasionally secondary clefts abut upon it* at parts of its course ; sometimes instead of a cleft there is an irregular-shaped depression. If a little liquor potassa; be added, the cellulose is seen more clearly. If the flour be added to a little boiling water, the smell of bean becomes apparent. See Flodr. Pig. 11. Bedding-, Purification of— Bedding cannot be properly disinfected unless taken to pieces and subjected to dry heat, which can only be done in large ovens or disinfecting chambers. Any local authority may provide a proper place and necessary appliances for the disin- fection of bedding.— (P. H., s. 122.) Any local authority may direct the deten- tion of bedding, clothing, &c., which have been exposed to infection, and Truiy give com- pensation for the same. — (lb., a. 121.) Any person giving, lending, selling, trans- mitting, or exposing bedding, clothing^ rags, &c., which have been exposed to infection, is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5. Bedrooms— 5ee DisnirEOTANTS, Habita- tions, Ventilation, &c. Beef— ,Sce Food, Meat, Training. Beer — Beer is an artificial compound, the chief constituents being a fermented saccha- rine solution plus a wholesome bitter. It is BEE (86) BEE usually defined as a fermented infusion of malt flavoured with hops, but this is quite erroneous, sugar largely taking the place of malt, other vegetable bitters the place of hops. Before tb,e introduction of hops from the Netherlands, beer was always bittered by cimomile, horehound, &c. , and directly the hop was imported, there was so loud an outcry against its use, that its employment in beer was forbidden by Act of Parliament. A few years afterwards, however, the hop was not alone recognised, but its use was legalised to the exclusion of all other bitters. ' This step must be regarded as a fiscal one, -rendering the collection of the duty easier. In 1862 the hop-duty was repealed, the consequence being a return on the part of the trade to bitters, which are cheaper than the hop. The bitters actually used, either in substitu- tion of hops, or more frequently as an addi- tion, are camomile, calumba, chirata, gentian, horehound, wormwood, quassia, and sima- ruba; now all these are recognised tonics, and there can be no valid objection against their use. We cannot see that hop is supe- rior to any of them. The bittering of beer, indeed, is entirely a question between the brewer and the palate of Jiis customers ; always so long as nothing injui'ious or poisonous is introduced. Besides malt, sugar, hops, and bitters, the brewers use various chemicals, which assist in the preservation of beer ; such as, for example. Bean's brewing material, patented; bisul- phate of lime ; finings, &c. There are many vaiieties of ales and beer ; the following are a few of the most im- portant : — Pale ale Maimfactured from the finest and lightest dried malt and the choicest hops, the latter in excess. Mild die difiFers from pale ale in being sweeter, stronger, and almost frte from the flavour of the hop. Bitter ale or bitter leer has, as a mle, less body than pale ale, and is more highly bittered. Table beer is a weak liquor, commonly containing three or four times the proportion of water usually present in ordinary beer and ale. Porter, — The beer or porter of the metropolitan brewers is essentially a weak mild ale, coloured and flavoured with roasted malt. Its richness in sugar and alcohol, on which its stimulating and nutritive properties depend, is hence less than that of an un- coloured mild ale brewed from a like original quan- tity of malt. In point of strength, it would seem to stand about midway between light and strong ales, although frequently brewed of a strength very slightly above that of table ale. Stout is a richer and stronger description of porter, and may be said to have nearly the same relation to the higher qualities of mild ale that porter holds with regard to pale ale or bitter beer. The average specific gravity of English beers and porters is from 1010 to 1014. The percentage of malt extract (dextrine, cellulose, sugar) is least in bitter and highest in the sweet ales ; it varies from 4 to 15 per cent, in ale, and 4 to d'per cent, in porter. The hop extract , 686 There are' some curious facts worked out by M. Dufau. with regard to the connection of blindness and deaf mutism, more especially as regards France. Thus he oaloiilates that there is 1 blind to every 950 inhabitants, and 1 deaf mute to every 1212 inliabitants, or nearly one-fourth more blind than deaf mutes, whilst in other countries the numbers BLI (93) BLO are about equal ; for instance, in Prussia, a few years since, there was 1 blind in every 1378 inliabitants, and 1 deaf mute in every 1269 inhabitants. Blindness increases as you go to the north — the numbers already given show this — while deaf mutism increases as the country is more or less elevated above the snow -line; therefore, mountainous regions present more examples than plains. With regard to the influence of age, deaf mutism. is congenital, while blindness is fre- quently an accident occurring at any age, ■hence there, are more youthful mutes than youthful blind people. It has been calculated in Prussia, that in 100 deaf mutes 70 are aged from 1 year to 30 years, and 30 above that age ; whilst among 100 Mind, the ages of 24 vary from 1 to .30 years, and 76 above that age. The preceding table was drawn up by M. Dufau. If we divide these 17 groups into 3 zones, thus — (1) Northern region, 1, 2, 3, P, 6, 8 gvoaps. (i) Central regiou, 4, 7, 16, 16, 14 ,, (3) Southern „ 10, 11, 12, 13, 17 „ we obtain the following facts : — Northern region, 1 person blind in every 965 Central „ 1 „ U5 Somheni ,,- 1 ,, b62 From this we gather the significant fact that blindness is distributed in France as in the northern hemisphere— i.e., in the central part we find the least number of blind people, and in the northern the greatest. We find also that in those French provinces which are considered as the least advanced, such as Poitou, Berry, Auvergne, itc, where the industrial* movement has made but slow advances— where the industrial population is, in fact, placed under the most unfavourable conditions— the number of blind is still less than in the north ; whilst in the principal centre of the industrial movement in France, from causes sufficiently evident, a large amount of blindness is to be met with. The large number of people who are blind in the southern region, confirms the principle we have previously enunciated. In consider- ing the number of the deaf, Dufau divides these 17 groups into two divisions, an eastern, which consists of groups 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, and a western region, comprising groups 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 15. In the eastern region we find 1 in every 1081 of the inhabitants deaf mutes, while in the western division the amount is 1 in 1402. Thus we find that in all the mountainous regions of France the number of deaf mutes is nearly a third higher than in the flat country. We find also that there -are more blind than deaf mutes in seven groups (viz.. 2, .3, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13), more deaf mutes than blind in five groups (Viz., 8, 11, 14, 15, 16), and that the proportion is nearly the same in the five remaining groups. With regard to sex, it is well established that the masculine sex affected by either of these infirmities is greatly in excess of the female. Thus in Prussia there are 100 blind men to 87 blind women, and 100 deaf men to 76 female deaf mutes. ■ Institutionsfor Educating the Blind. — There are twenty -seven institutions- in England established for the purpose of educating the blind, two only giving attention to the higher branches of education, the others being mostly confined to the teaching of some manual trade and reading raised type. One of the two higher-class institutions is " The College for Blind Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester," founded in 1866, its object being to provide such an education as shall enable a blind man of good means to enter a university, and prepare him- self for the professions open to him, or one of slender fortune to compete for a mainte- nance as a teacher of music and languages, or a translator. The Royal Normal College, founded in 1868, for talented children of the lower classes, is almost wholly eleemosynary, and gives a more liberal education than any oth* institution of the same class, while it pays the greatest attention to music and tun- ing as a means of gaining a livelihood. In France there is a large institution, in the charge of the State. At Wiirtemberg and Zurich, the institute for the blind has been combined with that for the reception of deaf mutes, who are found useful, as they act as guides to the blind. In short, in Europe and in America there are many valuable establish- ments created for the training and education of the blind. Blood— A corpusoulated animal fluid', con- tained in a system of vessels called the circu- latory system. In animals low down in the scale the blood is a colourless fluid, but in the vertebratsB it is coloured (with one or two ex- ceptions). The arterial blood is of a bright red, the venous of a duU purple colour.' It is the most important of the animal fluids. Under the microscope, it is seen not to be homogeneous, but to consist of corpuscles in the form of a multitude of little flattened disks floating in fluid. These little disks are tolerably uniform in the same animal, both in shape and size, but differing in different species. In man they are round and concave, in birds and reptiles oval. Human blood has two kinds of corpuscles, the red averaging ^j^ of an inch in diameter, the white a little larger. The white cor- BLO (94) BLO pusclea are as muoli alive as monads, for in the body, or when put on a glass slide and kept at the temperature of the body, they exhibit movements, which can be seen by high powers. The chemical composition of human blood is as follows : — • TAe Averaitfi Cowposltion of Human Blood (A. BEOQUBRKL and BODIER), Mole. Female. Specific gravity of defibri-x j.^g^j -^.^-^^^ natud blood Of serum 1-0280 1-0274 Water 779-00 791-10 Eibrine 2 20 2-20 /Serolin ^ Fatty J Phosphorised fat matters j Cholesterin I^Saponiflcd fat j /0 02> /'0-02 Mtz 1-62. "•" ■'•"'■* 0-09 Viooj Vl05 Albumin 69-40 70-60 Bloud corpuscles 141-10 127-20 Extractive matters a-80 7-40 looo-m 1000-02 / Sodic chloride Salts' < 6ther soluble salts . ( Earthy phosphates . Metallic iron . 3 10 2-60 0-33 0-57 6-53 3-90 2-90 ■ 0-35 0-54 The blood also contains in solution oxygen, nitrqgen, and carbonic acid, as well as a free - alkaline cafbonate. The Coagulation of the Blood and its Phyiio- logy is not within the scope of this work. The Blood in Disease. — The contagious par- ticles of fever aud other contagious diseases exist, without doubt, mostly in the blood. The blood of scarlet fever and typhoid has been injected into rabbits, and produced in them a fatal feverish disease ; in the one case with a redness of the skin, in the other Peyer's patches were involved. The blood from a person suffering from measles has also been injected, but without result (Coke and Feltz). In relapsing fever, smallpox, rheumatism, septicaemia, puerperal ever, and typhoid, bacteria have been disco- vered (See Bacteria) ; and Dr. Lewis, in 1871, made the remarkable discovery of ani- malculse, or an entozoon in the blood, exist- ing in countless numbers. See Filakia san- guinis HOMINIS. A theory has also sprang up, that verte- brate blood in a peculiar state of decomposi- tion causes and generates scarlet fever ; hence, whether true or not, it is Well to see that no slaughter-house is established near a public or private school. See Feveh, Soarlet. In a medico-legal point of view, the distin- guishing of human blood from that of other animals, from iron-mould, and from other stains, is of the greatest importance. A micro- scopical examination will generally suffice to show whether the fluid or stain is blood or not, and whether it is the blood of a mammal. The red .vegetable colouring matters, such as cochineal, logwood, &o., in solution give with ammonia a deep crimson tint ; others, such as the red colouring from flowers and fruits, change into a blue or green. The iron-moulds and red paints containing iron will at once respond to the usual tests for iron. A commission . composed of MM. Mialhe, Mayel, Lef ort, and Cornil have reported lately (1873) on the best methods of examining blood stains ; the following are their results (Chem-' ical News, Dec. 5, 1873) :— ]st, When the stain is of recent date, or supposed to be' so, the red corpuscles should be particularly examined, and every care taken to preserve 'them without change. The stains must not be .washed with water, so that the h»matln may not be altered. After insisting on the microscopic charactei-s of the blood stains, isolated or compared with those of various animals, the Commission enumerate with care the fluids which are destructive or preservative of blood corpuscles. Among the first, water, and particularly hot water, acetic, gallic, liydrochloric, and sulphuric acids ; and of alkalies, potash and soda, even in weak solution, aud ether and chloro. form, and many other re-agents, so alter the blood corpuscles as to cause them to entirely disappear. Alcohol, chromic and picric acids, and bichromate of potash, preserve the corpuscles, though they alter their form. The preservative fluids are those whose composition approach nearest to serum, such as the iodised serum of Schultze, an excellent preparation made with amniotic fluid, to which are added a few drops of the tincture of iodine, so as to give it the colour of white wine ; or better, a fluid composed thus— white of egg, 30 grammes ; distilled water, 270 grammes ; and chloride of sodium, 40 grammes ; or even a fluid containing 0-5 per cent of chloride of sodium, or 5 or 6 per cent of sulphate of soda. If the stains be wetted and softened by these fluids, and then examined, white and red coi-pusoles and fibroid particles will be observed. 2nd, In more diflicult cases, when the microscope, owing to the alterations which time has effected in the hsematin, can give but vague information, exa- mination by the spectroscope and chemical analysis enables us to arrive at precise results. The use of these means, being less known and also more deli- cate, requires special study. (1) Spectrum Analysis — Colouring matters have the power of absorbing certain coloured rays of white light— the same always for the same substance. This is the principle on which spectroscopic examination is based. If into an analysing tube filled with water a few drops of a solution of htemoglobin be intro- duced, till it has the colour of peach-blossoms, the luminous rays of the spectrum passing tVirough this fluid present two bands of absorption, in the lines D and E of Frauenhofer, in the yellow and the green. The same fact would be observed if a few drops of blood were substituted for hiemoglobin in the analysis. In a case of doubt, the hcemoglobin oE the blood could be reduced by adding to this latter a reducing body. Destroyed hiemoglobin has a different spectrum from oxygenated hemoglobin; BLO (95) BOD a single absorption band, as large as the two former bands united, and a little to the left of Frauenhofer's line D. (2) In blood in a state of decomposition, or which has been treated by acids or caustic alkalies, hemo- globin is changed into a new substance; hsematin 13 formed, which, combined with hydrochloric acid, gives characteristic ciystals. In order to obtain them we must proceed thus : — A small fragment of dried blood is placed on a glass slide, it is dissolved in a drop of water, and a minute portion of sea-salt is added. It is covered with a thin slide, and pure acetic acid is made to pass between the two slides, and it is heated ovei' a spirit-lamp to boiling point ; acetic acid is again added, and it is heated afresh, and this. is repeated till the crystals are obtained. They are rhomhoidal, of a dirty brown colour, quite characteristic, and require to be seen with a magni- fying power of three hundred or four hundred diameters. With the stnallest quantity of blood these two reactions can always be produced — the specti-um examination and the crystals of hydro- cKlorate of hsematin ; and they are so certain, that the existence of one alone enables one to affirm the presence of blood. (3) The third process, though not so exact as the preceding, ought nevertheless not to be neglected. If to a veiy small quantity of blood dissolved in a little water be added a few drops of tincture of guiacum and of binoxide of hydrogen, a persistent blue colour is immediately produced; but this very sensitive reaction can be obtained with other organic matter — nasal mucus, saliva, Ac. ; it therefore only gives a probability. We must proceed in the following manner : — A tincture of guiacum is prepared with alcohol at 83 degrees, and guiacum 'resin ; a mixture of sulphuric ether and binoxide of hydrogen is also made, and enclosed in a stoppered bottle, and kept under water in the d^rk. This preparation is less liable to change than pure oxygenated water. The object stained with blood, if it be white, is put into a little cup, then moistened with water to dissolve out the hlood stain, and washed in distilled water ; ' this water is then submitted to the action of these reagents. If the thing stained be coloured, and the stain little or not at all visible, it must be moistened, and then pressed between two or three sheets of white blotting-paper, and tried first with the guiacum. If the stain be of blood, a reddish or brown spot will form on the paper. One of the sheets should be treated with ammonia, and the stain will become crimson or green. A second sheet, treated with tincture of guiacum and ozonised ether, will give a blue colour more or less intense, according to the quantity of the blood. To recapitulate— (1) If the *tai n s or scales of blood appear recent, the corpuscles may, after the neces- sary precautions, be examined under the microscope, and their presence, diameter, &c., observed, which will enable one to diagnose the origin of the blood, whether human or animal. (2) If the stains be old and the blood changed, the reaction with the tincture of guiacum would make the presence of blood pro- bable; but its actual presence cannot be'afBrmed without, spectrum examination, or the production of crystals of hydrochlorate of hiematin ; one of the two is sufficient. It is unnecessary to add, that these reactions do not sEow whether the blood is human or animaL Dr, Richardsoir has succeeded, by the use of very high powers and careful' measure- ments, in proving that it is possible, in skilled hands, to distinguish between human and animal corpuscles. Blood-Boiler — The boiling of blood or ofEal gives rise to very offensive organic va- pours ; if established near dwelling-houses, the urban authoiity should see that the offal is boiled in closed coppers, and that the fumes are carried off into the furnace-fire, so as to be consumed. The trade of a blood-boiler comes under the category of an offensive trade, and as such cannot be established without the consent Of an urban authority. —(P. H., a. 112.) The urban authority may make bylaws respecting blood-boiling. — (P. H., s. 113.) On complaint by the medical oificer of health, or by any two legally qualified practi- tioners, or by any ten inhabitants in the dis- trict of an urban sanita/ry authority, that any building or place for boiling offal or blood is a nuisance, or causes any effluvia injurious to the health of the inhabitants of the neigh- bourhood, proceedings may be taken by tbe authority as described under Trades, 'Offen- sive, &c.— (P. H., «.114.) Board, General, of Health— The Gen- eral Board of Health has ceased to exist ; its powers were transferred by 21 & 22 Vict, c. 77, s. 1, to the Local Government Board. See Local Government Board. Board, Joint— See District, United. Boat-Hacing— iS'ee Heart Disease. Boats — An urban authority may license the proprietors of pleasure-boats and vessels, and the boatmen or other persons in charge, and may make bylaws for regulating the num- bering and naming of such boats and vessels, and the number of persons to be carried there- in, and the mooring places for the same, and for fixing rates of hire, and the qualification of such boatmen or other persons in charge, and for securing their good and orderly con- duct while in charge. — (P. H., s. 172.) Body - Searcher— A body-searcher was one who formerly examined the bodies of the dead in order to report on the cause of death. It was an important office at the time of the plague, and was performed by the chirurgeons, who were paid twelve pence o.ut of the goods of the party searched, ^t one time it was, however, intrusted to two old women, much to the damage of the bills of mortality. In Prance there are 'verijicat&urs de dSc^s, their office being almost identical with that of the old body-searcher ; they inspect each dead BOI (96) BON person, and give a certificate, for whicli they get a fixed sum. Boil {Furunculusj—A circumscribed round hard swelling, depending on inflammation of one spot of the true akin, aiid of the de- posit therein of unhealthy lymph; usually attended with the acutest pain and tender- ness, and ending in suppuration, with the discharge of pus, &akea of softened lymph and small sloughy shreds of areolar tissue, which' form what is called the core. It may be caused by blood disorder, from unwholesome food, or from unknown epidemio, atmospheric causes, or from depressing influences generally. Living for some time in an impure atmos- phere has, without doubt, frequently caused an eruf tion of boils ; and drinking unwhole- some water may have produced the same result. In 1848 a remarkable and curious endemic occurred in the vicinity of Frankfort. Dr. Clemens (Hente's Zeitsohrift fiir Nat. Med. 1849, vol. viii. p. 215) made an ex- haustive inquiry into the cause of this out- break, and came to the conclusion that the complaint was caused by drinking water con- taining sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which was set ftee in some large chemical works, and was washed down by the rains into the brooks , from which the drinking-water was derived ; but as sulphides, and the Harrogate waters, which contain sulphuretted hydrogen, are now known to be the best remedy for bqils, it admits of grave doubt whether Dr. Clemens' conclusions are correct. Probably the unhealthy boils or ulcers so conomon in India, especially in the north-west, and along the frontier, are connected with bad water. Since the waters of the Jumna were used, instead of the impure weU-water, the " Delhi " boil has much decreased in fre- quency ; yet, on the other hand, from Flem- ing's observations, there appears to be a doubt whether the water was really to blame. Dr. Alcock, apparently a disciple of Dr. Clemens, would have us believe that the frontier ulcers in India are caused by the evolution of ilphuretted hydrogen ; but the evidence he Jjni produced to support his theory is hardly •luo! a satisfactory or convincing kind. Bole — Akindof clay, often highly coloured by iron. It usually consists of silica, alumina, iron, lime, and magnesia. It is not a well-de- fined mineral, and consequently many sub- stances are described by mineralogists under this name. Armenian Bole is of a bright red colour. If is often employed as a dentifrice, and in some cases is administered medicinally. It is used for the adulteration of cocoa, anchovies, potted meats, fi^h, and sauces. Sole ofBois is of a yeUow colour. It con- tains carbonate of lime, and effervesces with acids. Bohemian £oJe— Yellowish red. French £oZe— Pale red, with frequent streaks of yellow. Lemnian Bole and Silesian Bole are in most respects similar to the above-named varieties. The following analyses are by C. Von Haule : — Capo di Bova. New HoV-and. Silica . . ■ 45-64 38-22 Alumina . 29-33 31-00 Peroxide of iron 888 ,11-00 Lime 60 trace Magnesia . trace trace Water 14-27 18-8 Waste 1-28 -97 - Bone-Boiler— The trade of a bone-boiler comes under the character of offensive trades (P. H., B. 112-114), and an urban sanitary authority can regulate and control or oppose its establishment in their district. See Blood-Boilek ; Bones ; Trades, Offen- sive, &o. Bones — Bones are used very extensively both in this country and abroad. For the purposes of the sugar-refiner alone, an im- mense quantity is annually employed ; besides which, they are utilised in the extraction of gelatine, in the manufacture of soap and candles, and in other branches of industry besides those in which the bone itself is cut or turned into various shapes. The mean composition of hones, taken from a heap about to be used for manufacturing purposes — i.e., covered with the periosteum and imperfectly cleansed from flesh — appears' to be as follows :— - , Fibrous tissue ■Water . Put Albumen vessels, &c. a> Organic matter = 50. i) (••J t-tlineral matter = 50. Fhospliate of lime . „ , magnesia Carbonate of lime . Other salts, as — Chloride soda ,, potash . Sulphates, &o. . Bones in the dry state contain about 33"3 per cent, of animal, and 66 '7 per cent of mine- ral matter, and on an average they yield about 19 per cent, of their weight of gelatine and fat. It is impossible to make a nutritious soup out of bones alone. The late Mr. K Smith was certainly in error in saying that 6 lbs. of bones, broken small and boiled in water from 9 to 10 hours, wiU yield a soup that contains the nutritive elements of 2 lbs. of meat as far as carbon is concerned, and of 1 lb. of meat in respect of BOB (97) EOT nitrogen ; for although this may be so as re- gards the actual weights of .carbonaceous and nitrogenous matters, yet it is far otherwise with their -nutritive powers. In the well- known experiments of the French gelatine commission, it was found that the soup or jelly from boiled bones would not support the life of dogs, although raw bones in like pro- portion .would ; from which it is evident that there is a great difference in the nutritive power of the gelatinous tissue and its cooked products. Gelatine, in fact, has never been discovered in the blood of animals, nor is it a constituent of eggs or mUk, which are the two primary foods from which the tissues of the young are formed. If would appear, then, that gelatine is not an essential article of diet, although it is probable that gelatinous tissue undergoes digestion by being converted into peptones. The following is the process recommended by Proust for making the best of bones in hospitals, gaols, and similar establishments. The bones, crushed small, are to be boiled for fifteen minutes in a kettle of water, and the fat (which is fit for all common purposes) skimmed off as soon as cold. The bones are then to be ground, and boiled in eight or ten times their weight of *ater (of which that already used must form a part) until half of it is wasted, when a very firm jelly will be obtained. Iron vessels should alone be used for this purpose, as jelly and soup act upon copper, brass, and other common metals. Forthe.manufacture of gelatine, the bones of the skull or the smaU bones of the feet of ani- maU are generally used. The bones are boiled when fmh, since they do not when dry so readily give up their fat by boiling; they still contain fat, but it appears by the process of drying to become infiltrated into the bony tissue. In all manufacturing operaUons on bones, foul odours and complaints are likely to arise, (a) from the heaps of bones having shreds of flesh in a state of putrefaction ; (6) from the multitude of rats nearly always frequenting the heaps ; (c) from the offensive organic va- pours in the various manufacturing operations. The vapoui-s should always be led by a special flue into the furnace-fire, and there consumed. Borax (Na2O2B2O3,10H2O)— Borax, che- mically speaking, is an acid borate of sodium, its composition in 100 part's being, anhydrous, Na.jO, 30-7 ; B3O3, 69-3 ; HjO, 47-12. Its specific gravity (dryst) is 173, and its form is that of prismatic crystals. It is found in an impure state in the lakes of Thibet, and in many other parts of the world. A large quan- tity of the borax of commerce is manufactured from the boracio acid found in the lagoons of Tuscany. The crystals are slightly efilorescent ; they are soluble in half their weight of boiling and twelve parts of cold water. When heated strongly, borax swells up, becomes anhydrous, and melts below redness into a clear transpa- rent glass, which has the property of dissolv- ing many of the metallic oxides. ' Borax is used in the arts as a flux in the making of enamels, in the fixing of colours on porcelain, and by the refiner in the melting of gold and silver. M. Schnetzler (Comptes Eendus, vol. Ixxx. p. 473) has made several experiments, which show that solutions of borax have considerable power in arresting the growth of vegetable cells and the putrefaction of animal sub- stances. Experiments made by submitting the leaves of Elodea Canadensis and Taucheria clavata, the spores of the grape fungus Oidium Tuckeri, and the cells of yeast, moulds, &o., to the action of concentrated solutions of borax, showed in each case coagulation and death of the protoplasm. In like manner, solutions of borax were found to be fatal to the Infusoria, Rotifera, Entromostraca, and to the larvae of frogs. Kipe grapes and currants, after being kept two years in a concentrated solution of borax, showed no sign of mouldiness or fermentation; they were not, however, edible. Meat placed in tins containing a concentrated solution of borax, acquires, after some weeks, a peculiar and disagreeable odour, butdoesnot putrefy. A pound of beef thus kept a year and a half was of a yellowish colour, but as soft and tender as fresh meat. Meat placed in a similar solution, in hermetically-seaied tins, was perfectly preserved. These experiments are worthy of extension and repetition. Boroughs — The word " borough," for the purposes of the Public Health Act, 1875, means any place subject, for the time being, to the 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 75. The sanitary,'^' ,j^- authority of a borough, whether a local board V or a town council, is now designated an urban sanitary authority. Borrowing Powers— See Loans. Bosh Butter — A very inferior kind of butter, made up in Hamburg, and sent over here to adulterate other butters with. See Butter. Bothriocephalus Cordatus— A para- sitic worm affecting the human intestines, first described by Leuckart. It is common in dogs, but rare in man. The following diagram G BOX (9«) BBA (tig. 12) shows— 6, head, back view, magnified five diameters ; 6', upper part of body and head, magnified two diameters, a is a portion of the worm, natural size. See also Bothbio- CEPHALUS LaTUS. • . elongating and contracting the neck, so that it appears sometimes short, sometimes long. The joints or segments commence about three inches from the head ; the anterior ones are nearly squarte, but the remainder are much elongated transversely. Each segment contains on its flat surface two orifices, the anterior connected with a male, the posterior with a female organ of generation. The whole para- site is of a brown colour, and from six to' twenty feet in length. Persons affected with this worm never pass the single segments or proglottides from the bowels, but pass them in chains of many links. The ova are also generally to be discovered in the f seces ; they are of an ovoid shape ; the capsule is perfectly translucent, and the yolk can be distin- The yolk undergoes segmentation. Fig. 12. Bothriocephalus Iiatus— A parasitic worm found in the intestines of man. Al- though classed with tape-worms, it differs essentially from taenia. The head is of an elongated form (fig. 13), compressed, with an Fig. 13. anterior obtuse prominence into which the mouth opens. The animal has the power of Fig. 14. and ultimately develops an embryo, with six hooks at the anterior extremity, cased in a mantle studded with vibratory cilia ; the lid of the capsule then opens up (fig. 14), and the embryo escapes. If they do not obtain access to the intestines of an animal within a week, they lose their ciliated mantle and perish. Facts appear to show that drinking-water is the chief, perhaps the only medium, through which the worm is propagated among man. It would appear to be unknown in England, except when imported ; but it is common in Russia, Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Finland, Poland, and Switzerland. Brain Tever—See Feveb, Typhus. Bran — Bran is the inner husk or proper coat of the cereal grains sifted from the flour. Its average composition is — Albuminoid bodies . . . 13-80 Oil . . . . , 6-66 Starch, fibre, &c. . . , 61 '67 Ash .- . 611 Water . . 12-86 100-00 Poggiale gives a somewhat different ana- lysis. Composition of Bran (Poogialb), Water ]2-66 Non-azotised soluble matter . 7 70 Sugar .... 1-99 Fat 2-87 Soluble nitrogen available . . 3-86 Soluble nitrogen non-available 3-61 Starch 2169 Woody fibre 34-57 Salts .... . 6-54 Bran, then, contains a considerable portion of fatty and nitrogenous matters, but it is BRA (99) BBA ^. nevei-theless excessively indigestible ; the sharp particles appear to act on the intestines as an in-itant, and the greatest portion in- gested escapes unchanged. Tardieu fed dogs on bran alone, but they soon became exces- sively ■weak, and eventually died. Bran has been found as an adulterant of oatmeal, pepper, and tobacco. The bran of wheat is used by the calico- printer as a mordant j it is a useful manure, containing phosphates of ammonia and mag- nesia ; it is popularly believed to be a useful remedy for coughs and colds when taken in the form of tea, and bread has been made of it by the poorer classes. Brandy — An alcoholic beverage obtained from the distillation of wine. When first dis- tilled it is colourless, but it becomes of a pale amber colour upon being stored in oaken casks. The darker brandies are coloured by caramel. The constituents of pure brandy are alcohol, water, acetic acid, acetic ether, senauthio ether, small quantities of volatile oil, colouring- matter, and tannin. The amount of alcohol varies from 45 to 55 per cent. As redistillations injure the flavour of brandies, they are but slightly rectified ; and the strength of the very best brandies seldom exceeds proof ; besides, the strength decreases by keeping. The kinds of brandy esteemed in England are Cognac and Armagnao ; those of Eochelle and Bordeaux come next in quality ; while inferior brandies are obtained from Portugal, Spain, and Italy. In France there are n. great many kinds of brandy in use, known by names descriptive of their qualities, source, and strengths. Eau de vie supiri&ure. — This is the finest variety of Cognac hrandj/, both " white" and " pale," of the English drinkei-, being seldom artificially coloured. It is made from pale white wines by skilful distillation. JEau de vie ordinaire. — This is the ordinary brandy of the taverns and hotels, and is pre- pared from inferior or spoilt white or red wine, the average specific gravity being '9476 (from 22 to 27 under proof). Eau de vie de marc. — Used chiefly to mix with other brandy ; distilled from the lees of sour, damaged, and inferior red wines, the marc or cake of grape, &c. Eau de vie seconde. — Very weak and in- ferior. Eau de vie d preuve de Hollande. — Sp. gr. •941 to -942 (18 to 20 under proof). Ecm de me d, preuve d!huile. — Sp. gr. '9185. Pure olive oil just sinks in it ; it is the strongest brandy kept for retail sale in France. Eau de vie forte. — Distilled from common^ brandy at a low temperature. It answers to our spirits of wine. -Sp. gr. '839. Esprit de vin is brandy or spirit carefully rectified to "861. The brandies we obtain here are often very different from those we see drunk at the best tables on the Continent ; this is accounted for by the fact that French brandies are generally " made up " for the English market. The action of brandy on the system does not exhibit any peculiarity, and the considera- tion of this point comes more naturally under the head of Alcohol and Alcoholic Bever- ages. AduUeratiom.—WAteT, burnt sugar, Cay- enne pepper, grains of paradise, horse-radish, acetic ether, fusel oil. Some of the cheaper brandies are mere imitations, manufactured from corn-spirit and flavouring and colouring matters. The following are examples of receipts used by the trade : — To ten puncheoDS of brandy . 1081 galls. Add flavouring raisin-spirit . 118 ,, " Tincture of grains of paradise 4 ,, Cherry-laurel water . . 2 ,, Spirit of almond-cake . 2 ,, liOl „ Add also ten handfula of rak sawdust, and give it complexion with burnt sugar. The following formulae for "reducing" brandy are those of two large wholesale dealers : — ^ 1. Cognac brandy (10 under proof), 20 galls. ; British brandy (17 under proof), 5 galls. ; water, 4 J galls. Strength of mixture, 25 under proof. 2. To 72 galls, of full-flavoured French brandy (5 under proof) are added 10 galls, of spirit of wine (58 over proof) , 25 galls, of water, and 1 pint of good colouring. The whole is then well "rummaged up," and allowed to stand for two days, when it is fit for use. Strength of mixture, 22 under proof. A liqueur sold in London under the name of " brandy improver," or "brandy essence," consists of a thin sugar syrup, flavoured with acetic ether and essence of cayenne, and coloured with burnt sugar. It is said to heighten the true Cognac flavour and restore lost alcoholic strength. In the trade, the addition of water "liquor" to spirit is tech- nically called " reducing," whilst absolute adulteration is known under the name ^^im- proving." Detection of Adulterations. — The first thing to be done is to determineits alcoholic strength. To do this, put 100 c.c. in a flask with lateral tube or small retort, and distil to dryness, or nearly so, condensing the products by means of a suitable receiver, &c., and estimate the X. BBiA ( loo) BBE alcohol by means «f the processes detailed under Aiooholometbt. The residue in the retort may be tested with litmus paper : if acid, sulphates or sulphuric acid may be pre- sent; if the laitter, the paper will char on drying. In either case, the residue may be further tested with chloride of barium, and the exact amount of sulphates estimated. The brandy may be roughly tested for fusel oil by burning a little of it in a dish, and de- pressing over the flame a saucer or other cold piece of porcelain. If there is a black stain, some of the lower alcohols are very' probably present, and should be looked for by distilling half a pint of the spirit and examining the later or heavier products. The vinic alcohol being the most volatile, comes over first; the heavier, fusel oil, remaining until the later For a more accurate process for the detec- tion of amylic alcohol, see art. Fusel Oil. Cocculus Indicus may be detected exactly as in the process detailed under Beer. Copper. — (a) Agftate a little of the brandy with a little pure olive oil ; if copper be pre- sent, the oil will acquire a grQsn colour. (6) A clean knife immersed in the acidulated liquid becomes coated with a film of metallic copper, if that metal is present. Lead. — Sulphuretted hydrogen throws down a black precipitate if in large quantity, or gives a dark coloration if the lead is in minute quantity. Capsicum and peppers may be detected in the extract by the taste ; if acid, it must be previously neutralised with soda. Methylated spirit is detected by rubbing a little on the hands, and then drawing a long breath with the hands over the mouth, the peculiar odour of the methylated spirit is then evident ; but this requires practice. See Al- coholism, Alcoholic' Bevebages, &c. Braxy of Sheep— See Meat. Bread — The principal varieties of bread at present in use in this country are bricks, Gobwrg, cottage, batch, French roUs, and rye- bread. These are all made of the same dough, the only difference is in the shape given to them, their various flavours depending on the way in which they are afiected by the heat of the oven in baking. The "cottage" loaves and the French rolls are frequently made of a superior flour to that employed in manufac- turing the " batch," or household loaf. Eye-bread consists generally of ordinary wheat-flour mixed with bran. Bread is made of the flour of different cereal grains, but only those that contain gluten admit of conversion into light and spongy bread. In this respect wheaten flour is supe- rior to all others. In times of scarcity and famine, however,- various substances besides the flour of the cereals have been made into bread, or have been mixed with it. For this purpose almost every amylaceous vegetable at once plentiful and cheap has in its turn been eagerly appropriated. Acorns, the legu- minous seeds, numerous starchy bulbous roots, and similar substances have been employed, either in the form of meal, or made into an emulsion or jelly, which has been used instead of water to form ordinary flour into dough. At such times bran, a nutritious and valuable portion of the grain, generally rejected, has been retained in the flour, and indeed occa- sionally added in excess. Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, during a period of scarcity, succeeded in Manufacturing bread from the farinaceous residue of beer (brewer's grains). Ten lbs. of this substance, rubbed to a paste, with ^ lb. of yeast, 5 lbs. of ordinaiy meal, and a handful of salt, produce 14 lbs. of BLACK BREAD, which is said to be both "savoury and nourishing." Iceland, carrageen, and other mosses, either alone or mixed with flour or meal, have also been. used. Cowitch-grass and beet have before now been substituted for flour, or mixed vrith it as in Egypt. In Poland a sort of gruel is prepared from this cowitch-grass. Rye-bread is brown, and rather heavy, but possessing a savoury smell. It has the quality of ke.eping seven to eight days without getting dry, but it is very liable to become mouldy. Cassava-bread is made from the root of the manihot, by first expressing the juice, then grinding it into a coarse meal, and baking it in the form of cakes upon thin iron plates. When steeped in oil, and flavoured with cayenne, and lightly broiled upon a gridiron, it is not unpalatable. Composition of Bread-Stuffs.—The most common and also the most ancient method of vesiculating bread is by fermentation, and the processes now in use are not very differ- ent from those employed in the earliest times. Yeast (as brewer's or patent yeast, prepared from an infusion of hops and malt ; German yeast, the solid residue of the yeast produced by the fermentation of rye in making hol- lands ; baker's yeast, made from potatoes and flour ; or leaven, which is old dough in astate of fermentation) is mixed with the flour or dough, and this soon begins to ferment by the action of the yeast fungus (Micoderma cere- visice) on the sugar of flour, whereby carbonic acid is produced, which being diffused through the substance of the dough, vesiculates it, and causes it to swell. The chemical process of baking cannot be ■BRE (lOl) BItE rightly understood without a knowledge of the ordinary composition of the principal varieties of flour employed in the preparation of bread. When com is ground in a mill, the grain is reduced to powder, which may be sepa- rated by sifting into two principal portions, flour and bran. The bran is comjposed of the brownish-coloured outer covering of the grain, which is tougher and harder than the internal portions, and consequently is not reduced by grinding to so fine a state of divi- sion ■; the flour is produced by the pulverisa- tion of the inner portion of the grain. The most important constituents of the varieties of corn used as foqd are — (1) Starch ; (2) gluten, a peculiar azotised substance allied to albumen, which confers the tenacity and to\ighness upon dough ; (3) a smaU portion of sugar, or of dextrine ; (4) a little oily matter ; (5) a small quantity of sa- line matter ; (6) a skeleton of ligneous tissue, which is the only portion of the seed not susceptible of digestion in the stomach. ' The proportions in which these ingredients are present in some of the principal varieties of grain used as food may be seen from the sub- joined table. They vary, however, consider- ably in the same grain when grown in different climates. The proportion of gluten contained in wheat grown in the southern parts of Europe and in the north of Africa is consider- ably higher than in the best English-grown wheat; and the hard, thin-skinned wheats furnish a larger proportion of gluten than the softer varieties of the grain. Whole Wheat-Meal. Decor- ticated Components. Maize. Eye. Peas. Polish. Hardy White. Algerian. Rice. PiLIQOT. Bqussingault. '' ^ Water .... 15-2 13-6 13-6 17-1 7-3 14-7 8-6 Starch .... 61-3 60-8 59-8 59-0 83-0 65-1 56-9 Dextrine and sugar 6'3 10-5 6-4 1-5 Azotised ) Soluble ' matter J Ihsoluble . 1-6 2 1-6 12-8 7-5 12-5 25-0 12-7 10-5 14-4 7-0 0-7 2 2-2 Oily matter . 1-5 1-1 1-1 1-5 1-0 3-3 4-4 Fibre .... 1-5 1-4 1-1 0-5 2 4 31 Salts .... 1-4 1-7 100-0 100-0 1000 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-2 Components. Water Starch . Dextrine ) Sugar ) . Gluten or eijuivalent Oily matter . Fibre . Salts . Bran of Soft French Wheat. 61-0 14-9 3 6 9-7 6-7 Barley (Feesenius). 13-90 48-1)6 S-87 S-75 13-18 0-34 13-84 3 66 100-00 The principal portion of the woody fibre is accumulated in the bran ; but this substance likewise contains a large proportion of nutri- tive matter, for both gluten and oily matter are deposited in its cells more abundantly than in any other part of the grain, as may be seen by the result of its analysis given in the preceding table. Other grains are sometimes mixed -with flour, such as rye, buckwheat, mel- ampyrum, sainfoin, &c. Bad flour frequently causes the bread to have an acid taste, arising from an excess of lactic acid, and perhaps acetic acid. Bad yeast will also cause acidity. Great cleanliness should be enforced on the part of the men who make up the dough. In India, bread becomes sour from bad cleaning of the flour, and if too much water be present it rapidly becomes mouldy. Kice is used as an .addition, on account of its cheap- ness. Bice-bread is heavier, of closer texture, and less filled -with cavities than wheaten bread. The rice retains water. For acid flour lime-water is used instead of pure water, lime-water having this advantage, that while it does not check the ffermentation of yeast, it BBE ( 102) BBE hinders the action of diastase on starch. The lime-water should be made from caustic lime, and not be a mixture of ohalk-and-water, which is not unfrequently the case. The operation of kneading, as usually per- formed, has many disadvantages ; it is labo- rious, and it certainly is uncleanly. Many kneading-machines have been invented, but the hand-machine of Mr. Stevens is the one generally used. It is in use at the, Holborn Union, where about 5632 lbs. of bread are turned out every week by one man and two boys ; and. they contrive to make ninety-six 4-lb. loaves out of every sack of flour (280 lbs. ); the materials used on the average of a whole year being as follows : — Flour . Cones Potatoes Salt Malt 4129 lbs. '\ which prod)ice 140 „ 6632 lbs. of 368 „ I bread, or 68 „ f 14U8 4-lb. 13 ,, quartern li loaves. Many writers have recommended the use of unfermented bread, but few care to eat it, and it certainly is not so easily digested as "bread made in the ordinary way. The best sample of unfermented bread is that known as aerated, made by Dr Dauglish's process. His method has this advantage, that during the whole of the operation neither the flour nor the dough comes in contact with the flesh of the workmen. This bread is found to agree better with some persons than bread made with yeast. The great objection brought against it is that it has a tendency to become disagreeably dry. Et is easily digested and assimilated, and may even be eaten quite new by the dyspeptic with- out his feeling any of the discomfort which new leavened bread generally produces. It is cer- tainly better for infants than ordinary bread. When taken from the oven the bread begins to lose weight. The 4-lb. loaf loses — In the first 24 hours In 48 hours „ 60 „ ., 70 „ 1^ ounce. 6 ounces But this, of course, is merely an average, and is subject to many variations. The weight of the loaves is generally taken when they are hot. The Austrian army autho- rities permit a loss of 2 '9 per cent, in four days. In the French army different kinds of bread are used— ordinary bread, biscuited bread, bread half -biscuited, bread one-quarter bis- cuited, and hospital. The " pain biscuits " is used only on service. It is firmer than ordi- nary bread. Bummer. Winter. Pain de munition ordinaire keeps 6 days. 8 days. ,, au quart biscuits ,, 10 „ 15 ,, , demi „ ,, 20 „ 30 ,, „ biscuits „ 40 „ 60 ,, The French munition loaf weighs 1-5 kilo- grammes (3-3 lbs. avoirdupois), and contains two rations of 760 grammes (each 1'65 lb.) The ration of biscuit is 550 grammes (1'2 lb.) —(Code des Officiers de Saut6, 1863.) Nutritive Value of Bread. —The nitrogenous substance contained in bread is to the carboni- ferous as 1 to.6-3. It therefore requires more nitrogen for a perfect food. It is more di- gestible than flour. No satiety attends its use, although it may be always prepared in the same way. This is probably owing to the great variety of its components. A certain proportion of bread should form an addition to every meal. It should not be taken new. Fatal accidents have occurred from the dis- tension of the stomach by an excessive meal of newly-baked bread. Young infants should not be fed upon bread — in various forms a practice common enough, but reprehensible in the last degree. Bread given to infants always occasions disorder, griping, and flatu- lence. The following tables illustrate the nutritive values of the ordinary English bread, and the bread of the French and Aus- trian commissariat : — English Baebr's Bbbad. Water . Albumen Starch . Sugar , Fat Salts 87 8-1 47-4 3-6 1-6 2-3 Nitrogenous \'^^ 81 Carbonaceous >■£ " starch J ^ 0,65 00 Carbonaceous to 1 nitrogen . Nitrogen -i „ . , 6 8 125 28 21 Nitrogen- Water. oua Sub. atanceB. Fat. Starches. French Commis- sariat — Old formula 41 7-2 1-S 47 New formula 35 7-9 1-5 62-6 Austrian Com- missariat 46-50 6 '3 1-4 46 M. Foggiale analysed samples of bread sup- plied to ten different European armies, the results we append : — Nitrogen Nitrogen obtained. c.klculateil. Paris .... 2-26 ■ 14-69 Grand Duchy of Baden 2-24 14-6ii Piedmont , 2'19 14-23 Belgium 2-08 14-52 Holland 2'Or 13-45 Stuttgart 2 06 13-39 Austria 1-68 10-27 Spain . 1-67 10-20 Frankfort . 1-44 •9-38 Bavaria 1-32 8-73 Prussia 112 7-28 BRE (ID3) BKE In the usual English military-hospital bread the nitrogen contained is from -9 to 1-12 per cent, of the undried bread, or 1-7 per cent, of dried bread. Bread is poor in fat, hence the common practice of using fat with it in the shape of butter, dripping, or fat bacon. Bread badly prepared gives rise to dyspepsia, flatulence, and unpleasant sensations, such .as heartburn, &c. ; this is said to be caused by using bad yeast. The fermentative changes, ■when inferior yeast is in the bread, go on in the stomach, when much carbonic acid is dis- engaged, and the distressing symptoms we have enumerated are the residts. A substance called by Reicbenbach assamar is said to be contained in the crust of bread, and its particular action is described as that of retarding tissue metamorphosis. We have not, Ijowever, yet received confirmation of the presence . of this waste-preventing sub- stance. The next table shows the composition of the ash of .the different cereal grains which have been used for the purpose of bread- making, Wheat. Barley with Husk. Oats. Kye. iDdian- corn. Kioe. Potash . Soda Lime ^ . Magnesia Oxide of iron Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Chlorine Silica . Alumina 23-72 905 2-81 12-03 0-67 49-81 0-24 1-17 13 64 8-14 2-62 : 7-46 1-48 38-96 010 04 27-10 0-21 1 26-18 1 5-95 9-95 0-40 43-84 10-45 0-26 2-67 006 22-08 11-67 4-93 10-35 1-36 49-55 0-98 6-43 \ 32-48 1 1-44 16-22 0-30 44-87 2-77 0-18 114 18-48 10-67 1-27 . 11-69 0-45 53-36 0-27 3-35 99-50 99-75 99-76 101-35 99-40 99-51 Percentage of ash about 2 2-84 2-18 2-425 about 1-5 1-00 New and Stale Bread. — Bread, as we have previously remarked, is more digestible the day after it is baked, for new bread is gummy in its nature, and.' is difiicult of mastication. It is very generally supposed that the change Vhich takes place in the properties of bread which has been kept for a few days is owing to the loss of water by keeping. This, bow- ever, is not, the case. The crumb of newly- baked bread when cold contains about 45 per cent, of water, and that of stale bread contains almost exactly the same proportion. The difference in properties, between the two depends simply upon difference in molecular arrangement. Boussingault found that a loaf which had been kept for six days, though it had become very stale, had not lost more than 1 per cent, of its weight when new. This same loaf was then placed in the oven for an hour, and at the end of that time it bad acquired all the properties and appearance of new bread, although during the second baking it lost 3| per cent, of water. In another ex- periment, a portion of bread was enclosed in a tight case to prevent loss of water by eva- poration, aiid allowed to become stale ; it was then heated, and was thus restored .to the con- dition ot new bread. These effects were pro- duced alternately, many times in succession, upon the same piece of bread, A heat of about 131° (55° C.) was found to be sufficient to re- convert stale into new bread. The amount of bread daily consumed in Paris by each inhabitant has been calculated not to exceed 508 grammes (the gramme equals 15-432348 grains), and the mean quan- tity taken by each Londoner to be 350 grammes, Fungi. — When bread has been kept a few days and has become stale, certain species of fungi are apt to become developed, such as Penicillium glaucum, which forms the green mould of cheese ; the Fermentum cerevisice, or yeast fungus; the Oidium aurantiacum, an orange-red mould ; the Puccinia graminis, and others. Diseases connected with' the Quality of Flour and Bread. — The flour may be c»- gotised or grown, and fermenting with fungi forming. The continuous use of ergotised bread causes the poisonous symptoms of ergot, which in its most intense form gives rise to dry gan- grene ; in its less severe forms, to violent BBE (104) BRE intestinal symptoms. Ergot is more common in rye-flour, but is also met with in wheat. Fermenting bread gives rise to indigestion, and aoid bread to diarrhoea. Fungi, more especially the Oidium aurantiacum, also give rise to diarrhoea^ — (BoNDiN and Foster, Archives Gen. de Med., 1848, p. 244.) Oats attacked by the aspergillm (mouldi- ness) have given rise to paralytic symptoms in horses, so that these fungi should be looked upon with considerable suspicion. It is not known that the acarns, so common in flour, has any bad effects when eaten. See also articles Aoaei and Flode. Aduiterations. — The following substances have been discovered in bread with more or less frequency ; — Ammonia (sesquicarbo- Potash (carbonate and nate). bicarbonate). Btans, Potatoes. Bone-dust. Rice. Dari(au Egyptian grain). Soda (carbonate and ses- Chalk. ' quicavbonate). Clay. Starch, (potato). Copper (sulphate). Water-in exces.s. ' lAme (sulphate, from the Zinc (sulphate), soda-water makers). J lum. Magnesia (carbonate). Barley, Kessaree dlioll (India). Panicum italicam (In- Plaster-of-Paris. dian millet). In addition to the above, foreign observers have found borax, alabaster in powder, salep, and orris-root. Ammonia carbonate and magnesia car- bonate are employed to realise the important consideration of producing light and porous bread from spoiled, or, as it is technically termed, sour flour. If carbonate of magnesia be used in large quantities, it may prove in- inrious to health ; for during fermentation lactic acid is developed, and the carbonate of magnesia becomes converted into a lactate, which has a purgative action. Carbonate and bica/rbonaie of potash. — Both these salts are used for the same purposes as ammonia and magnesia. Marine salt has the effect of making the bread more compact, and hence heavier. In 1848 it was discovered that the bakers of Nantes had been in the habit of using salt which had been previously employed for the purpose of salting sardines, cod, &o. Heads of sardines and scales of the cod were even found in the bread. Bm-ax has been discovered by M. Duville in second-quality bread; this adulteration was probably accidental. Chalk, clay, alabaster, and similar sub- stances have been used with the object of increasing the weight. Barley, beans, peas, and dari are fre- quently mixed with flour. According to the evidence before the Adulteration Committee, wheat-flour is frequently mixed with as much as 25 per cent, of barley. Bean-flour is added not so much for the sake of profit, as with the object of rendering certain descriptions of flour more tenacious when made into dough, and' is especially used as an addition to damaged flour ; the proportions are from 1 in 40 to 1 in 60, or even more. Da^i is an Egyptian grain, at one time imported for the purpose of mixing with wheaten flour. White peas improve the appearance of flour, but not the quality, and are put in to cheapen it. Water in excess. — The natural quantity of water has been estimated at 66 parts in 150 ; many practices are, however, resorted to to increase this amount. One of the- principal means employed to attain this end is the addition of rice-flour, which, swelling up, absorbs more water than wheat-flour. Pota- toes added in large quantities have probably the same effect. The addition of rice is highly reprehensible, as the amount of gluten contained in it is, when compared with wheat, excessively small, and potatoes .ire equally deficient in gluten. Another method employed to increase the quantity of water in bread is, after having incorporated with the dough as much water as possible, to put the loaf in a very hot oven; this causes the crust to form speedily, and thus the escape of water is prevented. The same object is to a certain extent effected by throwing sacks over the loaves when removed from the oven. Sulphate of copper. — Some few years since, the inhabitants of the Continent and this country were considerably startled by the discovery that many of the Belgian bakers were in the habit of mixing sulphate of copper with their bread, for the purpose of improving its appearance and making, it lighter. This practice has also been resorted to in Holland and in some parts of France. In 1844 a whole Belgian family were poisoned from bread adulterated with sulphate of copper : before that date, in 1841 and 1843, several bakers were punished with great severity for this offence. The quantities used ordinarily to adulterate bread with this sub- stance are, according to M. Kuhlmann, ex- tremely small, viz., '47 grains to 200 loaves, each weighing 2'2 lbs. avoirdupois ; there is, however, the danger of unequal admixture. Sulphate of copper added to bread, even in such a small quantity as th^ part to 1 part of dough, has a very apparent effect on its rising. This amount (i.e., ^tihr^ part) would be equal to one part of metallic copper in 300,000 parts of bread, or -05 of the BBE (105) BRE sulphate of copper in 375 kilogrammes. The proportion which gives the greatest degree of lightness is from -sTniW to ^tAos part to 1 part of dough. Should a larger quantity than this be used, the bread is too moist, ^t becomes very white, and acquires a disagreeable odour, similar to the smell of yeast. The largest quantity which can be employed without damaging the bread is ^j,^ part to 1 part of dough. If the quantity used be larger than this, the bread is very watery, and presents large cavities; on the addition of TsVu" part of sulphate of copper, the paste does not rise, fermentation is stopped, and the bread assumes a green colour. M. Malapert of Poitiers has discovered in the wafer-bread (pains d cacheter) of that town large quantities of vert mitis (arsenite of copper). Each of these wafers, weighing about •20 grammes, contained about 30 to 35 per cent, of the poison. Tardieu informs us that specimens of the pains de gilatine have been found so highly coloured as, in point of fact, to consist only of a mixture of sulphate of copper and iron. In India, a vetch, Lalhyrus sativus — Eessa- ree-dhoU— is occasionally used with wheat and barley. Dr. Irvine in the "Indian Annals" has described a peculiar form of paralysis of the legs which this vetch, when it exceeds ^part of the flour, gives rise to. The L. Cicera has the same effect. Lime-water has been recommended by Liebig for the purpose of whitening bread made from musty or damaged flour. Microscopic Characters of Bread. — Under the microscope, starch-cells broken up into an- gular masses, or greatly enlarged, and stringy masses of gluten, are usually seen; besides this, high powers frequently discover bacteria in the shape of rods, the source of which is probably the yeast. Great care must be taken lest the serious mistake should be made of mistaking the many curious forms the broken- up wheat - starch presents for adulteration. By practibe and the constant examination of the characters of unadulterated bread, and a practical knowledge of the appearance diif erent starch-grains assume after being more or less changed in shape by cooking, it is possible to detect by the microscope rice-flour, bean-flour, and Indian millet; but barley -flour and potatoes both present great difficulties. There is vei-y little difference in the shape of the barley starch-granule and that of the wheat, and in the process of bread-making the potato- granules are so changed as to confuse all their distinctive characters. Bone-dust and a few other mineral adulterations may also be de- tected by the microscope. Alum. — The custom of mixing alum with bread is a remarkably old one, at any rate in this country, and appears to have been prac- tised from the earliest times. It is used to prevent an excess of fermentation when the altering gluten or cerealin acts too much on the starch, and it also whitens the bread ; it does not increase the amount of water, as generally supposed, and it enables wholesome bread to be made from flour which otherwise could not be used. The dangers which are said to arise from this practice have probably been much exag- gerated. The amount of alum added is really small ; indeed, as Mr. Wanklyn has observed, the addition of large quantities of alum would render the bread unsaleable. Alum, Detection and Estimation of. — The detection of the presence of alum in bread is easily effected by Mr. Horsley's method. An alcoholic solution of logwood containing an excess of carbonate of ammonia colours alumed bread blue. To use the test, the bread-crumb is simply soaked in the liquid for six or seven minutes, and then squeezed. This will show the presence of alum in so small a quantity as 7 grains in the 4-lb. loaf. With such minute quantities the colour is of a light blue, and there are gradations of colour up to 30 grains, by which a practised observer can estimate the quantity of alum present. At about 30 grains the colour becomes so dark that the gradations are lost, and no approxi- mation to the quantity of alum can be made by the eye. The obvious objection to the test is that carbonate of magnesia and some other substances also produce a blue coloration. Still the analyst, if the logwood test responds, knows that there is something wrong, and will submit the .bread to a closer examination ; whUe, if the test fails, it is certain the bread does ncrt contain any appreciable amount of alum. Determination of Alum. — Of the numerous methods, good, bad, and indifferent, which have been proposed for the estimation of alum in bread, that workgd out by Dupre (slightly modified by Wanklyn) is the one now gene- rally practised. Its principle is this : the ash of bread consists of silica, common salt, phos- phates of lime and magnesia, a trace of phos- phate of iron, and, if alum be present, phos- phate of aluihina;. Phosphates of lime and magnesia are soluble in acetic acid, phosphates of alumina and iron insoluble. The whole of the phosphates are therefore precipitated, the phosphates of alumina and iron separated by dissolving the others out, the alum and iron weighed, the amount of iron determined volumetricaUy, and the difference is the alum. The actual operation is performed by taking BBE (io6) BKI 100 or 200 grammes of bread, and burning it down to an ash, either in a muffle or a large platinum dish. The ash obtained is moistened with from 5 to 10 c.o. of strong hydrochloric acid, and then 30 or 40 c.c. of distilled water is added, the whole filtered, boiled, and the preci- pitate well washed with boiling water. The pre- cipitate may be removed from the filter, burnt, and weighed. It consists entirely of silica. The phosphates are in the filtrate ; the filtrate is accordingly treated with 5 or 10 c. c. of liquor ammonia, which precipitates the phosphates. Then the liquid is rendered powerfully acid by acetic acid, boiled and filtered. Phosphate of alumina, contaminated by a little phosphate of iron, remains in the filter. The amount of the latter substance is determined by a volu- metric process (best by the ferrocyanide of potash test) calculated into phosphate of iron, and subtracted from the weight of the phoa- l)hate of alumina. Other Mineral Adulterations. — If any other mineral adulterant besides alum has been used, it cannot fail to be detected by a careful exa- mination of the ash. The ash of bread varies from 1'3 to 2 per cent. Any weight beyond 4 per cent, most certainly must be looked upon with suspicion, and if no alum is found, may be examined for magnesia, &c. Bread-Fruit (Artocarpus incisa), nat. order Grammacem. Found in Central Ame- rica, the South Sea Islands, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Its composition is principally starch, sugar, and water, the lat- ter in the large proportion of 80 per cent. It is gathered when the starch is in a mealy condition, peeled, wrapped in leaves, and baked between hot stones. Its taste is then very similar to sweet bread. The natives of the above places also have a method of pre- serving it, by allowing the nitrogenous parts to putrefy in water-tight pits. They ulti- mately obtain a mass of the consistence of soft cheese, which, when required for use, is baked in the same way as the fresh fruit. Bricks and Brick-Fields — Brick-fields exhale a very peculiar unwholesome odour, the exact cause of which still remains obscure. The gases which are evolved from the kilns are carbonic anhydride, carbonic oxide, and sul- phuretted hydrogen, mixed with sulphuroiis and muriq,tic acid fumes. Hence it is very quickly fatal if breathed in a concentrated form. In the burning of bricks household breeze is used as a fuel ; in other words, refuse house- hold ashes, and these nearly always contain salt. The alkali combining with the clay, and forming a fusible glass, sets the muriatic acid free, which escapes in the form of gas. The repiedy for this is easy. The brickraaker need not use household breeze at aU, but coke instead ; or if he use household breeze, he can purify it from the salt by exposing it to the action of the weather for soihe time. It is mainly the acid fumes, which are certainly preventable, that destroy the vegetation around brick-fields to such a large exteirt. So loud have been the complaints in some parts of France of the effects of brick-making on the surrounding herbage, that in .the north of France it is enacted— (1.) That bricks shall not be burnt within 50 mfetres (54J yards) of the public road. (2.) That the ovens shall be covered with cloth and straw matting to pro- tect the neighbourhood from the disagreeable effects of the smoke. (3.) Brick-fields are not allowed to be established near nurseries ; and (4.) the ovens are only permitted to be lighted at night. ' Persons whose property has been injured by the fumes arising from the brick-furnaces, can in France recover an indemnity from the owners of the brick-fields for the loss sustained. In England, in almost all the actions brought against brick-manufacturers, nothing more than a nuisance has been established. "Workers at this particular industry are sub- ject to many complaints. Those obtaining the clay, which necessitates their remaining for hours at a time on damp and humid earth, are frequently attacked with obstinate and weakening fevers. Those whose duty it is to knead the clay suffer from the same effects, and are subject to diseases which are likely to attack those whose lives are passed on damp soils. The workers who attend more particularly to the baking, suffer not unfrequently from disease of the eye. The grinders are subject to inflammation of the synovial sheaths and articulations of the hands. This particular state is termed by French writers craquement des ligaments. — (Ramazzini, Tuknee, Thackrah, Salfobd.) Public attention, in the year 1873, was par- ticularly directed to the state of the children employed in our brick-fields by Mr. George Smith, who eloquently pointed out the degra- dation of their mental and physical nature,' directly induced by the conditions under which they obtained a laborious livelihood. Mr. Smith at length succeeded in getting the Legislature to extend the principle of the Factory Act to the brick-fields. For the purposes of hygifine, hollow and waterproof bricks are the best— the first for ventilation and lightness, the last for preserv- ing the dryness and integrity of our homes under aU the vicissitudes of climate, season. BRI (107) BBU and weather, either on damp soils or dry cries. To preserve bmldings from the blackening in - fluence of the smoke of large towns, Dr. Angps Smith has recommended the use of smooth bricks. " Polished or glazed bricks," he says, "would render the rain capable of washing the carbon off, but certainly it will be much better not to allow it ever to arrive there. The importance of preserving the beauty of the original materials is daily increasing." Formerly a peculiar kind of brick [fornacea testes, or tiles) was bruised in vinegar, and the liquid used as a specific in cutaneous affec- tions. It entered into a cerate used for her- petic and other eruptions, &c. To the terra fornacum, or brick -earth, the same virtues were assigned. Hot bricks are sometimes used to apply heat to a part, as to the abdo- men in colic, or after the operation for popli- teal aneurism ; or reduced to a very fine powder and mixed with fat, as an application to her- petic and psoric affections. Charcoal, coal, and some bituminous sub- stance have been amalgamated together in the shape of bricks, and have been found a clean and economical fuel. They are retailed under the title of firebricks. Whether brick-making or brick-burning is a nuisance or not depends upon circumstances, nor is there any general rule as to distance from occupied houses laid down. An in] unction was, however, granted in the case of Roberts V. Clarke (118 L. T., 49), in which the burning took place at 240 yards irom. habitations; and it is clearly established that the fumes from a, brick-'kiln reaching dwelling-houses are a nuisance (Evans v. Smith, Trinity Term, 1867). The principal cases, besides the two quoted, bearing upon brick-burning up to the present time, are Beardmore v. TredweU, injury to trees from brick-burning, injunction granted (31 L. J., Ch. 892; 7 L. T., 207); Cavey «. Leadbetter, allegation of convenience of place no answer to an action (32 L. J., C. P., 104 ; 13 C. B. (K S.), 470; 3 F. andF., 14) ; Lus- combe v. Steer, the brick-burning must be a material injury to property or personal com- fort (17 L. T., 219; 15 W. R., 1191). Bridges — Any urban authority may agree with the proprietors of any canal, railway, or tramway to adopt and maintain any existing or projected bridge, viaduct, or arch within their district, over or under any such canal, .railway, or tramway, and the ap- proaches thereto, and may accordingly adopt and maintain the same as parts of public streets or roads maintainable and repair- able at the expense of such urban authority ; or such authority may themselves agree to construct any such bridge, viaduct, or arch at the expense of such proprietors ; they may also, with the consent of two-thirds of their number, agree to pay, and may accordingly pay, any portion of the expenses of the construction or alteration of any such bridge, viaduct, or arch, or of the purchase of any adjoining lands required for the founda- tion and support thereof, or for. the approaches thereto. Bromine — so named from ppa/ios, a stench — was discovered by Balard in 1826, in bittern. It is a dark-red volatile liquid, its properties resembling chlorine and iodine. Relative weight, 80; theoretic sp. gr. of vapour, 5 "528; observed, 5 '54; sp. gr. of liquid at 32° F. (0° C), 3-187. It is a disin- fectant, and was used largely in the late American war for this purpose ; but it has not found much favour in this country, as chlorine is more active, cheap,er, and less irritating to the lungs. If required to be used, a solution of bromine in bromide of potassium is placed ia saucers and exposed to the air. Bronzing— 5ee Tbades, Injtikiods, &c. Brose — Oatmeal stirred with boiling water until it has the consistence of hasty-pudding. This, more diluted and boiled for a short time, makes porridge. See Oatmeal. Broth — A very nutritious broth, contain- ing the albumen of the meat as well as the soluble extract, is obtained by infusing a third of a pound of minced meat in 14 ounces of cold soft water, to which a few drops (4 or 5) of muriatic acid and a little salt (from 10 to 18 grains) have been added. After digesting for an hour or so, it should be strained through a sieve, and the residue washed with 5 ounces of water, and pressed. The mixed liquids thus obtained will furnish about a pint of cold extract of meat, containing 'the whole of the soluble constituents of the meat ; and it may be drunk cold or slightly warmed, the temperature not being raised above 100° F., for fear of coagulating the albumen. — (Lethebt.) In broth we find the following substances : Albumen, gelatine, creatine, fatty matter, inosic acid, combined with baryta and potash ; several complex extractive mat- ters ; lactates, phosphates, and chlorides, united with potash and soda, and sometimes traces of lime and free soda. Brucia (Brucine) O23H26N2O42H2O— This alkaloid was discovered by Pelietier and Caventon in the bark of Srucece antidysen- terica. It is also associated with strychnine in Nux vomica. Brucia crystallises in colourless transparent BRTX (io8) BTTI oblique rhombic prisms. Wien thrown down by ammonia from a solution of the acetate, ^ it presents itself in long curved needles or in tufts.— (Gut.) ■ ■ . Brucia dissolves in about 900 parts of water, 440 of ether, but is freely soluble in benzole, amylio alcohol, chloroform, and absolute al- cohol. Brucia is distinguished from strychnine by the intense red colour it strikes with nitric acid. The further addition of protoohloride of tin produces a violet shade. If this test is applied to a rather considerable qviantity of brucine, a colourless gas is developed, with an odour of pommes dc reinette^ inflammable, burning with a greenish flame, and depositing crystalline orange - red flakes, insoluble in water, and even in boiling alcohol.— (Takdibu, Sur I'Empoisonnement. ) Brucia is a violent poison. Its effects are very similar to those of strychnine. See Stbtohnia. • Brushmakers— Workers at this particu- lar industry are subject, from the inhalation of dust, to phthisis. See Phthisis ; Tbades, Injukious, &o. Buckwheat — The seed of Fagopyrum esculentum, cultivated in this country as food for pheasants, but largely used in North America for making "buckwheat cakes," eaten at breakfast, &c. The following table gives its composition : — Composition ofFagopyrum in 100 parts (Pakkbs). Water .... 12 Nitrogenous matter . 2 Dextrine Sugar . Eat Starch •764 ■645 •850 •914 943 79 894 The ash is About 1'09 per cent., and contains chiefly potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid. Buffalo Extract — An extract made prin- cipally in the Dutch East Indian possessions from the flesh of the bufialo, and sometimes exported to Holland. A sample of buffalo extract examined by Dr. Pott contained 20'9 per cent, water, 62'7 extractive, and 16'4 ash or mineral fnatter. Buildings — An urban sanitary authority has considerable power over buildings, espe- cially the erection of new buildings. Some of these powers they possess under statutes, and others they can obtain by bylaws. See By- laws. The re-erection of a building pulled do^wn to the ground-floor,- or of any frame building of which only the framework is left down to the ground-floor, or the conversion into a dwelling-house of any building not originally constructed as such, or the conversion into more than one dwelling-house of a building originally constructed as one dweUing-house only, are, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, 1875, to be considered "the erection of a new building."— (P. H., s. 159.) No house or building may be brought for- ward Ifeyond the fronts of the houses in an urban district jrithout the written consent of ' the urban authority, under a penalty of 40s. per day whilst the offence continues after written notice.— (P. H., s. 156.) The line of buildings is sometimes a matter of great dispute. The general line of buUdings in' a proceeding under the Metropolis Local Management Act, s. 7, was ultimately ruled by the Court of Queen's Bench "to be the general line as fixed by the superintending architect of the Metropolitan Board of Works." When a house or building situated in » street in an urban district has been taken down, the urban authority may prescribe the line in which the front of any building erected in its stead is to be built. — (P. H., s. 155.) An urban sanitary authority may make by- laws — (1. ) With respect to the structure of walls, foundations, roofs, and chimneys of new buildings, for securing stability, the preven- tion' of fires, and for purposes of health. (2. ) With respect to the sufiicienoy of space about buildings to secure a free circulation of air, and with respect to ventilation. (3.) With respect to the drainage of buUd- ings, the provision of water-closets, privies, ashpits, &c., and the closing of buildings or parts of buildings unfit for human habitation, and the prohibition of their use for such habi- tation. Bylaws made by urban authorities with re- gard to buildings imder the 157th section of the Public Health Act are not to affect any building erected " in any place (which at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act was included in an urban sanitary district) before the Local Government Acts came into force in such place, or any building erected in any place (which at the time of the passing of this Act is not included in an urban sanitary district) before such place becomes constituted or included in an urban district, or by virtue of any order of the Local Government Board subject to this enactment." — (P. H., a. 157.) An urban sanitary authority has power to cause their surveyor to examine buildings and walls, and if they are in a dangerous and ruinous state, to give notice to the owner or occupier to take down, repair, or secure the building. On non-compliance, action is taken before two justices, who can make an order for the owner or occupier to do what is neces- sary; and on non-compliance, the sanitary authority has power to take down, repair, BUN (109) BUT rebuild, or secure, and recover the expenses from the owner; and if he does not pay on demand, a justice' may issue a warrant and levy by distress ; and if the owner cannot be found, or sufficient distresses on his goods and chattels cannot be made, the authority, on giving twenty-eight days' notice, may sell or otherwise dispose of such building or land, and deduct the expense out of the compensa- tion provided to the owner by the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, 1845. No building may be erected over a sewer without the written consent of the authority. —{P. H., s. 26.) Any sanitary authority may provide bnild- ngs for the disposal of sewerage. See By- laws, &o. Bunt [Uredo caries, Deo. ; Undo faetides, Bathk) — A fungus found in wheat. It has an extremely repulsive odour. The spores, highly magnified, are easily recognised, for they are large and reticulated. Burgundy — See WiSK Burnett's Disinfecting Fluid — A con- centrated solution of chloride of zinc. See Disinfectants. Business, Conduct of — Every urban authority is to maintain and provide from time to time offices forthe conduct of business. Every urban authority, not being the coun- cil of a borough, is to hold an annual meeting, and a meeting for the transaction of business at least once a month. — (P. H., s. 199.) Every local authority is to make an annual report, in such form and at such time as the Local Government Board may from time to time direct, of all works executed by them during the preceding year, and of all sums received and disbursements made under and for the purposes of the Public Health Act, and must j)ublish the same in some newspaper circulating in the district, and send a copy to the Local Government Board.— (P. H., s. 206.) For further information as to the conduct of business, see Sanitary Authomiies, Dis- TBicTs, Local Boards, &o. Butter — Butter principally consists of the fatty portions of cow's milk. By violently agitating cream, the oil globules of the cream break up, coalesce, and form a fatty mass, which is washed, pressed, worked up by the hand, and mixed with a small quantity of salt. Butter made in this way consists of fat, oaseine, water, and salt. 1. The fat of butter consists of a mixture of the glycerides of the fatty acids, palmitic, stearic, and oleic, as well as butyric, oaproic, caprylic, and capric acids. Palmitic acid is derived from palmitine, a white solid fusing at 36° C. (96-8° F.) Stearic acid is derived from stearine, which is also a white solid, having a higher fusing- point, viz., 63° C. {145-4° P.) Oleine is at ordinary temperatures an oily liquid, solidifying at 5° C. (41-0° F.) Butyric acid (C4H8O2) occurs in no other fat except butter. It is a volatile liquid. Sp. gr., 98; relative weight, 44 ; boiling-point, 157° C. (314-6° F.) This acid is monobasic, and forms crystalline salts called butyrates. . Caproic, capric, and caprylic acids ate also volatile. Bromeis estimated the volatile acids in butter fat at 2 per cent., but Messrs. Angell and Hehner assert that butter fat contains nearly 10 per cent, of volatile acids. — (Butter, its Analysis and Adulterations, by ARTHnK Angell and Otto Hehneb.)' • 2. Water. — The amount of water in normal butter may vary from 5 to 18 per cent. If under 5 per cent., there is a suspicion of the butter having been adulterated with foreign fats containing no water; if above 18 per cent., water hasi probably been added, or the proper degree of pressure has not been applied to press the milk, &c., out. 3. Casdne. — The caseine in butter varies from 2 to 5 per cent. An undue amount of caseine acts as a ferment, and induces decom- position. 4. Salt.— The salt in butter averages 2-5 per cent. ; in very salt butter it may be as high as 28-6 per cent.; it should never exceed 8 per cent. — (Op. dt., p. 8.) Fresh butter is of an equal colour through- out, and has an agreeable odour. Streaks indicate lard, and a sour smell imperfect washing. A knife thrust into rancid butter acquires an unpleasant smell; the rancidity is due in great measure to changes in the caseine. Such butter has been known to pro- duce diarrhoea and indigestion. Methods for the Preservation of Butter. — The Tartars and the French have been long in the habit of preserving butter by melting it with a moderate heat, whereby are coagulated the albuminous and curdy matters remaining in it, which are very putrescible. This fusion should be made by the heat of a warm bath about 176° F., continued for some time, to effect the more complete purification of the butter. If in this settled liquefied state it be carefully decanted, strained throiigh' a tammy-cloth, and slightly salted, it may be kept from six to nine months perfectly fresh. Dr. Anderson's plan for the presei-vation of butter ia as follows : Take of saltpetre and white sugar, of each, 1 oz. ; best Spanish great salt (or Cheshire large-grained salt) 2 oz. , all in very fine powder; mix thoroughly, and add BUT (no) BUT 1 oz. of this mixture to every pound of butter, andthoroughlyinoorporatethem together. The butter thus prepared is then to be pressed into cieim glazed earthenware vessels, or well- seasoned casks, so as to leave no vacuities. Butter thus prepared, says Dr. Anderson, will keep in a cool place for years, and will bear a voyage to the East Indies if it be packed so that it does not melt. At the end of the first three or four weeks it acquires a rich marrow-like flavour, which no other butter ever possesses. M. Breon recommends that ■water acidulated slightly (3 grammes to 1 litre) with acetic or tartaric acid should be added to the butter, and the whole placed in a close- iitting vessel. This plan appears to answer its purpose remarkably well. The common proportions of the best salt butter of the shops are— fresh butter, 21 lbs. ; salt, 1 lb. ; saltpetre, 1 oz. : or, fresh butter, 18 lbs. ; salt, 1 lb. ; saltpetre, 1^ oz. ; honey or fine brown sugar, 2 oz. ; this latter is the best. Bancid butter may be restored, or in all cases greatly improved, by melting it in a water-bath with some fresh-burnt and coarsely- I^owdered animal charcoal (which has been thoroughly freed from dust by sifting), and straining it through clean flannel. The nutritive value of butter differs but little from that of other fats, with the excep- tion that, being fat in one of its most pleasant forms, more can be taken into the system than in the case of other edible fats, as beef, pork, &c. The nutritive value of butter, &c. , may be gathered from the following table ;— Butter and fats w^fpr v^^ i^lt Carbonaceous Avallivbls water. Mt. Bait. starch. Carbon. }- 83-0 2 207-51) 92-22 Adulterations of Butter. — The most common adulteration is the incorporation of large quan- tities of water with the butter. Professor Calvert, in his evidence before the Parlia- mentary Committee, remarks, "The quan- tity of water and salt that such an article as butter ought to contain is 2J per cent, of salt and 10 per cent, of water." Mr. Wanklyn, however, gives the amount in fresh Devonshire butter as 16 '2 of water and I'l of salt ; and in Normandy butter the quantity of water is 16-1, and that of salt I'S, in 100 parts.. Mr. Wanklyn examined a great many butters sup- plied to the London workhouses ; the amount varied from 8'6 to 23-7 parts, of water in a 100 parts of butter, the samples containing the lowest and highest quantity being de- scribed as "wretched." Hassall has found as much as 35 per cent, of water in butter, and Messrs. Angell and Hehner42-35peroent. A method said to he adopted by the trade to adulterate butter is as follows : The butter is brought to the melting-point, water and salt are then stirred in until the miiture becomes cold. The inferior kind of butter known as "bosh" (see BosH Bdttee) is occa- sionally mixed with ata/rch, generally potato- flour. The adulteration is only practised at a certain time, and depends on the wholesale price of butter. Sir John Gordon, Mayor of Cork, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee, mentions curds as an adulteration to which butter is sometimes subjected. Ani- mal fats are also occasionally used, such as lard, beef, m,utton, veal, and horse fat. A process has lately been de-vised by Mege Mouries (Pharmaceutical Journal, October 1872) for mixing beef suet with butter. The beef sftiet is melted in warm water, with carbonate of potash and portions of fresh sheep's stomachs. The fat, thus separated from the cellular tissue, Is cooled and sub- jected to hydraulic pressure, when the oleo- margarine is separated ■ from the more solid stearine (which is used for candle-making) and mixed with milk, with a little of the soluble matter obtained by soaking cows' udders in milk, and -with annatto, and is then churned. This process, it is obvioiis, could only be practised on a large scale. Scraped carrots and annatto are the common substances used to colour butter. There is a practice very prevalent of making from salt butter a so-called fresh butter. Irish salted butter of a very inferior quality is used for this purpose. This is repeatedly washed with water, in order to free it from the salt. This being accomplished, the next process is to wash it frequently with milk, and the manufacture is completed by the addition of a small quan- tity of sugar. "Wheat-flour, oatmeal, pea-flour, &c., are also said to be used for the sophistication of butter, but such adulterations are extremely rare. M. Chevallier gives the following as a list of the adulterations found in French butters : Chalk, potato-starch, cooked potatoes, wheat- flour, good butter mixed with butter of an inferior quality, carbonate or acetate of lead, saffron, juice of carrot, alkanette, flowers of marigold, aspergrallus berries, the fruit of the winter cherry, and the juice of celandine to give it a yellow colour. We now proceed to give the most recent methods of analysing butter. Analysis of Butter.— Yor a quantitative analysis of butter, the best process is most decidedly the one devised by Mr. Wanklyn, and described under Milk Anal-isis. The processes are really identical, thus — Water, — Carefully weigh 1 gramme of but- BUT (III) BUT ter, and, evaporate it in one of the milk- analysis platinum dishes (fig, 15) from four to Tig. 15. six hours, or even more — ^in fact, until it ceases to lose ■weight. The loss of weight is the water, and should be calculated and expressed in percentages. Fat. — The dried butter is now to be heated with ether (the ether should be made to boil by floating the dish in hot water). Several successive portions should be taken, the whole passed through a filter, the filter well washed with ether, and the filtrate evaporated to dry- ness and weighed. Caseine and Ash.-^The residue from which the fat and the water have been extracted is now to be taken, carefully weighed, then burned down at a low red heat ; the residue remaining is the ash, the loss the caseine. The amount of aSh, practically speaking, is the salt ; but if there is any doubt as to its composition, the chlorine, may be estimated by a volumetric solution of nitrate of silver, and further examined. The following table shows the composition of a few genuine and other butters examined according to the same, or at least a similar process to the one described :— Ash- lat. principally Salt. ■Water. Caseine. Quality. .. ~ .. Fresh Devonshire ■82-7 1-1 If •2 Good ■Wanklyn. Normandy butter 82-1 1-8 IC -1 )> „ Jersey butter 78-491 8-528 10-445 2-536 " \ Angell and Hehneb. Normandy butter 82-643 2-915 9-305 5-137 Found to be )J Butter fromTent- nor 1 86-280 6-600 3-831 3-289 \ adulterated ■with foreign fat. )» Butter from Lon- don 1 87-580 1-559 23-981 6-880 1 r Adulterated with water. Adulterated with water, " jj )) 47-119 2-689 42-358 7-834 - and contains an excess of curd. )» Detection of Foreign Fats.— A really good process for the accurate detection of foreign fats has been long a desideratum. We believe that this a little time ago was impossible, but now the observations of Dr. Campbell Bro-wn, and the processes of Angell and Hehner, will enable any admixture of foreign fats to be determined. Dr. C. Brown proposed placing a weighed portion of butter in a test-tube | of an inch in diameter, placing the tube in hot ■water, and inserting in the tube a thermometer with a pear-shaped bulb ; the butter is melted, then allowed to cool, and the exact point observed, both when the stem Ls obscured and when it is invisible [vide table). Angell and Hehner have proposed a rather more practical plan than this. A bulb is blown the size and shape sho^wn in fig. 16 ; a little mercury is put into it, until it weighs 3-4 grammes ; and if made properly, it dis- places 1 CO. of water. 20 or 30 grammes of the butter to be tested is melted, and then poured into a test-tube and allowed to cool. The test-tube or tubes are immersed in a, capacious beaker of water, the little bulb dropped on to the surface of the fat, a thermo- meter placed in the water, and Mg. 16. heat applied. At the exact moment at which BUT (112) BT7T tlie bulb sinks, the thermometer is read. The arrangement is shown in fig. 17. Fig. 17. Dr. Hassall has modified this process by employing a float, having a weight of '18 grammes and a volume of about "5 cc, which is placed in the bottom of the test-tube, and fixed there by a little of the melted fat. The bulb of the thermometer he immerses in the fat itself, instead of in the water. He solidifies the - fats before remelting by immersion in water of 50° F., and uses tubes of J-inch diameter. The exact temperature at which the float rises is carefully noted. The average sinking-point, as determined from twenty-four genuine butters, was 35'5° 0. (95-9° F.), the highest and lowest in the twenty-four being 36-3° C. (97 -34° F.) and 34-3° 0. (93-74° F.) respectively. The sinking-points of fats other than butter they give as follows : — Degrees Centigrade Tallow 63-3 Butterine (patented) 31-3 Ox fat, from 48-3 to 53 Mutton fat, from . 60-1 to 51 6 Lard, from . 42-1 to 45-3. Dripping, from 42-7 „ from beef 43-8 ,, from veal 47.7 „ mixed . 42'8 Cocoa butter 34 9 Palm oil 39 2 Stearine 62-8 They also give the following formula for calculating the sinking-point of a mixture of known composition! Multiply the percentage of the constituents by their respective sinking- points, divide the sum of the products by the sum of the percentage of the constituents. e.g., F being fat, and S sinking-point, Fi.Si-HFa.gg _ j^ting.point. Fl-^F2 There is yet another plan, to which most che- mists, perhaps, will give preference, and that is taking the melting-point of a fat in a capil- lary tube. A glass tube about "2 of an inch bore is drawn -out at the end until almost capillary. This fine portion should be about three inches long. The melted fat is drawn up to the height of about an inch, and allowed to cool. Mr. Heisch recommends the employ- ment of two beakers, the one inside the other, the inner beaker containing a thermometer and the tube, with a little water at the bottom of the beaker, the space between the beakers containing water. Heat is applied very gra- dually, about the rate of 1° F. per minute, and the exact temperature at which the fat rises carefully noted. There are, of course, many modifications of this method, but the principle is good, and admits of wide applica- tion. See paper on the melting-point of fat in Proceedings of the Society of Analysts, 1875, by Heisoh, Tbipe, Angbll,' &c. Microscopical Examination, of Butter.— &. thin film of butter placed upon a glass slide and examined by transmitted light shows globules, granular masses, and crystals of salt. There are no crystals of stearine unless the butter has been fused. Other bodies, such as starch, &c., may be detected if present. Something also may be gathered by examining butter by polarised light. Dr. C. Brown's table will illustrate these remarks. Besides determining the sinking - point, Messrs. Angell and Hehner have worked out a new process for estimating the volatile acids in butter; their process is shortly as follows, and depends upon their assertion that butter fat (not butter) contains nearly 10 per cent. of volatile acids ; they therefore free the butter from the curd, water, and salt, either by washing with hot water, or more quickly by fusion. A weighed portion of this purified butter fat is taken and saponified. This saponi- fication was at first effected by treatment of the fat with a concentrated solution of caustic potash in a porcelain dish, but the process has been much simplified lately by Mr. Q. Turner of Portsmouth, by the use of alcohol. " Three to four grains of fat are weighed into a por- celain dish, capacity about 100 to 150 cc, melted over the water-bath, an|d treated with . from 20 to 30 cc. of alcojiol or methylated spirit ; three-quarters of a stick of potash is added, which is then gradually dissolved by a little water. By adding the water carefully BUT ("3) BUT at interrals until this point is reached, no turbidity, or only a transient one, is produced, and afterwards it may be used freely. The soap must now be quite freed from alcohol by boiling. When this point ia reached, it remains perfectly clear, has no spirituous smell, and usually a soapy pellicle forms on the surface." The soap is decomposed by dilute acid, the fatty acids are fused, collected in a weighed filter, and thoroughly washed with boiling water. As the volatile acids are soluble in water, and palmitic, stearic, and oleic are insoluble, the latter remain on the filter, and are dried at 212° F. and weighed. Examined by a Microscope with a ^inch Object-Glass with Polarised Light and Selenite Plate. Newly -made butter) from town-fed cows J The same salted . Irish butter Irish butter, best quality Irish butter, low quality Cornish butter Canadian butter Canadian butter . Kiel butter.. Suspected butter . Lard . Lard Lard Palm oil.. Stearine from palmi- tine (is really palmi- tine) Stearine from tallow ■;} Butter with 20 per) cent. lard J Butter with 20 per"! cent, tallow. Stear- > ine free from taste J Butter with 30 per ) cent, dripping j 69 75 69 73 75 81 83 105 82 89 90 96 118 96 99 93 72 106 70 74 72 84 71 76 68 66 Nothing is seen except globules and curd. Globules, particles of curd, cubical crystals of salt. G-lobules, curd, and salt. Does not polar- ise after being kept for nine mouths ; does not exhibit any crystals which polarise light. G-lobules, curd, and salt. After beiug kept for eight months exposed to sun is white, but contains no crystals which polarise light, nor after being melted. Globules, curd, large crystals of salt very numerous. The only things visible which p'olarise light are a few hairs and fibres. After being kept a year exposed to changes of temperature and light, exhibits the same characteia. Globules, curd, large and numerous ciys- tals of salt ; magnesium Ealts, a few fibres. After eight months is decompos- ing, but contains no fat crystals which polarise light. Globules, curd, and small crystals of salt. Is highly coloured. After eight months presents the same characters. Does not polarise light after being melted and cooled. Globules, curd, cubical crystals of salt ; stars and othef crystals of fat which polarise light. Stellar and fusiform crystals which polarise light. Full of crystals which polarise light. Stellar masses which polarise light. Corpuscles and radiating masses of crystals which polarise light. Crystals which polarise light. Stars and radiating masses of crys- tals which polarise light. Globules and salt, broken stars which polarise light. Globules, curds, salt, and minute stars which polarise light. Globules, curd, salt, colouring-matter; stars and other crystalline particles which polarise light. __^ BUT ("4) BYL The average of twelve analyses gave 85 "85 per cent, of fixed acids, and they show that the difference between the quantity of fatty acids in butter and other fats averages 9 '65 per cent. An adulteration of 100 per cent, of foreign fat gives a difference of 9'65 per cent. ; 10 per cent., '965, &c. It is probable that the process in skilled hands is of value. The Society of Analysts have proposed to consider butter adulterated which does not contain 80 per cent, of butter fat. See Adul- teration, &o. Butterine— A substitute for butter, intro- duced into this country from New York. " In general appearance, taste, and consist- ence it is very similar to ordinary butter; but notwithstanding that its 'solidifying point is lower than that of some butters, it retains much of the peculiar crumbly texture and fracture of dripping. " It softens at 78° F., and melts at 86°. "Wheu heated and slowly cooled, it obscures the ther- mometer at 62° and solidifies at 60°. It con- tains — Water Salt . Curd, . lat, . Colouring-matter, 11-25 to 8-5 103 to 6-5 ■67 to 0'6 87-16 to 86-4 100-00 1000 " The fat consists of oleine, palmitine, mar- garine (?), a'trace of stearine, and about 5 or 6 per cent, of butter. When dissolved in about four times its weight of ether, and allowed to evaporate spontaneously, it does not deposit any ifat until more than half of the ether has passed off, and if the temperature is not below 60°, the deposit is not solid. "The first deposit, when dried, fuses at 108°; the second deposit fuses at 88°, and solidifies at 64°. " Under the microscope butterine does not appear to consist of acioalar crystals of fat, but of irregular masses, containing a few butter- globules, particles of curd, and crystals of salt. ■yVith polarised light, the irregular crystalline structure is beautifully seen, and is clearly distinguishable from butter which has been melted and recongealed. When old and ran- cid, it acquires the odour and taste of drip- ping, but it keeps longer undecomposed than butter. When fresh, it is a wholesome substi- tute for real butter, and if not brought into the market as butter, no one can reasonably take exception to its sale. "Butterine may be detected by the follow- ing characters :— ■ " 1. Its crumbly fracture. '• 2. Its loss of colour when kept melted for a short time at 212°. " 3. The behaviour of its ethereal solution. " 4. Its action on polarised light."— (Dr. Campbell Bkown.) Butyric Bther (C2HBC4H7O2)— This sub- stance has been found useful as a disinfectant. See Disinfectants. Bylaws, by the summary powers they give, greatly increase the power of sanitary authorities. Urban sanitary authorities are enabled to avail themselves of bylaws to a very considerable extent, whereas rural sani- tary authorities can only make bylaws in a few matters. There can be little doubt that it would be a beneficial reform to allow rural sanitary authorities the same powers with re- spect to this matter as urban, and to have a proper, authorised, official code of bylaws. All bylaws made by a local authority must be under their common seal, and any bylaw may be altered or repealed by a subsequent bylaw ; but no bylaw is of effect if repugnant to the laws of England. -^(P. H., s. 182.) Local authorities may impose penalties by bylaws not exceeding £5 ; and in the case of a continuing offence a further penalty, not ex- ceeding 40s. per day, after written notice ; and they are to be so framed as to permit the re- covery of a lesser sum. Bylaws are of no effect until confirmed by the Local Government Board. A copy of the proposed bylaws are to be . kept at the ofiice of the local authority for one month, and any ratepayer may inspect the proposed bylaws without the payment of any fee or reward; and the clerk of any local authority, on application, is bound to furnish any rateijayer with a copy of such proposed bylaws, or any part thereof, on payment of 6d. for every hundred words contained in such copy. Notice of intention to apply for confirma- tion of the proposed bylaws must be given in one or more local newspapers one month be- fore applying. These conditions having been fulfilled, the Local Government Board may confirm them or not; but if confirmed, the confirmation of no other authority is neoes- sary.-(P. H., s. 184.) AH bylaws made for sanitary purposes and duly confirmed are to be printed and hung up in the office of the local authority. A copy is to be delivered on application to any rate- payer of the district -to which the bylaws refer ; and in the case of a rural authority, a copy of the bylaws must be transmitted to the overseers of every parish to which the bylaws relate, to be deposited with the pub- lic documents of the parish, and to be open to the inspection of every ratepayer of the parish at all reasonable hours.— (P. H., s. 185.) BYL (IIS) CAP A oop7 of any oylaws made by a local authority other than a town council, signed and certified by the clerk to be a true copy, and toliave been duly confirmed, is to be re- ceived as evidence in courts of law. — (P. H., n. 186.) The provisions of the Public Health Act also apply to bylaws of a council of a borough made under 5 & 6 Will. IV. u. 76. The following matters may be regulated by bylaws : — Urban sanitary authorities may make by- laws or obtain power to do so with respect to- AniTnals kept so as to be injurious to health. Ashes, disposal of .• Ashpits, cleansing of, regulation of, &c. Bathing. Baths and wash-houses. Boats let for hire. Buildings, closing of, when unfit for habita- tion, drainage of, ventilation of, walls of new . buildings, to secure stability and prevent fire, roofs, foundations, and spouts of buildings. Burial-grounds, management of. Business, meetings and general arrangements for. Dust, nuisance from. Fairs. Filth, nuisance from. Footways, cleaning of. Hackney carriages (including drivers), and horses, ponies, mules, and asses let for hire. Bop-pickers, lodging of, &c. Libraries, public, management of. ■ Lodging-houses, labouring classes'. Lodging-houses (common), number of persons to occupy, registration of. Inspection of, cleans- ing of, &c. Markets, management of. Mortuaries, management of. Museums, public, management of. Officers and servants, duties and conduct of. Privies, cleansing of, &o. Refuse, rubbish, -he, removal and preven- tion of. Slaughter-houses and knackers' yards, regu- lation of. Snow, nuisance, &o., arising from. Streets, level, widtli, construction, and sew-' age of new streets. Trades, offensive, newly established. Tramways. Rural sanitary authorities have power to make bylaws with respect to — The cleansing of footways and pavements adjoining any premises. The removal of house - refuse from any premises. The cleansing of earth-closets, privies, ash- pits, and cesspools belonging to any premises. The lodging of hop-pickers, &o. Regulations as to the number of persons to occupy lodging-houses. Registration of, inspection of, and enforcing cleanliness in lodging-houses. Bywash is «• term used in relation to waterworks ; it means a channel by the side of the reservoir to convey away the flood-dis- charge of the streams supplying the reservoir. c. Cabbage — Cabbages are useful for their antiscorbutic properties and the salts they contain. They hold a large quantity of water in their tissues — no less, indeed, than 90 per cent. — and contain a nitrogenous principle and sulphur; hence the disagreeable odour of water in which cabbages have been. boiled, and the copious development of sulphuretted hydrogen. The chemical composition of cab- bage is very similar to that of the carrot. See Cabkot; Dietaries, &c. Gaffeic Acid— See Aom, Catfeio. Caffeine (08HioN40a), syn. TAeirse— This is a crystalline alkaloid discovered by Robiquet in coffee. It is found in tea, Paraguay tea, and Guarana cocoa, according to Dr. Sten- house, the average amount in the different substances being — - Guarana or Brazilian cocoa Good black tea Black tea Dried coffee-leaves Mat6 or Paraguay tea Various samples of coffee-beans Theine or Ciiffeine. per cen . 6 07 2-13 1-97 1-26 1-20 0-8 to 1-00 Liebig found the proportion of caffeine tn the pound of coffee in six samples to be as follows : — Martinique . 32 grains, or 0*45 per cent Alexandrian 22 0-31 Java . 22 31 „ Mocha 20 0-27 „ Cayenne 19 ,, 0-27 „ St. Dominique 18 0-22 „ Caffeine is soluble in 100 parts of cold CAQ (ii6) 0AM water, freely soluble in hot -water. It form crystallUable salts with bichloride of pla- tinum, terohloride of gold, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Caffeine may be prepared by boiling raw or nnroasted coffee in water, and adding subace- tate of lead to the filtered decoction to throw down the retractive and colouring-matter. The excess of lead is next precipitated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and the liquid filtered and evaporated by a gentle heat. The residuum is then dissolved in boiling water, the solution agitated with freshly-burnt animal charcoal, filtered, evaporated, and crystallised. By re- dissolving the product- in hot alcohol, it may be obtained in white shining silky filaments as the solution cools. Or it may be obtained by Vogel's process. An extract of powdered coffee is made with commercial benzole ; this being distilled off, leaves an oil and caffeine behind. The oil is then removed by a little ether, or by hot water, from which latter liquid the alkaloid crystallises on cooling. From a hot infusion of tea-leaves it may be obtained by the process first mentioned. Lieblg states that theine is related to kreatin- ine, and to glycocol, which we may suppose to exist in gelatine coupled -with another com- pound. According to this observer there are no drinks which, in their complexity and in the nature of certain constituents, have more resemblance to soup than tea and coffee. The physiological effects of theine are not yet completely investigated. Mr. Cooley took 20 grains daily for above a month without any very decided symptoms. Demberts, however, shows that in large doses it is fatal to animals, inducing tetanic stiffness of the muscles, an increase in the frequency of the heart's action, and increased reflex action. Hence it has been proposed as an antidote in cases of opium-poisoning. Cagliari Paste — See Macoaeoni. Calcium, Chloride of (CaClj,)— Chloride of calcium is largely used as a disinfectant. (See Chlokinb and Disinfectants.) "When dissolved in water, the crystals produce great cold, and hence are frequently employe^ as an ingredient in freezing powders. In the labora- tory, chloride of calcium is used for the pur- pose of drying gases and absorbing the water from ethereal and oily liquids in organic analysis. It is used also for the rectification of alcohol, and as a chemical reagent in de- tecting certain organic acids. It is found in water, and if it exists in any considerable quantity it renders it hard. See Chiobine and Lime. Calculi— Calculus, or stone in the bladder, is to some extent due to drinking hard water. The evidence is perhaps not quite so satis- factory as might be desired, still, when the prevalence of stone in Norwich and Norfolk, where they certainly use hard water, is com- pared with that of districts where soft water is used, and when animals, such as sheep, are kno-wn to be affected in the limestone districts, and escape in other localities, the inference naturally drawn from the circumstances is that the water, which is the only essential point in which -these various localities differ, is the cause ; but accurate analyses and inquiries on a large scale are yet wanting. Calorigen— This is a stove figured and described under art. Waemino. Camp rever— Sec Fbvbb, Ttphos. Camphor (CioHigO] — A crystalline sub- stance, only obtained in large quantities from two plants, viz., Camphora officinarum, and Sryobalanops aromatina. It is found in small quantities in other plants. Camphor is a weak antiseptic, but is of no value whatever as ar disinfectant. It does npt prevent the growth of mould, nor will it destroy low vege- table growths unless inconsiderable quantity. As a medicine its action is directly on the nervous system ; an overdose produces giddi- ness, delirium, coma, and even death. Three children poisoned by camphorated oil suffered from convulsions, purging, vomiting, and coma; and one, an infant eighteen months old, died in seven hours. The dose in each of these oases was about 30 grains. — (Journal de Chimie Medicale.) The .smallest dose on record -wliich has caused serious symptoms is • 20 grains. Monobromated camphor has been recently proposed as an antidote for strychnia. See Camphor, Monobromated ; Strtohhia. Camphor, Monobromated (CioHieBr 0)— This compound is prepared by gradually adding 2 parts of bromine to 1 of pulverised camphor in a large flask. The mixture is distilled in a water-bath, and the vapours, consisting of hydrobromic acid gas, bromine, and camphor, conducted into an alkaline solu- tion. The impure monobromated camphor remaining in the flask is purified by treat- ment with boiling distilled water, and ulti- mately dissolved in boiling alcohol and filtered through animal charcoal. Monobromated camphor crystallises in colourless prismatic needles. It js insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, fixed and volatile oils, ether, carbonic disulphide, chlo- roform, &c. It has been proposed as an antidote to poisoning by strychnine. See Steyohnia. Camphoric Acid— SeeAoiD, Camfhobio. CAiyi: ("7) CAN Camps, Encampments— Encampments are diyided into — . 1. Incidental or flying camps. 2. Stationary camps. The site of flying camps in actual warfare, however important, seldom admits of much selection. With stationary camps the case is different. The principal things to be considered are dryness of site, proximity to water-supply, elevation, and aspect. Special care should be taken in temperate climates not to encamp in a narrow valley. The cold night air being heavy, sinks into the valleys, and there night frosts are keenest. A moderate elevation, sheltering the men from the cold winds, and on a gentle slope, so that there will be plenty of fall for surface-drains, is best. The tents should be a little distance from each other, and not crammed together, for the sake of pleasing the eye. They should be well venti- lated, and the ground, as a rule, should not be excavated within. A trench should be ex- cavated round each tent 4 inches deep, and carried into a surface-drain running in front of the tents. In camps of position the floor of the tents is often boarded, and the tents them- selves raised on a wall of stones or earth ; but in other cases the floor may be covered with canvas, waterproof sheeting, or straw. In any case, filth and refuse are liable to collect beneath the covering ; hence the boards, kc, should be frequently removed for the sake of cleanliness. Latrines are generally placed at the rear of camps in the form of long deep trenches, and earth is thrown in them daily ; when near the surface, another trench is dug, and so on. A urinal is also generally con- structed near the trench with a sloping channel running into it ; and men should not be allowed to urinate around the tents. All refuse, animal or vegetable, should be burnt. A camp of position should be changed from time to time. No old camping-ground should be reoccupied. Canada Balsam — A thick viscid oleo- resin obtained from the Abies balsamea, a tree of common growth in Canada a,nd the State of Maine. It is largely employed as a medium for mounting microscopic objects. Canada balsam is especially used for mounting trans- parent objects ; the pxire balsam, however, is too thick for use, and requires to be diluted with spirit of turpentine, chloroform, &o., to render it sufficiently fluid to permeate the structure to be exhibited; Mr. "William Henry Heys, in the "MioroscopicalJoumal," describes a plan of mounting objects in a mixture of balsam and chloroform. Take a quantity of the oldest balsam procurable, and place it in an open glass cup, and mix witli it as much- chloroform as win make the whole quite fluid, so that a very smal^ quantity will drop from the lip of the contained vessel. Then put this prepared balsam into long thin half-ounce vials, and 'Cork and set them aside for at least a month. The advantage of having it ready made is' that there is no waste, and none of the usual and troublesome preparation required for putting up objects in Canada balsam ; and if it-has stood for some time, it loses the yellow tinge which is observable in most samples when first mixed, and, moreover, air-bubbles escape more readily. Professor Eutherford of King's College, London, prepares the Canada balsam in the. following manner : (1.) Take pure Canada balsam and place it in a saucer or other shallow vesseL (2.) Cover the vessel with bibulous paper to exclude dust. ' (3.) Dry it in an oven at a temperature not above 150° F., until when it cools it becomes as hard as ice. (4.) Dissolve this crystalline balsam in chloroform or oil of turpentine. A solution in the former medium dries most rapidly, but a solution in turpentine is gener- ally preferable for mounting sections of tissues. Canada balsam is suitable for mounting un- softened bone, tooth, hair, and most tissues which have been hardened in alcohol or chromic acid. Canada balsam is now being replaced by Dammae, which see. Canals — The waters of a canal are gener- ally impure, for they are contaminated 'by vegetable, organic, and other refuse matter being thrown into them. The mud found at the bottom is generally black and foetid, giving forth various odours, that of sulphuretted hydrogen predominating. The neighbourhood of a canal will be more or less unhealthy as its waters differ in foulness. In this respect a canal has the same efltect upon the locality through which it runs as any other course of water. Canals may be said to be interme- diate betweeh running streams and stagnant waters. Nothing in, the Public Health Act, 1875, is to affect injuriously the navigation or use of canals, or to interfere with the towing-jjath. Nothing in the Act is also to affect the supply of water to the canal, or to interfere with any of its bridges— (P. H., s. 327.) Nothing in the Public Health Act, 1875, authorises a local authority to interfere with the waters of a canal or its feeders so as to injuriously affect the supply, fall, or quality of the water.— (P. H., s. 332.) Any person or persons authorised by Act of Parliament to navigate on any canal, or de- mand tolls or dues in respect of such naviga- tion, may at their own expense take up or alter sewers, drains, pipes, or culverts passing CAN (ii8) CAN under or interfering -with the canal, or its towing-path, providing they substitute others equaUy effectual.— (iP. H., s. 331.) Any difference of opinion with regard to whether the pipes, &c., substituted are equally efficient with the former ones, is to be settled by arbitration.— (P. H., s. 333.) See Aebi- TEATioir. Cancer — This word (literally, a crab) is now the general name given to a malignant growth mainly composed of cells. Its charac- teristic feature is recurrence, and the leading and most striking principle distinguishing it from other' growths is its malignant nature, by which it infiltrates itself into surrounding tissues, instead of being limited by a capsule or other investing membrane. In a sanitary point of view, the cause and prevention of cancer are of more importance than either the classification or symptoms of the disease. There are many remarkable facts on record showing that the old notion of the contagious- ness of cancer has been too hastily thrust aside. The author has made some investigations of the causes of cancer, which are at present far from complete. The principal conclusions the inquiry at present appears to lead to, however, as to its relation to consumption, and as to its contagious qualities, are as follows : — 1. There is no connection between consump- tion and cancer, as asserted; they are each independent diseases. 2. Cancer in certain cases is contagious.* 3. Cancer is analogous in its course to a fever. A cancer germ is introduced from without. There is a period of incubation and a period of manifestation. 4. The period of incubation is for the most part excessive — not days, nor mouths, but years ; hence many die of other diseases who would have died of cancer ; hence, also, it is the old who principally die of cancer. That cancer is contagious is rendered in the highest degree probable by — (1.) Its remarkable increase in certain dis- tricts, e.g. — In the union of Dulverton, from 1837 to 1873, a period of thirty-seven years — in other * "The prevalence of phthisis in the armies of Europe is probably due in part to the inhalation of expectorated tubercular matter, dried, broken up into dust, and floating in the air of close barracks. To teat this may be difficult, but the origin and pro- pagation of the most fatal of all human diseases deserves full investigation. The inquiry should also extend to cancer and the other constitutional dis- eases, among which should perhaps now be included diabetes. &c."— (EiBE, 28th Report, Registrar-Gene- ral, 1866.) "This cancerous matter does not seem to acquire its malignant or contagious quality till the cancer becomes an open ulcer, and the matter secreted in it is thus exposed to the air; then it evidently becomes con- tagious, beoause,"&o.---(DAnwiii's Zoonomia, ii, 287.) words, a period of so small a magnitude as to scarcely allow hereditary predisposition to come into play — the deaths were as follows ; — The first seven years 9 died of cancer. The next ten years 11 ,, 30 „ 40 -.. The population during the decades did not undergo any remarkable increase. (2.) Various isolated facts which, if care- fully collected and examined, may probably be sufficiently numerous to put on one side the general explanation of curious coinci- dences ; e.g., a gentleman who suffered from cancer of the lip allowed a favourite dog to occasionally lick it ; the dog died of cancer of the tongue. Again, there is a house in the writer's district in which three successive tenants, unconnected in any way, aU died of cancer. (3.) Its unequal prevalence in different dis- tricts; e.g., the following table gives the actual deaths from cancer, and its comparative fatality, in five unions in one year :— South Molton. Bideford Torrington.... Okehampton. Dulverton .... Actual Deaths from FroportiOD of Deatho from Cancer per 1000 Deaths from all causes. 16 4 8' S 2 25 17 11 This inequality is exactly similar to that which a zymotic disease would show. The author is aware thai; all information on the question is as yet very crude, but this short article is only inserted in the hope that other members of the medical profession will take up the subject, and turn their attention to the causes of a horrible disease, which is certainly on the increase, and against which, if contagious, no means of prevention are at present taken. It is to the medical officer of health of rural districts, and to the medical men serving in our army and navy, that we must look for accurate statistics and researches on this point. . In all matters involving the question of contagion or non-contagion, the researches of physicians practising in large towns must be accepted with great caution, the liability to error being increased with the density of the population. In this state of doubt and uncertainty, is it not better to supply disinfectants to every case of open cancer ? Canna Arrowroot— 5'ec Stakch. Cannabis Indica— 5ee Indiak Hemp. Cantharidea— The Spanish fly, an insect of the order Coleoptera. It abounds in the CAP ("9) CAP south of France, Spain, and Italy, and has spread into Gerniany and the south of Russia. Those from Enasia which come by way of St. Petersburg are the largest and most esteemed. They are from eight to ten lines long, fur- nished with two wing-covers of a shining metallic green colour, under which are two membranous transparent wings. Odour strong and disagreeable ; powder greyish -brown, con- taining shining green particles. Free from mites. The powder is frequently adulterated. It is said to have been the plan of the whole- sale druggists to sort out the most worthless flies for powdering, and to compensate for their deficiency of vesicating power by adding 1 lb. of euphorbium to every 12 or 13 lbs. of flies. When a superior article is required, liquorice powder is added (4 or 5 lbs. to every 14 lbs.), along with about 1 lb. of euphorbium, and sufficient blue, black, of charcoal to turn the yellow of the liquorice to a greenish colour. The best mode of detecting this adul- teration is by the microscope. Cases of pbisoning by cantharides are not very common, still they occasionally occur. Dr. Pall^, in the July (1872) number of the " Journal de Phar. et de Chimie," instances some interesting cases of poisoning by Spanish fly. Some soldiers, we learn from this gen- tleman, had in mistake drunk large quantities of tincture of cantharides ; and although the physical agony and suffepng were very great, yet under the treatment pursued, which was the ordinarily -received one — ^emetics, warm baths, camphor, and opium, with ole- aginous drinks and injections — they all recovered. In fatal cases of poisoning by cantharides, very minute particles may be discovered in the stomach and intestines on a post-rruyrtem examination. Orfila thus found particles of cantharides in a body that had been interred nine months. The poison mainly determines to the kid- neys, and small repeated doses may induce kidney disease, wMle a large single dose causes inflammation of the bowels and kidneys, and exerts an irritant action on the whole urinary apparatus. Poisoning by cantharides is more frequent in France than in our own country, occupying, according to Tardieu, the tenth ijlace in the criminal statistics of poisoning, which, of course, do not iaclude accidental and suicidal deaths from this cause. Capers— The flower-buds of the various species of Capparis, particularly of G. spinosa, preserved in vinegar, chiefly imported from Spain, Italy, and south of France. The lively green colourjo much admired arises generally from the presence of copper derived from the sieves used in sorting them. Copper, coins are often put in with them to effect this purpose. See COPPEB. • Capsicum— A genus of plants belonging to the natural order Solanacece. The parti- cular kind usually employed for Cayenne pepper, GapsicuTn annum, is a native X)f Ame- rica, but it is also cultivated in the "West and East Indies, and to a slight extent in the greenhouses of England and other Exiropean countries. The Cayenne pepper consists of the pods or seed-vessels ground to powder. The dried berries are sold as chillies. The two following analyses, one made by Bucholz in 1816, and the other by Bracannot in -1817, show the composition of capsicum berries : — Bucholz' s Analysis. Acrid soft resin (capsicum) Wax Bitter aromatic extractive Extractive witti some gum Gum ... ' . . Albuminous matter . Woody iibre Water Loss Fruit of Capsicum annitm, with- out seeds,- ^BracannoCs Analysis. Acrid oil . Wax and red colouring-matter . Brownish starchy matter . Peculiar gum . Animalised matter Woody fibre Salts : extract of potash, 6'0 ; phos- phate of potash and chloride potassium, 3.4 Fruit of Capsicum annum. 40 7-6 8-6 210 9-2 3-2 58-0 120 6-4 100 Of} The hygroscopic moisture ranges in different samples from 10 to 13 per cent. The author analysed several samples of genuine cayenne, and the mean of several analyses was as follows : — Aqueousextractof dried cayenne 32-1 percent. Alcoholic extract . 25"79 ,, [Benzole extract 2000] „ fBthereal extract . . 10-43] „ Ash. . . 6-693 (soluble, 3-32) ,, Total nitrogen in 100 gi'ammeSj 2-04 ,, Hence the ash of cayenne should not exceed 6 per cent. ; it should yield at least J of its weight to alcohol, and from 9 to 10 per cent, to ether. Mineral adulterations are the most probable, which are easily detected in the ash. In small doses Cayenne pepper is a useful condiment, and no doubt increases the diges- tive powers of the stomach ; in larger doses it is an irritant, and even when applied to the skin will blister it. It owes its irritant pro- perty to a very acrid resin, capsicine. A minute quantity of this substance- burnt in a room will cause -great irritation of the throat and larynx of every person present. Cayenne CAR ( 120) CAB pepper, if administered in a large dose — e. jr. , a teaspoonful— would probably cause death. It appears in one case (Keg. v. Stevens), in which it was administered by a quack to a boy suf- fering from hip-joint disease, to have at least' accelerated death. The stomach of the de- ceased was much congested. Cardtnel — A dark-brown product obtained by heating sugar. It is formed diiring the roasting of all materials containing sugar, such as coffee and malt. It is much used for colour- ing soups, wines, beers, spirits, coffee, &o., and it is known in the trade as " Black 'Jack." Its chemical composition is CisHisOa. It is soluble in water, and precipitated by baryta, Bubacetate of lead, or alcohol. Caraway Seeds— The fruit of the Carum carui (Linn. ), an umbelliferous plant, common in England and other parts of Europe. The caraway seeds (mericarps) are slightly curved, with fine filiform ridges, and contain a single vitta in each channel; the longitudinal ridges are of a lighter colour than the inter- vening interstices. Colour brownish, with an aromatic odour and warm taste. An infusion of caraway seeds has been used for the adulteration of porter. Carbo-Hydrates are a group of sub- stances in which hydrogen and oxygen are united in the exact proportion to form water with carbon. The type of these bodies is starch, sugar, &o. For example, starch may be represented, C85(H20); cane-sugar, C12II (HsO). The carbo-hydrates, or hydrates of carbon, are very numerous. AH the starches and sugars— glycogen, gum, ceUulin, erythrite, dulcite, pectine, and many other bodies — ^belong to this class. All of them, ^th the exception of sorbine and inosine, are convertible into some of the forms of grape-sugar by prolonged boil- ing with dilute sulphuric acid. See Starch, SuGAE, D1ETAEIE8, Food, &c. Carbolic Acid— Sec Acid, Caebolio. Carbolic Acid Powders— Sec AoiD, Oabboiio. Carbon— An elementary or simple non- metallic solid body very widely diffused through nature. Its purest form is that of the diamond. Carbon is an essential constituent of organic matter, and hence has been termed the "or- ganic element." Carbon is an important article in diet, and a certain quantity must be daily taken to preserve the body in health. Dr. Lyon Play fair concludes, from a large series of observations, that the following may be regarded as the average quantity of carbon contained in the daily dietary of an adult man under different circumstances of exist- ence : — Carbonaceous Matter calculated as Starch. 13-3 m. 14-5 „ 23'2 „ 26-3 „ 26 3 „ Subsistence only Quietude liloderate exercise Active labour Hard woric Pettenkofer and Voit say that an adult re- quires daily 22-38 of carbonaceous matter calculated as starch. The amount of carbon in any diet may be calculated in two ways — (1.) Calculate out the dry albuminates, fat, and carbo-hydrates in ounces, then use the following table : — Carbon in Grains, ' Carbon, 1 oz. Of water-free albuminate . 233 1 „ fat , . . 345-6 1 ,, carbo-hydrate, \ ..,,„ except lactine i These numbers are thus obtained: The various dry albuminates contain about 53'3 per cent, of carbon ; fat contains 79 per cent,; starch and sugar 44 '4 per cent.; and lactine 40 per cent. No account of any hydrogen in excess of that forming water with the oxygen of the food is taken.— (Pabkes.) Or Dr. Parkes' table may be used, in which the amount of carbon per ounce has been calculated, the substance being supposed to be in its natural state. One Ounce (= 437'5 GrnjnB) contains in'its natural state in Grains TTucooked meat (beef) , . 64 . TJncool^ed fat meat (beef) . 98-3 Cooked meat 117*7 Bread . . , , H9 Wheat-flour , 168 Biscuit . , 183 Eioe , . . ,176 Oatmeal , 172 Maize , , . 176 Peas , , . 161 Potatoes , . 49 Carrots , , . 18 Batter . , 816 Egg , ' , , , 71-5 Cheese . . 162 Milk . . , 30-8 Sugar , 187 See Food. Carbonic Acid — See AoiD, Cabeonic; Am; Meat. Carbonic Oxide in Air— See Aie. Carbonisation of Sewagfe- See Sisw- AGE. Carbuncle — A carbuncle is an inflamma- tion of an isolated portion of the subcutaneous cellular tissue rapidly running on to suppura- tion. Carbuncles have been observed more frequently since the pleuro-pneumonia of cattle has appeared, and there may be a con- nection between them. (See Pustule, Malig- CAR (121) CAS NANT.) Carbuncles occur not unfrequently in old people, and cause death. Oarbuncular swellings are constantly ' seen in cases of plague, and occasionally in typhus fever. See PnsTDLE, Maliqnaut; Plague; Fevek, Ty- phus, &c. Carburetted Sydvogen—See Htdbo- GEN. Cardamom Seeds, or G-rains of Pa- radise—The dried seeds of the Malabar car- damom. They are met with in curry-powder, and are used to adulterate beer, &c. Carmine— Pure carmine is a very light lustrous scarlet powder, entirely soluble in ammonia, a test by which its purity is readily determined. It is prepared from the cochineal insect {which see), the pure colouring prin- ciple of which is, according to Mr. AVarren de la Rue, carminic acid. Carmine is largely used by microscopists, for it possesses the pro- perty of staining the bioplasm of animal tis- sues. The staining or colouring fluid employed by Dr. Beale is made as follows : Carmine, 10 grains; strong liquid ammonia, ^ drachm; Price's glycerine, 2 ounces ; distilled water, 2 ounces ; alcohol, J ounce. The carmine is to be placed in a test-tube, and the ammonia added to it. Upon applying the gentle heat of a spirit-lamp it is dissolved. Boil it up for a few seconds, and allow it to cool before add- ing the glycerine and the re^t of the ingi'e- dients. Lastly, pass it through a filter, or allow it to stand for some little time, and decant off the clear solution. The solution should neither be too alkaline nor perfectly neutral : if the former, the colouring becomes too intense, and thus much of the soft or im- perfectly-formed tissue is destroyed ; and if the latter, the uniform staining of tissue and germinal matter equally mars the result. The permeating power of the solution may be increased by the addition of a little more water and alcohol. — (Beaie, " How to work ■with the Microscope.") Cooks frequently col- our the sauces prepared by them for the table with carmine. As carmine is frequently adul- terated.with vermilion, such a practice should be discouraged. Carrageen Moss— ;See Alo& Carriages for conveyance of infected per- sons—See Conveyances. Carrots — The carrot, as an article of diet, is less nutritious than the potato, but, like other succulent vegetables, it is an antiscor- butic. The following table shows its average com- position : — Water Albumen Starch Sugar Fat Salts . Composition of the Carrot 83-0 1-3 8-4 6 1 0-2 10 Nitrogenous lis-g' 1'3 Carbonaceous y o as starch j H p,15'0 Carbonaceous -v to one nitro- genous ) Nitrogen ) „ , , Available ^";^' carbon J P" ■='• 11-5 0-20 Drs. Frankland, Playf air, Parkes, and others say that 1 gramme of carrot wUl equal 220 kilogrammes of energy, and that 1 ounce will equal 20-foot tons of energy, or, in other words, would raise 20 tons 1 foot high. Carrot-seed is ^carminative and diuretic. The expressed juice of the root is said to be anthelmintic. Carrots are used as a colouring agent to butter and cheese, and they have been met with as an adulterant of coffee. Caseine — A nitrogenous principle met with in milk. It is very probable that under the name of caseine several nitrogenous substances are confused together; however this may be, caseine proper in milk is always associated with albumen, and it is inseparably united with phosphate of lime. It has, therefore, never , been obtained in a pure state. Its composi- tion is identical with that of albumen and fibrine : — Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen . Oxygen 63-7 7 1 15-7 23-5 I'OO-O There is also a small quantity of sulphur, said to be about 1 per cent. Caseine was formerly supposed to be a com- pound of albumen and potash, but as milk-ash contains no alkali, this view is no longer held. It differs from albumen in not being coagu- lated by heat, and in being thrown down by the organic acids. . It agrees vrith albumen in composition, as before said, and also in the fact of its capability of existing in a soluble and insoluble state. This change is at present unexplained, and supposed to be molecular. It differs from fibrine in not undergoing spon- taneous coagulation. Caseine forms insoluble salts with the acids, and various metallic salts, such as sulphate of copper and bichloride of mercury. The average amount of caseine in the milk of different animals is as follows : — Ass's milk 1'82 per cent Woman's milk , 1-52 Cow's „ 4-5 „ Goat's „ 4 02 „ Ewe's „ . 4-60 „ Cheese consists almost entu-ely of caseine. Hee Milk, Cheese, &o. CAT ( 122) CEL Catarrh, Epidemic— See Influenza. Catchpit— » „ (matured) . ]3-03 41-91 3-63 34-47 6-96 Camembert . 18-90 2105 4-71 51-94 4-40 J) Brie 18-48 25-73 m 45-25 4-93 »» Chester .... 25-99 26-34 35-92 7-59 jj Parmesan .... 44-08 15-95 5-72 27-56 6-69 Cheddar 28-40 31-10 4-5 36-00 Lethebt. Skim cheese 44-80 6-30 4-9 44-00 )) Cheese 33-50 24-30 5-4 36-80 Pakkes. Great light has been thrown upon the che- mistry of cheese, and the change which it undergoes under the influence of "mould," by the researches of M. Ch. Blondeau (Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 4'*'"o Ser. t. i. 1864) on the celebrated Eoquefort cheese {fromage de Roquefort). A portion of a typi- cal cheese was taken by this observer and divided into four parts, the first of which was at once submitted to analysis; the three others were replaced in the cellars, and analysed after one month, two months, and a. year's respective sojourn. No. 1. The fresh or new Eoquefort had the following composition : — Caseine . ' Fat . Lactic acid Water 85-43 1-85 0-88 11-84 100-00 No. 2. The piece which 'had remained in the cellars a month had all the appearance of a fatty body ; its odour had changed, and its taste was sweet and agreeable. The analysis shows that a large portion of the caseine had undergone fatty change. 43-28 32-30 0-67 4-45 19-30 Caseine . 6133 Fat 16-12 Chloride of s6dium 4-40 ■Water 18-16 No. 3. The piece which had remained in the cellar two months was exactly in the con- dition most prized. Analysis showed that there was a still further change of caseine into fat, and also that small portions of butyric acid were formed. Oaseine ... . . _„. (Margarine . 18-30) _ '" joieine . . 14-OoJ - Butyric acid ... Chloride of sodium ■Water • 100-00 No. 4. The fourth portion was kept a year. By the end of that time it had acquired a brown colour, a strong odour, and a pungent taste. Analysis showed some further fatty cljanges of the caseine, and also that a great portion of the oleine had disappeared, and in its place were found various products resulting from its oxidation, hence it is probable that the rancidity of butter also is due principally to the formation of oxidation products derived from the oleine. Caseine . ... 40-28 Margarine 16-85 Oleine . Butyrate of ammonia Gaproate of ammonia Caprylate of ammonia Caprate of ammonia Chloride of sodium "Water 101)00 CHE (126) CHI All these changes are produced by the agency of minute myooderms. It may be supposed that as they require, for the purposes of life, ammonia, water, and carbon, they borrow these different principles from the caseine, which thus losing a portion of its elements, forms a fatty matter. Cheese ia a highly nourishing article of diet, and in conjunction with bread often forms the staple food pf the labourer. Some cheeses are extremely easy of. digestion, but the poorer and closer kinds are the reverse. Cheese is subject to the attacks of a fly {Piophila casei), the larvae of which are the well-known small maggots or jumpers. It is also liable to mould. The blue is gen- erally the AspergiUua glaucus, the red the Sporendonema casei. A peculiar kind of de- cayed cheese has been said to cause symptoms of poisoning. Adulterations. — Cheese may be said not to be commonly or seriously adulterated. It is certainly generally coloured with annatto, carrots, safiron, &c. ; but the colouring, unless excessive, or unless injurious ingredients are used, cannot be called an adulteration. Pota- toes and starch have been detected in cheese, more especially on the Continent ; and Indeed in Thiiringen (Saxony) there is a species of cheese manufactured, almost entirely made of potatoes. A wash or preparation containing arsenic has been used to the rind of cheese, as a preservative against the attacks of the fly. This practice does not prevail in England, and it is certainly most dangerous. In the process of manufacture some cheeses owe their flavour to the practice of infusing certain'leaves — e.g., sage, parsley, &c. — in the cheese itself ; h^nce fragments of leaves may be detected in certain kinds. The famous fromage de Brie of France is said to owe its peculiar flavour to its admixture with urine — a disgusting suggestion, almost incredible. Detection of Adulterations. — If arsenical pre- parations to the rind are suspected, the same process may be employed for its detection as is described under Absenio. If it is required to know the exact amount of caseine, fat, salt, ash, and water, the analy- sis should be conducted on the same principles as described under Milk-Analysis ; that is, the amount of water should be estimated by evaporating a known weight in a porcelain or platinum dish, the fat by extraction with ether, the ash by burning down a known quantity, and the remainder calculated as caseine. The salt may be estimated by the volumetric solution of nitrate of silver {see ■Wateb-Analysis) and chromate of potash (every 100 parts of salt containing 60"68 of chlorine). An ash as high as 7 per cent. is no proof of mineral adulteration, so that in this instance the analyst must be very careful not to draw conclusions until the ash has been qualitatively examined for lead by sulphuretted hydrogen, and for other mineral matters evidently of foreign origin, always remembering that the ash of genuine cheese consists of very little else but salt and phos- phate of lime. The microscope is of no very great utility in detecting foreign substances in cheese. Starch, however, may. be seen in very soft cheeses. It will be found convenient to freeze a portion, and then out a very fine section. In such a case the polariscope may also be used, and testa, such as iodine, &c., may be applied to a minute fragment in the field. Cherry — The fruit of different species of the genua Cerasus. They are regarded as wholesome, cooling, laxative, nutritive, and antiscorbutic ; but, like plums, they require to be eaten in moderation. Inflammation of the alimentary canal has been occasioned by swallowing the stones. The following is the composition of cherries as given by Fresenius :— Composition of Cherries (Fresenius). Swael light Very light .SwMt Te& Heart, Heart. BlacH. Soluble Natter— Sugar .... 13110 8-668 10-700 Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malio acid) 0-361 0-061 0-660 Albuminous substances ( 0-903) {2-286C 3-529 CI -010 10-870 Peotoae substances . Ash . 0-60O 0-836 0-600 Insoluble Matter — Seeds . 6-480 S-244 6-70O Skins .... 0-450 0-464 0-366 Pectose 1-450 0-401 0-664 [Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given] [0-090] [0-070] gl-998 [0-078] Water 13-370 79-700 Cherry-Iiaurel Water — An infusion of the leaves of the Cerasus Lauro-cerasus. Very common in England, and often confounded ■with the true laurel or sweetbay, which has no deleterious properties. The effects of cherry-laurel water are similar to those pro- duced by hydrocyanic acid. It is used for the adulteration of Gin, which see. Chestnuts —Ground chestnuts, both the horse-chestnut (^sculua JBippocastanum) and the edible chestnut, have been used as adulter- ants in chicory, coffee, &c. See fig. 18 (after Atcherley). Chicory— Prepared from the root of Ci- chorium Intybut, a plant of the natural order It is prepared by slicing the root, roasting CHI (127) CHI it, mixed witli a small quantity of lard, and subsequently drying it. It is used mainly as CHESTNUT mg. 18. an addition to cofEee, and as an adulteration of that article. In some parts of the world it is used as a beverage alone, especially in Flan- ders. The fresh root is medicinal, acting as a tonic and slight aperient. . The roasted and ground article would appear to possess sc'arcely any decided properties whatever. Strvjoture. ofthk Root.— The structure of the root is of itaportanoe, in order to detect its admixture in coffee. The chief part of the root is made of cells, rounded or flattened. A CHrc ORY Eig. 19. thin section, examined by the microscope, shows these cells, as well as dotted vessels and branching latioif erous ducts, which in the fresh root carry a milky sap (fig. 191. The chemical composition of chicory is as follows (Lethebt) :- Raw Kiln- Eoot. dried. Hygroscopic moisture 77 15-0 Gummy matter (like pectine) 7-6 20-8 G-lucose or grape-sugar 1-1 10-5 Bitter extractive 40 19-3 Fatty matters . 0-6 1-9 Cellulose, inuline, and woody matter 9 20 -5 -Ash ... 08 30 100 100-0 Co'm.'position of the Roasted Eoot (Lethebt). First Second Specimen. Specimen. Hygroscopic moisture . 145 12-8 Gummy matter . 95 14-9 Glucose 12-2 10-4 Matter like burnt sugar . . 29 1 21-4 Fatty matter 2-0 2-2 Brown or burnt woody matter 28 '4 28-5 Ash 4 3 6-8 . 100 100 The ash 'of these had the following com- osition : — First Second Specimen. Specimen. Chloride of potassium 0-22 0-45 Sulphate of potash 0-97 0-98 Phosphate of potash 141 1-37 „ magnesia . O.SO 0-63 lime . 0.40 0-81 Carbonate of lime 010 0-26 Alumina and oxide of iron 0-20 0-20 Sand .... 0-70 2:20 The adulterations of chicory are numerous. The following have been either found or suspected : Venetian red, reddle, red clay, roasted acorns, beans, carrots, damaged dog- biscuits, damaged bread, damaged wheat, horse - chestnuts, mangel - wurzel, parsnips, peas, rye, and sugar ; coffee flights (the husks of coffee), cofiina (roasted lupines), Hamburg powder (roasted peas coloured with reddle), and the marc of coffee ; bark from tanyards, logwood-dust, mahogany-dust, &c., &c. Detection of Adulterations.- — A familiarity with the microscopical structure of chicory is soon obtained, and then any admixture with foreign substance may be with comparative ease detected. Besides the microscope, the following tests may be employed : — Chicory thrown into water rapidly sinks and colours the liquid reddish brown. A cold decoction tested with litmus or solution of iodine gives a brown colour. There is no starch in chicory, so if it produces a blue or black colour, it indicates the presence of roasted peas, beans, rye, &o. It should not turn black on the addition of perchloride or persulphate of iron; if it does, it shows an admixture of a vegetable substance contain- ing tannin, such as acorns. CHI (128) CHIi A weighed quantity should he hurnt in a platinum ,dish, and the ash carefully ex- amined. It should not exceed 5 per cent., and be of a grey colour, not red. See Coffee. Childbed— See PoEEPERAL Diseases. Children, Employment of— See Brick- fields ; Trades, Injurious, &o. Children, Mortality of— See Infant Mortality. Chillies— Used for the adulteration of pepper and vinegar. See CAPSionM, Pepper, &c. Chimneys— 'Chimneys were not intro- duced into England until the reign of Queen Elizabeth. They were first used in the better- class mansions and in. towns, but were a long tinie before they were adopted in country places ; for example, they were certainly not introduced into the farmhouses of Cheshire until the middle, of the seventeenth century. The chimney is not alone a mere tube to con- vey away the products of combustion, but also a ventilator. The principle by which a chim- ney exerts a, draught is as follows: The chimney is a tube containing a column of air ; if the room and the chimney be at the same temperature, the chimney column of air is exactly balanced by a column of air without the chimney ; but if, as is usually the case, the room is warmer than the outside air, the warm air, being lighter, floats up the chim- ney, creating a slight but continual current. If a fire be lit in the grate, it warms the whole column of air, which expands, is rendered lighter, and therefore ascends, its place being continually taken by the colder and heavier air. Therefore when a fire is burned it must be supplied copiously with air. If it obtains an insufficient quantity from the room, by reason of the excellent workmanship of the doors and windows, or from want of due ven- tilation, it will obtain the air from above ; in other words, a down current, carrying with it the smoke, will be established, and this is one of the principal causes of smoky chimneys, another of them being insufficient contraction of the throat of the chimney. By contracting the chimney-throat, and by closing partially the open space in front of a fire, almost any amount of draught may be obtained, the rea- son being that the immense volume of air contiiluaUy drawn up the chimney is thus all made to pass through the fire instead of over it, as 3^ of the air does in open fireplaces. Another cause of smoky chimneys is the flues being too straight or too large, the consequence being that every gust of wind blows the smoke into the room ; the more tortuous a flue, the leas the risk of smoke. The best general cure for smoky chimneys, according to Mr. Eassie, is a peculiar cone of terra-ootta fixed to the top of the chimney.. This cone contracts considerably the top of the flue, is not unsightly, and the wind blowing against its external slope, quickly extracts the smoke. These cones are also provided with partitions of terra-cotta, so as to be isolated from each other. The cone failing, he uses an iron injector, which is a circular apparatus of iron fixed to the top of the chimney. It is provided With a series of outside mouths, which receiving the wind, pass it down narrow tubes, at the foot of which, when well com- pressed, it is caught by an angular valve, which compels it to escape with great force into the smoke-fine, and thence into the at- mosphere. See Smoke. Chimney - Sweepers (Sweeps)— The general hygienic condition of sweeps has klways ranked low. They were formerly employed as nightmen, and their usual sleep- ing-place was a heap of soot. Naturally of a low class, of dirty habits, 'following a filthy and dusty occupation, there cannot be a doubt that their general health was not good, and that "their lives were short, especially when • most of them had in extreme youth to serve an apprenticeship of ill-usage, and were forced to climb the narrow flues before their limbs were developed. We have no statistics of the mean duration of sweeps' lives at the present day, nor has their present hygienic condition been investigated on a large scale. That they are more subject to cancer, and especially cancer of the scrotum, than other men, is a general idea, which at present is neither proved nor disproved. Dr. Walshe states that in 649 cases of cancer three were sweeps ; in other words, 4 '5 per 1000 cases. Whether this is a large number or not, can only be known by a return of the number of sweeps living in the places from whence the 649 cases were derived. Chinese Botanical Powder — Used for the purpose of adulterating tea. It consists of catechu and wheat-flour. • The directions for its use are as f oUows : Take half a tea- spoonful of the powder to two teaspoonfuls of tea, and it will produce (so run the directions for its use) a strength equal to four teaspoon- fuls of tea. This powder is very astringent, and therefore its frequent use is highly objec- tionable. See Tea. Chloralum— This substance, which is an impure aqueous solution of chloride of alu- minum, sp. gr. 1'15, was introduced in 1870 by Professor Gamgee as an antiseptic and disinfectant, for which purpose the article should be diluted with four times its bulk of CHL (129) CHO water. This is a powerful disinfectant, and possesses the_ advantages of being non-poison- ous, inodorous, and very cheap. Chloralum is thought by Professor Gamgee to be a much more useful antiseptic and disinfectant than carbolic acid, for it was found in experiments made by Professor Haughton that it destroys offensively odorous matter and secretions which are simply masked by carbolic acid. " For removing foetor and effluvia," says Pro- fessor AVanklyn, " it is better and more avail- ' able than any agent with which I am ac- quainted." In this respect it is incomparably superior to chloride of lime. Dr. Dougall found that it arrests putrefactive change, and prevents the appearance of animalculse to a greater extent than any of the commonly employed disinfectants. It is not volatile, hence it cannot be regarded as an aerial disin- fectant ; but it .is useful in washing infected clothing, or as a scouring material for cleans- ing rooms. It may be used with advantage as a dressing for surgical wounds, but as a deodorant for sewage, it is certainly in no way superior to chloride of lime and other old disinfectants. Experiments carried out in the laboratory at Dresden were not, indeed, vbry favourable to this new agent, for, accord- ing to Dr. Eulenberg, the following was the result of the investigations : — • Per cept. of PnlrefylufMatters Chloride of lime disinfects 100-0 Quicklime „ 84-6 Alum ,, 80-4 Sulphate of iron ,, 76 T Chloralum „ 740 — (Vierteljahrsschrift, j. Ger. Med. u. Off. San., nouv. s^ie, t. xx. No. 2.) It thus appears to be rather inferior to sulphate of iron, but notwithstanding this, the substance has qualities of a very useful nature, and equals the other disinfectants named, providing a proportionately larger quantity is used. The Board of Trade requires all British ships to be furnished wibh a supply of chlo- ralum for disinfecting purposes, in case a dis- infectant should be needed. Chlorine — Chlorine is an elementary sub- stance discovered by Scheele in 1774. It was at first supposed to be a compound, but was proved by Sir H. Davy to be a simple substance, as Gay-Lussao and Thenard had suggested. Properties, (to. — Chlorine is a gas of a greenish-yellow colour ; its relative weight is 33'5, and its observed specific gravity 2'47. It is soluble in about half its bulk of cold water, but is much less soluble when collected over warm water. It is heavier than air, 100 o.c. weighing between 77 and 78 grains at 60° F. ?nd 30 inches bar. pressure. It may be condensed into a yellow limpid liquid by a pressure of 4 atmospheres at 60° F., and it forms a definite hydrate with water. Copper, arsenic, antimony, and phosphorus combine so energetically with chlorine, that when introduced in a finely-divided state into the gas they take fire spontaneously. Chlorine has a great affinity for hydrogen, combining vrith it and forming hydrochloric acid J it is in this way that it acts on organic substances, and transforms bodies of an un- defined nature into more or less definite com- pounds. Preparation. — It may be made in many ways. In bleaching-works it is produced on an enormous scale by the action of hydrochloric acid on oxide of manganese. A very constant, regular supply of chlorine is evolved by dropping a crystal of chlorate of potash from time to time into muriatic acid ; and a third economical way is the addition of some acid to chloride of lime (the same purpose may also be effected by 1 J parts of alum-cake mixed with 1 of chloride of lime). For disinfecting pur- poses, chlorine may be obtained by taking two tablespoonfuls of common salt, two teaspoon-" fuls of red -lead, half a wine-glassful of sulphuric acid, and a quart of water ; mix the lead and salt with the water, stir well, and add the sulphuric acid gradually. Chlorine is evolved, and is absorbed by the water, from which it is slowly driven out. It may be kept in a jar or stoppered bottle, left open as occa- sion may require. Uses, die. — As obtained by any or all oi these methods, chlorine is one of the most powerful deodorants and disinfectants known. It is destructive to all animal matter, and fatal when breathed by living beings in a con- centrated form. The foulest smells cannot exist long in an atmosphere containing free chlorine, so that it is an excellent disinfectant for urinals and similar places, as a very small quantity continuously given off keeps them fi'ee from objectionable odour. As a gaseous disinfectant it is perhaps the best we possess, and is invaluable for the purpose of fumigat- ing a room after infectious disease ; but its destructive and bleaching powers on the paper, coloured cloth, &c., must be remembered, and the precautions taken described under Disin- fection, &c. • Chlorine, when continuously breathed by healthy people, acts as an irritant to the lungs — its frequent use, indeed,in the Paris hospitals is said to have caused phthisis; it is not, therefore, adapted as a disinfectant for ordi- nary household purposes. See Disinfectants, Disinfection, &c. Chocolate— mpera- ture, S6 -74°. New Orleans, lat. 30° ; mean temperature, 69-ul°. Baton Kouge, lat. 30° 26'; mean tempera- tme, 68-07°. Jamaica coast, mean temperature, 80 '6°. CLI (138) CLI TABLE III.— EuBOPE, Afeioa, &c. '■ li Mean Temperature of different Seasons. Mean Tem. perature of Places. a 6 a a "3 < li ^ / '0 Geneva ' 4812 49-28 34-70 47-66 64-94 50-00 66-m 34-16 Gosport 48 1 50 '24 40-44 47-63 62-00 50-08 ... Newport, Isle of "Wight 50 40 51 '00 40-31 49-00 63-09 57-63 gidmouth . 52-10 40-43 50-60 63-83 63-50 Penzance . ' . 5211 61-80 44-03 49-63 60-70 53-36 TTnderclifE . 51-11 42-14 29-26 60-28 52-76 Hastings . 60 B2 57-00 40-11 45-77 60-45 51-00 Bute .... 55 42 48-25 39-62 46-66 58-02 48-59 ... Cove of Cork . 5154 51-58 34-90 49-43 61-26 51-73 Jersey 4913 53-06 36-82 50-97 62-84 44-63 ..* Paris .... 48 50 51-08 38-66 49-28 64-68 51-44 ... Pau .... 43 7 64-95 41-79 64-96 67-41 65-64 66-30 36-14 Sienna 43 24 65-60 40-50 54-10 70-80 57-10 Nantea 4713 55-62 42-23 53-10 70-73 56-41 Bordeaux . 44 50 56-48 42-08 66-46 70-88 56-30 70-52 39-02 Montpellier 43 36 57-60 44-20 53-33 71-30 61-30 73-04 41-00 Avignon . 58-20 42-60 57-13 74-66 .59-00 ... Florence . 43 46 69 00 44-30 56-00 74-00 60-70 ... Nice .... 43 42 69-48 47-82 56-23 72-26 61-63 JfajseiUes . 4317 59-50 45-50 57-66 72-50 60 08 ... Toulon . 43 07 69-90 43-30 53-70 74-30 59-00 Leghorn . 43 33 60-00 46-30 57-60 74-10 62 00 Genoa 44 25 60-37 44-67 68-60 74-03 62-94 ... Pisa .... 43 43 60-60 46-03 57-20 76-15 62-80 Rome 4153 60-40 44-86 .57-74 75-20 62-78 77-00 42-26 Naples 40 44 61-40 48-50 58-50 70-83 64-50 ,,, St. Michaels, Azores 37 47 62-40 47-83 61-17 86-33 62-33 Cadiz 36 32 62-88 62-90 59-53 70-43 65-35 Madeira, Funchal 32 37 64-56 59-50 62-20 69-33 67-23 ... ... ■ Algiers 36 48 69-98 61-52 65-66 80 24 72-50 82-76 60-08 Canaries, Santa Cruz 28 28 70-94 64-65 68-87 76-68 74-14 Cairo .... 30 02 72-32 68-46 73-58 85-10 71-42 85-88 56-12 London, lat. 51° 30' ; mear Pemicrnan. mean temDerature tern Der iture, 6 i-36'. ] Environs of Lon don, me T.T:.. an tem; -- - . -. -, — , J. , — ... Nismes, mean temperature, CLI ( 139) CLI TABLE IV.'— Mean Iempekature. Places. December. . Januai-y. Eebi-uary. March. April. 43-00 46-50 41-53 46-00 48-60 49-62 50-50 60-50 36-30 43-00 38-89 42-00 45-85 47-65 46-50 59-50 42-00 44-50 44-96 45-00 49-00 49-45 48-50 58-50 45-00 46-50 46-80 47-00 51-45 52-05 52-00 61-06 51-00 48-50 55-79 53-00 57-00 56-40 57-00 62-50 Pau Montpellier . . . ; Nice Roiue Madeira .... TABLE V. — Daily Range of Tempeeatdre. December. January. February. March. Ap ■il. ©- ■ li . «i QJ Places. fcO Si3 B 9 la a g| "Sm 11 II il II a >. 01 Sir -3 Si- a -3 Sir- It " = It ■^t p ft n a a p P n fl a C Sidmoutli ■3 7 9 13 13 "4 7 8 13 16 "e 9 9 12 16 "8 9 14 12 17 "9 8 14 13 is Pau Montpellier Nice 6 9 9 11 14, 15 13 14 8 11 9 11 16 16 14 17 9 10 11 9 18 18 19 13 9 12 11 10 17 19 18 14 11 13 14 9 18 20 ' 20 13 Bome Madeira TABLE VI.— MAiiMnM, Minimum, and Range op Tempekatdbe;. Places. December. January. February. March. . April. s s a i .a ■ 1 H i| 1 d 3 p4 i bo a 1 Sidmoutli «ft 54 56. 56 57 59 60 61 68 25 34 25 32 40 31 34 52 29 22 31 25 19 29 27 16 47 54 56 53 58 58 58 69 21 28 21 27 27 29 29 50 26 26 35 26 31 29 29 19 52 55 60 55 58 60 60 68 27 33 35 30 37 33 31 51 25 22 25 25 21 27 29 17 56 59 65 58 65 65 69 69 26 34 35 35 41 37 38 51 30 25 30 23 24 28 31 18 60 62 71 64 69 74 78 72 31 36 43 41 46 44 43 55 29 26 28 23 23 30 35 17 ' Penzance Pau Montpellie r Rome Madeira The temperature of each day presents a maximum and a minimum : the minimum is between 3 a.m. and 7 A.M. ; the time of the maximum scarcely varies according to climate, and answers to 2 or 3 o'clock in the afternoon. The temperature taken by means of the thermometer at 9 A.M., at 12 p.m., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M., gives a mean equiva-. lent to the mean of twenty-four hours. This mean is found about 7 o'clock in the morning in July, and 10 A.M. in January. The mean temperature of the summer and the mean temperature of the winter gives the mean temperature of the year. The preceding tables give the mean tem- perature of a number of places. . Climates, with respect to temperature, are either constant, variable, or extreme. Ex- treme climates are those in which there are great differences between the summer and CLI (140) CLI winter temperatures, and this abrupt tran- sition from a glacial oclctness to a tropical warmth is most injurious to the inhabitants. "At Yakutsk, in Siberia, the temperature in July is 13'3°, and in January 41 •4°; whereas at Christiansand, Norway, nearly the same latitude, these are respectively 64*4° and 34 '3°. Thus the difference between the tempera- ture in the summer and winter at Yakutsk is 1007°, while at Christiansand it is only 20'1°. The temperature of Sitka, in the west of North America, is 55 '6° in July, and 32 '0° in January ; whereas at' York Factory, on Hudson Bay, in the same latitude, the July temperature is 56"0°, and the January 12'0° ; thus giving a difference of only 23 '6° between the summer and winter temperature on the coast of the Pacific, but of 68 '8° in the interior of the continent." — (BOOHAN.) The chief causes of variation in temperature (and hence in climate) are winds, the presence of sheets of salt or fresh water, mountains, vegetation, humidity, &o. Winds convey for a long distance the tem- perature of the places whence they arise. The S."W". gale brings to our own shores the humidity of the Atlantic, the N. and N.E. winds carry with them the dryness and cold- ness of the Arctic and Siberian regions, while the S. wind gives us the climate of Spain. The cause of all winds may be shown to arise from a difference of barometric pressure in dif- ferent countries, a current of air setting in from the region of high pressure to the region of low pressure. In the winter months, and during cold weather, extended observations have shown that the pressure in Siberia, and generally in the polar zone, is high, and the barometer marks over 30 inches, while in the British Isles the pressure may be as low as 29 '2°. The wind then blows from the regions of the high pressure, and hence the prevalence of- N. and N.E. winds. In summer and warm weather, again, the pressure is distributed in an entirely different manner, the mean atmos- pheric pressure being higher over the Atlantic than in Europe, hence southerly and S.W. winds prevail. Waters. — The ocean, with its currents, has an enormous influence on climate. This is due to the fact that water has the greatest specific heat of all known substances (the specific heat being the units of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound one degree). If the specific heat of the water of the ocean be compared to that of the rooks and shores which it leaves, the proportion will be in about the ratio of 4 to 1. It follows from this that the surface of the sea cannot be raised to the same degree of heat as the land, and with a falling temperature it cools much more slowly. It is on account of this specific heat of water that insular climates are more equable than eontinental, the summers cooler and the win- ters warmer. The influence of salt water is especially seen in the oceanic currents. If it were not for a powerful current causing a general flow of the Atlantic north-eastward into the Arctic Ocean, the mean temperature of the British Islands would be 20° lower than at present. The peculiar distribution of the winter tem- perature of the British Isles comes from the same cause. The entire eastern coast of Eng- land and Scotland has a lower temperature than the westfem side, while the whole of the latter is warmer, but presents little difference in temperature, however far north or south observations may be taken. The practical bearings of this on the treatment of disease are obvious. A consumptive patient on tlie east coast will do well to go westward, but it will make, generally speaking, very little dif- ference whether he go north or south. This difference between the two coasts is mainly dependent upon the Gulf Stream impinging on our western shores, and bringing with it the temperature of the warmer latitudes. Tlie general effect of oceanic currents may be sum- marised thus : They raise the temperature of the west of Europe, the east pf South America, the east of Africa, and the south of Asia ; while the temperature by their agency is depressed on the east and west coasts of North America, the west coast of South America, the west coast of Africa, the east coast of Asia, and the south coast of Australia. Inland sheets of water also influence cli- mate greatly. As an instance we may take Loch Ness, which, owing to its great depth, never freezes, its temperature, therefore, being always higher than that of the surrounding country. The climate of its shores is mild and insular. Shallow lakes, on the other hand, rapidly becoming frozen, increase the rigour of the winter, while they cool the sum- mer seasons, as may be seen. on a, large scale in the lakes of North America. Mountains modify the climate of a country in many ways, a narrow range often separat- ing two very different climates; e.g., the island of Ceylon is divided into two halves by a high range of mountains. The seasons on either side are entirely different, and the effect of the periodical monsoons, which set in from opposite sides of them, is completely termi- nated by their agency. The chief effect of mountain ranges is to deprive the winds passing over them of their moisture. The leeward will thus have colder CLI (141) CLI ■winters and hotter summers, for the screen of Tapour ■which ■would otherwise protect them from excessive radiation or excessive heat is removed. Norway and S^weden may be taken as an ex- ample of this. The difference between the sum- mer and ivinter temperatures of Hernosand, on the Gyll of Bothnia, is 42 '5°, ■while on the other side of the mountains, in the same lati- tude, at Alesund, the difference is only 18'5°. The greater rainfall of our own western, and the greater dryness of our eastern, shores is due to a similar agency. On mountains themselves, especially in the tropics, every variety of climate may be ex- perienced, the influence of altitude, generally speaking, being analogous to that of latitude, in the same ■way that from the base to the summit of a mountain meteorological pheno- mena present variations similar to those ob- served on a vast scale from the equator to the poles, so that the earth may be considered as formed of two mountains joined at their bases by the equator. The actual rate of decrease of the mean temperature ■with altitude has not been satisfactorily determined. "It va- ries ■with the latitude, the situation, the dampness and dryness of the air, calm or ■windy ■weather, and conspicuously with the season of the year and the hour of the 'day." The general oajculation is, ho^wever, 1" F. de- crease for every 300 feet of elevation. Hence it happens frequently that the mean tempera- ture of different places in different latitudes may on account of elevation be identical; for example, the mean temperature of St. Petersburg, 59° 50' latitude, at the sea-level is the same as that of the Antisana, 1° of lati- tude, 4000 metres above the level of the sea. Humboldt and Boussinganlt have made many observations on this point ; -and zoological and botanical researches have confirmed in a strik- ing manner the strict analogy between altitude and latitude. The following are actual temperatures ob- served in ascending the Cordilleras : — Cordilleras (5° latitude). Height Mean Temp. (Feet). negreea. Cumana . 80-68 Ansuma . 3,444 74-66 Latacunga . ' 0,384 60-9 Antisana . . 13,360 38-12 Perpetual snow-line . 14,760 34-88 Glacier, St. Antisana . 17,712 29-48 There now remain, to be considered the climacteric influences of vegetation, soil, and rain. A ground destitute of herbage rapidly heats and as rapidly cools. A sandy soil attains a higher temperature than loam or clay, whilst rocks, being good conductors, are cooler. The sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia frequently mark a surface temperature of 120°, 140°, or even 200° ; but if they were covered with vegetation, part of the heat would be expended in vapourising the sap, and but little would reach the soil itself. The heat in a country clothed with vegetation is there- fore more evenly distributed throughout the twenty-four hours, and less intense in the warmest periods of the day. Large tracts of forests confer on the climate of a country an insular character. They make the days cooler and the nights warmer, and may therefore be considered as reservoirs in which the heat of the day is stored up against the cold of the night. Evaporation under trees goes on slowly, and the emanations from.the soil and the de- caying leaves collect under the thick canopy of the interwoven branches. In tropical countries forests are therefore generally un- healthy, and the haunt of malarious fevers, torests also generally increase the rainfall of a district. A remarkable proof of this fact i^ afforded by Lake Tacarigua, which had for thirty years showed a gradual drying up ; when, owing to the "War of Independence, the land was left uncultivated for twenty-two years, forests sprang up around it, and the waters rose so much as to cover land formerly under cultivation. The rainfall of a country depends more on its topography than its latitude. The entire absence of rain is a very remarkable feature on the coast of Peru, the valleys of the rivers Columbia and Colorado, the Sahara in Africa, and the desert of Gobi in Asia ; while, on the other hand, it rains dailj- at Chiloe, Patagonia, the region of calms on each side of the equa- tor, and at a few other places. The greatest annual rainfall on the globe, as far as is known, occurs at the Khasia Hills, facing the Bay of Bengal. Here the astonishing quantity of 600 inches falls annually. In onr own country, Stye, in the Lake Dis- trict, is the wettest of all known localities. In 1865, 38-9 inches, and in 1866, 224-5 inches f elL We obtain nearly all our rain from the Atlantic, the greater part of which is con- densed on the hills of the west coast. See Eadt, Rainfall, &c. Effects of Climate, Acclimatisation. — Thfe human body accommodates itself to climate in a remarkable manner, and experience shows that this resisting or accommodating power is greatest in the inhabitants of temperate climates, who penetrate alike the glacial regions of the pole and the burning heat of the fropics with impunity, while the natives of tropical regions suffer greatly if transferred to the colder zones. It is extremely probable that Europeans would, generally speaking, enjoy fair health in the hot parts of India, if CLI ( 142) GU temperature were the only thing to be con- tended with ; but until of late years bad sani- tary conditions, coupled with zymotic diseases, so increased the death-rate as to make it appear that a tropical climate was extremely inimical to the Kuropean constitution; but it must ever be remembered that zymotic diseases are a something superadded to cli- mate, not climate itself. The elementary facts relative to the action of heat, cold, altitude, &o., on the human body are shortly as follows : — ffeat has a very depressing influence on the nervous system. The nervous current by excessive heat is retarded, and may be de- stroyed, hence the languor and depression in hot weather, and occasionally death from sun- stroke. The human body in temperate cli- mates, in health, has a constant tempera- ture, when taken in the armpit, of 98 "5° ; any deviation of more than 2° from this generally shows disease; and if the tem- perature of a person rises in fever or from some other cause to 107° or 108°, and continues there for some hours, the danger to life is great. According to physiologists, at such high temperatures myosin coagulates, and the white corpusgles lose their amceboid move- ments. The heat of the sun seldom raises the temperature of the body to such a degree as to be incompatible with life ; when it does so, generally speaking, perspiration has been checked ; for so long as a person perspires freely, the external heat is carried away, and the temperature rises but little above the normal condition. It is a noticeable fact that sunstroke is hardly ever met with at aea ; the reason of this is doubtless the free circulation of air, and the cooling influence of the sur- rounding ocean. The climate of a ship is eminently an insular one. ^ According to Dr. Becher's careful observa- tions on himself, in travelling from temperate climates to the tropics, the temperature of the body rises in the proportion of '05 F. for every increase of 1° F. in the air. This in- crease is, of course, modified by perspiration. The general effect oA Europeans of transit from a cold or temperate to a hot clime is seen in some slight loss of flesh, impaired appetite and digestion, the lungs act less and the skin more than usual, the urine is lessened, the urea increased, the pulse is flower than usual, and the nervous system is somewhat depressed, the most exhausting effects being felt where the heat is continuous and the air rarefied ; then, indeed, there is less oxygen than usual in a given cubic space. Sometimes Europeans become feverish, solely from the heat of the tropics. Tliis form of fever is called thermic fever. The influence of great cold is at first stimu- lating and then depressing. The small vessels of the skin contract and drive the blood into the warmer parts of the body, the nervous system becomes languid, and torpor, coma, and death may supervene. The cold winds and frosts of our English winters are ever marked by an augmented death-rate, the increase being specially marked in diseases of the respiratory organs. The degree of humidity cannot but have some' influence on health, though little is known on this point. Lehmann has shown that pigeons exhale more carbonic acid in a moist than a dry atmosphere, and in some chronic lung diseases a saturated air allays cough, and is felt particularly comfortable. The most agreeable amount of humidity would appear to be 70 or 80 per cent. In in- quiries relative to humidity, it is the relative, not the absolute, amount of moisture which must be taken into account ; for what is re- quired to be knowp is the evaporating power of the air, the main effect of moist or dry air being on the evaporation of the skin and lungs ; hence the oppression and malaise of man and beast on the approach of the moist, hot sirocco, which, being already saturated with water, heats the body to an insufferable degree. Damp weather, either hot or cold, but especially the former, would appear to be extremely favour- ably to the propagation of zymotic diseases ; e.g., plague and smallpox do not spread in a very dry air, but, ccsteris paribus, rapidly in a moist air. The influence of altitude remaifts to be con- sidered, and is best studied in the effect of balloon ascents, as the conditions are uncompli- cated by physical exertion. JBirt and Gay-Lus- sac, at 9000 feet, found an increase of eighteen to thirty beats of the pulse; Glaisher, at 17,000 feet, found an increase of ten to twenty-four beats of the pulse, and at 24,000 an increase of twenty-four to thirty-one. The urine is di- minished, and the evaporation from the skin, and lungs augmented. At great heights, swelling of the cutaneous veins, with bleeding from the nose, often occurs, and the limbs feel heavy and strange. In ascending mountains the effects are simi- lar, but mingled with those induced by exer- tion and fatigue. The natives of mountain regions have generally large barrel-shaped chests, which has given rise to the notion that their vital capacity is large. Such, however, is not the case, this form of the chest usually being caused by emphysema, the result of re- peated attacks of bronchitis. Phthisis, anaemia, and scrofula are often benefited by a mountain air, the scrofula existing in the Alps being nearly always due to the sedentary ocoupa- CLO (143) CLO tions and the inieeraMe insanitary state of the dwellings of the poor. To sum up, man, by- strict attention to diet, clothing, and habita- tion, can generally establish himself in any climate where the conditions are such as to ensure u, sufficient supply of food for sub- sistence. See Clouds, .Meteoeologt, Eain, Theemombteb, &c. Clocks, Public — Any urban authority may from time to time provide such clocks as they consider necessary, and cause them to be fixed on or against any public building, or, with the consent of the owner or occupier, on or against any private building, the situation of •which may be convenient for that purpose, and may cause the dials thereof to be lighted at night, and may from time to time alter and remove any such clocks to such other like situation as they may consider expedient. — (P. H., rf. 165.) Closets— The word "closet,"asin general use, is applied otJy to water and earth closets ; the inferior closets and middens are usually called primes. See Privies. Closets, Earth. — The best is that ori- ginally proposed by the Rev. Mr. Moule. The closet consists of a wooden box, and a receptacle below for the excreta. There" is a mechanical arrangement, so that when the plug is pulled up, dried earth falls upon the fseces. It requires about IJ lb. per head daily of dried earth, so that no inconsiderable quantity of this material should be stored in a convenient place. The slop-water should not be allowed to be thrown in. With proper attention, the earth system for small villages and isolated houses is absolutely perfect ; but unless the people give it that attention, it fails signally. The collection is removed from time to time, and is a valuable manure. There is no smell nor nuisance, and the dried earth is an excellent disinfectant. For large towns it can- not be recommended. The best earth is clay marl and vegetable mould ; chalk and sand do not appear to answer. i>r. Buchanan summarises the advantages of the earth-closet as follows : — 1. The earth-closet, intelligently managed, furnishes a means of disposing of excrement without nuisance, and apparently without detriment to health. 2. In communities, the earth-closet system 'requires to be .managed by the authority of the place, and will pay at least the expenses of its management. 3. In the poorer classes of houses, where supervision of any closet arrangements is in- dispensable, the adoption of the earth system offers special advantages. 4. The earth system of excrement removal does not supersede the necessity for an inde- pendent means of removing slops, rain-water, and soil-water. 5. The limits of applicatioij .of the earth system in the future cannot be stated. In existing towns favourably arranged for access to the closets, the system might be at once applied to populations of 10,000 persons. 6. As compared with the water-closet, the earth system has these advantages : it is cheaper in the original cost, it requires less repair, it is not injured by frost, it is not damaged by improper substances driven down it, and it very greatly reduces the quantity of water required. by each household. Closets, Pneumatic. — iSec Sewage, Disposal OF (Captain Liernur's system). Closet, Taylor's Dry. — The principle of this closet is to separate the solids from the liquids, this is effected by the following mechanical arrangement : A revolving disc is connected by a lever to the closet seat ; when the lid is lifted, the disc moves slightly round, and when it is closed, ashes, either alone or mixed with disinfectant powder, is thrown by a hopper on the soil. The solids remain in the disc until a complete revolution is made, they are then scraped off with a knife. The whole is self-acting. Closets, Water.— Tiiese alone are suitable to large towns, although they involve an enor- mous waste of water ; and unless properly constructed, lead to serious evils. The usual construction is to place (if there are more than one closet) them one above the other, and a cistern at the top, or at some more elevated spot. The seat is usually wood, the pan of some smooth substance — sometimes metallic, but generally of ware — and furnished with a siphon-pipe of discharge connected with a drain leading into the sewer. The seat, the pan, the closet itself, are generally, and should be always, ventilated. The ventUatiou of the soil-pipe is to be specially insisted upon, not alone on account of the danger arising from sewer-gas escaping into the house, but because, if pent up, the gas attacks the lead of the pipe and corrodes it. If the soil-pipe is ventilated, and also a shaft carried up to the top of the house from the drain, there can he no danger either of corrosion of the pipes or of the siphon being forced. There is a very good form of water-closet which is so arranged that, every time the handle is pulled, a jet of disinfectant fluid is squirted into the pan, in addition to the ordi- nary flushing. In default of this arrange- ment, it is well to have the supply-cistern constantly provided with a soluble disinfect- ant. One of the best for the pui-pose is sul- CLO ( 144) CLO phate of iron. A pound of this could be put into the cistern, and then the pan would be always flushed with a disinfectant. Nothing would arrest and prevent typhoid spreading in towns so much as a simple plan, universally followed, of this kind. The forms of water-closets, the mechanical arrangements for flushing, &c., are so various that it is impassible here to enumerate them. The great bulk of people have to accept the details of a house already built, but those who design or build should not allow the water-closet to be put in any out-of-the-way corner. The best position, as approved by the most eminent architects of the day,*is that of a special block for a large house, built tower- fashion and abutting against the outer wall, with an anteroom or passage between each closet and the house, so that it may be thoroughly ventilated, and both provided with doors. In smaller houses the closet may be simply projected from the building ; but in both cases care should be taken to have them well lighted by windows that will open freely, or permanently by air-bricks. Water-closets are calculated to use about 6 gallons per head daily ; even the best con- structed frequently require a very large supply to keep them wholesome. Every sanitary authority is to see that the water-closets in its district do not become a nuisance or injurious to health. No new house is to be buEt or old ^ouse rebuilt without a sufficient water-closet or privy, the word "house " including factories, &c., and any building in which more than one person is employed at one time. Penalty, £20 or less. A sanitary authority may compel the owner or occupier of any house deficient in this, respect to provide sufficient conveni- ence, but there is no enactment pointing out or enforcing the particular style, plan, or pattern of the closet to be built. The public schools under the Education Act must have separate closets for different sexes, a regulation which also applies to fac- tories. A sanitary authority may erect public closets at the cost of the general district rate. Any enactment in force within the district of any local authority requiring the construc- tion of a water-closet, shall be deemed to be satisfied by the construction of an earth- closet, or other place for the reception and deodorisation of faecal matter, to the satisfac- tion of the local authority. The local authority may, as respects any houses in which such earth-closets or other places as aforesaid are in use with their approval, dispense with the supply of water required by any contract or enaotiueut to be furnished to the water-closets on such terms as may be agreed upon. The local authority may themselves under- take, or contract with any person to undertake a supply of dry earth, or other deodorising substance, to any house or houses within their district for the purpose of any eaith- closet. An urban sanitary authority may provide and maintain in suitable places public earth- closets. The enactments relative to closets are more fuUy given in article Privies. Clothing — The hygienic importance of clothing is beginning to be studied With the zeal the subject demands. The changes brought about by clothing are principally relative to heat. The known three methods by which all bodies tend to equilibrium of temperature are disturbed ; the surface of the body is prevented from radiating heat directly to colder objects ; the heat must first be con- ducted to the clothes, and then the clothes will radiate it. Thus the clothes prevent rapid radiation ; they keep the heat longer near the body, and on this account in some degree the thinnest covering will keep us warm. The colour of the material, radiation alone being considered, has very little influence. When, however, heat is received — e.g., from the sun — colour makes a very great difference, although material in this case makes very little. For instance— Deg. Fahr. When white cotton received, , . 100 „ linen „ . 98 „ flannel ,, . . 102 „ silk „ . . 108 But with shirtings of different colours the following were the figures : — White Pale straw colour Dark yelloV Light green Dark green Turlcish red Light blue . Black Deg. Fahr. 100 102 UO 165 168 165 198 203 This result harmonises with practical experi- ence. Every one feels hotter in the sun with a black coat than a light one. Clothing differs much in its power of radia- tion. It is evident that clothing which radi- ates least will keep us warmer than clothing which admits of rapid cooling. It is found, by direct experiment, that there are very inconsiderable variations according to the nature, colour, texture, &c., of the cloth. Krieger covered cylinders of tin with differ- ent fabrics, and filled them with warm water. He found no very great differences. The decrease of temperature was noted in pounds. CLO (145) CLO He used layers composed of different ma- terials, but it did not make much difference ■what the outer layer was composed of. Sillc and cotton, however, allowed of more radia- tion than wool. Krieger also experimented on the conduc- tion of different substances, by surrounding his cylinders tightly with single or double layers. The following numbers represent the pro- portions of loss by heat through double tight- fitting coverings in comparison to single ones, the losses through the single ones being taken as 100. They were through — Double thin silk . 97 Gutta-percha 96 Shirtings 95 Tine linen 95 Stout silk . 94 Thick home-spun linen 91 Chamois leather . 88 to 90 Flannel 86 Summer buckskin 83 Winter „ 74 to 84 Double stuff 69 to 76 These experiments show that what the substance is, and what its weight is, does not make so much difference as its texture and volume. 'This is well shown by covering the tin cylinders, previously filled with warm water, by common wadding, and observing the fall of the thermometer. On compressing the wadding, the temperature talis rapidly; whereas, uncompressed, the loss of tempera- ture is slow. This proves that a tight-fitting garment, other things being equal, is not so warm as a loose one. The following experi- ments also bear upon this : A light layer was ,placed over the warm cylinders, and a free space of ^ to ^ an inch left between it and a second layer — both analogous, say, to a light shirt next the skin and an easy gar- ment covering it. The amount due for con- duction being subtracted, the impediment by the second layer was — For linen ,, ;shivting flannel , wash leather, gutta-percha sheeting . 32 per cent. 33 32 29 30 Thus there is not much difference between the different materials, but a second layer does cause a great impediment to the cooling of bodies. Pettenkofer examioed different materials for their permeability to air. Taking flannel as 100, he found that — Linen allowed Silk „ Buckskin ,, Kid „, Chamois ,, 68 40 68 1 61 parts of air to pass through them. Permeability to air is necessary for our health and comfort. Few people feel comfortable in a macldntoBh on this account. The use of furs, &c., dates from time im- memorial. The warming properties of these furs and skins depend, as might be expected, mainly upon the hair. Animals, such as rabbits, when shorn of their fur and their skin varnished, quickly die from cold ; they freeze to death from excessive radiation of heat. Krieger sheared a rabbit, and wrapped the living body round with a wet cloth. The temperature of the room was 66°. The tem- perature of the rabbit was at first 102°, and respirations 100; but after five hours its interior temperature had fallen to 76°, and its respirations to 50 per minute. The same thing was shown by the tin cylinders. Taking the entire fur as 100°, when the fur was shorn, the loss of heat rose to 190° ; when the por- osity of the skin was altered by coating with linseed-oil varnish, the loss of heat rose to 258°, and when a solution of gum-arabic was used instead, it rose to 296°. The Hygroscopic Power of different Fabrics. — The facility with which articles of clothing take up water in their interstices causes great difference in their warming properties. Petten- kof er has made some excellent observations on this point. He took two equal pieces of flannel and linen, and dried them at 212°, and then put them into well-closed boxes of known weight and weighed them together. " They were then exposed to the air in places of different temperatures, and from time to time put back into the tin boxes and the weights taken again." The relative quantities of water absorbed by the linen and flannel are given in the table on the following page. On this table Pettenkofer says, "What most strikes one is the invariably greater hy- groscopic power of wool than of linen; the maxima and minima of flannel and linen being respectively 175 and 111, 75 and 41. " Qbs. 5-8 show that linen changes the quan- tity of its hygroscopic water at a proportion- ately quicker rate than flannel. The two pieces were for twelve hours in the cellar, when linen absorbed 111, flannel 175 ; immediately after, for four hours, in a cold place, where linen lost IS per 1000 of its absolutely smaller amount of water, while the flannel lost only 15 per 1000 ; but during the next three hours linen lost only 2, but flannel 12 per 1000. When, obs. 9-15, the pieces had come from the cold lecture-room into a warmer room, linen again ceased giving off water at a much greater rate than flannel. The accelerated rate, only in an opposite direction, took place again. Obs. 15-18. When the temperature in K OLO (146) CLO Observa- Tempera- Hygroscopic -water in tion. Locality. ture, Degrees P. Time. Linen. Flannel. 1 CeUar . . 37-58 12 hours . . 77 157 2 Lecture-roc m 34-16 12 „ 74 14? 3 Boom . . 64-25 12 . 41 75 4 Laboratory 53-96 12 , . 69 105 5 CeUar . . 39-92 12 „ . 111 175 6 Leoture-ro< m 40-1 4 „ 93 160 7 40-1 3 „ 91 148 8 41-9 16 „ 85 146 9 Boom . 69-8 10 minutes 73 113 10 69-8 10 „ 52 . 96 11 70-7 10 „ 45 87 12 70-7 10 „ 43 82 13 68-9 15 „ 42 78 14 68 15 „ • 42 77 15 64-25 30 „ 41 75 16 62-6 Ihour 48 76 17 61-7 2 hours 45 77 . 18 . . 59-9 46 78 the room sunk from 65° to 59°, all bodies be- came more hygroscopic Tyith a sinking tempe- ture, but the absorption of water and increase of weight, as well as the contrary process, take place proportionately quicker with linen than with flannel. The more the air in any mate- rial is dispersed by water, the less it keeps us warm, the quicker it conducts the heat ; hence the frequent injury from wet clothes, and the striking discomfort produced by a damp cold. All know how comfortable we can feel in a walk when the air is cold and dry, and how differently we feel when it is damp, although hot colder; then our clothes also get much damper, and conduct more heat away. This is not to be underrated. "We have seen in the table that 1000 parts of flannel took up in the cellar 157 parts of water. Take the weight of a whole woollen garment as 10 lbs. , it is then evident that it may absorb 1^ lb. of hygroscopic water, which requires about 1680 caloric units from one body to be eva- porated. Linen and flannel bear the same relation towards water they are wetted with as towards their hygroscopic water. ■ Linen is quickly wetted and soaked, wool more slowly, but linen cannot take up the same quantity. Spilled water has certainly taught us this many times when we desired to take it up. It Is the same in evaporation, which is also much quicker from linen. "Two equal pieces of linen and flannel, weigh- ing each 1000 grammes, put into water and wrung out till they no longer yield a drop of water, keep back respectively 740 and 913 per 1000 ; but a much greater difference exists between the intensity of evaporation from wet linen and from wet flannel during equal periods in a heated room. Tempera- ture, Deg. F. Water to 1000 Observa- Minutes Grammes of Linen. Flannel. 1 70 740 913, 2 68 15 521 701 3 68 30 380 603 4 67 30 229 457 5 66 30 99 309 , 6 66 30 55 194 " It is easy to see from this table how much more quickly linen works than wool in all direc- tions. During the first 75 minutes there evapo- rated from 1000 parts of linen 511, from 1000 parts of flannel 456 water. Afterwards the re- verse took place. In the following 30 minutes 130 evaporated from linen, 148from flannel; and in the last 30 minutes only 44 per 1000 from linen, but 115 from flannel. It is also evident how much more evenly the drying proceeds in wool. In the first 15 of the whole 135 minutes, 219 evaporated from linen, iu the last 15 minutes 28 per 1000 ; while with wool it was respectively 212 and 97 per 1000. It must not be forgotten that all these experiments were made with pieces of nearly equal si^e and shape."— (Pettenkopeb.) It hence is evident that for tropical climates, where much heat is received, white is the best coloti/r. The same remark also applies to the clothing of men engaged in manufactures or employments in which they are exposed to intense heat and glare fro^ furnace-fires or melted metal. Then as to materiaj, one layer of thin flan- nel is practically as cool a substance as we can have, and its great hygroscopic power causes it to absorb perspiration, instead of, CLO (147) CLO as in the case of linen, allowing the fluid to rapidly evaporate, and thus cool us quickly and dangerously. In other words, a person after violent exertion may sit down on a cool bank, if dressed in a flannel shirt, with less danger than if his dress were linen: For cold climates a mjiltiplio'ation of layers tends to warmth. Two shirts, one over the other, are warmer than a shirt of thickness equal to the two. Garments of loose thick texture, and dark in colour, are preferable to those of thin and close texture. The cavities of the chest and abdomen are the most im- portant parts to be thoroughly protected from chill. The feet should be kept dry and warm, but the head, especially in children, should not be heated by too closely-fitting coverings. In temperate climates like our own, the great danger lies in the abrupt transitions from wet to dry, from cold to hot. These transitions especially occur in autumn and spring, and in those seasons the weakly should pay especial attention to their clothing, and dress according to temperature. Days occur in the summer in which the heat equals occasionally that of the tropics, and chiefly owing to improper clothing, especially about the head, deaths from sunstroke are common. Large, light straw-hats should always be worn in the hot days of summer by all classes of society. Clothing has frequently been the agent through which infectious disease has been propagated. Judging from Stark's observa- tions on the power of absorbing odours, the probability is that contagion is absorbed after the same manner. Stark found that the ab- sorption of odours was in proportion to the hygroscopic absorption, and that it depended in a great measure upon colour — black absorb- ing mast, then blue, red, green, yellow, and lastly white ; hence, theoretically, a black or dark-coloured woollen garment is the worst possible dress for a nurse attending cases of fever, a light - coloured cotton dress the best. Dr. Guy, in his lectures on public health, tells us that the plague which ravaged London in 1665 was carried to Eyam, a small hamlet among the hUls of the Peak of Derbyshire, by clothes. "Quite early," writes Dr. Guy, "in the month of September, when the plague was at its worst in London, there was sent from London to one George Vicars, a tailor, a, box of clothes. He opened the box and hung the clothes to the fire, and while he watched them was suddenly seized with vio- lent sickness and other alarming symptoms. . . . On the third day the plague-spot was on his breast, and he died on the following night, the 6th of September." The jail distemper has frequently, beyond doubt, been carried to_ the outside population by means of clothes. One of the most re- markable examples of typhus communicated by clothes' was the "Black Assize" at the Old Bailey in 1750. Here the prisoners had not the disease which with such fatal' effect they communicated to the court that tried them. — (Pkingle.) From Fodere we get a remarkable instance in which typhus was communicated to the inhabitants of fifteen towns and villages by the soldiers of the French army, where, retreating from Italy in 1799, they halted on their route. Patry relates two remarkable instances in which relapsing fever was transported to a distance by infected clothes ; and Bretonneau and Geudron believed that the poison of en- teric fever could adhere to the clothes and bedding of the sick, and that the disease might be thus propagated, and Murchison cites the follovring case as illustrative of this idea : — Tbe wife of a butcher residing on the Cornish moors travelled to Cardiff, in Wales, to see a sister who was Ul, and soon after died, of "typhoid fever." She brought back her sister's bedding. A fortnight after her return another sister was employed in hanging out these clothes, and soon after was taken ill with typhoid fever, which spread from her as from a centre. The woman who had been to Cardiff never took the fever herself. There had been no cases in the village previous to her return, neither were there any cases in the neighbouring villages either before or after. The writer of this article has seen diphtheria unmistakably propagated by clothes being sent from a diphtheritic house to be mangled, and similar instances maybe found in medical literature. Clothing and bedding are best disinfected by exposure to a dry heat of about 240° or 260° F. Dr. Bansome has proposed to disinfect clothing by placing it in layers in a box, at the bottom of which is sand sprinkled with oarboUo acid. See Disinsection, &c. Clouds — To the meteorologist clouds are extremely important, their form and aspect never failing to assist his predictions as to the prospect of .fine, wet, or stormy weather. The classification and nomenclature now adopted is that published by Luke Howard in 1863. Mr. Howard divided clouds into seven kinds. Simple Forms. 1. Cirrus (Lat. tArrus, a curl).-r-Thi3 cloud consists of parallel wavy diverging filaments CLO (148) coc which by association form a brush, or •woolly hair, or slender network. It has the least density of all clouds, the greatest elevation, and the greatest variety of extent and direc- tion, or figure. It has even-been'queationed whether it is composed of water; if so, it must be frozen. It is the cloud first seen after serene weather, and in this climate it generally comes from the south - west. — (Bdohab.) 2. Cumulus. — Convex or conical heaps of clouds, increasing upwards from a horizontal base. Very dense, formed in the lower regions of the atmosphere, and carried along in the current next the earth. Cumuli are often compared to balls of cotton wool. 3. Stratus. — A widely-extended continuous horizontal sheet, called the cloud of might, since it generally forms about sunset. Modifications. 4. Cirro-cuimdus. — Small, rounded, well- defined masses in ?lose horizontal arrange- ment. It is formed by the breaking up of the fibres of the cirrus-cloud. "Wben the sky is covered with such clouds it is said to be 5. Cirro ■ stratus. — This cloud partakes partly of the characteristics of the cirrus and stratus, and consists of horizontal masses or strata more compact than the cirri. At the zenith they seem composed of a number of thin clouds ; at the horizon they look like a long narrow band. This cloud is markedly a precursor of storms. 6. Gumulo-stratus. — Cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus. 7. Oumulo-cirro-strat'us, or Sfimbus.—This is the well-known rsun-cloud, consisting of a horizontal sheet, above which' the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally or from below. Estimation of Amount of Cloud. — To do this the scale generally adopted in this coun- try is to 10. expresses a cloudless sky, and 10 a perfectly clouded sky ; the inter- mediate numbers, various degrees of cloudi- ness. To get these numbers, look midway between the horizon and zenith, and then turn slowly round, and judge as well as possi- ble, of the relative amount of clear and clouded sky. Height of Clouds. — The height of clouds varies from 1300 feet to 10 miles. Of all clouds the cirrus is the lightest, and found at the greatest elevations. Cloves — The unexpanded flower - bud, dried, of Caryophyllus aromaticus, a clove- tree growing in the East Indian Islands, Pen- ang, Bencoolei], and Amboyna. Cloves contain, according to Trommsdorf — Tolatile oil . BesiQ . ■ Tannin Extractive . Gum . Woody fibre Water . , 18 a 13 4 13 28 IS The volatile oil is the important ingredient. It consists of a hydrocarbon (CioHis) and of eugenic acid (C10H12O2). It also contains a orystallisable body, caryophylline (CioHijO), which is isomeric with camphor, and eugenine, a body probably isomeric with eugenic acid. Cloves are aromatic and stimulant. The oil of cloves is used for microscopical pur- poses, to render tissues transparent. It does not mix with water ; the latter must there- fore be removed from the tissue before the oil is applied. The chief adulteration of cloves is the ex- haustion of the oil. They are then dried, brightened up with sweet oil, and exposed for sale. The only certain way of detecting this fraud is to distil the oil and estimate it. Cloves should yield at least 17 per cent, of volatile oil. Cocculus Indicus — The fruit of the Anamirta paniculata, a shrub growing in Malabar and several islands in the Indian Ocean. As met with in commerce, it is an extremely bitter, dark, tough, wrinkled berry about the size of an ordinary cherry. The outside or husk is hard, enclosing a soft fatty substance. The shell is an emetic, but the seed is a very active poison, containing a gluooside called picrotoxine (ObHsOs). This substance crystallises in colourless needles, or well-marked prismatic crystals, or fine silky filaments, or transparent plates, or granular crystals. The crystals have an intensely bitter taste. They melt at 320° Fahr., and give a sublimate ; heated on a porcelain plate, they darken, effervesce, give off vapour, and leave an abundant carbonaceous residue. In common with other glucosides, when boiled with an alkaline solution of sulphate of copper, they reduce the copper to the state of sub- oxide. Piorotoxine is soluble in 150 parts of cold, in 25 parts of boiling wa^er, in one- third of its weight of alcohol, and in less than half its weight of ether. It is not changed in colour by strong nitric acid, but gives an orange- yellow colonr with sulphuric acid, changed into green by the contact of a crystal of bichromate of potash. Cocculus Indicus is used for poisoning fish and other animals. It is said to be the active principle of "Barber's poisoned ' -svheat," and has been used, and possibly continues to be coo (149) coo employed, for the purpose of adulterating beer. Dr. Taylor, in reference to the symptoms, &o., produced by Cocadus Indicm, says ; " Porter, ale, and beer owe their intoxicating properties in some instances to a decoction or extract of these berries. The fraud is per- petrated by a low class of publicans. They reduce the strength of the beer by water and salt, and then give to it an intoxicating pro- perty by means of this poisonous extract. A medical man consulted me some years since , in reference to ihe similarity of cerebral symptoms sufEered by sCTeral of his patients in a district in London. It was ascertained that they were supplied with porter by retail from the same house. The effects produced by this drug are remarkable. There is a, strong disposition to sleep, and at the same time wakefulness. There is a heavy lethargic stupor, with a consciousness of passing events, but a complete loss of voluntary power. It is a kind of nightmare feeling, altogether dif- ferent from healthy sleep. Cocculus Indicus is sometimes used by robbers to intoxicate their victims, and to this form of intoxication the terra 'hocussing' is applied." — (Tatlob's Medical Jurisprudence, vol. i. p. 395.) 1^0 antidote is known. Acetic acid has in some cases given relief. For processes for the detectionof picrotoxine in organic mixtures, see Beeb. Cocoa and Chocolate— Cocoa is the roasted seeds of the Tkeobroma Cacao, natural order Bytlneriacew. Chocolate is manufactured from cocoa by mixing it with sugar and other substances. - There are numerous varieties of cocoa — such as Trinidad, Grenada, Caracas, Dominican, &c. — the seeds differing a little in size and in quaKty, but very little in the proportions of the difEer&nt chemical constituents. The average composition of cocoa seeds is as fol- lows : — Average Composition of Cocoa Seeds (Wankltn). Per cent Fat (cocoa butter) . 60 00 Albumen, fLbnne, and gluten 18-00 Stai'ch 10 00 Gum 8-00 Colouring matter 2-60 Water . 6 00 Theobromine . 1-50 Ash 3-60 Loss, &c. 0-30 Structure of the Cocoa Seed. — The seed is composed of husk and seed proper. The husk has on its surface a number of tubular fibres containing granular matter and minute corpuscles. It is composed of three membranes : the first consisting of a single layer of elongated cells ; the second (forming the chief portion of the husk), of angular cells, enclosing mucilage, and also containing a few spiral vessels and woody fibres. The third mem- brane is very thin and delicate ; it consists of small angular cells containing minute globules of fat. The seed is composed of minute cells con- taining starch. The starch-corpuscles are very small, with a trace of inuline (fig. 20). Percentage of Aah. 3-37 3-62 3 -64 306 4-68 3-31 3 06 4-2T 2-82 2 68 3-39 Ash of Cocoa. — The amount of ash in cocoa seeds is of practical importance. The follow- ing percentages have been worked out by Mr. "Wanklyn : — Common Trinidad Veiy fine Trinidad . Fair, good, fine Trinidad . Pine Qrenada . Caracas . Eahia (Brazil) . Fine Surinam (small) Mexican . . Dominican African .... Mean of the twelve being Thus the lowest determination is 3 '06, the highest 4 '58 per cent. The nibs show a lower ash than the shell. The nibs of the Caracas gave 3 '95 per cent, of ash, 2'00 being soluble and 1'95 insoluble in water. The nibs of Mexican seeds gave 2 '59 per cent, of ash, '89 parts being soluble and 170 insoluble in water. The ash of the shell is rich in carbonates ; the nib is almost devoid of carbonates.. According to Mr. William Bettell the com- position of the ash of cocoa seeds is as fol- lows :— COD (150) COF 29-81 610 1-60 2-40 7-72 7-90 24'28 1-92 0-98 6-00 1215 Potash . Chloride of sodium Peroxide of iron Alumina Lime Magnesia Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Silica Nutritive Value. — A pint of cocoa made with an ounce of ground nibs will contain the following proportions of nutritious matters. — (Lethebt.) Nitrogenous matters Fatty matter . . , Gum, sugar, and extractive Mineral matter . Total extracted . ' Adulterations. — Sugar, reddle, Venetian red, amber, chicory, cocoa husk, cereal grains, arrowroot, sago, or potato starches, sugar. According to Normandy, brick-dust and per- oxide of iron are met with to increase the weight. Chocolate, according to M. Cbeval- lier, is adulterated' with the following matters, besides those already mentioned as being mixed with cocoa : Copper, Ume, lentils, maize, beans, olive oil, almonds, yolk of egg, veal or mutton fat, storax, balsam of Peru, benzoin, rasped almonds, Arabic and traga- canth gum, cinnabar, red earths, red-lead, red oxide of mercury, &c. Many of these are obviously very improbable adulterants. Detection of Adulterations. — The microscope will detect most of these. If any mineral substance has been added, an examination of the ash cannot fail to detect it. The ash is apparently never more than .5 per cent. ; in- deed,' in soluble cocoa it is very small. Thus Mr. Wanklyn gives — Soluble cocoa (by mixing with starch and sugar) 1*45 Dunn & Hewett's commercial cocoa 1*71 Chocolate Ill An infusion in cold water of good cocoa nibs yields the following percentages- : — Organic matter Mineral matter 6-76 2-lS A convenient quantity of cocoa for this pur- pose is 10 grammes in 220 c.c. of water. "Wanklyn has suggested the determination of phosphoric acid in the ash as a means of detecting the adulteration of cocoa. It is obvious that the addition of starchy and sac- charine matters must dilute the phosphates of the seed. The sample must be burnt down at a low red heat, the ash dissolved, and the phos- phoric acid jirecipitated by a mixture of solu- tion of ammonia, sulphate of magnesia, and phosphate of soda. After standing several hours, the resulting precipitate is washed first by decantatiou, then filtered, and again washed ; lastly, dried, ignited, and weighed. Pyrophosphate of magnesia x by '06396 = phosphoric acid. The ash of the entire seeds contains 24 per cent, of its weight of phos- phoric acid. The Society of Public Analysts consider that cocoa should be called adulterated in which the cocoa butter is reduced below 20 per cent. The fat can of course be estimated by extrac- tion with ether. Cod-Fish— As an article of diet, cod is inferior to mackerel, eels, salmon, and trout, for these contain a much larger amount of fat. The fiesh of the cod contains but little fat (2 '9 per cent.), it being largely accumulated in the liver. The following table -will show the nutritive value of this fish : — Composition of Cod. Nitrogenous matter Eat . . . Saline matter Water 18-1 2-9 1-0 78-0 lOO'O Cod-Iiiver Oil {Oleum Morrhuce)— The oE extracted from the fresh liver of the cod [Gradus Morrhua, Linn.) by the application of a heat not exceeding 180°. Other ^eciea be- sides the Oradus Morrhua also yield this oil, such as G. caUarims^ G. carbonariits, G. molva. There are three chief varieties of cod-liver oil in commerce, distinguished by their colour — the light, the pale brown, and the dark brown. The two former are usually the purest. Cod-liver oil contains oleine, margarine, certain colouring matters of the bile, phos- phoric acid ('09 per cent.), sulphuric acid, salts of lime, magnesia, and iron, free phos- phorus ("02 per cent.), iodine, and bromine ; but the proportion of all the different sub- stances is not accurately known. Cod-liver oil gives, in common with all oils of hepatic origin, a lake or crimson colour when heated with sulphuric acid. Cod-liver oil is said to be extensively adulterated. If mixed with an oil not of hepatic origin, It may be tested with sulphuric acid in the manner detailed under Oils ; but, practically speak- ing, the adulterations of cod-liver oil are diffi- cult to detect. See Oils. Coffee — The seeds or berries of the Oaffea Araiica, or coffee plant. This plant belongs to the natural order Cinchonacece, and to the sub-order Caffea. It is said to be a wild plant in Abyssinia and in the low mountainous dis- tricts of Arabia Felix ; but it is cultivated on a very large scale in various parts of the earth, cor (ISO cor and it has been computed that no less than 600,000,000 lbs. of coffee are annually con- sumed by the whole world. Of this large quantity England uses only 40,000,000, which is in a great measure supplied by our .own plantations in the West Indies; the finest Mocha, however, comes from Adeb. The leaves possess in some degree the qualities of the plant, and have been used in a similar way to the leaves of tea, but it is the seed or berry that is principally employed in all countries, Prepa/raiion. — The seeds are roasted to a chocolate brown, and are then ground to . powder in a mill, and used in the form of infusion or decoction. Chemical Composition. — The properties of coffee depend upon an aromatic oil and an alkaloid called caffeine. The following is the composition of coffee, both before and after roasting. The analyses are by Sohrader : — Haw CofTee. Roasted, Peculiar caffeic principle 17 58 12-50 Gum and mucilage 3-64 1042 Extractive . . . 0-62 4-80 Oilaud.resin . 003 208 Solid residue . 66 66 68-76 Loss (watei') . . 10-67 1 45 100-00 ' 100-00 ' Fayen's analysis is somewhat different, and it is generally considered as accurate : — Cellulose . , , , 84-000 "Water (hygroscopic) , 12 000 Fatty substances . , . 10 to 13-000 Glucose, dextrine, and unde- ' termined vegetable acid Legumine, caseine (gluten) - . Caffeate of potash and caffeine 3-5 to 5-000 Nitrogenous substance , 3-000 Free caffeine . . , . 0-800 Concrete essential oil . , 0*001 Aromatic fluid essential oil , 0-002 Mineral substances , 6-697 The amount of caffeine in coffee has been very variously stated ; it is probably about "80 per cent, Graham, Stenhouse, and Campbell give '87 per cent. ; Aubert found it between ■709 and -849 per cent. ; while Boutron and Eobiquet put it as low as '238 per cent,, and Payen as high as 1-736 per cent. See Caffeine. The effects of roasting on coffee are to swell the berry (this is from the extraction of vari- ous gases, but principally carbonic acid), to drive off a large quantity of water, and to change the sugar into caramel. For instance, Graham and Stenhouse found the following difference in the amount of sugar between raw and roasted coffee : — Sugar per cent. Saw. Roasted. Highest amount . . . 7-78 1-14 Low-est amount . . . 5-70 Average of twelve speci-1 mens grown in different V 6-97 0-26 places . , . ■) 15-600 10-000 The roasting does not destroy the caffeine, and it is in a large degree free and soluble. Aubert found in a cup of coffee made with 16-66 grammes, from -1 to "12 grammes (1"5 to 1-9 grains) of caffeine. Microscopical Structure of the Coffee Seed. — The berries consist of a hard and tough tissue that resists even long soaking. The testa covering thp berry is made up of lengthened cells with oblique markings, resting on a thin membrane almost structureless (fig. 21). The Fig. 21. oblique markings of the cells are so characteris- tic that they may be distinguished from every other tissue. The substance of the berry is made up of angular cells closely adherent to each other, and each containing droplets of oil. The process of roasting dissipates in some measure this oil, but leaves the structure, where it is not charred, unimpaired. Physiological Action of Coffee., and its Value as an Article of Diet. — The action of caffeine by itself, and the action of coffee, is widely different, and the two must not be confused, as they have been by some authors. Yet, who would undertake to deduce the proper- ties of opium from its alkaloid morphia? Coffee appears to act decidedly on the nervous system ; it is essentially a nervous stimulant. It causes wakefulness, increased brain power, and, in large doses, tremors. According to Edward Smith, it lessens the action of the skin and promotes that of the bowels. Lehmann asserted that coffee and tea less- ened the waste of the system, decreasing the urea and phosphoric acid ; but this has lately been doubted : if true, coffee would be an indirect food. According to the present state COF (152) COF of knowledge, it can only be called a, true nervous stimulant. See also Caffeine. Adulterations of Coffee. — The adulterations of coffee are numerous — chicory, roasted wheat, rye, and potato flours, roasted beans, mangel-wurzel, acorns, burnt sugar, or black jack ; and when mixed with adulterated chicory, it may also contain any of the sophis- tications mentioned under Chioort. The adulterations are generally to be found in the ground coffee, but the berries are sometimes mixed with chicory compressed into shapes resembling coffee berries. In 1850, Messrs. Duckworth of Liverpool actually took out a patent for this purpose. The adulteration of coffee was at one time a regular organised industry ; and there ex- isted, ten years ago, two manufactories in IVance — one at Lyons and the other at Havre — expressly established for the purpose, of mixing coffee with burnt cereals and the scorched outer covering of cocoa. Detection of Adulterations.— ^Ghicory is the principal adulteration, and its microscopical character, its sophistications, &:c., should be carefully studied. See Ohiooky. The process of ascertaining an admixture of any foreign substance with coffee is tolerably certain. 1. Prelmimary Examination. — Strew alittle of the powder on the surface of cold water. Qennine coffee floats, and does not colour the water ; chicory and burnt sugar rapidly sink to the bottom, and impart a brown colour to the liquid. If any sediment occurs, it will be well to remove it with a pipette for micro- scopical examination. 2. Microscopical Examination. — This will reveal most of the adulterations of coffee. It is well to obtain an accurate knowledge of the structure of pure coffee and pure chicory first. {See CSicoKY.) If a sample of coffee be moistened with water, and small black shin- ing particles be seen in the field, surrounded by a dark coloration, burnt sugar i? present. 3. By making standard infusions of pure coffee and chicory, and then taking the same weight of the suspected coffee, and comparing the colour, it is possible to obtain a very accurate idea of the quantity of chicory added. Leebody recommends this to be done as follows : Take 1 gramme of the unknown mixture, and 1 gramme of a standard mix- ture of equal parts of chicory and coffee; remove all the colouring matter from each sample, and make the extract of each up to the same bulk. Put 50 c.c. of the filtered extract . from the unknown mixture in a, Nessler cylinder, and determine by trial how many c.c. of the extract from the atamdard mixture, together with .sufBcient distilled water to make up the -50 p.c, will give the. same colour. In calculating the percentage of chicory present, closely accurate results are obtained' in practice by assuming the tinctorial power of chicory to be three times that of coffee. — (J. K. Leebody, Chemical News, XXX. 24.3.) 4. Messrs. Graham, Stenhouse, and Camp- bell proposed to take the density of different infusions of coffee, &o., as a guide to itJ adulteration; and it is found in practice to work tolerably well, and to give approximative results. The following solutioiis were made by them by first treating the powder of the roasted substance with ten times its weight of cold water, boiling, and filtering, and de- termining the density at 60° F. : — Spent tan . . . 1002-14 Lupine seed . 1005-70 Acorns , . . 1007-80 Peas .... . 1007-30 Mocha coffee 1008-00 Beans ... . 1008-40 Neilgherry coffee 1008-4i) Plantation Ceylon coffee 1008-70 Java coffee . . . 1008-70 ^Tamaica coffee . 1008-70 Costa Kica coffee . . 1009 00 „ ,, . . 1009-05 Native Ceylon coffee . . 100900 Brown malt . . . 1010-90 Parsnips' 1014 3 > Carrots . . . 1017-10 Bouka. . 1018-60 Yorkshire chicory . 1019-10 Black malt. . . . 1021-20 Turnips ... . 1021-40 Bye-meal . . . 1021-60 English chicory . . . 1021-70 Dandelion root . 1021-90 Red-beet . . 102210 Poreign chicory . . 1023-61) Guernsey chicory . 1023-20 Mangel-wurzel . 1023-60 Maize . . • . 1 1026-30 Bread raspings . . ... 1026-30 Allen (Chemical News, March 27, 1874) gives, as the result of his estimations of the density of pure coffee, 1008-7, and proposes the following formula, by which, when pre- pared as above, the proportion of chicory to coffee may be calculated. C represents the percentage of coffee, D the density of the solution: — (1020-6 +) 100 C=- 12 5. Decolourise an infusion of the sample either by animal charcoal or by permanganate of potash, and test for starch by tincture of iodine. This test, when negative, excludes many adulterations, but does not exclude chicory. Neither chicory nor coffee possesses starch. 6. Put 1 gramme of coffee, well ground, in a platinum dish, and ignite until the ash is constant, then 600I and weigh. The ash of genuine coffee should not exceed more than COL (IS3) COSE 4"5 per cent., and it should be nearly all sol- uble in boiling hydrooblorio acid. If only 1 per cent, remains undissolved, it is a proof of adulteration, as coffee ash contains no silica. 7. Ignite 5 grammes of coffee, and carefully examine the chemical constitution of the ash. The following are the principal differences be- tween the ash of coffee and of chicory : — Coffee ABb. Chicory Afih." Silica and sand . 10-69 to 35-85 Carbonic acid 14-92 1-78 to 3-19 Sesquioxide of iron 0-44 to 0-98 3-13 to 5-32 Chlorine 0-26 to 111 3-28 to 4-93 It results from this, that coffee adulterated with chicory -will give an ash containing silica, with less carbonic' acid than normal, more iron and more chlorine, all of which can be easily determined. 8. The proportion between the soluble and insoluble constituents of the ash in water appears constant. On this account,'Mr. Allen proposes it in union with other tests as a valu- able indication. He says — " I ignited three samples of genuine coffee of different kinds and three of chicory, taking 5 grammes for each experiment. After weigh- ing, the ash was boiled in water, the liquid filtered, the clear solution evaporated to dry- ness, and the residue heated to full redness and weighed. The following were the propyr- tions in 100 of the sample : — 1. Coffee 2. M 3. „ Total A^. S^fle ^Z^fiSL 3-86 2 95 = 7^ 3-95 3-40 = 86 4-20 3-38 = 80 Average of coffees 4-00 3-24 = 81 1. Chicory, foreign 5-36 2. „ „ 605 3. ,, English 490 1-20 = 22 1-83 = 36 2-18 = 44 Average of chicories 5 -06 1-74 = 34 "The proportion the soluble ash of the chicories bears to the total varies considerably, owing to the different quantities of silica pre- sent in the samples, and the percentage of soluble ash is not so constant as in the case of coffee. "Assuming 3"24 per cent, as the average soluble ash of coffee, and 1"74 as that of chicory, the percentage of coffee in a mixture would be represented by the following equa- tion, where C is the percentage of coffee and S the percentage of soluble ash. C= (100 8-174)2 ." 3 —(Chemical News, March 27, 1874.) See Caiteinb, Chicokt. Colchicine — An alkaloid extracted from the seeds of the meadow saffron (Colcliimm autumnale). It was formerly supposed to be identical "with veratria. It differs from ver- atria in being more soluble in water, and not exciting sneezing. It is extremely poisonous. Sulphuric acid turns it' of a yellowish brovm. Nitric acid turns it violet, passing into indigo blue, green, and yellow. Collector of Rates — See Ofhcdbs, Appointment of. Colostrum, or " Beastings " — The first milk yielded by the cow after parturition. It is of a somewhat viscid or stringy consist- ence, with a turbid and yellowish appearance, and a strongly alkaline reaction. For the first ten days after the cow has calved, it is totally unfit for use. It contains more albu- men than caseine, and hence undergoes coag- ulation on boiling. Under the microscope a number of large irregular bodies are seen, which consist of conglomerations of small fat globules, held together by an amorphous, somewhat granular substance. These are called colostrum corpuscles. Colostrum has a somewhat sickly odour and a purgative action. Colouring Matters— The folio-wing list gives the names of the principal substances used for colouring food, drugs, &o. : — Alum. Annatto. Antwerp blue. Artificial ultramarine, Saked horse's liver. Beetroot dregs. Bichromate of potash. Bilberries. Bisulphuret of mercury. Black-jack (burnt sugai-). Black-lead. Blood, burnt. Bole, Armenian. Brazil wood. Brick-dust Brunswick green. Carbonate of lime and magnesia. > Catechu. Chalk. China clay. Chinese yellow. Chromates of potash. Chrome, yellow. Cobalt. Cochineal. Copper, salts of. Dutch pink. Elderberry juice. Emerald green. Ferruginous earths (vari- ous). Gamboge. Gum. ^ Indigo. Lard. Liquorice. Litmus. Logwood. Madder root. Milk of almonds. Naples yellow. Opium. Oxalic acid. Plaster-of-Paris. Potash. Prussian blue. Bed dyes. Bed-lead. Red ochre. Rose pink. Sap-green. Smalt. Sugar. Treacle. Turmeric. Ultramarine, Venetian red. Vermilion. Yellow ochre. Combustion, Products of — tt is found that coal of average quality gives off in com- bustion — 1. Carton.— About 1 per cent, of the coal is given off as fine carbon, and tarry particles. 2. Carbonic Acid. 3. Carl/onic Oxide. — When there is abun- dance of air given to fuel at the proper time COM (IS4) con and place, the result of the oorabustion of car- bon la carbonic acid ; but if there be more carbon than air, the result is carbonic oxide. 4. Sulphur, and Sulphurous and Sulphuric jlcid.— The amount of sulphur in coal varies from J to 6 or 7 per cent. 5. Sulphuret of Carbon. 6. Ammonium, Sulphide, or Carbonate. 7. Sulphuretted Sydrogen.— Sometimes. 8. Water. Eegarding the sulphuric acid found in coal smoke, it may be observed that' when coal is butnt, every pound consumes the oxygen of 150 cubic feet of air. When there is 1 per cent, of sulphur in the coal, this will be equal to '46 grains in a cubic foot of the smoke, or ■92 of sulphurous acid— nearly one grain of sulphurous acid in a cubic foot of smoke. But .twice, and sometimes even four times, this amount of air is supplied. Burning coal with 1 per cent, of volatile sulphur gives out a smoke, a cubic foot of which at the ordinary temperature contains the following grains of sulphurous acid: — Grains. Using 160 cubic feet of air to 1 lb. of coal 1 300 600 S 25 and burning coal with 2 per cent, of volatile sulphur, double the amount is given out. Dr. Angus Smith, in his well-known work, "Air and Eain," gives the following table, showing the sources of the different gases found in coal smoke ; — Source of Gas. Carbonic Acid. Carbonic Oxide. Oxygen, Nitrogen. Gas from chimney 4 feet above the 1 fireplace ) Gas from the middle of a good 1 fire ; A great mass of coal over the fire, \ the gas taken from below the S glowing mass . . . . j A heap of glowing coal gas taken 1 close to the spot where carbonic > oxide was burning ... J Gas from clear fire below Gas from same fire at the upper part 1 1 inch below tlie surface . . f 0-35 1-65 19-46 20-90 17-50 17-44 15-43 18-17 16-10 17-21 20-80 0-'38 0-09 0-10 3-49 2-48 0-99 19-63 19-29 2-46 0-39 0-96 4-95 4-25 . 80-02 78-68 80-45 79-00 80-04 82-17 80-12 79-35 78-95 78-54 78-21 In four analyses of the smoke issuing from the large chimneys of sugar-works, the same observer obtained the following results ; — Carbonic acid ,. Carbonic oxide. Oxygen Oleiiant gas Nitrogen I. 7-67 none 12-61 none 79-62 99-90 II. 7-47 none 8 11 none 84-42 lUO-00 III. 7-31 none 10-59 none 82 10 100-00 IV. 7-13 52 12-93 none 79-42 100-00 And ifi an examination of the deposit taken from the top of a blast-furnace (which may be considered as condensed smoke), the following substances were found in it : — .Arsenic ... 08 Oxide of lead n-24 Peroxide of iron * 23-35 Alumina 14-37 Silica 26-63 Sulphate of lime . 12-76 Carbonate .... 2-60 Lime, probably with silica . 2 12 Sulphate of potash 6-66 Chloride of sodium 4-89 Sulphate of soda 1-72 Magnesia 1-63 Carbon . 1-95 Lithium trace Vanadium . . . . ' trace 16-03 soluble, 7-32 nearly insoluble. The composition of coal ash is thus given in Watt's "Dictionary of Chemistry :" — Analysis of the Ashes of Coal. NewcaBtla Coal, aftei deducting Suiphurio Aoid. of Five W.Ui COBlB. ofMva Scotch Coale. Silica 62-44 42-67 49-63 - Alumina . 31-22 Sesquioxide of iron \ and alumina . J ... 43-56 38-24 Sesquioxide of iron . 2-26 Lime 0-75 6-65 8-18 Magnesia . 0-86 1-08 1-41 Potash 2-48 Soda Sulphuric acid , 4-46 6-26 Phosphoric acid 0-66 1-03 Percentage of ash 1-36 8-15 For complete combustion 1 lb. of coal de- mands about 240 cubic feet of air. The pro- ducts of the combustion of ooal pass into the atmosphere, and usually are at once largely diluted ; but it is not so with the tarry mat- ters and suspended carbon. Particle's of car- bon are not found higher than 600 feet, The air of London is so loaded with carbon, that even when there is no fog, particles can be COM (155) COX collected on Poucliet's aeroscope, ■when only a very small quantity of air is drawn through. It would appear that it is chiefly from com- bustion that the air of towns contains so much acid as to make the rain-water acid. Angus Smith found in Manchester, in 1868, the rain to contain from 5 '6 grains to 1'4 grain of sulphuric acid (free and combined), and from 1'277 to '0278 grains of hydrochloric acid, per gallon. The sulphuric acid is always larger in amount than the hydrochloric. Coal gas has the following composition : — Hydrogen . 40 to 45 '58 Marsh gas (light carburetted) gg ^ .„ hydrogen) , . .J Carbonic oxide . 3 to 6 6 Olefiant gas .... 3 to 4 ' Acetylene .... 2 to 3 Sulphuretted hydrogen 0-29 to 1 Nitrogen . . 2 to 2"5 Garboaic acid 3 to 3 '75 Sulphurous acid . 0.5 to 1 ( in the best Ammoniaor ammonium sulphide J cannel-coal Carbon bisulphide , . "i gas only ( traces. As much as 11 per cent, of carbonic oxide, 56 per cent, of the light carburetted hydrogen^ and 60 grains' of sulphur haye been found. The Parliamentary maximum of sulphur is 20 grains in 100 cubic feet. ■When the gas is partly burnt, the hydrogen and light and heavy carburetted hydrogens are almost destroyed, nitrogen (67 per cent.), water (16 per cent.), carbonic acid (7 per cent.), and carbonic oxide (5 to 6 per cent.) being the principal resultants which escape generally into the air of rooms. If the com- bustion were perfect, there would be little carbonic oxide. One cubic foot of gas wfll destroy the entire oxygen of about 8 cubic feet of air, and it will raise the temperature of 31 '290 cubic feet of air 1°F. Weaver found as much as 5 "32 volumes of carbonic acid per 1000 in the room of a framework -knitter in Leicester, with four- teen gaslights burning. " In other workrooms the amounts were 5 '28, 4 '6, down to 2 '11 volumes per 1000. Such large amounts are un- doubtedly very injurious. Wood produces carbonic acid, acetic acid, and water, but few compounds of sulphur. 1 lb. of dried wood demands about 120 cubic feet of air for complete combustion. Candles. — The products of the combustion of a candle are carbonic anhydride and aque- ous vapour. A candle of six to the pound ■will in an hour burn about 170 grains. Oil. — A lamp with a moderately good ■wick will burn about 154 grains of oil per hour, and will consume, the oxygen of about 3 '2 cubic feet of air, and produce about J a cubic foot of carbonic acid. 1 lb. of oil demands from 140 to 150 cubic feet of air for complete combustion. Dr. Zock says that oil, for an equal illuminating power, gives off less car- bonic acid than gas. Dr. Olding found that candles, for an equal illuminating power, con- taminated the air more than gas ; the latter, though, gives out more water. Tobacco smoke contains particles of nico- tine* or its salts, and probably of picoline bases. There are also much carbonic acid, butyric acid, and ammonia. Committees — A committee for sanitary purposes is often a better body for the de- spatch of business than a larger board. Boards of guardians for unions of any size have generally so much business to transact at their ordinary meetings, that when they form a sanitary authority, it is generally at a late hour, and the sanitary business neces- sarily gets hurried through or slurred over, so that it is well for those thus situated to delegate all their powers to a committee, who should meet on some other day than a board-day. In those districts which are formed of several unions which have united in order to secure the services of one health officer, a central committee, composed of delegates from each of the local authorities, if not ab- solutely essential, would be found of great utility. Such a committee could meet at least once a year. See Distkiots-, United. "A rural authority may, at any meeting specially convened for the purpose, delegate for the current year of their office all their powers to a committee consisting wholly of their own members ; provided that one-third at least of such committee shall consist of cx- 'offido guardians, but in case an adequate number of such ex-offido guardians does not exist, then the number deficient shall be made up of elected guardians ; and any such committee shall have the powers by this Act vested in the rural authority by which it was formed, and shall be deemed to be during such year of office as aforesaid the rural authority of the district."— (P. H., s. 201.) " Every urban authority may from time to time appoint out of their own number so many persons as they may think fit, for any purposes of the Public Health Act, which in the opinion of such authority would be better regulated and managed by means of a com- mittee : provided that any committee so ap- pointed shall in no case be authorised to borrow any money, to make any rate, or to enter into any contract, and shall be subject to any regulations and restrictions which may be imposed by the authority that formed it." .^(P. H.,s. 200.) " This is denied. See Tobacco. COH (156) COM Committees, ParocMaX. — Parochial oommit- teea, according to their constitution, are either an aasiatance or an obstruction to sanitary work. The beat men to be on a parochial com- mittee, speaking generally, are — (1) the guar- dians of the parish; (2) the ex-officio guardians ; (3) the clergyman of the parish; (4) one or two of the principal owners of property in theparish. " A rural authority (including any commit- tee so formed as aforesaid) may, at any meet- ing specially convened for the purpose, form' for any contributory place within their dis- trict a parochial committee consisting wholly of members of such authority or committee, or partly of such members and p&rtly of such other persons liable to contribute to the rate levied for the relief of the poor in such con- tributory place, and qualified in such other manner (if any) as the authority forming such parochial committee may determine. " A rural authority (including any commit- tee so formed as aforesaid) may from time to time add to or diminish the number of the members, or otherwise alter the constitution of any parochial committee formed by it, or dissolve any parochial committee. "A parochial committee shall be subject to any regulations and restrictions which may be imposed by the authority which formed it: provided that no jurisdiction shall be given to a parochial committee beyond the limits of the contributory place for which it is formed, and ihat no powers shall be dele- gated to a parochial committee except powers which the rural authority could exercise with- in such contributory place. " A parochial committee shall be deemed to be the agents of the authority which formed it, and the appointment of such committee shall not relieve that authority from any obligation imposed on it by Act of Parliament or otherwise. ' ' A parochial committee may be empowered by the authority which formed it to incur expenses to an amount not exceeding such amount as may be prescribedby such author- ity; it shall report-its expenditure to such authority as and when directed by such authority, and the amount so reported, if legally incurred, shaU. be discharged by such authority."— (P. H., s. 202.) "Any casual vacancy occurring by death, resignation, disqualification, or otherwise, in any committee, may be filled up within one month, by the authority which formed such committee, out of qualified persons." — (P. H., B. 203.) The following duties may, in the opinion of the Local Government Board, be assigned to parochial committees : — 1. To inspect their district from time to time, with a view of ascertaining whether any works of construction are required, or any nuiaanoes exist which should be abated. .2. To superintend the execution and main- tenance of any works which may be required, or have been , provided for the special use oi the district; and to give directions for any repairs or other matters requiring im- mediate attention in relation to such works, which fall within the reasonable scope of the authority which they possess as agents of the sanitary authority. 3. To consider complaints of any nuisances, and the action of the medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances thereon ; • and to inform these officers of any nuisances requir- ing their attention, and to give such direc- tions for abatement of the same, in cases of urgency, aa the circumstances may seem to require. 4. To examine and certify all accounts relating to expenditure chargeable as special* expenses within their district. 5. To report to the sanitary authority from time to time the several- matters requiring their attention, and the manner in which their officers and servants have discharged their duties. The proceedings of a committee are to be conducted in strict accordance with the rules giv^n in the first schedule of the Public Health Act, 1875, aa follows : — Eules applicable to Committees of Local AutJwrities, other than Cowncils of Boroughs, and to Joint Boards. 1. A committee or joint board may meet and ad- journ as it thinks proper. 2. Tlie quorum of a committee or joint board shall consist of such number of members as may be pre- scribed by the authority that appointed the commit- tee or joint board, or, if no number is prescribed, of three members, 3. A committee or joint board may appoint a chair- man of its meetings. 4. If no chairman is elected, or if the chairman elected is not present at the time appointed for holding any meeting, the members present shall choose one of their number to be chairman of such meeting. 5. Every question at a meeting shall be detei"- mined by a majority of votes of the members present and voting on that question. 6. In case of an equal division of votes; the chair- man shall have a second or casting vote. 7. The proceedings of a committee or joint board shall not be invalidated by reason of any vacancy or vacancies amongst their members, or any defect in the mode of appointment of such committee or joint board, or of any member thereof. 8. Any minute made of proceedings at a meeting, and copies of any orders made or resolutions passed at a meeting, purporting to be signed by the chair- man of the meeting at which such proceedings took COM (157) CON place or such orders were made or resolutions passed, or by the chairman of the next- ensuing meeting, shall be received as evidence in all legal proceed- ings ; and, until the contrary is proved, every meeting where minutes of the proceedings have been so made shall be deemed to have been duly convened and held, and all the proceedings theireat to have been duly had. .Compensation — Full compensation must be made to any person sustaining damage by reason of the exercise of any of the powers of the Pablie, Health Act, 1875, in relation to any matter as to which he is not himself in default. . Disputes as to the amount, &o., are to be settled by arbitration. See Abbitea- TION. Compensation in certain cases is provided for officers deprived of their posts. See Opficbes. Condy's Disinfecting Fluid— This con- sists of a solution of permanganate of potash. It oxidises organic mattet, but does not de- stroy living organisms. As it has no odour, is of a beautiful colour, and easily applied, it is much used as adisinfectant. Condy's fluid is, however, untrustworthy if used to disinfect matters exposed to the contagion of fever. See Disinfectants. Confectionery, Colouring Matter of, and Adulterations— The colouring and flavpuring matters of confectionery are extr^ely various. Many substances— such as chromate of lead, essence of almonds, and aniline contaminated with arsenic — are very poisonous; but it must be remembered that, ordinarily speaking, the analyst finds these substances in such minute quantities, that no injurious effect upon the health could result, except a person consume a pound or so at once.. Still, as undoubted eases of wholesale poisoning have opcurred, it is evidently the duty of the.local authorities from time to time to have the gaudy and attractive Wares of the confectioner tested. The manufacturer can put anything he pleases in the sweetmeat, providing it is not injurious to health, and therefore the chemical examination is solely to discover if there be any poisonous salt in sufficient quantity to be injurious. The poisons that sweetmeats are made of generally reside in the colouring mat- ters. It must be remembered that all shades of brown, up to black, may be produced by the sugar being partly or wholly changed into carainel, and that the brighter reds, greens, and yellows are the most suspicious. If the analyst determines [a) the nature and amount of colouring matter, (6) the amount of sugar, (c) the amount of ash, he will then generally be in a position to state whether the sub- stance is injurious or not. JExamination of the Colouring Matters. (a) Hed. — 1. Powder 1 gramme of the sweetmeat, previously dried, and digest it with alcohol. It dissolves ; it is probably an aniline dye: pass on to 4. It does not dis- solve : pass on to 2. 2. Place a drop of a solution of bleaching- powder on the colour. The colour fades and disappears ; it is in aU probability a vegetable colour. The colour does not fade : pass on to 3. 3. Burn » weighed portion of the sweet- meat in a porcelain dish, estimate the ash, and then dissolve it in weakly ■ acidulated water. Test for lead by sulphuretted hydro- gen, mercury by iodide of potash, iron by hydrosulphate of ammonia, confirming it by f errocyanide of potassium. The sulphuretted hydrogen precipitates lead, black ; the iodide of potash precipitates mercury, light yellow, changing to scarlet; ferrocyanide of potash gives a blue precipitate with iron. 4. Put the substance in a Marsh's apparatus and test for arsenic. See Aksbnic. (6) ydZoM).- The probable colouring matters will be chromate of lead, gamboge, chromate of barium, antimony, arsenic, and oxide of lead. 1. Dissolve the sweetmeat in distilled water. The insoluble residue is filtered off ; a portion of it is fused with carbonate of soda on a bit of charcoal. Minute beads, with yellow colouration of the surrounding carbonate, and the beads very soft, flattening under pressure, denote lead. 2. The rest of the residue may be boiled in a solution of carbonate of potassium and fil- tered. Neutralise with dilute nitric acid, add a few drops of nitrate of silver. A purple or scarlet precipitate or colouration taking place is evidence of chromium. 3. If lead has been already discovered, and chromium, then it is probably chromate of lead; if chromium has been found, but no lead, add dilute sulphuric acid to the residue in solution. A dense heavy precipitate indi- cates sulphate of baryta, and therefore the colouring matter was probably chromate of barium. 4. Arsenic and antimony, if present, will volatilise completely when heated on char- coal, or the "residue may be dissolved in a dilute acid, and either tested with hydro-sul- phuric acid (a canary-yellowprecipitate denotes arsenic, an orange, antimony) or, better still, put in a Marsh's apparatus. See Aksenic. 5. If none -of the former substances are found, the colouring matter is probably gam- boge. To detect it, dissolve the sweetmeat CON (158) CON in alcohol, filter, and add distilled water in excess. The resin will then fall as a precipi- tate, and when moistened with ammonia a deep red colour is produced. (c) Green. — The probable colouring matters are copper, chromium, arsenic, zinc, Ein- man's green (zinc and cobalt). The chromium and arsenic would be detected as above; if none of these are present — 1. Dissolve the sweetmeat in acetic acid, and saturate with ammonia^ A blue colour indicates copper. 2. If copper be not present, again acidulate the same solution, and pass a stream of sul- phuretted hydrogen, which, if zinc be pre- sent, will precipitate it as the whole sulphide. ' This may be identified by redissolving in hydrochloric acid, boiling, saturating with ammonia, and precipitating with sulphide of ammonium. 3. Cobalt should be tested for by moisten- ing a bead of borax with the solution, and holding it in the blow-pipe flame. A fine blue colour in both flames is produced, if that metal be present. If cobalt be present, arsenic is frequently associated with it. The sugar of the sweetmeat may be esti- mated by taking a weighed quantity and pro- ceeding as in the process described under SnsAE, Estimation of. A weighed portion of the sweetmeat should also be carefully burnt down, and the ash examined and weighed. This will generally give a clue as to whether there is any mineral matter or not. A special por- tion should also be tested for prussic acid, so often in the essence of almonds used as a flavouring matter. A little of the sweetmeat is put into a watch-glass, and slightly acidi- fied with dilute sulphuric acid. Another watch-glass, the concave side of which is moistened with a solution of yellow sulphide of ammonium, is inverted over it, and they are put on one side for some time. " The upper one is then taken o£f, and dried in a water- oven. The residue is then moistened with a weak solution of perchloride of iron. A blood- red colour is evidence of prussic acid, due to the formation of sulphocyanide of iron. The following is a list of colouring matters which are actually used or have been found : — Yellows. — Saffron, turmeric, yellow lakes, Persian berries, fustic woods, gamboge, chro- mate of lead, massicot, iodide of lead, yellow ochre, sulphide of antimony, aniline. Beds. — Cochineal, various red lakes, car- mine, Brazil wood, red-lead, vermilion, red earths, bisulphate of arsenic, aniline, &o. Browns. — Caramel, Vandyke brown, amber. Purples. — Madder purple, logwood, indigo; any of the lakes with indigo or litmus. Blues. — Indigo, litmus, Prussian blue, Ant- werp blue, cobalt, smalt blue, verditer, ultra- marine, German ultramarine. Greens.— Sap-green, yellow lake ; any of the vegetable colours or lakes, with indigo, and including Persian berries and indigo ; false Brunswict greens, mineral green, ver- digris, emerald green, true Brunswick green, false verditer. Bronze Powders. — gold, silver, and copper bronzes, white or carbonate of lead. Conia (CsHibN)— A liquid volatile alka- loid, contained in all parts of the hemlock plant, but found more plentifully in the fruit than in the leaves. It is an oUy-looking trans- parent volatile liquid, its specific gravity be- ing '878 (Bltth). It has a strong peculiar odour, resembling somewhat a combination of the odours of tobacco and mice. Its taste is acrid, and its vapour produces a flow of tears. Conia, when exposed to the air, is resolved into ammonia, and a bitter extractive matter pos- sessed of no poisonous properties. Conia is soluble in alcohol, ether, or chloroform, leav- ing the oil behind on evaporation. It is not, like nicotine, soluble in water. Its solutions are not precipitated by alkalies. Conia is re- markably poisonous ; one drop placed in the eye of a rabbit killed it in nine minutes. For the discovery of the presence of this poison, see Alkaloids. No chemical antidote is known for conia, although Pereira thinks that an infusion of galls might be serviceable. The first 6bject should be to evacuate this poison from the stomach. Subsequent treatment will depend on the symptoms. Blood-letting may be ne- cessary, and in extreme cases artificial res- piration should not be omitted. See Alka- loids. Consumption— 5ee Phthisis. Contagion — The word " contagion " is commonly used to express the communication of disease from one body to another, whether by means of actual contact or through a medium such as the air, &c. By some, however, con- tagion is used only to express a communication by direct contact, in contradistinction to in- fection, which operates at a distance. The Nature of Cbntagia. — It appears cer- tain that in some, and probable that in all diseases, the contagious particles are not liquid nor gaseous, but of a solid nature; that they are excessively minute ; that they possess an independent life ; that under cer- tain conditions they increase and multiply at a prodigious rate ; and that probably their chemical composition is of a nitrogenous nature. CON (159) CON In lymph from tlie vaccine vesicle, and from the variolous pustule, the particles have actually been seen; and Beale, in the serum of cattle-plague blood, discovered par- ticles of bioplasm not present in normal blood, some of them being not more than •^T^ U ff of an inch in diameter. That contagion consists of' particles is shown by Chauveau's experiments, in which the poison of smallpox, glanders, vaccine, and sheep-pox was placed at the bottom of a small test-tube standing upright. Water was then allo-Wed to flow over the surface of the liquid until it formed a layer a few lines in thickness. The tube was then allowed to stand some time. Diffusion took place ac- cording to the ordinary laws — i.e., the soluble salts and albumen passed into the water, but that which was solid remained below, the upper part of the liquid being inert, the lower active. Contagion mainly Resides in the Excreta. — In scarlet fever, for example, it is principally conveyed by the epithelial cells of the skin, and all discharges, whether from the nose, bowel, throat, or elsewhere. The same may be said of smallpox. In typhoid fever there is probably some contagion in the emanations from the skin, but ib resides mainly in the bowel excreta. In typhus, again, more especially, the skin is affected. Below is a list of the principal contagious and infectious diseases, most of which obey the following lawS : — 1. That they invariably arise from a pre- existing disease of exactly the same essential nature. 2. That they run, within certain limits, a definite course. 3. That they have a period of incubation, a period of development, a period of height and decline. These diseases may be divided into two classes of practical utility, viz. : — 1. Those transmitted only by direct inocu- lation or immediate contact (contagious). 2. Those transmitted through the medium of the air or other carrier (infectious). 1. Contagious Disetises. Niuue. Period of Incabation. Syphilis From six weeks to six months, sometimes more. . GonorrhcEa ..-. ....No true period of incuba- tion ; a local disease. Various skin diseases,^ often depending on fungoid growth or ani- 1 Loeal diseases ; no period mal parasites ;e.p ^ ^f incubatioA. pityriasis, scabies or itch, tinea, mycetoma, J &c. / Hydrophobia From four to sixteen weeks, or sometimes longer. Name, Period of Incubation. Farcy From two to eight days. Malignant pustule (char- \ No true period of incuba- bon) J tion. 2. Infectious Diseases. Smallpox About fourteen days. Scarlet fever (scarlatina)... From a few hours to ten days. Measles From ten to sixteen days. Rubeola, rotheln Not exactly known. Hospital erysipelas Not exactly known. Cholera From three days to a week, sometimes no true incubation ; pre- ti monitory diarrhoea fre- quent, and varying from a few days to one or two weeks. Diphtheria No true or a very short latent period ; premoni- tory symptoms show themselves rapidly, al- though actual develop- ment is at first slow. Hooping-cough Five to six days or more. Dysentery Uncertain ; in some cases attack very sudden. Typhus About twelve days, some- times twenty-one, and in some cases five days ; occasionally no latent period. Typhoid Probably from eighteen to twenty-one days. Relapsing fever. From four to nine days; occasionally no latent period. The contagious diseases, or first class, are scarcely transmitted unless from direct con- tact or inoculation, and this mostly from man to man; but some, like hydrophobia, arise from actual inoculation from animals to man ; while others — charbon, for example— are not unfrequently carried by insects. The predisposing influence to both classes o'f disease is, without doubt, filth. That they ever arise spontaneously is improbable, and has never yet been satisfactorily proved ; but that insanitary conditions not alone assist in their propagation, but add to their malignancy and fatality, is fairly established. There are certain atmospheric and geological conditions which appear to greatly modify the propagation of some kinds of contagion. See Cholera, Asiatic ; Smallpox j Fevek, Typhoid, &c. Contagious Diseases Act — An Act passed for the purpose of regulating and con- trolling prostitution .in certain- military and naval stations, in order to prevent the spread of venereal diseases. History. — The first Act was passed in 1864 (27 & 28 Vict. c. 85), but it was a temporary measure. The first permanent Act was issued (29 & 30 Vict. c. 35) in 1866, and amended Acts were passed in 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. 80, and 32 & 33 Vict. c. 96). These Acts are applied only to certain military and naval ; stations. The Admiralty and Secretary of CON (i6o) CON State for "War have powers to appoint visiting snrgeona and inspectors. They do not directly come under the cognisance of medical officers of health. TheVorldng of the Acts may he judged of by the following extract from the Army Medi- cal Report, 1871 :— The question of the results of the operation of the Contagious Diseases Act h^ excited considerable public interest. With a view to show these numeri- cally the following tables have been compiled. The first table shows the prevalence of primary venereal sores and of gonoiThoea at the twenty-eight largest garrisons in the United Kingdom in 1864 (the year in which the first Contagious Diseases Act was passed, but before it came into operation), and in 1871 at the same stations, subdivided into those at which the Act was and thoseat which it was not in operation ; — Act in Operation. Act not in Operation. Tear. Eatio per 1000 admitted for Eatio per 1000 admitted for Primftry Venereal Sores. Gonorrhcea. Primary Venereal SoreB. Qonorrhcea. 1864 1871 52-0 115-6 108-6 93-4 112-5 " 107-4* Comparing, therefore, the results at stations where the Act was in operation with those of the year pre- vious to the first Act being applied, the decrease in primary venereal sores has been 56'6 per 1000, or contrasted with the results in 1871 at stations not under the Act, it has been 41*4 per 1000. But as objection may be taken to deductions drawn from so limited a period of time as one year, the following table has been framed to show the average results of seven years at the stations under the Act, contrasted with the average of the same years at those not under the Act : — Annual StreDgth. Average Annnal Admisalous for KatloperlOOOof mean Strength admitted for. Average of Seven Years' Period, 1866-71. £|» 1 r o Stations under the Act Stations not under the Act 28,202 34,325 1841 3481 3318 3858 66-8 101-4 117-7 112-4 This table shows that the admissions for primary venereal sores, or that form of disease which is likely to produce constitutional deterioration, were on the average of the seven years 361 per 1000 of mean strength less annually at the stations under than at those not under the Act. Perhaps the fairest esti- mate of the benefit derived by the army from the Acts is to be found in the diCfereDce between the admissions at the stations under the Act in 1871, and the average of them during the seven years at the stations not under the Act, amounting to 49*4 per 1000 of the strength. The following are the more important pro- visions of the Act : — Sect. 15. "Where an Information on oath is laid before a justice by a superintendent' of police, charg- ing to the effect that the informant has good cause to believe that a woman therein, named is a common prostitute^ and either is resident within the limits of any place to which this Act applies, or, being resident within five miles of those limits, has, within fourteen days before the laying of the information, been within those limits for the purpose of prostitution, the justice may, if he thinks fit, issue a notice thereof addressed to such woman, which notice the superintendent of police shall cause to be served on her : provided that nothing in this Act contained shall apply or extend, in the case of "Woolwich, to any woman who is not resident within one of the parishes of "Woolwich, Plumstead, or Charlton. Sect. 16. In either of the following cases, namely : — If the woman on whom such a notice is served appears herself, or by some person on her behalf, at the time and place appointed in the notice,^ or at some other time and place appointed by adjourn- ment : If she does not so appear, and it is shown (on oath) to-the justice present that the notice was served on her a reasonable time before the time appointed for her appearance, or that reasonable notice of such adjournment was given to her (as the case may be) : The justice present, on oath being made before him substantiating the matter of the information to his satisfaction, may, if he thinks fit, order that the woman be subject to a periodical medical examina- tion by the visiting surgeon for any period not exceeding one year, for the pm-pose of ascertaining at the time of each such examination whether she is affected with a contagious disease; and thereupon she shall be subject to such a periodical medical examination, and the order shall be a sufficient war. rant for the visiting surgeon to conduct such exami- nation accordingly. The order shall specify the time and place at which the woman shall attend for the first examination. The superintendent of police shall cause a copy of the order to be served on the woman. , Sect. 17. Any woman, in any place to which this Act applies, may voluntarily, by a submission in writing, signed by her in the presence of and attested by the superintendent of police, subject herself to a periodical medical examination under this Act for any period not exceeding one year. Sect. 18. For each of the places to which this Act applies, either the Admiralty or the Secretaiy of State for "War (but not both for any one place) may froni time to time make regulations respecting the times and places of medical examinations under this Act at tliat place, and generally respecting the ar- lungements for the conduct there of those examina- tions ; and a copy of all such regulations from time to time in force for each place shall be sent by the Admiralty or the Secretary of State for "War (as the cage may be) to the clerk of the peace, town-clerk (if any), clerk of the justices, visiting surgeon, and superintendent of police. Sect. 19. The visiting surgeon, having regard to the regulations aforesaid, and to the circumstances CON (i6i) CON of each case, shall at the first examination of each woman examined bj him, and afterwards from time to time as occasion requires, prescribe the times and places at which she is required to attend again for examination; and he shall Arom time to time give or cause to be given to each such woman notice in writing of the times and places so prescribed. ; Sect, 2D. If on any such examination the woman examined is found to be affected with a contagious disease, she shall thereupon be liable to be detained in a certified hospital, subject and according to the previsions of this Act ; and the visiting surgeon shall sign a certificate to the effect that she is affected with a contagious disease, naming the certified hos- pital in which she is to be placed ; and he shall sign that certificate in triplicate, and shall cause one of the originals to be delivered to the woman, and the others to the superintendent of police. Sect. 21. Any woman to whom any such certificate of -the visiting surgeon relates may, if she thinks fit, proceed to the certified hospital named in that cer- tificate, and place herself there for medical treat- ment ; but if a.fter the certificate is delivered to her she neglects or refuses to do so, the superintendent of police, or a constable acting under his orders, shall apprehend her, and convey her with all practicable speed to that hos{)ital, and place her there for medi- cal treatment ; and the certificate of the visiting surgeon shall be a suf&cient authority to him for so doing. The reception of a woman in a certified hos- pital by the managers or persons having the control or management thereof shall be* deemed to be an un^ertakingby themtoprovide for her care and treat- ment, lodging, clothing, and food, during her deten- tion in the hospital. Sect, 22. Where a woman certified by the visiting surgeon to be affected with a contagious disease places herself, or is placed as aforesaid, in a certified hospital for medical treatment, she shall be detained there for that pui-pose by the chief medical oflBcer of the hospital until discharged by him by writing under his hand. The certificate of the visiting sur- geon, one of the three originals whereof shall be de- livered by the superintendent of police to the chief medical officer, shall, when so delivered, be sufl&cient authority for such detention. Sect. 23. The inspector of certified hospitals may, if in any case it seems to him expedient, by order in writing signed by him, direct the transfer of any woman detained in a certified hospital for medical treatment from that certified hospital to another named in the order. Every such order shall be made in ^triplicate, and one of the originals shall be delivered to the woman and the others ,to the superintendent of police. Every such order shall be sufficient authority for the superintendent of police, or any person acting under his orders, to transfer the woman to whom it relates from the one hbspital to the other, and to place her there for medical treatment; and she shall be de- tained there for that purpose by the chief medical officer of the hospital until discharged by him by writing under his hand. The order of the inspector of certified hospitals, one of the originals whereof shall be delivered by tihe superintendent of police to the chief medical officer of the hospital to which the transfer is made, shall, when so delivered, be sufficient authority for such detention. Sect. 24. Provided always that any woman shall not be detained under any one certificate for a longer time than three months, unless the chief medical officer of the hospital in which she is detained, and the inspector of certified hospitals, or the visiting surgeon for the place whence she came or was brought, conjointly certify that her further detention for medical treatment is requisite (which certificate shall be in duplicate, and one of the originals thereof shall be delivered to the woman) ; and in that case she may be further detained in the hospital in which she is at the expiration of the said period of three months'by the chief' medical officer imtil dis- charged by him by writing under his hand ; but so that any woman be not detained under any one cer- tificate for a longer time in the whole than six months. Sect. 25. If any woman detained in any hospital considers herself entitled to be discharged therefrom, an4 the chief medical officer of the hospital refuses to discharge her, such woman shall on her request be conveyed before a justice, who, if he is satisfied upon reasonable evidence that she is free from a contagious disease, shall discharge her from such hospital, and such order of discharge shall have the same effect as the discharge of the chief medical officer. Sect. 26. Every woman conveyed or transferred under this Act to a certified hospital, shall, while being so conveyed or transferred thither, 'and also while detained there, be deemed to be legally in the cus- tody of the person conveying, transferring, or detain- ing her, notwithstanding that she is for that purpose removed out of one into or through another jurisdic- tion, or is detained in a jurisdiction other than that in which the certificate of the visiting surgeon was made. Sect. 28. In the following cases, namely : — If any woman subjected by order of a justice under this Act to periodical medical examination at any time temporarily absents herself in order to avoid submitting herself to such examination on any occa- sion on which she ought so to submit herself, or refuses or wilfully neglects to submit herself to such examination on any such occasion ; If any woman authorised by this Act to be de- tained in a certified hospital for medical treatment quits the hospital without ■ being discharged there- from by the chief medical officer thereof by wi'iting under his hand (the proof whereof shall lie on the accused) ; If any woman authorised by this Act to be detained in a certifil'ed hospital for medical tt-eatment, or any woman being in a certified hospital under medical treatment for a contagious disease, refuses or wilfully neglects, while in the hospital, to conform to the regulations thereof approved under this Act ; Then, and in every such case) such woman shall be guilt^ of an offence against this Act, and on sum- maiy conviction ^all be liable to imprisonment, with or without hard labour, in the case of a first offence, for any term not exceeding one month ; and in the case of a second, or any subsequent offence, for any term not exceeding three months ; and in the case of the offence of quitting the hospital with- out being discharged as aforesaid, the woman may be taken into custody without warrant by any con- stable. Sect. 29. If any woman is ^convicted of and im- L CON (162) CON prisoned for the offence of absenting herself, or of refusing or neglecting to submit herself to examina- tion as aforesaid, the order subjecting her to periodi- cal medicalexamination shall be in force after and notwithstanding her imprisonment, unless the 5ur< geon or other medical officer of the prison, or a visiting surgeon appointed under this Act, at the time of her discharge from imprisonment, certifies in writing to the effect that she is then free from a contagious disease (the proof of which certificate shall lie on her), and jn that case the order subjecting her to periodical examination shall, on her discharge from imprisonment, cease to operate. Sect, 30. If any woman is convicted of and impri- soned for the offence of quitting a hospital without being discharged, or -of refusing or neglecting, while in a hospital, to conform to the regulations thereof as aforesaid, the certificate of the visiting surgeon under which she was detained in the hospital shall continue in force, and on the expiration of her term of imprisonment she shall be sent back from the prison to that certified hospital, and shall (notwith- standing anything in this Act) be detained there under that certificate as if it were given oii the day of the expiration of her term of imprisonment, un. less the surgeon or other medical officer (rf the prison, or a visiting surgeon appointed under this Act, at the time of h'er discharge from imprisanment, certi- fies in writing to the effect that she is now free from a contagious disease (the proof of which certificate shall lie on her) ; and in that case the certificate under which she was detained, and the order subjecting her to periodical medical examination, shall on her discharge from imprisonment cease to operate. Sect. 31. If on any woman leaving a certified hos- pital a notice in writing is given to her by the chief medical officer of the hospital to the effect that she is still affected with a contagious disease, and she is afterwards in any place for the purpose of prostitu- tion without having previously received from a visit- ing surgeon appointed under this Act a certificate in writing endorsed on the notice, or on a copy thereof certified by the chief medical officer of the hospital (proof of which certificate shall lie on her) to the effect that she is then tree from a contagious disease, she shall be guilty of an offence against this Act, and on summary convictiQn before two justices shall be liable to be imprisoned with or without hard labour, in the case of a first offence, for any term not ex- ceeding one month, and in the case of a second, or any subsequent offence, for any term not exceeding three months. Sect. 32. Evei7 order under this Act subjecting a woman to periodical medical examination shall be in operation and enforceable, in manner in this Act pro- vided, as long as and whenever frwu time to time the woman to whom it relates is resident within the limits of the place to which this Act applies wherein the order was made, or within five miles [now ten miles] of those limits, but not in any case for a longer period than one year ; and where the chief medical officer of a certified hospital, on the dis- charge by him of any woman from the hospital certifies that she is free from a contagious disease (proof of which certificate shall lie on her), the order subjecting her to periodical medical examination shall thereupon cease to operate. Sect. 33. If any woman subjected to a periodical medical examination under this Act (either on her own submission or under the order of a justice), de- siring to be relieved therefrom, and not being under detention in a certified hospital, makes application in writing in that behalf to a justice, the justice shall appoint by notice in writing a time and place for the hearing of the application, and shall cause the notice to be delivered to the applicant, and a copy of the application and of the notice to be delivered to the superintendent of police. Sect. 34:. If on the hearing of the application it is shown to the satisfaction of a justice that the applicant has ceased to be a common prostitute, or if the applicant, with the approval of the justice, enters into a recognisance, with or without sureties, as to the justice seems meet, for her good behaviour during three months thereafter, the justice shall 0]:der that she be reUeved from periodical medical examination. Sect, 35. Every such recognisance shall be deemed to be forfeited if at any time during the term for which it is entered into the woman to whom it relates is (within the limits of any place to which it applies) in any public thoroughfare, street, or place for tUe purpose of prostitution, or otherwise (within those limits) conducts herself as a common prostitute. Sect. 36. If any person, being the owner or occu- pier of any house, room, or place within the limits of any place to which this applies, or being a manager or assistant in the management thereof, having rea- sonable cause to believe any woman to be a common prostitute, and to be affected with a contagious disease, induces or ^jiffers her to resort to or be in that house, room, or place for the purpose of prostitution, he shall be guilty of an offence against this Act, and on summary conviction thereof before two justices shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £20, or, at the discretion of the justices, to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding six months, with orwithout hard labour : Provided that a conviction under this enactment shall not exempt the offender from any penal or other consequences to which he may be liable for keeping or being concerned in keeping a bawdy-house or disorderly house, or for the nuis- ance thereby occasioned. ' . Sect. 37. All proceedings under this Act before and by justices shall be had in England according to the provisions of the Act of the session of the 11th and I2th years of her Majesty (chapter 43), "to facilitate the perfortnance of the duties of justices of the peace out of sessions within England and Wales with respect to summary convictions and orders," and in Ireland according to the provisions of the Petty Sessions (Ireland) Act, 1851, as far as those provisions respectively are not consistent with any provisions of this Act, and save that the room or place in which a justice sits to inquire into the truth of the statements contained in any information or application under this Act against or by a woman shall not, unless the woman so desives, be deemed an open court for that purpose ; and unless the woman otherwise desires, the justice may, in his discretion, order that no person have access to or be or remain in that room without his consent or permission, ^^ The Contagious Diseases Act, 1869 (32 & 33 Vict. c. 96).. Sect. 8. Any woman who, on attending for exami- nation or being examined by the visiting surgeon, is found by him to be in such condition that he cannot CON (163) CON properly examine her, shall, if such surgeon has rea- sonable grounds for beliering that she is affected with a contagious disease, be liable to be detained in a certified hospital, subject and according to the pro- visions of the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1866 to 1869, until the visiting surgeon can properly examine her, so that she be not so detained for a period ex- ceeding five days. The visiting surgeon shall sign a certificate to the effect that she was in such a condi- tion that he could not properly examine her, and that he has reasonable grounds to believe that she is affected- with a contagious disease, and shall name therein the certified hospital in which she is to be placed; and such certificate shall be signed and other- wise dealt with in the same manner, and have the same effect, except as regards duration, as a certificate under the principal Act. If the reason that the visit- ing surgeon cannot examine the woman is that she is drunk, she may be detained upon an order of the visiting surgeon for a period not exceeding twenty- four hours in any place named in the order where persons accused of being drunk and disorderly or of offences punishable summarily are usually detained, and the gaoler or t^e keeper of such place shall upon the receipt of such order receive xind detain the woman accordingly. Sect. 4. Where an information on oath is laid be- fore a justice by a superintendent of police, charging to the effect that the informant has good cause to believe that a woman tlierein named is a common prostitute, and either is resident within the limits of any place to which this Act applies, -or being resident within ten miles of thtise limits, or having no settled place of abode, has, within fourteen days before the laying, of the information, either been within those limits for the purpose of prostitution, or been outside of those limits for the purposes of prostitution in the company of men resident within those limits, the justice may, if he thinks fit, issue a notice thereof addressed to such woman, which notice the superin- tendent of police shall cause to be served ion her: Pi'ovided that nothing in the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1866 to 1869, shall extend, in the case of "Wool- wich, to any woman who is not resident within the limits specified in the first schedule to this Act. Section 15 of the principal Act is hereby repealed, and the foregoing enactment in this section is sub- stituted for it ; provided that all proceedings taken and acts done under the section hereby repealed shall notwithstanding remain of full effect, and shall, if necessary, be continued as if they had been taken and done under this section. Sect. 5. Any order for subjecting a woman to peri- odical medical examination shall be in operation and enforceable as long as and whenever such woman is resident within ten miles of the limits of the place where the order was made, instead of within five mileSj as prescribed by section 32 of the ^principal Act. Sect. 6. When any woman in pursuance of the principal Act voluntarily subjects herself by submis- sion in writing to a periodical medical examination under that Act, such submission shall, for all the purposes of the Contagious Diseases Acts, 1866 to 1869, have the same effect as an order of a justice subjecting the woman to examination ; and all the provisions of the principal Act respecting the attend- ance of the woman for examination, and her absent- ing herself to avoid examination^ and her refusing or wilfully neglecting to submitberself for examination, and the force of the order subjecting her to exami- nation after imprisonment for such absence, refusal, or neglect, shall apply and be construed accordingly. Sect. 7. A woman may be detained for a further period not exceeding three months, in addition to the six months allowed under section 24 of the prin- cipal Act, if such certificate as is required by that section (to the effect that her farther detention for medical treatment is requisite) is given at the expi- ration of such six months ; so, nevertheless, that any woman be not detained under one certificate for a longer time in the whole than nine months. Sect. 8. Where an order is made discharging a woman from any hospital, or where a certificate is given, under section 30 of the principal Act, that a woman is free from a contagious disease, such order and certificate shall be delivered to the superinten- dent of police, and retained by him. Sect. 0. Any woman subjected, either on her own submission or under the order of a justice, to a peri- odical medical examination under the principal Act, who desires to be relieved therefiipm, and is not under detention in a certified hospital, may make application in writing in that behalf to the visiting surgeon. The visiting surgeon shall cause a copy of such application to be delivered to the superintendent of police, and if after a report firom such superinten- dent he is satisfied by such report or other evidence that the applicant has ceased to be a common prosti- tute, may, by order under his hand, direct that she be relieved from periodical medical examination. Such order shall be in triplicate ; one copy shall be delivered to the woman, and two copies shall be delivered to the superintendent of police, who shall communicate one copy to the justice (if any) who made the order subjecting the woman to a periodical medical examination, or to his successor in office. The provisions of this section shall be in addition to and not in substitution for the provisions of the principal Act for relieving a woman from examina- tion. Contagious Diseases, Prevention of —See Epidemic. Contracts — Any local authority may enter into any contracts necessary for the due execution of the Public Health Act, 1875. — (P. H., s. 173.) "With respect to urban contracts the follow- ing regulations are to he observed : — **1. Every contract made by an urban authority whereof the value or amount ex- ceeds Jifty pov/nds shall be in writing and sealed with the common seal of such autho- rity: "2. Every such contract shall specify the work, materials, matters, or things to be fur- nished, had, or done, the price to be paid, and 'the time or times within which the contract is to be" performed, and shall specify some pecuniary penalty to be paid in case the terms of the contract are not duly performed : "3. Before contracting for the execution of any works imder the provisions of this Act, cou (164) coo an urban authority shall obtain from their surveyor an estimate in writing, as ■well of the probable expense of executing the work in a substantial manner as of the annual ex- pense of repairing the same ; also a report as to the most advantageous mode of contracting, that is to say, whether ty contracting only for the execution of the work, or for executing and also jnaintaining the same in repair dur- ing a term of years or otherwise : "4. Before any contract of the value or, amount of one hundred pounds or upwards is entered into by an urban authority, ten days' public notice at the least shall be given, ex- pressing the nature and purpose thereof and inviting tenders for the execution of the same ; and such authority shall require and take sufficient security for the due performance of the same : " 5. Every contract entered into by an ur- banauthorityinoonformitywith the provisions of this section, and duly executed- by the other parties thereto, shall be binding on the authority by whom the same is executed, and their succeaaors, and on all other parties thereto, and their executors, administrators, successors, or assigns, to a}! intents and pur- poses : Provided that an urban authority may compound with any contractor or other person in respect of any penalty incurred by reason of the non-performance of any contract entered into as aforesaid, whether such penalty is men- tioned in any such contract, or in any bond or otherwise, for such sums of money or other recompense as to such authority may seem proper."— (P. H., s. 175.) Convaleaoents — Convalescents from scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, and measles, &c., are often more liable to spread disease than those actually ill. The reason is that (1. ) the skin is desquamating, or other organs are throwing off the poison in large quantities. (2.) Instead of being confined to a sick-cham- ber, they may be walking about, and may even go into crowded assemblies, and there one case may give a fearful disease, like typhus, to numbers. (3.) Even when the convalescent is not contagious himself, he may wear the clothes that have been infected by him, or those from which he originally caught the disease. There is no adequate provision against con- valescents from infectious diseases exposing themselves. They miglit, perhaps, beproceeded against under P. H., s. 126, if they wore clothing which had been exposed to infection. See ExposuKE, Infection, &o. Conveyances — Conveyances for the pur- pose of transporting persons suffering under contagious or infectious diseases may be pro- vided by any sanitary authority, and it is lawful for the latter to pay the expense of conveying any such person to an hospital or place for the reception of the sick or other place of destination, — (P. H., s. 123.) Any one entering a public conveyance suf- fering from a contagious disease without pre- viously notifying to the owner or driver that he was- so suffering, shall on conviction be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and shall also be ordered by such justice to pay such owner and driver all the losses and ex- penses they may suffer in carrying out the provisions of the Public Health Act, 1875, which provides that the owner or driver of a public conveyance must immediately disinfect the vehicle after it has conveyed a person so affected. Penalty for neglect, £5 or leas. — (P. H., B. 126, 127.) No owner or driver of any public conveyance shall be required to convey a person suffering from a contagious disease until they shall have been first paid a sum sufficient to cover all such expenses. — (P. H., s. 127.) Urban sanitary authorities have the power of licensing conveyances which ply for hire, and of regulating such matters by bylaws. — (P. H., s. 171.) See Hackney Caeriages, Bylaws. Cooking — Much depends on the method in which our food is prepared, not only aa to its digestibility, but also as to the amount eaten, well and properly cooked meat tempt- ing the appetite, while the stomach turns against food which is revolting to the sight and badly prepared. All nations have dis- covered the advantages a.ttendant upon cook- ing, and it is only amongst savages who have no fuel [e.g., the Esquimaux and Samoeides) that flesh is eaten in a raw state. Besides improving the flavour of meat, rendering it more e'asy of mastication, and pleasing to the sight, cooking possesses other advantages ; it kills any parasites which may exist in the tissues of the meat, and it secures a certain temperature, and by this means conveys warmth to the system. Cooking has the effect of solidifying the fibrine, gelatinising the tendinous, fibrous, and connective tissues, and of coagulating the albumen and colouring-matter. Thus' the whole substance becomes more tender and leas coherent, and' hence more digestible. Meat cooked before the rigor mortis has set in is more easy of digestion than if cooked after that state has passed off. Bruising also before cooking has the effect of loosening the texture of the meat and rendering it more lender. coo (165) coo The principal modes of cooking commonly employed in this country are boiling, roast- ing, broiling, baking, frying, stewing. It is highly essential that meat should not be orer- , done, for Dr. Beaumont has satisfactorily shown that meat when overdone is rendered more and more indigestible in proportion to the prolonged action of heat. In boiling meat, the piece should be large, and it should be plunged suddenly into the water when it is in a state of brisk ebullition. The boiling should be' kept up for some few minutes. When the meat is treated in this manner, the albuminous matter upon the surface is coagu- lated, and leads to the formation of a more or less unpermeable layer, through which the juices of the meat cannot escape. The boil- ing should not be continued, but a tempera- ture of between 160° and 170° F. maintained until the cooking process is completed'will be quite sufficient. Meat cooked in this way presents a far finer appearance than either that which has been subjected to a greater heat than 170°, or that which at first has been placed in water below the boiling - point ; for in the former case the meat wiU be found to be shrunken, hard, and indigestible, and in the latter the meat will present a raw and un- dressed appearance, consequent upon the albuminous and colouring matters not being properly coagulated. If the object be to extract the nutritive qualities of the meat, an exactly opposite course should be pursued. The meat should be chopped in small pieces, and be allowed to remain soaking in cold water for some little time, and the tempera- ture gradually raised. For broths boiling is not necessary, but for soups, when we desire to fully extract the gelatine, prolonged boil- ing is requisite. Boiling is the most economical method of preparing meat, and it also renders it most digestible ; but the flavours developed are not so savoury as those obtained from roasted meat. Some descriptions of meat, are altogether unsuited for ioiling purposes, such as the flesh of young animals, which contain a large proportion of gelatine and albumen, substances which freely dissolve in water, and will there- fore to a great extent boil away. American pork loses 50 per cent, of its weight in boiling, whereas the pork of Den- mark, Holstein, England, and Ireland only loses from 25 to .30 per cent. The average loss in weight sustained by mutton and beef during the process is, ac- cording to Dr. Pereira, only about 17J per cent. Letheby gives the ordinary loss of weight in cooking in the following table :— BoUing. Baking. Boastlner. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Beef generally 20 29 31 Mutton generally . 20 31 35 Legs of mutton 20 32 33 Shoulders of mutton 24 32 31 Loins of mutton . 30 ,S3 36 Necks of mutton . 25 32 ■ 34 Average of all 23 . 31 34 In roasting meat, as in boiling, the heat should be strongest at first, and may then be much reduced. Liebig recommends that in all cooking operations of meat the heat should be limited to 170° F. ; but it is doubtful whether that heat is strong enough to kill the parasites which infest meat, and therefore Letheby advises that the temperature should be as nearly as possible that of boiling water. Roasted meats are not generally so digestible as meats which have been boiled ; and many stomachs which can tolerate poultry, meat, fish, and puddings boiled, find that roasted meat, &c., and baked puddings, cause great discomfort. This may be explained by the fact that during the process of roasting much of the superficial fat, from prolonged exposure to heat, undergoes decomposition, attended with the production of fatty acids, and an acid volatile product known as acroleine, which may seriously disturb sensitive stomachs. These remarks apply also to broiling, fry- ing, and baking, and more especially to the latter, for the operation being carried on in a confined space, the volatile fatty acids gene- rated are prevented from escaping, and thus permeate the cooked articles. Stewing and Sashing. — By either of these processes the meat is placed in a highly favour- able state for digestion. Much of the nutri- tive matter passes into the surrounding liquid, which is consumed with the solid material. The best way to stew meat is to place it in a vessel over the top of which a cloth is tied. The vessel is then immersed in water con- tained in a saucepan. The water in this saucepan is made to gently simmer or slightly boil, and in this manner the meat is stewed in its own vapour, and forms a most suitable food for the convalescent invalid. Captain Warren's cookjng-pot depends on this prin- ciple. A contrivance, called the "Norwegian nest," sold by Messrs. Silver & Co., may be worth describing here. It consists of a box con- structed like a refrigerator, the only differ- ence being that it keeps the heat in instead of out. It is padded inside with a non-con- ducting material, with & space in the centre for receiving the vessel in which the process of cooking is carried on. If the vessel be filled with water, and this by the aid of heat COP ( i66 ) COP kept at the boiling-point for a few minutes, and then placed in the box and shut in by the closure of the lid, the process of cooking goes on away from the fire, no matter in what situation the box may be placed. On the score of economy this laox recommends itself to every household. On account of its economy, the Norwegian pot was introduced into the French navy in 1869, and the results have been very satisfac- tory. — (Annales d'Hygibne, 1874.) In boiling fish, it is well to remember that fish boiled in hard water is much firmer than if it be prepared in soft water j hence iish boiled in sea-water, or water to which 'salt has been added, is finer flavoured and m^oh firmer than it would have been had it been cooked in ordinary water. Speaking gener- ally, although there are some very important exceptions, fish are always better fried. Vegetables boiled in water to which salt has been added, are not so tender as they would be if no salt were added. The salt is gener- ally put in to preserve the colour. Copper — Metallic copper is found in various parts of the globe, but its most abundant source is that of various copper ores. It is principally obtained from the pyrites of Cornwall, Devonshire, and Cuba, and from the carbonates of copper imported from Australia. It has a specific gravity of 8 '86 to 8 '894. It is combustible and readily oxidised. It communicates a green tinge to fiame. Acid, , alkaline, saline, and fatty bodies, when placed in contact with it in air, promote its union with oxygen, and by dissolving a portion of the newly -formed oxide acquire poisonous properties. Characteristics of the Salts of Copper. — Copper dissolves in dilute nitric acid. The solution possesses the following properties : In colour it is blue or. greenish-blue. With potash or soda it yields a blue precipitate {hydrate of copper) ; a small quantity of ammonia produces with it a similar bluish- white precipitate, but an excess redissolves it, forming a deep blue liquid ; ferrocyanide of potassium occasions in it a, reddish-brown precipitate (ferrocyanide of copper) ; sulphu- retted hydrogen and the hydrosulphides throw down a black precipitate {sulphide of copper) ; and lastly, a polished iron plate plunged into the liquid becomes ' coated with metallic copper (Cu2N03-l-Fe=CuH-Fe2N03). One of the most important salts which copper forms is sulphate of copper. . It is met with in the form of oblique rhombic azure- blue crystals, with a styptic metallic taste, slightly efflorescing in dry air, soluble in water, and reddening litmus paper. It acts as an emetic, as a stimulant and astringent, and externally as an escharotic. The fatal dose of this salt is variable ; as much as 5 drachms have been taken without proving fatal. Smaller doses are often more fatal than larger ones, owing to the emetic action in- duced by the latter. Detection of Copper. — Whether copper be searched for, in cases of poisoning, in the con- tents of the stomach or in foods, the same process is applicable. If searched for in an organic liquid, it will be better to evaporate to dryness, add nitric acid, and boil to destroy organic matter, dilute and filter. A clean knife-blade or a needle inserted in the liquid will give evidence of copper, if present. Another excellent way, applicable to any organic soUd, is to bum down to an ash in a platinum dish, treat the' ash with a little dilute acid, and then insert a slip of zinc ; if copper be present, it is deposited on the platinum dish. Copper thus obtained may be confirmed by other tests ; thus prussiate of potash added to a solution of copper gives a chocolatepredpitate, ammonia a blue colour, &c. Adulterations. — Sulphate of iron and sul- phate of zinc are sometimes fraudulently added. The iron is detected by ammonia not redissolving the oxide ; zinc, by first precipi- tating the copper with sulphuretted hy(lrogen, then, on the addition of ammonia, some of the above gas being in solution, a whitish sulphuret of zinc is thrown down. Copper-founders, and others working in this metal, are very subject to affections of the chest. When copper vessels are used for culinary or pharmaceutical purposes, great care should be exercised in their employment. Copper vessels should never be employed for any fluids that are the least acidulous, or that may have to remain long in them. Acid syrups, vegetable juices, aqueous extracts, soups, stews, &c., prepared in copper sauce-pans or boilers receive a metallic contaminatioi} pro- portional to the length of time they are ex- posed to the action of the metal ; and it is important to remember that when copper vessels are allowed to get wet or dirty, or more especially greasy, a poisonous green rust forms upon the surface somewhat similar to verdigris. If articles are prepared in them in this state, serious consequences may ensue. Cases of poisoning from this cause are fre- quently met with, therefore it is necessary to be very careful that copper vessels should be thoroughly cleaned out immediately previous to their being used. Such copper vessels are occasionally lined by a thin film of tin; but this necessarily, COP {167) COS from constant use, becomes imperfect, and affords but little protection, therefore great caution must be used in employing tinned copper boilers. Mr. W. Thompson in one case found no less than 3'575 grains of copper in a gallon of water drawn from a kitchen- boiler of this description. The copper existed in this case in the form of a soluble sul- phate. After. a careful examination of the cause, Mr. Thompson could only suggest, that as in the process of galvanising the copper it is first pickled in sulpturic acid, some of the acid must have been retained in the cMvices of the rivets and then dialysed out, carrying with it the copper.— (See Chemical News, vol. xxxi. No. 801, 1875.) Indeed copper in minute quantities is con- tinually finding its way into the human body through the use of copper vessels, copper coins, intentional and accidental contamina- tion of food, &c. This fact is conclusively established by Bergeron and L. L. Hote, who examined specially the kidneys and livers of fourteen human bodies for copper, the result being that the metal was found in every case. In two of the cases, aged seventeen years, its presence could only be proved qualita- tively. In eleven, aged from twenty-six to fifty- eight years, the quantities of copper found ranged from '7 to 1 milligramme. And in one Individual, aged seventy-eight years, the cop- per found amounted to 1'5 milligrammes. — (Comp. Eend., Ixxx. 268.) Water, and hence food, has occasionally become contaminated with copper through strange channels. For example, in France, at Roubaix, many of the rain-water tanks were found to contain considerable quantities of sulphate of copper. Moat of the stoves there had been supplied with copper flues, the sulphur compounds from the coal had formed a sulphide of copper, which the action of the air changed into sulphate ; this being deposited on the roofs, the rains washed down and dissolved into the cisterns. The various compounds of copper are largely used for the adulteration and colouring of different articles used as foods. Carbonate and arsenite of copper have been used for the purpose of colouring tea leaves. See Tea. Sulphate of copper has been employed chiefly in Belgium for the purpose of whiten- ing bread. See Bread. Sulphate and acetate of copper are con- stantly added to pickles for the purpose of giving them a bright green colour. See Pickles. Preserves and jellies are often adulterated with copper. In sauces, also, this metal has frequently been discovered. It has been de- tected in annatto, in confectionery, in wine, and in the absinthe so much used in France. The emanations from copper-Works where pyrites are burnt are large quantities of sul- phurous acid, arsenic, and a little copper. Copperas — A generic name for the crude metallic sulphates. When used without a qualifying adjective, it generally means sul- phate of iron. iSee.lKON. Coriander Seeds— The dried ripe fruit of the Coriandrum sativum, natural order UmheUifercB. Grows wild about Ipswich and some parts of Essex, although not really indi- genous, but a native of the south of Europe. The coriander seed is used for mixing with curry powders. It is about the size of white pepper, globular, finely ribbed, and of a yel- lowish-brown colour. It consists of two hemi- spherical mericarps, adherent by their concave surfaces. Each merioarp is without evident primary ridges, but the four secondary ridges are more prominent and keeled. The channels are without vitts, but the commissure has two. It has a peculiar, agreeable, aromatic odour. The mature seed does not contain starch. See Cubby . Com-Flour— Sec FionB, &c. Cosmetics — It is convenient to under- stand by the term *' cosmetics" all substances applied to the skin, hair, beard, nails, and teeth to improve their appearance. There are many instances on record of poisoning from the use of cosmetics of a deleterious nature ; for example, Horace Walpole relates, "That pretty young woman. Lady Fortrose, Lady Harrington's eldest daughter, is at the point of death, killed, like Coventry and othersj by white-lead, of which nothing could break her. " — (HoEAOE Walpole, Letters, vol. iii. p. 200.) The same substance is to this day used by the London actresses. Dr. George Johnson has recently called attention to several cases, treated at King's College Hospital, of lead- poisoning, caused by the use of flake-white, " amongst the ballet dancers and others." Cosmetics are generally prepared from the vegetable and mineral kingdom ; some few from the animal world, such as spermaceti, civet, and most pomades. Cosmetics, speaking generally, are not adul- terated with dangerous substances, but usually mixed with similar articles of an inferior quality. On the other hand, some few consist almost entirely of metallic substances. Arsenic is generally present in large quan- tities in depilatory powders. COT (i68) CBE Subnitrate of bismuth is used as a prepara- tion for imparting clearness to the complexion {blanc de perle). Carbonate of lead is often used to adulterate this substance, and enters largely into the composition of two substances known as blanc de Krims and blanc de vinaigre. Lead is also frequently present in prepara- tions used to stain the hair black ; and in one or two instances poisoning has occurred, for example — Mr. John C. Hunter relates the case of a gentleman in Glasgow who had used a "hair- restorer" to dye his grey locks, and soon exhibited symptoms of lead-poisoning. The strength of the wash appears to have been, 2 '75 grains of lead to the fluid ounce, the lead existing in the form of acetate. — (Pharmaceu- tical Journal, February 27, 1875.) Dr. Taylor also states, that he has met'with an instance in which paralysis .of the muscles on one side of the neck arose from the impru- dent use of a hair-dye containing litharge. — (T^atloe's Principles of Medical Jurispru- dence, vol. i. p. 299.) Nitrate of silver as a dye is also much used, and mercury finds its place in various washes and ointments largely dispensed by chemists for the purpose of destroying parasites, &c. Cottages— &c Habitations. Cotton— The cotton of which textile fabrics are made consists of haus covering the seeds of certain plants belonging to the natural order Malvacece, or the Mallow family. The com- mercial cotton is derived from four distinct species — Oossypium arborewm, an Indian spe- cies ; Oossypium Sarbadense, the Barbadoes cotton plant ; Cfossypium herbaceum, the com- mon cotton plant of India ; Oossypium Peru- vianum~-0T acuminatum^ a species supposed to be indigenous to America. It is a diaphanous substance, which forms fibres about ^-^ of an inch in diameter, ribbon-like, and flattened in shape. The fibres are twisted at intervals, and the borders are a little thickened. The interior canal is very frequently obliterated, or if it is not, it may contain some extractive matters. Fresh cotton fibre is a cylindrical hair with thin walls, which collapses and twists as it becomes dry. Iodine stains it brown ; iodine and sulphuric acid (in very small quantities) give a blue or violet blue ; nitric acid unrolls the twists, but does not destroy them. Cotton wears well; it is very non-absorbent, does not shrink in washing, and conducts heat less rapidly than linen, but much more rapidly than wool. Smoothness, evenness of texture, and equality of spinning are the chief points to be attended to in choosing cotton fabrics. Cotton alone is used in cotton shirting and calico. In merino and other fabrics, it is used with wool in the proportion of 20 to 50 per cent, of wool, the threads being twisted to- gether to form the yarn. See Clothing. Court Iieet— Sec Leet, Coukt of. Courts— The hygienic condition of our courts of law in past times was defective in the extreme, and led to serious results. For example,' the Bl^ck Assizes at the Old Bailey, Taunton, Launceston, Exeter, &c., were directly due to contagion from the pri- soners, and this contagion would probably not have been so fatal if the courts had been bnilt larger and not so crowded. At the present date many of our courts are the same as those of the Black Assizes. Their great fault is their small size, which permits overcrowding to a great and insuiferable extent. Besides, it is not ordinary overcrowding, but a collection of people very frequently from the lowest and most unhealthy parts of our towns. The sani- tary officials of every place should carefully examine the drains, water-closets, ventilation, &c., of every courthouse, and notices should be posted warning people recovering from any infectious disease from entering into the court. See Blaok Assizes, Ventilation, DlSINPECTION. Cream is that portion of the milk which rises to the surface on standing. It is really milk rich in fat. The following table shows the composition of six samples of genuine cream analysed by Mr. Vanklyn :— 1. 2. S. 4. 6. 6. Water . 72-20 71-2 6636 60-17 63-62 6000 Fat . . 19-00 14-1 18-87 3302 38 17 43-90 Milk, sugar,) caseine, S- 8-80 14-7 14-77 6-81 8-21 610 and ash ) Cream is rich in butter, a quart of good cream generally yielding from 13 oz. to 15 oz. of commercial butter. In good seasons, when the cows are fed on rich pasture-land, a quart of cream will often yield about 16 oz. of butter ; and if they are fed on oilcake, as much as from 22 oz. to 24 oz. are obtained. The so- called clotted cream of Devonshire is thus prepared. The milk is allowed to stand for a day to allow the cream to. rise ; it is then strongly heated, but not allowed to boil ; the heat coagulates some of the caseine, and the cream is involved in the coagulum. The analysis of cream is conducted on exactly the same principle as that of milk; but it must be weighed, not measured, and smaller quantities may be evaporated to dryness in order to estimate the water, if the ratio of the water to the solids, not fat, is such that CUE (169) CTJB adulteration may be suspected ; for this ratio, although occasionally disturbed by some of the caseine rising with the fat, is practically the same as in milk. Mineral adulterations, such as carbonate of magnesia, will be detected, if present, in the ash. See Mile. Creches (infant asylums)— These are cha- ritable institutions where children of both sexes,-*ip to the age of six, are admitted dur- ing the day, and receive proper care and edu- cation, whilst their mothers are at work. They appear to have been first originated by Ober- lin, the well-known Protestant pastor of the Vosges. They were definitely established in France about the year 1826. In 1837 there were in France 261 asiles, admitting daily 29,244 children ; in 1840 they had increased to 555 ; and in 1860 they had again increased to 3000, utilised by 300,000 children. Oraches have been 'introduced into England. There are several in London, which are found very useful, and a benefit to the poorer olasse^. Crenothrix Polyspora— A plant or fun- gus belonging to a new genus, and to which the above name was given by Dr. Cohn, who dis- covered it in well-water at Breslau, in a part noted for the prevalence of typhus. Creosote, or Kreosote (CisHisOs, or CgHioOa), sp.gr. 1'057 — This is a peculiar substance discovered by Keichenbach, and so named from its antiseptic properties (Kpeas, flesh ; ffioTTjpj preserver). The true composi- tion of creosote is not definitely settled. MiiUer considers it as methyloxykresylio acid (HCVCCHslHgOj). It is obtained, amongst the products of the distillation of wood tar, and its purification is difficult and tedious. Long before its discovery by Reichenbach, it was a component of Aqua Binelli, the com- position of which was kept secret in Italy for years. Creosote, when pure, is a colourless oily liquid of great refractive power. Its taste is pungent and caustic, and the vapour is ex- tremely irritating to the eyes. It boils at 400° F., and is still fluid at 16-6° F. It is soluble in all proportions in acetic acid, alco- hol, etl^er, benzole, naphtha, bisulphide of carbon, the essential and fatty oils, ammonia, and potash; but it is sparingly soluble in water (about 1 in 80). Gmelin states that water containing so small a quantity as 1 in 10,000 smells of smoke. Creosote is decomposed by the strong acids. It reduces the nitrate and acetate of silver, is resinified by chlorine, and is a solvent for phosphorus, iodine, sulphur, the resins, the al- kaloids, indigo blue, the acetates and chloride of calcium and tin, and several other salts. Creosote precipitates albumen, although the aqueous solution is neutral. Creosote is inflammable. It bums with difficulty, with a smoky flame. A slip of deal immersed in creosote, and then dipped in hydrochloric acid and allowed to dry in the air, acqtdres a greenish-blue colour. It turns a ray of polarised light to the right, which easily distinguishes it from carbolic acid, which turns a ray of polarised light to the left. Few substances are more adulterated and impure than commercial creosote. Much of it is nothing but carbolic acid flavoured with creo- sote. In other cases it is a mixture of creo- sote, picamar, and light oil of tar. The purity of creosote may be known by the following tests: 1. It should be perfectly soluble in acetic acid. 2. Mixed with water, not more than -^ should disappear ; if more than ^ disappear, it has probably been adulterated with water. 3. Its aqueous solution is per- fectly neutral, and there is no residue floating on the surface. Creosote is a powerful antiseptic. It pre- serves all animal substances. Smoked hams, &c., are really preserved in great measure by the creosote which the smoke contains. In the preservation of meat it acts in two ways — by arresting putrefaction, and by preventing the access of insects, for it is a true insecticide, and a saucer containing a few drops of creo- sote will keep a pantry very free from flies. Its disinfectant properties are, it may be sur- mised, high, but it has never been used on a large scale, its place having been taken to a great extent by carbolic acid. Creosote is used in the arts as a preservative of all kinds of organic substances. It is em- ployed in medicine both externally and inter- nally, and it has been used as an adulterant to give a smoky flavour to a made-up whisky, &c. Cretinism— Sec GoiiRE. Croton Oil— 5ec Oils. Croup — ^The croup of English wi'iters, as Dr. G. Johnson has ably shown, confuses to- gether two distinct affections : one, a spasm of the larynx (Laryngismus stridulus), not a fatal disease, although death occasionally re- sults ; the other, true diphtheria, with the characteristic exudation in the larynx. See DiPHTHBBIA. Cubic Space— To maintain the purity of the air in rooms, public buildings, &c., the cubic space should be large enough to permit the passage of 3000 cubic feet of air per head without producing any perceptible draughts. Professor Pettenkofer found that by means of artificial ventilation, and with the aid of CUM (170) OXJR the best meclianical contrivances, the air in a chamber of 424 cubic feet can be renewed six times per hour -without creating any appreci- able air currents. According to the army regulations — Cubic Feet Space. In permanent barracks a man is allowed 600 In wooden huts „ 400 In hospital wards at home „ 1200 ■ In hospital wards in the tropics „ 1500 In wooden hospitals at home ,, 600 In the common lodging-houses, 30 super- ficial and 240 cubic feet are allowed. In the section houses of the metropolitan police, 50 feet superficial and 450 cubic feet are given. The Poor Law Board allows 300 cubic feet for every healthy person in dormitories, and from 850 cubic feet and upwards, according to cir- cumstances, as far as 1200 feet, for every sick person. In Dublin an allowance of 300 cubic feet is required in the registered lodging- houses. In the Prussian army the allowance is 495 cubic feet, the superficial space being 42-45 square feet. In the old Hanoverian army the cubic space was 700 to 800 cubic feet (Prussian). The London School Board have given in a general schoolroom 10 square feet per scholar, and in graded schools 9 square feet— the height was ordered to be 13 feet — making 130 and 117 cubic feet respectively. ' To measure cubic space, simply multiply the three dimensions — ^length, breadth, and height. Should the room be of irregular form, semicircular, containing many angles, &c., then the ordinary rules for the measurement of the area of circles, segments, triangles, &c., must be applied. Recesses containing air should also be measured and added to the amount of cubic space. Solid masses of furni- ture, projections, cupboards, &c., should also be measured and their cubic contents deducted from that already taken. Bedding occupies a certain' amount of space, and the fact that the bodies of persons living in the room take the place of a certain quantity of air should not be forgotten. A soldier's hospital mattress, pillow, three blankets, one coverlet, and two sheets will occupy almost 10 cubic feet. — (Parkes.) And a man of average size dis- places about 2J to 4 cubic feet of air. See Ventilation. Cumin Seed^— The cumin plant {Gumi- num Cymmum), belonging to the natural order Umbelliferw, is a native of Upper Egypt, but is extensively cultivated in Sicily and Malta. The seeds are much used in the making of curry powders ; they are larger than anise, and of a light broWu or greyish-yellow colour — something like, but larger than, a caraway seed. Each mericarp has five primary ridges, which are filiform and fvjrnished with very fine prickles. The four secondary ridges are prominent and prickly, and under each there is one vitta. These seeds have a peculiar medicinal taste and smell. The seeds do not contain starch. - See Cueky Powdek. Cupralum— A form of disinfectant de- signed by Dr. Bond, Medical Officer of Health to the Gloucestershire Combined Sanitary Districts, composed of a combination of the sulphates of aluminum and copper with potassic dichromate and terebene. Dr. .Bond claims for this combination the, following advantages : (o) the highest power of coagu- lating albumen practically available ; (b)\ a similarly high antiseptic ■ power ; (c) great activity as a deodorant, due partly to the action of the metallic salts upon sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, &c., partly to the action of terebene as an ozoniser, and partly to the mechanical effect which the latter body has in preventing dissemination of gases from liquid surfaces by forming over them an im- permeable film. Curcuma Arrowroot— 5ee StabCh. Curd — Curd constitutes the basis of cheese. It is coagulated caseine which has involved and carried with it the suspended milk globules. Curd, therefore, consists of the nitrogenous portion of milk mixed with the chief part of its fatty element. See Cheese, Mile, &c. Currants— The so-called currants which are used in cakes and puddings constitute the dried fruit of a vine which grows in the Ionian Islands, and yields a very small berry. The word "currant," as there employed, is a cor- ruption of Corinth, where the fruit was for- merly produced. The currants of our gardens are varieties of the Sibes rubrum, and Biies nigrum, (Linn.) The first includes red cur- rants, and the second white currants. The fruit of both these varieties is gently acidu- lous, cooling, and wholesome. The fruit ef the black Currant is slightly aperient. Composition qf Currants (Frbsknius). SoUUe Matter— Sugar .... 4-78 6-44 6-647 Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) , 2-31 1-84 1-695 Albuminous substances 0-45, 0-49 366 Pectous substances . 0-28 019 0-007 Ash . 0-61 0'57 0-620 Insoluble Matter — Seeds . Skins, &c. . 4- 5> 0-66; 4 '48 S-940 Pectose 0-69 0-72 2-380 ■ [Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given] [0-11] ^5-84^ [0 23] [0-186] Water 86-27 86-356 100-00 100-00 10000 CTJR (171) CYS 712 Middle-sized White. Soluble Matter — Sugar. . . . 6-61 7 6 Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) . . . 2-25 • 2-258 2-53 Albuminous substances 0-77 1 n qnn /0-68 Pectous. substances . 18 f "''"" 1.0-19 Ash . . . . 0-54 0-560 0-70 Insoluble Mcuter-^ SklnU • ■ *■»* *■"* *-85 Pectose . 0-53 240 0-51 [Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given] fO'l^] ... [0-14] Water . . . 8417 84-806 83-42 100-00 100-00 100-00 Curry Powder — Curry powders are use- ful for giving a relish to the otherwise insipid rice so largely taken in the East, and for the same reason we use them with the almost fla- vourless mixtures of rice and chicken, rabbit, or fish. The composition of the Ceylon curry powder, which is usually allowed to be the finest, is, according to Dr. Balfour, as follows : A piece of green ginger, two fragments of garlic, a few coriander and cumin seeds, six small onions, one dry chilli, eight peppercorns, a small piece of turmeric, half a desert-spoon- ful of butter, half a cocoa-nut, and half a lime ; but it is necessary, to have it in perfection, that it be made the same day on which it is to be cooked. Good unadulterated curry powder, as met with in this country, generally consists of tur- meric, black pepper, coriander seeds, cayenne, fenugreek, cardamoms, cumin, ginger, all- spice, and cloves : the three latter substances are frequently omitted. A description of these different ingredients -will be found in the articles under their several headings. The curry powder of commerce is seldom pure. The adulterations that have been de- tected are ground rice, potato starch, red-lead, and salt. Cyanide of Potassium — See Potas- sium. Cyanide of Silver— &c Silver. Cychorium Intybus — See Chicoet. Cyclops Quadricornis, or 'Water- Plea— Generally very common in the spring, and only found within 1 or 2 feet of thfe surface. They occur in so many good waters, that they cannot be considered as indicating any dangerous impurity. The Cyclops quadri- cornis, when first bom, is totally unlike its parents, being of an ovoid shape, having only two short antennae and two pairs of feet. In three moults the animal reaches its perfect form, with its two psurs of antennse, five pairs of feet, and body divided into several distinct rings or segments. See Water, Cysticeroi are forms of embryo taenia or tapeworms which infest the bodies of animals, and these, when taken into the system of an appropriate subject, by eating the infested flesh or otherwise, become developed into tapeworms; they are, therefore, although separate parasites, extremely unlike tape- worms — in point of fact, only a stage of development in the life-history of the tape- worm, just as the chrysalis, in the insect world, is an intermediate stage between the maggot or caterpillar, and the fully-devel- oped, winged, mature insect. The following are the more important cysticerci : — 1. Cysticercus telce cellulosce — the cysti- cerous of the Tani asolium found in man, in the pig, ox, horse, camel, sheep, and roe- deer. 2. The cysticercus of the Taenia medio- canellata found in the muscles and internal organs of cattle. 3. The cysticercus of the Tcenia marginata found in cattle, sheep, horses, the reindeer, squirrels, in various monkeys, and occasionally in man. The Cysticercus cellulosce is a parasite very frequently met with, more especially in pork, which when attacked by it is generally known as " measly." According to Professor Gamgee*s communication in the " Fifth Report of the Medical Officer to the Privy Council," 1865, at least 3 per cent., and pro- bably 5 per cent., of the pigs in Ireland are thus affected. The Cysticercus cellulosce is in the shape of a little white glistening conical vesicle, vary- ing in size from the x^rr of s^" i""^ 1"°? *"^ tJj broad to a size of J of an inch, or even Pig. 22. more. To this vesicle the head of a taenia is attached by a narrow transversely - marked pedicle or neck. The head is furnished with the characteristic booklets described in article CYS (172) CYS T^NIA, and it can be retracted within or pro- truded from the vesicle. In muscle, or in firm tissues, a cyst is developed around the parasite at the expense of the tissue ; in free cavities, suoh as in the ventricles of the brain and in the eye, this external cyst is absent, and the parasite may develop to a very large size. ' I Fig, 22 shows the head of the embryo Cysticercus eelluham from measly pork. The symptoms of measles in the pig' are obscure ; the animal is dull and off its food, there is tenderness in the groin and swelling in the shoulder ; but these symptoms may all be absent.' It may be, however, found, during life, in the tongue, especially, underneath it, in the sublingual glands ; it may also be dis- covered on the conjunctiva, and in the folds of mucous membrane near the' anus. From the experiments of Professor Leuckart of Glessen, it appears certain that man may become infested with the Tcenia medio- ea/ndlata by eating imperfectly-cookfed veal or beef afteoted with cysticeroi. ' This cysticercus is very similar in appear- ance, in size, &c., to the one previously de- scribed ; it may be diagnosed by its hook- lets. Fig. 23 is a representation of the head of the parasite from ration beef! rig. 23. DAIVC (173) DAB D. • Dammai* — Thia substance is now largely used by miorosoopists for mounting unsof tened bone, teetb, bair, and most tissues which have been hardened in alcohol or chromic acid. Dr. Klein gives the following receipt for pre- paring this fluid : — (a. ) Gum dammar, i oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1 oz. : dissolve and filter. (6.) Gum mastioi J oz.; chloroform, 2 oz.: dissolve and filter. Add solution a to solu- tion 6. Dammar, if rendered thick by drying, may be used as a luting. Dampness, whether of foundations of houses, of floors, or of clothing, is a recognised cause of a great variety of diseases. Attempts have been recently made, to esti- mate the dampness of walls quantitatively. J. Glassgen (Zeitsohrift fur Biologic, x. 247-262) obtained good results by taking a piece of mortar from the wall and passing dry air free from carbonic acid over it, the weight of the mortar before and after the operation being carefully taken, and the difference expressed as the mechanically-com- bined water. Lastly, the cAemicos^-oombined water was estimated by passing carbonic anhy- dride over the mortar and again weighing it. Experiments of this kind carried out at Munich showed the gradual drying of the walls with age, and the retardation of the drying process in buildings in confined situa- tions, where the air }iaving but little move- merit becomes saturated with moisture, so that the water can no longer evaporate from the walls. The absolute amount of moisture allowable in any given locality depends on the material of which the house is built, the season of the year, and local conditions. J. Glassgen con- siders that the moisture on the walls of houses at Munich should not exceed 1 per cent, of the mortar ; but no experiments of the kind appear to have been undertaken in England. Damp-proof Courses — This is a name given by builders and architects to an arrange- ment in the walls of houses to prevent the damp, arising from the foundation by capillary attraction, from going upwards all over a house. Various kinds are in use. The most simple one is a double course of slates, in cement, laid along the top of the walls just as they emerge above the ground-line. The best damp course is. said to be a vitrified stoneware tUe, perforated vrith holes, about 1^ inch thick. This ventilates the floor, prevents dry-rot in the timbers, and acts as an efficient damp-proof course. Daphnia Fulex CWater-Flea)— This animal is found in so many good waters, that its presence can scarcely be considered an in- dication of dangerous impurity. See Watbe. Darnel (Lolivm tem,ulentmn)—Tb.\a poison- ous grass frequently becomes mixed either with the flour of wheat or some other cereal farina, '^he effects of these seeds on man are described by Pereira as being headache, giddi- ness, languor, ringing in the ears, confusion of sight, dilated pupil, delirium, heaviness, somnolency, trembling convulsions, paralysis, and great gastro-intestinal irritation. Seeger says that one of the most certain signs of poisoning by them is trembling of the whole body. All the inmates of the poorhouse at Shef- field, to the number of eighty, were attacked with analogous symptoms after a meal of oat- meal porridge, and it was supposed that these Ul-effeots arose from the presence of darnel in the meal. On the authority of Dr. Kingsley of Boscrea, Dr. Taylor states that in the month of January 1854 about thirty people suffered severely from the effects of bread containing the flour of darnel seeds ; and in a prison at Cologne sixty persons suffered from the use of a bread-meal containing a drachm and a half of Lolium t&mulentum in 6 ounces of bread. Monsieur C. Baillet and Filhall made some valuable experiments a few years ago on the action of the watery extract and the oil of darnel in animals. The oil extracted from 3 kilogrammes of darnel acts in a most violent manner upon horses, causing increased frequency of the heart's action and of the respiration, followed by tremors of the whole body, passing into con- vulsions, death taking place in a somnolent state ; or if the dose be small, a sleepy, stupid aspect invariably preceding recovery. The post mortem appearances showed congestion of the brain and spinal cord, fcongestion of the intestines, redness of the stomach, and en- gorgement of the liver. The watery extract, when given by the mouth in very large doses, causes but very slight symptoms in horses, but given to dogs, cats, &c. {Garrdvora), is rapidly fatal; but when a large dose of the extract (that from 4 kilogrammes of the plant) was injected into DAT (174) BEA the veins of an old horae, the animal died after three days of great suffering, the symptoms being very similar to those produced by the oil. But in addition, there was a profuse sali- vation ; the urine was scanty, thicli, dark, and offensive ; and a large osdematous swelling of the chest appeared. After death, engorge- ment of the kidneys and liver, redness of the peritoneum and stomach, and congestion of the intestines, were the principal lesions ob- served. The chemical tests for darnel, when mixed with flour, are of a very unsatisfactory (iharac- ter. Viewed beneath the microscope, the flour of the darnel seed presents, according to Dr. HassaU, the following appearance : The starch corpuscles are polygonal, and resemble in this respe'ct those of rice. They are, how- ever, much smaller, and frequently united into compound grains of various sizes, the larger grains consisting of some fifty or sixty starch corpuscles. The structure of the testa is very different from that of either rice or oat, or indeed any of the other cereal grains. It is formed of three coats or membranes. The cells of the outer coat form but a single layer,' and, con- trary to the arrangemeiit which exists in the oat, their long axes are disposed transversely, in _whioh respect they resemble rice. The fibres of the husk of rice and the cells of the testa of lolium are, however, very distinct in other respects. In the former the cells are long and narrow, forming fibres, while in the latter they are but between two and three times as long as broad. The cells of the second coat, which are ranged in two layers, follow a vertical disposition, an arrangement which is contrary to that which obtains in all the other cereal grains, with the exception of rice. The cells of the third coat form but a single layer, and resemble those of other grains. Dates — The date is derived from the Phce- nix dactylifera, or palm-tree of Scripture, a native of Africa and parts of Asia. The fruit is of a drupaceous nature, and according to Beinsch, the fleshy part contains 58 per cent. of sugar, apcompanied by pectine, gum, &o. Dates, and more especially dried dates, are very nutritious. Daturia — An' alkaloid obtained from the seeds of the thorn-apple {Datura Stramonium), The seeds themselves, or preparations from them, are employed to a considerable extent in India by the Thugs to render their victims in- sensible. The alkaloid was considered by Dr. Planta and others to be identical with atropia, but the physiological properties are different. {See BONCHABDET, Ann. de ThSrapeutique, 1864, p. 24.) Daturia, if heated in a tube, evolves ammonia. It is soluble in water, with an alkaline reaction. It is precipitated by tannic acid and chloriodide of potassium, i^itrio and hydrochloric acid dissolve it without change of colour. It is precipitated" from its solutions by alkalies in the form of a white powder. Daturia crystallises.in colour- less quadrangular prisms. It is highly poison- ous ; one-eighth of a grain Idlled a sparrow in three hours. The principal symptoms of daturia-poison- ing are insensibility and dilated pupils. See Alkaloids, &o. Dead, Disposal of— The ancient methods of disposal of the dead were various. The ancient Greeks burnt their dead from a very early period ; so also did the Bomans for a time, but afterwards they adopted burial. Cremation was also used by the Thracians, Celts, Germans, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, and Sarmatians. The Egyptians embalmed their dead, and preserved them in immense stone edifices. The Ichthyophagi, or fish -eating nations around Egypt, cast their dead into the sea. The Hebrews sometimes made use of crema- tion, but mostly buried. The Scythians exposed their dead to the air. The Chinese neither used interment nor cremation, but planted trees and burnt wood by the grave. The Hindoos in part burnt their dead, but some threw them into sacred rivers, or, more curious still, exposed them to be eaten by vultures. In modern times many of these customs have descended. The Hindoos still endeavour to follow the ancient usages ; bodies yet float in the Ganges, and the silent towers are standing. The New ^ealanders have a curious custom of burying their chiefs for a time, and then unearthing them in order to recover the orna- ments. Some tribes place the body in a kind of cage until the flesh falls through. The bones are then cleansed, and preserved with reverence in a little house elevated on a pole. The disposal of the dead varies in some parts on account of some peculiarity of the locality. At Iquique the corpses are placed in a large cave, the sides of which are natur- ally saturated with nitre. Here they are pre- served indefinitely, but when the cave is full there is a general delivery, and putrefaction in the'exposed corpses is rapid even in that dry air. In like manner, the Cordeliers at Toulouse had a church in which the soil dried the dead, "a property not belonging to DEA (175) BEA any other part of the convent or its grounds. Old bodies are taken out to make room for new-comers, put in the tower to sweeten, and then arranged along the walls of the chamier, ■which is under the choir." "L'on y a vu pendant longtemps oelui do la BeUe Paule, que fui la plus belle .femme de Toulouse."— (liEISOHmG.) The disposal of the dead has at times varied, simply from fear of desecration of the grave. In the time of the resurrectionists many bodies were buried in quicklime, and a resident of Dundee was so fearful lest the coffin" of his child should be disturbed, that he arranged an explosive apparatus, which was buried with the coffin.— (Southey's Common- place-Eook, iii. 783.) The methods in modern use are, however, as every one knows — 1. Burial ; 2. Cremation ; 3. Embalmment. The latter method is treated of elsewhere. (See Embalming.) The two re- maining ones will now be considered. Burial of the -Dead.— This is the method of disposal which is adopted by all civilised races. It is a question whether it is the best or not. In a purely sanitary point of view, certainly not ; but there are other considera- tions-such as popular prejudice, the detec- tion of crime, old-established custom, &o. — which ought to have weight. Other methods of putting the dead out of our sight have been proposed, and have met with more favour than might have been anticipated — e.g., cremation (see Cremation) and deep-sea burial. The latter is certainly impracticable for inland places, nor is it in harmony with the feelings of the present day. Mr. Seymour Haden would abolish coffins altogether, and substitute wickerwork filled with flowers. The proposal is new, and has been recommended with great force, but we fear the result might be something like that de- scribed in the following extract: — " In the course of walking round this city we had occasion to pass through one of the cemeteries, but the horrible effluvia from the gi-aves obliged lis to alter our course. The Turks do not make use of coffins. Having dressed the dead, they place over the body a few thin pieces of wood, and then cover it with earth. Heavy rain has often the effect of opening. passages down to the putrefying mass, occasioning that pernicious and terrible smell which we experienced, and to which ■ may in some degree be attributed the fre- quency of pestilential diseases in Turkey." — (John Galt, Voyages and Travels, &c., p. 236.) The present method of burial may be modi- fied so as to remove many of the objections raised by those who advocate cremation. We draw out a scheme of disposal of the dead guided by the following principles : 1. Quick burial, in such a manner that the body is pre- served for a certain limited time. 2. That there shall be no nuisance nor danger of infection to the living. 3. That there shall be no danger of a cemetery becoming injurious to health. Every body directly after death should be. covered with sawdust, to which should be added either tan, carbolic acid, or chloride of lime— charcoal would be a good application, if it were not for its colour, which to some people would be most objectionable ; the saw- dust not only absorbs obnoxious gases, but also prevents the escape from a badly-joined coffin of putrescent fluids. We cannot but think that it is safest to treat all corpses as if they were infectious, and to have a very speedy burial ; the time we would fix would be at the end of three days, but in time of virulent epidemics as quickly as it can pos- sibly be done, certainly within forty-eight hours. The material that the coffin is made of is, in a sanitary point of view, of great importance ; the grand and essential point is that it should be impervious to air, and sufficiently strong to bear for a considerable time a good weight of earth. One of the best and cheapest coffins is that described by Mr. Baker in his evidence before the Sanitary Commission. The body is first of all placed in a common shell, and then the shell in a coffin ; the interval between the two is fiUed with boiling pitch, and then the out- side coffin is coated over with pitch, so that it is as perfectly air-tight as a leaden shelL If required, a glass can be put over the face in both shell and coffin, so that a jury, for example, could iuspect the body. In the Exhibition of 1856, at Paris, an American artisan exhibited a coffin of glass. Tliis material can only be looked upon as a curiosity. Leaden coffins, though excellent and durable, are too expensive for general use. It is not so, however, with a patent American metallic coffin, which is cheap, strong, and air-tight. With infectious corpses it is cer- tain that no ordinary wooden coffin (unless pitched) should be used. The time of burial is an important matter. Why should we not convey our friends to the last resting-place at night ? The advantages of this alteration are real and solid, at all events, in large towns. There is no one who knows London well, but must have been struck by the numerous processions of funerals pour- ing along the roads leading to the great ceme- teries, and obstructing the traffic. Surely we are remiude,d suffiioiently of death without re- DEA ( 176 ) , t>EA quiring the visual perception of those hideous mummeries against which the late Charles Dickens lifted his voice ! Burial at night would also have the real advantage, in times of epi- demic, of lessening the probability of spread- ing the disease, as fewer people would be about ; and it would strike a blow to that foolish and often repulsive pomp of woe which some people love to indulge in, even to the detriment of the living. We would strongly advocate an excessive depth for the grave, that only one body should be buried in it, and that there should be suffi- cient space between grave and grave. The depth of the grave varies in different countries. In Austria the depth adopted is 6 ft. 2 in. ; in Hesse Darmstadt, from 5 ft. 7 in. to 6 ft. 6 in. ; Munich, 6 ft. 7 in. ; Stuttgard, 6 ft. 6 in. ; Russia, from 6 ft. to 10 ft. In our own country the practice is generally to make the depth about 6 ft., but then coffins may be placed one on the other, so that, as an actual fact, they often very closely approach the surface. The regulations followed at Stutt- gard are much to be commended. In the cemeteries there, the space allotted for each grave is an oblong piece of land 10 ft. in length and 5 ft. broad. In France the graves vary in depth from 1^ metres (4'921 ft.) to 2 metres (6-561 ft.) They are 8 deciineters (2-264 ft.) in breadth, and distant the one from the other from 3 to 4 decimeters (11-911 in. to 1-1.32 ft.) There is some practical difficulty in laying down a universal law for the depth of graves, on account of difference of soil, height of the subsoil water, &c. Still we would strongly recommend, where possible, a minimum depth of 8 ft., and that in the selection of ceme- teries it should be made essential that neither rock nor water should be found within 10 or 12 ft. of the surface ; or if the soil is damp, that it should be de-eply drained. The lower part of the grave should in most cases be well lined with clay. It should never be lost sight of that, in the interests of justice, we should strive to keep every body from decay for at least a month or so, and it is pretty certain that the looser the soil the more air it will contain, and that, all other things being equal, the quicker decomposition wiU set in. We would, therefore, have a supply of clay in every churchyard and cemetery where the soil is not clayey, and the coffin should rest on and be covered with it. The length and breadth of each burial allotment for adults should be 8 ft. by 4 ft. ; for children, propor- tionately less. There should only be one body buried in the same grave for many years, even in the most preservative soils. The size, then, of a new burial-ground or cemetery for a town or district should be large enough to contain the bodies (calculated from the ave- rage death-rate) of those that may be expected to die in many years to come ; it should then be divided into two halves, and one half should be used until full before the other half is utilised. In order to utilise cemeteries, it must be presumed, first of all, that no brick graves nor family .vaults should be allowed ; that the bodies themselves should be at the depth already stated ; that they should not be utilised until seventy or eighty years after the last burial ; and that two or three years' notice of the reversion of the cemetery to secular uses should be given, and permission accorded to any relatives to remove the dust of their ancestors, if 'they desire it. Popular prejudices are at present against any utilisation of cemeteries, on account of desecration — a very proper feeling when the death is recent ; but it is idle to talk of desecrating human dust centuries old — a mere matter of sentiment, followed so little in practice that hardly aiding of England has been allowed to rest in peace. Every time a church is repaired, or an old graveyard opened, this desecration is committed far more wantonly, and in a more repulsive manner, than could ever occur in the method suggested. Cremation (the burning of the dead). — Tliis very ancient method of disposing of the dead has, in modern times, been to a certain extent revived. In England a society has been formed to introduce the practice, and in Ger- many cremation has also made some progress. Different experiments prove very conclusively, that a body may be burnt without odour and at a comparatively small cost. Sir Henry Thomp- son consumed a body, weighing 227 lbs., in a furnace invented by Dr. W. Siemens, in fifty-five minutes : the ashes weighed about 5 lbs. The essential feature of this furnace is that it contains a cylindrical vessel 7 ft. long by 6 ft. in diameter. This is heated white hot (2000° ¥.], and then the body is in- troduced, the gases emitted going over a large surface of strongly - heated firebricks. Sir H. Thompson suggests the following sketch of cremation, if .universally adopted: "When death occurs, and the necessary certificate has been given,* the body is placed in a light wood shell, then in a suitable outside re- ceptacle preparatory to removal for religious rites or otherwise. .After a proper time has elapsed, it is conveyed to the spot where ore- * Sir H. Thompson very properly suggests that offlcera be appointed to examine and certify into all cases of fleath. They would hold a position similar to the mMeoin virifimteur of France. DEA (177) DEW mation is to be performed. There nothing need be seen by the last attendant or attend- ants than the placing of a shell mthin a small compartment, and the closing of the door upon it. It slides down into the heated chamber, and is left there an hour until the necessary changes have taken place. The ashes are then placed at the disposal of the attendants."— (Sir H. Thompson, Cremation, ISM.) The serious, and almost insuperable ob- jection, is'the faoilitywith wMoh cremation would conceal certain crimes, such as poison, and render identity in other cases impossible. This difficulty is not got orer by keeping (as has been proposed) the stomach in a jar, properly preserved, for a certain time, since it is well kpown that many alkaloids cannot be found in that organ, but must be discovered in th« tissues. SuHal of the dead and tuHal-grdunds are regulated by various statutes which local authorities have nothing to do with directly, with the exception that in a local government district, when the vestry resolves to appoint a burial board, the vestry may declare the local board to be the burial board of such parish ; and the expenses of such burial board are to be defrayed out of a rate levied on such parish in the same manner as a general district rate. If such parish has been declared a ward for the election of members of the local board, such members are to form the burial board for the parish.— (21 & 22 Vict. u. 90, s. 49.) A sanitary authority may provide a proper place for the reception of dead bodies, as well as for those which are to undergo a post inortem examination. A sanitary authority may make arrangements for interment. An urban sanitary authority has the useful power of regulating these matters by bylaws. A sanitary authority, once constituted a burial board, has to carry out the Burial Acts, to repair the fence of a 'disused burial-ground, and generally to preserve and regulate all burial-grounds within its jurisdiction. — (24 & 25 Vict. 0. 61, s. 21.) When a burial-ground is dangerous to the health of persons living in its neighbourhood, or to the heeilth of those frequenting the church, it may be closed, and a place of interment provided elsewhere. It may be useful in this place to note, that the common law casts upon the person under whose roof a death takes place, the obligation of providing buriaL He may neither cast the body forth, nor carry it uncovered to the grave, but must give the corpse decent burial. This obligation not alone extends to private persons, but to public bodies also. Justices may, on a certificate signed by a legally-qualified medical practitioner, order removal of a corpse to a mortuary in certain cases. See Mortuabt. Interment within the walls or underneath any church, or other place of public worship, built in any urban district, since August 31, 1848, is forbidden under a penalty of £50. — (11 & ,12 Vict. 0. 63, s. 83.) ^ee lOTBOTions Diseases, Moktdakies. Deadly Nightshade — See Atbofia, Hemlock, &c. Deaf MvLtea—See Blindness and Deaf Mutism. Death, Registration of—See Bikies, Deaths, and Sickness Retdkns, &c. Death, Returns of — See Births, Deaths, and Sickness Eetdbns. Deaths, Verification of— In Paris and large French towns there is a complete system of medical inspectors called midecins virifica- teura, whose business it is to visit each house where a death occurs, and ascertain that the person is really dead, and that there are no suspicious circumstances whatever connected with his or her decease. More than eighty qualified medical men are employed for this purpose in Paris. ' . In the rural districts of France this system is not in force. Two witnesses making a declaration to the civil officer that a death has taken place, is considered sufficient. The burial is not allowed to take place until at least twenty-four hours after this declaration. The inaire is also supposed to assure himself, by actual inspection, that the person is dead, and that there are no suspicious circumstances about the death ; but this is not always followed out in practice. Decomposition, Animal— ^S'ee Puibe- faotion. Dengue — A peculiar febrile disease, the chief symptoms of which would almost agree with those of a mixture of scarlet fever and rheumatism. There is an eruption about the third or fourth day, and the course of disease is marked by pains in the limbs, glandular swellings, and frequent remissions. It appears to be infectious, but it is not known as an epidemic disease in England, although a few isolated cases have occurred. It prevails from time to time in India, in the West Indies, and was epidemic in America in 1826-28, and then disappeared for some time —at all events, until 1847. An epidemic in Virginia occurred in 1861. For prevention, &c. , see Feteb, Soablet, Dew-Point— liui;ilieni nl' ('oliirirs Xiih T.iri-i.l X Ti-iiif'.-nili- {U-,;-/t I O Sn.i'-rhy L.iii.i C K i N W SO J.cTr\gM.at 60 Greeirwicli 10 60 Loug'. Tl.cTf 80 Gi-eenwich 100 .>,,■..■'! i^ W>A i- Li-niloti J'htirlt:-: l!iil'iy/i \- Ciini/'iun'. BIS (187) DIS zones embrace the extremes of temperature of the torrid and frigid zone, it has, especially towards its northern and southern limits, representatives of the types of disease pre- Taihng in both those realms. The mixed classes of disease are, however, especially prevalent. Of fevers, typhus and typhoid fever are found between the parallels of 44° and 60° in Western Europe, and smallpox prevails where vaccination is neglected. Over the whole of this zone rheumatism and con- sumption are unequally distributed, both diseases being influenced in a marked degree by wetness or dryness of subsoil. The northern zone is especially charac- terised by influenza, scurvy, erysipelas, diseases of the skin, constitutional and catarrhal affections. See Malabia, Climate, Mbteokologt, &c. Disinfectants are those substances which are employed under the belief that they purify the air from noxious matters, or disinfect the ground, the water, or other substances from odours or hurtful organic substances. All antiseptics are to a certain extent disinfectant as weU. The burning of bedding, clothes, bodies, &c., may also fairly come under the above head. When the object is to destroy contagion, it is a disinfection, a purifying by fire. Disinfectants may be, for the purpose of convfenienoe, divided into — 1. Volatile, in the Form of Gas or Vapour. 1. Substances which, like the halogens, appear to form substitution compounds, e.g.— Chlorine. Bromine, Iodine. 2. Substances which probably combine chemically, and thus destroy contagion : — Sulphurous acid. Nitrous acid. Fumes of other acids. 3. Oxidising substances, such as — Pure air. Oxygen, Ozone. 4. The volatile oils, &c. Feeble disinfect- ants, supposed, however, to oxidise : — Camphor, Oil of hops. „ rue, ,, rosemary, ,, chamomile. 2. Solid or Liquid Disinfectants. 1, The chlorides of different metals, earths, and bases : — Chlorides of the alkalies, ,, iron. ,, copper, ,, manganese. „ zinc. ,, aluminum, ,, lime, ,, mercury. And, in fact, all chlorides which are soluble. 2. All soluble sulphates, especially sul- phates of iron and aluminum, 3. All soluble sulphites. 4. Some acetates, as acetate of iron. 5. Some nitrates, such as the nitrates of potash and soda. 6. Certain agents which appear to arrest putrefaction or condense certain gases, &c., without either destruction or oxidation : — Carbolic acid. Tar acids. Charcoal. Great cold. Heat sufficient to dry organic substances, but not to char them, 7. Preservative liquids and solutions. Many of these act by coagulating the albumen of organised bodies. Antiseptics — Alcohol. Solutions of corrosive sublimate. ,, common salt. „ saltpetre. 8. Destructive 'agents. Not true disinfect- ants; they act not by disinfection, but by destruction : — A dry heat of 200° to 400° F. The strong undiluted acids and alkalies, 9. Agents which act in many ways— partly by condensing gases, partly by absorbing moisture, and partly by a peculiar action on organic matter analogous to tanning : — Dry earths. Clays. The natural and artificial .compounds of aluminum. See DisraTEOTiON. Disinfection — The air, the walls of a room, sewers, &c., are said to be infected when from their odour, or from the circum- stance of contagious disease having existed in a certain place, it may be fairly inferred that injurious emanations or noxious matters re- ' main there. The different operations to de- stroy or change these matters come under the heading disinfection. Some of the principles which require disin- fection are definite chemical products, such as sulphuretted hydrogen; others are ill- defined compound bodies. Many of the bad BIS (i88) DIS odours from drains, &o., are probably com- pound stinking ammonias; others are nitro- genised bodies, dead, but in a state of change ; and others, again, are living, growing cells : some, like the contagion of smallpox, little bits of pus, dry and hard without, soft within ; and others are probably soft, easily destructible bodies. Some contagions are supposed to be gaseous and volatile; others are heavy, and creep along the ground ; so that it is evident there never will be any one disinfectant that will be useful, like a quack pill, for every kind of contagion. We have mai^y influences act- ing in various ways to contend against, which must be met by defences as various. The matters presented for disinfection are — The air. Habitations, walls, floors, and ceilings. Streets, courts, and other open-air places. Sheds. The earth itself. Collections of stagnant water. Cesspools. Sewers, drains, water-closets, and wherever there is human excreta. The excreta of man and animals. Clothes. Thebodies, living or dead,of man and animals. Let us first premise that cleanliness is the greatest and most essential disinfectant ; that it would be a retrograde sanitary step to allow filth to collect in streets, houses, or elsewhere, ou the plea that they can be disinfected. Prompt daily removal of all refuse matters to places where they will serve for the purposes of manure or other uses ; frequent cleansing with water of the habitations of men, and the sheds and buildings of domestic animals ; the establishment of baths, and the daily use of water and soap to the entire body of man ; — these wiU always be the first sanitary require- ments, to which disinfection may be added as an auxiliary of subordinate importance ex- cept in cases of contagious disease, when it is of almost equal value with cleanliness, . as from a neglect of disinfection, even with scru- pulously clean people, disease will spread. The Air, Disinfection o/.— Some writers imagine that it is impossible to deal with the air, and that it would be about as sensible to attempt to disinfect the sea as to cause the destruction of germs or deleterious vapours in the ocean of air (so to speak), at the bottom of which we Uve. But to be consistent, they would have to deny that the air can be infected ; and as there is no doubt about this, theory would also argue that it could be purified— and indeed the experience of the acid fumiga- tions of Guyton Morveau, first brought out in 1773, and the chlorine fumigations, em- ployed by Fouroroy in 1791, have proved in various epidemics that the air can be suc- cessfully purified. It is obvious that a disin- fectant, to act upon the air, must be volatile to be universally efficacious, as it is seldom pos- sible to draw the air of a room or apartment over a dry non-volatile substance like charcoal, or through a Jiquid. » The chief gases to be attacked by air-puri- fiers are no doubt ammonium sulphide and sulphuretted hydrogen, and these are easily destroyed by chlorine or sulphurous acids ; but both sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphide of ammonium, if in small quantity, are not extremely deleterious. Many a chemist in his laboratory constantly breathes more or less of these gases without any very evident result. Whether the germs of disease are analogous to these bodies, or whether they may not resist agents more obstinately, is a question that as yet is not settled. Judging from analogy, it is computed that the same sub- stances which will destroy odours having a definite chemical composition will also destroy those whose composition is unknown. In all cases of air-disinfection, if the air of a house is to be purified, and if it is possible to remove all persons out of it, all windows and doors should be hermetically sealed up by list, rags, &c., in the cracks, and nitrous acid, chlorine, or other disinfectant, copiously dis- engaged in each room ; and after many hours a thorough ventilation of the whole will be necessary. What disinfectant is most valuable when smallpox is in the air, and what when typhus, or scarlet fever, or diphtheria ? This question cannot be. answered at present. Chlorine and nitrous acid fumes are perhaps to be looked upon with most favour ; carbolic acid fumes are untrustworthy. For example. Dr. Parkes says: "It "(i.e., carbolic acid) "rapidly arrests the growth of fungi, though it will not com- pletely destroy them; for example, I put some fresh faecal matter, free from urine, in a bottle, and drew air washed in strong sulphuric acid over it ; fungi appeared rapidly on the fiscal matter. I then passed air impregnated with carbolic acid over the fungi ; they be- came discoloured, brownish, and apparently died ; but on again substituting washed air, they revived. The rapid destruction, and the as rapid recovery and regrowth, could be re- peated many times, and showed that the car- bolic acid air had withered without actually killing the fungi. " — (Parkbs, Manual of Prac- tical Hygifene.) (See AoiD, Carbomo.) So that whether clothes are wetted, or Dr. Lang- stail 's ingenious trough is used for saturating the air with this acid, it is yet a question whether it does not act temporarily, by pre- venting change— by freezing, as it were, the DIS (189) DIS living cells, which are again thawed into life on the withdrawal of this agent. In all prac- tical operations of disinfection it stands to reason, that chemical gases will act better in the presence of moisture than in the dry state. On this account Dr. W. Budd has proposed that when a room is to be disinfected, a little time before the actual disinfection, a tub of boiling water should be placed in it, so that the steam may wet the walls and the air, as he thinks there is a danger of gaseous disin- fectants not destroying the germs if they are in a dry state. There is every reason to believe that this is just, sound, and practical, and it is to be strongly recommended. Occasionally, as in the air supplied to the Houses of Parliament, the air is purified by passing through u, fine spray of water, which is supposed to, and no doubt does, wash down with it and arrest organic matter and dust. The disiiifectants for infected air that are most likely to hold their ground are bromine, iodine, sulphur, nitrous and other acid fumes, and ozone. Chlorine is a great destroyer of animal life, and also of odours. It appears to act on odours (which are, a great many of them, alka- line bodies analogous to ammonia, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen somewhat loosely connected together) by subtracting the hydrogen and replacing it by chlorine — ^that is, forming true substitution compounds. The vapour of iodine is also extremely valuable, and sulphur has been used from time imme- morial. Chlorine (or the two other halogens, bromine and iodine) may be used in the manner de- scribed under their respective headings. See Chloeine, Bkomine, Iodine. Acid fumes, such as nitrous acid (easily ob- tained by putting a bit of copper in nitric acid), are without doubt most powerful oxidising agents, and have been used with success in typhus fever and plague. Acetic acid fumes, ammonia, volatile oils, camphor, assafoetida, musk, &o., are of very doubtful efficacy. Probably some act feebly as true disinfectants and oxidisers, but most substances of this kind merely disguise odours by substituting a more pleasant and powerful smell for an unpleasant one. Disinfection of Walls, Mouses, Streets, <&c. — The walls and ceilings of a house are best dealt with by whitewashing with lime, and the floors by a thorough scrubbing. In some instances it will be necessary (as in cases where the floor consists of boards a few feet from the earth) to take the floor up, and to thoroughly cleanse the earth beneath. Streets and courts, &c., should be swept frequently, the rubbish removed, and watered, as recommended by Cooper, with a solution of the waste chlorides of commerce. Disinfection of the Marth. — ^Although earth is in itself a disinfectant, yet there are some grounds for believing that typhoid fever, cho- lera, and possibly some few other diseases, in- fect the soilitself, and even gain newforce there. Under such circumstances, Ume, tar, soot, &o., would be, according to theory, the best sub- stances to mix with the earth, and it would be necessary to obtain the water-supply elsewhere. Sewers, Drains, &c. — On the large scale, where the question of the cost of a disinfec- tant has to be considered, the waste chlorides of commerce answer every indication. But beside these, sulphate of iron, carbolic acid, chloralum, lime, clay, &c., are useful. All drains and sewers should be periodically dis- infected with some cheap substance. Collections of Stagnant Water and Cesspools must be treated on the same principle as the above, providing they cannot be done away with altogether. The Excreta of Man and Animals, when used for the purposes of manure, should be mixed with earth, ashes, and liine. This will not injure the value of the sewage. The Living Bodies of Men and Animals.— See Fever, Scarlet, &o. The Dead Bodies of Men and Animals. — When necessary to disinfect large quantities of animal matter, common salt, carbolic or cresylio acid, and chloride of lime are the test Disinfection of Clothes, Beds, i-c. — These perhaps are the most important of all materials requiring disinfection; for although in nine cases out of ten destruction by fire is better than disinfection, still it is not always either possible or desirable to proceed in this way. AU garments of Unen, wool, &c. , that wiU wash should be plunged at once into boiling water, and boiled for several hours with soda. There are probably few contagions which will bear a heat of 212° F. in the presence of soda. They should then be washed in the ordinary way. Other clothing should be baked in hot-cham- bers, the ticking removed from beds, mat- tresses, &c., and the feathers, wool, horse- hair, &c,, baked in ovens or in hot-chambers. See Disineeotins-Chambehs. In all cases the quantity of disinfectant must be proportioned to the matter requiring disinfection. As a rule, a liquid disinfectant is better than a solid, and a solid than a gas- eous, as applied to substances. rt is the duty of any local authority, on the receipt of the certificate of their medical oflScer' of health, or of any other legally- qualified practitioner, to the eSect that it would check or prevent infectious disease. SIS (190; DIS if a house, or any articles likely to retain infection in the house, were cleansed and disinfected, to give the necessary notice in ■writing to the owner or occupier. If he fail to comply, he is liable to a penalty of not less • than Is. nor more than 10s. per day. The authority can perform the necessary cleansing and disinfecting, and recover the expense in a summary manner ; but in case of poverty or other cause preventing the owner or occupier from properly carrying out the disinfection, the sanitary authority has power to do so, and may defray the expenses incurred. Any local authority may direct the destruction of infected bedding, clothing, or other articles, and may give compensation for the same. Any local authority may pro- vide a proper place, with all necessary ap- paratus and attendance, for,' the disinfection of infected woollen articles, clothing, bed- ding, or other articles, and may cause any articles 'brought there to be disinfected free of charge.— (P. H., s. 120-122.) Disinfecting-Chambers— Chambers for the express purpose of disinfection, so con- structed as to be heated either directly by fire or by hot air or steam. A baker's oven is a disinfeoting-chamber on a small scale, and may be used as such. On a large scale, the chambers at Liver- pool may be taken as a model. They are arched, built of solid brickwork, with doors of wrought iron accurately fitting into cast- iron frames ; the floor has double iron sliding gratings, and beneath it a hot-air passage. The dimensions are 5 feet wide, 7 feet from front to back, and 6J high. The arch is also fur- nished with a valve, through which the air escapes into an exhaust-shaft. Two cast-iron smoke-flues pass from a cast-iron cockle along the hot-air passages into a chimney placed at the farther end. There are also arrange- ments for regulating the temperature; if necessary, a heat higher than 280° F. may be maintained. The clothes are suspended in the chamber at a temperature of 240" to 250° F. Few fabrics will bear a dry temperature of more than 2.50° F. without injury, but it is necessary to reach that or nearly that degree. The Berlin disinfecting-chambers are also of excellent construction. They are made of iron, and are heated by steam : one for mat- tresses, with a spiral steam-pipe in the centre of an iron case, wliich heats with steam com- pressed to two atmospheres; the other for general purposes, in the form of two iron cylinders, one within the other, the internal cylinder carrying the clothes, while the steam works under pressure between the two cyUu- ders. Both were invented by Dr. Esse. Dr. Kansom has devised a gas-stove, which answers well, and can be regulated. Eraser's patent disinfecting apparatus is also found very efficient, it consists of — 1. A brick oven or chamber, occupying a space of about 8 square feet, with doors in front. In the lower portion of this is a covered furnace, with flues capable of raising the air inside to the required temperature. 2. A closed truck or carriage, provided with shelves, racks, dampers, and doors. The clothes and bedding are collected in this carriage from the infected houses and conveyed to the chamber. The doors of the chamber are opened, and the car- riage placed inside. The process of disinfec- tion then takes place, sulphur or other fumes being used. When the process is completed, the carriage is taken back to the house, and the articles removed. The chief points are — The whole of the vapours given off during disinfection are, by a peculiar arrangement of flues, made to pass through the furnace, and thus consumed. The clothing is not removed from the carriage till returned to the owner. The carriage which conveys the clothing to the house, and returns the same, is disinfected on each occasion with the clothes, &o. This apparatus will produce a temperature of 220° F. in the interior of a flock bed. It was much used by the Holborn District Board in the epidemic of smallpox of 1871. There are many other forms, such as iron stoves, the floors of which are covered with sand, various arrangements of brick furnaces, &c. ; but the principle in each is the same. No town of any size should be without a chamber for disinfection. The average cost of an efficient apparatus is £100. Any local authority, as stated in article DisiNrEOTioN, may provide disinfecting- chambers, &c. See DisiNPEOTiON, Disinfec- TANTS. Disinfecting and Deodorising Com- pounds : — Bayard's Disinfectant. — A powder of sul- phate of iron, clay, lime, and coal-tar. Bond's {Dr. Francis) Cupralum and Fer- ralwm. See Cdpralum, Fberalum. Burnett's {Sir William) Disinfecting Liquid consists of zinc dissolved in hydrochloric acid to saturation. Collins' Disinfecting Powder. — Two parts of dry chloride of lime are mixed with one of burnt alum. To be used dry in saucers about a room, or moistened with water. Cqndy's Disinfectant Fluid. — A solution of the alkaline manganatea and permanganates. Come, M,, took out a patent in 1858 for a mixture of lime and mineral tar. Ellermwn's Deodorising Fluid. — This con- DIS (191) BIT sists chiefly of peroUorides and chlorides of iron and manganese. Zdbarraque's Disinfecting Solution {Ziquor SodcB cMormatce). — A solution of chlorinated ■ soda. Larnande's AntimepMtic Liquor. — A solu- tion of the sulphates of zinc and copper. Ledoyen's Dinnfecting Fluid. — A solution of nitrate of lead, 1 part in about 8 parts of water, or of litharge, 13 J oz., in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1"38), 12 oz., previously diluted with water, 6 pints {sp. gr. 1"40). SireVs Disinfecting Compounds. — 1. A mix- ture of sulphate of lime, 53 lbs.; sulphate of iron, 40 lbs. ; sulphate of zinc, 7 lbs. ; and peat charcoal, 2 lbs. : made into balls. 2. Sulphate of iron, 20 parts ; sulphate of zinc, 10 parts ; tan or waste oak bark (in powder), 4 parts ; tar and oil, of each 1 part, as before. Precipitating and other deodorisiig pro- cesses, more especially applied to sewage, will be considered under Sewage. Many of the compounds used above are extremely valuable. There is no one which will meet all requirements, but each has some special value for certain cases. M. Labarraque brought his valuable liquid out in 1822, and obtained the prize of the "French Society for Encouraging National Industry " for its introduction ; and in 1844 the same society awarded a prize to Henri Bayard. Sirel's mixtures are powerful disinfectants of which it is impossible to speak too highly, and they have the advantage of cheapness. Dr. Bond's disinfectants are as yet too new and too little known to speak definitively as to their value, but they promise well. Distomata (fluke-like parasites) — The dis- tomata are oviparous parasites of the higher vertebrata. The history of these hematode parasites is remarkable and instructive. Trac- ing the animal from the egg to maturity, the changes are briefly as follows : The egg is ^ of an inch long, and ^^jj of an inch wide (fig. Tig. 24. 24). This egg opens by springing off a sort of hood, and gives vent to a ciliated embryo, which has, until comparatively recently, been considered one of the infusorice, and has been called opalina, but which is now recognised as the earliest embryonic form of a distoma. These opalinse are not unfrequently found in sewage-water ; in fact, impure water is neces- sary for the life of the opalina. When dis- toma eggs are hatched in pure water, the opa- lina soon dies. The opalina is not converted directly into a. distoma, but has a progeny gradually formed from germ-cells within it, and consisting sometimes of one, but more frequently of a number of bodies, which, when they arrive at maturity, present each one an external form and internal structure, and loco- motive powers entitling them to be considered as independent animals. These, again, are not yet distomata. A new progeny is formed within them, differing completely from the ultimate form ; but now each individual of this series produces in its interior germ-cells, which de- velop into minute worms, having tails, and are extremely lively in water, exhibiting the structure of a true hematode. These cerca- rise now either become enclosed, like a chry- salis in a pupa state, or they penetrate into the bodies of soft animals, become encysted and parasitic. It appears probable that the distomata enter the human intestinal canal as cercarise, and then pass into the bUiary pas- sages. At Zurich two distomata were found in a woman's foot, and Frerichs remarks that it was probably whilst bathing that the cercarise entered the sole. The eating of uncooked fish, whelks, shellfish, &c., is probably the most usual means by which .man and animals be- come affected with "flukes.'' The symptoms of distomata vary according to the seat of the parasite. In man they often occasion hsematuria and dysentery. In the sheep the disease is known as " the rot," and as such kills thousands annually. The number of species affecting man are usually enumerated as nine — viz., the Fasciola hepa- tica, Distoma crassum, D. lanceolatum, D. ophthalmoHum, D. heterophyes, JBilharsia hmmatohia, Tetrastoma renale, Hexathrydium renarum, and S. pinguicola. District Fund Account— Every urlan authority has to keep a separate account, called the " District Fund Account," for the purpose of defraying general and other ex- penses.— (P. H., s. 209.) See Expenses, Kates. Districts, Sanitary — See Saititaby DiSTEIOTS. Districts, United— /STee Sanitabt Dis- TEIOIS. Ditches — An offensive ditch may be cleansed or filled up by the local authority, DOC ( 192) DXJS OT notice may be given to abate the nuisance in the usual way. If an offensive ditch lie near to or form the boundary of two or more districts, one of the local authorities may make application to a justice of the peace, who has power to summon the parties to appear before a court of sum- mary jurisdiction ; and the court, after hear- ing the parties, or ex parte if they should fail to appear, may make an order as to which authority shall execute the works, what per- sons shall execute it, the amount and propor- tion of the costs, by whom to be paid, and the time and mode of payment. — (P. H., 6. 48.) Doohmiua Duodenalia {Strongplus duodenalis, Scleroatoma duodenale) — An ento- zoon, belonging to the class Ocelelmintha. Its habitat is the human duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It is from J to J an inch in length, and its width about ^ of an inch. Its head has a round apex, and it is provided with booklets. It is common in Northern Italy and Egypt. From frequent and repeated haemorrhages, caused by thousands of these parasites nestling in the mucous membrane of the intestines, anaemia and chlorosis are pro- duced. Drain— The distinction between drains and sewers is thus laid down in the Public Health Act, 1875 :— " ' Drain ' means any drain of and used for the drainage of one building only, or premises within the same curtilage, and made merely for the purpose of communicating therefrom with a cesspool or other like receptacle for drainage, or with a sewer into which the drainage of two or more buildings or premises occupied by different persons is conveyed. " ' Sewer ' includes sewers and drains of every description, except drains to which the word ' drain ' interpreted as aforesaid applies." Drains and sewers are so closely connected together, that it will be more convenient to treat of both in one article. The reader is therefore referred to Sewers. Dripping— 5ee Fat. Dung— /See Manure. Dust— The air of the plain, the mountain, the heath, the forest, the road, the city, the village, the house, the workshop, contains solid particles. These are mostly invisible except under certain circumstances, such as a sunbeam streaming into a room, or the ray of an electric light ; then the air looks thick and impure, myriads of little particles vibrate, ascend and descend, and float hither and thither. A great portion of ordinary dust — the dust of a room, for instance — is organic. Tyndall has shown that the dust in the beam of an electric light may be consumed by fire, with the result first of a light blue smoke, apdthen almost perfect blackness ; the beam has been purified. The exact nature of Ordinary dust may be studied by examin- ing that which settles on furniture. It is then seen to consist mainly of d^ris, 'bits of wood, hairs, fibres, crumbs of brpad, formless matter, portions of insects, &c. Besides this, there can be no doubt that an incredible num- ber of spores of fungi exist in air, for few moist organic substances can be left even in the still air of cupboards without in a few days mould or mildew making its appearance, and some of the spores have actually been seen. Pasteur's experiments long ago showed that air first submitted to a high temperature, and then admitted to organic fluids (recently boiled), is deprived of its germs, for the fluids remain fresh. Or again/ if the air be not allowed to get at them except through cotton wool or other efficient filtering substance, moulds and the other putrefactive changes do not take place. These facts are strongly in favour of the view that the spores of the lower moulds must exist everywhere. The rain, too, shows that there is a large amount of organic matter floating in thoj air. Washed by a shower to earth, it may there be caught and estimated by the chemist in the form of am- monia and albuminoid ammonia. Sow to obtain Dust, ibc, for Examination. — The most simple way to obtain the emana- tions from a sick-room, for microscopical obser- vation, is to suspend a common water-bottle from the ceiling filled with iced water. The moisture of the air condenses and brings with it organic matters. Or the moisture may be gathered which adheres to panes of glass in cold weather ; or a bottle may be taken, con- taining some distilled water absolutely free from impurities of any kind, and filled several times with the air of the place. The water may then be submitted to microscopical and chemical examination. Metallic dust, such as iron, maybe attracted by a magnet. The most usual and successful way is, however, by aspiration, either by an aspirator expressly made for the purpose [see Aie) or by means of an ordinary cask, by which a considerable volume of air is drawn through a small quantity of distilled water, glycerine, or other liquid. The indirect way for the organic matter, &c., mentioned above— viz., analysis of the rain-water — and the obvious way of collecting dust by carefully sweeping it off shelves, &c., may be also enumerated. ExamiMation of Dust. — The dust obtained by any or all of these methods should now be examined microscopically and chemically. BUS (193) BUS Low powers should be used at first, and then (if looking for germs) the highest that can be obtained. If the dust is in any quantity, it can be sjibmitted to chemical examination; but a knowledge of what class it belongs to — animal, mineral, or vegetable — is sufficient for most purposes. Mr. Titohbome found that dust was a ferment even when taken from buildings of a considerable height, and he has proposed a fermentation test, so as to compare the fermenting powers of various kinds of dust in various places. This is new, and promises well. Dust, as obtained by all or any of these processes, is found to be,, as might be ex- pected, a ihost heterogeneous and miscel- laneous substance. There is not a thing that is material that may not rise by the force of evaporation, by strong currents of air, by the expulsive force of volcanic or other explo- sions, by attrition, by heat, and various other ways. Evaporation takes up minute animalcules from the waters of ponds and ditches, and mineral matters, such as chlorides and sulphates, from the sea. From the soil we get earthy matters of all kinds, silicate of aluminum, carbonate and phosphate of lime, peroxide of iron, &c. From the animal world, hair, epithelium, wings of insects, eggs, and other dfebris. From the vegetable world, multitudes of spores, cells, pollen (causing asthma), hairs, fibres, &c. From man, his workshops, and his domestic animals, the debris of the cutaneous and respiratory systems, various products of in- dustry, and too often the germs of contagious disease. Sand-showers carried by the winds from large deserts, showers of ashes and other matters from volcanoes, and sometimes even showers of meteoric dust, are known to have occurred. These showers from deserts, &c., fre- quently contain living animalcules. Sil- vester, in 1872, found in Sicily, from a sand-shower, four species of diatoms and living infusoria. Ehrenberg examined micro- scopically seventy showers, and has described more than two hundred distinct organic forms. Miners, steel - grinders, flat - pressers, but- ton-makers, brassfounders, Portland-cement makers, glassmakcrs, &c., all inhale mineral and earthy dust. Minute particles of metals rise with ease into the air. Angus Smith collected the dust in a train, and found it to consist of iron. If merely a train running on the smooth rails rubs off appreciable iron dust, it may readily be understood how in these trades where there is great friction — eg., in grinding steel^ — ^particles will be con- tinually detached. ., 147-89 „ 10 M 176 7 ,. 20 „ . 363-4 "Weights, of course, much increase the work done :— Work done in Kind nf Exercise. Tone lifted IPoot. "Walking 1 mile, carrying 60 lbs. . 24-75 2 miles, ,, . 49-5 , 10 „ :; 247-5 „ 20 „ . 495 60 lbs. is tlie usual weight a soldier carries when in marching order j and as 400 tons lifted 1 foot is a hard day's work, it is evident that 20 miles is a severe march. Most of the long marches have, however, been without the 60 lbs. Sxhumation — Circumstances from time to time occur in which it is necessary to ex- hume one, or sometimes a number of bodies. The dangers of exhumation have been much exaggerated. The exhumations of the Church and Cemetery of St Innocents in Paris were made in 1785-86, and lastied six months. More than a thousand corpses in all stages of de- composition and decay were exhumed, yet no ' evil effect followed either to the workmen or to those in the^'vioinity. Parent da Chatelet remarks that every year at the Cemetery of the Pfere la Chaise, two hundred exhumations are made, to transfer bodies which have been provisionally deposited in graves to suitable tombs. These exhumations are made at all periods of the year, two or three months after death. iTo evil effects follow to the grave- diggers. The latter themselves believe that danger only exists during the' first few days after burial, when decomposition is very active. In all large exhumations, that are simply for removal of the dead, each body, directly it is identified, should be covered vrith tan, or saw- dust, and carbolic acid, and placed in a proper cofiGn. The exhumation should, (if possible, take place in cold weather, or at all events at the coolest part of the day. Exhumations on a large scale took place during the late Franco-Prussian war, but owing to the precautions followed, no bad effect ensued ; e.g.y Dr Gordon,- in his "Les- sons on Hygifene and Surgery from the Franco- ^ Prussian War," says :— An important questioni presented itself in con- nection with the burial of the dead on the field, not only after the battles fought immediately around Paris, but after others that had taken place during the war. In the hurry of interment, the bodies of the Icilled in action at Champigny, Montretout, B17, Chevilly, &c., had no more than 50 centimetres, or 19^ inches of earth over them. The rains in some instances washed away much of this covering, ex- posing more or less of the decaying body, and the question presented itself, how far eyil consequences to persons living in the near vicinity were to be averted when the rains and high temperature of the spring should exert their normal effects. So early as February 1871 public attention was drawn to these circumstances. On some of the fields limbs were found projecting from the ground, and partially devoured by animals. The Central Commission of Hygiene took steps to have all the battle-fields ex- plored ; to have the bodies inteiTed at sufficient depths, a layer of tar being placed over each, the ground where numbers were buried together sown with seeds of plants, the roots of which penetrated deep, and thus were likely to absorb the fiuids of decay. In exhumations for legal purposes, and especially in cases of suspected poisoning, the viscera often require removing. In this case excessive care should be taken that the viscera be deposited in clean jars, and that copious minute notes of all the circumstances of the exhumation be taken; and occasion- ally it is even necessary to carry away some c f the earth around the coffin, so as, in case ai^enic EXP (212) EXP be discovered in the body, to be able de- finitely to ascertain the presence or absence of that substance in the soil. If vaults are entered, it will be well to leave them open a little time before descending, and then to use some disinfectant. Expenses of Sanitary Authorities — The expenses of sanitary authorities are defrayed by rates. See Eates. A Joint Board, Expenses of , — Any expenses incurred by a joint board in pursuance of the Public Health Act, unless otherwise deter- mined by the provisional order, are to be defrayed out of a common fund, to be con- tributed by the component districts or con- tributory places in proportion to the rateable value of the property in each district or con- tributory place, such value to be ascertained according to, the valuation list in force for the time being. For the purpose of obtaining payment from component districts of the sums to be con- tributed by them, the joint board are to issue their precept to the local authority of each component district, stating the sum to be con- tributed by such authority, and requiring such authority, within a time limited by the pre- cept, to pay the sums therein mentioned to the joint board, or to such person as the joint board may direct. Any sum mentioned in a precept addressed by a joint board to a local authority is to be a debt due from that authority, and may be recovered accordingly, such contribution in the case of a rural authority being deemed to be general expenses. If any local authority makes default in complying with the precept addressed to it, the joint board may, instead of instituting proceedings for the recovery of a debt, or in addition to such proceedings as to any part of a debt which may for the time being be un- paid, proceed in the same summary manner as detailed under "Expenses of Port Sanitary Authority." For the purpose of obtaining payment from contributory places of the sums to be con- tributed by them, the joint board shall have the same powers of issuing precepts and of recovering the amounts named therein as if such contributory places formed a rural dis- trict, and the joint board were the authority thereof.— (P. H., s. 283, 284.) Port Sanitar;/ Authority, Expenses of. — Any expenses incurred by a port sanitary authority constituted temporarily in carrying into effect any purposes of the Public Health Act are to be defrayed out of a common fund to be con- tributed by the riparian authorities in such Ijroportions as the Local Government Board thinks just. But the mayor, aldermen, and commons of the city of London, being the port sanitary authority of that city, are to pay the port sanitary expenses out of their corporate funds.-(P. H., B. 291.)' The port sanitary authority, if itself a local authority independently of its character of a port sanitary authority, is to raise the propor- tion of expenses due in respect of its own dis- trict in the same manner as if such expenses had been incurred by it in the ordinary man- ner for the purposes of the Public Health Act. . For the purpose of obtaining payment from the contributory riparian authorities of the sums contributed by them, the port sanitary authority is to issue their precept to each authority, requiring payment within a time limited by the precept. Any contribution payable . by a riparian authority to such port sanitary authority shall be a debt due from them, and may be re- covered accordingly, such contribution in the case of a rural authority being deemed general expenses of that authority. If any riparian authority makes default in complying with the precept addressed to it by a port sanitary authority, such port sanitary authority may, instead of instituting proceedings for the recovery of the debt, or in addition to such proceedings, as to any part of the debt which may for the time being be unpaid, proceed in the summary manner in the Act provided to raise within the district of the defaulting authority such sum as may be sufficient to pay the debt due. "^Tiere several riparian authorities are com- bined in the district of one port sanitary authority the Local Government Board may declare that some one or more of such autho- rities shall be exempt from contributing to the expenses incurred by such authorities. — (P. H., o. 290.) Where any port sanitary authority, joint board, or other authority, are authorised, in pursuance of the Public Health Act, to proceed in a summary manner to raise within the dis- trict of a defaulting authority such sum as may be sufficient to pay any debt due to them, the authority so authorised has in relation to such sum the same powers as if they were the de- faulting authority, and have therefore power to levy a rate upon individual ratepayers in the defaulting authority's district by any officer appointed by them; and the officer so ap- pointed has the same powers, and the rate is to be levied in the same manner, and is to be subject to the same incidents, in all respects as if it were being levied by the officer of the defaulting authority for the payment of the expenses of that authority ; and where the defaulting authority have power to raise EXP (213) EXP moneys due for their expanses by issuing pre- cepts, &c., the authority so authorised as aforesaid has the same power as the defaulting authority would have of issuing precepts, &c. Any precepts issued by the said authority for raising the sum due to them may be en- forced in the same manner in all respects as if they had been issued by the defaulting authority. The said authority may, in making an esti- mate of the sum to be raised for the purpose ofpaying the debt due to them, add such sums ■ as they think sufficient, not exceeding 10 per cent, on the debt due, and may^defray there- out all costs, charges, and expenses (including compensation to any persons they may employ) to be incurred by such authority by reason of the default of the defaulting authority ; and the said authority so authorised are to apply all moneys raised by them in payment of the debt due to them, and such costs, charges, and expenses as aforesaid, and shall render the balance, if any, remaining in their hands after such application to the defaulting authority. —(P. H., =. 292.) Private Improvement Expenses. — Such ex- penses as the construction of necessary house- drains, of a sufficient water-closet (or privy or earth-closet), and of an ashpit, the repair- ing of existing water-closets and ashpits, the cleansing of offensive ditches, &c., removal of offensive accumulations so far as the expenses are not covered by the sale thereof, and the like, are defrayed by private improvement rates, a rate which both urban and rural authorities have power to make for such pur- poses.— (P. H., a. 213, 232.) See Rate, Pri- vate Improvement. Recovery of Private Improvei/ient Expenses from Owner. — Where any local authority have incurred expenses for the repayment whereof the owner of the premises for or in' respect of which the same are incurred is made liable under the Public Health Act, such ex- penses maj- be recovered, together with inte- rest at a rate not exceeding five pounds per centum per annum, from the date of service of a demand for the same till payment thereof, from any person who is the owner of such premises, when the works are completed for which such expenses have been incurred. In all summary proceedings by a local authority for the recovery of expenses incurred by them in works of private improvement, the time within which such proceedings may be taken shall be reckoned from the date of the service of notice of demand. Where such expenses have been settled and apportioned by the surveyor of the local authority as payable by such owner, such ap- portionment shall be binding and conclusive on such owner, unless within three months from service of notice on him by the local authority or their surveyor of the amount settled by the surveyor to be due from such owner, he shall by written notice dispute the same. The local authority may, by order, declare any such expenses to be payable by annual in- stalments within a period not exceeding tliirty years, with interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum , until the whole amount is paid ; and any such instalments and inte- rest, or any part thereof, may be recovered in a summary manner from the owner or occu- pier for the time being of such premises, and may be deducted from the rent of such pre- mises, in the same proportions as are allowed in the case of private improvement rates under tliis Act.— (P. H., s. 257.) Power of Individuals to Appeal against Private Improvement Expenses, etc. — ^Where any person deems himself aggrieved by the decision of the local authority in any case in which the local authority are empowered to recover in a summary manner any expenses incurred by them, or to declare such expenses to be private improvement expenses, he may, within twenty-one days after notice of such decision, address a memorial to the Local Go- vernment Board, stating the grounds of his complaint, and shall deliver a copy thereof to the local authority ; the Local Government Board may make such order in the matter as to the said Board may seem equitable, and the order so made shall be binding and conclusive on all parties. Any proceedings that may have been com- menced for the recovery of such expenses by the local authority shall, on the delivery to them of such copy as aforesaid, be stayed ; and the Local Government Board may, if it thinks fit, by its order, direct the local authority to pay to the person so proceeded against such sum as the said Board may consider to be a just compensation for the loss, damage, or griev- ance thereby sustained by him. — (P. H., s. 268.) Sural Authority, Expenses of. — The ex- penses incurred by a rural authority in the execution of the Public Health Act are divided into general expenses and special expenses. General expenses are payable out of a com- mon fund to be raised out of the poor-rate of the parishes in the district according to the rateable value of each contributory place. Special expenses are a separate charge on each contributory place. General expenses (other than those charge- able on owners and occupiers under the Act) are, the expenses of the establishment and officers of the rural authority, the expenses in EXP (214) EXF relation to disinfection, the providing convey- ance for infected persons, and all other ex- penses not determined by the Act or by order of the Local Government Board to be special expenses. Special expenses are the expenses of the comtruction, maintenance, and cleansing of sewers in any contributory place within the district, the providing a supply of water to any such place, and maintaining any necessary works for that purpose, the charges and ex- penses arising out of or incidental to the pos- session of property transferred to the rural authority in trust for any contributory place, and aU other expenses incurred or payable by the rural authority in or in respect of any contributory place within the district, and de- termined by order of the Local Government Board to be special expenses. Where the rural authority make any sewers or provide any water-supply or execute any other work under this Act for the common benefit of any two or more contributory places within their district, they may apportion the expense of constructing any such work, and of maintaining the same, in such proportions as they think just, between such contributory places, and any expense so apportioned to any such contributory place shall be deemed to be special expenses legally incurred in respect of such contributory place. The overseers of any contributory place, if aggrieved by any such apportionment, may, within twenty-one days after notice has been given to them of the apportionment, send or deliver a memorial to the Local Government Board stating their grounds of comiJaint, and the said Board may make such order in the matter as to it may seem equitable, and the order so made shall be binding and conclusive on all parties concerned. The following areas situated in a rural dis- trict shall be contributory places for the pur- poses of the Public Health Act ; that is to say, (1.) Every parish not having any part of its area within the limits of a special drainage district or of an urban dis- trict; and (2.) Every special drainage district; and (3.) In the case of a parish wholly situated in a rural district, and part of which forms or is jjart of a special drainage district, such portion of that parish as is not comprised within such spe- cial drainage district ; and in the case of a parish a part of which is situated within an urban district, such por- tion of that parish as is not comprised within such urban district, or within any such spe- cial drainage district as aforesaid.— (P. H., ». 229.) Urban Authority, Expenses 0/.— The ex- penses of an urban authority in the execution of the Public Health Act, 1875, are defrayed out of the district fund and general district rate (see Bates), subject to the following exceptions : — "That if in any district the expenses in- curred by an urban authority (being the council of a borough) in the execution of the Sanitary Actsi were at the time of the passing of 'the Public Health Act payable 9ut of the .borough fund or borough rate, then the ex- penses incurred by that authority in the exe- cution of the Act shall be charged on and defrayed out of the borough fund or borough rate; and "That if in any district the expenses in- curred by an urban authority (being"improve- nient commissioners) in the execution of the Sanitary Acts were at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act payable out of any rate in the nature of a general district rate leviable by them as such commissioners throughout the whole of their district, then the expenses incurred by that authority in the execution of this Act shall be charged on and defrayed out of such rate ; and for the pur- poses of this section the council of the borough of Folkestone shall be deemed to be Improve- ment Commissioners ; and "That where at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act the expenses incurred by an urban authority in the execution of certain ijurposes of the Sanitary Acts were payable out of the borough fund and borough rate, and the expenses incurred by such authority in the execution of the other pur- poses of the said Acts were payable out of a rate or rates leviable by that authority throughout the whole of their district for paving, sewering, or other sanitary purposes, then the expenses incurred by that authority in the execution of the same or similar pur- poses respectively under this Act shall re- spectively be charged on and defrayed out of the borough fund and borough rate, or out of the rate or rates leviable as aforesaid." — (P.H.,s. 207.) And in certain cases, where at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act, the ex- penses of an urban authority were defrayed otherwise, the Local Government Board, on application, may alter the mode of payment, and declare that the expenses shall be defrayed out of the district fund and general district rate.-(P. H., ». 208.) The following expenses are paid out of the district fund and general district rate, viz. : — Expenses under Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Acts. EXT (215) FAC Expense of the auditor's fees, where the sanitary authority is not a town council. Compensation for damages. Election expenses. Filth, removal of, from ditches. Expenses connected with gas and water- supply. Expenses connected with the repair of high- ways where the whole district is not rated for paving, die. Legal expenses connected with the clerk. The lighting of streets. Maps andplams. Public baths and wash-Iiouses. Public conveyances. Provisional order, costs of. Salaries of officers. Salary of stipendiary magistrates. Tramways, expenses of. General expenses, and expenses not other- wise provided for. iSeeLoAKS, Rates, &c. Extract of Meat— &e Meat, Extract of. Eye, Diseases of— See Blindness, Oph- thalmia, School Htoienb. F. Factories, Factory Acts— The Factory Acts are a series of statutes, extending from 1833 to 1874— viz.. The Factory Act, 1833 ; the Factory Act, 1844 ; the Factory Act, 1856 ; the Factory Act, 1871 ; and Factory Act, 1874 — to regulate the hours of employment, the age, the prevention of injury to health, and other matters relating to j)ersons employed in factories. The Factory Acts enter into considerable detail, so that they cannot be inserted here ; ^ but the principal sanitary provisions will be given. The factories are under special inspectors, but the sanitary officers of a sanitary authority have the same right of entry, &c., as they have in respect to other buildings. The word "factory" is defined by 27 & 28 Vict. u. 48, as follows : — "In the manufacture of earthenware, ex- cept as aforesaid, any place in which persons work for hire in making, or assisting in mak- ing, finishing, or assisting in finishing, earthen- ware of any description. ' ' In the manufacture of lucifer matches, any place in which persons work for hire in mak- ing lucifer matches, or in mixing the chemical materials for making them, or in any process . incidental to making lucifer matches, except the cutting of the wood. "In the manufacture of peroussion-caps, any place in which persons work for hire in mak- ing percussion-caps, or in mixing or storing the chemical materials for making them, or in any process incidental ft) making perous- sion-caps. " In the manufacture of cartridges, any place in which persons work for hire in mak- ing cartridges, or in any process incidental to making cartridges, except the manufacture of the paper or other material that is used in making the cases of the cartridges. " In the employment of paper-staining, any place in which persons work for hire in print- ing a pattern in colours upon sheets of paper, either by blocks appUed by hand or by rollers worked by steam, water, or other mechanical power. " In the employment of fustian - cutting, any place in which persons work for hire in fustian-cutting. — " For the purposes of this Act an appren- tice shall be deemed to be a person working for hire. "No building or premises used solely for the purpose of a dwelling-house shall be deemed to be a factory.'* The 30 & 31 Vict. 0. 103, enacts that the word "factory " shall mean as follows : — 1. Any blast-furnace or other furnace, or premises in or on which the process of smelting, or otherwise obtaining any metiil from the ores, is carried on (which furnace or premises are hereinafter referred to as a blast-furnace). 2. Any copper-mill. 3. Any mill, forge, or' other premises in of on which any process is carried on for con- verting iron into malleable iron, steel, or tin- plate, or for otherwise ■ making or converting steel (which mUlB, forges, and other premises are hereinafter referred to as iron- mills). 4. Iron-foundries, copper»foundries, brass- foundries, and other premises or places in which the process of founding or casting any metal is carried on. 5. Any premises in which steam, water, of other mechanical power is used for moving machinery employed — (o.) In the manufacture of machinery. FAC (2l6) FAO (6.) In the manufacture of any article of metal not being machinery. (c.) In the manufacture of indiarubber or gutta-percha, or articles made wholly or partly of indiarubber or gutta-percha, 6. Any premises in which any of the fol- lowing manufactures or processes are carried on, namely — (o. ) Paper manufacture. (&.) Glass manufacture, (c.) Tobacco manufacture. [d. ) Letterpress printing, (e.) Bookbinding. 7. Any premises, whether adjoining or separate, in the same occupation, situated in the same city, town, parish, or place, and constituting one trade establishment, in, on, or within the precincts of which fifty or more persons are employed in any manufacturing process. And erery part of a factory shall be deemed to be a factory, except such part, if any, as is used exclusively as a dwelling. "Manufacturing process" shall mean any manual labour exercised by way of trade or for purposes of gain in or incidental to the making any article or part of an article, or in or incidental to the altering, repairing, orna- ineuting, finishing, or otherwise adapting for sale any article. Age. — In future, no child may be employed under the age of nine (1875), and after 1875 under the age of ten.— (37 & 38 Vict, c, 44, s, 12.) Cleanliness and Ventilation of Factories. — A factory is to be kept in a cleanly state and properly ventilated, so as to render harmless, as far as practicable, gases, dust, and other impurities generated during manufacture. Penalty for neglect, £10 or less, but not less than £3 (27 & 28 Vict. c. 38, s. 4). The court may, however, instead of inflicting a penalty, order certain works to be done. It is lawful for the occupier to make special rules for compelling the observance, amongst his workmen, of the conditions necessary to ensure the required degree of cleanliness and ventilation, and to annex to any breach of such rules a penalty not exceeding £1. They ■ must be approved of by one of her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State, and printed copies hung up in the factory. — (27 & 28 Vict. c. 38, s. 5.) There are also useful enactments in force with regard to limo-washing the walls, ceil- ings, &c. , of a factory.— (7 & 8 Vict, o, 15, n. 18, &o.) In every factory where grinding, glazing, or polishing on a wheel, or any other process, is carried on by which dust is generated and in- haled by the workmen to an injurious extent, if it appears to any inspector of factories that such inhalation could be to a great extent pre- vented by the use of a fan or other mechanical means, it shall be lawful for the inspector to order a fan or other mechanical means, of such construction as may from time to time be approved by one of her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State.— (30 & 31 Vict. c. 103, s. 9.) Hours. — The period of employment in factories is restricted, with a few unimportant exceptions, to ten hours a day — i.e., twelve workinghours, with two hour's intervals for meals. No child, young person, or woman may be employed for any purpose whatever after two o'clock on Saturday afternoon. No child, young person, or woman may he employed on Sunday in or about any factory. Meals, Food, &c. — There are useful regula- tions for preventing the injiiry to health aris- ing from the operatives eating their meals in the same room in which they work. In the manufacture of lucifer matches, no child, young person, or woman shall be allowed to take his or her meals in any part of the factory where any manufacturing process is going on, except cutting the wood. — ^(27 & 28 Vict. c. 48, s. 6.) In the manufacture of glass, no child, &:c., is allowed to take meals in any part of the factory where the materials are mixed, or in the manufacture of flint-gla«s, where the work of grinding, cutting, and polishing is carried on.— (27 & 28 Vict. c. 48, s. 6.) All children, young persons; and women in the factory shall have the time allowed them for meals at the same hours of the day, unless some alteration for special causes' be allowed in writing by an inspector. — (37 & 38 Vict. c. 44, s. 7.) No child, young person, or woman is allowed during meal-time to be employed in the fac- tory, or to remain in any room in which any manufacturing process is carried on. — (37 & 38 Vict. c. 44, s. 8.) Two hours are to be allowed for meals in factories in which the hours are from 7 A.M, to 7 P. M. , or from 6 A. M. to 6 P. M. One of the two hours, at least, must be before 3 o'clock P.M. No child, young person, or woman may be employed for more than four and a half hours without an interval of at least half an hour for a meal.— (37 & 38 Vict. c. 44, s, 5.) Overcroviding. — No factory shall be so over- crowded while work is carried on, as to be dangerous or prejudicial to the health of those employed therein.— (30 & 31 Vict. c. 103.) Privies, tbo. — "Where it appears to any local authority by the report of their surveyor that any house is used or intended to be used as a factory or building in which persons of both sexes are employed or intended to be employed, TAG (217) FAT at one time in any manufacture, trade, or busi- ness, the looai authority may, if they think fit, by written notice require the owner or occupier of such house, within the time therein speci- fied, to construct a sufficient number of water- closets, earth-closets, or privies and ashpits for the separate use of each sex. Any person who neglects or refuses to comply with any such notice shall be liable for each default to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, and to a further penalty not exceeding forty shilKnga for every day during which the default is continued. — (P. H., s. 38.) The most recent return (1871) showed that 1,258,000 women, children, and yoxmg persons were under Government protection as far as regarded the Factory and "Workshop Acts ; but the principle of these Acts has been still farther extended by recent legislation to textile manufactories, so that the numbers given are much below the true figures. The whole of the Factory Acts should without doubt be consolidated, and their principles still farther extended. Factories, Air of— Suspended in the air of factories vrill be found minute portions of the substance or fabrics manufactured in them, epithelium, and other organic impuri- ties; hence the necessity for thorough and complete ventilation. See AiE ; Factories ; Tkades, Injukious ; Ventilatiom, &c. Faecal Matter— 5ee Excreta. Fairs — An urbcm authority has power to regulate the holding and the protection of fairs under the provisions of the Markets and Fairs Clauses Acts, 1847.-(10 & 11 Vict. c. 14.) Famine — There is no subject that is of greater interest, as a cause of disease, than famine. It has always been associated with pestilence in ancient times, under which name we must suppose plague and typhus fever to have existed. The more modem epochs of distress have been associated with famine fever, typhus, typhoid, erysipelas, diphtheria, and other diseases. To trace the causes of the different famines of our own country is so large a subject that it is impos- sible to treat of it here. The dates of the chief English famines are as follows : — A.D. Famine in Britain ; people ate the bark of trees 272 Famine in Scotland ; thousands died . 306 Famine in England; 40,000 perished . 310 Famine in England, Wales, and Scotland 739 Famine in England, "Wales, and Soot- land ; thousands died from it . . 823 Famine in England, "Wales, and Scot- land ; lasted four yeai's . . . 954 A.D. Famine in England, 21 "William I. . . 1087 Famine in England and France, com- . bined with a fatal pestilential fever, and lasted from . . . 1193 to 1195 Famine in England .... 1251 Famine in England. The people de- voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin, so great was the distress 1315 Famine in England, occasioned by heavy and long-continued rains . . . 1335 A famine in England, so severe that, according to Stow, bread was made from fern roots . . .' . . 1438 A famine in Great Britain . . . 1565 A famine in England .... 1795 The Irish famines, caused by the failure of the potato crop, 1814, 1816, 1822, 1831, 1846 Famine Fever — See Fever, Eelapsrig. Farcy— 5ec Glanders. Farms, Sewage— &c Sewage, Utilis- ation OF, &o. Fat — Fat, chemically considered, consists of mixtures, in various proportions, of several closely-allied bodies, the principal of which are four — viz. , stearine, margarine, palmitine, and oleine. The last mentioned is liquid, the three former solid, at ordinary temperatures. Each of these hollies consists of a certain number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and are ordinarily described as a com- bination of a fatty acid with glycerine : thus stearine is stearic acid and glycerine ; palmi- tine, palmitic acid and glycerine, and so on ; but Berthelot has shown that they ought to be considered as tribasic ethers of thS triatomic alcohol glycerine. The fat of animals is a concrete oil con- tained in the cellular membrane of their bodies, more especially round some of the viscera. The vegetable fats . are generally most abundant in the seeds, although found in other parts of the plant. Fats are soluble in ether, benzole, and tui'pentine, and they may be mixed with each other in any proportion. Stearine (C57HH0O8) is a white crystalline fat. According to Duffy (Q. J. Chem. Soc, V. 210), it exists in three modifications, each having a different density and a different fus- ing-point ;— a. Fuses at 125-6° F. (52° C.) ; density, 0-986 /3. „ 147-4° F. (64-1° C.) ; „ I'OIO 7. ■„ 157° F. (69-5°C.)i ,, 1-017 Stearine occurs only in animal fats ; it has not hitherto been found in vegetable fats. It yields about 95-73 per cent, of stearic acid. It is soluble in seven times its weight of boil- FAT ('2l8 ) FAT ing alcohol, and freely in hot ether, hut sepa- rates on the cooling of the liquid. Stearine is easily obtained from mutton fat, which contains a very large quantity of it. It can also he made by heating together stearic acid and glycerine under pressure. Margarine (C54H104O8) is probably not a simple substance.- It is the solid ingredient of human fat, of goose grease, and is contained in all vegetable fats. Its fusing -point is 116° F. (47° C.) Palmitine (CsiHgsOj) is a white solid, crys- tallising in laminie. It has three different modifications— (a) fusing at 114-8° F. (46° C); (5) at 143° F. (62-7° C); and (c) at 145° F. (62-8° C.) On decomposition it yields 95-28 per cent, of palmitic acid. Oleine (057Hii,406). — This is a fcolourless oily Uquid, solidifying at 41° F. (5° C.) Vegetable fats are richer in oleine than animal. On decomposition it yields 95 7 per cent, of oleic acid. Liebig considered that the carbo-hydrates — that is, starch, sugar, and similar bodies — formed fat by a process of oxidation. Thus, looked at in a purely chemical sense, glucose would form stearine, carbonic acid, and oxygen according to the following equation : — Sugar, Stearine. 2OC8H12O6 = 2C57HU0O6 + 6C0a + IOH2O + 430a And this opinion as to the formation of animal fat was supported by the experiments of Gund- lach, who fed bees on pure sugar, and found that they secreted wax in abundance ; and by the researches of Huber, Dumas, Milne Ed- wards, Boussingault, Lehmann, Gronwen, Lawes and Gilbert, and Pasteur. This view, however, does not appear to be altogether true ; and recent researches, especially those of Voit and Pettenkofer, which include ex- periments extended over a series of years, rather prove that the function of the carbo- hydrates is to protect fat from decomposition, and that the fat itself is really formed from albuminous and other nitrogenous substances. There is no relation apparent between the amount of carbo-hydrates taken in and the amount of fat deposited, but the amount of fat bears a most unmistakable relation to the amount of meat decomposed. According to these observers, every amoijnt of albumen re- quires a certain quantity of carbo-hydrates, in order that the fat formed from the albumen may be entirely deposited. These experiments were made upon a dog ; but it is highly pro- bable that the process of fat-formation in the carnivora differs in no essential degree from the herbiTora or other classes of animals ; be- sides which, the conclusions are strengthened by other facts and observations, such as the formation of adipocere entirely from nitro- genous tissues ; the experiments of Blondeau, Hoppe, Kemmerich, and Fleischer, according to which fat was formed at the expense of caseine ; and the researches of J. Bauer, on the slow poisoning of dogs with phosphorus, all of which point in the same direction, and disprove the older views. The functions of fat in the body, besides the important mechanical functions of filling up interstices, diminishing friction, and retaining animal heat, through its bad conducting power, are various. It is generally held to be one of the great heat-producing or respiratory agents, a view supported by the craving of inhabitants of cold climates for a fatty diet. Experiments' have also shown that it is a digestive agent of considerable power, for Lehmann proved that albuminous substances, deprived of fat, remain longer in the stomach than the same substances impregnated with fat. It is also, with good reasons, supposed to aid gi-eatly in cell-growth, the nutrition of nerve tissue, and in the genesis of blood. The calorific or motive powers of fat are generally believed to be twice and a half as great as those of the other hydrocarbons. Butter Seer fat Founds of Founds lifted Water rHleed 1 Foot 10" F. high. 18-61) 14,4-21 20-81 16,142 How much fat is really required by the system is difficult to determine. Moleschott gives the amount of fat daily required for a male European adult of average height as 2-964 oz., while Pettenkofer and Voit give 3-63 oz. as the quantity required. For a sol- dier on service in the field, Parkes allows 3-5 to 4 "5 oz. daily. Play fair says that a prize- fighter in training takes 3-1 oz. daily. For a man at rest, 1 oz. daily is the amount calcu- lated as being sufficient. If we look at the pro- portion of fat in milk, which we may regard as a model food, the amount required by the sys- tem would seem to be at least 28 per cent, of the dry solid matter of food. Animal fats appear easier of digestion and absorption than vegetable. Berth? found that, in addition to the fat in his ordinary diet, he could absorb 30 grammes, or 1"059 oz., of cod-liver oil, butter, or other animal food. In some in- stances IJ oz, were absorbed, but only 20 grammes or 0-7 oz. of vegetable oils. When he took 40 grammes, 31 '5 were absorbed, 8-5 passed by the bowels ; when 60 grammes were taken, 48 were absorbed and 12 passed. The proportions of fat contained in the offa- and carcasses of different animals are shown in the following table : — FEI* (219) FEV Store oxen Half-fat oxen Fat oxen Fat calves Store sheep Half-fat sheep . Fat sheep . Very fat sheep Fat lambs Store pigs Fat pigs . Mean of all Cm-CAsa. OffaL 16 22-6 15-7 84-8 26-3 16 6 14-6 23 8 161 31-3 18-5 45 '4 26-4 65 1 34-5 36-9 20-1 28-1 160 49-5 22-8 34-4 21-0 Fellmonger — The business of ai f eUmonger comes under the denomination of an offensive trade, and as such can be regulated by bylaws in an urban, district. The penalty for estab- lishing a fellmonger's business without the consent of the urban authority is £50 or less, and 40s. a day during continuance of offence. -(P. H., s. 112, 113.) Fermentation — A vital process, the re- sult of cell-growth, by which various organic bodies are decomposed into two or more sub- stances of simpler composition. Thus the sugars are broken up into carbonic anhydride and alcohol, with or without the separation of the elements of water and starch, sorbin and glycerine. All, under the influence of fer- mentation, produce alcohol, and undergo strictly analogous changes. Fermentation is in all cases preceded, caused, and accompanied by minute microscopic cells, which increase and multiply, feeding on the nitrogenous sub- stances in a liquid, and assimilating and chang- ing the saccharine bodies. These fungi have received various names, according to the kind of fermentation they produce. Thus the To- rula cereviiicB and PenicUlium glaucum cause the vinous fermentation, and the Torula aceti the acetous fermentation. Mitsoherlich proved by a very simple expe- riment that fermentation only takes place in contact with the cells. He tied a piece of fil- tering paper over one end of a tube- open at both ends, and having placed on italittle yeast, immersed the tube in a jar of sylrup. Fermen- tation only took place in the tube, although free communication for liquid particles existed between the syrup in the tube and the syrup in the jar. Fasteur has lately shown that the presence of free oxygen is not necessary for fermenta- tion, and that there are two kinds of ferments —the one, a&rohies, requiring air ; the other, anirolies, which can live without air. The conditions necessary for fermentation are— 1. The presence of water ; 2. A tempe- rature ranging between 41° and 113° F. (5° and 45° C); 3. The living cells; 4. The body which is to undergo fermentation. A nitrogenous substance in the liquid greatly assists f etmentation, but is not necessary, pro- viding a sufficient quantity of yeast, for ex- ample, is added. The yeast cells themselves contain nitrogen, and by the decomposition of some the remainder increase and multiply. All things which destroy the life of cells are inimical to fermentation; e.g., the presence of 20 per cent, or ujjwards of alcohol, small quantities of nitrate of silver, chloride of so- dium, sulphate of copper, strychnine, quinia, creosote, oil of turpentine, and most disinfec- tants stop the process. On the other hand, curiously enough, fermentation is not influ- enced by either arsenious acid, acetate of lead, or tartar-emetic. The knowledge that without the presence of living cells fermentation cannot take place, and that therefore the aiy must be rigorously excluded from a liquid or body wliich by heat or otherwise is free from latent life, is a knowledge replete with practical applications in the preservation of food ; as, for example, the hermetically-sealed tins of meat and of milk manufactured on a large scale, and the carefully-protected jars of preserves made by every housewife on a small scale. Fermentation may be considered as one of the many subtile processes in nature for de- stroying and removing effete matters. "It is the grand power that cleanses the Augean stable of nature, at the same time that it pro- vides some of the most esteemed ai'ticles of utility and luxury for the wellbeing and en- joyment of man." Fermented lAqiiora—See Alcoholic Bevebages. Fermentum Cerevisiae — This is the yeast fungus. It is occasionally developed in bread. See Yeast. Ferralum — A form of disinfectant designed by Dr. Bond, Medical Officer of Health to the Gloucestershire Combined Sanitary District, for use in cases where a disinfectant is re- quired to be used in considerable quantities — eg., in flushing sewers, deodorising cesspools, urinals, &c. It consists of a combination of the ferrous and aluminie sulphates with a mixture of terebene and carbolic acid. Dr. Bond claims for it the advantages, that whilst very little dearer than the cheapest of the ordinary forms of disinfectants, it is, unlike most of them, largely soluble in water, is much less disagreeable in odour, and much more effective in its permanent results. Fever— The definition of fever generally .accepted in the present day is that of Tir- FEV ( 220' ) FEV chow: "Fever consists essentially in eleva- tion of temperature, which must arise in an increased tissue change, and have its immediate cause in alterations of the nervous system." The first cause of most fevers is, however, contagion; "there are, in fact, as many poisons as there are fevers." — (Todd.) This specific contagion once absorbed, after a longer or shorter period, according to the kind of fever, a. peculiar train of actions is set up. The symptom that is common to aU.fevers, whether in man or animals, is heat — " Essentia vero febrium est prseter naturam caliditas." Ac- companying this heat there is increase in the oxidation of the carbonaceous and nitrogenous constituents ; the lungs exhale more carbonic acid, and more nitrogen is excreted ; for exam- ple, the normal amount of urea excreted on fever diet is about 250 gi-ains in one day. Mr Murohison found in a case of typhus fever 1012 grains, and Vogel, in a case of typhoid, 1065 grains. It is obvious that this bears no relation to the food taken, and this continual excretion fuUy accounts for the progressive loss of flesh. Both the muscular system and the natural fat of the body wastes. The very bones, according to Virchow, become lighter, while the glandular organs, the liver, spleen, kidney, &c.', may increase in size. The various kinds of fever, their causes, mode of propagation, and the means to pre- vent their spread, are treated under their respective headings. See Fevbk, Typhus ; Fevbe, Typhoid ; Fever, Scablet, &o. &c. For the fifty years, 1814-6.5, the deaths from fever averaged 20,000 yearly. For the eight years, 1865-71, they averaged over 18,000. In 1872 the deaths fromi fever were only 13,507. Fever, Bilious Remittent— A fever analogous to relapamg, but not identical with it. It prevails in Egypt and the Levant.' Deficient hygienic conditions are generally assigned as the cause. Fever, Brain— jS^ee Fevee, Typhus. Fevers, Continued — Several distinct forms of fever, under the name of continued, used to be confused together. The investiga- tions of Henderson, Gerhard, Stewart, Jenner, W. Budd, Parkes, and others have separated them, and now at least four distinct fevers, under the class of continued, are recognised, viz. — 1. Simple fever. 2. Typhoid. 3. Typhus. 4. Relapsing. Murchison asserts that these fevers have destroyed during the last thirty years (prior to 1873) 530,000 of -the population of Eng- land and Wales, and 71,335 of London alone. ' ' The actual number attacked, represented by this mortality, has probably amounted to betvfeen five and six millions in England and Wales, and to about 750,000 in London." — (MUEOHISON. ) The following tables give the deaths from typhus, typhoid, and simple continued fever for a number of years : — TAi^LE I. — Deaths in Englahd from Fevee, at several Groups of Ages in the Twenty-four Years, 1848-71. Deaths in the Twenty- Average Annual in 1871, tour Years, 1848-71. Deaths 18i8-71. Ages. Males. Females. Males. 8865 Females. Males. Females. All ages .... 212,764 220,518 9188 7817 7973 Under 5 years 41,792 42,597 1741 1775 1447 1544 At 5 ,-, 25,502 28,617 1063 1192 935 995 „ 10 „ 16,833 21,096 701 879 682 783 „ 15 „ 36,896 40,149 1537 1673 14.39 1472 >. 25 ■„ 23,834 24,062 993 1003 978 868 „ 35 „ 19,724 19,049 822 794 687 716 „ 45 „ 17,304 16,736 721 356 616 624 „ 55 „ 14,982 13,715 624 671 522 473 „ 65 „ 11,296 10,573 471 440 400 360 „ 75 years andnpwards 4,601 4,924 192 205 117 138 FEV (221 ) FEV TABLE 11.— Deaths from Fevee— Typhus, Typhia, and Typhinia— in England to 10,000 Persons living, and Proportional Number to 1000 Deaths, in the Twenty-two Tears, 1860-71. liTamtjer of 1 Deathi to Proportional Yeais. Deaths 10,000 PerBons Kumber to legistered. liTing." lOOD Deaths, 1850 15,874 8-66 43 1851 17,930 .10 15 46 1852 18,641 1041 . 47 1863 18,654 • 10-25 43 1854 18,893 10-28 44 1855 l^a-O 8-89 39 1856 16,182 8-60 42 1867 19,016 9-97 46 1858 17,883 - 9-28 40 1859 15,877 8-14 36 1860 13,012 6-63 31 1861 15,440 , 7-76 36 1862 18,721 9-31 43 1863 18,017 8 86 38 1864 20, 106 9 77 41 1865 23,034 11 -uo 47 1866 21,104 10-05 43 1867 16,862 7-95 36 1868 19,701 917 41 1869 18,389 8-46 37 1870 17,910- 8-04 35 1871 15,790 6 99 31 Mean . 17,859 9-08 40 Fevers, Eruptive— Many of the con- tinued fevers — ^typhus, typhoid, &c. — are ac- companied by an eruption, but under the term " Eruptive Fevers " are classed more especially smallpox, chiokenpox, scarlet fever, measles, dengue, erysipelas — See Zymotic Diseases. Fever, Iiittoral— 5ee Fevees.Malamous. Fevers, Malarious — These are fevers -which arise from malaria^ There are at least three well-defined kinds^ 1. Ague. See Ague. 2. Bemittent fever. .3. Malarious yellow fever. The malignant local fevers of tropical climates are usually remittents, paroxysmals, or malarious yellow fevers. They all depend upon the absorption of some organic poison into the blood, and are generally found in low- lying tropical districts. Malarious yellow fever exists in the West Indian Islands, the west coast of Africa, the equinoctial portion of America, and several parts of Spain. Europeans landing at Vera Cruz or Havanna in May, June, October, or November, are almost invariably attacked with malarious yellow fever. "While ague is the offspring of the marsh or its margins, and remittent is the effect of a more concen- trated form of the same exhalation from some ♦ The mortality from fever here given includes a proportion of the mortality from causes not specified. moist surface in the process of solar desic- cation, the malarious form of yellow fever appears to be the prod'uct of that state of the atmosphere which takes place after a long continuance of solar heat, -with little or no wind, in those points chiefly where the atmosphere of the sea and that of the land are in -constant communication and inter- change. It is indeed a remarkable fact that the intense form of remittent fever, which has been distinguished as ' bilious remittent of malignant type,' is rather rare in' the interior of countries, and is seldom foiind in tovras situated on rivers higher than the influx of the tide. The fevers which appear in these situations are more of the usual remittent' character; and in the interior of the American continent there is little doubt that the lake fever represents the malarious yellow fever of the coasts. Even in Europe, while the towns on the sea-coast and on rivers were labouring under the malarious yellow fever, the sickliness in the interior approached more to that of the remittent or remittent-continuous type. " — (Craigie. ) The preventive means are general sanitary measures, removal to a higher post, sleeping on an upper floor rather than a ground-floor, raising houses or huts on piles of wood, good food, warm clothing, and a pure supply of water. See Marshes, Ague, &c. Fever, Malarious Yellow— See Ague ; Fevers, Malarious ; Marshes, &c. Fever, Paludal — See Ague; Fevers, Malarious ; Marshes, &c. Fevers, Paroxysmal - Malarious. ■ See Fevers, Fever, Petechial— fe Fever, Typhus. Fever, Puerperal — See Puerperal Diseases, PY.fiMiA, &c. Fever, Relapsing [Famine Fever, Miliary Fever, Typhus recurrens) — A con- tagious fever of a specific nature, depending upon the absorption of a poison into the blood, prevailing especially in times of scarcity and famine. The symptoms are " a very abrupt invasion, marked by rigors or chilliness ; quick, full, and often bounding pulse ; white moist tongue, rarely becoming dry and brownish ; tender- ness at the epigastrium, vomiting, and often jaundice ; enlarged sliver and spleen ; consti- pation; skin very hot and dry; no charac- teristic eruption ; high-coloured urine ; severe headache, and pains in the back and limbs ; restlessness, and occasionally acute delirium ; an abrupt cessation of all these symptoms, -with free perspiration, about the fifth or seventh FEV (222 ) FEV day; after a complete apyretio interval (during ■which the patient may get up and walk about), an abrupt relapse on or about the fourteenth day from the first commence- . ment, running a similar course to the first attack, and terminating on or about the third day of the relapse ; sometimes a second, or even a third relapse; mortality small, but occasionally death from sudden syncope, or from suppression of urine and coma; after djeath, no specific lesion, but usually enlarge- ment of liver and spleen."— (Mdkohison.) The very curious discovery has been made by Dr. Obermeir of Berlin, that in persons suffering from relapsing' fever, there are fine filaments in the blood, that have undulatory movements and spiral contractions. They are about the diameter of IJ to 6 blood corpuscles. They are only found in the paroxysms, and are absent during the intermissions, and are supposed to be bacteria. History. — It is not at all improbable that the sweating sickness of the fifteenth century was a variety of relapsing fever, although at that period it attacked almost exclusively those who were well fed and well housed ; but, on the other hand, in our own, last epidemic, relaps- ing fever was by no means confined to the poor and destitute. See Sweatino Sickness. The earliest reliable account of the disease is in Entty's " Chronological, History of the Diseases of Dublin." He there describes a fever breaking out at the end of summer and prevailing through the autumn of 1739, which is evidently relapsing fever ; and he also states that it was present in 1741, 1745, and 1748. The next notice recorded is that by Dr. John Clark of Newcastle in 1777. Barker and Cheyne noticed it in 1800 ; and it pre- vailed in Ireland, more or less, until the great epidemic of 1817-19, which commenced in Ireland and spread to Britain. The precur- sors of this epidemic were as follows ; The winters of four previous years had been of great severity, and in 1815-16 there was a complete failure of the harvest and potato crop ; and in the following year, 1817, ensued a cold wet autumn, again destroying both potato and com harvests. The turf or peat also was so sodden with wet that the Irish could not use it for fuel. Thousands were thrown out of work; the greatest destitution pre- vailed ; many died of hunger, after wander- ing about the country eating nettles, wild mustard, and other weeds ; and thousands died of diseases brought on by exposure to wet, cold, and deficiency of food. Kelapsing fever beg-.m in 1817 in Ulster, Munster, and Connaught, and spread all over Ireland. An eighth of the population was stricken with it ; in Dublin alone there were 70,000 cases. The total number of deaths was estimated, from this fever in Ireland (1817-19), as 44,000 ; there were, however, many cases of typhus included. The epidemic declined and died out after the plentiful' harvest of 1819. England and Scotland also suffered, but not to the same extent as Ireland. In this, as in most epi- demics of famine fever, it bepame more fatal towards the close, from a greater preponder- ance of typhus cases. Between 1819 and 1826 no mention is made of relapsing fever— it was probably absent entirely ; but in the lat- ter year it broke out, and for the first time a distinction was drawn between typhus and relapsing fevers. It declined and disappeared in 1828 ; and then, again, there is a blank of several years, during which it was either latent' or absent altogether. In 1842-43, relapsing fever, instead of, as usual, originating in Ireland, seemed to have its birth in Scotland. It appeared first on the east coast of Fife, and prevailed all over Scot- land, and in many of the principal towns in England. The mortality was low, about 2J per cent. It prevailed at a period of great distress, and was restricted to the poorest and most wretched of the population; and was, as usual, mixed with typhus, but not to a great extent. It declined in 1843, but isolated cases continually occurred up to 1847, a year marked by great scarcity, not only in this country but in various parts of the Continent, especially Upper Silesia. In that year, ac- companying the famine, a very widespread epidemic occurred of relapsing fever ; but it rapidly gave place to typhus, and subsided in 1848, reappearing partially in 1851 and 1853, and did not occur in this country again until 1868, when it would seem to have been im- ported from abroad ; for in 1865 it was at St. Petersburg, and spread to Germany and else- where. This epidemic of 1869 was diligently studied, at the different hospitals in this country, and its symptoms and course accu- rately marked. The first case occurred on 4th July 1868, and was followed by two others ; all three were admitted into the London Fever Hospital, In October 1868, a severe epidemic occurred in Tredegar, but it did not become prevalent in London until the autumn of 1869, at which time it also attacked Liver- pool and Manchester, and in 1870 had invaded Scotland. Many of the cases could be distinctly traced to contagion. The epidemic was peculiar, for it followed typhus, instead of preceding it. It was not a time of famine ; its victims were by no means exclusively those in destitute circumstances, and a very small proportion of the jiatients were Irish, FEV (223) FEV With regard to its geogrfiphical range, it has prevailed extensively in Kussia, Poland, Gennany, and Great Britain. Most of our own epidemics have begun in Ireland. Qpe — viz., 1843 — was imported from Scotland; and the last, 1869, probably from Germany, It has also been imported to Philadelphia and New York, and occurs in India, and tropical countries. Predisposivff Ccmses. — It is a disease little influenced by climate, sex, or occupation. The great predisposing cause is famine, and as des- titution usually coexists with overcrowding, the latter is favourable to its propagation. A great number of cases were tramps, vagrants, hawkers, &c., but it must be remembered that in such a class the poorest people are found. The greatest proportion of cases occurred between the ages of fifteen and twenty -five. Prevention of Propagation. — The last epi- demic showed the contagious nature of the disease without a doubt ; and it is acknow- ledged that it is especially the cutaneous excretion which contains the poison. The present writer,* indeed, advanced at that time (1870) the view that the cause of the relapse is the breathing by the patient of the large quantity of sour-smelling fluid thrown off by the skin at the time of the crisis. This being taken into the systenj, again infects it. The apyretic period being really the time of in- cubation, he attempted to prevent the relapse * A. W. Bltth, Medical Times and Gtazette, 1870, in three cases by watching for the crisis, and bathing off and disinfecting the perspiration. The relapse, however, appeared, though not at the usual time, and the second attack was somewhat shortened. The experiment is worth trying again, should opportunity offer. The chief poison, then, is thrown off by the skin, and infects the air, the clothes, and per- haps the walls of the room, &c. The excreta from the bowels, &o., may also be contagious. Therefore the means to be used are evi- dently to keep the skin anointed with carbolic acid oil (which, indeed, will be a great com- fort to the patient, and may prevent the relapse), and also to fumigate the room, dis- infect the bowel excreta, bake or destroy the clothes, &c., as described under DISINFECTION, Disinfecting-Chambebs. Fever, Scarlet (synonym, Scarlatina) — A fever produced by a specific poison. The symptoms of the fever are that on the second day of the illness a scarlet efflorescence ap- pears on the face an d neck, fauces and pharynx, accompanied with sore throat. • It ordinarily terminates with desquamation both of the epithelium that covers the body, and also of the epithelium lining the tubes in the kidney. From the fifth to the sixth day the kidneys are nearly always affected, and the throat often very severely. Dropsy, deafness, and abscess frequently follow the fever. The following table gives the deaths in Eng- land from scarlet fever for a number of years : DEATHS in England from Soablet Fevee (exclusive of Deaths by Diphtheria and Maligna), at different Ages, in each of the Seventeen Years, 1855-71. Cynano' ie i AUAges Under I Year. 1,131 983 855 1,444 1,294 636 572 903 1,761 1,778 1,118 690 805 1,390 1,792 2,164 1,206 1. 2. 3. 4. Under 5 Tears. 5. 10. 13. 25. 35. 45. 66. B6 7 5 85 1 l...i... 3'.'.'.'.'.. 2...I... 4...... 1 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 16,929 13,557 12,646 23,711 19,310 9,305 9,077 14,334 30,475 29,700 17,700 11,685 12,300 21,912 27,641 32,543 18,567 2,306 1,930 1,790 3,468 2,824 1,378 1,288 2,158 4,050 3,915 2,497 1,741 1,806 3,209 4,073 4,667 2,753 2,700 2,lfel 2,032 3,980 3,062 1,499 1,490 2,454 4,886 4,682 2,914 2,038 2,064 3,533 4,698 5,212 3,054 2,537 2,085 1,988 3,638 2,992 1,409 1,423 2,268 4,683 4,571 2,613 1,835 1,961 3,368 4,110 4,809 2,695 1,957 1,669 1,462 2,860 2,379 1,146 1,119 1,786 3,842 3,763 2,140 1,415 1,457 2,695 3,405 .3,853 2,161 10,631 8,830 8,127 15,390 12,551 6,068 5,892 9,569 19,222 18,709 11,282 7,719 8,093 14,195 18,078 20,705 11,869 4,523 3,419 3,252 6,160 4,937 2,329 2,317 3,893 8,191 8,027 4,759 2,964 3,269 5,939 7,194 8,540 4,706 1,078 800 766 1,325 1,050 477 447 818 1,820 1,711 953 571 551 1,099 1,419 1,959 1,101 438 332 321 557 469 287 264 364 805 796 448 267 251 408 538 789 556 128 88 104 159 174 77 91 117 267 280 158 109 97 179 266 348 214 71 55 40 69 80 37 31 42 113 102 56 30 26 66 91 134 68 36; 15 20 10 23 7 33 10 26 12 19' 7 8 3. 3 6 7 4. "2 5 7 7. 1. 2 2. 5 10 2 21 16 34 44 23 19 9 18 40 34 39 10 9 15 20 14 5 1 6 9 21 11 h 2... 4... 1... 1...I... 3...I... 1 ...!... Total 321,892 20,524 45,853 52,459148,985 139,109 206,930 84,420 17,945 7890 2856 1111 454182 74 5 91 ... FEV (224) FEV In the time of Sydenham it used to be re- garded as a mild disease, but tbe epidemics of our day have been extremely fatal and severe. * For example, tbe last epidemic of 1870 swept over the whole country, destroying 32,543 people. Nature of the Disease.— Scarlet fever is a blood disease. The contagion, whether it be bacteroid (see Baotekia), or, more probably, analogous to the variola poison, multiplies with rapidity and infects the whole body. It is principally thrown off, however, in myriads of those little cells which cover the skin of the body, the mouth, the intestinal canal, and even the delicate tubes of the kidney, and which are extensively distributed over the system, called epithelium. The poison prin- cipally attacks the epithelial ceU, and the epithelial cell is the great, but not the only, carrier of the poison. It may then infect the breath, and there- fore th6 air of the joom. The clothes. The excreta (both urine and fseces), and consequently the hands of attendants. The room, walls, curtains, bedding, &o. From the excreta it may be carried into sewers, or it may infect the privy or water- closet, and from thence may percolate into the drinking-water, although the latter mode of origin has not been as yet finally established. The clothes of attendants may distribute it wherever the attendants themselves go. These various media, and others that will readily suggest themselves, are probably suffi- cient to account for the propagation of the disease ; yet that there are peculiar conditions, whether of the soil or, climate, in addition, must be allowed ; e.g. — ■ Dr. Ballot, in an interesting paper,f gives the following statistics for Holland, which show that, owing to some cause imperfectly understood, scarlet fever is in the same country much more prevalent in some places than others— that is to say, there is a local, an endemic, as well as an epidemic character. Average Fopulation. Deaths from Scarlatina. One Death in Inhabitants. 1866. 1867. 1868. Total. Per Year. North Holland . Amsterdam South Holland . Rotterdam The kingdom . 570,742 266,681 679,950 116,650 3,576,382 91 66 12 7 393 430 410 36 13 565 87 2 8 1 283 790 587 67 24 1566 192 146 16 8 391 2,900 1,900 42,374 14,511 9,146 Attempts have been made to account for the origin of the disease by other means than that of contagion. For example — Dr. Druitt, in his address to the Association of Medical Officers of Health, said (1870): " I am one of those who believe scarlet fever to be emphatically a product of sewer gases. Whether those gases be, according to the very able and consistent theory some years since advocated by Dr. Budd, merely the vehicles of germs oast into the sewers, or whether they generate disease de novo, is not my purpose to inquire. Suffice it to say that, in my own experience, sore throats and sewer gases go together, and that in cases where scarlet fever has spread in houses, spite of well-devised and sufficient means of isolating and disinfecting the first patient, I believe I have sometimes * "Oeux qui ont vu comma moi la scarlatine exergant sea ravages pendant trente-sept ans, sur toutes les classes de Ja soci^t^ et dans divers pays, soit ^r^tat sporadique, soit 6pid6miquement, ne nieront pas qu'elle constitue le plus terrible flaau qui existe actuellement en Europe." — (J. Frank, Pathol. Int., t. ii. p. 98; Encycl. des So. Mfid.) found the common source of contamination to be in the breathing of sewer air or drinking of sewer water. One example I bring before you in the drawing of a rain-water pipe, with an open funnel top, close to the window of abed- room in which child after child was seized with scarlet fever." But as all sewers are the channels by which the excreta gases conveying infectious par- ticles are diffused and conveyed from one point to the other, the most probable explanation of such cases is, that it is a contagion, the gas being simply the vehicle. A novel theory has been propounded by Dr. Carpenter, He summarises his ideas as fol- lows :-^ "1. That scarlatina is a highly infectious disease, capable of propagation by contact, but which can also arise de novo without being necessarily preceded by another case of the same kind. "2. That when it arises de novo, it results t Medical Times and Gazette, May 6, 18T1. FEV (225) PEV from germs of organic matter which have been given off from vertebrate blood in a particular state of decomposition. (Whether healthy blood will set free such germs is a point upon which hitherto I have not been able to get satisfactory evidence.) " 3. That those germs are particles of albu- minoid matter in a state of rotrocedent change, which by some vital or catalytic action are able to reproduce themselves when they find admission to any part of the respiratory tract of the human body, provided that body has not been already submitted to a similar influ- ence and action on a preceding occasion. "4. ThEkt these germs cannot set up the disease if the ordinary excreta, the natural result of the act of living, are properly and within a proper time evacuated from the sys- tem through the various excretory organs pro- vided for the purpose. "5. It follows, therefore, that scarlatina can oidy be entirely prevented by the removal of all those causes which tend to reproduce it, and that with isolation and disinfection it may be ' stamped out.' " 6. That scarlatina is as amenable as ty- phus to sanitary regulations, and if perchance it be introduced into a district, it need not spread at all if proper measures are used to prevent it, of which ventilation is the most important, because the germs which reproduce it are deprived of their power and their viru- lence if the retrocedent decomposition upon which that power depends is arrested and oxidisation promoted. "7. That if by accident it should spread among'comparatively healthy children, it will be shorn of its terrors if these children have not taken in any insanitary matters which can act as pabulum for the scarlatina germs to feed upon and grow in. "8. That the virulence of the disease will depend upon the quantity of such matter in the blood of the recipient. If the quantity is small, the disease will be slight, and vice versd ; if it is great, it may lead to such changes in the blood as are incompatible with the con- tinuance of life. "9. That the matters which promote the spread of scarlatina most easily are the pro- ducts of decomposing carnivorous animal ex- creta, but that it is only at certain times and in certain seasons that the disease is epi- demic. " 10. It follows that a district may be com- paratively free from scarlatina in which the decomposition of blood is prevented, and in which carnivorous animal excreta are carefully removed from the neighbourhood of our towns and villages, and are not allowed to contami- nate our food and water supply." Prevention of Spread of tlie Disease. — The principal points are — 1. If possible to isolate the patient. 2. To attack the throat and skin as the main channels of infection. 3. To disinfect all excreta. ' 4. To take care that all clothes be thoroughly washed and disinfected, and all soiled rags burnt. 6. To take care that no convalescent be allowed to go into public until desquamation has ceased, which should be aided with medi- cated baths, alternating with free oiling. A complete change of clothes is also neces- sary. What in practice is most needed, and most neglected, is oiling the skin with olive oil mixed with a little carbolic acid. This pre- vents the skin epithelium from being carried about by every current of air. It also does the disease itself good, and disinfects when it is most needed. The throat should be mopped out with a weak solution of Condy's fluid. Medical men in practice too often neglect the prophylactic measures to prevent the spread of scarlet fever. It will be seldom necessary to burn bedding, &c. — at all events, in towns which possess a proper disinfecting-chamber. (See Disinpect- inq-Chambebs.) Indeed, with all linen things, a thorough boiling and washing confer suffi- cient safety. Dr. Carpenter's theory should be borne in mind. Subsequent observation must either confirm or modify his views. In the meantime no new school should be near a slaughterhouse, and all collections or manufac- tories where blood is used should be watched. It must be remembered that among much error there may be a germ of truth in the idea that we obtain our scarlet fever from animals, for there is no more conunon disease in young horses than "strangles," which certainly must be considered the scarlet fever of solipedes ; but whether this is communicable to man or not is yet unknown. Fever, Simple Continued (Febricvla, Ardent Fever, &c.) — This is a non-contagious fever, and therefore does not come within the scope of this work. Its causes are various, such as exposure to the sun, surfeit, &c. It is rarely fatal in England, Fever, Spotted— This term was used by Shother, 1729, to denote typhus. See Feveb, Ttphds. Fever, Typhoid (synonyms: English— Gastric Fever, Enteric or Intestinal Fever, Low Feroer, Common Continued Fever, Infan- tile Bemittent, Endemic Fever, 'Pythogenic Fevir, GeTm&n—Sarm-Fieber, DarmrTyphus. P FEV (226) FEV Latin — Ilea Typhus, Typhus Abdominalis. French — Za Filvre typhoide, La Dothinente'cie, FUirre entero-7n4senterique) — A contagious fever, produced by the absorption of ^ speoifio poison, always derived from a previous pre- existing case. There is scarcely a part of the world exempt from this fever. It has been observed in the British Isles, France, Germany, Spain, Kussia, Italy, Tui'key, Norway, Sweden, Ire- land, Africa, East and West Indies, North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and Van Diemen's Land. Essential Nature of the Diseasf. — The essen- tial nature of the disease is that it is a con- tagious eruptive fever, the eruption occurring on the mucous membrane of the intestines, and therefore removed from view. This is not a novel statement of the case. Petit and Serres in 1813 described the morbid appear- ances in the intestine, and considered that it was of an eruptive nature, like the poison of variola, Cruveilhier, Lerminier, Andral, and Bretonneau of Tours all spoke of the disease as of an internal exanthem. And Dr. W. Budd, the latest writer, in his beautiful and classical monograph says (referring to some illustrations of the small intestine at an early stage) : " I do not know what impression these illustrations may make on others, but to me it seems impossible to look at them without the idea of an eruption at once arising in the mind. When we remember that this affection — ^to repeat the essential points once more — is characteristic of this fever ; that it stands in the same relation to it as a diagnostic mark, at least, as a peculiar pustular eruption does to smallpox ; that it is an affection which, proceeding from within, breaks out on the surface; that it results in the elimination of the morbid product ; and lastly, that the product itself is the one known specific pro- duct of a contagious fever, the evidence be- comes irresistible, that we have here the es- sence of an eruptive process, whatever the name by which we may choose to call it." —(Dr. W. Budd, Typhoid Fever, 1873.) The principal pathology is as follows : There is a period of incubation, the time of which is not exactly fixed. Dr. W. Budd con- siders from ten to fourteen days ; Murchison thinks that it is often less than two weeks, and may not exceed one or two days. After this period the symptoms of fever commence. A few pases of death in the first week of the fever have occurred; and the examination of the body showed the following : In the small intestine u certain number of Peyer's patches, or of the solitary follicles, are found thickened and raised above the internal surface of the gut ; this thickening is from the infil- tration of a yellowish-white cheesy matter. The small circular follicles stand out in this early stage, and in f ^ct the bowel looks covered with the pustules. At a later stage, the pus- tules ulcerate, and form the well-known ulcer- ations so frequently seen. These ulcerations, of course, take the place of, and destroy, as it were, the foregoing features, which are very rarely noticed, simply because death takes place usually at an advanced stage. Both the ulcerations and the pustules, in all probability, contain by far the greatest portion of the poison. History. — It appears to have prevailed from the earliest times, and is described by Hippo- crates, Galen, and Spigelius, although under different names. Panarolus in 1694 described a fever at Rome, with an intestinal lesion as if they were burnt. Willis, Sydenham, Lancisi, Hoffman, Manningham, and others, all have left descriptions of fever under various names, the symptoms of which were undoubtedly ty- phoid. The French pathologists. Petit and Serres, Cruveilhier, Andral, and especially Bretonneau, and. after him Louis, were the first to study and point out the morbid ap- pearances in the intestine as an important and distinguishing mark, but they still confused typhus, and typhoid. In the meantime Eng- lish observers had been gradually leading up towards the actual separation of typhus and typhoid, so long confounded. In 1836 Dr. Perry published his paper, in which he laid down the distinctions between the two diseases ; and Dr. Lombard, who had come over from Geneva, stated that there were "two distinct and separate fevers in Great Britain." Other observations and treatises followed in succeed- ing years, both for and against the new doc- trine. Dr. A. P. Stewart, in 1838, after studying fever in the Glasgow Fever Hospital, gave a masterly description of the essential differences between the two diseases ; and the proofs rapidly accumulated, up to Sir.W. Jenner, whose careful researches, published between 1849 and 1851, leave no doubt upon the subject, even it his conclusions were not ratified, as they have been, by such men as Peacock, Wilks, Tweedie, Gairdner, W. Budd, and many others. On account of the confusion of the con- tinued fevers, the real history of the disease, its prevalence among armies and nations, is obscure. The great fact is, that it appears to have extensively prevailed, from the ear- liest-recorded cases, in all places. Predisposing Causes.— Vaeie are certain pre- disposing causes that render one person more liable than another to the contagion. One of the most important of these is age ; for in- stance, in 100 oases of typhoid, the perceu- FEV (227) FEV tage at each period of life would be some- what near the following : — Years of Age. Under 5 . From 5 to 9 „ 10 to 14 ■ „ l5tol9 „ 20 to 24 ,. 25 to 29 „ 80 to 34 „ 35 to 89 „ 40 to 44 „ 45 to 49 „ 60 to 54 „ 55 to 59 „ 60 to 64 „ 65 to 69 „ 70 to 79 Per cent. 0-98 9-44 18-16 26-86 19-69 10-15 6-36 3-40 2-09 1-08 0-60 0-33 0-33 0-08 1-33 It is, then, mainly a disease of youth and adolescence ; at and beyond fifty it is not so common. The practical application of this is evident— 7viz. , that those who nurse cases of typhoid should not be young men or women. "Persons under thirty are more than four times as liable to enteric fever a& persons over thirty."— (MUSOHISON. ) Season of the year exercises a most un- doubted influence. In this country, in France, in America, and most others, autumn is the most favourable season for its development, as shown by statistical evidence ; winter and spring the least so. After dry summers it is far more prevalent than after wet. In France this fever was unusually prevalent in the autumn of 1846, and it was attributed to the excessive heat. The Spread and Communication of the Disease. — The contagion of the disease is principally cast off by the intestines, but there is reason to believe that it may also be in the cutaneous or other excretions. The typhoid excreta may then infect the soil, the drinking-water, the hands of the ■sick, the bed-clothes, linen or garments of the attendants, and it may also infect the air. The fresh discharges from the bowel do not appear to be at all times greatly contagious. Seeing this, Murchison argued that it was only when they decomposed ; but this fact is sus- ceptible of another explanation. For example. Dr. "W. Budd, speaking of the contagion, says : Much of it, even when first voided, is no doubt already in a state of fine division, but much also is present in the foi-m of clots or pellets of yellow- matter, which are to the contagious germs which float impalpable in air 01- water, much as the block of granite is to the dust into which it may be ground. The application of these considerations to the case before us must be obvious to every one. If they be true, it necessarily follows that before the poison contained in the typhoid stool can exert to its full extent the contagious power inherent in it, and take its full part in the work of typhoid propagation, it must be liberated, by drying, fermentation, or some other mode of disintegration, from the clots, pellets, or other organic husk or entanglement in which it is embedded, and resolved into particles, which, suspended in the media that surround us, represent the condition under which it can alone convey wide- spread infection. The case may be likened to that of the poppy, or many another plant. Poppies, like contagious fevers, propagate them- selves. When the seed capsule is ripe it drops off, but the capsule itself has to be broken up — often ti-avelling long distances the while — before the numberless seeds it encloses are cast out upon the soil to spring up as fresh poppies. And so in a measure with the fever seed also.— (Dr. W. Bodd, Typhoid Pevei-, 1873, p. 94.) That the vehicle is frequently drinking- water, whether from a tainted well or from a polluted stream, or even from a small quan- tity of typhoid - polluted water, has been t)roved to demonstration. Infection by water would also seem to be, as a rule, more rapid and fatal than infection in any other way. It also may be generally very clearly traced — witness Dr. W. Btidd's account of the fever at Cow- bridge in 1853, at Kingswood in 1866; Dr. Eallard on the outbreak of typhoi4 commu- nicated by milk, &c. In all cases where the writer of this article has examined wells from a belief that he could actually trace typhoid to the water, the latter has been found impure. For instance, a well at Astley, near Stour- port, where the sewage from typhoid excreta leaked into the well, gave — Grains o , . , . , per Gallon. Solid residue . . 59-5 Chlorine . . 2 8 In 1 Litre. MilllKramtnes. Free ammonia 0-15 Albuminoid ammonia . .0-30 A well near Dolton, Devon, into which typhoid excreta leaked, and which caused several severe and fatal cases of fever, gave on analysis the following : — Grains „ ,, , . , per Gallon. Solid residue 44-8 Chlorine . .8-85 Parts per Litre. MillipmnmiBa 0-16 0-12 Free ammonia . Albuminoid ammonia On the other hand, to show that water defiled extremely with sewage and organic matter, but lacking the specific element, will not give typhoid, see "Watee, wher« there are several analyses of highly impure water which had been drunk for a long time with- out causing typhoid fever. The Soil.—1he writer of this article cannot but state his belief that discharges of typhoid, when undisinfected and thrown upon the earth, infect the soil itself, and that the con- tagion, indeed, may gain new force there ; and in certain soils, such as Pettenkof er mentions — for instance, a porous soil, saturated at its lower part with water — it may remain active for indefinite periods. In such a case, the emanations would be greatly influenced by FEV (228) PEV the ffmmd-water, and its changes in height, and would bear out the observations of Petten- kofer, although the latter puts a different in- terpretation on the facts.* Prevention of its Propagation, — This cannot be put in simpler or plainer language than the rules drawn up for popular use by Dr. W. Budd. " The means by which typhoid fever may be prevented from spreading are very simple, very sure, and their cost next to nothing. ' ' They are founded on the discovery that the poison by which this fever spreads is almost entirely contained in the discharges from the bowels. " These discharges infect (1) the aiir of the sick-room; (2) the bed and body .linen of the patient ; (3) privy and the cesspool, or the drains proceeding from them " (to which the writer of this article also thinks should be added the soil). " From the privy or drain the poison often soaks into the well, and infects the drinking- water. This last, when it happens, is of all forms of fever-poisoning the most deadly. * ' In these various ways the infection pro- ceeding from the bowel - discharges often spreads the fever far and wide. The one great thing to aim at, therefore, is to dis- infect these discharges on their very escape from the body, and before they are carried from the sick-room. This may be perfectly done by the use of disinfectants. One of the best is made of green copperas. ' ' This substE^nce, which is used by all shoe- makers, is very cheap, and may be had every- where. A pound and a half of green copperas to a gallon of water is the proper strength. A teacupf ul of this liquid put into the night-pan every time before it is used by the patient renders the bowel discharge perfectly harm- less. One part of Calvert's liquid carbolic acid in fifty parts of water is equally efficacious. " To disinfect the bed and body linen, and bedding generally, chloride of lime, or Mac- dougaU's or Calvert's powder, is more con- venient. These powders should be sprinkled by means of a common dredger on soiled spots on the linen, and about the room to purify the air. "All articles of bed and body linen should be plunged, immediately on their removal from the bed, into a bucket of water con- taining a tablespoonful of chloride of lime, * The curious fact, that when the subsoil water sinks, and therefore when the wells are low, typhoid fever is most active and fatal, and that when the reverse of this takes place, typhoid fever is least active and virulent, may, as Llebenueister sugf^ests, be explained by the fact that in the one case any leakage into a well containing but little water would necessarily contaminate it intensely, in the);other case it would be much diluted. This theory is far more simple and probable than that of Fettenkofer. or Macdougall's or Calvert's powder, and should be boiled before being washed. A yard of thin wide gutta-percha placed beneath the blanket under the breech of the patient, by effectually preventing the discharges from soaking into the bed, is a great additional safeguard. The , privy or closet, and all drains communicating with it, should be flushed twice daily with the green copperas liquid, or with carbolic acid diluted with water. "In towns and villages where the fever is already prevalent, the last rule should be put in force for all houses, whether there be fever in them or not, and for all public drains. "In the event of death, the body should be placed as soon as possible in a coffin sprinkled with disinfectaiits. Early burial is on all accounts desirable. "As the hands of those attending on the sick often become unavoidably soiled by the discharges from the bowel, they should be frequently washed. "The sick-room should be kept well ven- tilated day and night. " The greatest possible care should be taken with regard to the drinking-water. Where there is the slightest risk of its having become tainted with fever-poison, water should be got from a pure source, or should 'at least be boiled before being drunk. " Immediately after the illness is over, whe- ther ending in death or recovery, the dresses worn by the nurses should be washed or de- stroyed, and the bed and room occupied by the sick should be thoroughly disinfected. These are golden rules. Where they are neglected, the fever may become a deadly scourge; where they are strictly carried out, it seldom spreads beyond the person first attacked." The present writer considers that it is even better, if possible, to bum the discharges with sawdust and paraffine, and in case of a typhoid soil, to Ume it well and cover it with soot. See DisDiPEOTioN, Disinfeotaiits, &c. Fever, Typhus (synbnyms : PaHsh In- fection, Pestilential JFever, Sram Pever, Spotted Fever, Tgpho-rvbeoloid, Adynamic Fever, MaUgnwnt Fever, Camp Fever, Mili- tary Fever, Jail Distemper, Jail Fever, Ship Fever, Ochlotic Fever, Irish Ague, &o.)— A contagious fever, the symptoms of which are "more or less sudden invasion, marked by rigors or chilliness; frequent, compressible pulse ; tongue furred, and ultimately dry and brown; bowels in most cases constipated; skin warm and dry ; a rubeoloid rash appear- ing between the fourth and seventh days, the spots never appearing in successive crops, at first slightly elevated and disappearing on pres- sure, but after the second day persistent, and FEV (229) FEV tiften becoming converted into true peteohise ; great and early prostration; heavy flushed countenance ; injected oonjunctivse ; wakeful- ness and obtuseness of the mental faculties, followed, at the end of the first week, by delirium, which is sometimes acute and noisy, but oftener low and wandering ; tendency to stupor and coma, tremors, subsultus, and involuntaiy evacuations, with contracted pupils. Duration of the fever from ten to twenty-one days, usually fourteen. In the dead body no specific lesion ; but hypersemia of aU the internal organs, softening and dis- integration of the heart, and voluntary muscles, hypostatic congestion of the lungs, atrophy of the brain, and oedema of the pia- mater arc common." — (MoROHlsotr. ) History. — It is probable that the disease has existed from the earliest ages, and formed one of the pestilences of the Scriptures as well as of the plagues of Greece and Rome ; but as the symptoms of the ancient scourges have seldom been delineated with , any precision, although there are the strongest presumptions, there is no decided proof of this. The history of typhus shows that it has decimated insanitary armies and navies, that it has invaded prisons, and that its greatest . ravages have been where overcrowding and famine have prevailed ; e.g. — In the army of Ferdinand (1487) 17,000 troops perished from the prevalence of a spotted fever. Charles V. (1552) lost a very large number of men from a similar disease while besieging Metz; and fourteen years later, the same epidemic, uuder the name of the Morhv^ Hungcmcus, appeared in the army of Maximilian IL , and spread over the whole of Europe. The period from 1619 to 1648 was the epoch of the Thirty Years' "War, during which Cen- tral Europe was devastated both by famine and fever. Some idea of its fatality may be gained from the fact that the Bavarian army in Bohemia lost 20,000 men from these causes ; hence the name Bohemian Disease. The army of the Earl of Essex at the siege of Beading (1643) was much overcrowded, and fever broke out in the camps of both the besieged and the besiegers. Typhus fever also prevailed to a disastrous extent in the wars of Louis XIV., Frederick the Great, Napoleon I., and lastly, in the Crimean war. It has earned its name of Ship Fever from its frequent occurrence in crowded vessels, whether these Were employed for the purpose of transporting troops, or as hulks for the seclusion of convicts, like the convict hulks of Toulon, in which no less than six epidemics of typhus are recorded— viz., in 1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 1865, and 1856. For a similar reason — viz., its prevalence in prisons — the fever was called the Jail Fever or Distemper, and it is supposed to have been the disease communicated from the prisoners at the six Black Assizes. {See Black Assizes.) It has prevailed greatly in prisons both at home and abroad even during the- early part and middle of the present century — e.g. , in the Dublin prisons, 1815, at Eheims, 1839, and Strasburg in 1854. If it has ravaged armies navies, prisons, and hospitals, it has been also fatal to the civil population. In many cases the soldiers, sailors^ or prisoners have evi- dently imported the disease ; in others, if it has not arisen de novo, the mode of origin has been more obscure and difiicult to trace. In Tuscany, 1550-54, a season of great scarcity, it destroyed 100,000 persons, and history shows that it has raged in various parts of the world like a plague. Ireland has had so many epidemics that typhus may be looked upon as thoroughly naturalised in that country. The principal Irish typhus years are 1708, 1718, 1729, 1735, 1740, 1770, 1797, 1803, 1817, 1826, and 1846. Most of the Irish epidemics have been imported into England. The chief dates marking severe outbreaks of typhus in this country are as follows : 1721, 1740, 1817. 1827, 1843, 1846^8, 1856, and 1862-69. There are only three of these out- breaks which were not connected with Ire- land—viz., the epidemic of 1843, which began and raged most violently in Scotland ; that of 1856, which was owing to a temporary distress connected with the Crimean war ; and that of 1862-69, principally confined to London. One of the most violent of the Irish epidemics occurred in 1740. It is computed to have destroyed, together vrith famine, 80,000 people. But the epidemic of 1846 was of still greater magnitude, and indeed attained unprecedented proportions. It raged over the whole British Islands, and lasted two years. There are com- puted to have been 300,000 cases in England, 19,254 in Scotland, and a million cases in Ire- land in 1847. The Irish flocked to England in thousands, bringing the pestilence with them. It therefore was extremely prevalent in Liver- pool, no less than 10,000 persons dying of typhus in that city. The last epidemic of typhus, • 1862-69, in England was of a partial character ; its principal seat was London. "There was no failure of crops in England, but for some time before there had been great and increasing distress among the poor of London, consequent on the organised system of strikes, the effects of which had only temijorarily been averted by the relief from the societies for promoting the short-hour movement. As in 1826, 1836, and 1856, an orJt/Eciaf scarcity was the result." FEV (230) FEV — (Mdkohison.) Tliis epidemic, also, cannot be said to have been imported from Ireland, since nearly 14,000 cases in 1862-69 were admitted into the London Fever Hospital, of which bnt a small proportion were Irish. Dr. Mui'chison considers that the history of typhus leads to the following conclusions : — "1. Typhus prevails for the most part in great and widespread epidemics. " 2. These epidemics appear during seasons of general scarcity or want, or amidst hard- ships and privations arising from local causes, such as warfare, commercial failures, and strikes among the labouring population. The statement that they always last for three years, and then subside, is erroneous. " 3. During the intervals of epidemics spora- dic cases of typhus occur, particularly in Ire- land, and in the large manufacturing towns of Scotland and England. " 4. Although some of the great epidemics of this country have commenced in Ireland, and spread thence to Britain, appearing first in those towns on the west coast of Britain where there was the freest intercourse with Ireland, it is wrong to imagine that all epi- demics have commenced in Ireland, or that typhus is a disease essentially Irish. The disease appears wherever circumstances fa- vourable to its development are present. " 5. In many epidemics typhus has l^een asso- ciated withrelapsingfever, and' the relative pro- portion of the two fevers has varied greatly. "6. From the earliesttimes typhus has been re- garded as a disease of debility, forbidding deple- tion, and demanding support and stimulation. "7. The chief exception to the last state- ment originated in the erroneous doctrines taught in the early part of this century, according to which the disease was looked upon as symptomatic of inflammation or con- gestion of internal organs. "8. The success believed at one time to follow the practice of venesection was only apparent. It was due to the practice having for the most part been resorted to in cases of relapsing fever and acute inflammations, and to the results having been compared with those of the treatment by stimulation of the much more mortal typhus. "9. Although typhus fever varies in its severity and duration' at different times, and under different circumstances, there is no evi- dence of any change in its type or essential characters. The typhus of modern times is the same as that described by Fraoastorius and Cordanus. The period during which epi- demic fever was said to present an inflamma- tory type was that in which relapsing fever was most prevalent, and the times in which the type has_ been described as adynamic have been those in which relapsing fever has been scarce or absent."— (MuEOHISON.) Geographical Mange. — All countries in Eu- rope, the United States, North America, and probably India. Australia and New Zea,land appear free from typhus, nor has it been ob- served in Africa. Independent Origin. — A great number of facts have been brought forward attempting to prove the actual generation of typhus from the combined influence of overcrowding and destitution, but it has not been by any means established, and it can confldently be asserted that in no recorded flrst'case of typhus is the idea of contagion absolutely excluded. Dr. Parkes, speaking of the siege of Metz, says (Report on Hygiine, 1872) : "With re- ference to the particular kind of fever in Metz, it may be noticed that an important argument against the production of exanthe- matic typhus from simple overcrowding has been drawn from the experience both of Metz and Paris. In both places during the sieges, there was overcrowding, wretchedness, and famine, particularly at Metz ; yet, as pointed out by Professor Chauffard to the Academic de Medecine, there was scarcely any or no typhus, as there had been in the wars of the first Napoleon. There was typhus in the German besieging .force, but so strict was the blockade that it was not imported into Metz, and was not generated there." Three cases, related by Murchison, occurred in London, and although there were no known typhus cases in the city at that time, yet there are all the chances that it was lurk- ing about somewhere, and possibly not diag- nosed. The celebrated case of the Scheah Gehaad is still more unsatisfactory, as it is now known that the Arabs from Alexandria were ill of some disease when they embarked. It is still an open question. Predisposing Causes. — These have been al- ready sufficiently indicated. Prevention of Spread.— Tiiie first and car- dinal point is free ventilation. It would appear that even without disinfectants free dilution destroys the poison, and renders it inert. If possible, a typhus patient should be put in the highest room in a house or hospi- tal, as there is ample evidence to show that the poison is volatile and ascends. The breath and cutaneous exhalation of the patient are probably the principal, although not the only, vehicles of infection. The skin can be sponged frequently with some disinfecting fluid, such as Condy's, or permanently coated with olive oil mixed with a little cal-bolio acid. The room should be fumigated with chlorine or nitrous acid fumes. The latter is shown by experience to have most effect. Th^ bedding FEV (231) FEV should be burnt after the termination of the case, or thoroughly baked and washed, and the excreta disinfected with a solution of sul- phate of iron. In hot weather typhus patients will do bet- ter in tents or sheds than in hospitals. In any case they should never be crowded together, but have as much cubic space ajs possible. " It has been often shown that gven exposure to weather, bad diet, and insufficient attend- ance are less dangerous to the patients than the aggregation of cases of typhus." — (Paekes.) See Disinfection ; Fevee, Typhoid, &o. Fever, Yellow — A specific fever of a continuous and malignant type, occurring only once in the same individual. There are no remissions. The symptoms are various. In most cases, after a period of incubation of from two to eight days, intense fever supervenes, attended by yellowness of the conjunctivae and skin, delirium, hsemorrhages from the stomach, mouth, nares, and rectum (this has been called black-vomit, black-stools, &c.), intense headache, a slow and sometimes inter- mittent pulse. Natwe of the Disease. — Nearly aU authori- ties who have seen the disease concur in agree- ing thatyeUow fever is of a continuous type, and has nothing in common with marsh fever or malarious intermittents. " '* Yellow fever is an essentially continual and non-marshy fever. ... It is not a marsh fever, nor a bilious remittent, nor a bilious hsematurio." — (Sulli- van, Yellow Fever at Havama, Medical Times and Gazette,, 1871.) It depends upon the absorption of a specific poison into the blood, which increases like other analogous diseases. Aitken thus sum- marises the facts as borne out by the history : (1.) That there is a specific yellow fever, propagated by a contagious virus or poison, which multiplies itself by its passage through the human system, and which reproduces the same specific true' yellow fever. The type of this fever is continuous. Pyrexia, delirium, suppression of urine, black-vomit, are the leading symptoms of this fever — the hsemo- gastric pestilence, as it has been also called. (2.) That there are other fevers, and especially severe marsh fevers, in certain geographical limits, which have a close resemblance In symptoms to the contagious and specific yel- low fever. Geographical Range. — This is limited. It has never been known to propagate itself be- yond 48° north latitude, and is principally observed in the islands and coasts of Central America. " The yellow fever zone appears to be chiefly, in Central America, confined to the volcanic, range of the west of the country. West of the Lake of Nicaragua, the volcanic hills, which belong to a later geological period than .the granitic slopes between the lake and the Atlantic, and throw a light tufaceous ash over the whole soil, include the chief yellow fever districts, like Eealejo, Granada, Mai- saya, or Rivas." — (Medical Times and Gazette, 1871, vol. i. p. 399.) It'is also observed on the western coast of Africa, and has been imported into Europe ~e.g., Lisbon (1859), Barcelona, Genoa, and has even appeared in France, at Brest (1857), Havre (1860), St. Nazaire (1861); but its true habitat is low-lying tropical coasts, the poison appearing to require a heat of at least 72° for its fuU development. It also rarely occurs above an elevation of 2500 feet above the sea. "Whether this is be- cause of the more frequent cool winds and temperate or even cold climate of such heights is not clear. Yet it has prevailed at the Ja- maica Newcastle, which is 4000 feet high. Method of Propagation. — It is eminently an infectious disease. So many remarkable in- stances have been recorded of this property that the fact is put beyond a doubt. For ex- ample, the importation into St. Nazaire of yellow fever took place as follows : The 13th of June the Anne Maria left Havana for France with a cargo of sugar. At this port yellow fever was then raging. There was no sickness for seventeen days, but on the Ist of July two sailors were seized with yellow fever and died ; others were attacked on following days ; and when, on the 25th of July, she reached St. Nazaire, seven men were still sick. ■On arriving, the sailors left the ship, and dis- persed yellow fever throughout the land. The fresh men employed to unload the ship were also attacked, and the fever was communi- cated besides to the crews of two out of eight vessels which lay near the Anne Maria. One of these, Le Chastan, lost all her crew, con- sisting of five men, although they had only been on the Anne Maria for a quarter of au hour. Other instances occurring in ships — such as the cases of La Plata, the Eclair, the Bann, the Imaun, and the Icarus — show that the period of incubation is sometimes more than seventeen days, and that a ship may carry in- fection to any port in Europe, especially if the weather is hot. The predisposing causes and fatal character of the disease may be seen in the course of the yellow fever which raged like a plague at Buenos Ayres in January, February, March, AprU, and May 1871. During nine days, from April 3d to the 12th, 3985 are said to have died, and the Board of Health ordered all who could do so to leave the city. , The mortality was greatest among males, and the total num- FEV (232) FIL ber of deaths of all ages and both sexes in the five months was estimated at about 20,000, and this out of a population of 180,000. " The influence of meteorological conditions was remarkable. Cold greatly increased the number of deaths, but seemed to be followed by a smaller number of new cases. Heat aug- mented the number of new cases, and rain, combined with heat, appeared to favour most the progress of the epidemic. An arrest seemed to be put to the disease by several days of extreme cold, followed by very heavy rains, even although the temperature which followed was again higher, though not so high as previous to the week of climatic crisis."— (HiEON, On Yellow Fever, Medical Times and Gazette, 1871, ii. p. 125.) ** Statements about diminution of ozone in the atmosphere, and of electrical aberrations, were made, but they were entirely unsup- ported by acceptable evidence. It was the opinion of the professor of chemistry in the universitj' (who unfortunately himself suc- cumbed to the disease), from some partial experiments he made, that the amount of ozone was not diminished."— (0^. cit.) That the fever finds a ready vehicle in putrid emanations, and propagates most readily in stinking, crowded, and insanitary places, appears very evident from the his- tory of this and other epidemics— cjr., " the greatest sufferers by the plague have been the Italians, who are the poorest part of the popu- lation, and live in the worst hygienic condi- tions." — (Op. cit.) The picture of the town itself is also instruc- tive. " Buenos Ayres is a city without drainage, in which the population occupies a small area in proportion to its number. The streets are narrow, and, rents being very high, it is usual for many people to live in one house. The most complete disregard for all hygienic rule exists, and the debris from the slaughter of the cattle has been hitherto discharged into an almost stagnant inlet of the river, in most unpleasant proximity to the city. The odour from this source has been with a favourable wind almost insupportable, even in the centre ■ of the city. The method of making streets has been to fill up with offal before macadam- ising. Such filthy water-closets I have never met with anywhere, although one gets to a certain extent prepared by what one encoun- ters on the continent in Europe." — (Hieon, On Yellow Fever In the Plate, 71.) All the widespread epidemics tell the same tale of disgraceful filth. For instance, the city of Shreveport was recently visited by. a frightful epidemic of yellow fever. " Owing to political causes there had been no regular municipal government -at Shreve- port, and the city became in a very filthy condition, added to which a Texan boat with cattle sank in the Eed Eiver, and the bodies of the dead animals were allowed to putrefy on the shore."— (Lancet, Nov. 15, 1873.) Prevention of the Spread of the Disease. — "La fi^vre jaune," says Tardieu, "aveo la peste se place an premier rang des maladies pour lesquelles les mesures sanitaires sont reconnues indispensables." The great principle is, then, isolation of actual cases ; a strict quarantine for at least twenty days of vessels coming from, infected ports, or men from infected localities; re- moval of an army or a camp from a low-lying district to a higher station, if possible ; disin- fection of all excreta, and the free use of nitrous fumes. The dead must be speedily buried, and the house or camp where they died razed to the ground, burnt, or, if that is impracticable, thoroughly cleansed, fumi- gated, and disinfected. Yellow fever is best treated in the open air, or in temporary sheds, if weather permits. The general sanitary measures alluded to include the prompt removal of refuse from the streets of a town, good drainage, healthy habitations, and a pure water-supply. The history of the disease would show that the greater portion of the poison is in the vomit and dejecta. T. G. Wilson has described and figured some small circular cells in the vomit, wMch were not blood corpuscles, and which gave signs of activity by dividing under the microscopic field. These were observed in an epidemic at Bermuda, 1864.— (Lancet, November 1, 1873.) What these cells mean is at present unknown. The perspiration, and probably all excreta, is contagious. Fibrine— See Stntonine. Figs— The figs of commerce are the dried fruit of Fims Carica, the common fig-tree. It is a native of Asia and Barbary, and has been naturalised in Greece, Italy, Spain, and the South of France. The best figs are brought from Smyrna, and are known as Turkey figs. They are a very rich and luscious fruit, contain a large quantity of sugar, find when dried are very nutritious. They are demul- cent, emollient, laxative, and pectoral. Filaria Dracunculus G-uinea Worm- The Guinea worm is essen- tially a tropical parasite. It exists as a female in the connective tissue of man and of some animals, and it resembles a long piece of iini- formly thick white whipcord. The female contains enormous quantities of young. As PIL (233) Flli many aa fifty worms have been discovered in *Ci\ Fig. 29. Fig. SO. one individual, but such a number is extremely rare ; in the majority of oases only one is present. 98 '95 per cent, of this parasite make their exit at the lower extremities ; but occasionally the worm appears in the socket of the eye, the mouth, the cheeks, or below the tongue. The average length of the Guinea worm is 25'5 inches (Ewart), the shortest being 12J inches, and the longest 40 inches. Its structure may be gathered from the following diagrams. A, fig. 29, is the anterior extremity of the worm slit open and magnified, showing, o, upper and lower cephalic papillae in profile ; 5, junction of oesophagus with intestine, and constriction of peritoneal sheath, c is the anterior -ter- mination of the uterus, with short ovarian tube ; the whole extent of this uterine sac is crowded With innumerable young. B is the posterior extremity of the worm, showing, a, the posterior termination of the uterus and ovarian tube, and 6, the termination of in- testine. The mature animal protrudes the extremity of this proliferous cajjsule through one of the small papillse (see fig. 30), repre- senting the anterior ex- tremity of the worm, with a, the dilated and pro- truded ovisac ; and 6, the funnel-shaped sheath sur- rounding it. The anterior end of the worm has punctum in its centre ^^ of an inch in diameter, surrounded by rugsB in ciixles. Above and below, are two papUlre opposite each other, with a transparent area in the centre of each. Two lateral tubercles, small and indistinct, also exist. — (Bastian.) The relative position of these structures is shown in fig. 31. There are great varieties in the shape of the lower end of the worm (see fig. 32). A a, sections of four longitudinal muscles ; o?' rig. 31. Pig. 32. transverse section of the worm shows— a, m, 6,. the flattened intestine ; c, the walls of the uterine sac (see A, fig. 33) The young of the Guinea worm are represented in fig. 33, B. It is generally believed that this parasite is introduced by means of water, and it has been a disputed point whether it is taken into the j^- stomach in drinking or penetrates the skin during bathing or wading. Dr. Lorimer says, "Many people belonging to the bazaars in the vicinity of the lines, affected with the parasite, came for the ex- press purpose of extracting the riL (234) FIL ■worm to the same tank where the men of the regiment bathe. The people so infested swim about in the water with the worni hanging loose, drawing the limb quickly baqkwards and forwards throtigh the water, and from side to side, until expulsion Is effected." The female, in these cases, would die in the stream, and so give freedom to her immense brood of young. If placed in pure water, the latter die iii four, five, or six days ; but in impure water they will live twenty-one days. This parasite is induced to leave the human body more quickly by means of water than by anything else, and is usually to be discovered beneath organic debris in tanks, wells, and other reservoirs. That the parasite enters the body of man when bathing, or lying on moist places where the tank-worm abounds, is extremely pro- bable, and this view is supported by pretty strong evidence. Filaria, Sanguinis Hominis — This haematozoon was discovered in the blood and urine of certain patients who had come under the notice of Mr. T. E. Lewis, M.B., in India, during the year 1872. It is about y's "^ *" inch in length, and with a transverse diameter of ^sjtnr of an i°i=li- On being first removed from the blood it moves about incessantly, coiling and uncoiling itself unceasingly, lashing the blood corpuscles about in all directions, and insinuating itself between them. At first the worms look trans- lucent; the larger specimens, however, fre- quently present an aggregation of granules towards the junction of the lower and middle half. Occasionally a bright spot is seen at the thicker extremity, suggestive of a mouth. They continue active from six to tliirty hours. The hsematozoon is enveloped in an extremely delicate tube, closed at both ends, within which it is capable of elongating or shortening itself. Mr. Lewis concludes from this fact that its home is the blood, and that it has no means of yer- forating the tissues. " They are persistently so ubiquitous," says the discoverer, "as to be obtained day after day by simply pricking any portion of the body, even to the tips of the fingers and toes of both hands and both feet of one and the same person, with a finely-pointed needle. On one occasion six excellent specimens were obtained in a single drop of blood by merely pricking the lobule of the ear." Dr. Lewis calculates, from the number found in one drop of blood, that more than 140,000 were present in one patient; and it would appear that chylous urine, a disease common in the East, is dependent on the presence of these creatures in the blood. It is probable that this worm may be introduced by the water used for drinking purposes. Filters— Filtration is usually resorted to for the purpose of freeing liquids from fecu- lence, dirt, and other foreign matter; but frequently it has for its object the collection of the suspended substances as precipitates, &c. ; for laboratory filtration, filtering papers are prepared. Before speaking of the larger and more elaborate filters it may be as well to repeat here the following suggestion (which we take from the Proceedings of the British Associa- tion) for making a small portable filter. Take any common vessel perforated below, such as a flower -pot, fill the lower portion with coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt clay, perforated with small holes, should be put, and on this again a stratum, t3 or 4 inches thick, of well-burnt pounded animal charcoal. A filter thus formed will last a con- siderable time, and will be found to be par- ticularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances held in solution by the water. Water is purified on an extensive scale by being received into large filter-beds previous to its distribution. A filter-bed is a kind of tank or reservoir many feet in depth, with paved bottom, on which are laid a series of open-jointed or perforated tubular drainslead- ing into a central culvert increasing in coarse- ness. The eflfeot of this filter is shown in the following table : — Gniins. It lessened the — V Total solids by .... 7-063 Mineral solids by . . 4703 Volatile solids by . . . 2-360 Total amount of oxygen required -j for oxidation by nearly one- y half Hai-dness by Chlorine by , Pree ammonia by Albuminoid by , 1546 4-61 0-6 0-0042 0-0126 After a certain time the sand becomes use- less and requires washing. The fine white sand is the best, and should be carefully chosen. These drains are covered with a layer of gravel about 3 feet deep, over which is spread a layer of sand about 2 feet deep. The gravel is coarse at the bottom, becoming gradually finer towards its upper surface, and the sand is arranged in a similar manner. The water is delivered uniformly and slowly ; and in order that the filtering process may not be carried on too hurriedly the pressure is always kept low, the depth of water being seldom above 2 feet, and in some cases only 1 foot. FIL (235) riR Dr. Parkes made some experiments on a sand filter of 1 square foot surface, and made in imitation of a London water company's filter — ^viz., 15 inches of fine weU-washed white sand, and 20J inches of ^avel gradually. A filter which possesses the advantages Qf being easily and chpaply cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical im- purities with great rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two j)erforated metallic plates, united by acentral screw, and arranged in such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed to any required degree. Water under gentle pressure flows with great rapidity through a compressed sponge ; but this, of course, has no chemical action on the liquid, and does not remove organic matters dissolved in the water. Pure, well - compressed animal charcoal, deprived of calcium, phosphate,- and car- bonate by washing with hydrochloric acid, is certainly the best filtering substance. Filters made of the magnetic carbide of iron are also very useful ; and those composed of charcoal, or of the latter substance, are capable of removing all the suspended mat- ters, and at least 40 per cent, of dissolved organic impurities, together with a consider- able amount of salts, such as calcium, car- bonate, and sodium chloride. The filtering material of the magnetic carbide filter is prepared by heating haematite with sawdust. It gives a slight taste of iron to the water. The silicated carbon filter will render river- water, containing a considerable amount of free and albuminoid ammonia, as pure as deep spring- water. — (Wankltn.) The same ■ authority says that slow filtration, through a layer 4 inches thick of animal charcoal in coarse powder, removes all organic matter from water ; but after it has been in use some little time, the charcoal fouls and requires to be cleaned, either by being treated with per- manganate of potash and potash, by which means we get off ammonia from it in large quantities, or by letting it stand for some hours in the air, and thus the organic matter wiU be oxidised and disappear. Waters may also be purified by precipita- tion. This is known as Dr. Clark's process, and is useful for such waters as contain car- bonate of lime retained in solution by excess of carbonic acid. To such water lime is added, and is, as well as that contained in the wAter, precipitated. See Wateb. Parkes gives the following method for clean- ing filters: "Instead of taking the filter to pieces when it is clogged, every two or three months (according to the kind of water) air should be blown through; and if the char- coal be in a block form, it should be brushed. Then 4 to 6 oz. of the pharmacopceial solution of potassium permanganate, or 20 to 30 grains of the solid permanganate in a quart of dis- tilled water, and 10 drops of strong sulphuric acid should be poured thi:ough, and subse- quently a I to i oz. of pure hydrochloric acid in 2 to 4 gallons of distilled water. This both aids the action of the permanganate and assists in dissolving manganic oxide and calcium carbonate. Three gallons of distilled or good rain water should be poured through, and the filter is then fit for use. " Charcoal may be piirified in the manner previously mentioned, or it may be baked in an oven. A charcoal filter has recently been intro- duced by Captain Crease of the Koyal Marine Artillery, for the use especially of ships, and is now largely employed in the navy; but it is also found to be of great value in large buildings, such as asylums, workhouses, &c. The tank is made of iron lined with cement, and is divided into three chambers. The two filtering-boxes which it contains are filled with pieces of animal char- coal, or one may be filled with charcoal and the other with sand and gravel. The upper perforated plates of the boxes are movable, so that by means of screws working on rods attached to the fixed under plates, which are also perforated, the filtering media may be lessened or compressed to any extent, accord- ing to the degree of impurity of the water. The water descends through one box into a small chamber at the bottom of the tank, which retains any deposit, and then rises through the second box into the reservoir, which contains the filtered water. The whole can readily be taken to pieces and cleaned when necessary, the joints being made water- tight by means of indiarubber bands. On the same principle smaller filters have been patented by Captain Crease. Filters are now made of all shapes, sizes, and materials; but, as already remarked, those in which the filtering material consists of charcoal, magnetic carbide of iron, or silicated carbon, are the best. See Watek, DlSINTEOTANTS, CHARCOAL, &0. Filtration of Sewage— See Sewage. Fireplaces— cases of fire beyond the limits of the district. The owners of the buildings on fire are to pay for the ser- vice rendered. By 11 and 12 Vict. c. 63, s. 124, urban sani- tary authorities are to cause fire-plugs, and all necessary works, machinery, and assistance, to be provided and maintained, in order to have an efficient supply of water in cases of fire. For this purpose they may enter into agree- ment with any water company or other persoji. The situation of the fire-plugs is to be indi- cated by marks on the neighbouring houses or walls.— (P. H., s. 66.) Urban authorities may make bylaws relative to the structure of walls, roofs, buildings, &c., in order to prevent fires. — (P. H., a. 157.) By the 28 and 29 Vict. c. 90, s. 30, the Metropolitan Board of "Works, when neces- sary, may permit any part of the fire brigade establishment of the metropolis to proceed with their engines, escapes, &c., beyond the limits of the metropolis. Persons wilfully setting a chimney on fire are liable to a penalty not exceeding £.5. Notwithstanding the fine, the person is not exempted from liability to be indicted for felony. The chimney of a house catching fire from any omission (such as not being swept), neglect, or carelessness, the occupier is liable to a penalty not exceeding 10s. Under the Metropolitan Building Act, 18 and 19 Vict. u. 122, s. 1, there is a very use- ful prohibition against building the walls of houses in the metropolis of wood or other combustible material. Fish — The composition of the most com- mon edible fish wiU. be found under their respective headings. See Eel, Salmon, &o. Flounder — This fish contains about 22 per cent, only of solid matter, and 18 per cent. of this is nitrogenous. It requires fat, there- fore, to render it of any great nutritive value. Composition of FUnmier. Nitrogenous matter Fat . Saline matter Water ' . . 18 1 •i-9 10 78-0 100-0 Flour— The meal of wheat and of the seeds of some of the leguminosse finely ground and "dressed." The wheat which is cultivated in this country is a kind known as Triticum imlgare; of this there are two varieties, T. astivum and T. hyhemum, the former the sum- mer wheat, the latter the winter wheat. The article known specifically as "flour" in this country is obtained from the summer variety (T. cestiimm). Flour of the best quality is almost always freed from bran, and since the latter contains as much as 15 per cent, of nitrogen, some fat, and a good proportion of salts, it becomes a question whether this'Sepa- ration is desirable. {See Bkan.) Should the whole of the wheat be used, it is important that it should be ground very fine, since the harder envelopes are excessively irritating. Flour is one of the most useful alimentary materials we possess. In the form of bread it constitutes the staple food of this and many other countries ; made into cakes, puddings, and biscuits, it is largely taken ; and from the hard, highly -glutinous wheat of Sicily, Bussia, Sardinia, Algeria, and Egypt certain granular powders and dried pastes, possessing great nutritive properties, are manufactured. The more important of these are semola, semolina,- soujee, mannacroup, maccaroni, vermicelli, and Cagliari paste. For the fuU consideration of flour as an ali- mentary substance we would refer the reader to the article on Bread ; but we may mention here that wheaten flour contains a greater amount of proteine or uitrogenised compounds — that is, of blood and flesh-making principles — than any other description of farina. The amount of flour obtained from one quar- ter or 504 lbs. of 'wheat is given by Mr, Hard of Dartford as being 392 lbs., the rest of the products consisting of " biscuit or fine mid- dlings," " toppings or specks," " best pollard," "fine pollard," "bran," and "coarse pol- lard," &c. Good wheaten flourshould be sweet and free from acidity. It should not lose more than from 6 to 12 per cent, by being carefully baked in a stove ; should exhibit no trace of bran even when pressed smooth with a pol- ished surface ; and its oohesiveness should be so great that on being squeezed in the hand the lump should be some time before losing its shape. The colour of good flour is white, or with a very slight tinge of yellow. There should be no lumps in it, or if any exist they should at once break down on slight pressure. "Wlien the flour is made into a paste with water, its quality may be judged of by the tenacity of the dough, the length to which it may be drawn into a thread, or the extent to which it may be spread out into a thin sheet. The nutritive value of flour, as far as gluten is concerned, may be determined by the fol- lowing method : About 600 grains of flour are made into a stiff dough, and by tender mani- pulation carefully washed 'under a stream of water. The gluten remains, and when it is baked it expands into a clean-looking ball, which should weigh, when dried thoroughly, FLO (238) FLO 54 grains. . Bad flour makes a thin ropy glu- ten, which is very difficult to deal with, and has.when baked a dirty brown colour. The practical test for determining the qual- ity of flour is to make a loaf with it, see if it be acid when fresh (best flour, although not acid to the taste, gives an acid reaction with the test-paper), and how soon it becomes so, if the colour be good, and the rising satisfactory. Old and changed flour does not rise well. It gives a yellowish colour to the bread, and speedily becomes acid. Adulterations of Flour.— The flour of wheat is adulterated with the flour from cheaper substances, such as beans, peas, maize, oats, rye, barley, and potato, and in some countries with rice, buckwheat, millet, linseed, &o. The mineral adulterants which have been found are alum, sulphate of lime, bone-dust, 'Calcium, and magnesium carbonates, and a few others. The inferior flours may be detected by a microscopic examination combined with care- ful measurements by a micrometer. The granules of wheat starch (fig. 34) are 0'36 millimetres in diameter (or "0015 inch), and are thus intermediate in size between potato and rice starch. See Wheat, Rice, &c. WHEAT STARCH T\g. 34. Potato starch, it present, may be readily separated for microscopical examination by the following process: Mix the flour with 40 per cent, of its weight of water and knead it into a homogeneous paste, separate the gluten by a stream of water, reserving the washings containing the starch cells for examination. The washings are then shaken briskly, filtered through a linen filter, and decanted into a conical glass. The potato granules being the heaviest, settle first, so that as soon as a deposit shows itself, before the liquid clears completely, the supernatant fluid is decanted off, the deposit taken and suspended in water, and the same process repeated four or five times, the products being examined by the microscope. This pro- cess, it is said, will detect one part of potato starch in a hundred of wheat-flour. — (Journ. de Pharmac, 3d Series, xv. 241.) Chemical Examination of Flour. — The fol- lowing table gives the composition of flour. It will be observed that the different authorities fairly agree of fat, water> and sugar, but the ash in Peligot's, Letheby's, and Paten's anal- ysis is much too high. Analyses of Flour. Peliqot. WjUniLTH 4 Mean of 14 Analyses. Ijitpheby. Paten. Fine Wheaten JFlonr.. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Water 14-0 15 14'22 16-6 Fat 1-2 2-0 1-26 1-2 Nitrogenous ^ matters, glu- > 12-8 10-8 14-45 12-0 J ten, 4c, Do. soluble iu ) water , . ] 1-8 Non-nitrogen-\ N ised substan- I 7-2 ces.dextrine, ( sugar, &c. .) U06 68-48 69 6 Starch . 69-7 Cellulose 1-7 J Salts (ash) 1-6 XI 1-6 0-74 The water may be estimated by drying up a gramme in a platinum dish, in the usual way upon a water-bath. The water naturally pre- sent in flour would appear to vary from 14 to 17 per cent. The same sample burnt up, should not yield more than 0'7 per cent, of ash. If it yields as little as even 1 per cent., adulteration should be suspected. Hence the detection of inineral substances is satisfactory and easy. A determination of the fat in flour may be made by treatment with ether. If mixed with oats or maize, the fat would be above the normal amount ; if mixed with rice, it would be under. A hundred grammes of flour, according to Mr. Wanklyn, yields an extract to cold water weighing 4 '69 grammes. Its composition is as follows :— drnmniea. Sugar, gum, and dextrine . . 3-33 Tegetable albumen . . . 0-H-i Phosphate of potash . . 0-44 Mr. Wanklyn recommends the determina- tion of gluten by his well-known ammonia process. For this purpose 20 milligrammes of flour are put into a retort and distilled FLTJ ( 239) FOO with alkaline permanganate (see Ammonia, ■Water Analysis, &o.), and the distillates nesslerised. Twenty milligrammes of flour give 0'24 milligrammes of ammonia; i.e., 100 parts of flour yield 1'2 parts of ammonia. — (Wakk- LTN.) For the detection of alum in flour, see Beead. Flukes (Trematoda)— A parasite which infests the livers of men and herbivorous ani- mals. The most common is the Distoma hepaticum, or liver-fluke. See Distomata; Flummery, Sowans, or Seeds— This is a very popular article of diet in Scotland and Wales. The husks of oats, with the starchy particles adhering to them, are separated from the rest of the grain and steeped in water for one or two days until the mass ferments and becomes sourish. It is then skimmed, and the liquid boiled down to the consistence of gruel. The husk contains be- tween 6 and 7 per cent, of saline matter. See also Oatmeal. Flux, Bloody— The bloody flux was the old and vulgar name for dysentery, and in- deed for any discharge from the bowels ac- companied with blood. See Dysentebt. Fly-Poison— Many of the common fly- papers contain arsenic, the ordinary ingredi- ents being either a strong solution of white arsenic sweetened, or a mixture of saccharine matters and orpiment. There is also a fly- powder made of the suboxide of arsenic mixed with sweets. All the above are poison- ous, and have accidentally caused fatal effects both in man and animals. Nor is there any reason that such deadly substances should be employed as fly-killers, for the following compounds are equally efficacious, but, as far as man is concerned, harmless in ordinary 1. Quassia chips, J oz.; water, 1 pint. Sweeten with treacle. 2. Black pepper, Iteaspoonful; brown sugar, 2 teaspoonfuls ; cream, 4 teaspoonfuls. Saucers of either of the above exposed in fit places rapidly decrease the number of flies in a room. Fogs— That fogs, especially if dense and prolonged, are very injurious to public health there can be no question, and the following returns fully illustrate the truth of this state- ment : — From the 8th of December until the 12th of the same month, 1873, London was visited with a thick dense fog, and the Eegistrar- General's return shows the effect this visita- tion had upon the mortality of the metropolis. The death-rate in London, for the week end- ing December 6, was 23 per 1000 ; in the fol- lowing week, when the fog was prevailing, the rate rose to 27 ; and in the week afterwards, the full effect of the fog is shown by the re- markable death-rate of 38 per 1000. The deaths returned from phthisis and diseases of the respiratory organs in the same weeks were 520, 764, 1112 respectively. That this altered death-rate . was not occasioned by the cold which accompanied the fog, is shown by the fact that in large provincial towns where the weather was equally cold, but where there was no fog, the increase in the mortality was slight compared with that which occurred in London. The mean of the deaths registered in London, in the two weeks ending Decem- ber 20, showed an increase of 41 per cent, upon the number returned in the first week of the month. The corresponding increase in the seventeen other large English towns was only 8 per cent. The cattle-show was held during this week, and it is said that the ani- mals suffered severely, several dying in conse- quence of the thickness of the atmosphere. Dr. Angus Smith found 20 "82 per .cent, of oxygen in a dense fog, "such as has rarely visited Manchester." (The amount contained in a favourable specimen of air he gives as being 20-96.) See Am. Foie Gras— See Liver. Fomites — The general meaning -of this vague term is clothes, rags, bedding, or any other substance carrying with it the conta- gion of fever. Thus when we say typhus is communicated by fomites, we mean that it may be conveyed from place to place in clothes, linen, boxes, &c., and from these substances the specific germ communicated to a healthy person. Food — Food maybe defined as a substance containing a certain amount of latent or po- tential energy, which may become con'Verfced into dynamic or actual energy, and which manifests itself in the body as constructive power, heat, nervo-muscular action, mechani- cal action, &c. ; or it may consist of inorganic substances, which, although themselves not capable of oxidation, are necessary to the metamorphosis of organic matter which takes place in the animal economy. Food, to pro- perly deserve that title, must consist of these two classes, the organic and the inorganic ; for neither of thSse alone is capable of. the mani- festation of energy. Irrespective of experiment, there are two great sources of knowledge from whence we may with considerable accuracy predicate the FOO (240) FOO necessary elements of the food of man or ani- mals ; that is, first, the composition of the body itself ; secondly, the composition of the simple aliment it receives in early life ; for the components of the body must be built up from the outer world, and the food the body re- ceives whilst growing must contain all the ele- ments necessary to form the tissues. But as nothing in nature is pure, neither the invi- sible air nor the transparent water, still less more complex substances, it is probable that the traces of certain substances found in very small quantities in- human and animal bodies are purely accidental, and not essential. The human body contains the following substances, which may be deemed essential : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, sodium, potassium, cal- cium, magnesium, iron, fluorine, and smaller quantities of silicon, manganese, aluminum, and copper, which are possibly merely acci- dental impurities. The first nutritive fluid the young of the higher animals receive is Tnilk, and from this fluid bone and muscle, nerve elements, and other tissues are capable of being formed, a fact which every one can verify. Now, milk contains the types of the two chief classes of organic substances which, ac- cording to the great generalisation of Liebig, are the essentials of food — viz., nitrogenous substances, represented by caseine and other albuminoid components ; and saccharine and hydro'carbonaceous bodies, represented by su- gar and fat, all being associated with water and salts ; the latter are especially combinations of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and iron, with chlorine, phosphoric acid, and in smaller quantities with sulphuric acid. It then appears a just method, one sup- ported by reason and known facts, in classify- ing foods, to take as a leading principle the constitution of milk, but without losing sight of other considerations. Thus — 1. Inoeganio Mattebs, comprising water and salts. 2. Organic. Matters. (1.) Non-nitrogen-^ ous. (a.) Hydrocartons or Jois;— Substances containing carbon and hydrogen in combina- tion with only a small amount of oxygen. (6. ) Carho-Hydrates. — Substances in which car- bon exists with oxygen and hydrogen, these latter always being in the proportion to form water. (2. ) Nitrogenous Matters. In'okganio C0NSTITDENT8 OF Food. yyater.—'Wii.teT itself is not a force-produc- ing agent, but as the body contains no less than 15J lbs. of water, and twice this amount daily ebbs and flows, its importance is manifest. Water, indeed, is concerned in almost every physiological action, and is an absolute neces- sity of life. It lubricates the tissues, conveys ■ and distributes the food throughout the sys- tem, removes effete matter, and by its evapo- ration maintains the body at a constant tem- perature. Mineral Matters of Food. — The following table from Liebig will give a good idea of the relative importance of the saline matters of the blood. PEECBlfTAGE COMPOSITION of the Mineral Matters of Blood. Man. Kg. Dog. I-owl. 47-26 48-41 2-22 2-11 Sheep. Ox. Phosphoric acid Alkalies Alkaline earths .... Mineral acids and oxide of iron 31-79 55-66 3-33 9-22 36-50 49-80 3-80 9-90 36-82 55-24 2-07 5-87 14-80 55-79 4-87 24-54 14-04 60-00 3-64 22-32 Total . 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Lime, usually in the form of phosphate, forms almost entirely the ash of milk. It is not only present in the hard structures of the body, as the bones and teeth, but it abo enters into the composition of the flesh ; and indeed there is no tissue in which it is entirely ab- sent. And there is good reason for believing that no cell-growth can take place without it. In the lowest forms of infusorial life we find earthy phosphates. Chlorine acts on the albuminates, iron is required for the red-blood corpuscles, and there are no secretions which do not contain the alkalies in the form of chlorides or car- bonates, or both ; in short, it may be inferred that at least the alkalies, phosphoric acid, chlorine, the salts of lime and magnesia, and small quantities of iron are necessary for the purposes of healthy nutrition. Organic Matters of Food. (1.) Non-nitrogenous, {a.) Hydrocarbons or JPats.—Tata, chemically considered, consist of a fatty acid, in combination with a radical, and the following may be given as the per- centage composition of the chief fatty prin- ciples : — TOO (241) FOO Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen 79 H 10 The formula answering to the above oon- ■ sists of CioHigO. The main function of fat is most decidedly to keep up the heat of the body; it has, more- over, certain mechanical offices to perform. {See Fat.) Soriie considerable doubt exists as to'-whether fat and starch are nutritively con- vertible. The most recent experiments of Pettenkofer and Voit (Zeitsohrift fiir Bio- logie, ix. 435-540) answer the question de- cidedly in the negative, so far as the dog ( Car- nivora) is concerned. They assert that in no instance is fat formed from a carbo-hydrate, but entirely from albuminous matters, and there is no relation between the starch ingested and the fat deposited. Thus some of the re- sults of their experiments are exhibited in the following tables : — Dry starch taken is. Meat Fat deposited from the etaroh or AJbmnen. decompoaed. 379 24 24 60S 193 22 which shows that, although twice as much starch is ingested, the same quantity, or even less, of fat is deposited. The following table is still more striking. It shows that with equal quantities of starch, but increasing quantities of meat, the amount of fat regularly rises in exact proportion to the amount of meat decomposed, which certainly is in the nature of a positive proof of the ori- gin of fat from albumen ; — -x. ni t ^» 1 Fat depoeited Depoalb of Fat .Dry Starch Meat from Starch or calculated taken in. deooinpoaBd. Aibumen. from (1). (1.) 379 211 24 " (344) (344) (39) B9 379 608 66 «7 (2.) (3.) (4) 379 1469 112 132 "Voit agrees with Heuneberg, that 100 parts of fresh meat give 11 '2 of fat. As regards the manifestation of energy, it may be assumed from these experiments that 175 parts of starch are equivalent to 100 of fat. (5.) Carho-Hydo'ates. — The oxygen and hy- drogen contained in these substances are i\nited with the carbon in the proportion to form water, hence their name, carbo-hydrates. Comprised under this head are such sub- stances as starch, grape-sugar, sugar of milk, inosite, gum, dextrine, cellulose, &c. The carbo-hydrates axe mainly decomposed in the system into carbonic acid and water. The fat is not formed from the carbo-hydrates, but the ingestion of starchy matters protects the fat from decomposition : in other words, if no starch matters be given, the matters required for respii-ation, &o., will be derived from the fat ; but if starch be present, the fat will be spared ; so that though they are not mutually replaceable, yet there is a very inti- mate connection between them. Besides being excreted in the form of carbonic acid and water, it is probable that we obtain from them, entirely or almost so, lactic acid, which without doubt plays an important part in the human body. The calorific power of the carbo-hydrates is, as previously, stated, considerably less than that of fat. This point is illustrated by Tables I. and II. (2.) Nitrogenous Constituents of Food. — The body requires to be freely supplied with organic nitrogenous matter, for it is not from the nitrogen of the atmosphere that we obtain our supply, as formerly imagined. The nitro- genous compounds contained in food are usually divided into two classes— (1) The albuminous or proteine group; and (2) the gelatinous principles. The former, when subjected to the action of an alkali and heat, yield proteins — a sub- stance discovered by Mulder, and containing the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Whilst from the latter no pro- teine can be similarly l)rocured. The proteine compounds comprise albumen, fibrine, caseine, vitelline, globuline, syntonine, vegetable albu- men, vegetable fibrine, vegetable caseine. The gelatinous principles are gelatine and chondrine. These substances contain no phos- phorus, and their aqueous solutions possess the property of gelatinising upon cooling. It has already been shown that a portion of the nitrogenous constituents of food are con- verted into fat ; and it is allowed that the main source of muscular energy is the oxida- tion of non-nitrogenous substances. But, as Dr. Farkes remarks, the " proposition is not impeached, that the presence of nitrogen in an organised structure, and its participation in the action going on there, is a necessary con- dition for the manifestation of any force or any chemical change." Yarious experiments of great accuracy have shown that the nitro- genous tissues determine the absorption of oxygen, and "without the participation of nitrogenous bodies no oxidation and no mani- festation of force is possible." '■ TABLE I.— Calokifio and Motive Powers of 10 Grains of the Substance in its natural state (Letheby). Lha. of Water Lba. lifted raised 1" F. a Foot high. 8-42 6,500 8«1 6,647 . ■ 10-06 7,766 18-60 14,421 20-91 16,142 Q Grape-sugar Lump- sugar An'owroot . Butter lieeffat FOO (242) TOO TABLE II.— ThebmotkJPoweb and Mechanical Eneeot of 10 Grains of the Material in its natural condition, when completely burnt in Oxygen, and when oxidised into Carbonic Acid, Water, and Urea in the Animal Body (Fkankland). Pounds of Water raised 1" Jahr. Pounds lifted 1 root high. Per cent, of Name of Food. When When oxi- ' When When oxi- Water in burnt in dised in the burnt in dised in the Material. f Oxygen. Body. Oxygen. Body Butter 18-68 18-68 14 421 14-421 15 Cheshire cheese 11-95 11-20' 9-225 8-649 24 Oatmeal 10-30 10-10 7-9^2 7-800 15 Wheat-flour . 10-12 9-87 7-813 7-623 15 Peameal 10-12 9-57 7-813 7-487 15 Arrowroot . 10-06 10-06 7-766 7-766 18 Ground rice . 9-80 9-52 7-566 7-454 13 Yolk of egg . 8-82 8-50 6-809 6-559 47 Lump-sugar . 8 '61 8-61 6-649 6-649 19 Grape-sugar . 8-42 8-42 6-510 6-510 20 Entire egg (boUed) 6-13 5-86 4-732 4-526 62 Bread-crumb . 5-74 5-52 4-431 4-263 44 Ham (boiled) 5-09 4-30 3-929 3-321 54 Mackerel 4-60 4-14 3-551 3-200 71 Lean beef 3 03 3-66 3-111 2-829 71 Lean veal 3-38 3-01 2-609 2-324 71 Guinness's stout 2-77 ,2-77 2-138- 2-188 88 Potatoes 2-60 2-56 2 007 1-987 73 Whiting 2-32 2-03 1-791 1-569 80 Bass's ale . 1-99 1-99 1-536 1-536 88 White of egg 1-72 1-48 1-328 1-143 86 Milk . 1-70 1-64 1-312 1-246 87 Carrots . 1-36 1-33 1-050 1-031 86 Cabbage 1-12 1-08 0-864 0-834 89 The main elimination of nitrogenous sub- stances takes place as urea, and it was thought that the amount of urea evolved was a measure of the destruction of the organised or nitrogenous part of the muscular tissue ; but' various experiments, especially those of Dr. Parkes, have conclusively proved that the amount of urea eliminated depends upon the nitrogenous substances ingested, and not upon the amount of work. The muscle, instead of oxidising, and therefore losing its substance during labour, actually appropriates nitrogen and grows. The true food, then, of man consists of water, salts, nitrogenous matters, carbo - hydrates, and fats. Man can live for a short time on a diet without carbo-hydrates, but to keep in health, he must be supplied with a proper proportion of the whole of the principles mentioned ; besides which, experience proves, his diet must be varied from time to time, either by substitution of different aliments, or by different modes of preparation of the same aliment. It is concluded that an average adult, per- forming moderate labour, requires daily 4 oz. of dry nitrogenous matter (exclusive of gela- tine), and combined with at least four or five times its weight of carbonaceous principles, of which one-tenth consists of fat (it is better, however, if this latter proportion be doubled). Vegetables containing salts of potash must form an integral part of the diet. Three hundred grains of mineral matter must be carried with the food ; and the total amount of water daily consumed (including that con- tained in what is usually considered dry food) should not be less than three pints. For the practical application of these principles, see DiBTAKiBS, Exercise, &c. Food, Inspection of — Considerable powers are given to sanitary officers with regard to the. inspection and seizure of un- wholesome foods, though it does not appear clear how such foods as flour and milk can be known to be unwholesome without analysis. "Any medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances may at all reasonable times in- spect and examine any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk exposed for sale, or deposited in any place for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, and intended FOO (243) FOU for the food of man, tlie proof that the same wag not exposed or deposited for any such purpose, or was not intended for the food of man, resting with the party .charged ; and if any such animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk appears to such medical officer or inspector to be diseased, or un- sound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, he may seize and carry away the same himself or by an assistant, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice. " — (P. H. , a. 116. ) "If it appears to the justice that any animal, carcasie, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk so seized is diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, he shall condemn the same, and order it to be destroyed, or so disposed of as to prevent it from being exposed for sale or used for such food ; and the person to whom the same belongs or did belong at the time of sale, or of exposure for sale, or in whose possession, or on whose premises the same was found, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £20 for every animal, carcase, or fish, or piece of meat, flesh, or fish. Or any poultry or game, or for the parcel of fruit, vegetables, com, bread, or flour, or for the milk so condemned, or, at the discretion of the justice, without the infliction of a fine, to imprisonment for a term of not more than three TnontJis. "The justice who, under this section, is empowered to convict the offender may be either the justice who may have ordered the article to be disposed of or destroyed, or any other justice having jurisdiction in the place." —(P. H., a. 117.) "Any person who in any manner prevents any medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances from entering any premises and in- specting any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, flour, or milk exposed or deposited for the purpose of sale, or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, or who obstructs or impedes any such officer or inspector, or his assistant, when carrying into execution the provisions of this Act, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5."*-(P-H., s. 118.) "On complaint made on oath by a medical officer of health, or by an inspector, or other officer of a local authority, any justice may grant a warrant to any such officer to enter any building or part of a building in which * The provision of a £20 penalty for the possession of unsound food, and only one-fourth of that sum for obstructing an inspecting officer, effectually makes the law inoperative— there is actually a premium on resistance ! I . such officer has reason for believing that there is kept or concealed any animal, car- case, meat, poultry, ^ame, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, com, bread, flour, or milk which is intended for sale for the food of man, and is diseased, unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man ; and to search for, seize, and carry away any such animal or other article, in order to have the same dealt with by a justice under the provisions of this Act. "Any person who obstructs any such officer in the performance of his duty under such warrant shall, in addition to any other punish- ment to which he may be subject, be liable to apenalty not exceeding £20. "—(P. H.,.s. 119.) "With regard to the inspection of slaughter- houses, &c. , see Slaugetebhouses. Foot-Founds, Foot-Tons— &£ Exer- cise, Enebgt, &c. Footsoreness — Soldiers on the march and pedestrians often become footsore, which arises from undue pressure, chafing, riding of the toes, from faulty boots, or bad socks or stockings. Many plans have been adopted to prevent this. One is to bathe the feet before starting in hot water, to which a little salt and alum have been added, or just before the march dip the feet in hot water, wipe them dry, and then rub with soft soap until the foot is in a lather ; then put on the stocking. In the late war the Germans found an oint- ment composed of 1 part of tannin and 20 parts of zino-ointment exceedingly useful. Should the feet be sore at the end of the day, they should be wiped with a wet cloth, and then rubbed with tallow and spirits mixed in the palm of the hand. For soldiers, Farkes advises that the stockings should be frequently washed, and then greased. Form of Rent - Charge — ^ec Eent- Chaege. Form of Voting Paper— See Votes, YOTING. Forms of Notice for the Abatement of Nuisances— 5ee Nuisances. Foundlings are children of unknown parentage, who have been found in the streets or elsewhere, or have been deposited at the gates of foundling hospitals. Children also abandoned by their parents under certain conditions come in France under the denomi- nation of foundlings. Foundling hospitals are of very ancient date. A species of found- ling hospital was erected at Milan in 787, and in the middle ages most of the Continental cities possessed one. A foundling hospital was projected in London by Thomas Coram, a sea-captain, and opened in 1756. It sue- FBE (244) FRI coura annually about 500 children. A found- ling hospital was also established in Dublin, 1704 ; but owing to the great mortality among the inmates,' and from moral considerations, the internal department was closed by order of Goremment in 1835. In Moscow there is an institution of this kin^, which was founded by Catherine II., and receives about 12,000 children annually. Foundling hospitals are carried to excess in France. In 1790 found- lings were declared to be the children of the State, and previous to that date, and since, hospitals — some with turning-boxes ■{tours), and some without — ^have been established all over France. In 1784 there were 40,000 suc- coured; 1819, 99,346; 1825, 118,305; 1830, 118,073 ; and 1833, 129,699. This great and progressive increase alarmed the Government, who accordingly suppressed in the course of five years 165 depositing-places, with the ef- fect of reducing the figures to 95,624. Since then, the number of infants found in the turn- ing-boxes or in the streets has bfien almost stationary. In 1845 the number of births was 973,465, and the admitted foundlings were Ingredients, Snow or pounded ice . Chloride of sodium . Snow or pounded ice . Chloride of sodium . Sal ammoniac . Snow or pounded ice . Chloride of sodium . Nitrate of ammonia . Snow .... Hydrochloric acid (concentrated) Snow .... Crystallised chloride of calcium Sal ammoniac . Nitrate of potassa Water .... Nitrate of ammonia . Water .... Nitrate of ammonia . Carbonate of soda Water .... Phosphate of soda Nitrate of ammonia . Diluted nitrous acid . Sulphate of soda Hydrochloric acid Snow Diluted nitrous acid . Snow ..... Snlphuric a«id . Water .... Snow Crystallised chloride of calcium Snow Crystallised chloride of calcium Snow Sulphuric acid . , Water .... 25,239, or 1 in 39. Madame de WattevUle has ascertained the important fact, that a tenth of the French foundlings are legitimate. Three to four thousand children are re-claimed by their parents every year. On entering these French institutions, the newly-born children are immediately put to nurse. Some are brought up by hand, but where possible they are given to ••, wet-nurse, who is care- fully examined by a medical man to see that she is in good health and has a fit supply of milk. For fear of substitution, each child has a little silver buckle put through the ear, and a seal with certain characters on it, which is worn until fourteen years old or more. At fourteen years of age they 'are apprenticed to some trade. The mortality of foundlings is considerable. In 1838 it was 14 '02 per cent. ; ten years later it had, however, decreased to 11 "30 per cent. Freezing Mixtures — The following table, drawn up from actual experiments performed by Mr. Walker, exhibits a few of the most useful freezing mixtures (Coolbt) : — Parts. Thermometer sinks^ 2 ) ^ > From any temperature to - 5° 1} 12 II K j- From 2 I 3 ; •5 ■» 5 16 } Frijoles — A name given in Central Amer- I ica to black beans, which, well boiled in water, | 1} 1} 1} 1} 1} 1} l\ 1} 8 ■ 5 5 and taken with pepper, salt, and fat pork, are extensively used. iSee Beans. to - 12° to - 25° -1-32° to - 27° + 32° to - 50° -I- 50° to -1- 10°" + 50° to + 4° + 50° to + 7° + 50° to - 21° -1- 50° to - 0° + 0° to - 46° - 20° to - 60° 0° to - 66° - 40° to - 73' - 68° to - 91° FRO (245) FTTN Frogs are eaten in many countries. The esculent variety in Europe is the common green or gibbous frog, the Bana esciUenta of Linnaeus, and this is highly prized in France for its hind-legs. The buU-frog {BoMa taurina), a native of North America, is greatly esteemed by the Americans, and thought to equal turtle. The Soci6t^ d'Acclimatisation have recently introduced this large edible frog into France. The South Africans eat a large frog, which when cooked looks like a chicken; this variety is called Matlamitlo. The Chinese and the natives of Australia are also large consumers of frogs, the flesh of which is said to be "delicate and full of gelatinous matter." Fruits — The strict botanical signification of the term " fruit " is the mature ovary, con- taining the ripened oviiles or seeds; hence, grains of wlieat, oats, &c., and such substances as peas and beans, are, botanically speaking, fruits. Here, however, the term is used in its everyday and popular signification. Ordinary fruits, when ripe — such as apjiles, pears, peaches, oranges, &c. — are of little nutritive value, few of them containing more than 13 per cent, of solid matter. Their great ■buUc, chemically considered, is simply made up of water ; yet, apart from their direct nutritive value, it is questionable whether they are not occasionally, at all events, neces- sary for the health of man, their chief value lying in their antiscorbutic powers, derived from the vegetable acids, salts, and carbo- hydrates they contain. Fruit has the effect of diminishing the acidity of the urine ; this is accomplished by the vegetable salts contained in the fruit be- coming decomposed in the system, and con- verted into the carbonate of the alkali, which passes off with the urine. Fruit is largely preserved in bottles, and is generally more or less noxious, on account of the matter used to heighten the colour, &o. Copper is the principal substance thus em- ployed, and that the admixture is not acci- dental, is proved by the fact that this metal has not been discovered with the preserved red fruits. The colour of preserved limes, gooseberries, rhubarb, greengages, and olives is nearly always intensified by copper- It is generally the sulphate of copper or bluestone which is employed, and Dr. Hassall has the authority of a manufacturer for stat- ing that the quantity of this powerful sub- stance used is often fully as much as 60 grains to 1 gross of bottles of the fruits, making nearly half a grain— the full medicinal dose— per bottle. The colour of some of the green fruits is also apparently heightened by em- ploying bottles of an intense green colour. Decoction of logwood or infusion of beetroot is not unfrequently used to improve the col- our of inferior or damaged red fruits. The presence of copper can be identified in the ash by the tests mentioned in article CoPPEE. See also Apples, Chekbt, CrriiON, CopPEB, • Lemon, Lime, Medlab, Okange, Peach, Peae, Plum, &c. ; Food, Inspeoiiok OP. Fumigation — Fumigation with strong chemical agents — such as chlorine, iodine, and nitrous fumes — ^is without doubt of real efficacy in the prevention of contagion; but it is doubtful whether the burning of scented papers, pastilles, &o., is of any actual utility. It has, however, been observed that strong- smelling aromatic substances prevent mouldi- ness. See Disinpection. Fungi — There is a mass of evidence as to the undoubted influence of fungi upon health, and their causing a great variety of diseases in man and animals. That there are some fungi which will grow on animal tissues may be verified by any one who chooses to examine house-flies in autumn. Many of these die from a fungous growth. The Muscardine, a fungus, kills the silkworm, and is a national calamity from time to time in silk-producing countries; and instances are recorded of moulds, &o., in the internal cavities of larger animals — e.g. , M. Deslongchamps found mouldiness in the lungs of an eider duck Whilst alive. — (Ann. Nat. History, viii. 230.) Colonel Montaguealso noticed the same thing in the scarp diick. — (lb., ix. 131.) Dr. Ben- nett has observed a mould growing from tubercle in the lungs of man, and mould on the skin of the living goldfish. These in- stances all establish the grand fact that fungi will attack living bodies. But much confu- sion has been thrown over the causation of disease by fungi, by observers recording their experience without being sufficiently ac- quainted with the botanical nature of fungi generally. No superficial knowledge is of any service, for fungi appear under protean aspects. " That it must be a matter of ex- treme difficulty to form any precise opinion concerning fungi, without long experience, will be apparent from the observations of Fries upon the genus Thelephora. He asserts that out of mere degenerations or imperfect states of Thelephora sulphurea, the following genera, all of which he has identified by means of unquestionable evidence, have been con- structed — viz., jliAriiaof Persoon, Ozonium of Persoon, Simantia of Persoon, Sporotrichum of Kunze, Alylosporium of Link, Xylostroma, Bacodium of Persoon, Ceratonema of Persoon, FUN (246) FTIS and some others. Nees Ton Bsenbeok also assures us that the same fungoid matter ■which produces Sclerotium, mycetospora in the winter develops Agariciis volvaceous in thfe summer. It would thus seem that the opin- ions of those who have asserted that the species or genus of a fungus depends not upon the seed from which it springs, tut upon the matrix by which it is nourished, are at least specious, especially if we take the above fact in connection with the experiments of Dutroohet, who obtained different genera of mouldiness at will by employing different in- fusions. He says that certain acid fluids con- stantly yield monUias, and that certain alka- line mixtures equally produce botrytis," — (Lind. Veg. King.) The vegetable parasitic diseases of man are many of them communicable to animals, and vice vend. For example, the Tinea circinatus, or ringworm, is contracted frequently from grooming horses affected with the T. tonsur- ans. And "Dr. Fox mentions an instance of a white cat, a great pet with the children of a family of nine, which contracted the mange, and T. tarsi from T. tonsv/rans affecting five of the children. The fungus of the mange in the cat is the same fungus as that of Tinea in man — namely, the Tricophy- ton."— (AlTKEN.) It is very probable that the smuts and blights of plants have an influence on the health of man — at all events, the grass-smut (Ustilago hypodytes), which causes disease in grasses in France, produces injurious effects on the French haymakers. Hallier has made some observations on peculiar fungoid bodies found in cholera stools ; and Sanderson and Buchanan have cultivated fungi from vaccine lymph. Berkeley, our great mycologist, has shown that yeast may be cultivated in a globule of water surrounded with air, and placed in a closed cell ; it then fructifies. He therefore thinks that it is a mistake to give to mycelial and imperfect states of fungi spe- cial names, like those given below, before the fungus itself has been identified by careful similar cultivation. The principal vegetable parasites associ- ated in man with special morbid states have been enumerated as follows ; — 1. Tricophyton tonsurans vel Achorion Le- iertii (Robin), which is present in the three varieties of Tinea tondeus — namely, T. cir- cinatus (ringworm of the body) ; T. tonswans (ringworm of the scalp) ; and T. sycosis menti (ringworm of the beard). 2. The Tricophyton sporuloides (Von Wal- thek), together with the above, which are jiresent in the disease known as Plica vel Tinea Polonica. 3. The Achorion Schdnleinii (Eemak), and the Puccinia favi (Akdsten), which are present in Tinea favosa (the honeycomb ring- worm). 4. The Microsporon mentagropkytes (Grubt), which is present in sycosis or mentagra. 5. The Microsporon furfur (Eiohstadt), which occurs in Pityriasis vel Tinea versi- color. 6. The Microsporon Audouini (Gkubt), which is present in Porrigo vel Tinea decal- vans {Alopweia areata). 7. The Mycetoma vel Chionyphe Carteri (H. V. Cabteb, Berkeley), which gives rise to the disease known as "the fungus foot of India," a cotton fungus occurring in the deep tissues and bones of the hands and feet. See Maddea Foot. 8. Oidium alMcans, or "thrush fungus'' of diphtheritis and aphtha. 9. Cryptococcus Cerevisice (Kuteing), Torula CerevisicE (Turpin), yeast plant, in bladder, stomach, &c. 10. Sarcina ventricuH, or Merismopcedia ventriculi (Robin), in the stomach. ' Fungi round a house should be destroyed if they are not edible, as they not only may be eaten by children, but they also vitiate the atmosphere by robbing it of its oxygen, and exhaling carbonic acid.* See Mdsheooms, Fusel Oil, Fousel Oil, Potato Spirit, G-rain Spirit Oil, or Amylio Alcohol (C10H12O2). (See Alcohol) — This substance constitutes the fifth term of the alcoholic series. An offensive strong-smelling oil, pro- duced along with alcohol during the fermen- tation of grain, potatoes, &c. , on a large scale, and which gives the peculiar flavour and odour to raw whisky. It essentially consists of hydrated oxide of amyl, but trifling and variable quantities of other organic com- pounds are usually mixed with it. Itis anearly colourless volatile liquid, with an acrid burn- ing taste, a high boiling-point, and a durable, penetrating, offensive smell. When swallowed it occasions nausea, vomiting, delirium, and in any great quantity is a narcotic poison. Public attention has recently been drawn to this alcohol by a communication made by Dr. Edgar Sheppard to the " Times " (October 1873), wherein he calls attention to the fact that common alcohol, sold in the shops in the form of gin, rum, brandy, wine, &c., is often mixed with a heavier ' alcohol, particularly with amylic alcohol (fusel oil), and that griat injury is produced on alcoholic drinkers by * For a description of the fungus causing potato disease, see Potato. GAL (247) GAS this admixture. Dr. Bichardson, in 1864 and in 1869, in his special report on the physiologi- cal action of the heavier alcohols to the British Association for tjie Advancement of Science, showed the diiference of action of the alco- hols as they ascend in the series, and as the carbon increases. He observed, as a singular fact evidenced in all his experiments, that common ethylic alcohol, while it produces stupor, does not, unless it be long continued, induce tremors or convulsions, while butylic and amylic alcohols directly produce these effects. The tremors caused by amylio alcohol are most persistent ; they are called forth by the smallest excitement, and complete recovery from them, as indicated by the return of the natural temperature, is not attained, even when the alcohol has been withdrawn, in a shorter interval than three days. He remarks, in his report in 1869, that, considering how much of the heavier alcohols is distributed for consumption, it is possible that they (the heavier alcohols) may be the cause of delirium tremens in the human sub- ject, as they are frequently the cause of that continued coldness, lassitude, and depression which follow the. well-known dinner with "bad wine." This question is one of great and practical importance, for how is it pos- sible for us to come to correct conclusions respecting the action of the different alcohols, when we are ignorant of what particular one we may be administering ? Fusel oil may be separated from spirits by fractional distillation. A rough test for its presence is to ignite a small portion of the sus- pected alcohol, and to place a cold body — e.g., a saucer — in the flame. If fusel oil be present, there will be a dark deposit of carbon on the saucer. Q. G-alactometer— 5ee Lactometer. Cramboge— The gum resin obtained from Oarcinia Morella, var. pedicellata. It is an odourless substance, with slight taste at first, afterwards acrid, easily powdered. It con- sists, of about 70 per cent, of a resin which has marked acid properties, gambogio acid (C30H35OQ), and is soluble in alcohol, ether, and precipitated from these solutions by water, with gum, &c. Gamboge is often adulterated with starch. An emulsion made with boiling water should not become green when iodine is added. Gamboge is largely used for colour- ing sweetmeats, &c. (See Coneeotiosbrt.) Taken frequently, and in large quantities, it is liable to excite severe vomiting, purging, and other symptoms of irritation, as it is a powerful poison. Sixty grains have caused death. G-aoI Fever— &c Feveb, Typhus. G-aa — There are many gases, but it is to coal or illuminating gas that our remarks in this article will refer. In 1785 a French engineer, called Lebon, established the first complete works for light- ing with gas, the principle of which was long before this known, but not applied. Lebon used wood. Other early attempts at illumi- nations by means of gas were those made by Mr. Murdoch in 1792, and afterwards carried out very successfully in illuminating the large factory of Boultou & AVatts, Soho Square, at the celebration of the Peace of Amiens, 1802. The Chartered Gas Company, ten years afterwards, was the first to undertake the ex- periment of lighting by coal gas on a large scale, and from that time .to the present it has become, we may say, a necessity to have toyns lit by gas. Coal gas consists of an important mixture of hydrocarbons produced by the destructive distillation of pit coal, and contains the follow- ing bodies : Marsh gas, olefiant gas, hydrogen, carbonic oxide, nitrogen, vapours of liquid hydrocarbons, and vapour of bisulphide of carbon. The yield and illuminating power of gas vary greatly with the different kinds of coal employed. The average yield may be roughly estimated at 10,000 cubic feet of gas per ton. On the first establishment of gasworks much nuisance was caused by mismanagement, want of skill, and, above all, by a want of knowing how to turn the waste products to account. The refuse of some of the London gas com- panies used to flow into the Thames; and at Paris, fifty years ago, an enormous basin of gas liquor burst and ran into the river, causing an insufferable odour and poisoning an im- mense quantity of fish. But at the present time there is ample power to prevent nuis- ances from gasworks, and ample means to properly condense offensive products. The manner in which gas is ordinarily made, and the sources of nuisances, are as- follows: GAS (248) GAS The pit coal is heated or distilled in hollow flattened retorts. These cylinders are, set in stacks of three or five, arranged in a brick furnace ; the lids are movable, and luted on ■with clay. Each retort has a tube at its upper part, which forms the first of a series of tubes, &c., commencing at the retort and terminat- ing in the gasometer or reservoir of gas — viz., first, the hydraulic main, in which the re- tort tube terminates. The hydraulic main is usually half full of tar and moisture, and also contains carbonate and hydrosulphate of am- monia. There are wells or tanks connected with the hydraulic main into which the tar flows over. Secondly, the hydraulic main is connected with a series of serpentine or contorted tubes, called refrigerators or con- densers, generally kept cool by water flowing over them. Here more tar and moisture is deposited. From the condenser the gases pass to certain purifiers, "which usually con- sist of cast-iron vessels carrying numerous perforated shelves. On these shelves layers of dry slaked lime used to be placed, but at the present time a mixture of sawdust and hydratsd ferric oxide is generally preferred. In the purifier the carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphocyanogen, cyanogen, and traces of naphthaline are arrested. The oxide of ironis mostly converted into sulphide, which is used as a source of sulphur (2Fe2S3xH20H- 302=2Fe2O3xH2O-l-3Sj), and the oxide of iron is used over again. Lastly, the gas either bubbles through dilute sulphuric acid, or it passes through a scrubber consisting of a, tower filled with small coke resting on per- forated shelves, in either case losing its am- monia. It then passes into the gasometer for distribution. The great danger of nuisance occurs, without doubt, when the scrubbers, purifiers, &c., are cleaned out. Thfen there is a very powerful odour, which is extremely penetrating, and may spread to a great distance. But, besides the ordinary distillation of gas, at many works they find it profitable and convenient to manufacture sulphate of ammonia somewhat after the following process : The ammonia of gas liquor is evaporated or distilled either in a Coffey's still or in a closed boiler ; in each case the heating agent is steam. The volatile products, consisting of ammonia, carbonic acid, a.nd sulphuretted hydrogen, are con- veyed into a, closed chamber or saturator, which is generally made of lead, and contains a charge of dilute sulphuric acid; this ab- sorbs the ammonia, and the carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen are passed into the furnace fire through a 4-inch pipe, having been first deprived of moisture by passing through pipes in coils, or by other means. When the acid in the condenser is saturated by ammonia, as shown by test-paper, steam alone is blown through it in order to purify it completely from sulphuretted hydrogen. The alkaline liquor is lastly drawn off into open pans, and evaporated- by means of si^am at high pressure passing through a closed coil of piping. The precautions to be taken are — "1. The transference and storage of the gas liquor, in air-tight tanks guarded with boxes of hydrated oxide of iron. " 2. The distillation of the liquor in a steady and continuous manner in air-tight stiUs by means of high-pressure steam. " 3. The saturation of the ammonia in close vessels, and the complete expulsion of sul- phuretted hydrogen from the saturated solu- tion before it is drawn off for evaporation. ** 4. The condensation of moisture from the sulphuretted hydrogen evolved from the satn- rator, and the conveyance of the cold dry gas to the furnace fire, where it is to be completely burnt. " 5. The treatment of the exhausted liquor from the still with cream of lime, so as to recover the residual ammonia by a second distillation ; or, if the process be in operation at a gaswork, the use of the residual ammonia as an absorbent in the purification of gas. "6. The observance of the greatest care as regards the tightness of all parts of the ap- paratus." — (Lethebt.) "Wherever a gas-burner is fixed, a tube to convey these products of combustion into the foul-air shaft, or to the outer air, should be provided. The most simple means of ventila- tion for gasaliers is to fix a zinc tube, running into the chimney or open air, behind the centre flower of a room or over the burners. Mot only is it essential to guard again&t the inhalation of the products of gas-combustion, but it is also necessary to be careful that no gas escapes unbumt ; for, besides the danger of an explosion which may take place from such a cause, many cases of poisoning have resulted from an escape of gas. H. Ziegier relates the following instance : An escape of gas occurred through a carious piece of pipe in the main, and the gas was conducted along an old foundation-wall to some distance, the end of which wall was immediately under the bedroom of a gentleman, who was in conse- quence seized during the night with the op- pression and other symptoms of gas -poison- ing, although it was noticed that but little odour of the gas was discernible. In September 1873, a young lad lost his life at a school in this country f roin an escape of gas in his bedroom. He was found dead in his bed in the morhing, and it was evident from the appearance and posture of the body GAS (249) GAS tliat no effort had been made to escape the impending fate; for the unfortunate victim was discovered in an attitude of calm repose, and his countenance retained all the placidity of slumber. The most npxious ingredient of coal gas is- carbonic oxide, of which most samples of gas contain from 7 to 8 per cent, by volume. An atmosphere containing one - fifteenth of' its volume of pure carbonic oxide will kill a rabbit in twenty -three minutes, and half this amount produces death in thirty-seven minutes.— (M. TouBDES.) Olaude Bernard states that death is pito-. duoed by a paralysis of the red corpuscles, which brings to a standstill their power of absorbing and carrying oxygen. The escape of this gas generally, according to Professor Christisou, by its powerful odour soon wakes those who are exposed to its in- fluence : indeed, were this not the case, deaths from this cause would probably be more fre- quent than they are ; for from the careless manner in which gasfitters usually perform their work, escapes of gas are excessively common. Great care is taken in America to guard against this danger. Before the gas- fitter asks the company to make the connec- tion with their main he proves the pipes. All the outlets which have been left for brackets and pendants, &c., are, with one exception, stopped up either with plugs or screwed caps, A force-pump containing a few drops of sulphuric ether is then attached to the outlet which has been left, and the pump is set to work until a high pressure has been registered. A high pressure is necessary, for the iron pipes may have many latent weaknesses — pinholes filled with grease, seams just ready to burst, &o.; these, when a high pressure is employed, at once become apparent. When the gauge indicates a certain figure the pumping ceases, and if the mercury falls it is evident that there is one or more palpable leaks, which are at once sought for and remedied : the sulphuric ether will aid in their detection. Before the connection with the main is made, an inspector in the employ of the gas com- pany carefully and closely scrutinises all the pipes, bends, joints, plugs, &c., where brackets and chandeliers are intended to be fixed ; and should he in any of these discover the slightest weakness or departure from the rules, he in- sists upon all being made right. The pump is set in action before him, and if the pipes are now air-tight, he has simply to cast an eye upon the gauge, the column of which wUl no longer sink ; and if all is satisfactory, he signs the requisite order. Little trouble is taken in this country either by the gasfitter or the gas company to ascer- tain whether the pipes are free from leakage, or the joints properly made. We would here call attention to a danger arising from covering our streets with asphalte — a danger which has hitherto been over-- looked. It follows that if the surface of the ground is rendered practically air-tight, gases, either those escaping from the company's pipes or other subterranean vapours, will find vent in our houses, where no such resistance is encountered, and our habitations will thus serve as upcast shafts for the whole district. This difficulty may be met by underlaying every house with a thick layer of the same substance, so that the resistance indoors may be as great or greater than that without. Lighting Streets, cfcc— Any urban, authority may contract with any person for the supply of gas, or other means of lighting the streets, markets, and public buildings in their district, and may provide such lamps, lamp-posts, and other materials and apparatus as they may think necessary for lighting the same. Where there is not any company or person authorised by or in pursuance of Act of Par- liament, or any order confirmed by Parliament, to supply gas for public and private purposes, supplying gas within any part of the district of any urban authority, such authority may themselves undertake to supply gas for such purposes or any of them throughout the whole or any part of their district ; and if there is any such company or person so supijlying gas, but the limits of supply of such company or person do not coincide with the boundaries of the district, then the urban company may themselves undertake to supply gas through- out any part of the district not included within such limits of supply. Where an urban authority may under the Public Health Act themselves undertake to supply gas for the whole or any part of their district, a provisional order authorising a gas undertaking may be obtained by such authority under the provisions of The Gas and Water Works Fabilities Act, 1870 ; and in the con- struction of the said Act the term "the undertakers " shall be deemed to include any such urban authority : provided that for the purposes of the Public Health Act the Local Government Board is throughout the said Act to be deemed to be substituted for the Board of Trade.— (P. H., s. 161.) Por the purpose of supplying gas within their district, any urban authority, with the sanction of the Local Government Board, may buy, and the directors of any gas company, in pursuance, in the case of a company registered under the Companies Act, 1862, of a special resolution of the members passed in manner provided by that Act, and in the case of any GAS (250) GAS other company, of a resolution passed by a majority of three-fourths in number and value of the members present, either personally or by proxy, at a meeting specially convened, with notice of the business to be transacted, may sell and transfer to sucli authority, on such terms as may be agreed on between such • authority and the company, all the rights, powers, and privileges, and all or any of the lands, premises, worli:s, and other property of the company, but subject to all liabilities attached to the same at the time of such pur- chase.— (P. H., s. 162.) The 'Watching and Lighting Act of William IV. is •superseded by the Public Health Act, and all the l&mps, gas-pipes, &c., vested in the inspectors for the time being under that Act are now vested in the urban sanitary author- ity.— (P. H., B. 163.) Alteration of Gas-Mains, Sec. — Where for any purpose. of the Public Health Act any urban authority deem it necessary to raise, sink, or otherwise alter the situation of any water or gas pipes, mains, plugs, or other waterworks or gasworks laid in or under any street, they may by notice in writing require the owner of the pipes, mains, plugs, or works to raise, sink, or otherwise alter the situation of the same, in such manner and within such reasonable time as is specified in the notice. The expenses of or connected with any such alteration shall be paid by the urban author- ity ; and if such notice is not complied with, the urban authority may themselves make the alteration required : Provided — That no such alteration shall be required or made which will permanently injure any such pipes, mains, plugs, or works, or prevent the water or gas from flow- ing as freely and conveniently as usual ; and That where under any local Act of Parliar ment the expenses of or connected with the raising, sinking, or otherwise alter- ing the situation of any water or gas pipes, mains, plugs, or other water- works or gasworks, are directed to be borne by the owner of such pipes or works, his liability in that respect shall continue in the same manner and under the same conditions in all respects as if the Public Health Act had not been passed.— (P. H., s. 153.) Water Pollution from Gas- Washings, <" ^^<^SilS^---'V ^ \ \ % Fig. 35. Mr. Eassie has given a table founded on this compass, showing the length of time that the sun would shine in at any window. Window. Son enters at— Is full in front Is lost at^ Bast. . . South-east. South . South-west. West . . 3 A.M. 4-30 A.M.* 7-50 A.M. 10-30 A.M. 1-30 P.M. 6 a.m. 9 A.M. lQA,M.(noon) 3 p.m. 6 P.M. 10 30 A.M. 1-30 P.M. 4-30 P.M. 7 -.30 P.M.t (At setting \ only. By the aid of this table and a study of the compass, the principal points -with regard to aspect will be seen. The south-east, generally speaking, is the best aspect for the front of the house ; or, at all events, for that part of the house in which the most used or best rooms are. For the larder, the staircases, and dairy, a northern aspect is to be preferred. A south-west aspect for sitting-rooms is the worst one possible. Or at dawn, if later, f Or at sunset, if earlier. Tha material of houses is various. One thing is certain, that it must be dry and porous — all the best building-stone and bricks are so. This may be easily proved by Petten- kofer's experiment. " I have," says the Professor in his well- known lecture, "here a cylindrical piece of mortar— half lime, half sand— 5 inches by 1§. The cylinder has been covered all over with melted wax, which is impermeable to air, with the exception of its two circular ends. You see this glass funnel with a tube (fig. 36). I fix it on one circular end, where the mortar lies free, and make an air-tight connection by wax, with the waxen coat of the cylinder. If I blow through the tube, the air must appear on the free mortar end, provided the mortar is permeable to air. It has as yet no effect on the flame of this candle, because its velocity is not great enough. But if I fix a funnel on the other end of the cylinder, the air, which has passed through the mortar, can only escape through its narrow end, and there you see the flame sensibly deviating (fig. 37). You may even succeed in extinguishing it altogether. The velocity of the air in going HAB (270) HAC through the tube must increase in proportion as the transverse section of the tube is smaller than the mortar surface, out of which the air escapes, exactly as with the water of the pond and its in and out flow. Now, when I dip the end of one tube into water, you see and hear the air, which has passed through the mortar, escape from the water. If you make a similar arrangement with a piece of wood, or a brick. you will see the same result. Most kindsi also, df sandstone 'are so porous that water and air easily pass through them. Solid or quarried limestones are scarcely permeable to air ; but as they are mostly of irregular shapes they require more mortar, and that is the reason why such walls are, after all, not so much more air-tight than walla made of regular bricks and thin layers of mortar. Fig. 36. " Observations . have been taken of the ave- rage quantity of mortar used with different building-stones. We may suppose that, taking the wall asa whole, it is one-third with quar- ried lime, one-fourth with tufaceous lime, one- fifth to one-sixth with bricks, one-sixth to one- eighth with cubes of sandstone. In practice, then, the quantity of the mortar rises with the decrease of porosity in the building- stones, and assists in keeping the walls per- vious to air to a certain degree. It is seK- evident that the quantity of air which passes through building materials of a certain thick- ness must increase in proportion to the surface; 2 square feet must give passage to twice as much air as 1 square foot. Big. 37. "The efiteot of wetting porous materials is quite surprising. In proportion as the pores iill with water they become impervious to air. The adhesion of water to stone and mortar is greater than that of air. It is not difficult to blow great volumes of air through dry mortar and dry bricks, but it requires a gi-eat exertion to drive a few drops of water through the same materials. You know this cylinder of mortar (see above) — instead of blowing air through it into water, I will suck the air off it. You see now the water rise in the tube and wet the surface of the mortar. Now, I will try to blow again air through the mortar. I cannot with all my exertions, because the pores of the mortar are filled with water. This simple experiment lays bare the great hygienic disadvantages of wet walls. They are aii'-tight, not to speak of other injurious effects." In some parts of England the cottage-houses are built of wood, others have a frame of wood only. In the west, as mentioned in a previous article, a great many of the labourers' cottages are constructed of "cob," a kind of clay mixed with straw. The cob stands on a stone or brick foundation, and is thatched ; and this substance makes a good, healthy, and substantial wall, provided it is kept dry. Thatched and wood houses are objectionable on account of fire. Mr. Howard of Bedford has had built six cot- tages of concrete. The walls are afoot thick. There can be no doubt that concrete will make a dry and serviceable wall. It has also the merit of cheapness. Each of the cottages has three bedrooms and an earth-oloseti The cost of the whole, exclusive of the earth-plosets, was £660.— (Sanitary Eecord, vol. i. No. 19, p. 323.) The design of the house may be well left to the taste of the builder in the middle-class and better houses, but with regard to cottage tenements, the best plan would certainly be to build them long and narrow, and, where ground is cheap, one story high. For the sanitary arrangements of a house, see Closets, Dbain, Ventilation, &c.; also see HoDSH-TO-HonsE Inspection. Hackney Carriages— 5ee Con vetances. HAD (271) HEA Haddock — This fish is closely allied to the ■whiting, but it is inferior to it in flavour and digestibility. It contains 18 '1 per cent, nitro- genous matt^sr, 2'9 per cent, fat, I'Oper cent, saline matter, and 78 '0 per cent, of water. Ham— &e Pokk. Hamburg Fovrder— Roasted and ground ■peas, &o., coloured ■with Venetian red, con- stitute this article, which is used for the pur- pose of adulterating chicory. See Chiooet. Harbours — See Sanitabt Adthokiti, POBT. Health, G-eneral Board of— See Boabd, General, of Health. Heart, Disease of— The causes and dis- tribution of heart diseases possess the highest int rest for sanitarians, as it is now evident* that many of the causes are preventible. Speakiijg roughly, 10,000 people die annually in England from disease of the heart. Con- sidering ■what the heart-js, and ■what it does, it is almost a matter of surprise that it is not even more prevalent. " The heart is a small muscle, ■weighing only a few ounces, beating perpetually day and night, morning and even- ing, summer and winter ; and yet often an old man's heart, nearly a hundred years of age, is as perfect and complete as when he was a young man of twenty." — (Hauohton's Princi- ples of Least Action in Nature; Medical Times and Gazette, i. 71, p. 653.) According to the same eminent authority, 20 lbs. are lifted by an ounce-weight of the heart every minute through a foot. Deaths and Dbath-Eate from Heart Disease in the Four Quinquennial Periods between 1851 and 1870, and also in the year 1871. Males. Quin- quennial . Periods. Bbaths at different Ages. Annual Rate peb 1000 LiviKO. All Ages. 0-20. 20-45. 45-65. 65 and upwards. All Ages. 0-20. 20-45. 45-65. 65 and upwards. 1851-55 1856-601 1861-65 1866-70 1871 32,617 39,678 49,738 57,687 12,911 4416 3433 3942 4296 925 6,454 8,723 11,128 13,089 2,981 11,873 14,629 18,662 21,132 4,773 9,874 12,893 16,006 19,170 4,232 0-725 0-836 0-993 1-085 1-164 0-177 0-156 0-169 0-174 0-178 0-553 0-529 0-605 0-709 0-788 1-829 2-137 2-583 2-757 2-968 5-065 6-268 7-381 8-329 8-603 Females. Quin- quennial Periods. Deaths at different Ages. Akndal Rate pek 1000 Living. All Ages. 0-20. 20-45. 45-65. 65 and upwards. All Ages. 0-20. 20-45. 46-65. 65 and upwards. 1851-55 1856-60 1861-65 1866-70 1871 33,497 41,095 51,243 60,003 13,308 4784 3610 4153 4632 982 6,719 9,349 11,025 12,711 2,716 12,165 14,930 18,897 21,588 4,906 9,829 13,206 17,168 21,072 4,704 0-713 0-825 0-970 1-067 1-138 0-171 0-164 0-178 0-187 0-189 0-530 0-516 0-573 0-621 0-653 1-780 2-061 2-454 2-632 2-818 4-232 5-361 6-568 7-574 ■ 8-025 There has been an increase in disease of the heart within the last twenty years. 11,356 deaths were referred to heart disease in 18.50 ; 18,758 in 1860 ; and 26,219 iii 1871. " The increase was progressive and rapid in the twenty years. Looking further back, to the five years when registration first began, these affections of the heart were recognised to a still smaller extent — they ranged from 3562 to 4925 ai year. The deaths ascribed to aneurism amounted to 119 in 1838, to 286 in 1850, to 368 in 1860, and to 627 in 1870. This is a well-defined affection of the great arteries, but it was not formerly detected with so much certainty as it is now. Simultaneously -with the increase of death by heart disease there was 'a decrease of death ascribed to dropsy, and the fact to bear in mind is that dropsy is one of the striking obvious symptoms of heart disease. The early mortality tables, previous to the inspection of the organs after death, when the knowledge of pathology was in its infancy, recognised no such thing as aneurism, pericarditis, hypertrophy, or any of the other forms of disease of the circulating system. Dropsy, on the other hand, was one of the EEA (272) HEA earliest diseases named. The circulation of the blood is bo essential to the life of every organ — the brain, for example — that its de- rangement may give rise to diseases of those organs, such as apoplexy, much more obvious to the eye than the heart-sounds are to the ear. It is fair, then, to assume that a part of the increase of heart disease in England is only apparent, and is due to improved nomencla- ture, to advancing diagnosis — vrhat was called dropsy is called hypertrophy of the heart, and BO in other cases. Nevertheless, after making due allowance for this element. Dr. Qnain, •who has recently delivered the Lnmleian Lec- tures at the Koyal College of Physicians, holds that there has been, within the last twenty years, an actual increase of heart disease in Eng- land. The table on preceding page was framed at the instance of Dr. Quain, and should be carefully considered by every student." — (Dr. Fakke'b Letter to the Eegistrar-General on the Causes of Death in England, 1870.) Diseases of the circulation, according to Dr. Parkes, rank second as causes of death in the home army. ■ "The ratio per 1000 of strength for the last five years (18B7-71), for all diseases of the organs ^of circulation, is 1'462 ; and in these years, out of every 100 deaths, no less than 16'7 were from disease of the heart and great vessels. In addition, there is a large amount of invaliding from this cause. "If, the fatal diseases of the circulatory system of these five years are divided into two classes — those referred to some disease of the heart itself (chiefly chronic), and those referred to aneurism (including an occasional rare re- turn headed degeneraMo aortcs)— it is found that the deaths are, from — Cardiac disease Aneurism Per 1000 of Strength. In 100 Deatha. 0-727 8 31 . 735 8-4 1-462 16 71 These numbers are higher than those of the nine years (1859-67), when the mortality from circulatory disease was only '908 per 1000 of strength, and the percentage on the total deaths was 9."— (Pabkes' Hygifene.) Myers shows that disease of the heart is greater among the Foot Guards than amongst metropolitan policemen, and greater among soldiers than sailors. — (Diseases of the Heart among Soldiers, by Mtbes.) Dr. Parkes has also calculated out the causes of invaliding, and has shown that the production of these diseases begin early in the soldier's career. Out of 6856 invalided, 1014 of whom were under two years' service, he found the per- centage of heart and vessel disease as a cause was(7'7 in the whole number, and 14 '23 per cent, among the men under two years' ser- vice. . There would appear to be a great excess of heart disease in certain arras of the service ; for example, the deaths from heart disease in the Artillery per 1000 is 1'2, the Cavalry of the Guard only '18. The Artillery head the list both as to aneurism and disease of the heart. Such an unequal distribution points to an appreciable ■ and therefore removable cause. Geographical Distribution of Heart Disease in Englandand Wales. — This has been worked out in a very careful manner in "The Geo- graphical Distribution of Heart Disease and Dropsy in England and Wales," by Alfred Haviland, M.R.C.S. 1. As respects the eleven registration divi- sions, he finds that the two midland divi- sions have a mortality from heart disease and dropsy above the average, and that two- thirds of the coastal divisions have a low rate of mortality. Then, comparing the cha- racter of the coast-line, which forms the boundaries or the divisions having a high with those having a low mortality, he finds, coin- cident with a' high mortality, a precipitous rock -bound coast, having few Inlets, and those at right angles to the prevailing winds and the current of the' tidal wave; and, on the other hand, coincident with a low mortality, low or shelving coasts, valleys, and rivers hav- ing a direction in their course favourable to the free access of the prevailing sea-winds and tidal currents, and numerous sea-inlets, open- ing into wide vales, which freely admit a thorough a;fflux and efflux of powerful winds from any quarter. 2. As regards the fifty-three registration counties which make up the registration divisions, Mr. Haviland finds, first, that the coastal counties with a low mortality fron^ heart disease and dropsy are more numerous than those vrith a high mortality : that those most exposed to the prevailing winds, or most free from obstruction to their operation, Tiave the least mortality ; while those which are most protected by their physical surroundings, and are most inland, have the greatest mor- tality. As regards the inland counties, on the other hand, out of twenty-six, only six have a mortality below the average. Divid- ing the counties into coastal, inland, and mid- land or central counties, the death-rate from the^e diseases was as follows : Coastal, 11 "9 ; inland, 125 ; and central, 15"1 per 10,000 per- sons living. Tlius, coincident with the lowest amount of exposure to the sea-air, as in the midland counties, is the highest amount of mortality in those counties ; on the other hand, coincident with th« highest amount of HEA (273) HEA exposure is the lowest amount of mortality ; and finally, the counties which lie interme- diately between these extremes have also an intermediate death-rate. 3. As respects the 623 union districts, the coastal registration districts, as a rule, have a low mortality from heart disease and dropsy. There are three coast-lines around England and "Wales — the east, the south, and the west. "Coincident with the great number of sea- inlets and low coast-line on the eastern side of England, we find a low mortality in twenty- nine out of forty-one districts. Coincident with the rockf and precipitous coast of the south, an absence of important sea-inlets, and the courses of the rivers being at right angles with the prevailing winds,; we find that Of the forty districts twenty-eight have a high mor- tality. And lastly, coincident with the phy- sical facilities afforded on the western side for a full purging from the Atlantic of the valleys from air-sewage, it will be seen that But of fifty-two districts, from Redruth to Wigton inclusive, forty-two are below the average, and only ten above it." With regard to the inland, midland, and insular or peninsular districts, Mr. Haviland finds that, on the whole, the inland districts have a higher mortality than the coastal, but that the low-mortality inland districts are found contiguous to those which border. the great sea-inlets and the coast, as well as where there is elevated ground admitting of free ventilation on all sides ; that the midland group of districts, which are not intersected by the great sea-inlets, but are protected by high ranges of hills on all sides, have the highest mortality; and lastly, that the in- sula/r and penmsular districts, the most ex- posed to the sea-winds of all districts, have a low mortality from heart disease and dropsy. Causes of Heart Disease.— Xg^^ from here- ditary influence and disease of obscure develop- mental origin, there are tangible causes of heart disease which will partly account for their present increase, and merit in a strong degree the attention of the hygienist. The first of these is the influence of impure air, which on a large scale may be seen in the above geographical sketch. Dr. Black, in treating of the causes of heart " I showed the effect of impure air in pro- moting the degenerative tendency in. the structures of the heart, and especially in those of the right side of the heart, after the ages of forty. I was thus led to a passing consideration of the baneful influence pro- duced upon the heart by badly-ventilated houses, schools, manufactories, pits, theatres, underground railways, and all places of a similar character."— (Lancet, 1872, i. p. 329.) Dr. Black showed that the effect of diminish- ing oxygen and increasing carbonic acid could be observed on the heart of the trout. He hatched some thousands of this fish, and sub- mitted them to daily microscopic investiga- tion. As the oxygen in the water was ex- hausted, and as the carbonic acid increased, the sensibility and contractility of the heait was diminished, and at length entirely de- stroyed'. He considers that the same effect is produced upon the human h eart by an accumu- lation of carbonic acid in the air respired, and that deficient ventilation is a. great source' of degeneration of the heart. "The impure atmosphere of the bedrooms of the poor, and indeed of many of the middle class, proves a sharp spur to the degenerative tendency manifested by the heart, and espe- cially by the right side of the heart, after the age of forty. " I hold that the breathing of impure air is a fruitful source of disease of the right heart, occurring after middle age. How many people ignorantly favour its occurrence by confining themselves to closely - shut, non - ventilated, hot, stifling rooms, in which the carbonic acid has accumulated to 2 or 3 per cent, of the air they respire ! And many are thus destroyed by being compelled, through the exigencies of life, to pass the greater part of their time in pits and manufactories where ventilation is defective, or in which the air respired is poisoned by noxious fumes and offensive emanations from the materials un- dergoing the process of manufacture. How many are falling victims to the poisonous influence on the heart of the atmosphere of an underground railway! "What do these facts suggest ? How are these evil results to be prevented? The simple answer is, Let the rooms in which you live be effectually ven- tilated by an incoming current of air, fil- tered from all adventitious impurities, and so divided that no draught shall be felt ; and by an outgoing current, which shall remove from the apartments the carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, sulphurous a«id gas, sulphuretted hydro- gen, and other noxious compounds as rapidly as they are generated. Apply the same principle to public buildings, theatres, schools, manufac- tories, pits, and to all places in which people are accustomed to congregate." — (Dr. CoB- NELIDS Black, loc. cit., p. 254.) Overstraining of the Heart. — The increase of heart affections in modern times is pro- bably in some degree due to this cause. Men leading sedentary lives suddenly make great efforts — e-g., catching a train, lifting heavy weights, violent athletics, &c. In these and similar ways the valves and walls of the S HEA (274; HEn heart, unaccustomed to the strain, may be irretrievably damaged. The immense exer- tion in efforts ■ such as the Oxfoi'd boat- race may be appreciated from the estimates of the Rev. Samuel Haughton, who says : " I obtained from Mr. Main of Oxford, and Mr. Maclaren, the trainer, the cross-sections of the Oxford eight and other particulars. The time in which this race has been done is on an average 23 minutes, 3^ seconds, and the leugthof the course 4'31 miles. From these data, and plans and sections of the boats, I was able to determine the amount of work done by the muscles of these young men. I found that during the 23 minutes that the race lasts, every ounce of muscle in the arms and legs is working at the rate of 20124 lbs. If any of you have seen the exhausted con- dition of these young men when lifted out of the boats, you will a^ee with me ttat human beings could not endure such exertion for 40 minutes." Again, Dr. Black justly says, speaking of severe rowing : " At every effort made with the hands and feet, the muscles are strained to their utmost ; the chest is violently fixed ; no air is admitted into the lungs ; blood is thrown by the goaded heart with gi-eat force into the pulmonary vessels ; they become distended ; they at length cannot find space for more blood ; the onward current is now driven back upon the right heart ; its cavities and the blood-vessels of its walls become in like manner distended ; the foundation of disease is laid." Most modem physicians recognise the great frequency of heart affections in those accus- tomed to make violent efforts. Strikers in foundries, bargemen, heavy porters, runners, wrestlers, boxers, &c., are the classes where this influence is most apparent ; nor must we exclude the soldier, who, heavily weighted and accoutred, often has to make extraordinary efforts. Alcoholism is a too frequent cause of fatty disease of the heart, as well as of slow degen- erations of its tissue. The daily ingestion of alcohol not alone iiritates the heart, but often causes a slow inflammation of the lining mem- branes of the great vessels leading from it. It thus induces heart disease in two Ways — 1. By increasing its action. 2. By acting as an irritant. Besides this, if alcohol take the place of nutriment, the impoverished blood will not nourish or feed the heart like healthy blood. Eheumatism, gout, and syphilis are fruit- ful and evident causes of heart disease, to which may be added kidney diseases ; and, pro- bably, of all diseases this class predisposes more than any other to cardiac affections. Mechanical causes — such as the tight uni- form of the soldier, the constant holding of a tool against the chest, constrained postures, &o. — should also be enumerated. Beating of Public Buildings - Warming. -See Heights, Measurement of— See Babo- METEB, &C. Hellebore — There are three commercial kinds of hellebore — the white {Veratrum album), the green {V. viride), and the black. The latter roots are imported in bags or barrels from Hamburg, and, according to Professor Bentley, are frequently adulterated vrith those of the baneberry {Actcea spicata). All varieties are poisonous. The white helle- bore owes its properties to veratria (see Vbba- tbia). Half a drachm of the aqueous extract of black hellebore killed a man, aged fifty, in eight hours (Moegasni, quoted by Tat- lob); and, according to Hertwig, "quan- tities of from 2 to 3 drachms produce in horses, colic, enteritis, and death in from forty to fifty hours, and from 1 to 3 drachms produce similar effects among sheep and goats." Pereira says : " Given by'the mouth to the carnivora (as dogs), it causes ^omiting, fre- quently purging and griping. In excessive doses it produces gastro - enteritis. If the oesophagus be tied to prevent the ejection of ' the root from the stomach, it causes stagger- ing, weakness, or paralysis of the hind extremi- ties, insensibility, and death. Similar effects result from the application to a wound." Two cows died from accidental poisoning from this substance, and their cases are de- tailed in the ' ' Veterinarian" of 1S55. The cows had been fed on dry food for some time pre- viously, and some portion of the plant, which the animals ate ravenously, had been thought- lessly thrown in the yard. The symptoms were "purging, rumen distended with gas, saliva dribbling from the mouth, animal con- stantly lying down and getting up, and when made to move uttering a low groan." This cow died about twenty -four hours, after eat- ing the plant, the other one had died pre- viously. Hellebore, in the form of powder or decoc- tion of the root, is a frequent quack medicine. Hemlock— The ripe dried fruit of the Conium maculatum, also the leaves carefully separated and dried. All parts contain a liquid volatile alkaloid, Gonia (CgHijN) {which see). Hemlock acts as a direct seda- tive, especially on the spinal cord, and in very large doses causes paralysis. In some cases it HEN (275 ) HIG induceii stupor, coma, and slight ijonvulsions. For tests, antidotes, &c., see CoNlAi ' ' Henbane— The fresh and dried stalk-leaf of the biennial herb Hyoscyamus niger. Hen- bane is anodyne, antispasmodic, and sedative; it is not a stimulant, and does not confine the bowels. ' In large doses it is poisonous. It owes its properties to the presence of an alkaloid, Hyosctamia. Herring— This fish contains, incorporated with its flesh, more fatty matter than the generality of fish. In composition it resembles the eel. See Eel. Highvrays — The proper repair of our roads is of the greatest interest in a sanitary point of view. It is true it may not be of any great consequence to the public health if they should be full of deep ruts and holes in places far from vUlages or towns, but directly the road approaches a block of houses or a village, it becomes subject to greater wear, it is liable to be made a place on which all sorts of refuse are deposited ; and if the surface is uneven or improperly made, or repaired so that the surface-pollutions stand in puddles, instead of running into their proper channels, the effect is insanitary to ahigh degree. All refuse-drains running into the road— slops being thrown upon it where there is no proper channel, &c., may be dealt with effectually under the Public Health Act. The surveyor of roads may also deal with such cases very effectually under 5 & 6 William IV. o. 50, s. 72, which enacts that if any person " shall lay any tim- ber, stone, hay, straw, dung, manure, lime soil, ashes, rubbish, or other matter or thing whatsoever upon such highway, to the injury of such highway, or to the injury, interrup- tion, or personal danger of any person travel- ling thereon, or shall suffer any tilth, dirt, lime, or other offensive matter or thing what- soever to run on or flow into or upon any high- way from any house, building, erection, lands, or premises adjacent thereto, . . . every person so offending shall for each and every such offence forfeit and pay any sum not ex- ceeding^ forty shillings, over and above the damages occasioned thereby." By section 73 it is also enacted that any timber, stone, hay, straw, dung, manure, lime, soil, ashes, rubbish, or other matter or thing whatsoever, so as to be a nuisance, are to be removed on notice; and if the notice is not complied with, the surveyor, by order in writing from any one justice, is to remove and to dispose of the same, and the offending person has to reimburse the surveyor if the proceeds of the sale be not enough to cover the expense. The term "public highway" imports a road for carriages, as well as for other pur- poses ; but it has been held that it might mean a public bridleway only. — (Eeg. v. Ald- borough, J. P., 648 ; Glen's Public Health.) Every urban authority shall within their district, exclusively of any other person, exe- cute the o£6ce of and be surveyor of highways, and shall have, exercise, and be subject to all the powers,' authorities, duties, and liabilities of surveyors of highways under the law for the time being in force, save so far as such powers, duties, or authorities are or may be inconsistent with the provisions of the Public Health Act ; every urban authority shall also have, exercise, and be subject to all the powers, authorities, duties, and liabilities which by the Highway Act, 1835, or any Act amending the same, are vested in and given to the inhabitants in vestry assembled of any parish within their district. All ministerial acts required by any Act of Parliament to be done by the surveyor of highways may be done by the surveyor of the urban authority, or by such other person as they may appoint. — (P. H., s. 144.) The inhabitants within any urban district shall not in respect of any property situated therein be liable to the payment of highway rate or other payment, not being a toll, in respect of making or repairing roads or high- ways without such district : provided, that any person who in any place after the passing of the Public Health Act ceases under or by virtue of any provision of the said Act, or of any order made thereunder, to be sur- veyor of highways within such place, may recover any highway rate made in respect of such place, and remaining unpaid at the time of his so ceasing to be such surveyor, as if he had not ceased to be such surveyor ; and the money so recovered shall be applied, in the first place, in reimbursing himself any ex- penses incurred by him as such surveyor, and in discharging any debts legally owing by him on account of the highways within his' juris- diction ; and the surplus (if any) shall be paid by him to the treasurer of the urban autho- rity, and carried to the fund or rate applicable to the repair of highways within their district, —(P. H., s. 145.) Any urban authority may agree -with any person for the making of roads for the public use through the lands and at the expense of such person, and may agree that such roads shall become, and the same shall accordingly become on completion, highways maintainable and repairable by the inhabitants- at large within their district ; they may also, with the consent of two-thirds of their number, agree with such person to pay, and may accordingly HIO (276) HOSC pay, any portion of the lexpenses of making such roads.— (P. H., b. 146.) Any urban authority has power to enter into an agreement with the trustees, &c., of any road, to repair, maintain, cleanse, &c., the same.— (P. H., s. 148.) The powers of a Highway Board as a sani- tary authority are abolished. Where a local government district is sur- rounded or adjoined by a highway district under the Highway Acts, the local govern- ment district is to be deemed within such Highway district. — (P. H., App. Part III. ; 26 & 27 Vict. 0. 17, s. 6.) Highway Rate. — In any urban district where the expenses under the Public Health Act of the urban authority are charged on and de- frayed out of the district fund and general district rates, and no other mode of providing for repair of highways i? directed by any local Act, the cost of repair of highways is to be defrayed as follows ; (that is to say,) (1, ) Where the whole of the district is rated for works of paving, water-supply, &nd sewerage, or for works for such of these purposes as are provided for in the district, the cost of repair of highways is to be defrayed out of the general district rate : (2.) Where parts of the district are not rated for works of paving, water-sup- ply, and sewerage, or for such of these purposes as are provided for in the district, the cost of repair of high- ways in those parts is to be defrayed out of a highway rate to be separately assessed and levied in those parts by the urban authority as surveyor of highways, and the cost of such repair in the residue of the district shall be defrayed out of the general district rate : (3. ) Where no public works of paving, water- supply, and sewerage are established in the district, the cost of repair of highways in the district is to be de- frayed out of a highway rate, to be levied throughout the whole district by the urban authority as surveyor of highways : Provided that where part of a parish is in- cluded within an urban district, and the excluded part was, before the constitution of such district, liable to contribute to the high- way rates for such parish, such excluded part shall, unless in the case of an urban district constituted such before the passing of the Public Health Act, 1875, which has passed a resolution deciding that such excluded part should be formed into a separate highway district, in pursuance of the Local Govern- ment Act, 1858, Amendment Act, 1861, or unless such excluded part has been included in a highway district under the Highway Acts for all purposes connected with the repairs and the rates of highways, be considered and treated as forming part of such district. In the case of an urban district constituted after the passing of the Public Health Act, a meeting of owners and ratepayers convened, ha., according to Schedule III. of the Public Health Act {see Eesolutions), may decide that such excluded part shall be a highway parish, and thereupon the excluded part shall for all purposes connected with highways, sur- veyors of highways, and highway rates, be considered and treated as a parish maintain- ing its own highways ; but the requisition for holding any such meeting is to be made within six months after the constitution of the urban district. The Court of Quarter Sessions may by order direct that for any such excluded part a way-warden or way- wardens shall be elected, and may invest any way-warden elected in pursuance of such order with all or any of the powers of way-warden under the Highway Acts.— (P. H., s. 216.) It shall not be necessary for the urban authority, in the case of any highway rate made by them — To lay such rate before any justices, or obtain their allowance ; To annex thereto the signature of such urban authority ; To lay the same before the parishioners assembled in vestry ; To verify before any justices any accounts kept by them of such highway rates ; and all such accounts shall be audited in all respects in the same way as the other accounts of the urban authority. — (P. H., s. 217.) The powers and duties of the Secretary of State under the Highway ard Turnpike Acts are transferred to the Local Government Board.— (35 & 36 Vict. >;. 7&, a. 36, and P. H., Schedule V. Part in.) Hock or Hocheimer — The German wines produced on the banks of the Ehine gene- rally pass in this country under the name of Hock. They are of light alcoholic strength, aci- dulous, and have a peculiar aroma or f ragiance. They are useful beverages at the commence- ment of dinner, acting as an excitant of the appetite. A want of brightness is the charac- teristic of the lighter German wines, hence the custom of drinking them in coloured wine- glasses. See Wine, Aicoholio Bevebages, &c. Hollands— 5ee Gin. 'H.oaaay—See Indian-Coen, Flodk, &c. HON (277) HOP Honey is a sweet substance obtainei by the bee from the nectariferous glands of flowers, and is elaborated in the body of the bee, and ultimately deposited in the honeycomb. Honey contains grape-sugar, manna, gurii- mucilage, extractive, wax in small quantities, pollen, a"nd odoriferous substances. The sugar in honey consists partly of grape- sugar, which crystallises, and partly of an un- crystallisable sugar. The crystals may be separated by filtration through linen. The different varieties of honey are known as — Virgin honey, or that which spontaneously flows from the honeycomb of young bees which have never swarmed. Ordinary honey, obtained by heat and pres- sure. English honey, produced by bies which have principally fed on furze and broom flowers. Ifarhonne honey, xjroduced by bees feeding on rosemary and other labiate flowers. The microscopic appearances of honey are thin transparent brittle crystals, in the form of six-sided prisms, intermixed with grains of pollen. Honey is used in medicine as a very mild laxative. In dietetic value it is similar to sugar. It was of more importance to the ancients than to ourselves, as the former were not acquainted with cane-sugar. Honey is sometimes poisonous. Trebizonde honey from the Black Sea has proved fatal, it^ poisonous effects being due to the fact that the bees have collected it from the Azalea Pontica. The honey gathered by the bees from the savannas of New Jersey intoxicates in small quantities, and in larger produces poisonous symptoms, the calmia and azalea being there the .principal flowering shrubs. Adulterations. — Honey has been found to be adulterated with treacle, potato -sugar, syrup, potato-starch, common starch, and wheat-flour. To judge of the quality of honey, and to detect its adulterations, an analysis will be necessary. The sugar should be estimated as described under Scgab, Estimation of, the water by evaporation in the water-bath, the ash by burning a weighed quantity down. Starch can be detected by the blue colour produced on addition of a solution of iodine, gelatine by its giving a precipitate with tannic acid. The ash from pure honey is small in quantity, and the addition of chalk, &c., is therefore very easy of detection. Hooping - Cough — See "Whoopino - ConGH, &c. Hops — " The catkins of the female plant of the Humulu! Lupulus, or common hop." The strobiles (or catkins, as they are called), and which in commerce are termed "hops," consist of scales (bracts), nuts (achenes), and lupulinio glands or grains. The lupulinic glands, according to Payen, contain 2 per cent, of volatile oil, 10 30 of bitter -principle, and 50 to 55 per cent, of resin. The scales contain tannic acid. Yola- tile oil of hops resides in the lupulinic glands. The bitter principle of hops is Lu- PUMTE {which see). The odorous emanation of hops possesses narcotic properties. The lupulinic glands are aromatic and tonic. The sedative, anodyne, and narcotic proper- ties of hops are very uncertain. See Bebk, POBTEK, &c. Hop-Ficking, Hop-Pickers— Recent legislation has given local authorities power to regulate " hop-picking " by bylaws. About the close of the first week of Septem- ber the hops are ready to be gathered in the fields of Kent, Worcester, and a few other counties ; and there is an influx of hop-pick- ers from London and the large towns into the bop-fields. Cheap trains are run for their accommodation by the companies, and they arrive in dense swarms. The returns of the South - Eastern Kailway Company, showing the number of hop-pickers conveyed to Kent alone, will give some idea of the magnitude and sanitary importance of hop-picking : — 1865 18ti6 18157 1868 Hpp-Pickera fi-om Loudon by Speci&l Train. 11,090 11,000 8,777 ■ 14,476 12,000 13,000 10,604 17,288 It therefore follows that the sanitary autho- rities of Kent have suddenly the responsibility of looking after the health of a mass of people equalling in number an army ; but with this essential difference, that an army has an "ample supply of tents and necessaries, is under discipline and control, and is not ac- companied by women and children, whilst the hop-pickers cai-ry as little luggage as they possibly can, are accompanied by women and children, and are often very disorderly. A little time ago the hop-pickers were mainly composed of the very scum of the population of large towns, but by the laudable exertions of various societies, especially of the Maid- scone Hop-Pickers' Society, a, great improve- ment in the respectability of the pickers is manifest.' The great feature of hop-picking in a sanitary aspect is overcrowding. They go to the fields, whether by rail or road, they work, they eat, and they sleep in dense crowds. But the evils' of this overcrowding are to a HOB (278) HOS great extent neutralised by the open-air occu- pation, the regular and healthy work, and the ample food which they are able to obtain. Most of the pickers are derived from the most unhealthy and crowded parts of large towns, and hence are liable to import con- tagious diseases ; and as no conditions could possibly be more farourable to the propagation of zymotic diseases than those under which hop-pickers live, it is the urgent duty of each sanitary authority not alone to have special arrangements for obtaining early information of any case of fever or infectious disease, but also to have a temporary or permanent hos- l>ital, to which the patient may be instantly removed. It will-be the duty of the sanitary oflScers to see that the drinking-water supplied to the pickers is sufficient, of fair purity, and not liable to be contaminated ; and that the em- ployers provide latrines of simple construction. Perhaps the b^st latrine in such cases is the military one, consisting of a deep trench, into which earth is thrown every day, and as one is filled another is dug in front of it, the whole being properly screened from observation by bushes, canvas, or boards. Bylaws for Hop-Pickers. — "Any local autho- rity may, if they think fit, make bylaws for securing the decent lodging and accommoda- tion of persons engaged in hop-picking." — (P. H., s. 314.) The bylaws should be based upon the fol- lowing principles : — 1. The lodgings, whatever the materials, must be weatherproof. 2. A minimum space of 16 square feet must be allowed for each adult, two children counting as one person. 3. Proper facilities must be given for the separation of the sexes, and such screens and divisions provided as are necessary to protect occupants from indecent exposure. 4. Every employer must provide (a) a suffi- cient supply of good water ; (6) proper latrines ; (c) a sufficient number of cooking-houses. 5. Every employer must give immediate notice of any case of serious illness, whether infectious or not, to the sanitary officers, Horse-Radish— The root of the Coch- learia Armoracia. It is a pungent acrid stimulant and rubefacient. Taken, as a condiment, it provokes the* appetite and as- sists digestion. Aconite root has sometimes, and with fatal results, been mistaken for horse-radish. The two roots, however, pre- sent striking differences. The taste of the horse-radish is warm and pungent, approach- ing that of mustard, while aconite has a bitter taste and a disagreeable earthy odour, and after a few minutes' contact with the mouth, tongue, and fauces, produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. Aconite root is short and conical, tapering rapidly to a point, while horse-radish is long and cylindrical, and of 'the same thickness for many inches, and has a powerful pungent odour when scraped. It is in the spring and autumn that this mistake has generally occurred. See Aconite. Horses, &o. — An urban authority may license the proprietors, &c., of horses, ponies, asses, and mules standing for hire within their district, and may regulate such matters by bylaws. See Bylaws, Convetanoes, Hospitals are a necessity, and in some degi'ee the care which a nation bestows upon its sick is in direct proportion to its civilisa- tion. If the political, moral, and religious state of the ancients be examined, it is easy to be convinced that they had not, nor could they have, hospitals ; for to found and maintain them a virtue was necessary which paganism was destitute of, namely, Charity ; and it is to this virtue, wholly Christian, that we owe these buildings which, begun in the first days of Christianity, have continued to our time. The founding of hospitals may be traced to the commencement of the Church. The bishops were charged with the poor and sick of their diocese. These establishments were known under the name of "Lazar," "Leper- houses," &o., and to^ their maintenance the Church consecrated a fourth part of its revenues. Gregory of Tours relates that to the fifth century there existed in churches a special place for the sick. Later on, the piety of princes, led by a wise policy, no longer left to individuals the honour of founding these establishments. In France, Childebert and Queen Brunehault erected the first hospitals — the H6tel Dieu, Lyons ; that of Paris, Autun, &c. Besides, the monasteries assisted the poor, aided travellers, and very often had the care of the sick, a duty which was frequently enjoined by their rules. Charlemagne founded several hospitals and hospices. During the Crusades these establishments multiplied, for another cause besides the promptings of charity in- creased them. Leprosy, which had ravaged Europe during the middle ages, covered France with leper- houses. In the thirteenth centuiy there were in existence 2000 of them, an almost incredible number, considering the population of that time. The fact is however proved by the will of Louis VIIL, who left them 2000 livres, St. Louis perhaps did more for hospitals than all his predecessors. In 1254 HOS (279) HOS he founded the Qvunze-Yingts, not, as is generally believed, for his companions in arms who returned to their native land suf- fering from blindness, but simply for 300 blind Paris poor. He established hospices, and endowed them, at Vernon and Pontoise. At a later period he enlarged the H6tel Dieu of Paris, and endowed it independently of separate gifts which he regularly transmitted. Lastly, he erected and inaugurated with great solemnity the Compiegne Hospital. Henry IV. founded in France the first military hospital. In 1604 he laid the iirst stone of the H6pital St. Louis, one of the most beau- tiful in Europe. This prince added to the H6tel Dieu two rooms, still existing. Some years before, Marie de Medici had brought some Freres de St. Jean de Dieu to cure the sick at the H6pital de la Charity, which she had founded. Under Louis XIII. the Incur- ables, La Pitie, La Salpetriere, were founded. The BicStre was destined for invalid soldiers. It w!is also under this king that St. Vincent de Paul commenced his efforts in favour of foundlings. Louis XIV. created the Hdpital des Enfants trouves, the Invalides, and the General Hospital. The eighteenth century witnessed the erec- tion of several hospitals whose names will be ever honoured, such as Beaujon, Cochin, Necker, &c. , In England the oldest hospital is Bethlehem Hospital, a royal foundation for lunatics in- corporated by Henry VIII., 1547. The chief hospitals of the metropolis and the dates of their erection are as follows : — Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe, except one at Granada) ' 1547 Cancer, Brompton . i85l Charing Cross 1818 (New hospital built, 1831.) Consumption, Brompton .... 1841 Dental .... 1-68 Dreadnou;?ht ship (seamen's) 1821 Eveline (Baron Rothschild's) . 1869 Fever. . . - . . 1802 Free Royal, Gray's Inn Lane . 1^23 German, Dalston . . 1845 Great Northern . 1866 Guy's 1721 Hahnemann (homosopathic) 1850 Idiots' . . 1»47 Incurables' . 1850 Jews' . . 1747 King's College 1 839 Lock . . . 1746 London . . 1740 Lying-in, British . 1749 Lying-in, City of London . . 1750 Lying-in, General, Lambetli . . 1765 Lying-in, Queen Charlotte's . 1752 Lying-in. Queen Adelaide's . 1824 London Ophthalmic, Finsbury . . 1804 London Ophthalmic, Gray's Inn Road 1843 Middlesex ... . 1745 Orthopedic U38 Samaritan, free (for women and children) 1847 Sick Children . ' . 1851 Smallpox ... . 1746 FoniuleJ. St. Bartholomew's . . 1516 St. George's ' . . . . 1733 St. Luke's (lunatics) . . . 1751 St. Marylebone ... . . 1871 St. Mary's, Paddington ... 1843 St. Thomas's (removed 1862 and 1871) . 1663 University College . 1833 'Westminster 1719 "Women's, Soho Square .... 1843 That the crowding together of a number of sick in one building has its evils there can be little doubt, and in former times it has been attended with great fatality, partly from faulty construction, and in a great measure from neglect of the most common-sense rules of hygitoe. For example, in a French book published in 1777, we read : — "Imagine a long suite of rooms close toge- ther, in which are assembled diseases of every description, and in which are crowded often three, four, and six patients in one bed, the living by the side of the moribund and dead, the air infected by exhalations from this heap of unhealthy bodies, carrying from one to the other the pestilential germs of disease, and ou every side sorrow and suffering — such is the Hotel Dieu." This account is corroborated by Lenon, who, writing in 1788, says: " At the Hdtel Dieu the number of beds is 1219, of which 733, called large beds, 52 inches wide, accommodate four or even six men, who have thus only either 8J or 13 inches at their disposal ; and 486, called small beds, 3 feet wide, in which the sick lie singly. We have seen ward^ so crowded that the number of the sick amounted from 5S8 to 818. It has been proved that in no hospital is there so little air to breathe as in the Hotel Dieu ; elsewhere they give them 7 cubic toises (atoiseis 6"39459ft.), whilst in the Hdtel Dieu they scarcely have in some wards more than 2J toises, in others 1 toise. There are even wards where the cubic space is below that." Such a state of things is impos- sible at the present day, although in hastily- constructed hospitals, in times of epidemic stress, great errors in our own times have been committed in administration ; witness, for example, the notorious Hampstead Smallpox Hospital. There are differences now in the rate of mortality in different London hospitals, especially with regard to surgical cases, evi- dently due to defective sanitary conditions. It has long since been decided, that although there must be general hospitals for accidents and the legion of ordinary diseases, and although there may be special hospitals for the furtherance of distinct branches and specialities, — such, for example, as the eye, the ear, &c. — there must be in every populous district or town a proper and fit place for the treatment of infectious fevers. The definite establishment of fever hospitals was the direct HOS ( 280) HOS outcome of the fatal typhua epidemic which committed such ravages at the close of the eighteenth century, and the first was opened at Chester. Liverpool, Manchester, Norwich, Hull, Dublin, London, and other towns soon followed ; and at the same time the necessity of establishing fev,er wards in the old hos- pitals was acknowledged, and in a great many cases acted upon. There are yet, however, numerous institutions with no means of iso- lating infectious cases. It is scarcely two years ago when smallpox broke out in a provincial infirmary ; the authorities turned out all those who were able to leave, with the effect of introducing the disease into the neighbouring villages ! ! The separation of fever from general cases would appear. one of those first principles of an obvious character that are at once accepted by the human mind ; yet even to the present time there are many who oppose the plan, the chief objection in their opinion being that the poison of the fever being more concentrated, there is a greater mortality among the patients themselves, and the nurses and attendants are likely to catch the disease. The first of tliese objections is purely theoretical, and is disproved by facts ; for instance, Murchison • shows that one person took typhus (in 1862) for every five typhus patients admitted into the general hospitals, but only one for every sixty-seven admitted into the London Fever Hospital ; and that one person died out of every fourteen admitted into the former, but only one for every 326 admitted into the latter. In large towns it is seldom diSacult to obtain a staff of nurses whose age is such that.it does not predispose them to fever, or who have previously had an attack. Statistics show that persons of forty years of age are not very liable to typhoid, while persons under thirty pass through typhus better than those over that age. It i 3 therefore well in a typhoid ward to employ elderly or middle-aged people, in It typhus, younger persons. Typhoid is, however, treated daily in general hospitals without evidence of injury, the principal contagion residing in the dejecta. The exhsda- tions from the breath and skin do not appear to travel far or have great virulence, and the dejecta can be easily disinfected. Cases of fever should, however, never be mixed up with the other patients, but have separate wards. Typhus in a general hospital is one of the most dangerous diseases, and is so likely to spread, that it should never, where possible, be admitted. It is not easy to prevent the importation of one or two cases in epidemics, as the diagnosis, until the fever is developed, is not always easy ; still reasonable care can always be exerted. Hospital Construction generally. — We have learned much in hospital construction since the " Report of the Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in 1857," which embodied the general principles of improved hospital construction. The theory- of erection of a good sanitary building is perfect, but the prac- tice in carrying out the details leaves yet much to be desired. The brain can often conceive what the hand has not the skill to accomplish. As they are charitable institutions, sug- gested, built, and endowed by charity, the first axiom is, economy of construction. All unnecessary embellishments, architectural adornments, corridors, passages, rooms, are to be avoided. A hospital should contain nothing more than wards for sick, and rooms for attendants and ward requirements. The foundation of a hospital plan is the ward, all else is merely subsidiary. And this subsidiary accommodation should be no longer in super- ficial area than is absolutely wanted ; more than this is unnecessary expenditure, and adds an element of mischief to the building. For obvious reasons, the out-patients* de- partment should have no connection with the hospital so called. The same remark applies to kitchens, stores, boiler-rooms, cellars, dust- bins, and the like, also to physicians' and sur- geons* rooms, and dispensary. It is quite pos- sible in practice to keep the buildings required for patients and their attendants just as much by themselves as if they were miles away from the subsidiary accommodation, and yet to place the whole of this latter in perfectly convenient localities. It is a grave error and no saving of cost to place them altogether within the hospital. The whole structure is complicated by this arrangement, and the sanitary condition of the building is endangered. Small country hospitals may to some extent form an excep- tion to this rule, but even in them there should be no communicating atmosphere be- tween the wards and the subsidiary accommo- dation.— ("Principles of Hospital Construc- tion," by SUTHEKLAND and Galton, Lancet, 1874.) One of the first things is to ensure a healthy site. There may be some difficulty in towns to obtain an unexceptionable one, since hos- pitals are most useful in an unhealthy, over- crowded locality ; but this, of all sites, is the worst, and instead of putting the hospital in such a population centre, it is best to establish it where there is most facility of communica- tion. The soil should be, if possible, a self- draining, gravelly soil ; but if a damp, clayey, impermeable soil mustbe built upon, then it should be prepared thoroughly by draining. HOS (281) HOS A geutle elevation, cceieris pwrihus, is best, ■but no hospital or habitation of any kind should be built with the gi'ound rising directly in front or behind. This obstructs ventilation, and the high ground drains directly into the low. The surroundings of a hospital are of the first importance. If narrow courts, filthy alleys and passages, cluster on all sides, every wind must bring deteriorated air. If there are smoky manufactories, or other insanitary conditions, in the vicinity, the patients must suffer. Where possible, an open space in the suburbs of a town should be selected. If sufficient ground can be had for the exercise of patients, so much the better. The French hospitals in this respect have a manifest ad- vantage over ours. For instance, the St. Antoine, St. Louis, and the Necker are sur- rounded by large and beautifully laid-out gardens, a pleasant resort for convalescents. " The requirements as to site are thus dry- ness, healthiness of surrounding^, and facility of external movement of the atmosphere." — [Op. cit.) • The next consideration is the form of the building. The time when large hospitals were constructed of one huge block or great rambling continuous building, like the H6tel Dieu of Paris, is probably for ever at an end. Fig. 38. ^^ ^7^ WARDS H CnJ SCALE 100 200 Mg. 39. The grand principle that appears to be defi- nitely settled is isolated blocks, so arranged that the atmosphere of each block is also iso- lated. This is the true pavilion principle, and is effected in perfection in the Herbert Hospital ; but certainly not in the new St. Tliomas's, where there is a nominal, not a real isolation. In order to carry the principle out, it is necessary that there should be two distinct divisions in the plan, one entirely for the sick, the other for administrative purposes. " This latter division might be so designed as to contain the dispensary and the out-patient department ; but it would be far better, where funds admit of it, to separate the out-patient department entirely from the hospital and its administration. The design should, of course, provide for easy means of communication be- tween the different blocks, but this can be, and ought to be, effected (as in the Herbert Hospital, figs. 38 and 39) in such amanner that the air-isolation of the different blocks shall be complete. The hospital proper in its turn should be divided into the required number of blocks, so that not more than a certain number of sick are placed under one roof ; and these blocks or pavilions should be connected with each other in such a way that each pavilion should be as isolated irom its neighbour as if it stood by itself. The hospital should, in HOS (282) HOS short, consist of a certain number of perfectly distinct hospitals connected together merely for facility of access. Such a hospital, there- fore, must consist of a number of pavilions." ~{0p. cit.) ( SCALE 60 FEET TO AN INCH,^ 5 10 I I SO do GO Pig. 40. In small hospitals in the provinces, the block system is probably as good as any other, and the pavilion plan unnecessary (figs. 38 and 39). ' The general axis of hospitals should run north and south, or, at all events, the axis of the wards ; thus each sidje obtains the in- fluence of the sun, which aids ventilation and prevents damp. The next thing to be considered is the ward, the hospital unit. It should be of sufficient size to give 2000 cubic feet of air to each bed, which, with good ventilation, ought to keep the air sweet. The ward is best made long and narrow (narrow, i.e., in proportion to its length], with opposite windows, to admit of cross-ventilation (iig. 40). The height should be about 14 feet ; the wall-space, per bed, 7 feet 4 inches ; the width of the ward certainly not less than 24 feet. The length must depend upon the num- ber of beds. The great and essential point is the super- ficial space per bed. This at the Lariboisi^re is 104 square feet, at the Vinoennes it is 90 square feet, at the Herbert 96 square feet ; , so that it may be put down that it varies in the best - constructed hospitals from 90 to a 100 square feet. In this respect we have not only to consider the amount for sanitary re- quirements, but also in the London schools a number of students are taught around each bed, and therefore such hospitals require additional area. The following is a sketch of a ward, or rather double pavilion, each half of which represents a ward unit ; it embodies the following prin- ciples (fig. 40): — " The number of beds is divisible by four, by which the whole wall -space is utilised. "Wherever it is not intended to introduce fire- places in the outer walls, the same numencal relations should be observed; but of course such a proportion in the bed-spaces necessi- tal^s the introduction of artificial warming and ventilating arrangements; or, as in the case of the Herbert Hospital, the use of fire- grates, of which there are two placed in the centre line of each ward. The wards have windows along opposite sides, with a bed in each corner, and two beds between every two windows along the wall. Each ward has like- wise an end window to the open air, and it will be seen that the beds are protected by projections from direct currents entering by these end windows, which currents are thrown down the centre space between the beds. " The water-closets, ward sinks, baths, lava- tory basins, and urinals are placed in two pro- jections at the outer or free ends of the wards, having special ventilating arrangements for as- suring that, from whatever direction the wind blows, no effluvia can enter the wards (fig. 41). " For each ward is provided a small nurses' room, with an inspection - window into the HOS (283) HOS ward, and a small scullery for washing tip tea things and providing warm water, or warm food or drink for special cases. "The relative dimensions of all these parts, shown in the plan, have been found in prac- tice sufRoient in the Herbert Hospital, in plan- ing which they, were considered in connection with the entire arrangements. In the double wards shown in fig. 40 the two wards are effectually cut off from each other by a 12- feet-wide conidor and a central hall carried up to the roof of the building, where it is lighted and ventilated by several large lofty windows. But the wards admit of other methods of arrangement. They may be placed singly or alternately, or in line. HOS (284) HOS " One advantage, indeed, of the pavilion structure is the facility with which it ac- commodates itself to the shape of the site." —[Op. cit.) Fig. 42. The accessories of the ward remain to be considered. It must be Ught, have floors and walls into which contagious fluids or particles do not easily soak. The windows in some hospitals are at the rate of one to each bed. Perhaps this is more than enough. As no window fits tight, they even, when closed, are natural ventilators. Too much glass is objec- tionable. In winter, it cools the air ; in sum- mer, a room with, many windows may become like a conservatory in temperature. Plate- glass is the best material, and the window shovld swing open top and bottom. The walls are recommended to be coated with as dense and as impervious a cement as can be obtained. One of this kind, capable of being polished, has been tried in the Herbert Hospital; It admits of being washed with soap and water. The floor is best constructed of oak, with close joints, polished with bees-wax. Such a floor is, however, very slippery, and weak patients may have many a fall. The best position for water-closets is a separate square block at tha end corners, with a passage and lobby leading to them, both having cross-ventilation by op- posite windows. All the pipes from Ihe drains should be trapped, and where necessary fitted with charcoal deodorisers. Single wards are undoubtedly best. When Fig. 43. Ill e Q '■■"■■■■■' Fig. 44. superimposed one upon the other, there is dan- ger of foul air rising from one to the other. The unhealthiness of top wards has often been shown. For example. Hunter remarked that in two wards of exactly the same dimensions, but the one over the other, and containing exactly the same number of sick under similar circumstances, the mortality was greatest in the upper one. The Marquis de Pastoret, in his Heport on the Hospitals (France) from 1804 to 1814, showed that there was always the greatest mortality in the upper wards of the Hfltel Dieu, where they were superim- posed, but elsewhere equal. He truly re- marked that attendance on the sick was more difficult in the high wards than in the lower HOS (,28S) HOS floors, that the couvalesoents could not walk cat with the same facility, and that in case of fire there would be great difficulty in saving life. Esquirol had previously called public atten- tion to the incontestable advantage in build- ings of the kind, of ground-floors in the chest affections of old men. Still, ground is so dear in large towns that a two-storied building is in many cases a necessity, nor with proper arrangements should it ■ have any ill-effect. More than two stories high, although practi- cally often difficult to avoid, is to be looked upon with disfavour, but mechanical arrange- ments—such as lifts, &o.— partially obviate the objections. The arrangement of the different units, the separate pavilions, is a matter which may be dealt with in various ways, and greatly de- pends upon the particular site. They may be placed parallel to each other, or end to end. Figs. 42, 43, and 44 will show the different systems employed in the best hospitals. There are one or two points that are appli- cable to all — ^viz., that the pavilions shoiild have no structure between them, and they should be connected simply by a low corridor. It is best open — mere open arches supported by pillars. The administration should be en- tirely separate from the pavilions, and there should be a separate building for the nurses to sleep in. It is a great stroke of policy for the managers of a hospital to keep the nurses in the best possible health; by so doing they ensure efficiency. A very original plan of hospital construc- tion has been proposed by Mr. Greenway of Plymouth. There is a double row of glass compartments along the centre of the ward, and separated front the side walls by a corridor. The glass compartment is so ventilated that the vitiated air is effectually removed. Kx- ])erience will show whether thus putting our sickly plants under glass shades will answer better than the usual plan. The cost per bed is £150. To the general and daily management of a hospital is often due its good or its bad results. Careful sanitary supervision will make a badly ■ constructed hospital healthy. Care- lessness and ignorance will falsify the results of the best architects and physicians. The immediate disinf ectibn of all contagious excreta, the hourly watching of ventilation, excessive cleanliness, the prompt removal of the dead, order, discipline, sobriety, and in- telligent quiet management,— these are the things that render a hospital efficient. The general hospitals having been considered, there remain those special structures peculiar to warfare — viz., military and naval hospitals — as well as cottage hospitals, and hospitals for sanitary authorities. Military Hospitals, — A stationary military hospital is constructed on the same principles as the civil, but the exigencies of warfare re- quire either camps or light buildings, which can rapidly be put up in the rear of an army, and as rapidly removed. The late war has enforced the lessons taught long ago — viz., that all buildings, churches, hotels, &o. , are to be avoided as hospitals. The sick and wounded do far better in tents, wooden huts, and other light buildings constructed at the time. During the, siege of Paris we learn that almost every kind of building was utilised as a hospital, and as a consequence pyaemia and gangrene prevailed to a frightful extent. Our own war hospitals are divided into — 1. Regimental, which are small hospitals for the purpose of treating men when first reported sick, and slight cases. 2. Division Hospitals. These are in charge of a staff surgeon, and are for the wounded. 3. The Field General Hospital, where all the wounded that can be transported from the front to the rear are placed. In rear of these, again, there is some more permanent building, sometimes constructed of iron at home, and then sent out in pieces, so as to be quickly put up. The Gemians follow a similar plan. Their war hospitals are in three classes, called re- spectively Feld , Kriegs, and Reserve Lathariii, and the wounded are successively transferred from the one to the other, and then when well enough transported into the interior. The great established principle in war hos- pitals is that they should be either tents or wooden huts, with ridge ventilation, and that as soon as possible the wounded, if able to bear the journey, should be transported far away from the seat of operations. Dr. Parkes, summing up the hygiene of field hospitals, considers that they should consist of tents of good size, well ventilated, and with flaps, by which they can, if desired, be con- verted into awnings ; the tent floor to be covered with clean, and, if possible, dried earth or charcoal, and to be then covered with a waterproof cloth or boarded. The boards should be removed frequently and the eartli cleaned, in order to prevent the accumulation of offensive rubbish. In the war of the Ameri- can Secession, as well as in the Franco-Prussian war, the American tent-ambulance, constructed of field tents, 14 feet long, 15 feet broad, and 15 feet high to the ridge-pole, was much used, and appeared to answer well. " Three such tents joined end to endformedonelongpavilion capable of accommodating eighteen wounded HOS (286) HOS men without crowding (figs. 45 and 46). The flooring consisted of planks placed upon cross-supports, and raised about 3 inches from the soil. In each division or separate small tent were six camp iron beds — the very ones that had been employed in the American war — and free ventilation was ensured by It " The system of warming was efficient, sim- ple, and economical. A trench of about 40 centimetres broad and deep was made in the ground, extending from one end to the other of the tent ; a pit of about 1 millimetre 50 centimetres in dimensions excavated at one means of an opening in the roof alternately on opposite sides of the united tents. The cloth itself was, moreover, permeable to air, although not to wefr; And it deserves to be stated that the whole expenses of installation, including heating apparatus and flooring, were under 130 francs per bed. X X X pa C s a j) 1 J E a X X X X \x X X X X 1 a El X X X X R -» end. An ordinary stove was built into the latter, the flue of which extended along the trench under the floor, and rose at the farther end in the form of a chimney. Along its course it was carefully built in by brick and mortar, a grated opening being left in the HOS (287) HOS flooring at short intervals, so as more readily to admit the heat. The pit for the stove was covered over by a pent roof, a, few steps leading down to the fireplace. A movable valve in the flue provided a. ready nieans of regulating the temperature, and even, of diverting the heat from one tent to the one adjoining, for which purpose branch flues were arranged from some of them. " Among the many advantages of this mode of heating was the circumstance that after a time the soil under the tent became heated as well as the interior itself ; a steady and con- stant movement of air in the interior was, moreover, kept up ; and even in the depth of winter, with an external temperature of 25° F. ,' that of the interior could be retained easily at 55° F. if necessary." — (Lessons on Hygiene and Surgery from the Franco-Prussian War, by C. A. Gordon.) In the American war some of the hospitals contained from 2000 to 2800 beds — in fact, they were much too large. The numbers under the same roof should be as small as possible. Hammond states that in his experience the best size for a ward or tent was that which would accommodate fifty men : length of ward, 175 feet ; width, 25 feet ; height, 14 feet ; superficial area per man, 87 feet ; cubic space per man, 1200 feet ; ridge ventilation by an opening 10 inches wide running the whole length of the roof. In the Austrian campaign of 1859, the method of distribution over a large tract of country, and in many small hospitals fre- quently entirely rertiovedfrom military control, notwithstanding the disadvantage of badly- arranged transport and want of care en route, was attended by most satisfactory results, not only as regards the health of the sick but the behaviour of the soldiers. The distribution spread no epidemic among the civil population, but, on the contrary, epidemics among the soldiers were arrested by it. Sospital Ships. — Ships have the one great advantage of isolation, but they are difficult to ventilate, the space is cramped, and there are other disadvantages. They are, however, ex- tremely useful in certain cases, especially in warfare. One of the best hospital ships ever constructed was the Victor Emmanuel, sent out to the Ashantee war, A short account of "this vessel will give an actual example of what a hospital ship ought to be. "H.M.S. Victor Emmanuel is a wooden screw steamship of the old class, of 5157 tons, and carried originally seventy -nine guns. She was launched at Pembroke dockyard in September 1855, under the name of the Kepulse ; but having been, shortly after the close of the Crimean war, visited and admired by the Emperor Victor Emmanuel, she was ordered henceforth to bear the name of that monarch." She was converted into a hospital ship in 1873. As now constituted, she is a, fluahed-deck ship with poop added, and has below what may be called a service deck, a main, gun (or lower), and orlop deck. The water-supply is stored in large tanks amid- ship. Three of these reservoirs contain salt water for flushing closets ; three fresh water, for washing and bathing purposes ; and two are fitted with Crease's fllters, for drinking and cooking purposes only. From these tanks, by an elaborate system of pipes, all parts of the ship are supplied, so that anywhere, at any moment, salt, fresh, or filtered water may be obtained. The hospital deck is 230 feet long ; width, 52 feet ; height from deck to beam 6 feet 2 inches, and from deck to deck nearly 7 feet. Ventilation and light are ensured by sixty-six ports, fitted with sashes and jalousies. The hatchways and two large stern ports also assist ventilation ; while six cowled tubes, projecting higher than the bul- warks, and trimmed head to wind, act as down- casts. The upcast ventiliition is provided for by long slits in the deck, covered with wooden hoods (resembling in some respects the ridge ventilation in hospital tents). These hoods are arranged so that they may be raised or depressed to any extent. There are numerous orifices leading into goose-neck pipes along the top-sides of the deck above, which also assist. The engine - room hatchway is completely separated by glazed bulkheads, so that no heat or smell can find its way from th.-xt source into the hospital deck. There are cabins on each side of the stern for the use of sick ofiScers. The latrines are on the upper deck, opening towards the bows just abreast of the smoke-funnel. There are also closets fitted with patent disinfecting apparatuses in different parts of the ship. They are arranged intlu-ee sets— viz., two sets aft, two at the bows, and two opposite the engine hatchway. The hospital accommodates 140 patients, oc- cupying cots arranged in three rows fore and aft, and made so as to "rock" and "lock." The cots are also provided with mosquito- curtains rendered uninflammable by tungstate of soda, and light canvas screens are pro- vided. There is a large outside platform, protected by wire fencing, on each side of the hospital deck, on which the patients can have the benefit of fresh air either in beds or chairs. There are excellent arrangements in the lavatories, numerous baths, and a laundi-y fitted with Bradford's washing apparatus, an arrangement by which the foul linen can be hoisted up from below. The ship has a HOS (288) HOS spacious cooking-galley, ice-making machines, dispensary, lifts, pumps, &c., and the whole painted white, in order to show any dirt. The an-angements were so admirable that it was expected to be a great success, and it fully realised all anticipations, except a few minor defects easily remedied. Here, then, we have a model of a hospital ship — effectual arrangements for plenty of water, for cooking, food, the disinfection of excreta, the ventilation of the ship through- out, the comfort and amusement of the sick, and as much cubic space as can well be ob- tained in a vessel. — (For further details, see Report on H.M.S. Victor Emmanuel, Lancet, 1873, and Lancet, April 18, 1874.) Dr. Parkea considers it would be a good plan in large expeditions to have a small ship converted entirely into a laundry, a proposal that deserves consideration ; and he insists on the facilities for bathing and sea- drenching, with regular fumigation and dis- infection. 'Cottage Hospitals. — ^The same principle that has already been laid down as applied to separate tents in military field hospitals, to separate pavilions in large hospitals, is seen in cottage hospitals. These have now been established in nearly every county in England, and the results of treatment are so good that they are on the increase. The cottage-hospital system was originated by Mr. Napper of Cranleigh ; it is especially applicable to rural districts. Its advantages are— 1. Skilled nursing. 2. Special appliances — such as water beds, fracture apparatus, &c. (in fact, all the mechanical appliances necessary). 3. Isolation. 4. Home comforts. 5. Any medical man practising in the dis'- trict may have the use of them for a deserving patient. The patients themselves pay a certain sum weekly, according to their means, so that the cottage hospital is to some extent self-support- ing, 'although voluntary contributions are also necessary. Each subscriber, no matter what the amount of his subscription, should have equal privileges in recommending cases. Those of emergency and accident are at once admit- ted, in other cases a recommendation from a subscriber is necessary. All infectious cases as well as incurable diseases are excluded. There will be little difficulty either in con- struction or in selecting a proper site. " In most instances a couple of huts or cottages for each sex, with two or three rooms each for subdivision, nurses' rooms alongside the wards, and detached kitchens, all connected by open verandahs, will answer every pur- pose."— (Galton and SUTHEBLAND'S Hospital Construction. ) With regard to the size of a cottage hospi- tal, it should be at the rate of one bed for every 1000 of population. Three cottage hos- pitals, of six beds each, will serve effectually a rural population of 18,000. The cost is about £90 per bed. Hospitals for Infectious Diseases.— U is im- portant that every sanitary authority should act upon the 131st section of the Public Health Act, and provide a proper place for the treat- ment of infectious diseases. Every board of guardians should also have a detached con- tagious ward. " Every village ought to have th« means of accommodating instantly, or at a few hours' notice^ say, four cases of infectious disease, in, at least, two separate rooms, without requir- ing their removal to u distance. A decent four-room or six-room cottage at the disposal of the authority would answer the purpose. Or permanent arrangement might be made beforehand with trustworthy cottage-holders, not having children, to receive and nurse, in case of need, patients requiring such accom- HOS (289) SOS modation. Two small adjacent villages (if under the same sanitary authority) might often be regarded as one." — (Memorandum of Privy Council.) The same Memorandum insists, very properly, that when required, an exten- sion of accommodation could be provided in summer and autumn by tents and wooden huts. It is a question, indeed, whether huts or marquees ^ith ridge ventilation are not the best for sanitary authorities to erect in oases of epidemic disease, as they could be quickly put up, and when not required stowed away. In all cases not less than 344 square feet, of floor and 2000 cubic feet should be given to each patient. Fig. 47 is a diagram taken from the Memo- randum referred to. It shows the ground- plan of a hospital hut for eight persons of each sex ; and where there is plenty of ground, can be extended, as shown in fig. 48. ^_^ ^ Ha -1 i^T! A, administrative buildings (kitclien, stoves, offices, nurses' bedrooms, &c.) ; B, laundry, &c. ; C, disin- fectiou, dead-house, Ac, ; D, huts for ten patieuts each, with scuUeij and bathroom at end, and closet and sink at other end of each ; E, open corridors. The dotted lines show direction for farther extension. The London vestries have generally erected temporary hospitals of corrugated iron lined with match-wood. In the Hampstead Small- pox Hospital there was an interval between the wood and iron which -was filled with felt. Any local authority may provide for the use of the inhabitants of their district hospitals, or ■ temporary places for the reception of the sick, and for that purpose may— Themselves build such hospitals or places of reception; or Contract for the use of any suoh hospital or part of a hospital or place of reception ; or Enter into any agreement with any person having the management of any hospital, for the reception of the sick inhabitants of their district, on payment of such an- nual or other sum as may be agreed on. Two or more local authorities, having re- spectively power to provide separate hospitals, may combine in providing a common hospital. -(P. H., s. 131.) Any costs incurred by a local authority in maintaining in a hospital, or in a temporary place for the reception of the sick (whether or not belonging to such authority), a patient who is not a pauper, shall be deemed to be a debt due from such patient to the local au- thority, and may be recovered from him at any time within six months after his discharge from such hospital or place of reception, or from his estate in the event of his dying in such hospital or place. — (P. H., s. 132.) Where any suitable hospital or place for the reception of the sick is provided within the district of a local authority, or within a con- venient distanceof suoh district, any person who is suffei-ing from any dangerous infectious disorder, and is without proper lodging or accommodation, or lodged in a room occupied by more than one family, or is on board any ship or vessel, may; on a certificate signed by a legally-qualified medical practitioner, and with the consent of the superintending body of such hospital or place, be removed, by order of any justice, to such hospital or place at the cost of the local authority ; and any person so suffering, who is lodged in any com- mon lodging-house, may, with the like con- sent and on a like certificate, be so removed by order of the local authority. An order under this section shall be ad- dressed to such constable or oflicer of the local authority as the justice or local authority making the same may think expedient ; and any person who wilfully disobeys or obstructs the execution of such order shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten pounds.— {P. H., s. 124.) Any local authority may make regulations (to be approved of by the Local Government Board) for removing to any hospital to which suoh authority are entitled to remove patients, and for keeping in such hospital so long as may be necessary, any persons brought within their district by any ship or boat who are in- T HOU ( 2.90 ) HYD fected with a dangerous infectious disorder, and such regulations may impose on offenders against the same reasonable penalties, not ex- ceeding 40s. for each offence. — (P. H., 0. 125.) The Admiralty, with the consent of the Treasury, lend old ships to port sanitary au- thorities for the purpose of conversion into floating hospitals. See Ventilation; Hy- giene, Natal, &c. Houses— See Habitations. House-to-House Inspection — Medi- cal officers of health, where they possibly can do so, should have a minute inspection of all the houses in their district made once, at least, in every five years. The agents or inspectors who are selected for this office should inquire into all the sanitary arrangements and sur- roundings of the building, health of the inmates, number, sex, age, &c. Such an inspection, if uniformly carried out by every district once; at least, every two years, would be a complete census, and afford valuable statis- tical aid to the politician and to the hygienist. Such inquiries for health purposes have been made in several districts, but as the permis- sion and the carrying out of such a scheme rest with sanitary authorities, unfortunately it has not been in any degree uniform ; and though the officer of health may recommend, he cannot enforce it, being in this respect at the mercy of the authorities. " Such an in- quiry was made in Merthyr in the autumn of 1866. Nearly 10,000 houses were examined and reported on by four intelligent persons. Five weeks were occupied in the examination and report, the cost to the local board being £25. This inquii-y embraced the following: The name of the street, number of each house, names of occupier and owner, number of family and lodgers ; the ventilation, how it was secured, whether by back-doors or by win- dows the upper sashes of which could be fully let down ; the number of privies or of water- closets, and the conditiouof these; the water- supply, whence derived ;' and the state of any back premises, noticing particularly whether any animals or poultry were kept. When these returns were completed, they were tabu- lated by the medical officer for each street in each district, and the results summed up. The usefulness of these returns has been continuous. They now afford standpoints of reference whence to mark the improvements made, and to note the dark spots that call for amendment by referring to this ' Dictionary of Habitations.' The state of each house is at once apparent, and upon the occurrence therein of any case of disease — such as, e.ff. , enteric fever or phthisis — the exciting cause, whether excrementitious exhalations or damp- ness of foundations, may be found." — (British Medical Journal, November Ifi, 1872.)' This course' has also been adopted amongst the rural sanitary authorities in the county of Gloucester. Pr. Bond in his annual report says : "I therefore felt it my duty to advise each authority that the first object to which it was advisable that its attention should be directed was to obtain a complete and detailed sanitary survey of .the district under its juris- diction, and that its subsequent action should be founded upon the facts which the survey might disclose. This course has been adopted by all the authorities with whom I am con- nected, with two exceptions, in one of which nothing has been done in consequence of de- lay in the appointment of an inspector. . .". The inspectors in various parts of the district have, up to the 31st of December, investi- gated the condition of the whole or part of 72 parishes, embracing a total of 8546 separate premises." — (Annual Report of Medical Officer of Health to Gloucester Combined Sanitary Authorities, .1874.) Hydatids — See Echinococcus. * Hydrometer— An instrument used for the purpose of ascertaining the density of water. It is a glass vessel loaded with mer- cury or shot, and furnished with a scale. The zero point is found by floating it in distilled water at a temperature of 60°, and marking the point on the scale just where it meets the surface of the water. Hydrophobia, Rabies, Canine Mad- ness (La Rage)— Hydrophobia or rabies is a disease resulting in man from the trans- mission of the rabies of animals, especially of the genus Canis, characterised by gene- ral illness and a. profound affection of the nervous functions, great exaltation of sensi- bility, severe constrictions of the throat, spas- modic action of the diaphragm, and often tetanic spasms— all aggravated by attempts to drink fluid, by the sound of running water, the least breath of air, the contact of cold things, and other external impressions. It is uniformly fatal. The deaths from hydrophobia in this country are on the increase. In the four years from 1868-71 they were as foUows : 7, 18, 32, and 56. In Prussia it is still more fatal than in our country, for in ten years 1666 deaths were attributed to it. In France about twenty-three deaths occur annually from hydrophobia. The animals in whom hydrophobia is sup- posed to originate are the dog, the wolf, the fox, and perhaps the cat. The causes predis- HYD (291 ) HYD posing are somewhat vaguely enumerated as extreme heat, -alternations of temperature, bad food, 'deficient water, forced contjnence, &G. It is highly probable that it never arises denot/o, but is always propagated by contagion. In this way it may be produced in almost any animal, and even in birds ; they in their turn can communicate it to others, and so on. With respect to the species of animal whence the disease w.as communicated to man in 228 cases in France, the following figures are interesting : — The Number of Cases of Hydrophobia in France from 1850 to 1859, with their Origin, 188 from the bite of the dog. 26 „ „ wolf. 13 ,, „ cat. 1 „ „ (ox. 228 The seat of the wound through which the poison was introduced is a striking index of the facility with which the contagion acts. The seat was noticed in 145 cases. Superior extremities, and chiefly in the bands 79 Face 37 Inferior extremities . 29 Like many other zymotic diseases, there is a period of incubation before the effects of the poison are manifested. The French Commission appointed to in- , vestigate hydrophobia have recorded the period of incubation in 147 cases in which it could be accurately fixed, as follows : — 1 month In 1-3 months in . 3-5 6-12 „ 26 cases. 93 „ 19 „ i4r Thus the important fact is established, that the eflteots of rabies are usually seen in from a few weeks to three months after the conta- gion, and that longer periods are more rare. There are, however, a few instances on record in which the incubative period would appear excessive — e.g., a case recorded by Mr Hall Thompson, in the "Lancet," of a lad aged eighteen, who had been twenty-five months in prison, during which period he had cer- tainly not been bitten by any animal ; but it was found that seven years previously he had been severely bitten by a dog on the hip, the scar still remained, and death occurred after a three days' illness. The symptoms in the dog, and, generally speaking, in other animals, are as follows : He first appears depressed and restless, and refuses food and drink. To this succeeds a. state of agitation, the animal is deaf to the voice of its master, wanders without any apparent object, the eyes infiamed and threat- ening, the ears and tail down, with the mouth foaming and the voice hoarse or almost ex- tinct. Sometimes he howls dismally. In his course — at times rapid, at others slow and un- certain — he attacks, either spontaneously or because irritated, animals and men whom he may meet. Many dogs avoid water, but some show no dread whatever of that fluid, and will lap it during the disease. These acute symp- toms do not last long. After four, five, or six days the strength becomes exhausted, and paralysis of the hind-legs supervenes, or fre- quently-recurring convulsions end in death. But the symptoms are not always the same. Certain mad dogs are to the last attached to their master, and do not refuse drink from bis hand. The desire to bite is confined to those animals whifeh use the teeth as a wea- pon of defence. This tendency is in some cases neutralised byparalysis of the lower jaw, which hangs uselessly {rage mue). There is no characteristic morbid change if the affection has been of short duration, but in cases of any length, the principal lesions are found in those parts supplied by the eighth pair of nerves— i.e., the tongue, fauces, sali- vary glands, &c. — which are swollen and in- flamed. Vesicles underneath the tongue were said to exist, but this is erroneous ; they may be present in a few cases, but have no con- nection with the disease. Symptoms in Man. — The invasion of the disease is marked by a feeling of general lassi- tude, accompanied with headache, agitation, sleeplessness, an unaccustomed exaltation of the intellectual faculties, or, on the contrary, an unwonted sadness, a seeking for solitude, gloomy presentiments, and sometimes spas- modic movements, rigors, nausea, and vomit- ing. In a few cases there are dull or lancin- ating pains in the wound. The cicatrix which has formed as usual over the seat of ^ injury may become the seat of a more or less con- siderable swelling, which, taking a livid tint, may even burst, and give exit to a reddish serosity. This period of invasion may last from two to three, or four to six days. It is soon followed by more serious events ; the agitation is increased, and is accompanied with a pitiable feeling of distress. The senses are greatly exaggerated, the least noise or light is insupportable, aud the sight of bright pbjects, especially water, determines violent convul- sions. This hydrophobia is carried in the greatest number of cases to such a degree that the patients repel all kinds of drink, falling into convulsions if they feel the contact of a drop of liquid, or if an attempt is made to HTX> (292) HYD give them n, bath. The latter symptom is not, however, ■ constant ; some patients are able to drink during the course of the disease, when even a loud voice or bright light will throw them into the most horrible ponvul- sions. These paroxysms, which recur under the influence of the slightest cause, present themselves with a truly fearful intensity ; the whole body becomes rigid for some seconds, and then ensues a succesEiion of violent jerks and spasms strong enough to break almost any controlling bonds, and the head and limbs are bruised against the walls. In the intervals a continual spitting is observed, which may be equally due to the spasm preventing the sal- iva from being swallowed, and the augmen- tation and alteration of the salivary secretion, which may become a true lather {bave). The pupils are dilated, the eye sunk and brilliant, sleep incessantly disturbed or wanting. Some cases are troubled with a very marked venereal excitement. It is extremely rare to see that anxiety to bite which renders the approach to such cases so formidable in the eyes of the vulgar. Some cases are gloomy and restless, only speaking briefly at rare intervals, and, giving themselves up to continual terrors, show a true panopholka ; in others the senti- ments of affection persist and are augmented. As the disease makes progress the attacks of spasm repeat themselves with increasing violence, the more cruel because intelligence often remains intact to the last. The con- tinuity of the paroxysms does not fail to exhaust the strength, the ideas become con- fused, the anxiety increases ; in some cases the eyelids retract and the eyes protrude, the body is suffused with perspiration, and if death does not take place suddenly in the midst of a convulsion a.t an early stage, it does so towards the third or fourth day. Death is the constant termination of hydro- phobia. The duration of the disease in 161 cases in which it could be exactly ascertained was as follows : — 2 days in . 8 „ . 7 „ . 34 cases. 93 24 2 2 1 The pathological changes must be looked for primarily in the spinal cord, the other eilects— such as inflammation of the pharyn-r geal mucous membrane, &o. — are only secon- dary. The poison, instead of, as in smallpox, going to the skin, or, as in typhoid fever, to the intestine, affects the most vital centre of life, the medMlla oblongata, and upper part of the spinal cord, where the slightest alteration ap- pears to be incompatible with life. Several microscopical sections of the morbid changes in these centres were shown at the Pathological Society, London, in 1872, by Dr. Clifford AUbutt. " The specimens were taken from the cere- bral convolutions, from the central ganglia, the medulla oblongata, and the cord. Throughout all these centres were found the same morbid conditions, but in different degrees, and these were as follows : 1. Evidences of great vascu- lar congestion, with transudation into the sur- rounding tissues. In all the grey centres the vessels were seen in various degrees of disten- sion, their walls in many cases being obviously thickened, and here and there were seen patches of nuclear proliferation. There was a diminished consistence of some of the pai'ts, particularly of the medulla. This seemed to be due to serous infiltration and soddening, 2. Haemorrhages of various size, and in many places a refracting material visible outside the vessels, due apparently to coagulate fibrin- ous exudation. 3. Little gaps, caused by the disappearance of nerve-strands, which had passed through the granular disintegration of Clarke, In addition to these appearances in the nervous centres, an enlarged spleen had been found in both cases. The parts seemed to be affected in the following order as regards severity: (1) meduUa, (2) the cord, (3) the cerebral convolutions, and (4) central ganglia. This was in accordance vrith the symptoms during hfe— viz., (1) reflex irritability in the region of the medulla, with no tetanic spasms ; (2) increasing irritatility throughout the cord, with semi- tetanus ; (3) deluium."— (Lancet, 1872, vol. i. p. 82.) Hydrophobia in man is always the result of contagion, operating only by one direct and immediate way— the inoculation of the rabid virus by domestic or wild animals — and the only vehicle is the bave or saliva which they deposit in the wound. It has been proved that neither the flesh nor the milk of a mad animal exercises'any contagious action. Although hydrophobia may be transmitted from carnivorous animals to the herbivorous, and from the latter to others of the same species, it does not appear that the last have the power to communicate it to man. After several successive transmis- sions, the faculty of contagion appears to be exhausted even in the dog. Hydrophobia is said to be not communicable from man to man. The cohabitation of a man affected with rabies with a woman does not commuhicate it. There are recorded one or two instances in which inoculation of animals HYD (293) HYG ■with the saliva of a hydrophobic patient had given the disease. The virus only acts on denuded surfaces. It is not certain whether it can be absorbed by mucous membranes, but it may be presumed possible. All persons are not equally liable to be affected, *' for only ninety -four persons are known to liave died out of one hundred and fifty -three bitten, making the chances of escape as three to one nearly." — (Aitken.) There would appear to be a few predispos- ■ ing influences, such as all circumstances which depress the mind or body. The season of the year has also evidently an influence ; in 181 cases occurring in France — 66 were in June, July, and August. 44 ,, March, April, and May. 40 ,, December, January, and February. 31 ,, September, October, and November, Or, dividing the year into two parts, there were 110 cases in the hot seasons, and only 71 in the cold seasons. Prevention. — The only method of preven- tion known is the removal of all causes likely to dispose dogs to receive the disease. They should be frequently washed, have good food, opportunities for exercising their natural ap- petites, and a strict watch kept by the police on vagrant dogs. The raids made from time to time in London are required all over the country. All unowned dogs should be de- stroyed, and every case of canine madness reported to the medical ofiicers of health in the district, who would then have an opportu- nity, through the sanitary authority, of taking the necessary measures. In cases of actual bite, the person attacked should if possible immediately suck the wound, and if assistance is at hand, have it cauterised. No one should wait for the arrival of a medical man, but if the wound is small, either cut it out or apply a red-hot iron at once, or use both cauterisa- tion and excision, if, as in some cases, there is no doubt of the madness of the dog. Let no foolish feeling of ill^directed mercy influ- ence the bystanders. Many a poor wretch who has died one of the most awful of deaths would have been saved by a little instant de- cision. In many cases, however, the person is bit on the highroad, or in places where assist- ance cannot be had. If the part bitten is one of the extremities, after sucking well, a tight string placed above the injury would appear to be likely to prevent absorption, at all events, until the sufferer could reach some place of help ; but if in the face or buttock, trust must be placed, under such untoward circum- stances, in encouraging the blood to flow, and washing the wound in the nearest rivulet or puddle. It is greatly to be feared that un- less cauterisation is effected immediately, or very soon after the injury, it is useless. In 115 fatal cases the methods of prevention were noted— i.e., whether the wound was cau- terised sufficiently or not. Deaths Not Cauterl- Cauteri°iv- Tears. ftom JHy- Canter^ satioa tion iii- droi^hobia. Ised. ' delayed, sufficient. ; 1852-1854 44 26 18 1835 21 41 5 !> 1856 20 11 6 3 1867 13 10 3 » 18S8 17 6 6 6 115 64 37 14 The influence of taxation on decreasing hy- drophobia does not, according to either our own or the French returns, appear to have any influence. It is pretty well known that under the new regulations in England few dogs now escape taxation, and yet hydrophobia is not decreased. All muzzles, the wholesale destruction of healthy, well-oared-for dogs, &c., are injudicious measures which should be condemned. Hygiene— Hygibne is the art of preserv- ing health, of prolonging life, and of showing how the human species may be perpetuated and developed in the greatest perfection. It is naturally divided into private and public — private, when it relates to the individual ; public, when it deals with masses of men. Public Hygiene. — The comprehensive aim and scope of public hygidn^ cannot be better expressed than in the words of Dr. Guy : "It has to do with persons of every rank, of both sexes, of every age. It takes cognisance of the places and houses in which they live ; of their occupation and modes of life ; of the food they eat, the water they drink, the air they breathe. It follows the child to school ; the labourer artisan into the fleld, the mine, the factory, the workshop ; the sick man into the hospital ; the pauper into the workhouse ; the lunatic to the asylum ; the thief to the prison. It is with the sailor in his ship, the soldier in his barrack, and it accompanies the emigrant to his new home beyond the seas. To all these it makes application of a knowledge remark- alile for its amount, and the great variety of sources whence it is derived. To physiology and medicine it is indebted for what it knows of health and disease ; it levies large contribu- tions on chemistry, geology, and meteorology ; it co-operates with the architect and engineer ; its work commends itself to the moralist and divine."— (Dr. Gut, Public Health, 1874.) There have been treatises on hygiene from the very earliest times, which Hippocrates is supposed to have embodied in his works ; but as a science it cannot be said to have existed until a comparatively modem ep'ech, for it is HYG (294) HTG a science that is baaed on the researches and discoveries of physiologists, and actual statis- tics. It would be impossible for the legislator to make efficient laws, or the sanitary engineer to carry out his designs effectually, without its aid. In England the science may be said to have begun with the rude measures of prevention in the time of the plagues and murderous epi- demics of past times ; to have shown its power when Howard purified the jails, when Jenner conquered smallpox, and Sir George Baker discovered the cause of Devonshire colic ; and to have definitely Deatlis. Mean oflO years (1861-70) 9-45 8-534 i Mean of 10 years (1871) . 8-62 7 8 Dr. Paikes ascribes the improvement to the great reforms in the army with which the n^me of Lord Herbert is associated, and observes, as a curious fact,. that the mortality of the French and English armies is now almost the same— viz., about 9 5 per 1000 with the colours — slightly lower, however, in the English army. The causes of mortality may be gathered from the following table, calcu- lated out by Dr. Parkes, from Appendix I. in Dr. Balfour's Report on the Army Medical Department Elue-Books (1859-71) :— Causes ofAfnrtalihj. Phthisis and tubercular ) hemoptysis J Diseases of heart and \ vessels ) Pneumonia Violent deaths Diseases of nervous ) system | Continued fevers, "» chiefly enteric J Suicides Bronchitis Delirium tremens All other causes Mnrtjility lier An- num per icoo of Strength 1186!-711, 5 Tean.. Deatbe in 100 Deaths (1807-711, 5 Years. 2-618 30-26 1-462 16-71 0777 8-88 598 6 84 0-576 6-68 0-403 463 0-288 3-30 0-167 1-91 • 0-069 0-SO 1-766 20-07 33-806 6-640 6-3-25 6-596 5-685 3 030 5-467 0-900 22-563 Such a result is in the highest degree satis- factory, and tends to produce a confidence in sanitaiy measures. We will now shortly con- sider the food, clothing, and habitations of the soldier. TJie Food of tlie Soldier. — One of the great difficulties in war is to provide proper.food, and in peace as well as in war to keep men from taking too much alcohol. One of the first principles in the diet of the soldier is that HYG (296) HYG he should have in actual field-work very little alcohol. General Grant prohibited ahsolutely the uae of spirits in camp by his soldiers and ofiicers, and the result was a most marked im- provement in the health of both classes. In the detaUs given under Alcohol it wiU be seen that there is ample proof of its inutility as a diet, as a heat-giver, and as a supporter of mus- cular exeiHiion. That it may be required to give a temporary fillip in cases of emergency, is quite possible — the pedestrian who walks a hundred miles in a hundred consecutive hours, towards the end of the course urges on his flagging heart by a few mouthfuls of cham- pagne. For the general diets of soldiers, see Ra- tions. In time of war, the great thing is to so vary the food of the soldier as to keep off the ravages of the sonrvy. The use of fresh vege- tables, fruits, &c., is essential, but not always to be obtained in sufficient or regular sup- ply. Condensed foods, meat extracts, biscuits, and the German pea-sausage are required for quick movements ; but despite the inventive ingenuity of presei-vers of meat, &c., no really good portable and compact food has yet been brought forward suitable for the soldier in such cases. The clothing of the soldier has excited much attention ; it is evident that it ought to vary according to the climate in which he is em- ployed. It would be, indeed, well to copy to a certain ejitent the costume of the nation against which he is engaged— to wear the san- dal on the hot Eastern plains, to wrap himself up in sheepskins in Siberian snows, and, gene- rally speaking, to adapt his costume to what the experience of the natives has shown to be the best. We still load some of our soldiers with heavy, hot helmets, cramp their necks with stiff stocks, and injure their chests with tight garments. "The clothing of the soldier should be selected sufficiently loose to permit the neck and chest to be at ease ; the trousers should not press too tightly over the stomach." On entering upon active service, the clothing should be new, or nearly so, the shoes well fitting, and the soldier should have two flan- nel binders. The cavalry should, moreover, use a siispetisor, a precaution the advantage of which is apparent. Up till now the use of waterproof material has not been authorised, although during the late war such officers and men of the various contingents as were able to provide themselves with it did so, and in the regular army officers are recommended to provide themselves with two flannel shirts and a waterproof cloak. The greatcoat used by the men is of sufficiently good material to be to some extent proof against the adniission of wet. A few of the general regulations on the subject of clothing may, inconclusion, be given. Thus, " It should, above all, have the preserva- tion of health as the first object ; all intended for jjarade, and which adds useless weight to either officers or men, should be suppressed ; that only should be retained in which he can at anytime march against the enemy." — (Lessons on Hygiene and Surgery from the Franco-Prussian "War, by C. A. GoEDON, M.D., C.B.) Next in importance to clothing and diet comes the habitation of the soldier — in times of peace lodged in barracks (see Babkacks), in times of war in tents, huts, or wherever he can be located. "In the densely-peopled towns or villages which soldiers are so often constrained to occupy, the soil beneath the houses and around them is often reeking with corruption, sodden with the damp products of decay ; and these not only become parents of fever and nurses of all sorts of xiestilential maladies by pollut- ing the air, but also, as we know, by poisoning the waters of wells or streams with the seeds of dysentery, cholera, and typhoid fever, and probably of every form of contagious malady." —{Dr. "W. A. Gut, Public Health.) Overcrowding in war always prevails more or less. It is not alone too many in one tent, or too many tents on a given spot of ground, but there is a novel form of overcrowding introduced — namely, an overcrowdino on the march. Men are occasionally pressed and condensed together, breathing the breath, Ijerspiration, and dust unavoidably raised from the bodies of their comrades and the roads they traverse ; hence it is well, when circum- stances permit, to march in as open order as possible. &eBAKRAOKS, Camps, Gymnasidm, Hospitals, Katioks, Tents. Hygiene, Naval — The total force serv- ing in her Majesty's ships amounts to about 47,640 men. The merchani) navy is manned with about 327,000 hands, and we may reckon (according to the returns of the Emigration Commissioners, 1872) that about 300,000 per- sons annually leave the shores of the United Kingdom. Add to these figures men em- ployed on coasting vessels, barges, and other craft, and it will be seen that sanitary science afloat cannot deal with less than half a mil- lion men, hence its importance. The Navy. — The ravages that all kinds of diseases, and especially scurvy, formerly made in our navy is a matter of history. Sanitary progress in this department has been slow — e.g., lemon-juice was supplied to merchant ships as early as 1617, but was actually, not introduced into the navy until HTG (297) HYG nineteen years afterwards. In 1781 the first slop-sLips (a kind of floating baths and wash- houses) were establiaheJ. The separation of the sick, proper cleansing and disinfection, the use of distilled water, and many other practical sanitary measures now carried out, have met with much stolid opposition in their, day, and it was only at the beginning of the present century that our navy was really brought into its present state of sanitary ex- cellence. We were taught naval hygUne by terrible experience. Por example— "In 1779, 70,000 men were voted for the service of the navy ; of these, 28,592 were sent sick to hospital, and 1658 died. In 1813, out of just twice the number (140,000), 13,071 ■were sent to hospital, and 977 died. In 1779, therefore, the sick Were more than 2 in every 5, and the deaths 1 in every 42 ; while in 1813 the sick were about 2 in 21, and the deaths 1 in 143— the sickness reduced to a fourth, the deaths to little more than a third ! " I will give you one other numerical state- ment. I extract from one of ^ir Gilbert Blaiie's tables all those years in which the number of seamen and marines voted by Par- liament was the same — namely, 120.000 — and I give you the sick for those years. They form, as you see, a descending series — 20,544 in 1797 ; 15,713 in 1798 ; 14,608 in 1799 ; 8083 in 1805 J 7662 in 1806. Or take a similar com- parison, where the numbers voted were iu each year 100^000. The years 1782, 1795, and 1804, the figures for the sick are 22,909, 20,579, 7650. These figures speak for them- selves. They are very eloquent." — (Dr. Guy, Public Health.) What sanitary measures and general man- agement can efiect is seen in the returns of the health of our navy for 1871. The total force then amounted to 47,460, and the death-rate from disease was only 6*3 per 1000. From the same report we also learn that out of the whole force of 47,460 men, there were only four cases of scurvy in the ;^ear, a triumi>h of sanitation. There are, however, stUl reforms and im- provements requii'ed in the dietaries and me- dical service of the navy, as well as in the ventilation of the vessels. The following is a brief account of the dietaries of the dif- ferent navies, with practical suggestions with respect to our own, taken from an excel- lent paper by Dr. John Hunter (Observa- tions on the Dietaries of British and Foreign Navies) ; — TABLE I.— Weekly Rations of the British Navy in 1720 (in Ounces), Sun- Mon- Tues- Wed- Thurs- Friday. Satur- Total. Nitro- Carbon- day. . day. day. nesday. day. day. genous. aceous. Biscuit . 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 112 17-47 86-85 Salt beef . 32 32 64 4-93 2-39 Salt pork 16 16 32 2-50 31-29 Peas . 8 8 8 8 32 7-30 2004 Dried fish 2 2 2 6 1-00 00-43 Butter . 2 2 2 6 0-00 12-47 Cheese . Total dry food 4 4 4 12 3-40 9-20 40 32 48 32 40 24 48 264 36-60 162-77 Beer 160 160 160 160 160 160 160 1120 0-56 48-72 Total 37-16 211-49 Deduct ne-eigh bh for purser's allows Lnce . lL 4-64 26-43 N] IT Tot. 32-52 185-06 A note to the foregoing table says that when there is no dried fish (fired or sized fish) oatmeal is gi?en, which was usually made into " burgoo." It will be observed, that on certain days no meat was issued. These were the "banian" or ** banyan" days, and ai'C referred toby Smollett in his "Rode- ■ rick Kandom." Six pounds of meat were issued weekly, being a pound for every day but Friday, which was a day of limited supply. The great deficiencies of this scale are obvious, and are quite suflBcient to explain the terrible mortality fi'om scurvy that occurred during protracted voyages about this period. The Centurion, the celebrated flag-ship of Admiral Anson, lost about two hundred men, out of a complement of between four and five hundred, during the months of April, May, and Jane 1741 ; and on aiTiving at Juan Fernandez on June 9th, there were only ten fqremast men in a watch, all the othei's being helpless, or dying from scurvy. About eighty died during the last ten days, and the condition of the survivors was most horrible. It is interesting to trace the gradual changes that have taken place in the scale of diet of the British Navy since the year 1720 up to the present time, which Dr. Hunter has been able to do by the aid of the admirable Ubraiy at Haslar Hospital. The table-beer allowed by the scale of 1720 was never carried in sufficient quantity to last above six HYG {298) HYG or seven weeks (Lind), and half a pint of spirits was issued in its place, In 174% the time of tha disas. trous Carthagena expedition, Admiral Vernon ordered the spirit to be mixed with water when served out, and through him the mixture received the name of "grog," said to be so named from the "grogram" breeches which the admiral usually wore. In 1761. Dr. Lind, R.N., discovered that fresh water could be distilled from sea-water, but little practical use was made of this important discovery till very many years afterwards, when it was applied to the cooking galleys of troop and emigrant ships, and to the boilers of ateam-vessels. In 1795, owing to the representations of Drs. Lind, Trotter, and other naval medical officers, lemon- juice was regularly issued to the crews of sea-going men-of-war. At this time the usual breakfast of the men was oatmeal boiled in water, and sweetened with mol- asses, when procurable. Cocoa was now used by vessels on the West India station, aiid soon afterwards came into general use for breakfast throughout the navy, in place of the ^luch disliked "burgoo," In 1824 a great change took place in the scale of diet. Banyan days were abolished, and the following scale introduced : — Daily — ^Biscuit, one pound. „ Beer, one gallon, ,, Cocoa, one ounce, ,, Sugar, one and half ounce. „ Fresh meat, one pound. ,, Vegetables, half a pound. ,, Tea, quarter of an ounce. Weekly— Oatmeal, half pint. ,, Vinegar, half-pint. "When fresh meat and vegetables are not pro- curable, there shall be allowed in lieu thereof, salt beef, three-quarters of a pound ; and flour, three- quarters of a pound : or, salt pork, three-quarters of a pound ; and peas, half a pint," Raisins and suet were allowed for an equal weight of flour, in a cer- tain proportion. This was the first issue of tea ; and the ration of spirits substituted for the gallon of beer was reduced from half a pint to one gill ; and from two shillings and sixpence to three shillings and sixpence a month was added to the pay of the men, It is curious to note, that though, according to the circulars, ' ' banyan days were abolished," yet the amount of salt meat a week was reduced by three- quarters of a pound. In 1850 the following scale was introduced, in which the spirit ration was again reduced one-half, and the salt-meat ration raised to one pound daily: — Biscuit, one pound ; spirits, half a gill ; fresh meat one pound ; vegetables, one pound ; sugar, one and three-quarter ounces ; chocolate, one ounce ; tea, quarter of an ounce, daily. Oatmeal, quarter pint ; mustard, half an ounce ; pepper, quarter ounce ; vinegar, quarter pint, weekly. "When fresh meat cannot be procured, there shall be substituted, salt pork, one pound ; peasr half-pint every alternate day ; and salt beef, one pound, with flour three-quarters of a pound ; or pre- sented meat, three-quarters of a pound ; and pre- served potatoes or rice, quarter of a pound on every alternate non-salt-pork day," Suet and raisins as before. The presei-ved meat was so often found to be either offal or putrid, that it was soon discontinued. In 1856 split peas were issued instead of whole peas. In April 1859 the ration of biscuit was increased to one and a quarter pounds, and sugar to two ounces. Leave was also given to occasionally issue an extra ration of beef, an ounce of cocoa, and half an ounce of sugar. In 1865 a superior kind of preserved meat was issued, and is still in regular use. It would be more esteemed in the tropics if it were sometimes eaten cold, instead of being warmed first. Table No. II, is the scale of diet of the present time, 1871. TABLE II.— "Weekly Rations of the British Navy for 1871 (in Ounces). Sun- Mon- Tues- Wed- Thurs- Friday. Satur- Nitro- Carbon- day. day. day. nesday. day day. genous, aceous. Biscuit. 20 20 20 20 20 20 ■ 20 140 21-84 108-57 Preserved beef . 12 12 24 3-55 17-88 Salt beef . 16 ■ 16" 32 2-48 2-32 Salt pork 16" 16 ■ 16" 48 3-76 46-94 Peas . ,5-2 5-2 5-2 15-6 3-58 9-77 Flour . 9" 9' 18 2-62 12-88 Suet . 0-75 0-75 1-5 000 3.11 Baisins 1-5 1-5 3 0-00 2-85 •Preserved potatoes 4" 4 0-25 2-70 Bice . 4" 4 0-25 3-25 Sugar . 2" 2" 2" 2" 2 2" 2" 14 000 13-30 Cocoa . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 0-25 6-65 Tea . . . 0-25 0'25 0-25 0-25 0-25 0-25 0-25 1-75 ? ? Rum . 2'5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 17-5 Vinegar 5 5 Pepper, &o. . Total (excluding ) liquids) . . ) 39-25 44-45 50-50 44-45 39-25 44-45 50-50 312-85 38-58 230-22 One ounce of sugar and -5 of lime-juice daily, after fourteen days at sea. HYG (299) HYG TABLE III.— Proposed Scale of "Weekly Eations for the.BBiTiSH Navt, 1871 (in Ounces). Pun- Mon- Tues- Wed- Thurs- Friday. Satur- Total. Nitro- Carbon- day, day. day. nesday. day. day. genous. aceous. Biscuit 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 140 21-84 108-57 Preserved beef 12 12 24 3-55 17-88 Salt beef . 16 16 32 ■ 2-48 2-32 Salt pork . 16 16 16 4S 3-76 46-94 Peas . 5-2 5-2 5-2 15-6 3-58 9-77 Flour . 9 9 18 2-62 12-88 Suet . 0-75 0-75 1-5 0-00 3-11 Eaisins 1-5 1-5 3 00 2-85 Preserved potatoes 4 4 4 12 0-7o 8-10 Pearl barley- 2 2 0-28 1-52 Compressed vege- 1 tables . . ) 2 2 • 0-25 0-50 Pickles 1 1 1 1 1 5 0-25 0-40 Sugar . 2 2 2 2 2 2| 2 14 0-00 13-30 Cocoa . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 0-25 6-65 Tea 0-25 0-25 0-25 0-25 0-25 0-25 0-25 1-75 ? f Eum . 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5 17-5 9 1 Vinegar 5 Pepper, &c. . Total (excluding 1 liquids) . . ) ... 39;2.5 45-45 55-50^ 45-45 39-25 45-45 55-50 325-85 39-61 234-79 One ounce of sugar and half an ounce of lime-juice, after seven days at sea. These three tables refer to the diet of the men when at sea, as in harbour one pound of fresh meat and one pound of vegetables are issued daily in place of the salt or preserved meat. The oflBcers provide their own food, and usually carry a suS&ciency of live stock and preserved provisions, though they are en- titled to draw the whole or a portion of the daily rations if they choose. Table III. is slightly deficient in nitrogenous food, and the excess of carbonaceous is derived chiefly from the biscuit and salt pork, to get the full value from which requires excellent teeth and great capa- bility of digesting fat. The result of a great number of obsei:vation8 that Dr. Hunter has made is, that seamen are generally deficient in the number of their teeth, many having lost four molar teeth before arriving at thirty years of age. Table II. is also deficient in antiscorbutic food, the ill-efTects of whose absence is ouly partially obviated by the use of lime-juice. In Table III , which Dr. Hunter has drawn up as a proposed improvement upon the present scale, an endeavour has been made to better the diet, while as few changes as possible have been introduced. Preserved meat is still restricted to twice a week, because the heat to which it is exposed during the process of preserving (226°) develops a kind of flavour akin to that of baked meat, which flavour quickly palls on the palates of most persons, and causes a positive dislike to arise if the meat is frequently used. If by any process, such as boiling in vacuo, or at a great height, where the boiling-point is low, the meat could be preserved as simple boiled meat, and not overcooked as it is at present, then it could be substituted for the salt beef with very great advan- tage, for pickling renders the fibrine of beef indiges- tible. Pork, from containing so much fat, does not lose so much by salting as beef does, therefore it is issued thrice a week, and beef only twice. I'our ounces of preserved potatoes arc added to the rations on one salt-beef day, and a soup of two oances of compressed vegetables and two ounces of pearl barley on the other. One ounce of pickles is issued on every salt-meat day, as besides their antiscorbutic value, they aid the digestion of salt meat, and thus enable the system to extract more nutriment from it. The best and cheapest pickles are red cabbage and onions. This table could be still furth* improved by sub- stituting one quart of porter for the half-gill of rum, but the difficulty of stowage is the great objection to this ; by making water an article of the ration, the minimum in the tropics betng fixed at one gallon a day for each person, for there can be no doubt that it is simply cruel, as well as hurtful, to limit to the in- adequate quantity of half a gallon each person, the amount of water supplied to men who are living on salted meat and going through active exercise in the heats of the tropics. The allowance in the Prussian Navy is 3J quarts daily to each person. The men take dinner at noon, and about half-past four they have tea, which is called supper. There can be no doubt that it is much too long, particularly for men who work during the night, to go without any food, except biscuit and milkless tea, from noon till breakfast next morning at seven, a period of nine- teen hours. Any one who doubts this may easily satisfy his mind, though not his body, by making the experiment. Tea is believed to have the power of retarding the waste of tissue, but the black-boiled milkless decoction that the men drink is chiefly a solutionof tannin, and cannot have much other effect than causing constipation. The lime which the cap- tains of the hold will insist upon throwing into the tanks " to keep the water sweet,'' will also, as well as the boiling, prevent the tea from being what it HYG (300) HYG should be. It would be an improvement for the men to take theii' mess-kettles to the galley to be filled "With boiling water, upon which the tea should be thrown. This is the Australian mode 6f tea-making. Sometimes .the men are able to save a portion of their dinner for supper, and with certain im- provements in the quality or kinds of the meat, this might be oftener done, but seamen are frequently met with who never touch their salt beef at all, but dine on biscuit and their allowance of grog. In some vessels an allowance of chocolate is issued to the middle and morning watches, with very beneficial effects. The change required in a tropical climate is suffi- ciently made by the addition of fruity whicb the men purchase for themselves from the boats that come alongside with fruit and vegetables for sale. Tables IV., V., VI., and VII. are those of foreign navits. The French and Dutch Navies appear to rely principally on peas, and bring their scale up to the proper standard as regards amount. Sameness of diet, a great evil^ appears to be the chief objection to their systems. The United States Navy relies on pickles andpre- sei-ved vegetables as antiscorbutics, and boasts thac it does not require lime-juice ; indeed, "lime-juicer" is an uncomplimentary epithet applied by American to British merchant-seamen. , TABLE IV".— Weekly Eations of the United States Navt, 1871 (in Ounces). Sun- Mon- Tues- Wed- Thurs- Friday. Satur- Total. Nitro- Carbon- day. day. day. nesday. day. day. genous. aceous. Biscuit . 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 98 15-28 83-58 Coffee . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 ? ? Tea . . . 0-25 0-25 0-25 25 0-25 0-25 0-25 1-75 ? ? Sugar . 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 28 0-00 13-60 Molasses 10 10 0-00 7-70 " Preserved Ijeef 12 12 24 3-55 17-88 Salt beef 16 16 a2 2-47 2-30 Salt pork 16 16 16 48 3-76 46-94 Kice . 8 8 16 1-00 13-00 Beans . 8 8 8 24 5-52 15-30 Dried fruit . 2 2 4 000 3-80 Pickles . 4 4 8 0-40 0-64 Preserved tomatoes 4 4 8 0-40 0-64 Butter . 2 2 4 0-00 8-30 Flour . Total 8 8 16 1-72 12-80 45-25 58-25 45-25 47-25 45-25 45-25 47-25 328-75 34-10 226-48 Tile allowance of biscuit is not sufficient ; but as the men purchase soft^ bre^d for themselves when in harbour (which they are well able to do, an A.B.'s pay being £4, 10s. per month), and allow the biscuit to accumulate till they go to sea again, the allowance is practically unlimited, and is much nearer , twenty ounces than fourteen. On some stations, two ounces of .preserved potatoes are issued in place of the four ounces of preserved tomatoes. These preserved potatoes are little used, as the men of the United States Navy appear to be unacquainted with, the fact, that long-continued cooking removes all the disagreeable earthy flavour, and that frying in the fat of the preserved beef makes them really delicious. TABLE v.— Weekly Eations of the French Naty at Sea, 1871 (in Ounces). Total. Nitrogenous. Carbonaceous. Biscuit, 194 X 7 Brandy, 2-1x7 Vin de Campagne, Ig-l x 7 Cofifee, -7x7 , Sugar, -85 X 7 Preserved beef, 7 0x3 Salt pork, 7-85 x 3 Dried peas, 2'1 X 6 Cheese on Fridays Dried peas for supper, 7 7x7; sometimes rice 1 is substituted . . . . . . j Sourcroute, -7x7 Butter, -5x7 Olive oil, "28 X 7 ; also vinegar and salt . Total 135-8 21-18 105-31 (14-7, ? ? (112-7 1 J J 4-9 ? ? 5-95 0-00 5-65 21-0 310 15-64 23-35 1-84 23-03 12-6 2-89 7-89 3-5 0-99 2-71 53-9 12-39 33-76 4-9 0-25 0-40 3-6 0-00 7-26 1-96 0-00 4-06 271-56 42-64 205-71 Lime-juice and sugar are also issued. HYG (301) HYG TABLE VI.— Weekly Rations of the Dutch Navy in Europe, 1871 (in Ounces). Total. Nitro- Carbon- genous, aceouB. Biscuit 70-04 10-98 64-59 Barley for breaktaBt, 10-5 X 7 73-60 4-63 69-09 Salt beef . 21-00 1-69 1-43 Smolsed poric S3 -60 3-28 40-95 Cheese 8-80 2-49 6-84 Peas 95-54 21-97 69-85 Butter 8-80 0-00 18-26 Coffue .4-90 •? ! Sugar •3-70 O'OO 3-61 Pickles . . . 7-00 0-31 0-56 Gin . . . . h Vinegar , *. (12-82) (9-80) 9 ?. Total . 326-78 45-25 245-08 Lime-juice and sugar are also issued. TABLE Til. —Weekly Eationb of the Dutch Navy in the East Indies, 1871 (in Ounces). Total. Nitro- Carbon- genous. aceous Biscuit 70-04 10-98 64-59 Rice for breakfast 112-70 7-10 91-76 Salt beef . 49-40 3-81. 3-56 Smoked pork 26-40 1-87 23-27 Butter 8-80 00 18-26 Peas, 42 ; calavanches, 52-9 : 94:9 (by measure) 80-76 18-55 60-63 OdIoqs 4-00 0-40 64 Coffee . 7-40 ? ? Sugar .... 17-60 00 16-72 Tea 0-98 ? ■ ? Vinegar 10-60 ? 1 Chillies 0-36 ... Pepper, salt (0-601 }6-oo; Gin . -J2-32 Total 378-84 42-71 269-32 Ventilation of Ships. — The ship is a habita- tion of a special character. In ordinary jiweU- ingg, a continual interchange of air takes place, not only through fissures and cracks in doors, windows, chimneys, or through special openings made for the purpose of ventilation, but also from the ground beneath, and through the walls themselves, which are by no means impervious to air. In a vessel, however, the gro)ind-air is replaced by what I would call the bilge-air. The wooden or iron walls, as the case may be, are not at all permeable, and special means have to be used both for bring- ing fresh air into the ship and getting rid of it when impure, especially in rough weather, or when, as in action, the hatchways and ports are closed. On the other hand, advantage may be taken of the fact that a vessel at sea is in constant motion, and therefore there are continual currents of air around the sides, about the deck, &o. This continual motion of the vessel is utilised in Thiers' ship ventila- tor, which has been fitted up with satisfactory results in her Majesty's ships Vigilant, Thetis, a.nd Osborne. The invention is extremely ingenious. Two tanks {see fig. 50), A and B, are placed opposite each other on each side of the vessel, four in all. Each pair is connected by a transverse pipe — one pipe, E, containing water, the other, F, mercury ; therefore the two opposite tanks, A A, may be called the water-tanks, B B the meircury-tanks. A A have each a long pipe, C, leading into the bold, or wherever ventilation is required. The tanks B B have also a tube furnished ■with valves opening inwards, G G, and lead- ing down to the neighbourhood of the keelson. The pipes D D communicate with the open air, and have valves opening outwards. It is perfectly automatic ; the least roll of the vessel causes a vacuum in either the front or starboard tatiks, and the water from the bilge rushes up one of the G pipes, the air up one of the pipes into the respective tanks, the next roll forcing this water and air out of the pipes D. Many vessels have spaces open on the shelf- pieces, the consequence being that a direct communication with the bilge-air is ensured, which of course is fuiidamentally wrong. Others trust entirely to hatchways, ports, scuttles, and windsails, most of which cannot be used at all in rough -weather. It will probably be found that Thiers' auto- matic ventilator is the best to fit up a new Pig. 49. vessel with, but there are also several simple means of ventilation which may be adapted to any class of ship. Tubes may be led from the spar deck to the lower deck with cowled HYG (302 ) HTG Tig. 50. HYG- (303) HYG heads trimmed to -wind. In the Indian trans- ports there are deck air-channels communi- cating with main ventilators, both up-cast and down-cast, on Dr. Edmond's principle {see fig. 49). The aspirating force of these ventilators ia sometimes increased by steam jets introduced into the up-casts. In some ships the hollow iron masts are utilised either as u^-casts or down-casts— e.(7., her Majesty's ship Monarch, and the steamers of the Penin- sular and Oriental Company — the latter, how- ever, aided by windsails, trellised bulkheads, and side x>orts. In the ventilation of iron- clads of tlie Monitor class it is necessary to provide for a supply of air when all hatches are closed and light excluded. Both the Glatton and Devastation are ventilated by fans driven by steam-power ; indeed, under such circumstances, mechanical agencies are indispensable, and of these the fan system ap- pears practically to have been of most service. There is hardly a craft afloat, from a canal- boat to the finest clipper ship, that could not take advantage of the ■ heat of 'the stove of either the galley or cabin in steamships. Again, the value and applicability of this method is evident ; properly -arranged shafts connected with a jacket surrounding a boiler would draw air from all parts of a vessel. It is impossible to recommend any one system of ventilation, since each case must be judged of by its merits, but it is certiain that any ven- tilation that does not get rid of the bilge-air is worthless- in a sanitary point of view. (For further information the reader is referred to an excellent article, "Sanitary Science Afloat," in " Naval Science" for April 1872.) ■ Merchant Service, — The vessels comprising the merchant service may be most conve- niently divided into three chief classes — 1. Ocean-going ships ; 2. Coasters ; 3. Barges and River Craft. The very unsatisfactory con- dition of this service has been forcibly exposed from time to time by Dr. Harry Leach, the Medical Ofi&cer of Health for the Port of Lon- don, in various able papers— c.fif., "Report on the Hygienic Condition of the Mercantile Marine, London, 1867," and "Report on Hygi- enic Condition of the Mercantile Marine in the Port of London, 1871," with others. With Dr. Leach's permission we make considerable use of the papers referred to. 1, Ocean-going Ships.—The^e vessels vary in size from 250 to 2500 tons, and the number of their crews {all told) from ten to sixty men ; and just as there is no law on land to propor- tion the number of persons living in a cottage to the size of the cottage, so in these vessels there is no definite law to propoi-tion the number of men to the size of the ship, therefore, practically speaking, a large amount of over- crowding on the one hand, or undermanning on the other, may exist. By the rules of the Government Emigration Ser- vice, however, four men are required to every 100 tons up to 500, three men to every additional 100 tons up to 1000, and two men for every 100 tons above this amount ; so that, for example, a vessel of 1500 should cavi-y forty-five hands, all told. Some few owners adopt this scale in tolerable entirety; but ourreadere will see, from the following tabulated statement of vessels that have arrived in the Thames during 1865 and 1866, to what extent this arrange- ment is carried out : — Eegis- No. of Hands Name of Ship. . . Galloway Trench Empire Eaglet . Thorndean . Royal Alice Geelong Prince Oscar Tamerlane Marlborough Saint Andrews Castle Hoang-Ho Stirling Castle Blanche Moore Merrie England Hermine tered Hoiue Tomiage. (all told). 1329 29 1324 27 392 14 1207 35 1244 32 456 r 14 1292 • 32 764 21 899 23 639 19 566 » 21 1165 32 18;i8 35 1045 29 538 17 When, too, we know that thirty years ago, the regular complement for every 100 tons was five men and one apprentice, it is evident that, on this head, a decadence has taken place, though some allowance must be made on account of recent im- provements (such as patent reefing topsails), which naturally and reasonably tend to curtail the number of hands required. The able and ordinaiy seamen are berthed In a deck-house built between the fore and main masts, or, more usually, in what is tech- nically called a top-gallant forecastle, and in some cases in a lower forecastle. The first plan is, how- ever, gaining groun'd as to large ocean-going ships ; and Mr Green's Highflyer is a good example of many new vessels built on the deck-house principle. It is ordered by the Merchant Shipping Act that nine superficial feet shall be allotted to eveiy one of the crew, if sleeping in hammocks ; or twelve superficial feet under any other arrangement; that every such place shall be free from stores or goods, and shall be properly caulked and ventilated — a failure as to the rule to x'esult in a penalty. These i-tgulations are, however, practically a dead letter; for as no inspec- tion of seamen's quarters takes place previous to sailing, as no law exists as to the number of seamen carried, and as, moreover, all space allotted to the crew is deducted from the tonnage of the ship when registered, the terms of the Act are frequently evaded in a very great degree. We may fairly, too, take exception to the terms of an Act which indi- cates nine superficial feet as sufficient for the healthy lodgment of a sailor. The following list, however, contains the measure- ment of seamen's quarters in several of the finest vessels now in the East India Docks :— DinieusioDS of tTpper or Name of No. of Top-gallaut Forecaatle Ship. B nnk-H . Length, Breadth. Height, Feet. Feet Feet- 833 Hindostan . 14 22 24 7 963 DukeofAthole 22 30 24 7 793 Blackwall . ... 32 27 tf EeK=8- tered Tonnage, HYa (304) HYG 819 Gala . 1012 Highflyer 468 AnzL . / DimensionB of Lower Foreoutle. 20 22 7 DimensionB of Deck- ' house. 3a 14 , 6J 10 12 5| Examples are here given of the three different modes of housing ships' crews. No deductions are made in this table for the space occupied by chain-cable and bowsprit, and the measurements are in all cases taken at the widest parts. In all the forecastles, where the bunks are mostly arranged round the bows of the ship, ihe space abaft (or the widest end) is completely open from the break of the foi'ecastle to the deck below when in port ; and at the other, or forward end, of this very airy apartment, two large hawse-holes are constantly open for the passage of the cables. These latter, of course, run completely through the quarters of the crew; and by consequence, unless the weather be fine and the water smooth, these quarters are constantly wet. Here the men eat, drink, and ^eep, in the immediate vicinity of the galley, and often in very close proximity to any live stock that may be carried for the use of ofiBcers or passengers during the voyage. It may, therefore, without nautical knowledge, be inferred that any comparative amount of decency or cleanliness (not to speak of comfort) is utterly impossible when the cables are bent. When at sea, the hawse-pipes are closed ; the open space is sometimes partially, sometimes wholly, filled up in a rough-and-ready style, egress and ingress being afforded to the sailors by means of a hatch opening on to the forecastle, which, from its normal dimen- sions, may be called a man-hole. Thus much for healthy accommodation and ven- tilation of quarters. It should be remarked that, as -to iron ships, the consequences of these latter defi- ciencies are, ii; warm latitudes, necessarily much exaggerated. We come next to rations. The scale of provisions accorded to the crews of sea-going ships is not pve- scribed by Act of Parliament, and so this important matter is also left entirely to the discretion of owner and captain. As facts should always precede opinions, we append in this place some scales of provisions tak^n from agreements of certain ships engaged in the foreign trade, London to East Indies, Sund'irland to East Indies, (&c. 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1I>. Ih. Vn 1h pt. "07, m Sunday H + it 3 Monday.... U + i ^ S Tuesday.... U * h ^ a Wednesday n 'i it 3 Thursday.. u * i . ^ 3 Friday H * N 3 Saturday... i* I ■ 3 i Liverpool to East Indies. Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday.,, Friday Saturday,.,, 1 1 1 s 1 i 1 a i lb. lb. lb. lb. pt. oz. H i 2 2 11 i H 'i V, H i 2 U It 2 H i 2 li , 2 Sundiiy. Monday Tuesday.... Wednesday, Thursday..., Friday Saturday.... 1 . ^ 1 i 1 ^ J $ n w n. n (K ^ m ih. lb. lb. lb, pt,. lb. oz. 0!I. oz. e H It 2 1* i 2 H It 2 H J ■ 2 1+ ♦ 2 H i 2 H i i 2 These scales represent fairly enough those used by most ships of the present day; and, notwith- standing the vast amount of improvement in variety of portable prandial material during the last twenty years, we may safely assert that, beyond the intro- duction once a week of a certain small amount. of preserved mixture called soup and houilii. no change has taken place in the mode of provisioning vessels for the last half-century. (It cannot be denied, however, that in good-class ships the quality of diet has greatly improved.) When a vessel is in port, the Act commands that fresh provisions of good quality shall be served out to the crew day by day; and there is no doubt that, on smart lines, the men, when at harbour service, fare well. But it is well known that masters of ships frequently pijt into St. Helena, or stand " off and on " while a boat goes on shore, without providing fresh rations or even fresh vegetables for their men, though watercresses grow in profusion about the island. It is, too, within our cognisance, that vessels arriving at Gravesend from abroad, and remaining there at least twenty-four hours, have taken in no fresh provisions whatever until they have come up the river and hauled into dock, though the homeward passage may have ex- tended over 120 days. During the ship-to-ship visi- tation so admirably conducted by the Seaman's Hospital Society in the Thames last year, under the auspices of Dr. Rooke, Mr. W. Johnson Smith, chief of the visiting staff, found the crew of a vessel (which had just arrived from the West Indies) busily en- gaged in cooking a mass of animal matter, which nasal /demonstration quickly discovered to be in a semi-putrid state. He was told by the seamen that the master and mate had gone ashore (probably to dinner), and that this was the last remnant of their sea-fare, off which, nolentes votentes, they were then about to dine. It is not, however, to these points alone, which, it may be hoped, are somewhat excep- tional, that we would draw special attention ; but chiefiy to the miserable want of variety in the above scales of diet, however good and however abundant such diet may be. By way of contrast, we may refer to the following scale of provisions adopted in the French mercantile marine, a perusal of which will show how very materially and usefully it differs from those above quoted : — Synopsis of Diet Scale adopted in ihe Frendt Mercantile Marine. SrmJcfast— Coffee, bread or biscuit, brandy or mm. Dinner. — Preserved beef or salt pork, vegetables or desiccated vegetable mixture, and wine. Supper, — Haricot beans dressed in two ways, pota- toes baked in the cinders, and wine. Seasonings, <£c. — Sourcrout or pickles, preserved sorrel, oUve oil, mustard, vinegar, and lemon juice, at the rate of one ounce per man daily, with one ounce of sugar, and one pint and three-quarters of water. The moat noticeable articles in this scale of diet are the variety of vegetables given, and the ration of wine or brandy. Tery few sailors are now supplied with any grog at all at sea ; but to this, among other additions and changes, we shall" presently refer. Arrangements for the supply of good water are lamentably neglected, in spite of the simplicity of a HYG (30s) HYG distilling appai-atusf and the patent fact that the river-water at Calcutta and some other ports is noto- riously provocative of dysentery and maladies akin thereto. WHh the view of protecting the seamen in the matter of provisions, it is ordered by the Merchant Shipping Act that, upon a complaint made by three or more of the crew of any ship to a naval, consular, or customs officer, or shipping master, in any port, as to quality of water or provisions, an examination may be made, and a penalty exacted ; that the sea- men shall receive, by w:iy of compensation for any reduction or bad quality of provisions, at a certain rate per day. It is also enacted that proper weights and measures shall be carried, for the correct weigh- ing out of the rations. It is scarcely necessary to point out the extreme difficulty to sailors of taking action under the first section of the Act above men- tioned, or of the inutility of so doing when they return home, unless, indeed, money be to them of more value than health ; and, as no control of weights and measures exists before or during the voyage, this latter section can be of no practical benefit whatever to the persons meant to be protected by it. Thus much as to provisions. It is, in the next place, our province to mention the exist- ing prophylactic measures that are by British \ law employed for the preservation of health to seamen afloat. The following measures refer particularly to diseases, and specially to that least excusable, because preventable malady, called scurvy. By the terms of the Act it is enjoined that every foreign-going ship (except those bound to ports in Europe or the coasts of the Mediterranean, or those north of the 35th degree of north latitude) shall be pro- vided with a sufficient quantity of lime or lemon juice, which shall be served out with a stated proportion of sugar (to the crew) daily, at the rate of half an ounce per man. A penalty is enjoined on this head for bad qua- lity, or a deficient quantity of the article ; and the same penally applies also, under the same conditions, with respect to all drugs and me- dical stores, a list of which is issued by the Board of Trade. As to this clause, it is to be ob- served that, unlike the section on provisions, no seaman can recover any compensation, how much soever his health may have suffered from a breach thereof, as all penalties under that clause go to the Crown ; so that even the poor satisfaction of a financial quid pro quo is here denied him. It is ordered, indeed, that any Local Marine Board may, on being required by the Board^of Trade to do so, appoint an inspector to examine lime-juice and medical stores. But the insertion of the above itali- cised word makes the clause practically use- less, and so neither sailor nor shipowner has any guarantee as to the quality of lime-juice and medical stores supplied. Nor has the former any means of redress on account of de- teriorated health at the end of the voyage. This state of things would be, to a certain extent, better in the present day if the Mer- chant Shipping Act of 1867 was effectively •carried out ; for it provides for a fit and proper supply of lime and lemon juice, a tolerably liberal space for the berths of the crew, a proper supply of medicine and medical stores, an authorised " Ship's Medical Guide," and a permissive clause as to the medical inspection of seamen before signing articles. It enjoins that every place used for the accommodation of seamen shall be "securely constructed, properly lighted and ventilated, properly protected from weather and sea, and, as far as practicable, properly shut off and protected from effluvium which may be caused by cargo or bilge- watei-. " And it also enjoins that there " shall be one or more properly-constructed privy or privies for the use of the crew," and that every place for tlie accommoda- tion of the crew "shall be kept free from stores or goods of any kind, not being the personal property of the crew in use during the voyage." That this Act has not been properly en- forced may be inferred from Dr. Leach's evi- dence, who says (Eeport on Hygienic Condi- tion of the Mercantile Marine, London, 1871) : " I inspected four vessels, none of which had any provision for light or ventilation, except by means of the hatchway. Another fore- castle, divided longitudinally for the accom- modation of crew and firemen, had no outlet from above ; and great complaints were made as to the hawse-pipe, which in this case, as always, causes a chronic state of wet bunks whenever the cables are bent. The men em- ployed on board this ship begged me to have this source of discomfort remedied. They averred that the sea sometimes washed through the port hawse-pipe with so much force that the flooring of the lower bunks was started, and the bunks themselves rendered, of course, quite uninhabitable." 2. Coasting Vessels.— Over 150,000 of these vessels are annually cleared from the ports of the United Kingdom. Coal, stone, and bones form a large proportion of their cargo, the size of the vessels varying from 80 to 300 tons. AVithout doubt they represent a Ian e number of hands. Coasting is trying work for the sailor, involving exposure to severe weather, much wMting for changes in the tide, and more continuous anxious labour than falls to the lot of the ocean-going sailor. They are, however, better fed, but there is a great want of accom- modation, and -A great necessity for sanitary supervision. The number of hands each vessel carries varies from three to seven, always in- cluding one or two boys. The master and mate sleep iu the cabin, the rest in the fure- U HYG (306) HYG castle. The dimensions of various forecastles I of coasting vessels, measured by Dr. Leach | in tlie ports of London, Lynn, and Newcastle- on-Tyne, are as follows :-^ Name of Vessel. Dispatch, sloop Kichard EUwood, billyboy Prosperity, billyboy . Alderman, brig Jane Owens, schooner Ocean Maid, schooner Mitten Hill, sloop" Thames, brig . Perseverance, brig Europe, brig Iris, schooner . Kemeinbrance . Malta Nautilus . Sisters Register. Tonnage. Crew Fore- castle. Dimensions of Forecastle. Dimensions of Hatchway. Height. Length. Width. Length. Width. ft, in. ft in. ft. in. ft. in. •ft. in. 48 2 or 3 5 Oi 6 l.| 12 1 13 58 2 6 1 16 10 2 2 57 2 5 3^ 5 10 16 1 4 2 197 4 5 5 15 10 22 3 1 10 2 97 3 6 2 9 10 14 6 1 10 2 107 4 5 10 9 11 17 2 1 10 2 45 1 , 131 3 4 8 16 94 3 4 6 7 4 20 1 1 169 5 5 8 14 16 G 72 2 5 6 8 252 7 1 207 268 8 , 7 ' t5 6 16 24 2 6 2 6 234 7 ) ^ The forecastle of the Mitten Hill was a raer^ hole filled with cordage, f Average measurement. There is thus much uniformity with regard to room and cubic space, but as the forecastles in nearly every case contained rope, cordage, and other articles, the measurements in the table are much in excess of the real space possessed by the men. The only aperture for the purpose of light or ventilation is the hatch- way. Moat of these forecastles were found filthy and offensive. In rough weather they are nearly always wet, and in case of sickness the condition of the sailor is something truly miserable. 3. Barges, tfcc— Under this head may be classed canal - boats, ballast - barges, steam- lighters, tugs, monkey-barges, &o. Accord- ing to Dr. Leach, no less than 7000 barges are employed in the Port of London alone, re- presenting a population of from 14,000 to 15,000 souls. The bargemen do not appear an unhealthy class of men, although the sanitary arrangements are in no degree satis- factory. Dr. Cameron estimated the amount of car- bonic acid in four canal-boats ; the results are as follows : — 1. Cabin, 18.?i cubic feet ; three occupants, each having 61i cubic feelt ; no windows or ventilators, except, for the latter, a hatch, 4 square feet ; height of cabin, 3 feet 9 inches ; close iron stove, burning peat. Amount of carbonic acid (8 A.M.), '34 per cent. 2. Cabin, 4 feet 3 inches high, 400 cubic feet ; a close iron stove, burning peat ; three occupants, but two absent the night before examination. Amount of carbonic aci(^, •098. 3. Cabin, 3.J feet high, 350 cubic feet; no opening save hatch of 4 square feet ; occu- pants two men and » boy. Air at 7'30 a.m. felt very close. Amount of CO2, '365 per cent. 4. Cabin, 4 feet 10 inches in height, .S60 cubic feet ; no ventilator save hatch of 3 square feet ; iron stove, burning peat ; three men sleep in one bed, a boy in another, and two dogs on the floor. Air (8 a.m.) felt op- pressive. Amount of carbonic acid, "95. — (Amount of Carbonic Acid in the Air of Canal-Boats. By Charles Cameeon, M.D., Chemical News, vol. xxx. No. 776, p. 169.) The above-quoted analyses show the ex- treme impurity of the air of canal -boats, and the urgent necessity of sanitary super- vision. Name of Barge. Jane and Sarah, of Grays... Denton, of Rochester Willing Trader, of Maldon Susanna & Mary, of London Dimensions of Dimensions of Dimensions of Cabin. Hatchway. Skylight. Height. Length. Width. Lensth. Width. Length. Width. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. 5 n 10 14 9 2 3 2 1 3 1 5 10 10 2 13 7 2 2 1 10 1 1 9 5 3 9 2 14 2 2 3 2 3 1 3 Hi 1 10 6 12 lOJ 2 1 10 9jf 6 HYG (307) HYG Dr. Leach has given some measurements, &c. , of the class of boats known as the Rochester barge, the cabins of which are usually very clean ; still the above table clearly shows how extremely deficient these vessels are in cubic space, air, and light. Summary. — "What is required, then, is firstly systematic inspection of every vessel, whether an ocean-going vessel, an emigrant ship, a coast- er, or even a canal-boat, by competent medical inspectors, whose duty would be to see that all legislative enactments relative to the health, comfort, safety, or convenience of the crew were carried out. It is obviously absurd to enact law6, and provide no adequate machinery for the purpose of seeing that they are carried out. It is true that the medical officer of health is responsible for the port to which he is ap- pointed (see Sanitary Authorities, Port), but in large ports there ought to be a syste- matic ship survey. The duty of such inspectors would be to see that a sufficient, and suffici- ently varied, supply of food was provided ; that the passengers or sailors were in goxid health ; that, in the case of ocean-going ves- sels, there was a supply of lime - juice or vegetables on board ; that there was ample provision for water-supply; that emigrants, . passengers, or men had the cubic space as laid down by the Duke of Richmond's Act ; and special attention should be directed to the forecastle in ships where there is no deck- house, and to the arrangements for cooking and ventilation. Under - manning or over- crowding could, under such a system, hardly fail to be observed and prevented. All ves- sels carrying passengers, and of any size, should carry a surgeon, whilst the drugs supplied to ships should be examined by the analyst under the Adulteration Act previous to final shipment. If measures such as these were carefully carried out, there is great reason to hope that much preventable waste of life would be decreased; but at the same time it must be confessed that many of the lower class of sailors are addicted to filthy habits, and require sanitation in their own persons as much as the vessels themselves. See Hospital Ships ; Ventilation ; Ships ; Sanitary Authorities, Port ; Soubvy, &c. Bygrometer — An instrument used for the pui-pose of determining the amount of aqueous vapour in the air. The most accurate hygrometers are those constructed, like Daniell's and Regnault's, on the principles of condensation and evapora- tion. Daniell's hygrometer consists of a glass tube b^nt at right angles at the points, with a bulb at each extremity. The one bulb is half- filled with ether, in which the bulb of a deli- cate thermometer is immersed ; the other is covered with muslin. An observation is taken as follows: The muslin is wetted with ether, the evaporation of which quickly cools the bulb and condenses the vapour of ether with which it is filled. As a consequence, evaporation goes on rapidly from the liquid ether in the other bulb, and its temperature falls. The outside of tiie bulb is narrowly watched, and directly a ring of dew is deposited, at that instant the ther- mometer is read. The great objection to this hygrometer is that every observation entails a trifling expense. It has generally given place to — The Ih-y and Wet Bulb Thermometers. — Now this is simply a special arrangement of two ordinary thermometers, and any two will do, providing they are both constructed of exactly similar materials, and, as a matter of convenience, are adjusted to the same scale. The one thermometer is simply huu]; on » board near the other, whilst the second has its bulb covered with thin muslin (which must be clean and free from starch). A few threads of the muslin are led into a vessel containing distilled water. The bulbs of both thermometers project below the scales. The necessary precautions in the use of these ther- mometers are, to see that the muslin is wet — the muslin must be either wet, or, in case of temperatures below freezing-point, frozen — and if the temperature should rise above freezing- point, the muslin still remaining frozen, it must be thawed before an observation is taken. The extreme importance of observations of the difference of temperature between the two thermometers maybe gathered from the fact that by their aid the following facts can be ascertained : — 1. The dew-point. 2. The elastic force of vapour, or the amount of barometric XJressure due to the vapour present in the atmosphere. 3. The quantity of vapour in a cubic foot of air. 4. The additional vapour required to satu- rate a cubic foot of air. 5. The relative humidity. 6. The weight of a cubic foot of air at the time of the observation. The dew-point and elastic force of vapour are both determined by Dr. Apjohn's formula, and by the aid of Table I. Let F be the elastic force of saturated vapour at the dew-point, / the temperature of the wet bulb — in other words, the elastic force at the temperature of evapoiution — d the difference between the dry and wet bulbs. HYG (308) HYG (iiid h the barometric pressure, then, when the w6t-bulb reading is above 32° F. — d ^ h F = f- 88 30 and when below 32° F.— F=f-±xA ' 96 30 d and h are, of course, obtained by observa- tion, / is found in Table I. , and F is then the only unknown quantity, and is quickly found by calculation,, and from F, by Table II., the dew-point is obtained thus : — If the dry bulb read 50°, the wet 45°, and the thermometer stands at 29 inches, what is the elastic force of saturated vapour at the dew-point, and what is the dew-point? By, Table I. the numbers opposite the wet- bulb temperature is "299 ; then / = 299, d - 50° - 45° - 6°, and h - 29 inches. ^=2^«-M^To=2^^ which is the elastic force of saturated vapour at the dew-point ; and on referring to Table I. , the temperature opposite '244 is 39 7, which is the dew-point itself. ' TABLE I.— Showing the Elastic Fokob of Aqueous Vapouk in Inches of Mercury from 0° to 80°, calculated fuora the Experiments of Regnault. From Mr. Glaishee's Hygro- metric Tables. The intermediate Tenths of Degrees may be eiiaily interpolated. Temp. Force of Vapour. Temp. Force of Vapour, Temp. Force of ) "Vapour 1 1 Temp. Force of Vapour, Temp. Force of Vapour. Deg. Inch. Deg. Inch. Deg. Inch. Deg. Inch. Dei. Inch. •044 29-5 •163 39-7 •244 47 3 •327 54^7 •428 1 •046 30 •167 40-0 •247 47^5 •329 55-0 •433 2 •048 30-5 •170 40^3 •250 47^7 •331 55-5 •441 3 •050 310 •174 40^5 •252 48 •335 56 ■449 4 •052 31^5 •177 40-7 •254 48^3 •339 56-5 ■457. 5 •054 32^0 ■181 410 , ^257 48-5 •342 57-0 ■465 6 •057 32-5 •184 41-3 •260 48^7 ■344 57-5 ■473 7 •060 33^0 •188 41^5 •262 49 ■348 58-0 ■482 8 •062 33-5 •192 41^7 ■264 49-3 ■352 590 ■500 9 •065 34-0 •196 42-0 ■267 49^5 ■355 60-0 •518 10 •068 34^5 •199 42^3 ■270 49-7 ■357 61^0 •537 11 •071 35 •204 42-5 ■272 50 ■361 620 •556 12 •074 35-3 •206 42-7 ■274 50-3 •365 630 •576 13 •078 35-5 •208 43 '0 •277 60 '5 ■367 64 •596 14 •082 35-7 •209 433 •280 50^7 ■370 65-0 •617 15 •086 36 •212 43-5 •283 510 •374 66^0 •639 16 •090 36-3 •214 43-7 ■285 51-3 •378 67^0 •661 17 •094 36-5 ■216 44-0 ■288 51-5 •381 68 •6S4 18 ■098 36-7 •218 (i-S ■292 51-7 •384 69-0 ■708 19 ■103 37-0 •220 4i-o ■294 52-0 •388 70 •733 20 •108 37-3 •223 U-7 ■296 52'3 •393 71 '0 •759 21 •113 , 37-5 •225 45-0 ■299 52-5 •396 72^0 •785 2-2 •118 37 ^7 •226 45-3 ■303 52^7 ■399 73 •812 23 •123 38-0 •229 45-5 ■305 53 '0 ■403 74-0 ' •840 24 •129 38^3 •231 45-7 •307 53-3 •407 75 •868 25 •135 38-5 •233 46 •311 53-5 •410 76-0 •897 26 •141 38-7 •235 46-3 •315 53-7 •413 77^0 •927 27 •147 39 •2.38 46^5 •317 54^0 •418 78-0 ■958 28 •153 39-3 ■240 46-7 •319 54-3 ■422 79 '0 •990 29 •160 39-5 ■242 470 ■323 54-5 ■425 80 ■O 1023 The use of Table II. is to obviate the fore- going calculations. In order to determine the dew-point of the foregoing example by Table II., it is merely necessary to take the factor opposite the temperature of the dry bulb — viz., 2^06— and multiply it by the difEer- ence of temperature of the two bulbs, thus : — 206 X 5 = 10-3 Now subtract this from the dry-bulb tem- 'perature and the product is the dew-point 50 -10^3 = 39-7, as before. HYO (309) ICE TABLE II. — Factoes for Multiplying the Excess of the Dry-Bulb Thermometer over that of the Wet Bulb, to fini the Excess of the Temperature of the Air above that of the Dew-Point. From Mr. Glaishek's Hygrometric Tables. Dry- Bry- Dry- D17- Dry- Bulb Factor. Bulb Factor, Bulb Factor. Bulb; Factor. Bulb Factor. Thev. iher. Ther. Ther. Ther. 10 8-78 29 4 '63 47 212 65 1-82 83 1-67 11 S-78 30 4-15 48 210 66 1-81 84 1-66 12 8-78 31 3-70 49 2-08 67 1-80 85 1-65 13 8-77 32 3-32 50 2-06 68 179 86 1-65 14 8-76 33 3-01 51 204 K9 1-78 87 1-64 15 8-75 34 2-77 52 2-02 ~ 70 1-77 88 1-64 16 8-70 35 2-60 53 2-00 71 1-76 89 1-63 17 8-62 36 2-50 54 1-98 72 1-75 90 ]-63 18 8-50 37 2-42 55 1-96 73 1-74 91 1-62 19 8-34 38 2 36 56 1-94 74 1-73 92 1-62 20 8-14 39 2-32 57 1-92 75 1-72 93 1-61 21 7-88 40 2-29 58 1-90 76 1-71 94 1-60 22 7-60 41 2-26 59 1-89 77 1-70 95 1-60 23 7-28 42 2-23 60 1-88 78 1-69 96 1-59 24 6 92 43 2-20 61 1-87 79 1-69 97 1-59 25 653 44 218 62 1-86 80 1-68 98 1-58 26 6-08 45 216 63 1-85 81 1-68 99 158 27 5-61 46 214 64 1-83 82 1-67 100 1-57 28 512 The relative humidity, &c., are best deter- mined by the aid of Mr. Glaiaher's tables, ■wliioh every practical meteorologist should possess. The determination of the dew-point is, however, of the most importance — one of its most evident applications being the pre- diction of frost. If the dew-point in the even- ing be well above freezing-point, no matter how clear and frosty-looking the sky may look, the absence of frost may be with some confidence predicted ; if, on the other hand. the dew-point be 29'4°— that is, below freezing- point — there will certainly be frost. See Am, Bakometer, AVind, S:c. Hyoscyamia — The active principle of the Hyoscyamus nirjer, also found in the thorii- apple. Datura Stramonium. It mMy be ob- tained in silky crystals ; very soluble in alcohol and ether. It is difficult to recognise by che- mical teats. Sulphuric acid turns it brown. See Datdkia, &c. I. Ice — Water at a temperature below 32° F. (0° C. ) freezes and becomes ice. At the mo- ment of congelation it increases in bulk about one-twelfth, and expands so forcibly ns to burst the vessel in which it is contained. The most compact ice has a specific gravity of "923. 1000 parts of water at 0° 0. become dilated on freezing to about 1083. AVater in freezing becomes much purer, losing a, large portion, sometimes the whole, of its saline contents, and the air is expelled ; hence ice-water may be considered tolerably pure. The ice from a good fresh-water spring is perhaps the purest water in nature. Ice is used in medicine for the purpose of allaying sickness, inflammation, haemorrhage, and lately it has been recommended as a re- medy in the treatment of diphtheria. It is also used in hot weather for the preservation of fish, game, meat, butter, &c. Most large establishments are now furnished with an ice room or chamber, and ocean-going steamers also contain this necessary appliance. Ice is preserved during the'summer months by confectioners, &c., in a drained well or ex- cavation, somewhat of the form of an inverted sugar-loaf, contained in a small shed or build- ing called an icehouse. This building should ICE (310) IND always be situated on a dry sandy soil, and if possible on an eminence, with the door on the north side, and the roof conical and thickly thatched with straw. There are now many machines for the manufacture of ice, and the cost of making it ranges from 2s. 6d. to 10s. per ton. Sufficient cold is obtained in some of the machines by the quick evaporation of liquid ammonia from compressed ammoniacal gas, and in others it is produced by the expan- sion of compressed air. The custom of eating ices after a hearty and varied meal cannot be too strongly condemned, since the sudden cold stops the flow of gastric juice. Thus digestion is interfered with, and if the practice is persisted in, dyspepsia is in- evitable. See Freezino Mixtures, &o. Iceland IHoaa—See Lichen. Improvement Act, Improvement Act Districts— An "Improvement Act" means an Act for regulating and managing the police of, and for draining, cleansing, paving, lighting, watching, and improving, a place ; or it may be an Act for any one of those pui poses. "Improvement Act District" means any area for the time being subject to the juris- diction of any commissioners, trustees, or other persons invested by any local Act with powers of town government and rating, and empowered under the Local Government Acts to adopt those Acts, or-any parts thereof. Every Improvement Act district is now an urban sanitary authority. Provision is made by P. H., s. 310, in case of an Improvement Act district or local gov- ernment district becoming a borough, that all rights, duties, liabilities, &c., of the Im- provement Act district, or local board, as the case may be, shall pass to, and be vested in, the council of the borough. See Sanitary Districts. Indian-Corn— Common maize or Indian- corn (Zea Mays) is a native of tropical Ame- rica, and is now extensively cultivated in the United States, Africa, Southern Europe, Ger- many, and Ireland. The grains usually met with are of a yellow colour. Letheby gives the following, as showing the composition of Indian-corn meal ; — Nitrogenous matter , Carbo-hydrates Fatty matter . Saline matter . Water 111 66 1 S-1 1-7 U-0 lOO'O Water .... Albuminoid, nitrogenous, or flesh-forming matters Starch . Sugar, gum, &c. Fat Cellulose Mineral matter Oz Sra. Pe^ceTlt^ge 2 140 14-6 1 332 11-0 9 402 62 n 28 0-4 1 ^<\l 7-7 •iW 3 'M 1-4- 100 67 -SS 4 00 8-80 5-90 1-25 16 000 Composition of Dried Maize (Payen), Nitrogenous matter . . . 12'50 Starch . . ". Dextrine Fatty matter . Cellulose Mineral matter lOOOO By the aid of the microscope it may be seen that the testa of Indian-corn is composed of two membranes, the outer of which is made up of several layers of oblong cells, the inner of only a single layer of cells. The cells of the cellulose make up the remainder of the seed. They form a cellulated network, each space holding a starch corpuscle. The starch corpuscles show under the polarisoope a black cross. They are disc-shaped, with a central concavity, and generally show a divided and radiate hiluju (see fig. 51). A recent examination of the average Indian- corn flour of the shops, made by Mr. H. C. Bartlett, gave the following results :— Fig. 51. Indian-corn is largely eaten all over the world, but more especially in tropical coun- tries. Tho ration for a Kafir servant is 3 pints of Indian-corn meal per day, and on this scanty allowance —for he gets little else— he manages to keep in good health. Indian-corn has since 1846— the potato-famine year — been largely used in Ireland. It is stirred into boiling water or boiling milk, and formed into IND (3"' INF a sort of hasty-pudding, or thick porridge, and thus eaten. Throughout Mexico it forms the staple food, aiid is coolced by baking into cakes. Indian-corn, being deficient in gluten, does not make good bread. Its flavour is harsh and peculiar. A weak solution of caustic potash removes this unpleasantness ; but it also deprives it of much of its nitrogenous matter, and so renders it less nutritious than before. This is the foundation of the process for preparing the articles extensively sold under the names of Oswego, Maizena, and Corn-flour. As a mere adjuvant, or auxiliary, prepared Indian-corn maybe of value, but mothers and nurses should be earnestly cautioned against injudiciously giving it to infants. See Infants, Diet of. Indian Hemp — The dried flowering tops of the female plants of Cannabis sativa, Linn, (natural order UHicacece. ) For medicinal use that which is grown in India, and from which the resin has not been removed, is alone to be employed. The parts employed in Asia for the purposes of intoxication are the herb or leaves, and the resin. Indian hemp contains a resin (canna- bine) soluble in alcohol and ether, but precipi- tated by water ; to this resin the plant owes its active properties. The other principles which have been separated are gum, extrac- tive, and an ethereal oil. Indian hemp produces a peculiar kind of intoxication, with hallucinations of a pleasing kind. It is said to act as an aphrodisiac, and to augment the appetite for food. It is much used in the East, and preparations of it are sold under the name of "Hashish Bhang," ' ' Gunjab, " &c. " Gunjab-smoking, " says Dr. Chevers, " is ascertained to be the cause of a vei-y large proportion of the cases of acute mania admitted to the native lunatic asylum of Bengal." As an intoxicant it is certainly not used to any extent in England, and as a medicine it has much disappointed practitioners. Dr. Froumuller suggests that the drug contains some ethereal ingredient which is dissipated in the voyage from India ; for he has seen in that countiy marked effects from half a grain of the extract or even less, so that he had been accustomed to consider a grain and a half a large dose ; while in England he had found it necessary to give ten, twelve, or more grains to produce the desired effect. The present writer has seen it produce in England, when taken in large doses for the purpose of experiment, a sleepy, stupid state of drunkenness. There was certainly little or no exhilaration, and rather absence of thought, and utter indifference to external things, than excitement or hallucinations. Infants, Diet of — Carefully - collected statistics, allied to general observation and particular experiments, have conclusively proved that, as a food for young infantf, nothing has yet been found which can take the place of milk. Dr. West, in his valuable " Lectures on the Diseases of Infancy and Childhood," says : *'The infant whose mother refuses to x)er- form towards it a mother's pai't, or who by accident, disease, or death is deprived of the food that nature destined for it, too often languishes and dies. Such children you may see with no fat to give plumpness to then* limbs, no red particles in their blood to im- part a healthy hue to their skin, their face wearing in infancy the lineaments of age, their voice a constant wail, their whole aspect an embodiment of woe. But give to such children the food that nature destined for them, and if the remedy do not come too late to save them, the mournful cry will cease, the face will assume a look of content, by degrees the features of infancy will disclose themselves, the limbs will grow round, the skin pure red and white, and when at length we hear the merry laugh of babyhood, it seems almost as if the little sufEerer of some weeks before must have been a changeling, and this the real child brought back from fairyland." Those who have visited the wretched homes of women employed at factories, or of the per- nicious baby-farmers, will be able to endorse fully Dr. West s words. Milk— and it is the mother's milk to which we now particularly refer — contains the principles required for the growth and nourishment of the child, and contains them in such a form as to be easily assimilated. For the first few months but little saliva is secreted ; the teeth do not appear for some time; and the digestive organs of the child are so extremely susceptible of derangement that it is necessary even for the mother to exercise the greatest caution over what she herself eats. All this tends to show that the digestive capacity is extremely feeble — nay, often, until after the eighth month, absolutely incapable of assimilating anything but milk. When from an unnatural objection on the part of the mother, from disease, from death, or any other cause, the child does not receive the aliment prepared and elaborated by nature for its sustenance, then, un- doubtedly, the nearest approach to the actual food given in the milk of the parent is the mUk furnished by another woman. INF (312) lUF It scarcely comes witliin our province to give advice on the selection of a wet nurse. Indeed, the directions usually offered on this point are of the most obvious and apparent description— viz., that she should be young, recently confined, and in perfect health. It is said that a brunette makes a better nurse ttan a blonde, and L'ffiritier even affirms that the milk of the former is richer in solid constituents than that of the latter. Should, however, a wet nurse be impracti- cable, recourse must be had to the milk of the cow, which approaches in composition nearer to tlie milk of woman than any other. Ass's milk has been recommended as a food for infants, but it is deficient in nitrogenous matter and fat, although rich in sugar and soluble salts. It wUl be seen from the follow- ing tables that cow's milk is richer in solid constituent principles than woman's, but by slight dilution with water and the addition of sugar it may be made to approximate more closely to the composition of the infant's ' natural food. In the following tabulated form, Payen gives the constituents of different milks :— man. Co\r. Gout. Sheei). Au. Miire. Nitrogen-^ ous mat- ' ter and > 3-35 4-55 4-60 8-00 1-70 1-62 1 insoluble salts J Butter ... 3-34 .H-rn 4-10 ?-50 1-40 0-20 Lactine -j and solu- [ 3"7 6-35 6-80 4 -SO 6-40 8-75 ble salts. J . Water.... 89-54 86-40 86-60 82-00 90-60 89-33 , Letheby gives the following table as illus- trating the composition of woman's and cow's milk : — Womnn'aMilk.! Con a Milk. Gaseine Mai, 4-36 6 18 4-43 0-26 MIn. 2-97 44i 3 29 0-38 Average, 3-S2 4 02 4-27 , 0-28 AveiAffe'. 3 64 8 -56 4-70 0-81 Butter Sugar of milk,... Various salts.... Total solids 14 -So 8)80 11-19 88-91 12-n9 87-91 12-71) 87-30 100-00 ■100 -llO 1 1 00 100-00 It is stated by Sourdat that the milk of the right breast is generally much richer in butter and caseine than that of the left. With reference to the caseine of woman's milk Lehmann states that in general it is some- what gelatinous, and not so dense or solid as that of cow's, and therefore more easily digested by the child's stomach. It will hardly be necessary to insist upon the milk's being derived from a healthy ani- mal, and one that is surrounded by whole- some conditions; but another point of great importance — viz., the desirability of always obtaining the supply from the same cow, instead of indiscriminately from any animal —is not so apparent, and more likely to be overlooked. It cannot, therefore, be too fre- quently enforced. M. Guillot, by weighing the child imme- diately before and after suckling, found that ' the increase in weight varied from 2 to 5 oz. in infants under a month old, and that 2h lbs. avoirdupois has been concluded to form the smallest quantity that will suffice for the daily nourishment of a healthy infant during the first month of its existence. Much discussion has taken place vrith regard to the value of condensed milk as a food for infants (for composition of the different varie- ties, see Milk), and the question is scarcely yet satisfactorily settled, though it would appear that while condensed milk may prove of value if occasionally given, its habitual use is not calculated to add to the strength of the child. Many attempts have been made to produce by artificial means a milk which would prove valuable as a food for infants. Dr. C. A. Condereau recommends a mixture of eight eggs with 2 oz. of sugar, and enough water to make a pint and a half of liquid, to which he adds a httle lime-water and a small quantity of sulphate of potash and chloride of sodium. Dufrunfant states that a good substitute for milk may be m.ide by emulsifying about 900 grains of olive oil or other comestible fatty matter with from 600 to 870 grains of sugar (milk-sugar, cane-sugar, or glucose), from 300 to 460 grains of dried albumen (the dried white of egg, as met with in Paris), and from 15 to 30 grains of crystals of carbonate of soda dissolved in a pint of water. This liquid has the appearance of cream, and re- quires to be mixed with twice its volume of water before it produces a liquid resembling milk. These substances, though occasionally useful for adults, must be given to children -with extreme caution, if at all. Liebig's food for infanta is a food devised upon chemical jirinoiples to form an appro- priate substitute for woman's milk. The fol- lowing is the method of its preparation : "Take i oz. of wheat-flour, J oz. of malt- flour, and 7i grains of crystallised bicarbonate of potash, and after well mixing them, add 1 oz. of water, and lastly 5 oz. of cow's milk. Warm the mixture, continually stirring over a slow fire until it becomes thick. Then remove the vessel from the fire, stir again for five INF (313) INF minutes, put it back on the fire, take it off as soon as it gets thick, and finally let it boil ■well. It is necessary that the food should form a thin and sweet liquid previous to its final boiling. ■ Before use it should be strained through a muslin or fine hair sieve, to sepa- rate fragments of husk that may be present. The bicarbonate of potash is added to neu- tralise the acid reaction of the two kinds of flour, and also to raise the amount of alkali in the food to the equivalent of that in \voman*s milk. The ferment contained in the malt leads, during the exposure to the warmth employed in the process of preparation, to the conversion of the starch of both the flours into dextrine and sugar, the latter of ■which gives the required sweet taste. The ne^wly- formed products also being soluble accounts for the mixture becoming thin, and it is a point contended for by Liebig that principles in this state tax the digestive and assimilative powers of the infant much less than starch." The composition of the food, according to Liebig, is as follows : — Fli^tic Carbon.icenus Matter. Mutter. 10 oz. milk , 1 oz. wheat-flour 1 oz. malt-flour 9 48 1-00 0^14 0-74 0-OT 0-58 This food has been extensively used in Ger- many, and is widely kno'wn in England, but it is probable that it owes its reputation more to the name of its popular introducer than to any intrinsic merits it may possess. All articles of a farinaceous nature — such as bread, biscuit-powder, bak«d flour, rusks, and more particularly the "so-termed food for in- fants— mnst be looked upon as foreign to the diet of infants of tender age. They should be firmly and energetically excluded, and habitually discountenanced. All these arti- cles contain a large percentage of starch, a substance which is entirely wanting in the mother's milk, a substance which has to undergo a ^jecial and elaborate digestive pro- cess before it can be assimilated, and it sub- stance for the transformation of which at an early stage of infantile life there is no pro- vision. No greater fallacy is possible than to imagine that because many articles contain- ing it form a light and useful diet for older children, they are also valuable as a diet for infants. A great portion of such food passes unacted ui)on into the lower part of the bowel, there to decompose, giving rise to foetid eva- cuations, diarrhoea, vomiting, spasms, emacia- tion, loss of appetite, and if this diet be per- sisted in, death may supervene. No class of aliments, causes so much infantile disease as farinaceous foods, and the one food whose deadly infliience we have most frequently to combat is corn-Jlour, since this is in some parts of the country universally used. Until the teeth are formed an infant's diet cannot be too simple, and up to seven or eight months should consist exclusively of milk. After this age other solid substances may be administered, much depending on the consti- tution of the child itself. ATithout recom- mending their use at too early an age, it is well to remember that a child can digest albu- men and meat far more easily than it can starch. The daily proportion of carbon and nitrogen required in the food at different ages is cal- culated by Dr. Edward Smith to be about as follows : — Carbon Kitroeen. In infancy . , 69 6 78 At ten years of age . . 48 2'M At si.\teen years of age 30 2'16 At adult life . 23 104 In middle age . . 25 I'lS See Food, Dietames, Flour, &c. Infant Mortality— A very large number of young children die in infancy. 800,000 are born yearly, and of these 119,594 die in the first year. The causes of mortality may be stated approximatively thus ; — The causes of death in 10,000 infants would be as follows : — 5000, or abput .J, . are returned from atrophy, debility, convulsions, diarrhoea, &c., most of which are certainly caused by the use of a, too exclusively farinaceous diet, such as bread soaked in water, arro^wroot, sago, corn- fiour, and other imperfect substitutes for milk. About 150, or J, would die from diseases of various kinds, especially pneumonia and bron- chitis ; SO, or about .i\, are bom prematurely. About ^'j die violent deaths, mostly accidental. Of all the violent deaths, " overlaying" is the most common. The frequency of this acci- dent on Saturday nights raises the question, as to whether a large proportion of such deaths are not due to the drunkenness of the mothers, who retire to rest in a state of alcoholic stupor. A smaller proportion is directly ascribed to infanticide, want of breast-milk, and other causes. Among other influences unfavourable to infant life is the attendance of unskilled mid- ■wives on women in their confinements. It would appear that both in rural districts and in towns an immense number of confinements, varying from 30 to 90 per cent., are attended by mid^wlves, many of whom are not alone unskilled, but grossly ignorant ; and it is to be feared that some few may be criminal. In London, Glasgow, and Sheffield there are , however, a few midwives of a superior class. INF (314) INF In the manufacturing districts the adminis- tration of cordials, spirits, and narcotics pre- vails to an alarming extent. It is probable that many deaths returned as convulsions are reaUy cases of poisoning. Indeed, the causes of convulsions amongst children are often so obscure that mistakes in diagnosis must occa- sionally occur. Baby-farming, although prevalent in Lon- don, does not appear to be common else- where.* According to Mr. Curquiver, 80 per cent, of the illegitimate children put out to nurse in London die. Neglect, ill-usage, and deficient food, either from poverty or from a criminal design, is without doubt common, and in all probability infanticide is more fre- quent than is generally supposed. Looking at other countries, the infant mortality in Norway is lowest, in Italy highest, and Eng- land occupies an intermediate station. On the authority of Dr. Willard Parker, speaking in 1871, among the 35,000 annual births in New York, 2.500 are illegitimate, and about 3000 children are annually got rid of in any way whereby the individual can be secure from the penalty of the law. In 1869, 27'4 per cent., and in 1870, 31 per cent., of all the deaths were of infants under one year. In the foundling asylum at Montreal out of 4059 infants received, 3769 died, or only 7 per cent, lived one year. On Randall's Island 10 per cent, of infants only are stvved when reared by hand, but 27i whet suckled by nurses. When nursed by the mother 70 per cent, are reared, while in rural towns 88 per cent, survive. In this country the Infant Life Protection Act is now in force. Its leading clause enacts that " from and after the commencement of this Act it shall not be lawful for any person to retain or receive for hire or reward in that behalf more than one infant, and in case of twins more than two infants, under the age of one year, for the purpose of nursing or main- taining such infants apart from their parents for a longer period than tVenty-four hours, except in a house which has been registered as hereinafter provided." This regulation is put in the hands of the petty justices of each division of the county, and in the town coun- cils of boroughs, each of which bodies is to keep a proper register. In the absence of any regular system of inspection, such an Act re- ♦ It is to be feared that it may secretly exist in many places, owing to thfi apathy of the authorities and the cunnin;? concealment of the baby-farming householder. Witness the case of Betsy liinmore, sentenced at the Devon Lent Assizes (1875) to twelve years' penal servitude. She had talten a house in Newton Abbott, and regularly nursed and received children for a year, during the whole of which period . the authorities were ignorant of her occupation, and the house was not registered. mains to a great extent a dead letter. See Infants, Diet of, &c. Infection — This term is now used as syno- nymous with contagion. Some wovild, how- ever, restrict the latter term to the communi- cation of disease by actual contact, and use the word "infection" when disease is generated by contagium acting at a distance or wafted through the air. The distinction is, however, merely one of words. In each case there is contact of the poison ; but in the one it is either volatile, or capable of being wafted in a dry state, in another it is fixed. For example, syphilis would be a strictly contagious disease, while typhus would be both contagious and infectious. See Contagion. Infectious Diseases— There are in force va,rious regulations with regard to the preven- tion of infectious diseases, some of which are enumerated under Convbtances, Cholera, Epidemic Diseases, Hospitals, Lodging - House. It is noticeable that no definition of the term " infectious disease " is attempted in the Sanitary Acts, andas, unfortunately, itwillfor some time to come be a matter of opinion whe- ther certain diseases are or are not infectious, some difficulty may arise upon this point. The Local Government Board may from time to time make such regulations'as they may think fit with regard to epidemic and infectious dis- eases. Penalty for obstruction or neglect of such orders, &c,, £50 or less, — (P. H., s. 130.) Local authorities have power to provide carriages for the conveyance of persons suffer- ing from infectious disorders. — (P. H., s. 123.) See Conveyances. In certain cases persons so suffering may be compulsorily removed to a hospital. — (P. H,, s, 124, 125,) See Hospitals. Ships or vessels having on board any person affected with a dangerous or infectious dis- order are to be deemed within the provisions of 6 Geo. IV. c. 78.— (29 & 30 Vict, c. 90, s. 52, and Sched. V. Part III., P. H.) Any person who — 1. While suffering from any dangerous in- fectious disorder wilfully exposes him- self without proper precautions against spreading the.said disorder in any street, public place, or public conveyance, or enters any public conveyance without previously notifying to the owner, con- ductor, or driver thereof that he is so suffering; or 2. Being in charge of an}' person so suffer- ing, so exposes such sufferer ; or 3. Gives, lends, sells, transmits, or exposes, without previous disinfection, any bed- ding, clothing, rags, or other things lur (315) INF ■which have been exposed to infection from any such disorder, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding ^ve pounds : and a person who, while sufiering from any such disorder, enters any public conveyance without previously notifying to the owner or driver that he is so suffering, shall in addition be ordered by. the court to pay such owner and driver the amount of any loss and expense they may incur in carrying into effect the provisions of this Act with re- spect to disinfection of the conveyance. Provided that no proceedings under this (lection shall be taken against persons trans- mitting with proper precautions any bedding, clothing, rags, or other things for the purpose of having the same disinfected. The words in the Act " while suffering" do not appear to include "convalescents," and the convalescent period in many diseases is, as is well known, the most infectious period. It may, however, be perhaps argued legally that the convalescent period is part and portion of the illness.— (P. H., s. 126.) The owner or driver must disinfect and cleanse the conveyance after conveying a per- son suffering from an infectious disorder. Penalty for neglect, £5 or less. The following, sections are very stringent and important : — Any person who knowingly lets for hire any house, room, or part of a house, in which any person has been suffering from any dan- gerous infectious disorder, without having such house, room, or part of a house, and all articles therein liable to retain infection, dis- infected to the satisfaction of a legally-quali- iied medical practitioner, as testified by a cer- tificate signed by him, shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds. For the purposes of this section, the keeper of an inn shall be deemed to let for hire part of a house to any person admitted as a guest into such inn. Any person letting for hire, or showing for the purpose of letting for hire, any house or part of a house, who, on being questioned by any person negotiating for the hire of such house ov part of a house as to the fact of there being, or within six weeks previously having been therein, any person suffering from any dangerous infectious disorder, knowingly makes a false answer to such question, shall be liable, at the discretion of the court, to a penalty not exceeding twenty pounds, or to imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for a period not exceeding one month. — (P. H. s. 129.) Where the body of one who has died of any infectious disease is retained in a room in which persons live or sleep, or any dead body which is in such a state as to endanger the health of the inmates of the same house or room, any justice may, on the certificate of a qualified medical man, order the body to be removed, at the cost of the local authority, to any mortuary provided by such authority, and direct the same to be buried within a time to be limited in such order ; and unless the friends or relations of the deceased undertake to bury the body within the time so limited, and do bury the same, it shall be the duty of the relieving officer to bury such body at the expense of the poor-rate, but the expense so incurred may be recovered by the relieving officer in a summary manner from any person legally liable to pay the expense of such burial. Penalty for obstruction of tirder, £5 orless.-(P. H., s. 142.) Influenza — The disease was first given this name by the Italians, " thus recognising an inscrutable influence which affects number- less persons at the same tirne." — (Hecker.) It is essentially an infectious specific disease, dependent upon the absorption of a morbid poison into the blood ; its chief symptoms are those of an intense catarrh, with cough, running at the eyes and nose, frontal head- ache, fever, disorders of the digestive organs, and often rheumatic pains. Its average dura- tion is five days. In various epidemics there are different complications, the most common and most fatal of which are bronchitis and pneu- monia. One of the noteworthy and distinctive features of infiuenza is the short sojourn it makes in places attacked by it, as well as its almost simultaneous appearance over a large area. Its great interest to the hygienist consists not only in its fatality during certain years, but also in the fact that it has several times preceded cholera, and has been the forerunner as well as the follower of extensive epidemics. It appears to attack animals as well as men ; at all events, extensive epizootics accom- panied by similar symptoms have prevailed during various epidemics. In the present obscurity as to the mode of propagation of the disease, no means of prevention can be pointed out ; the discharges from the nostril and sputa are probably the vehicle of the poison, but this is not conclusively proved. It only remains, therefore, to give a short historical account of the disease. No very distinct notices of infiuenza are to be found before 1411. "In the year 1411," says Pasquier, "there was another kind of disease which affected an infinity of people, by which they lost the desire to drink, eat, or INH (316) INS sleep ; it was aooompanied with fever. What the sick ,ate became bitter and putrid ; there was shivering, and the limbs were so weak and tender that they could not bear them to be touched. The disease was accompanied with a violent cough, which tormented them day ;ind night, and lasted three whole weeks, yet without proving fatal ; although it is true that, by reason of the vehemence of the cough, many men were ruptured and women aborted, "When they were about recovering, there was an effusion of blood from the nose, mouth, and bowels. No physician could imagine from whence the disease came, unless from a general infection of the air, the cause of which was obscure. This disease was called the Tac." — (Pasquiee, livre iv. chap, xxviii. pp. 375, 376.) The tac of 1411, which appeared in France, was followed by the coqueluehe of 1414, This word signifies " a monk's hood," and this nickname was given to the disease on account of the sufferers necessarily covering and wrap- ping tip their heads. The coqueluehe was succeeded by the ladendo of 1427, AU these are probably one and the same disease — viz., influenza. The coquduche of 1414 more especially attacked the larynx, so that many colleges in Paris were shut up On account of the hoarseness of the professors ; the ladendo of 1427 more especially seized the loins. In the sixteenth century there were five epi- demics of influenza; the dates of the out- breaks are 1.510, 1551, 1557, 3564, and 1580. Indeed, from 1510 to 1837 there are recorded, in Dr. T. Thompson's "Annals of Influenza," no less than twenty epidemics ; of these, that which occurred in the vrinter of 1732-33 was the most noteworthy. Dr. Short characterises it as " the most sudden and universally epi- demic catarrh that has been in this age, sparing neither ranks, sexes, ages, old or young, weak or strong," and killing oil "many hectic and phthisical people." From 1838 to 1847 the average deaths from influenza were a little over 1000 yearly ; but in 1847 and 1848 there was a very widespread epidemic, and the returns showed the large numbers (considering the general non-fatal character of the disease) of respectively 4881 and 7963. From 1849 to 1860 about 1600 died annually; since then not more, according to the returns, than a yearly average of 600 ; so that, practically speaking, we are at the present time comparatively free from in- fluenza. The history of' all these epidemics shows that it is most fatal in the lowest, dirtiest, and overcrowded portions of towns. Season, weather, and latitude influence it greatly. It is hardly known out of northern latitudes, and generally occurs in a severe form in the winter, being sompwhat rare in warm weather. Inhumation— yS'ee Dead, Disposal oe'. Inspector of Nuisances, Sanitary Inspector — The name of inspector of nuis- ances should be discarded, and the wider term of sanitary inspector substituted; this not alone on account of the somewhat unsavoury appellation, but because under the new rigime the sanitary inspector has various duties be- sides that of detecting nuisances. The ap- pointment of a sanitary inspector is obligatory both for urbjin and rural authorities. {See Offioehs, Appointjhent of.) An inspector thus appointed, if the authority pay him the whole of his salary without aid from Govern- ment, may be under the entire control of the sanitary authority, and be removable at their pleasure. This mode of holding office is neither to the interest of the authority nor to that of the oflScer. The authority, by ac- cepting Government assistance, merely lose the right of dismissing their officer without the sanction of the Local Government Board, which is more than counterbalanced by the solid pecuniary gaifi of half the salary,' If, on the other hand, any portion of his salary be paid by Government, the appoint- ment cannot be made without the consent of the Local Government Board, nor can the officer whose appointment is thus sanctioned be dismissed within the period for which he is appointed without the consent of the Local Government Board, The sanitary authoi-ities in either case control the duties and salaries of their officers. The duties and conduct of the inspector of nuisances are to he regulated in the case of urban sanitary authorities by bylaws. It may be laid down as a general and im- portant principle, that an inspector of nuis- ances should not have any private calling whatever ; but as under the present system it appears impossible, or at least not usual, to give good salaries, any public office, not in- compatible, might be held by inspectors in certain cases. In large towns and populous districts a sufficient salary should be given, and the officer's whole time devoted to the work. In some cases it will be advisable for adjoining sanitaiy authorities to have a com- mon inspector— power is given under P, H., s. 191. The Local Government Board does not think it desirable that the offices of relieving officer and inspector of nuisances should be held by one and the same iierson ; nor may the super- intendents of police be inspectors of nuisances. Such public posts as surveyor (P, H;, s. 192), vaccination officer, inspector of weights and INS (317) INS measures, inspector of markets, &c., maybe united witli advantage irx certain small towns or districts with that of nuisance or sanitary inspector. In electing such an inspector there are certain physical and mental endowments particularly essential. An inspector should be in good health, and not labour under any phy- sical defect — such as imperfect sight, smell, &c. — which would impair his efficiency ; he should not be timid or irresolute ; while, .on the other hand, a man passionate, reckless, prying, and unpopular should be avoided. He should certainly know how to read and write, and be ableto make calculations with regard to cubic space, length of drains, &c. Other things being equal, a person brought up to one of the constructive trades is likely to make a better inspector than a fanner or shopkeeper, or a person of no special occu- pation. Hence we find sanitary authorities generally preferring masons, carpenters, sur- veyors, and builders to other candidates, who, ■with the exception of technical knowledge, may be quite equal to their competitors. The inspector of nuisances should at all times be ready to assist the medical officer of health, and should accompany him through- out the district, pointing out the principal places requiring amendment, and in all diffi- cult cases asking his advice. He should be careful to send notices of overcrowding and infectious disease to the medical officer of health immediately he hears of their occur- rence. He should be very careful to keep a record of all his visits, and ought to send quarterly to the medical officer of health n statement of the amount of work done by him, arranged under— (1) Number of houses visited ; (2) number of nuisances reported ; (3) nuisances still unabated ; (4) the state of the slaughter-houses, lodging-houses, and schools in the district ; (5) action taken under the Adulteration Acts, &c. The following are the regulations of the Local Government Board relative to the ap- pointment, tenure of office, and duties of an inspector of nuisances : — Section I. — Appointment. Art. 1. A statement shall be submitted to the Local Government Board, showing the population and ex- tentof the district for which the sanitary authoritypro pose to appoint the inspector of nuisances, and the salary or remuneration intended to be assigned to him ; and where the circumstances render desirable the appointment of one inspector of nuisances for two or more sanitary districts, statements shall, in like manner, be submitted to the Local Government Board, showing the names of the districts to be com- bined for that purpose, the population and extent of each district, the mode in which it is intended that the appointment shall be made, whether jointly or severally by the sanitary authorities of those districts, and the amount of salary or remuneration proposed to be assigned to the officer appointed. Art. 2. When the approval of the Local Govern- ment Board has been given to the proposals sub- mitted to them, the sanitary authority or authorities shall proceed to the appointment of an inspector of nuisances accordingly. Art. 3. No appointment of an inspector of nuis- ances shall be made under this order, unless an advertisement giving notice of the day when such appointment will be made, shall have appeared in some public newspaper circulating in the district or districts, at least seven days before the day on which such appointment is made : Provided that no such notice or advertisement shall be necessary for the appointment of a tempo^-ary substitute. Art. 4. Every such appointment hereafter made shall, within seven days after it is made, be reported to the Local Government Board by the clerk to the sanitary authority, or, in the case of a joint appoint- ment, by the clerk to one of the sanitary authorities by whom the appointment is made. Art. 5. Upon the occurrence of a vacancy in such oflSce, the sanitary authority or authorities shall proceed to make a fresh appointment, which shall be reported to the Local Government Board as re- quired by sect. i. art. 4, of this ordfer ; but if the sanitary authority or authorities desire to make any fresh arrangement with respect to the district or the terms of the appointment, they shall, before filling up the vacancy, supply the particulars of the arrange- ment to the Local Government Board, in the man- ner prescribed by sect. 1, art. 1, in regard to the first appointment; and if the approval of the Local Government Board be given, absolutely or with modifications, the sanitary authority or authorities shall then proceed to fill up the vacancy according to the terms of the approval so given. Art. 6. If any officer appointed under this order be at any time prevented by sickness or accident, or other sufficient reason, from performing his duties, the sanitary authority or autliorities, as the case may be, may appoint a fit person to act as his tem- poraiy substitute, and may pay him a reasonable compensation for his services ; and every such ap- pointment shall be reported to the Local Govern- ment Board as soon as the same shall have been made. Section II. — Tenure of Office, Art. 1. Every officer appointed under this order shall continue to hold office for such period as the sanitaty authority or authorities appointing him may, with the approval of the Local Government Board, determine, or until he die, or resign, or be removed, by such authority or authorities, with the assent of the Local Government Board, or by the Local Gov- ernment Board. Provided that the appointments first made under this order shall not be for a period exceeding five years. Art. 2. Where any such officer shall have been appointed after the passing of the Public Health Act, 1872, for one or more sanitary districts, and any change in the extent of the district or districts, or in the duties, salary, or remuneration, shall be deemed necessary, and he shall decline to acquiesce therein, the sanitaiy authority or authorities by whom he was so appointed may, with the consent of the Local Government Board, hut not otherwise, and after six INS (318) INS months' notice in writing, signed by their clerk or clerks, given to sucli officer, determine his office. Art. 3. No person sliall be appointed who does not agree to give one month's notice previous to resign- ing the office, or to forfeit such sum as may be agreed upon as liquidated damages. Section III. — Duties. The following shall be the duties of the inspector of nuisances in respect of the district for which he is .appointed, or if he shall be appointed for more than one district, then in respect of each of such dis- tricts : — (1.) He shall perform, either under the special directions of the sanitary authority or (so far as authorised by the sanitary authority) under the directions of the medical officer of health, or in cases where no such direc- tions are required, without such directions, ' all the duties specially imposed upon an inspector of nuisances by the Sanitary Acts, or by the orders of the Local Grovernment Board. (2.) He shall attend all meetings of the sanitary authority when so required. (3.) He shall by inspection of the district, both systematically at certain periods, and at in- tervals as occasion may require, keep him- self informed in respect of the nuisances ex- isting therein that require abatement under the Sanitary Acts. (4.) On receiving notice of the existence of any nuisance within the district, or of the breach of any bylaws or regulations made by the sanitary authority for the suppression of nuisances, he shall, as early as practicable, visit the spot, and inquire into such alleged nuisance or breach of bylaws or regulations. (6.) He shall report to the sanitary authority any noxious or offensive businesses, trades, or manufactories established within the dis- trict, and the breach or non-observance of any bylaws or regulations made in respect of the same. (6.) He shall report to the sanitary authority any damage done to any works of water-supply, or other works belonging to them, and also any case of wilful or negligent waste of water supplied by them, or any fouling by gas, filth, or otherwise, of water used for domestic purposes. (7.) He shall from time to time, and forthwith upon complaint, visit and inspect the shops and places kept or used for the sale of but- cher's meat, poultry, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour, or as a slaughter-house, and examine any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour which may be therein ; and in case any such article appear to him to be intended for the food of man, and to be unfit for such food, he shall cause the same to be seized, and take such other proceedings as may be necessary in order to have the same dealt with by a justice ; provided, that in any case of doubt arising under this clause, he shall report the matter to the medical officer of health, with the view of obtaining his advice thereon. (8.) He shall, when and as directed by the sani- tary authority, procure and submit samples of food or drink, and drugi suspected to be adulterated, to be analysed by the analyst appointed under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, and upon receiving a certificate stating that the articles of food or drink, or drugs, are adulterated, cause a complaint to be made, and take the other proceedings prescribed by that Act. (9.) He shall give immediate notice to the medical officer of health of the occurrence within his district of any contagious, infectious, or epi- demic disease of a dangerous character ; and whenever it appears to him that the intervention of such officer is necessary in consequence of the existence of any nuis- ance injurious to health, or of any over- crowding in a house, he shall forthwith inform the medicb.1 officer thereof. (10.) He shall, subject in all respects to the direc- tions of the sanitary authority, attend to the instructions of the medical officer of health witli respect to any measures which can be lawfully taken by him under the Sanitary Acts for preventing the spread of any con- tagious, infectious, or epidemic disease of a dangei'ous character. (11.) He shall enter from day to day, in a book to be provided by the sanitary authority, particu- lars of his inspections and of the action taken by him in the execution of his duties. He shall also keep a book or books, to be provided by the sanitary authority, so ar- ranged as to form, as far as possible, a con- tinuous record of the sanitary condition of each of the premises in respect of which any action has been taken under the Sanitary Acts, and shall keep any other systematic records that the sanitary authority may require. (12.) He shall at all reasonable times when applied to by the medical officer of health, produce to him his books, or any of them, and render to him such information as he may be able to furnish with respect to any matter to which the duties of inspector of nuisances relate. (13.) He shall, if directed by the sanitary authority to do so, superintend and .see to the due execution of all works which may be under- taken under their direction for tlie sup- pression or removal of nuisances within the district. (14.) In mutters not specifically provided for iu this order, he shall observe and execute all the lawful orders and directions of the sani- tary authority, and the orders which the Local Governnljent Board may hereafter isbue applicable to his office. Section IV. — Bcmuneration. Art. 1. The sanitary authority or authorities, as the case may be, shall pay to any officer appointed under this order such salary or remuneration as may be approved by the Local Government Board ; and where such officer is uppointed for two or more districts, th& salary shall be apportioned amongst the INS {319) IPE districts in such manner as the said boai'd shall approve., Provided that the sanitary authority or authorities, with the approval of the Local GoTemment Board, may pay to any such officer a reasonable compensa- tion on account of extraordinary services, or other unforeseen circumstances connected with his duties or the necessities of the district or districts for which he is appointed. Art. 2. The salary or remuneration of eveiy such officer shall be payable up to the day on which he ceases to hold the office, and no longer, subject to any deduction which the sanitary authority or authorities may be entitled to make in respect of sect. ii. art. 3; and in case he shall die whilst holding such office, the proportion of salary (if any) remaining unpaid at his death shall be paid to his personal representatives. Art. 3. T^e salary or remuneration assigned to such officer shall be payable quarterly, according to the usual feast-days in the year— namely, Lady Day, Midsummer Day, Michaelmas Day, and Christmas Day ; but the sanitary authority or authorities may pay to him at the expiration of every calendar month such proportion as they may think fit on account of the salary or remuneration to which he may become entitled at the termination of 'the quarter. See Officers, Appointment of. Inspectors, liocal G-ovemment Board — The inspectors of tlie Local Govern- ment Board hate, in respect of any inquiry directed by the board, similar powers to those of poor-law inspectors relative to the examin- ation of witnesses, the production of papers, &c.— (P. H.,s. 296.) They are also empowered to attend any meetings of rural or of an urban authority (being a local board), when and as directed by the Local Government Board.— (P. H., s. 205.) Intemperance— 'S'^e Alcoholism. Iodine (I. =127) — Iodine is an element ob- tained from kelp, the vitrified ashes of sea- weed, which being dissolved, a liquor is ulti- mately obtained, containing the iodides of sodium, potassium, magnesium, &c. These iodides are decomposed by the addi- tion first of sulphuric acid, and then of per- oxide of manganese, and the iodine sublimed and collected in suitable receivers. Iodine is usually met with in the form of black scales or laminar crystals, with a metal- lic lustre, specific gravity 4 '95, with an odour similar to chlorine. It melts when heated, and then sublimes in a violet vapour, without leaving any residue. It is soluble in rectified spirits and ether; slightly so in pure water; but to a much greater extent in a watery solu- tion of iodide of potassium and chloride of sodium. The aqueous solutions precipitate starch of a dark blue colour. In free alkaline solutions iodine dissolves, and forms iodides and iodates. This important therapeutic agent was accidentally discovered in 1812 by De Oourtois, a saltpetre manufacturer of Paris ; but the merit of its introduction into pharmacy is due to Dr. Coindet, a physician of Geneva, With its numerous pharmaceutical uses we have nothing to do ; it is chiefly of interest to the hygienist as a strong disinfectant, in which capacity it may be compared to chlorine. Its smell, unlike that of brpmine, is not un- A piece of meat, about 1 inch broad and thick, and about 3 inches long, suspended in iodine vapour by Dr. A. Smith, remained perfectly good. It became white inside, but acquired no smell of iodine. It is not, perhaps, so useful as chlorine, since it condenses easily, and does not diffuse everywhere, as does the latter. Dr, Richard- son proposes to saturate a solution of peroxide of hydrogen with iodine, and to add 2^ per cent, of sea-salt. By "atomising" or *' pul- verising" the fluid by the little instrument used for this purpose, the air can be charged with iodine and sea-salt spray very readily. Iodine decomposes sulphuretted hydr(»gen, and will therefore destroy much odour. Another method employed for the purpose of diffusing it through the air of a room is that of placing the iodine on a hot plate. Adulteration. — Water, iodide of cyanogen, fixed impurities, as plumbago, black oxide of manganese, charcoal, iron, &c. The first two are volatile. Water can be detected by find- ing whether bibulous paper is moistened by iodine. Iodide of cyanogen may be detected by distilling the iodine at a very low tempera- ture, when this eidt sublimes in white crys- talline needles before the iodine comes over. The fixed impurities are left after sublima- tion. Ipecacuanha— The dried root of the Ce- phaelis JpecacuanJia^ imported from Brazil. It occurs in pieces 3 or 4 inches long, and somewhat about the size of a small writ- ing .quill, more or less contorted, and either simple or branched. In consequence of a number of deep circular fissures,it has a knotty appearance. The fissures are about a line in depth, and extend inwardly through the cor- tical poi-tion to a central white ligneous cord, so as to produce the appearance of a number of rings strung upon a thread. Ipecacuanha has an acrid and somewhat bitter, nauseous taste, and a slightly nauseous but peculiar odour. Three varieties are known in com- merce — viz., the brown, the red, and the grey annul ated ipecacuanha. Ipecacuanha contains a feeble alkaloid, eme- tina, separable as a whitish or yellowish amorphous powder, of a bitter taste, soluble IRI (320) IBO in alcoliol, sparingly so in water and ether, and precipitated by tannin; also a peculiar acid, cephaMlic or ipecacuankic acid, allied to oatechin, formerly thought to be gallic acid, and striking green with the persalt of iron. The following are the tabulated results of two analyses, one by Pelletier, and the other by Bncholz : — Lortex. j,„j^ Cortex. ]<)metina . 16 115 U Odorous fatty matter 2 traces '2 Gum . . 10 8 00 16 Wax ... a Starch : . . 42 20 '00 i's Ligneous matter . 20 66-60 43 Non-emetic extractive ... 2-45 Loss . . 4 4-80 "2 100 100 100 BtJOHOLZ's Analj/s is. Emetic extractive (emetina) 4-13 Soft resin 2-43 Wax 0-75 Gum . ^ 25 -ir Starch 9 -no Woody fibre 10 80 Bitter extmctive 10-12 Sugar .... 2-00 Extractive, pum and starch extract- ed by potash 31-80 Loss 8 J 100 00 Emetina, when first discovered in 1S17, was obtained in a very impure state. Pure emetina is white, pulverulent, and inodorous, with a slightly bitter taste ; fusible at 122° F. ; slightly soluble in cold, but much moresoinhot water. The following composition has been assigned to it: CsjHsjsOsN. The best ipecacuanha yields about 1 per cent, of pure emetina. The microscopical ap- liearances of ipecacuanha are well marked and characteristic. The root consists of an outer cortical por- tion and an inner woody part. 1. Cortical portion. — The cortical portion mainly consists of colourless cells filled with starch corpuscles. It is clothed with an epi- dermis composed of deep brown cells. 2. The meduUa/ry portion possesses a re- markable structure, mainly consisting of woody fibres containing starch corpuscles. The extreme rarity of starch corpuscles in woody fibre renders this a very characteristic feature. Adulterations. — Other sorts, such as those of striated ipecacuanha, have been substituted for the true root. Starch, chalk, tartar-emetic, and other substances have been mixed with the powdered substance. Irish Ague— The old Irish designation for typhus fever. See Fever, Typhus. Iron — Iron exists native, in the foi-m of oxide, carbonate, sulphide, &c., in various ores ; it is also found in the blood, and is one of the constituents of several natural waters. The oxide of iron purifies water to a consider- able extent, and is used in various filtering processes. See Filters. Many of the salts of iron possess antiseptic and disinfectant properties of the highest value, andibeiug cheap, are adapted for use on a large scale. Dr. Voelcker declares spongy iron to be a deodorising material of greater power than animal charcoal. Sewage-water passed through a filter of this substance is said to be com- pletely purified ; and this filtered water, after being kept for six mouths, protected from air, has been found to be perfectly sweet and free from any fungoid growth. The spongy iron is obtained by calcining a finely-divided iron ore with charcoal. Of all the different salts of iron which might be used for disinfecting purposes, the sulphate 2}ossesses at present the most favour ; but the chloride and acetate appear of equal power, and have the advantage of not evolv- ing sulphuretted hydrogen, which the sul- phate in contact with organic m-atter occa- sionally does. Sulphate of iron, either in solution or in substance, was the favourite disinfectant of Dr. "W. Budd, who recom- mencLed its use in typhoid fever. [See Fever, Typhoid.) Experience has shown that it really possesses some considerable value in the destruction of contagious matter. See DlSINPEOTAKTa. The different salts of iron have been admin- istered as poisons and as abortives; for the latter purpose, the sulphate is used in France, the muriate orperchloride'in England. Iron moulds have been mistaken for spots of blood ; they can generally be distinguished by their brown colour, and by the absence of all stiffening of the fibre in the stained spot. They are quite insoluble in water, and the ferrocyanide of potassium test will at once show their true nature. Various preparations of iron have been found in the following substances, the admix- ture having for its object either coloration or increase of weight : Tea, coffee, chicory, annatto, porter, tobacco, snuff, cayenne, red sauces, potted meats and fish, bottled anchovies. In some of the above small quan- tities of iron exist naturally. The soluble salts of iron respond to the following tests : Both the ferrous and ferric salts are not precipitated from acid solutions hy sulphuretted hydrogeti,andi ammoniac hi/dro- sulphate throws down a black precipitate of hydrated sulphide. The ferrous salts give a gtey or green precipitate of hydrated pro- toxide with the alkalies; the ferric, similarly IBR (321) ISO treated, a reddish-brown precipitate of sesqui- oxide. Fotassic ferrooyanide gives a pale Hue pre- cipitate •with the ferrous salts, a bright blue •with the ferric ; but the best way to distinguish between the ferrous and ferric salts is by means of the ferridcyanide of potash : this salt gives a bright blue precipitate with the former, and no precipitate with the latter salts. Methods of estimating the amount of iron in water, the ash of food, &e., are given under "Wateb, Volumetmo Soldtions, &c. Irrigration Sewage— Siee Opium, Ziavender— iSee Oils. Laver— See Ai.am. Xiead {Plumium = 207 ; specific gravity of commercial, 11 '35 to 11 '361 ; specific gravity of pure lead, 11 '45; fusing-point, 617° F. = 325° 0.) — The main source of lead is the native sulphide (galena); the native carbonate and phosphate are met with, but are unimportant sources. Galena is found in this country in veins traversing the primitive rocks, particularly in the clayslate of Cornwall and the moun- tain limestone of Cumberland. It is generally mixed with quartz, blende, pyrites, baric sulphate, fluorspar, and argentic sulphide. The lead ore is first submitted to mechanical operations, and then smelted in a reverberatory furnace. Large quantities of deleterious fumes, consisting principally of sulphurous anhydride, are given off. The lead is subsequently sub- mitted to "Pattinson's process" to extract the silver. The lead of commerce contains from 96 to 99 per cent, of the pure metal, mixed with iron, tin, copper, and other metals. It is hardly ever perfectly pure, but may be ob- tained so by reducing the oxide left by ignit- ing the pure nitrate or carbonate of the metal. The general properties of lead are too well known to require description ; but the action of air, water, and other solvents upon it is of great importance in a hygienic point of view. Pure recently-boiled water has no action on lead, providing air be excluded. The carbonates, the phosphates, and the sulphates all exert a protective agency on lead, by forming an insoluble film on its surface. Carbonate of calcium, held in solution by car- l&onic acid, has especially a great protective influence, the film of insoluble carbonate being deposited, and preventing any farther action. The phosphate of sodium and the iodide of potassium have also powers equal to the calcic carbonate. And lastly, some kinds of vegetable matter form insoluble compounds with lead. On the other hand, pure water, well aerated and exposed to the atmosphere, quickly cor- rodes lead. The lead is first oxidised and then dissolved, the oxide absorbing carbonic acid from the air, and being deposited as the hy- drated basic carbonate. Nitrites and nitrates in solution act power- fully on lead, especially the former. Ammonia, the carbonic acid evolved from decaying vegetable matter, and acetates, all dissolve lead. Hence it follows that as most natural waters contain carbonate of lime, only minute por- tions of lead are dissolved ; but, on the other hand, rain-water — water polluted with sewage — ^water kept in tanks made of lead, with iron or zinc fastenings, whereby galvanic action being set up, the salts lose their protective influence— water from tanks having at the bot- tom a rich vegetable mud, may all become dangerously contaminated with lead. All the salts of lead are poisonous. They are unintentionally at the bottom of an imr LEA 327) LEA tnense amount of chronic poisoning ; but none of them are very Tiolent, acute poisons — not nearly so active as people imagine. The ace- tate, a very soluble common salt, has been given in so large a quantity as 18 grains for a week or ten dftys without producing any seri- ous symptoms ; but when the dose has been excessive — e.g.^ 1 or 2 ounces — dangerous symptoms have occurred. The acute symptoms of poisoning by lead are briefly violent pains in the stomach, colic, cramps of the limbs and paralysis, obstinate constipation and scanty urine, sickness and slow, feeble pulse, an anxious countenance, and usually a blue line round the gums. The chronic symptoms are constipation, colic, and paralysis, which usually commences at the wrist, a blue line round the gums, and albuminuria, constant or intermittent. Chronic poisoning by lead is by far the most important to the hygienist, both on account of its frequency and with a view to its preven- tion. From the author's observations, lead appears to be eliminated very slowly from the kidneys, causing slow interstitial changes in these or- gans, which cannot in any way be distinguished in the later stages from the chronic desquama- tive nephritis of Dr. Johnson. In cattle poisoned by lead, the author has found casts in the urine, and blindness from the retinitis and extravasations in the retina, met with in Bright's disease. The coma and convulsions are also rather the effect of the induced uraemia than the primary action of the poison. This interference of the functions of the kid- ney by lead without doubt causes the great prevalence of gout among plumbers. Uric acid and other excretory products collect in the blood, for elimination is interfered with. The most common source of lead-poisoning is from drinking water contaminated with lead ; possibly a very infinitesimal quantity is drunk daily, but then when this quantity is imbibed day after day and year after year, a point comes at last, when, on account of the very slow way by which lead is excreted, sufficient lead is accumulated to give rise to symptoms. The least quantity of lead required to pro- duce these symptoms is not definitely known ; it can only be at present inferred that some people are extremely susceptible of the poison, whilst others resist it, more or less perfectly. Sir George Baker found that Devonshire colic had been produced from cider containing 4J grains of lead in eighteen bottles. Some persons are peculiarly liable to be affected by very small quantities of lead. Dr. Taylor relates the case of a military officer who was at^cked with paralysis by painting in oil. As his servant always ground his colours, cleaned his brushes, &c., the poison must have been inhaled. Dr. Taylor has himself suffered from a severe attack of colic, which he attributed to sitting in a room for a few hours a day in which a large surface of canvas for an oil painting had been covered with whitelead and drying oil. — (Taylor's Principles of Jurisprudence, vol. i. p. 296. ) The family of Louis Philippe, when at Claremont, suffered severely from drinking water containing 1 grain of lead to the im- perial gallon, Adams states that as little as ■j^ of a grain has proved injurious, and Angus Smith showed that a like quantity had produced paralysis. ■yVater containing ^f^oia, grain of lead to a gallon should be condemned as being jinfit for use ; and it is well -not to forget the words of Dr. Richardson: "Contamination of water, both hard and soft, impure and pure, by lead, is in all parts of the kingdom, and under eveiy variety of circumstance, the cause or source of various obscure diseases of man (and also, doubtless, of the lower animals), of the nature specially of dyspepsia and colic. This pro- position was abundantly proved by cases of minor diseases induced by lead-contamination of various of the hard or impure waters of London." From the researches of Dr. Roque, published in the " Mouvement Medical " (Dec. 1872), it would appear that slow saturnine poisoning in the father or mother not only brings on miscarriage, and causes gi'eat mor- tality among infants, especially during the first weeks of life, but may also determine in children convulsions, idiocy, imbecility, and epilepsy. In the soft lake-waters of Scotland, the presence of a little vegetable matter acts as a preserving agent, by combining with a portion of oxide of lead, and forming an insoluble and closely-adhering natural pigment which lines the pipes and cisterns. Few waters kept in lead cisterns can be met with which do not yield some trace of lead. Lead in the arts gives rise to much dis- ease. Artisans employed in the manufacture of whitelead frequently suffer severely. In French manufactures, where the powder was ground dry, horses, dogs, and even rats have died from the effects of lead. For this reason the carbonate is now almost universally ground under water. Plumbers, besides being liable to gout, as already stated, are affected with nausea and tightness of the chest, followed by colic and palsy, consequent on inhaling volatilised oxide of lead, which rises during the process of casting. LEA (328) LEA A new and recent source of chronic lead- poiaoning has been pointed out by Dr. G. Johnson — viz., in the manufacture of Ameri- can ove/Tiland cloth. This fabric receives a coating of chalk and carbonate of lead, and in handling it a fine dust is given off, which has caused several cases of poisoning amongst the workmen. Animals and men are occasionally affected by lead through curious and unexpected chan- nels — e.g., potmen in cleaning pewter pots (Medical Gazette, vol. xlviii. p. 1047) ; a truukmaker from handling vulcanised rubber (Pharmaceutical Journal, 1870, p. 426) ; a tea- dealer placing pieces of tealead in his mouth (Taylor, Principles of Jurisprudence, vol. i. p. 299) ; cattle swallowing the lead-splashes left on the grass a« the result of volunteers firing at the butts ;* infants eating farinaceous food which has been wrapped up in leadfoil {op. cit.) See also Cosmetics. Lead may also gain access into the system fi'om being Used as an adulterant to articles of food — e.g., chromate of lead has been era- ployed for the purpose of colouring various articles of food, especially mustard, confec- tionery, and snuS. Eedlead has been detected in annatto, while the acetate or sugar of lead is often used for the adulteration of gin, rum, port wine, • and sherry. (See the respective arti- cles.) ■Wine has been known to prove poisonous from contact with bottles which had been cleaned with leaden shot, and earthenware glazed with litharge imparts oxide of lead to fat in dripping and to acid liquids. A spuri- ous tinfoil, consisting chiefly of lead faced with tin, is much used for covering articles of food. When exposed to damp it undergoes chemical changes, whereby carbonate of lead is produced. Eecently, Professor Church of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester has pointed to a danger resulting from the use of gazogenes for preparing aerated waters. He says: "I have examined a large number of different waters — English and foreign, old and new — and I find one defect universal. The upper part of the long glass tube (through which the agrated liquor is forced from the lower vessel) is fitted into a tube of pewter. The aerated water standing in this dissolves some of its lead, and the first wineglassful of * The author was recently consulted in a case in which several cattle died from eating lumps of paint which had been placed on a field to manure it. The cattle died from uraemic poisoning. The urine was extremely albuminous, and contained numerous epi- thelial casts. Lead was detected in liver, kidneys, and brain. water drawn each time that the apparatus has been left to itself turns brown when tested with hydrosulphurio acid. Why should not the new tin-lined lead tubes be used for the metal fitting in which the little spring piston of these machines works?" — (Food Journal.) It has also been detected in lemonade, pro- bably from the employment of citric acid impregnated with lead. Tests. — A liquid containing lead, on being acidulated and then treated with a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, either throws down a black precipitate or exhibits a brown dis- coloration ; by ^ias discoloration a very minute trace of lead can be estimated by a color- metric method described under Water-Ana- lysis. A solution of chromate of potash added to a liquid containing lead throws down the yellow chromate of lead (1 gramme of chromate of lead = '683 of oxide). Horsley says that this test will detect laa'Dao part of a grain of lead. Iodide of potassium produces in solutions of lead a yellow precipitate of iodide of lead, soluble in boiling water, and deposited in very brilliant scales on cooling (1 gramme of iodide of lead = -452 of lead). A deposit of metallic lead may be obtained by placing a little of the solid nitrate or car- bonate on i* sovereign, drenching it with hydrochloric acid, and then touching it with a piece of zinc. Lead may often be extracted thus from the evaporated residues of water without the use of sulphide of hydrogen. Sulphuric add, or either of the alkaline sulphates, when added to a solution of lead, produces a dense white precipitate of sulphate of lead, insoluble in water, and turns black or brownish black, according to the quantity, with a weak solution of sulphide of ammcnia, by which it is distinguished from the corre- sponding white precipitates of sulphate of ba/ryta and strontia. Ten grains of sulphide of lead are equal to 8'637 grains of lead, and equal to about 16 grains of acetate of lead (or 1 gramme of sulphide = '8637 of lead). Ijead may be separated from organic fluids by evaporating the liquid to dryness, destroy- ing the organic matter by carbonising it, and then heating the residue with nitric acid ; or sulphuric acid may be used to carbonise, and then the resulting sulphate of lead dissolved out by carbonate of soda or acetate of am- monia, and the usual tests applied. Lead in organic solids may be separated by a process conducted exactly on the same principles. All these operations are best per- formed in porcelain dishes, as lead attacks platinum. LEA (329) LE& Xiead Pipes— The use of lead pipes in the conveyance of water, and the danger arising from that source, have been already commented upon in article Lead. The water is not alone contaminated more or less, but rats have been known to gnaw through the pipes. Many devices are at present in use to obviate this contamination of the water by lead. Dr. Parkes summarises them thus : — 1. Lining with tin; but Calvert's experi- ments show that both extra-tinned and ordi- nary-tinned lead piping gave up lead to the pure water now used in Manchester. 2. A much better plan is by having a good block-tin pipe enclosed in a lead pipe, as in Haines' patent. If the tin is good, it is little acted on, and the strength of the pipe is in- creased, while bends and junctions can be made without destroying the continuity of the tin. 3. Fusible metal, viz. lead, bismuth, and tin. 4. Bituminous coating (M'Dougall's patent). 5. Various gums, resins, gutta-percha, and indiarubber. These would probably be effi- cacious. 6. Coating interior of pipes with lead sul- phide, by boiling the pipes in sodium sulphide for fifteen minutes. The sodium sulphide may be made by boiling sulphur in liquor sodae (Schwartz's patent). ^ 7. Eesin and grease with whitelead (!) has been proposed, also resin and arsenic ! ! Both are most objectionable. 8. Varnish of coal tar. Iieather — Leather is well adapted for clothing in countries where cold north winds are prevalent, since no wind blows through it. Coats of sheepskin or buffajo-hide are used by sentries in Canada, and jackets made of a similar material are in comm'on use in Turkey, Tartary, Persia, and the Danubian provinces. Leather should be well tanned, and without any marks of corrosion or attacks of insects. The thin kind should be perfectly supple. See Clothiko. Iieather-Dressers — In the process of preparing leather, lime and yellow orpiment (sulphide of arsenic) are employed, and these substances cause the workers considerable in- convenience. In some cases ecchymoses invades the skin of the hand, and it presents a tume- fied appearance, more especially near the extremities of the fingers ; and in others, the lime, &c., occasion an ulceration of the skin which is excessively painful. This ulceration readily disappears if the men leave off work for a time, but it is very liable to return. The affection would seem to be quite a local one, for the general health appears unaffected. The wearing of oilskin gloves has been re- commended as a preventative, but the men evince but little inclination to act upon this hint. Iieek (the Allium porrum, Linn.) — ^The juice of this vegetable contains an acrid vola- tile oil, which possesses strongly irritant and excitant properties, and is said to be capable of dissolving phosphatic calculi. The general properties of the leek are intermediate be- tween those of the onion and garlic. In nutri- tive value it is far inferior to the potato. Iieet, Court of— The court leet, or view of frankpledge, is a court of record held once in the year, and not oftener, within a parti- cular hundred, lordship, or manor, before the steward of the leet, being the king's court, granted by Charles to the lords of those hun- dreds or manors. A custom in a court leet for a jury to exa- mine weights,' &o. , and to destroy the light ones, is good. Wilcock v. Windsor, 3 B. and Adol., 43. — (Present State of Common and Statute Law, Pj;TEB8D0Brr, iii. p. 440.) Xiegal Proceedings— Any local autho- rity may appear before any court, or in any legal proceeding, by their clerk, or by any ofBcer or member authorised generally or in respect of any special proceeding by resolution of such authority, and such person being so authorised is at liberty to institute and carry on any proceeding which the local authority is authorised -to institute and carry on under the Public Health Act,— (P. H., s. 269.) But although it is perfectly legal for an inspector of nuisances or a medical officer of health to prosecute and conduct a case when authorised so to do by a local authority, all such matters, unless under very exceptional circumstances, should devolve upon the clerk. In proceeding by or against a local autho- rity, the name of the authority need not be proved.— (P. H., s. 260.) Demands below £50 may be recovered in the county courts.— (P. H., s. 261.) No rate, order, proceeding, matter, or thing made or done or relating to the execution of the Public Health Act, shall be vacated, quashed, or set aside for want of form, or (unless otherwise expressly provided by the Act) be removed or removable by certiorari or any other writ or process whatsoever into any of the superior courts. Provided that nbthing is to prevent the re- moval of any case stated for the opinion of a superior court, or of any rate, order, convic- tion, or thing to which such special case re- lates.— (P. H., s. 262.) No justice of the peace is to be deemed incapable of acting, although he be a member LEa (330) I.EG of the local authority, or Kable to contribute. -(P. H., s. 258.) Any false evidence on oath under the Public Health Act is punishable aa perjury.— (P. H., s. 263.) All offences under the Public Health Act, and all penalties, forfeitures, costs, and ex- penses under the said Act directed to be recovered in a summary manner, or the re- covery of which is not otherwise provided for, may be prosecuted and recovered in manner directed by the Summary Jurisdiction Acts before a court of summary jurisdiction. The court of summary jurisdiction, when hearing and determining an information or complaint under the Act, shall be constituted of two or more justices of the peace in petty sessions, sitting at a place appointed for holding petty sessions, or of some magistrate or officer for the time being empowered by law to do alone any act authorised to be done by more than one justice of the peace sitting at some court or other place appointed for the administra- tion of justice. — (P. H., B. 251.) Any complaint or information made or laid in pursuance of the said Act shall be made or laid within three months from the time when - the matter of such complaint or information respectively arose. The description of any oSence under the said Act in the words of the Act shall be sufficient in law. Any exception, exemption, proviso, excuse, or qualification, whether it does or not accom- pany the description of the oifence, may be proved by the defendant, but need not be specified or negatived in the information; and, if so specified or negatived, no proof in relation to the matters so specified or nega- tived shall be required on the part of the informant.— (P. H., s. 252.) The local authority may if they think fit cause legal proceedings with regard to nui- aances to be taken in any superior court of law or equity, if in their opinion summary proceeding would afford an inadequate rem edv. -(P. H., a. 107.) In case of an action against the local authority, due notice, &c., must be given as follows : — A writ or process shall not be sued out against Or served on any local authority, or any member thereof, or any officer of a local authority, or person acting in his aid, for any- thing done or intended to be done under the provisions of the Public Health Act, until the expiration of one month after notice in writ- ing has been served on such local authority, member, officer, or person, clearly stating the cause of action, and the name and place of abode of the intended plaintiff, and of -his attorney or agent in the cause ; and on the trial of any such action, the plaintiff shall not be permitted to go into evidence of any cause of action which is not stated in the notice so served ; and unless such notice is proved, the jury shall find for the defendant. ' Every such action shall be commenced within six months next after the accruing of the cause of action, and not afterwards, and shall be tried in the county or place where the cause of action occurred, and not else- where. ' Any person to whom any such notice of action is given as aforesaid may tender amends to the plaintiff, his attorney or agent, at any time within one month after service of such notice, and, in case the same be not accepted, may plead such tender in bar; and in case amends have not been tendered as aforesaid, or in case the amends tendered be insufficient, the defendant may, by leave of the court, at any time before trial, pay into court under plea such sum of money as he may think proper ; and if upon issue joined, or upon any plea pleaded for the whole action, the jury find generally for the defendant, or if the plaintiff be nonsuited or judgment be given for the defendant, then the defendant shall be entitled to full costs of suit, and have judgment accordingly. — (P.-H., s. 264.) The local authority and their officers are protected from personal liability. No matter or thing done, and no'contract entered into by any local authority or joint board or port sanitary authority, and no matter or thing done by any member of any such authority, or by any officer of such authority or other person whomsoever acting under the direction of such authority, shall, if the matter or thing were done or the con- tract were entered into bona fide for the pur- pose of executing the Public Health Act, subject them or any of them personally to any action, liability, claim, or demand what- soever; and any expense incurred by any such authority, member, officer, or other person acting as last aforesaid shall be borne and repaid out of the fund or rate applicable by such authority to the general purposes of the said Act. Provided that nothing in this section shall exempt any member of any such authority from liability to be surcharged with the amount of any payment which may be dis- allowed by the auditor in the accounts of such authority, and which such member authorised or joined in authorising.— (P. H., s. 265.) For legal proceedings for the abatement of nuisances, for the'recovery of penalties and rates, see Ncisakces, Penalties, Rates. LEG (331) LEM Ziegrumine, or Vegetable Caseine— Thus named by its discoverer, Bracannot. It forms the nitrogenous matter of the pvilses. It may be extracted from peas or from almonds by digesting the pulp of the crushed seeds in warm water for two or three hours. The un- dissolved portion is strained off by means of linen, and the turbid liquid is allowed to de- posit the starch which it holds in suspension. It is next filtered and mixed with dilute acetic acid. A whitfe flooculent precipitate is thus formed, which must be collected on a filter and washed. It is then dried, powdered, and digested, first in alcohol, and afterwards in ether. Legumine is associated in the seed with considerable quantities of potassic, cajcic, and magnesic phosphates. It may be coagulated by rennet, like the caseine of milk ; hence the Chinese make a kind of cheese from peas and beans. It is very prone to decay, and this causes the sourness and irritating effect of pea-soup after it has been kept a little time. It is insoluble in boiling water, cold alcohol, and ether, but cold water dissolves it in con- siderable quantity. It is precipitated from its concentrated solutions by the addition of acetic acid. Dried peas contain about one-fourth of their weight of legumine. Ziemon— The fruit of the Citrus Zimonum or lemon-tree, a native of Asia, cultivated in the South of Europe. There are two varie- ties : in the one the juice is sweet, while in the other it is remarkable for its acid pro- perties. Lemon -juice possesses valuable antiscor- butic properties, and made into lemonade, constitutes a refreshing beverage. The rind contains a volatile oil and bitter principle, which render it useful as an aromatic and stomachic. See Lemon and Lime JniOE;' Oils, &o. Iiemon and Xiime Juice — Since these juices are so nearly identical in their compo- sition and uses, it will be convenient to con- sider them together. Lime or lemon juice, as met with in com- merce, is chiefly prepared in Sicily or the West Indies. It is mixed with brandy or whisky in the proportion of about 1 oz. of spirit to 10 of juice, and olive oil is poured on the top. Occasionally the juice is simply boiled without admixture, but that to which brandy has been added is less liable to spoil. Sugar in the proportion of half its weight is also added to improve its taste. Good lemon - juice should keep for at least three years, but bad juice soon becomes turbid, then stringy and mucilaginous, and the citric and malic acids decompose, glucose and carbonic acid being formed. According to Proust, lemon-juice consists of citric acid, 177; malic acid, gum, bitter ex- tractive, -72; and water, 97 '51. Its specific gravity, as ordered by the British Pharma- copceia, is 1"039, and the amount of citric acid in one fluid ounce on an average should be 32 '5 grains. "Mr. Stoddart points out that the specific gravity is too high for the quantity of acid stated. There may, however, be other ingredients. He gives himself the specific gravity as 1'040 to 1'045, and the citric acid as 39 to 46 grains per ounce (citric acid, CgHg O7)."— (Paekes.) Harkness examined the juice expressed from two varieties of lemons— viz., Palermo and Messina — with the following results : — Falermo, Messina. Ounces of juice yielded by 100 lemons; . . 108 96 Specific gravity of juice 1044.85 1038-56 Percentage of citric acid 8-12 7-04 Percentage of ash . . 289 0-301 A hundred parts of the ash of the juice of Palermo lemons gave — Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Chlorine Phosphoric acid Ferric phosphate Lime Magnesia Potash Soda Silica Loss 10-59 16-33 0-81 6 74 1-32 8-89 3-02 47-84 332 0-72 0-42 10000 The juice of the lime contains a larger quan- tity of oi trio acid, but less gum . The following shows the results obtained by Mr. Cooley from an examination of three different samples of limes : — W. Indies. Janudca. S. A&ica. Sp. gr. Of juice . 1041-30 1044 18 1044 90 P. cent, citric acid 7-96 8-66 850 P. cent. ash. . 321 0-401 364 Mr. Stoddart states that the standard for lemon-juice of the Board of Trade is a specific gravity of 10'30 without spirit, and 30 grains of citric acid per ounce. Dr. Parkes examined two samples of lemon- juice, vrith the folio-wing results : — After separation of the oil and carefully evaporating down, a bro-wnish fragrant ex- tract was obtained, the amount of which was 7"186and7'1828per cent. On being inciner- ated, an alkaline whitish-grey ash was left; and if the alkalinity was neutralised by a standard acid, it corresponded to '15 grains of citric acid per cent. The ash was "52 and "53 LEM (332; LEN per cent, respectively, and of this '38 were soluble salts ; the potash T*as '12 per cent. (J grain an ounce), and the phosphoric acid was '008 per cent., or '035 grains per ounce. The total acidity ( = citric acid, C6HSO7) was 4 '61. and 5'36 per qent., or on an average nearly 22 grains of citric acid (OsHjO?) per ounce. In evaporating lemon-juice down, should the operation be carried too far, the extract is decomposed ; and according to Mr. Stoddart, acetone, carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide and pyrocitrio acid are formed. Lemon or lime juice is refrigerant, antiscor- butic, and furnishes a very, agreeable and re- freshing beverage. It is useful for allaying sickness, and is adapted for lithic acid deposits. In poisoning by the alkalies and their carbon- ates, the vegetable acids are the antidotes. Lemon-juice may with advantage be adminis- tered in cases of poisoning by narcotic sub- stances — such as opium, &c. — after the poison has been removed from the stomach to coun- teract the e£fects. It is ordered by the Merchant Shipping Act (1867), that after the ship has been at sea ten days, 1 oz. of lime or lemon juice, mixed with 1 oz. of sugar and J pint of water, be served out to the crew between the hours of twelve and one in the day. Since this Act came into operation, scurvy in the merchant ships of this country has, diminished more than 70 per cent, (see Statistics of the Sea- men's Hospital). The juice is in the first instance examined in the laboratory of the Inland Revenue as to specific gravity, amount of citric acid, and absence of sulphuric or other cheap acids, &c. It is then, under direc- tion of the customs' officers, mix^d in bond with 10 percent, of rum, brandy, gin, whisky, or hoUands, and kept in bond until required for shipment. Factitious Lemon- Juice.— 1. Citric acid, IJ oz.; carbonate of potassa, 45gr3.; white sugar, 2^ oz.; cold water, 1 piht : dissolve, add the yellow peel of a lemon, andin twenty -Jourhours strain through a hair sieve or piece of muslin. 2. Sanie as last, but using 15 or 16 drops of oU of lemon to flavour, instead of the lemon- peel. Many substitutes for lime-juice are used. Citric acid or citrate of potash are the best. Kitrate of potash stands the lowest in value. Adulterations. — Much of the lemon and lime juice commonly sold is adulterated with tar- taric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, and afterwards flavoured with oil of lemons. Twrtwric Add, — Dilute the sample, and if the juice be turbid filter it. Add a solution of acetate of potassium, and stir briskly with- out touching the sides of the vessel with the stirrer, andleavefortwenty-four hours; when, if tartaric acid be present, precipitation of acid tartrate of potassium will take place. Sulphuric Acid. — Dilute the filtered juice with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, . and a solution of chloride of barium is added. Sulphate of barium in the form of a white precipitate will be thrown down if sulphuric acid be present. Bydrochloric Acid. — Test with nitrate of silver and a few drops of dilute nitric acid. A white insoluble precipitate indicates a chloride. Nitric acid is a very rare adulteration. Its presence may be determined by any one of the methods given under Water. The citric acid may be determined by means of a standard solution of caustic soda. See ACIDIMEIET, &C. Xieinon, Oil of— See Oils. Xientils— The seed of the Ervum, Lens, natural order Leguminosce. They are grown and eaten in all parts of the world, and when they can be digested, are considered highly nutritious. They are con- siderably smaller than an ordinary pea, and are shaped like a double convex lens (see fig. 52). LENTIL FLOUR -S;t» inch Tig. 62. The following shows their composition : — Composition of Lentils (Paten). Nitrogenous matter 25-2 Starch, 4o. . . . 660 Oellulose . 2-4 Patty matter . 2-6 Mineral matter 2-3 Water 11-5 100 -a LET (333) LEV Lentils are largely employed in the prepara- tions known as re^al!enta a,ni ervalenta. The nitrogenous matter of the pulses is called legumine. See Legumine, Peas, &o. Iiettuoe {Lactuca saliva) — Supposed to be a native of the East Indies, but largely cultivated in !^lurope. The lettuce forms a wholesome, digestible, cooling, and agreeable salad, and is occasionally boiled. It contains a milky juice which possesses mild soporific properties, and is known as lactacarium or lettuce opium. Xievelling — Levelling is that branch of surveying which determines the inequalities of the earth's surface, and ascertains the relative heights of places above a certainline, called the datum line, equidistant from the centre of the earth. Levelling is determined by the aid of an instrument called the spirit- level. This in its simplest form is " a glass tube sealed at both ends, containing some very limpid liquid — such as alcohol, chloro- form, or sulphuret of carbon— and a bubble of air. The tube itself having a slight curvature, convex upwards, the air-bubble places itself at the highest point in the tube, and a tan- gent to the upper internal surface of the tube at that point is horizontal." When the centre of the bubble, then, is in the middle of the tube, the instrument is pro- perly adjusted. The use of levelling to the sanitary engineer is obvious. It enables him to lay down sewers with the proper declivity, gives him the heights of the hiUs, determines the watershed of the district, and has a variety of applications with regard to water-supply and other matters. For laying down drains, and taking, generally speaking, short levels, the ordinary spirit- level, mounted in a frame having two sKts at right angles to each other at either end, will be found to answer very faii'ly. To use the instrument, the bubble is adjusted at the centre by elevating or depressing one of the extremities, the tube is then level, and by looking through the slits, the level line may be extended any distance. For more extended surveys, the Dumpy level of Mr. Gravatt, or a similar instrument, is required (see fig. 53). "A is a spirit-level attached by screws at a a to the telescope B C ; by means of these screws it can be adjusted, in order to place a tangent 'to its middle point parallel to the line of coHimation of the telescope. A small circle near the object-end B of the telescope, indicates a small transverse level used to show whether the horizontal cross -wire is truly horizontal. The diaphragm of the tele- scope contains one horizontal and two parijlel vertical cross-wires " (see fig. 54). "B is the object-end of the telescope; C, the eye-piece ; 6, Fig. 64. Fig. 63. the milled head of the pinion by which the inner tube is drawn in and out; c c, screws for adjust- ing the diaphragm, so as to bring the horizon- tal cross-wire exactly to the line of coHima- tion or axis of the telescope. D D is an oblong plate or flat bar fixed on the top of the vertical axis E ; to this plate the telescope is connected by adjusting screws at d d, by means of which the line of coHi- mation is placed perpendicular to the vertical axis. The ver- tical axis is hollow, and turns \ iipon a spindle fixed to the upper parallel plate F; that spindle is crfntinued downwards, and attached to the lower parallel plate G by a ball-and-socket joint. The vertical axis is set truly vertical by means of the plate screws //. A compass is generally carried in D D." —-(Professor Eankine.) There are various other forms of levels, such as Troughton's, the Y level, &c. The actual operation of levelling is per- formed by aid of the spirit-level and of the levelling - staff. The old levelling - staff was provided with a vane, which was slid up and down the staff by the staffman, according to the directions of the leveller. But the staff usually used now is a ** rectangular wooden rod, having a face 2 or 2^ inches broad, on which is painted in a bold conspicuous manner a scale of feet divided into tenths and hun- " dreds, commencing at the lower end of the staff." The staff when in use must be held exactly vertical, and is read either through the telescope or the sights of the leveL The readings of the staff are called "sights." When two sights only are taken from one station — one with the ^taff upon a point whose level has been ascertained, and the other with LIB (334) Lie the sta^ upon a point whose level is yet to be ascertained — the former is called the " back- sight," and the latter the " foresight." If the back-sight is the greater, the ground rises, and if the foresight is the greater, it falls from the former point to the latter. When the levels of a series of points are taken with the level at one station, in order to -make a continuous section, the first and the last observations are the principal back and fore sights respectively. Of intermediate sights, each is a foresight relatively to the pre- ceding sight, and a back-sight relatively to the following one. For example (fig. 55) — "A is a station where the level is set up, and the horizontal line bAciathe line of sight, or straight line in prolongation of the line of coUimation. The first back-sight is taken with the staff on B, and it gives the reading on the staff, B b. The last foresight is taken with the staff on C ; it gives as the reading of the staff, C c. The first intermediate sight c'l D , A A^ u Fig. 55. at the point marked 1 is a foresight relatively to that at B, and a back-sight relatively to that at the point 2, and so on." "When the leveller has to carry his level on to a new station, such as D, the staffman holds his staff steadily at 0, only making it face about. The leveller advances to D, sets up and adjusts his level, takes the first back- sight c', and proceeds as before. E e repre- sents the position of the staff when the last foresight is taken from D. The staff is held there until the leveller has moved on and planted his level at a third station, and so on." The section is measured by the chain in the usual way. In crossing streams, the existing level of the surface of the water is taken, and the levels of the bottom are taken by sound- ing. The figures are entered in the field-hook, which is most conveniently divided into seven columns headed as follows : Rise, back-sight, foresight, fall, reduced level, distance, de- scription of object. As an example of a simple calculation of levels, a well was distant from a village 300 feet, the length of the foresight was 20 feet, the back-sight 5. The total descent, then, froni the well was 20 - 5, or 15 feet, and as this descent takes place for 300 feet, the de- scent for a foot was j^ of 15 feet — i.e., 05 feet, or 5 in every 100 feet. Iiibraries — By the Libraries Amendment Act, 1871 (34 & 35 Vict. c. 71, s. 1), urban sanitary authorities are empowered to execute the general Acts relating to libraries and museums. Iiice — Five forms of lice infest the skin of man. These are the Pedimhis C(xpiUs, met with in the hair of the head ; the Pediculus puMs, found in the other hairy parts of the body, but especially the pubis ; the Pedicvlua corporis, living on the general trunk of the body ; a fourth is the Pediculv.s palpebrwnim ; and a fifth, the Pediculus tabes-centium. The first four species limit themselves to the re- gions named. The Body Louse (fig. 56). — This is the most common, and consequently the most impor- tant, variety. It varies in length from J line to 2 lines. It is of a whitish colour, the body being elongated, the abdominal portion broad, and its margins lobulated and covered with little hairs. The thoracic portion, which is very narrow, carries three legs on each side. The legs are jointed, hairy, and terminatein claws. The I I I I I'''-' I I Fig. 66. louse in feeding causes great itchiness of the skin. It is usually found amongst the folds of the clothing, where it also deposits its eggs, which are crystalline, shining, yellowish, and opaque bodies. Lie (335) LIO Tlie Head Louse (fig. 57). — These parasites multiply with astonishing rapidity. They are much smaller than the body louse, the legs are larger in proportion to the size of the body, and the abdomen is distinctly divided into seven segments, separated from each other at the margins by deep notches. They produce an eczema from which fluid abundantly exudes, the hairs become glued together, and crusts, involving the cuticular d6bris or exuvise of the lice, and the remains of epidermis are formed. The Orab Louse (fig. 58) has in proportion to its size a much broader body than either of the other two forms of lice. It is " shield "-shaped, imd there does not appear to he any distinct separation between its thorax and ab- domen. It is found in the hair of the pubis, armpits, scro- tum, perin£eum, anus, and, in ex- treme cases, in the eyebrows ; it is, however, never dis- It grasps the L J Fig. 68. covered in the hair of the head, stems of the hairs with its forelegs, and ad- heres so firmly that it is difficult to remove it without extracting the hair.— (Aitken.) The presence of pediculi is, as a general rule, an indication of dirty habits, but occa- sionally they are found on cleanly people, who catch them, in the first place, from sleeping in strange beds, using dirty water-closets, or unclean combs and brushes, and in many other obvious ways. With ordinary care, clean people, if they shoiild happen to be unfor- tunate enough to become affected, rapidly get rid of them. Persons whose skins are liable to constitu- tional skin-diseases in which watery or secret- ing eruptions prevail, are much more subject to the attacks of lice than others. Children attending schools where there is an insuffi- ciency of space often become attacked from close contact with children so diseased. This is one of the many dangers which arise from overcrowding, — an additional argument for plenty of space being allowed in schools for each individual. Iiichens — Several lichens are eaten in Arctic regions, where during the greater part of the year no other food is procurable. Ice- land moss {Cetraria Icelandica) and reindeer moss {Cladonia rangiferina) are examples of these. The former contains as much as from 27 to 31 per cent, of starchy matter, and the latter about 5 per cent. Two species of lichen — the Cryrophora proboscidea and G. erosa — furnished the tripe de Roche of our Arctic navigators, which was their chief food in time of scarcity. — (Lethebt.) Franklin's party, however, who subsisted for some time on this diet, became miserably thin, and at last the weed was thoroughly nauseous to all, and produced diarrhoea amongst several. If the lichens be deprived of their bitter principles by soaking first in an alkaline lye, and then in cold water, they may be made to yield a palatable food. The Rocella tinctoria, the Vari^laria orcina, the Lecanora tartarea, &c., when ground into paste with water mixed with putrid urine or solution of carbonate of ammonia, and left for some time freely ex- posed to the air, furnish the archil litmus and cudbear of commerce— very similar sub- stances, difiering chiefly in the details of their preparation. Iiiebig's Extract of Meat — See Meat, EXTKACT OF. Xiight — This principle is a necessary ele- ment in the development of organised beings, >nd in its absence all the higher classes of plants and animals languish and etiolate ; for where there is deficient light in dwellings, other unfavourable conditions, such as defi- cient cubic space and impure air, are generally present as well, so that there is a combination of unhealthy influences. That any artificial light should take the place of the solar rays, or exert the same influence, is in the highest degree improbable, since the direct rays of the sun are great remedial and preventive agents in certain diseases, such as scrofula, phthisis, rickets, &c. Lia (336) LIU In dwellings it must be remembered that every opening whioh lets in light is also a ventilator,; thus the •wretchedly small win- dows of many cottages are to be condemned. Light is more essential to the period of growth than to that of maturity ; hence all nurseries, schools, or places where children are congre- gated should be supplied with large windows, and the best aspect chosen for the house — viz., the south-easterly — so that the sun may strike on both sides. The sun and all artificial lights are, so to speak, ventilators ; for no sooner is a lamp lit, or a sunbeam allowed free access to a room, than currents of air are established. The sun, again, is a disinfector, not only producing ozone under certain circumstances, but also drying up foetid matters. Artificial lights — such as gas, candles, and lamps fed with oils, &c. — used in well-venti- lated rooms, cannot be proved to be injurious ; but used to a great extent in badly-constructed workshops, where there is not sufficient venti- lation, they rapidly deteriorate the air, h^eat the room, and injure the health of the work- men. An artificial light should be steady, toned down by tinted or ground glass globes, and bright enough to read by with ease. Lights that flicker and are insufficient strain the eyes and injure the sight ; but, as before said, it is by no means established that properly-arranged artificial lights cause any injury. Public build- ings are preferably lighted from the ceiling, and each burner, when connected with an up-cast ventilating shaft, aids in purifying the air. See Sunstroke, Ventilation, &o. Iiighte— Fig's lights are eaten as a fry with the animal's liver. A food is prepared, called "faggots," from bullock's and sheep's lights mixed with bullock's liver. Ziignin— 5ee Cellulose. Xjime (Calx, CaO) — Lime, or quicklime, is made from chalk (carbonate of lime) by strongly heating it, so as to drive off the car- bonic acid. For use in the arts a kind of wind- furnace called a kiln is employed. It is quite white when pure. A solution of it has an alkaline reaction, and yields a white precipi- tate with oxalate of ammonia, and it soon absorbs carbonic acid if exposed to the air. Lime, if previously slaked, dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid without effervescence ; and if this solution be evaporated to dryness, and the residue redissolved in water, only a very scanty precipitate forms on the addition of sa^charated solution of lime, showing the pre- sence of traces of alumina and magnesia. Lime reacts powerfully on vegetable colours as an alkali. It is slightly soluble in water. According to Mr. Phillips — 1 pint of water at 32° dissolves 13-25 grains. „ ., 60" „ 11 '6 „ „ 212° „ 67 „ In the burning of lime, carbonic acid is given off abundantly ; but owing to the nature of the fuel used, carbonic oxide and ^ulphurons acid are mixed with it. Tramps, &o., who have thoughtlessly slept in the neighbourhood of a burning limekiln during a cold night, have been suffocated by the respiration of these vapours. Lime has been recommended for the pur- pose of absorbing carbonic acid from the air, and Liebig has advised that some be constantly kept in the sleeping apartments. Dr. Angus Smith, however, experimented on the purify- ing of vitiated air by this means, and it was found that the room in which the plan was tried was rendered too uncomfortable for daily life. Navier speaks of lime-water and milk as an antidote in poisoning by arsenous acid, and in the absence of more appropriate antidotes, lime-water may be administered in poisoning by the common mineral and oxalic acids'. Lime added to water, sewage, &c., is a great purifying agent. See Wateh, Sewaob. Lime is largely used for the purpose of purifying coal-gas. During the passage of the gas through the lime-piirifiers, coal-gas loses its sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, sul- phocyanogen, and cyanogen and naphthaline. Lime is also of great value as a manure. Lime may contain carbonic acid and metallic impurities, which can be detected by the tests given above. jAtne, Carbonate of (CaCO). — This forms a considerable portion of the known crust of the earth. In the ciystalline form it constitutes calcareous spar and aragomte. Statuary marble is the more primitive and es- teemed limestone. Chalk, found extensively in the South of Kngland, constitutes the newest of secondary rocks. There are various other forms of carbonate of lime, called by mineral- ogists stalactitic carbonate of lime, oolite, piso- lite, marl, and tufa. The following are the tests for chalk : — It effervesces with acids, and dissolves, with only a slight residue, in diluted hydrochloric acid. This solution, when supersaturated with solution of ammonia, gives, on the addi- tion of oxalate of ammonia, a copious white precipitate. The salt formed by dissolving the prepared'chalk in hydrochloric acidj if ren- dered neutral by evaporation to diyness, and redissolved in water, gives only a scanty pre- cipitate on the addition of saccharated solution of lime, showing its freedom from any consi- derable quantity of silica, alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia, or phosphate of lime. LIJVE (337) LIN Lime, Chloride of, or Chlorinated Lime. — The commercial chloride of lime is not calcic chloride, which may be readily made by neutralising liydrochloric acid with car- bonate of lime, but a compound of hydro- chloride, chloride, and hydrate of lime. On the large scale, chlorine gas is conducted through a leaden tube into a chamber made of siliceous sandstone, in which dry, fresh-slaked lime is arranged on trays. The lime is con- tinually agitated by means of iron rakes, the handles of which pass through boxes of lime placed in the walls of the chamber. Tests, Maizina — This substance is prepared from Indian-corn meal. See Indian-Corn. Malaria— iSee Marshes. Malignant Pustule — See Pustule, Malignant. Malt — A name given to different kinds of grain which have become sweet from the con- version of some of their starch (or cellulose ?) into sugar, in consequence of incipient ger- mination artificially produced. The principal cereals so treated are barley, oats, rye, maize, &o. ; but barley is the grain usually employed. HAN (355) KAN Faie rrudt is that produced when the barley is dried at a temperatvire ranging between 90°, and 120° F. This forms the basis of all malt liquors. Yellow or pale amier malt is formed when the heat is raised to from 125° to 135°. Amber malt is produced when the tempera- ture ranges between 140° and 160° ; and if heated to 160° or 180°, the product is known as amber-brown or pale brown malt. The lat- ter is much used for colouring and flavouring stout and porter. According to the experiments of Lawes, 100 parts of dry, barley yield 90-22 of malt, 93-99 of malt and kiln dust. Barley loses as much as 13-5 per cent, of the total quantity of nitrogen contained in 100 parts of the dry grain in being converted into malt. Lawes found the nitrogen in the barley to amount to 1-78 per cent, of the weight of the dry grain ; that contained in dry malt being 1-70 per cent. Barley yields about 80 per cent, of malt after drying and sifting from the radicles. Thompson says that 12 per cent, of this loss is due to water, only 8 per cent, being wasted in the form of carbonic anhydride and trim- mings. The amount of diastase yielded does not exceed -gj-^r of the weight of the grain ; and it is found that other grains do not give even so much as this. In order to determine the quality of malt, three things are required to be known — viz., (a) the amount of moisture ; (6) the amount of soluble matter ; (c) the amount of sugar. The first may be obtained by evaporating in the water-bath about 1 gramme of the care- fully weighed and powdered substance until it ceases to lose weight. Malt generally con- tains 7 or 8 per cent, of water. , The soluble matter and extract may be obtained in an exactly similar manner to that described under Tea. Good malt gives 66 per cent, of extract. For the estimation of the sugar, see Sugak, Estimation of. See also Bebk, &c. Manganese, Chloride of (MnCy— This substance is useful for preventing decay of animal matter. See Disinfectants. Manures — The food of vegetables, in so far as their organic structure is concerned, con- sists entirely of inorganic compounds, which are carbonic acid, water, and ammonia — the final products of putrefaction ; but unless to these be added small quantities of certain mineral substances, the vegetable does not obtain sufficient nutriment. The mineral matters found in the ashes of plants — silica, ■ potassa, and phosphate of lime, magnesia, soda, sulphates, and oxide of ii-on, and other matters — appear to be essential to the exist- ence of the vegetable tissue, so that plants will not grow in soils destitute of them. The carbon contained in plants is derived from the carbonic acid, the hydrogen and oxygen are chiefly derived from the water, and the nitro- gen from the ammonia which is supplied to them in rain and in manures, and which re- mains in the soil until absorbed by the roots. Differing from Baron Liebig in his " min- eral theory " of manuring, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have, from extensive experiments, come to the conclusion that it is impossible to obtain good crops by using mineral manure alon% and that nitrogenous manures (farm- yard manure, guano, ammoniacal salts, &c.) are fertilising agents of the highest order. The following are some of the. numerous sub- stances which come under the designation of manures : Dejecta and debris of animals ; re- fuse from slaughter-houses (blood, &o.), stables, cesspools, and certain manilfactories ; fish (in many parts of the country) ; the ordinary stable-dung, which contains all the elements necessary for producing vegetation ; and Guano {which see), a powerful source of ammonia, containing much oxalate and urate of ammonia with some phosphates. Nightsoil and urine (especially the latter) are also most valuable for the ammonia they yield, as well as for phosphates and potassa ; but they are very much neglected in this country, although their importance is fully appreciated in Belgium, France, and China. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert liave estimated the actual value of both xaine and faeces at 6s. 8d. per individual per annum. Nitrate of soda is valued as a source of nitrogen. All organic substances may be employed as manures, those which contain nitrogen, however, most readily decay when mixed with the soil. The mud of towns has been successfully used as a manure. After collection it requires to be left to the action of the air for six months, and as during this time it gives off verj' un- pleasant emanations, it should be stored at some distance from houses, &c. It has been stated that the ashes from lead and zinc manu- factories, when used as an earth-fertiliser, have produced in animals eating the herbage poisonous symptoms. Tardieu instances the case of a cow which died from the effects of eat- ing clover that had been manured with ashes containing lead. It is possible, however, that the ashes themselves were eaten, and that they had not been absorbed by the earth. See Lead. That manures have frequently been the source of fever, &c. , few care to deny ; but it is probable that when ill-effects have arisen, the manure has contained poisonous human MAN (356) .MAW excreta. We have no evidence to show that the ordinary stableyard dunghill is injuri- ous, unless (as happens in some parts of the country) human fsecal matter is mixed with it. In China, where animal dejecta is so largely employed in agriculture that the air is flUed with a very pungent effluvia, no bad effect is produced, owing probably to the great deodorising and absorbing powers of the earth. Parkes states that he has been unable to find any satisfactory evidence of disease being produced by manuring the ground. The ordinary dung-heap may prove inconvenient by displacing oxygen, but certainly it exhales no specific poison of its own. The men em- ployed in the English manure manufactories enjoy excellent health, and people residing in the neighbourhood do not appear to suffei^ any annoyance. Tardieu, speaking of the men engaged in making poudrette, says, " The action of the exhalations from the manure manufactories on man is certainly not injurious. The work- men show actually no trace of sickness or disease which can be referred to the influ- ence of these exhalations." In this opinion Parent-Duchfttelet and Patissier concur. M. Fatissier states that he has not observed workers in urates and powdered manures attacked with any peculiar illness. The two inconveniences which they suffer from are cuts, which heal with difficulty, sometimes taking as long'as three months ; and » slight ophthalmia, caused by the irritation of the ammoniacal vapours— this, however, by the application of some simple lotion, readily dis- appears. When the poudrette is decomposing, and large quantities are brought into a small space, serious consequences may ensue. Parent- Duch^telet mentions the case of a vessel carrying manure to Guadaloupe in which half the crew died, and the rest were in a wretched state of health on arrival, caused by the ex- halations of the fermented poudrette; and the same effects have been noticed in the boats which travel with manure between Bochelle and Nantes. In one of these cases all the crew were attacked, the disease ap- pearing in the form of "an adynamic fever." There was intense pain of the head and of all the limbs, vomiting, great prostration, and in two cases severe diarrhoea. The internal temperature of the boat was 4"!° C. (111-2° F.) — the port -holes being open — while the external temperature was only 18° 0. (64 '4° F.) Much vapour was given off by this manure, and an odour re- sembling sulphuretted hydrogen and am- monia was also apparent. Parent-Duoh4te- let advised that the manures should be mixed with plaster and conveyed in air- tight cavities. Manure in this country has caused typhoid fever ; but in these cases, as already explained, there was in all probability human typhoid excrement present. The following are the chief regulations in force for the proper keeping of dung, &,o. : — Where in any urban district it appears to the inspector of nuisances that any accumula- tion of manure, dung, soil, or filth, or other offensive or noxious matter, ought to be re- moved, he shall give notice to the person to whpm the same belongs, or to the occupier of the premises whereon it exists, to remove the same ; and if at the expiration of twenty-four hours after such notice the same is not com- plied vrith, the manure, dung, soil, or filth, or matter referred to, shall be vested in and be sold or disposed of by the urban authority, and the proceeds thereof shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate applicable by' them for the general purposes of this Act. The expenses of removal by the urban authority of any such accumulation, so far as they are not covered by.the sale thereof, may be recovered by the urban authority in a summary manner from the person to whom the accumulation belongs, or from the occu- pier of the premises, or (where there is no occupier) from the owner, or they may by order of the urban authority be declared to be private improvement expenses. — (P. H., s. 49.) Although the section quoted is confined to an urban district, as in P. H., s. 101, it is expressly provided that any matter or thing removed by the local authority in abating a nuisance may be sold by public auction, it is evident that after failure to comply with notice, a rvral authority has veiy similar powers to urban with regard to the sale of manure. Notice maybe given by any urlan authority (by public announcement in the district or otherwise) for the periodical removal of manure or other refuse matter from mews, stables, or other premises ; and where any such notice has been given (iny person to whom the manure or other refuse matter belongs who fails so to remove the same, or permits a further accumulation, and does not continue such periodical removal at such intervals as the urban authority direct, shall be liable without further notice to a penalty of tinenty' shiilinga for each' day during whiph such manui'e or other refuse matter is permitted to accumulate. — (P. H., s. 69.) In Smith v. Waghorn, 27 J. P., 744, Lord Chief - Justice Cockburu said, "A dunghiU TSJiS. (357) MAR may or may not be a nuisance, according to the way in which it is kept. If the dung is kept so loug that a stench arises, and annoyance to the neighbouring inhabitants, then I think the case comes within the enactment, and the party may be conricted." Marches— SfeeExEKOisE; HtgiSne, Mili- tary ; Tbainino, &c. Mare's Milk— An analysis of mare's milk is given in article Koumiss, and the composi- tion of the ash is to be found in the tables in article MILK. Markets — In non-corporate urban dis- tricts, with consent of the owners and rate- payers, as expressed by resolution at a public meeting {see EESOLUMOifs), and in corporate districts, with the consent of two-thirds of all the members of the authority^ an urban sani- tary authority may provide within its district a market-place, and construct a market-house with all conveniences, such as houses and places for weighing, carts, proper approaches, &c. But in establishing a market, and thus acquiring exclusive rights, existing exclusive rights must not be prejudiced ; so that it such rights exist, the sanitary authority cannot set up a market of its own without the consent of the parties whose rights will be affected. — (P. H., s. 166.) For the purpose of giving urban authorities facilities for establishing and regulating mar- kets, the provisions of the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act, 1847, are incorporated with the Public Health Act, 1875, so far as i-elates to the holding of the market or fair and the pro- tection thereof, to the weighing goods and carts, and to bylaws. All market tolls must be approved of by the Local Government Board. There also exist powers by which an urban authority can buy the undertaking of a marr ket company. — (P. H., s. 106-168.) Marriage— It would appear, from the inquiries of M. Bertillon, that the influence of the conjugal association, whether on the health or the morality of both sexes, is con- siderable. It is only, however, in France, Belgium, and Holland that ofiBcial documents allow of an appreciation of the differences of the con- ditions which prevail with respect to celibates, the married, and the widowed, according to age, sex, and nationality. As to the men, it is fovind that from twenty- five to thirty years the married furnish 6 deaths, celibates 10, and widowers 22 deaths per 1000 ; from thirty to thirty-five years the deaths are respectively 7, 11, and 19 per 1000 ; and from thirty-five to forty years, 7J, 13, and 17^ per 1000 ; and so on for all other ages. The married man continues to have greater powers of vitality and dies less easily than the celibate. This cannot be explained by the fact that the class of married men comprises, as a rule, those who are better off in regard to worldly fortune, who are more prudent, or who lead a more regular life than others ; for how ou this assumption can we explain the (compara- tively) great mortality which prevails among the widowers of all ages, and of all countries ? From a careful examination of the French, Belgian, and Dutch returns during ten years, it is found that ver;/ early marriages do not follow this rule ; for of 8000 men who marry before twenty in France, and whose mortality before marriage was hardly 7 per 1000, the mortality rises after marriage to 50 per 1000, young married men from eighteen to twenty years dying at the same rate as aged men of from sixty-five to seventy. In women the advantage derived from mar- riage does not show itself until after twenty- five, and is scarcely remarked until thirty. From thirty to thirty-five the deaths amongst spinsters are 11, and only 9 per 1000 amongst wives ; the difference increases until fifty-five, beyond which age the advantage diminishes somewhat. From fifty to fifty-five, wives exhibit but 15 or 16 deaths per 1000, while spinsters or widows furnish 26 or 27. Prior to twenty-five years for France, and twenty years for Paris, marriage is injurious to the vitality of women, the mortality of spinsters from fifteen to twenty being 7 '53, and of wives 11 '86 per 1000; and of spinsters from twenty to twenty-five, 8 22, of wives 9 '92 per 1000. The effect of widowhood on the mortality of women is singular, more particularly in Paris. From the age of twenty-five to thirty it is mischievous ; for while but 9 deaths per 1000 were furnished by maids and wives of these ages, in widows the figures rose to 17 per 1000. But in France, and especially in Paris, this mortality soon diminishes, and after forty-five it is not greater than in maids of that age. At this age it is the mothers who are most spared by death., " The calcu- lation of probabilities," says M. Bertillon, shows us that the man who marries between twenty to twenty-five has yet a mean of forty years to live in place of thirty-five years, and that the girl who marries at the same age has forty years of life to hope for in place of thirty-sixj which she would liave lived un- married — the one adding five years to his exist- ehce, and the other four years to hers." The influence that marriage exerts in rela- tion to criminality is also singular. For 100 criminal celibates there are but 49 married as MAB (358) ]SAIt regards crimes against the person, and only 45 in crimes against property ; and not only does this enormous disparity exist, but in the gradual diminution of criminality which has taken place since 1840 the married have borne the largest part. The criminality of widowers, and especially of widows, is generally some- what in excess of that of the married. The number of suicides among celibates and the widowhood is about double that which takes place among the married. Insanity also appears to aSect the married in a still less proportion. Marshes — To define accurately what a marsh is, is not easy ; but marshes must not be confounded with peat-bogs, for the latter never produce marsh fevers and agues, al- though the cold and wet may induce rheumat- ism. We shall in this article give the term " marsh" a wider significance than is generally accorded to it, and, consider under it all places from which miasmas are exhaled — ponds, lakes, mouths and banks of rivers, canals, ditches, reservoirs, rivulets, and some parts of the sea-coast. It is during the months of July, August, and September that the vapours rising from marshes are most pernicious, and they are found to be excessively active when both summer and autumn are remarkable for heat and humidity. A saturated soil gives off a larger quantity of effluvia than one that is either completely submerged or very dry. When a deep layer of water covers the marsh, the miasmatic vapours almost cease to form ; and when the ground is hard and dry, the marsh miasm is in some places succeeded by a subtle brilliant dust, which with the slight- est breeze rises in a choking cloud, like the sandy particles of the Great Desert driven before the hurricane. In such cases a true mirage is not unfrequent. Dr. Ancelon took some curious and in- structive observations in the vicinity of the Lake of Luidre (La Meurthe). He found that when the lake was filling, intermittent fever was prevalent in the neighbourhood, that typhoid raged when it contained its ordinary amount of water, and that in the dry state fever was usually met with in » malignant form. In the marshes of Normandy much the same effects have beeg observed. Malaria, raised by the solar rays, diffuses itself during the day, and at night, as the dew condenses, it falls ; and it is at this time that its effects on man and animals are most marked and deleterious. The vapours arising from marshy soils are carried by the winds; and Dr. Le Fbvre affirms that the miasma proceeding from the marshes of Brouage is carried as far as Roche- fort, a distance of 7 or 8 kilometres (a kilo- metre =1093 -633 yards). Marennes, a town which is surrounded by marshes, is alternately preserved or attacked, according to the direction of the wind. — (MSlier.) In a calm air, Levy has supposed that the malaria will spread until it occupies' a cube of 1400 to 2000 feet, which is equivalent to say- ing that it will spread 700 to 1000 feet hori- zontally from the central point of the marsh. But currents of air take it great distances, though the best observations show that these distances are less than were supposed, and seldom exceed 1 or 2 miles, unless the air- currents are rapid and strong. The precise limits are unknown, but it is very doubtful if the belief in transference of malaria by air- currents for 10, 20, or even 100 miles is cor- rect. — (Parkbs.) Salt water will stop the spread of the miasma better than fresh. In the Channel 3000 feet stopped it, in China J of a nule, and in the West Indies 1 mile. M. Pluvis, in his excellent treatise on this subject, states that if ponds occupy -j^ part of the soil of a district, the action of the miasma is felt on a ^^ of it. The following gases are usually found in the air of marshes : Carbonic acid, "6 to '8 per 1000 volumes. Watery vapour in large quantity. Sulphuretted hydrogen ; if the water of the marsh contains sulphates, which in presence of organic matter are converted into sulphur- ets, from which SH^ is derived by the action of vegetable acids. Carburetted hydrogen. Free hydrogen. Ammonia. Phosphoretted hydrogen. Vanguelin (1810), De Lisle, Moscati (1818), Bonssingault (1829-39), Gigot (1859), Beoohi (1861), have aU described organic matter as , being present in considerable quantity in the air of marshes. This organic matter, when collected in sufficient quantity for examina- tion, is flocculent, has a powerful marshy odour, contains nitrogen, and reduces nitrate of silver. It is not destroyed by ozone. It is said to have the property of decomposing quinine. The air also contains innumerable insects, infusoria, &c. It would appear well estab- lished that in the air of the marshes near Borne, the spores and sporangia of an algoid plant are found in quantity ; and Balestra attributes marsh fever to this cause, but proof is yet wanting. Ozone is not absent from marsh air, as was once supposed ; indeed, stagnant waters are often highly oxygenated, the dissolved air containing 61 per cent, of oxygen. A slight degree of elevation will frequently MAB, ( 359 ) ' MAR — although the spot may be surrounded by marshes — give some immunity from malaria, but complete security is only obtained at greater heights. The elevation of perfect security in differ- ent parts of the world appears to be, accord- ing to Carrifere— ^ Feet. Italy ■ 400 to 50O America (Appalachia) . 3000 California . . 1000 India . ' . . . . 2000 to 2600 West Indies 1400 to 1800, up to 2200 Humboldt said that in Mexico the fever did not trouble those who were 900 metres above the marshes (metre = 3'280899 feet). The effect of marshes on the population in their neighbourhood is most marked. " Wher- ever," says Siminot, "the marsh miasm exists, man is put into the dilemma either to remove the cause or to be annihilated." Those whose constitution is remarkable for vigour may for some time resist the insidious influ- ences of the miasmic vapours, but all author- ities are agreed that acclimatisation is abso- lutely impossible. Animals suffer equally with man, and large cattle quickly disappear from marshy countries. Wherever these malari- ous vapours exist, the mean length of life is notably reduced. Hausset and Price state that it does not exceed twenty-six years. Condorcet places it at only eighteen years. Indeed, we know from actual statistics that from 1790 to 1799 the mean duration of life at Eoohefort, which is surrounded by a marshy country, was only nineteen years. Bequerel has also strikingly illustrated the unfor- tunate truthfulness of these calculations. And lastly, Melier, in his "Eapport sur les Marais salants," states that in certain com- munes of the department Charente - InfS- rieure the mortality from malaria is 1 in 13. The mortality is highest in infants and children, and that the great number of these deaths are caused by miasmatic vapours is supported by the fact, that the mortality is greater in those months when the poison is most active. In marshy districts the deaths exceed the births ; and notwithstanding that immigration takes place, the population of Kochefort has been diminished annually by 360. Even in singularly healthy seasons 1 man in 3 of our British troops in India is attacked by malarious fevers, and it is an historical fact that every officer and man of Sir C. Napier's army of 17,000 suffered more or less acutely from the same affections. Dr. Fayrer of Calcutta relates a case in. which a young, muscular, temperate Englishman died in a few hours from the effects of mala- rious poisoniag. Much has been said concerning the preser- vative effects of warm clothing, nourishing food, tobacco, and the cinchona principles but although these may somewhat mitigate thf danger, the only satisfactory way to strike at the root of the evil is to thoroughly in- undate or dry up the malarial soil. In Soiogne they have recovered the marshes by canal irrigation, lining the earth with chalk, and planting woods in the vicinity. Large tracts of marshy ground have by means of drain- age, worked by steam or windmills, been ren- dered safe, valuable, and productive. Mante- gazza recommends that such plants as cherry- laurel, clove, lavender, narcissus, hyacinth, and mignonette be cultivated near marshes. These plants develop in the direct rays of the sun ozone, and he is sanguine that this ozone would prove beneficial in counteracting mias- matic vapours. Miasma. — Pettenkofer defines miasma to be " an infectious matter arising outside the body," in contradistinction to contagion, which he declares to he a "specific infectious matter arising within the body of the person." The question of the real nature of miasma has given rise to much discussion, voluminous treatises, and numberless theories ; and at the present time considerable controversy exists on this subject, many denying altogether the existence of any specific miasmatic poison. It was noticed by the ancients that the air at certain times and under certain circum- stances possessed the power of disarranging greatly the animal economy, and Varro, in his book "De Re Eustica," attributes the cause to insects which are produced spontaneously where the waters become marshes, and pene- trate into the organs. Such was for a long tinie the general opinion. *' I have said that the smell of the marshes was considered by the ancients as the cause cf fever, and one reason is that those who are attacked are always those who have been ex- posed at night to the influence of the air, but more particularly at the approach of night or the first twilight of morning— properly speak- ing, at the time of the formation of the dew ; and this is the time when the smell is most in- tense." — (II Miasma Palustre; Lezioni di Chimica Igienica, date nell' Istituto provin- ciale de Mantova, a Antonio Selmi. Padova, 1870.) Sir James Pringle, who accompanied the British army in the Netherlands (1743-48), and who saw much of intermittent and remittent fevers, concluded that they were due to " the heat and moisture of the air." Lind, who had many opportunities of ob- serving remittent fever in Bengal in 1762, while regarding malaria as due to vegetable TWAK - (360) SEAT decomposition, adds that "violent heat is a powerful exciting cause of this fever ;" and he further adds that "sudden cold in hot marshy countries is to be reckoned, next to the marsh miasmata, as the strongest exciting cause of this disorder ; and many are of opinion that cold alone, providing the body be sufficiently predisposed, is sufficient to generate a disorder perfectly like that which is produced by the marsh miasmata." Ferguson, Morehead, and other authorities imagine that the result of prolonged action of the sun's rays on a marshy surface is the production of malaria, the poison being most intense when the dryiiig of the ground begins. Parkes, while laying great stress on the internal predisposition, says that the external cause of malarious fevers is presumed to be decomposing vegetable matter derived from a moist and putrescent soil ; and he also believes that they may be caused by the water used for drinking. For malaria to exist, there is little doubt that there must be some organic im- purity in the soil ; the soil itself must be porous, damp, and of a certain temperature. The malarious agent, whatever its nature, may be presumed to be contained in the " groond-air." If such be the case, the malaria would be most intense in times of heavy rain, with, of course, rise in the ground-water ; least in dry weather, and a sinking or aspirat- ing ground-water. This view is generally borne out by facts. There are many theories with regard to the actual nature of the marsh poison, and the question is still unsettled. Dr. Salisbury^ an American physician, writ- ing in 1866, considered the cause of malarious fevers to reside in the spores of gemiasma, a form of algoid vegetation resembling pal- mellae. These vegetations, he said, be found abundant in marshy places ; and he likewise affirmed that he had detected them in the sputa and urine of patients suffering from the disease. They cause a dry, feverish, constricted feeling in the mouth, fauces, and throat, which soon become parched and hot. He also found that the cryptogamio spores rise and are suspended in the cold damp exhalations from the soil after the sun has set, and that they fall again to the earth when the sun has risen ; and that the day air of malarial districts is quite free from these spores, and never gives rise to intermittent fevers. Professor Niemeyer has "no hesitation in saying decidedly that marsh miasma— malaria — must consist of low vegetable organisms whose development is chiefly due to the putrefaction of vegetable substances. " Antonio Selmi, whose work, published at Padua, 1870, we have previously referred to, reasons that the cause of malarious fevers can- not be a gas. "Having," he says, "in one night, at a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.), collected 670 cubic centimetres of liquid, I concluded that as every cubic centimetre had a specific gravity of 1'004, the liquid had been taken from 137 cubic metres of air (a cubic metre of air, according to Pouillet, containing 4 '9] grammes of vapour of water). The water was examined. After allowing it to stand, it was found by the microscope to contain a deposit ; this was formed of a multitude of seeds of algae, and myriads of microscopic infusorisB swimming. This, my first observa- tion, was confirmed at the same time by Dr. Pietro Balestra at Borne. . . . He uses these words, ' In the microscope the condensed dew exhibits only a surprising quantity of spores and sporanges.'" Mr. C. F. Oldham, M.R.C.P.E., Assistant- Surgeon H.IVI. Indian Forces, has recently published a work entitled " What is Ma- laria?" He affirms that malaria, as a spe- cific poison, does not exist, but tlmt the cause of tlie disease attributed to it is chill, or in other words, the sudden abstraction of animal heat, and he supports this theory with some force. He fully endorses the late Dr. Liv- ingstone's view, that "the best preven- tives against fever are plenty of interest- ing work to do, abundance of wholesome food to eat, and the being well housed and well clothed." The Italian physician Minzi, in his treatise ' ' Sopra la Genese delle Fehbri Intermittent!," Borne, 1844, takes a precisely similar view of malarious fevers. He contends that fluctua- tions between intense midday heat and even- ing damp chills rob the body of the power of resisting cold, and that the ague fit is a. reaction from chill. Fires are the preven- tive ; but how, he asks, can ii. fire neutralise poisonous air? — (Medical Times and Gazette, March 1871.) See Aode; Fevbbs, Mala- mons, &c. V/latches—See Phosphorus. niate (Paraguay tea) — Matfi, or Paraguay tea, is derived from the dried leaves of the Ilex Paraguayensis, or Brazilian holly, a plant belonging to the same tribe as the hoUy of this country. Mat6 resembles somewhat Chinese tea, but it is a mistake to imagine that it is a substitute for that article. The leaves of the Brazilian holly, as imported, resemble in appearance those of senna, as met with in the druggist's shop. An infusion has a yellowish-brown appearance, and the taste is not unpleasant. It is a curious and in- HEA (361) MEA teresting fact that it contains an active principle, formerly called paragvaine, which ia identical with theine and caffeine. Author- ities differ as to the proportion of theine contained in this tea; some ohservers put- ting it at 1"20 per cent., while others say that it is as little as from '13 to "44 per cent. An aqueous extract contains other nitrogenous matter besides theine, 10 grammes of the tea yielding to water a solution from which '005 grammes of ammonia is obtainable on boiling with alkaline permanganate. (For process, see Tea.) The following is Mr. Wanklyn's analysis of this substance ; — Moisture . Ash. Soluble organic matter . Insoluble organic matter 6-72 5-86 25-10 62-32 100-00 Measles — An eruptive fever. The erup- tion appears in crops of a -crimson rash, con- sisting of slightly elevated minute dots disposed in a somewhat crescentio form. The duration of the disease is from nine to twelve days. In mild uncomplicated measles the disease begins like a common cold, with run- ning at the eyes and nose, and cough. The temperature at the fifth day may attain, but seldom exceeds, 109° F. , and defervescence is completed by the tenth. There are two distinct varieties of measles — viz., the mild kind, Morhilli mitiores, and the severe, MorbilU graviores. The latter form is characterised by its great fatality ; it is of a malignant type, and the eruption is fre- quently black. It is not often seen now, but was common in the middle ages. Essential Nature of the Disease. — A living animal germ is absorbed into the blood and there multiplies, just as in smallpox and the other exanthemata. Propagation. — It is essentially contagious and infectious, and never arises de iiovo. A striking exemplification of this occurred in the year 1824. Prior to that year, the measle germ, considered for the sake of illustration as a minute animal, was to all intents and pur- poses as extinct in the island of Malta as the mammoth ; but some children of the 95th Regiment imported it into the island, and it spread so extensively that many of the natives died. The poison hangs to clothing, to the walls of rooms, and infects the air, so that by that medium alone it has travelled some distance. No age appears exempt, but it is more frequent in children than in adults. So common is measles in this country that it is regarded by many mothers, who by their education ought to know better, as a natural and inevitable disease of childhood ; and at a favourable time of year healthy children are frequently and deliberately placed with those affected, in order that they may take the disease. The great complication to be feared in measles is catarrhal pneumonia and other affections of . the chest : it is to the absence or presence of this complication that the variations in mortality in different years are due. In 1851 the proportion of deaths from measles in every 1000 deaths was 24107 ; in 1852, 14-599; in 1853, 11-818; and in 1854, 21-463. Or if we take the actual numbers for ten years — e.g. , 1862-71— the same variation is seen— 1862, 9800 ; 1863, 11,349 ; 1864, 8323 ; 1865, 8562 ; 1866, 10,940 ; 1867, 6588 ; 1868, 11,630; 1869, 10,309; 1870, 7543; 1871, 9293 — the average number of deaths for the whole ten years being 9413 deaths. Particular institutions show the same thing. Watson says that in one year at the Foundling Hospital 1 in 10 died, and another 1 in 3. . It would appear, speaking generally, to be mure fatal in towns than in the country. Predisposing Causes and Prevention. — All overcrowding, insanitary conditions, and cold weather predispose to the disease. The poison is probably contained for the most part in the profuse discharges from the nose and eyes, in the expectoration from the chest, and in emanations from the skin. The means, there- fore, to be taken to prevent the propagation of the disorder are— 1. Isolation as far as practicable. 2. The use of rags to wipe away and receive discharges from nose, &c., which rags when used must at once be burnt. 3. Smearing over the whole body with oil, to which a little carbolic acid has been added. 4. Disinfection of all excreta. 5. Thorough disinfection of all things used by the sick upon convalescence or death, a complete change of clothes, &c. 6. In case of death, early and quick burial. 7. Prevention, by a careful watch, of the pernicious and illegal practice of placing a healthy child with one suffering from measles. See Disinfection, &c. Meat— In this article we shaU consider generally, beef, mutton, veal, lamb, pork, bacon, and venison. In London, the indoor operatives eat it to the extent of 14 '8 oz. per adult weekly ; 70 per cent, of English farin- labourers consume it to the extent of 16 oz. per man weekly. 60 per cent, of the Scotch, 30 of the Welsh, and 20 of the Irish also eat it.— (Lethebt.) HEA (362) TULEA Dr. Wynter has computed that in London as much as 30J oz. per head weekly, or about 4J oz. per day for every man, woman, and child, is consumed. Bondin states that the amount consumed in France is 50 grammes daily per head (gramme = 15 '432348 grains). Meat differs very much in its nutritive value, according to the quantity of fat and lean. The lean of all meat has much the same nutritive value. Meat supplies the body with nitrogen, with fat, with iron, and with salts, such as the chlorides, phosphates, and carbonates of the alkalies, besides which, probably certain organic'acids, which on incineration appear in the ash as carbonates. Oxen, according to M. Bizet, yield of best- quality beef 57 per cent, meat, ani 43 per cent, waste. The waste includes the internal viscera, &o. Second-quality beef, 54 per cent, meat, and 46 per cent, waste ; thirdrquaMty beef, 51 per cent, meat, and 49 per cent, waste. In milking cows, 46 per cent, meat, and 54 per cent, waste. Calves yield 60 per cent, meat, and 40 per cent, loss; and sheep yield 50 per cent, meat, and 50 per cent. loss. The following table, compiled from Letheby, Banke, &c., shows the compositions of the various kinds of meat : — Cooked Meat, roast, no Dripping lost. Boiled assumed to be the same (Eahkb).' i 1 i 1 d -s ft i 1 a a Nitrogenous matter. 27 '6 19-3 14-8 18-3 12-4 16-3 9-8 8-8 7-1 Fat . . . . . 15-45 3-6 29-8 4-9 31-1 15-8 48-9 73-3 66-8 Saline matter . 2-95 5-1 4-4 4-8 3-5 4-7 2-3 2-9 2-1 Water .... 54-00 72-0 51-0 72-0 53 630 39 15-0 240 Parkes gives the following as the composi- tion of fresh beef (Moleschott, mean of all the Continental analyses), remarking that the pro- portion of fat given is certainly too small : — Water .... 734 Soluble albumen and hsematin 2-25 Insoluble albuminous substances 15-2 (xelatinous substances . 3-3 Fat ... . 2-87 Extractive matters 1-38 Creatine 068 Ash . . . 1-6 The amount of bone in meat varies from about 8 to 10 per cent., but in the shin and leg of beef it amounts to one-third or even one-half the total weight. The ordinary loss in cooking meat is from 20 to 30 per cent., but occasionally it is as much as 40 per cent. See Cooking. The flesh of young animals is more tender than that of old, but it is not so easily di- gested. Animals of middle age afford the most easily assimilated beef. The flesh of the largest breeds of oxen is in greatest per- fection at about seven years old, that of the smaller breeds a year or two earlier. Cow beef can hardly be too young. Wether mutton is best at four or five years old, ewe mutton at about two years old. The flesh of the female animal is gener- ally more tender than that of the male, but the latter is greatly improved by cas- tration. In the process of slaughtering, the animal is drained as fa* as possible of its blood. The Jews are particularly strict on this point ; their regulations are such as to secure to the fullest extent the removal of the blood, and they will not partake of any animal food which has not been killed by a slaughterer of their own persuasion. Pig's, and occasionally bullock's blood, is used for making black puddings. It will not be necessary to treat separately each descrijition of meat, their characteristics being so generally known. In the article DIOESTIBILITT, &c., the ease or difficulty with which each is assimilated will be seen ; and we have also devoted articles to the consideration of Baooit, Livbk, Kid- ney, &o., to which we refer the reader. Meat, considered generally, may be divided mio fresh and salt. Salting alters the com- position of meat, much impairing its nutritive value, but not to so great an extent as was formerly imagined. The following tables show the results of several analyses of fresh and salted meat : — XCEA (363) STEA Composition of Uncooked, Meat, Presh and Dried. Beef. Suited Beef. Freah. Driea. Fresh. Dried. Water 75 90 { 15-70 1-01 2-25 2-06 2-95 0-13 63-14 4-19 9-34 8-55 12-24 0-64 49-11 24-82 0-18 0-70 3-28 21-07 0-84 Fibrine and cellular tissue Eat 48-78 0-35 Extractives Soluble salts Loss 6-44 41-31) 1-66 100-00 lOO-OO 100-00 100-00 Phosphoric acid, per 100 parts . Nitrogen, do ^ 0-222 3-000 0-489 0-925 12-578 2 03 0'618 4-62 11-616 2-216 9-101 The results oT these several analyses may be thus expressed : — Preflh Meat. Sftlt Beef. Water . . 75 -bq 49-11 Solid mattei-s 24-10 60-89 Nitrogen Phosphoric acid 100-00 3-031 229 100-00 4-631 0-618 Composition of Fresh and Dried Meat cooked with Vegetables. Super- Auous Liquor drained OCT. Dried at 212" F. Super- flUOUB Liquor drained off. Dried at 212° F. Water Salt . Organic matters 6-90 2-20 90-20 2-363 97-657 6 80 4-40; 88-80 4'-721 96-279 100-00 100-000 100 00 100-000 Phosphoric acid, per loo parts . Nitrogen, do . Salt, do, . 1 0-269 10-67 479 0-289 11-460 0-615 802 11-818 1-775 0-86 12680 1-90 Composition of the " Soup " resulting from the boU- ing of Fresh and American Salted Beef. Fresh Beef. Salted Beef. WithSslt, : dried at 212« p ■Without Salt.dried at 212" F. ■WithSaat, dried at 21^" F. -Without Salt.dried at 212= F. Water . Salt Organic matters 43-083 66-917 12-13 87-87 42"l22 67-878 16-454 83-646 - 100-000 100-00 100-000 100-000 Phosphoric acid, per 100 parts . Nitrogen, do. Salt, do. - 1-003 3-511 38 352 1-52 2-868 1-333 1-65 3-151 35-18 2-21 3-08 6-6027 The following is the composition of the brine in which the American salted beef is brought over : — Composition ofl Litre of Brine, Water . . . 622-250 Albumen . . - . 12-300 Other organic matters 34-050 Phosphoric acid . , 4-812 Marine salt . . 290-071 Other saline matters . 36-577 1000-000 Nitrogen, per cent, of dry extract 2-669 Brine has occasionally proved poisonous in instances where it has been employed several times. Animal matters -which liave passed into it appear to decompose, but no special poisonous agent has been separated. Salted beef is remarkable for the large amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and the small quantity of fat, it contains. It is also deficient in albumen. In examining results obtained from analyses, it is important to re- member that the amount of nutritious sub- stances -which the chemist may succeed in extracting from a given food is not always a measure of that which the stomach can utilise. The amount of energy developed by 1 gramme of fresh meat equals 604 kilogrammes, or 1 oz. would raise 55 tons 1 foot high. See Energy. Diseases of Meat. — The diseases are almost as numerous and as varied as those of man. The principal ones which render the flesh un- wholesome are as follows : — 1. Parasitic — e.g.^ phthisis, produced in sheep by the ova of the Strongyltis filaria ; the jluke disease of the same animal, caused by the Distoma hepaticum; the Cysticercus cellulosce of the pig; and trichince, aifecting many domestic animals. 2. Specific fevers — as the smallpox of sheep, the plague of cattle, the foot-and-mouth disease, &c. 3. Other aj^ections — such as epidemic pleuro- pneumonia, carbunculous affections, abscesses, &o. Animals afiiected with any of the above disorders can hardly be considered suitable for consumption. Effects of Diseased, Putrid, and Mouldy Meat. — Diseased meat is frequently eaten — considering the large number of unhealthy animals yearly sent to the market — without injurious effects ; but, on the other hand, the most alarming symptoms are often induced by such meat being used, and occasionally by eating flesh which to all appearance is per- fectly healthy. The Scotch herdsman, first cutting away the darker portions of the flesh and salting the remainder, readily eats the meat of sheep which have died from braxy ; and notwithstanding that this meat has been pronounced by high authorities to be exces- sively injurious, he -will tell you that it is quite wholesome. Labourers in this country 3SXEA (364) ntEA frequently eat the fiesh of sheep affected with staggers, and of animals dying of acute in- flammatory diseases. Tardieu relates that three hundred army horses affected with glanders (morve) were led to St Germain, near Paris, and liilled. For several days they served to feed the poor of the town without causing any injury to health. The same thing happened some years afterwards in the Bois de Vinoennes, when the professors of L'Eoole d'Alfort killed a number of horses attacked with glanders and farcy. The in- habitants of the neighbouring villages freely partook of the flesh of these horses, and no case of illness followed. During the siege of Paris glandered horses were eaten without injurious effects following. M. Coze tells us that the entire population of Strasburg in 1S15 ate of the meat of oxen attacked with a malady which he designates typhus {i.e., rin- derpest), without any apparent inconvenience resulting. Dr. Brucke, Professor of Physi- ology at Vienna, tells us that when the steppe- murrain was prevalent in Bohemia, the poor people dug up the bodies of those animals which had died from this disease, and which had by order of the Government been buried, and ate the flesh without experiencing any iU-effeots. Many people eat, and indeed pre- fer, the livpr of sheep full of flukes. During the cattle plague in this country, there can be no doubt that a very large number of animals affected with the rinderpest were eaten ; and Professor Gamgee assures us that at least one-fifth of the meat which is sold in the public markets is diseased. It is evident from this that the human stomach has mar- vellous protective power, and it is highly pro- bable that the operation of cooking renders most bad meat harmless. There is no danger in eating the flesh of ani- mals whose death has resulted from accident. Liebig notices a case in which a family of five persons were made seriously ill by the flesh of a roebuck that had been caught in a snare, and had struggled violently before death. The flesh of animals that have been excited before death by overdriving or by torture has frequently proved unwholesome, and Professor Gamgee states that the flesh of overdriven animals often contains a poison which produces eczema on the skin of those who handle it. The flesh of animals in the ea/r!y stage of acute infia/mmatory disease, — The meat is apparently not altered, and if the blood be all taken from the body, it is wholesome. In chronic wasting diseases — phthisis, drops;/, &c.— the flesh is said to give rise to sickness and diarrhoea, and if decomposed, severe gastro-in'testinal derangement. What effect epidemic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle may have upon the meat is uncertain. Farkes has been informed on good authority that the Kaffirs ate their cattle, when de- stroyed by the epidemic lung disease which prevailed at the Cape som^ years ago, without injury. Dr. Livingstone, however, says that when eaten in South Africa, by either natives or Europeans, it invariably produces malig- nant carbuncle ; and he says that the virus is neitlier destroyed by boiling nor by roasting. " Now, it is a remarkable circumstance that ever since the importation of this disease (pleuro-pneumonia) into England from Holland in 1S42, the annual number of deaths from carbuncle, phlegmon, and boils has been gradually increasing. In the five years pre- ceding that time, the mortality in England from carbuncle was scarcely 1 in 10,000 of deaths ; from 1842 to 1846 there is no record of disease, but in the next five years, from 1846 to 1851, the mortality rose to 2'6 per 10,000 of the deaths, and in the next five years it amounted to 62 per 10,000, and in the succeeding five years to 5'4 per 10,000. In the case of phlegmons, the increase in the mortality is stiU more remarkable ; for it rose from an average of 2'5 per 10,000 of the deaths in the five years preceding the importation of the disease, to 81 per 10,000 in the ten years from 1847 to 1856."— (Lethebt.) Anthrax and malignant pustule.— 'Ramuz, Lancisi, Chaussier, Menschel, Parent-Duch&- telet, and the Belgian Academy of Medicine;, have all spoken of the bad effects which have followed the eating of the flesh of animals so attacked. The evidence concerning the effects of the meat of braxy sheep is of a most contra- dictory nature, and the only point on which writers on this subject appear to agree is that, as before said, many of the shepherds in the Highlands of Scotland eat it with impunity. Smallpox meat of sheep is said to produce sickness and diarrhoea, but we have no very satisfactory evidence on this point. Foot-and-mouth disease. — The flesh of ani- mals so suffering has been eaten without ill- effects following. The evidence on the other side is of a very vague and uncerijain nature. Cattle plague (rinderpest, typhus con- tagio8Us).—'We have already referred to the fact that' at Strasburg and in Bohemia this flesh has been eaten, without bad results fol- lowing. Eenault, the director of the veterinary school at Alfort, asserts that there is no danger froha the cooked flesh of cattle, pigs, or sheep dead of any contagious disease. — (Paekes.) Pork-pies and sausages become poisonous from the formation in them of some unknown MEA (365) MEA substance. In "Wurtemberg as many as 150 persons have died during the last fifty years from eating such sausages. M. Tanden Corput, ■who has examined this subject, at- tributes the poisonous effects to the presence of a fungus which becomes developed in the sausage, and which he calls Sa/rcina botulina. Whatever may be the opinion of the effects likely to be produced by eating diseased meat, there can be no doubt, that taking meat in- fected with parasitic disease is attended with great danger. Putrid meat is frequently eaten without causing inconvenience, but ^t may give rise to gastro - intestinal disorder — vomiting, diar- rhoea, and great depression.* But frequently after eating meat, and espe- cially pork, which is free from putrescence, and in which no disease can be detected, people have been attacked with this same gastro-intestinal disorder. Letheby mentions that in Crzaut's " History of Greenland" there is an account of the death of thirty-two per- sons at a missionary station called Kangek, from a repast on the putrid brains ofa walrus. Accidents occasionally happen from animals eating poisoned grain. It is a common prac- tice to steep grain in solution of arsenic pre- vious to sowing; and the flesh of birds which have eaten of this' often proves highly dele- terious. Animals which have during life been treated with antimony, when eaten often pro- duce injurious effects. Inspection of Meat and Animals. — An ox should weigh not less than 600 lbs., and will range from this to 1200 lbs.; a heifer from .350 to 400 lbs.; a full-grown sheep from 60 to 90 lbs. ; aud (but this varies in different breeds) a full-grown pig from 100 to 188 lbs., or more. The common method employed in this country tor taking the weight of oxen, &c., is to obtain the dimensions of the animal in cubic feet, by measuring the length along a line commencing just in front of the scapula, and the circumference taken just behind the scapula. Each cubic foot is supposed to weigh 42 lbs. avoirdupois. The formula is (C X "08) X L X 42. The fat of the animal is best felt on the false ribs and tuberosities of the ischium, and the line of the belly from the sternum. The skin should be supple, and the flesh firm and elastic. The nasal mucous membrane red, moist, and healthy-looking ; th6 eye bright ; the coat in good condition ; the respiration * It is possible that the effects of putrid animal substances are due to the development of some poi- sonous alkaloid; for F. Selmi (Deut. Chem. G-es. Ber., vi. 142), EBi-sch and Fassbender (ibid., vii. 1064), and "W. Schwanery have all extracted from putrid livers, spleens, &c., a liquid alkaloid, the properties of which have not yet been fully investigated. regular, and not possessing a foetid odour ; and the excreta natural in appearance. Meat should be inspected not later than twenty-four hours after it has been killed, 20 per cent, may be allowed for bone. The fat should not be excessive in quantity, and should be firm and healthy-looking. The lungs and liver should be examined ; and to detect the cattle plague, the mouth, stomach, or in- testines must be seen. For discovering parasites in meat a micro- scope will usually be necessary, A low power wUl bring into view, should they be present, either cysticerci or trichinae. To detect the latter, take a thin slice of flesh of the pig, put it into liquor potassae (1 part to 8 of water), and let it stand for a few minutes, until the muscle becomes clear. The white specks are now easily seen, and the worm will be discovered coiled up. — (Pabkes.) In salting beef only common salt should be employed, and no saltpetre, &c., used. Par- tially putrefied meat will always remain soft, notwithstanding any amount of salting, and there may be putrefactive odour and a green- ish colour. Bad -smelling sausages should always be condemned. Good meat has the following characters (Letheby): — 1. It is neither of a pale pink colour nor of a deep purple tint ; for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter indicates that the animal has not been slaughtered, but has dried with the blood in it, or has suffered from acute fever. 2. It has a marbled appearance, from the ramifications of little veins of fat among the muscles. 3. It should be firm and elastic to the touch, and should scarcely moisten the fingers, and the juice should be distinctly acid ; bad meat being wet and sodden and flabby, with the fat looking like jelly or wet parchment. 4. It should have little or no odour, and what is perceptible should not be disagree- able ; for diseased meat has a sickly cadaverous smell, and sometimes a smell of physic. This is very discoverable when the meat is chopped up and drenched with warm water. 5. It should not run to water or become very wet on standing for a day or so, but should, on the contrary, dry upon the surface. 6. When dried at a temperature of 212° or thereabout, it should not lose more than from 70 to 74 per cent, of its weight, whereas bad meat will often lose as much as 80 per cent. 7. It should not shrink or waste much in cooking. To assist in judging of the freshness of meat, a clean knife may be passed into it and applied to the nose on withdrawal. In this MEA (366) MEA way the condition of the centre may be ascer- tained. Butchers not unfrequently rub bad and diseased meat over with fat to give it the appearance of healthy flesh. If the meat is at all suspicious, the muscular fibre should be examined under the microscope. The fibre of bad meat is found to be sodden and ill-defined. For legislative measures relative to the seizing and inspecting of unwholesoine meat, see Food, Inspection op; Inspeotok oe Nuisances, Ddtiesof; Medical OpricBE OP Health, Duties of; Slaughter-Houses,. &c. Meat, Australian — Meat imported from Australia in air-tight tins hermetically sealed. There are two serious objections to this meat — ^the one is that it is invariably overcooked, from the desire to ensure the complete ex- clusion of atmospheric air ; and the second, that the tins often crack from the constant pressure of the atinosphere, there being a vacuum within them. But this difiiculty has been by some companies obviated by the in- troduction of inert gases, as carbonic acid, nitrogen, &c. Mr. Ogilvie has recently made some analyses of Australian and home mutton ; the results we append. — (Chemical News, April 24, 1874.) Water. No. Per cent 1 . 69-26) 2 61-48 ■ Australian. 3 61-57. 62-69 Home mutton Fat. 10; Per cent. 1 19-62^ 2 14-b-.2 S- Australian. 3 15-79J 28-88 Home mutton Extractive Matters. « Alcoholic -Watery m„.„, 1 2-47. 4-47 6-941 2 2-87 4-06 6-92 V 3 .1-12 8-82 6-95 ) 2-28 1-85 4-13 Australian. Home mutton. Albwmen and Fibrine. The albumen in preserved mutton being rendered insoluble by boiling, it cannot be separated from the fibrine. No. 1 2 Per cent. 14-6 1 16-92 J. 16-39J 14-40 Home mutton. Australian. Mineral Matters. No. Soluble Insoluble. TotaL 1 0-654 0-444 1-098 -1 2 1-019 0-543 1-669 l Australian. 3 0-705 0-160 0-865 J 0-303 015i) 0-463 Home mutton. DIeat, Extract of— Liebig's extraclum carnig must not be considered as an article of nutrition, but being very rich in flavouring matter, it is useful for imparting additional flavour to soup, &c. It possesses some stimu- lant and restorative properties which render it useful in exhausted states of the system ; but it contains no albumen, gelatine, or fat, and may be said to comprise the salines of the meat with various extractive principles, a con- siderable portion of which probably consists of products in a state of retrograde metamor- phosis, and of no use as nutritive agents. The fact that 34 lbs. of meat only yield 1 lb. of extract shows its poverty in those substances which render meat valuable as a dietetic agent. The following table gives the composition of a few of the extracts of meat of commerce : — Water Extractive, soluble in alcohol . Extractive, insoluble Mineral matter. Liebig's [Company. Tooth, Sydney. I'rench Company, South America. Whitehead. Twenty- man. 18-56 45-43 13-93 22-08 16-00 53-00 13-00 18-00 17 06 51-28 10-57 21-09 16 50 28-00 46-00 9-50 24-49 22-08 44-47 8-96 20-81 13-37 59-10 6-72 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Meat, Fluid— This preparation is used as an enemata, and originated with Dr. Pavy, who says concerning it i "A preparation that has been made at my suggestion by Messrs. Darby & Gosden of London, and called ' Fluid Meat.' It constitutes meat that has been reduced to a fluid state by artificial digestion ; and representing, as it does, a produet of digestion, it furnishes a n:;^terial in identically the same favourable state for absorption as that which naturally passes on from the stomach. It may be mixed with sugar and thickened with mucilage of starch or arrowroot, or if necessary, a little brandy may be added." This is an excellent preparation. Meats, Preserved— There is a consider- able number of patents for making the well- MEA (367) SEEC known varieties of preserved meats, but nearly all of them are based on the same principle — viz., the exclusion of air, either by hermetically sealing in tins, or by placing the substance in oil or viscid liquids, or in caoutchouc, or by covering with impervious coatings. Plowden (1807) preserved meat in rich gravy; Granholm (1817), in hot fat ; Wothley, in oU. Dr. Redwood proposes to first cover the meat with coatings of paraffine, by successive dippings in baths of that fat, beginning at a temperature of 250° ; then using colder baths ; lastly, covering the meat with a coating of gelatine. Mr. Gamgee has introduced a novel method — viz., making an animal breathe carbonic oxide gas ; killing it whilst insensible ; hang- ing it up in a chamber filled with carbonic oxide, and containing boxes of charcoal charged with sulphurous acid. " The Belgian ' Mus^e de I'lndustrie ' notes the following methods of preserving meats as the most deserving of attention amongst those communicated to the French Academy of Sciences, and published in the ' Compies Bendus :' — "1. M. Bandefs method, by which the meat is kept in water acidulated with carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 to 5 parts of acid per 1000 of water. A series of experiments proved that all kinds of meat could thus be kept fresh for lengthened periods without acquiring any HI taste or odour. The meat may be placed in barrels or air-tight tin cases filled with acidu- lated water of the above strength, and then headed up, or the pieces may be packed in barrels or cases in alternate layers of char- coal pounded small, and saturated with water containing ^^^ of carbolic acid. "2. In the case of South American meat, M. Bandet proposes the use of large sacks of caoutchouc. The meat should be packed in them, with alternate layers of charcoal as above described, and each sack when filled should be hermetically closed by drawing another empty caoutchouc sack capwise over it. The caoutchouc is supposed— its high price notwithstanding — to cover expense of packing and freight, and so permit the meat to be sold in Europe at a very small advance on cost price. If intended for use a second time, the empty bags should be steeped in boiling water for a few minutes to remove any organic impurities adhering to them. "3. M. Gorge's method, which is in use in La Plata, consists in washing and drying the meat, and afterwards steeping in successive waters containing hydrochloric acid and sulphite of soda, and then packing it in air- tight cases holding 1, 5, or 10 kilogrammes each. Meat thus treated requires to be soaked in warm water for about half an hour before use. " 4. M. Lfon Soubeiran has recommended braying and drying in the fashion adopted by the Chinese and Mongols, as described by M. Simon, Prench Consul in China, in a communication made by him to the Societe d'Acclimatation. The pemmican of our Arctic voyagers and the charqui of South America are familiar examples of meat preserved by analogous processes. The late M. Payen, a distinguished member of the Academy, insisted upon the great perfection to which this system might be carried by the aid of hot-air stoves and suitable apparatus." One of the most recent methods of preserv- ing meat is that known as ^elliei''s process. It essentially consists in manufacturing methyl ether on a large scale, the production of ice by the evaporation of the ether, and admission of the air that has passed over the ice or the ether- pipes into chambers which contain the meat. Meat was kept for eight months in this way, and was at the end of that time perfectly edible.— (Ann. Chim. Phys., [5,]iii. 502.) Meconic Acid (H3C7HO73H2O) — An organic acid found only in the Poppy tribe. This acid was discovered by Serturner in 1804. Its main interest lies in the fact, that being invariably present in opium, and answer- ing in a very characteristic manner to tests, its detection in any organic substance or liquid is almost equivalent to the detection of opium. The acid when pure crystallises in pearly scales. It has an acid astringent taste, and forms well-defined salts called meconates. It is unchanged by cold sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. When heated to 300° P., it is resolved into carbonic acid gas, and a new bibasic acid named comenic; and at a somewhat higher temperature, comenic acid in its turn is resolved into carbonic acid gas, and a monobasic acid called pyromeconic, Sesquichloride of iron and persulphate of iron strike a deep red colour with meconic acid. This colour cannot be distinguished by the eye from a similar reaction vrith the sul- phocycanides ; but the latter colour is quickly discharged by a solution of corrosive sublimate, whilst the meconic acid colouring remains unchanged. Strong hydrochloric acid produces a crystal- line precipitate, ferrocyanide of potassium, hairlike crystals; chloride of calcium, groups of colourless transparent crystals ; and nitrate of silver, sulphate of copper, and acetate of lead also produce precipitates. Meconic acid may be separated from the contents of the stomach, &c., by treating the KED (368) MED organic liquid with acetic acid, digesting for aoine time at a gentle heat, straining through muslin, evaporating down to a small bulk, and then precipitating with acetate of lead. The meoonate of lead is thrown down with other matters, and meconic acid may be separated by collecting the contents of the filter, sus- pending them in water, and transmitting sul- phuretted hydrogen gas through the liquid. The sulphide of lead is filtered oS, and the filtrate concentrated to a small bulk. Medical Officer of Health— The ap- pointment of a medical man, whose office it is to watch over the public health, is now; the compulsory duty of each sanitary authority. A similar office has existed many years under the Towns Improvement Clauses Act, 1847; the Public Health Act, 1848 ; the Metropolis Local Management Act, 1855 ; and the Arti- sans' and Labourers* Dwellings Act, 1868 ; but the Public Health Act of 1872 (now con- solidated and embodied in the Public Health Act of 1875) was the first enactment which made the appointment of such an officer com- pulsory. See OrrioEKs, Appointment of. Appointment. — A person shall not be ap- pointed medical officer of health under the Act unless he is a legally-qualified medical practitioner ; and the Local Government Board shall have the same powers as it has in the case of u, district medical officer of a union with regard to the qualification, ap- I^ointment, duties, salary, and tenure of office of a medical officer of health or other officer of a local authority, any portion of whose salary is paid out of moneys voted by Parlia- ment, and may by order prescribe the qualifi- cation and duties of other medical officers of health ajipointed under the Act. The same person may, with the sanction of the Local Government Board, be appointed medical officer of health or inspector of nuisances for two or more districts, by the local authorities of such districts ; and, the Local Government Board shall by order pre- scribe the mode of such appointment, and the proportions in which the expenses of such ap- pointment and the salary and charges of such officer shall be borne by such authorities. Any district medical officer of a union may, with the sanction of the Local Government Board, and subject to such conditions ^s the , said board may prescribe, be appointed a medical officer of health ; and a medical officer of health may exercise any of the jiowers with which an inspector of nuisances is invested by the Act. In case of illness or incapacity of the medi- cal officer of health, a local authority may appoint and pay a deputy medical officer, subject to the approval of the Local Govern- ment Board.— (P. H., s. 191.) Appointment to a United District. — Where it appears to the Local Government Board, on any application made to it, that the ap- pointment of a medical officer of health for two or more districts situated wholly or par- tially in the same county would diminish expense, or otherwise be for the advantage of such districts, the Local Government Board may by order unite such districts for the pur- pose of appointing a medical officer of health, and may make regulations as to the mode of his appointment and removal by representa- tives of the authorities of the constituent districts, and the proportion in which the expenses of the appointment and of the salary and expenses of such. officer are to be borne by such ■ authorities, and as to any other matters (including the necessary expenses of such representatives) which, in the opinion of the said board, require regulation for the purposes of this section ; and no other medical officer of health shall be appointed for any constituent district, except as an assistant to the officer appointed for the united districts : Provided that no urban district containing a population of twenty-five thousand and upwards, or in the case of a borough having a separate court of quarter sessions, shall be included in any union of districts formed under this section without the consent of the council of such district or borough. Not less than twenty-eight days' notice that it is proposed to make an order under this section shall be given by the Local Govern- ment Board to the local authority of apy dis- trict proposed to be included in the union ; and if, within twenty-one days after such notice has been given to any such authority, they give notice to the Local Government Board that they object to the proposal, the Local Government Board may include their district in the union by a provisional order, but not otherwise. There may be assigned by tlie Local Govern- ment Board to the district medical officer of any union comprising or coincident with any constituent district such duties in rendering local assistance to the medical officer of health appointed for such constituent districts as the said board may think fit; and such district medical officer shall receive, in respect of any duties so assigned to him, such additional remuneration as the local authority may, with the approval of the Local Government Board, determine.— (P. H., s. 286.) Medical Officer 0/ Health, Appointment of. Duties of, cfcc. — The appointment, duties, &c., of a medical officer of health are laid down in the following minutes as to duties, &c., mLED (369) MEB of medical officers of health, issued by the Lo- cal Government Board, 1872-73 :— Section I.— Qualification. Art. 1. No person shall be qualified to be appointed to the office of medical officer of health under this order, unless he shall be registered under " The Medical Act of 1858," and shall be qualified hy law to practise both medicine and surgery in England and Wales, such qualification being established by the production to the sanitary authority of a diploma, certificate of a degree, licence, or other instrument granted or issued by competent legal authority in Grreat Britain or Ireland, testifying to the medical or surgical, or medical and surgical qualification or qualifications of the candidate for such of&ce. Provided that the Local Government Board may, upon the application of the sanitary authority, dis- pense with so much of this regulation as requires that the medical officer of health shall be qualified to practise both medicine and surgery, if he is duly registered under the said Act to practise either medicine or surgery. Section U.^AppointmenL] Art, 1. A statement shall be submitted to the Local Government Board showing the population and ex- tent of the district for which the sanitaiy authority propose to appoint the medical officer or medical officers of health, and the salary or remuneration intended to be assigned ; and where the circum- stances render desirable the appointment of one medical officer of health for two or more sanitary districts, statements shall in like manner be sub- mitted to the Local Government Board showing the names of the districts to be combined for that pur- pose, the population and extent of each district, the mode in which it is intended that the appointment shall be made, whether jointly or severally by the sanitaiy authorities of those districts, and the amount of salary or remuneration proposed to be assigned to the officer appointed. Arbr2. When the approval of the Local Govern- ment Board has been given to the proposals sub- mitted to them, the sanitary authority or authorities shall proceed to the appointment of a medical officer of health accordingly. Art. 3. No appointment of a medical officer of health shall be made unless an advertisement giving notice of the day when such appointment will be made shall have appeared in some public newspaper circulating in the disti-ict or districts, at least seven days before the day on which such appointment is made ; Provided that no such advertisement shall be necessary for the appointment of a temporary substitute. Art. 4. Every such appointment hereafter made shall, within seven days after it is made, be reported to the Local Government Board by the clerk to the sanitary authority, or, in the case of a joint appoint- ment, by the clerk to one of the sanitary authorities by whom the appointment is made. Art. 6, Upon the occurrence of a vacancy in such office, the sanitary authority or authorities shall pro- ceed to make a fresh appointment, which shall be reported to the Local Government Board, as required by sect. ii. art. 4, of this order; but if the sanitary authority or authorities desire to make any fresh arrangements with respect to the district, or the terms of the appointment, they sHall, before fiJling up the vacancy, supply the particulars of the arrange- ment to the Local Government Board in the manner prescribed by sect. ji. art. 1, in regard to the first appointment, and if the approval of the Local Government Board be given, absolutely or with modifications, the sanitary authority or authorities shall then proceed to fill up the vacancy according to the terms of the approval so given. Art. 6. If any officer appointed under this order be at any time prevented by sickness or accident, or other sufficient reason, fi-om performing his duties, the sanitary authority or authorities, as the case maybe, may appoint a person qualified as afore- said to act as his temporary substitute, and may pay him a reasonable compensation for his services ; and every such appointment shall be reported to the Local Government Board as soon as the same shall have been made. Section III. — Tenure of Office. Art. 1. Every officer appointed under this order shall continue to hold office for such period as the sanitary authority or authorities appointing him may, with the approval of the Local Government Board, determine, or until he die, or resign, or be removed by such authority or authorities with the assent of the Local Government Board, or by the Local Government Board. Provided that the appointments first made under this order shall not be for a period exceeding five years. Art. 2. When any such officer shall have been appointed after the passing of the Public Health Act, 1872, for one or more sanitary districts, and any change in the extent of the district or districts, or in the' duties, salary, or remuneration, may be deemed necessary, and he shall decline to acquiesce therein, the sanitary authority or authorities by whom he was so appointed, may, with the consent of the Local Government Board, but not otherwise, and after six months' notice in writing, signed by theii* clerk or clerks, given to such officer, determine hi» office. Art. 3. No person shall be appointed who does no agree to give one month's notice previous to resign- ing the office, or to forfeit such sum as may be agi-eed upon as liquidated damages. Section TV.— Duties. The following shall be the duties of the medical officer of health in respect of the district for which he is appointed ; or if he shall be appointed for more than one district, then in respect of each of such dis- tricts : — 1. He shall inform himself, as far as practicable, respecting all Infiuences affecting or threatening to affect li^'uriously the public health within the dis- trict. 2. He shall inquire into and ascertain by such means as are at his disposal the causes, origin, and distribution of diseases within the district, and ascer- tain to what extent the same have depended on con- ditions capable of removal or mitigation. 3. He shall by inspection of the district, both sys- tematically at certain periods and at intervals as occasion may require, keep himself informed of the conditions injurious to health existing therein. 4. He shall be prepared to advise the sanitary authority on all matters affecting the health of the district, and on all sanitary points involved in the 2a SEED (370) SEED action of the sanitary authority or authorities ; and in cases requiring it, he shall certify, for the guid- ance of the sanitary authorities, or of the justices, as to any matter in respect of which the certificate of a medical- officer of health or a medical practitioner is required as the basis or in aid of sanitary action. 5. He shall advise the sanitary authority on any question relating to health involved in the framing and subsequent working of such, bylaws and regula- tions as they may have power to make. 6. On receiving infoi*mation of the outbreak of any contagious, infectious, or epidemic disease of a dangerous character within the district, he shall visit the spot without delay, and inquire into the causes and circumstances of such outbreak, and advise the persons competent to act as to the measures which may appear to him to be required to prevent the extension of the disease, and so far as he may be lawfully authorised, assist in the execution of the same. 7. On receiving information from the inspector of nuisances that his intervention is required in con- sequence of the existence of any nuisance injurious to health, or of any overcrowding in a house, he shall, as early as practicable, take such steps authorised by the statutes in that behalf as the circumstances of the case may justify and require. 8. In any case in which it may appear to him to be necessary or advisable, or in which he shall be so directed by the sanitary authority, he shall himself inspect and examine any animal, carcase, meat, poultry, game, flesh, fish, fruit, vegetables, corn, bread, or flour exposed for sale, or deposited for the purpose of sale or of preparation for sale, and intended for the food of man, which is deemed to be diseased, or unsound, or unwholesope, or unfit for the food of man ; and if he finds that such animal or article is diseased, or unsound, or unwholesome, or unfit for the food of man, he shall give such direc- tions as may be necessary for causing the same to be seized, taken, and carried away, in order to be dealt with by a justice according to the provisions of the statutes applicable to the case. 9. He shall perform all the duties imposed upon him by any bylaws and regulations of the sanitary authority, duly confirmed, in respect of any matter affecting the public health, and touching which they are authorised to frame bylaws and regulations. 10. He shall inquire into any offensive process of trade carried on within the district, and report on the appropriate means for the prevention of any nuisance or injury to health therefrom. 11. He shall attend at the office of the sanitai^ authority, or at some other appointed place, at duch stated times as they may direct. 12. He shall from time to time report, in writing, to the sanitary authority his proceedings, and the measures which may require to be adopted for the improvement or protection of the public health in the district. He shall in like manner report with respect to the sickness and mortality within the district, so far as he has been enabled to ascertain the same. 13. He shall keep a book or books, to be provided by the sanitary authority, in which he shall make an entry of his visits, and notes of his observations and instructions thereon, and also the date and nature of applications made to him, the date and result of the action taken thereon, and of any action taken on previous reports, and shall produce such book or books, whenever required, to the sanitaiy authority. 14. He shall also prepare an annual report, to be made at the end of December in each year, com- prising tabular statements of the sickness and mortality within the district, classified according to diseases, ages, and localities, and a summary of the action taken during the year for preventing the spread of disease. The report shall also contain an account of the proceedings in which he has taken part or advised under the Sanitary Acts, so far as such'prooeedings relate to conditions dangerous or injurious to health; and also an account of the super- vision exercised by him, or on his advice, for sanitary purposes, over places and houses that the sanitary authority has power to regulate, with the nature and results of any proceedings which may have been so required and taken in respect of the same during the year. It shall also record the action taken by him, or on his advice, during the year, in regard to offensive trades, bakehouses, and workshops. 15. He shall give immediate information to the Local Government Board of any outbreak of dan- gerous epidemic disease within the district, and shall transmit to the board, on forms to be provided by them, a quarterly return of the sickness and deaths within the district, and also a copy of each annual and of any special report. ' 16. In matters not specifically provided for in this order he shall observe and execute the instructions of the Local Government Soard ou the duties of medical officers of health, and all the lawful orders and directions of the sanitary authority applicable to his office. 17. Whenever the Diseases Prevention Act of 1855 is in force within the district, he shall observe the directions and regulations issued under that Act by the Local Government Board, so far as the same relate to or concern his office. Section Y.^Bemwneration. Art. 1. The sanitary authority or authorities, as the case mSy-be, shall pay to any officer appointed under this order such salary or remuneration as may be approved by the Local Government Board ; and where such officer is appointed for two or more dis- tricts, the salary shall be apportioned amongst the districts in such manner as the said board shall approve. Provided that the sanitary authority or authori- ties, with the approval of the Local Government Board, may pay to any such officer a reasonable' compensation on account of extraordinary services, or other unforeseen circumstances connected with his duties or the necessities of the district or districts for which he is appointed. Art. 2, The salaiy or remuneration assigned to such officer shall be payable quarterly, according to the usual feast-days in the year — namely, Lady Day, Midsummer Day, Michaelmas Day, and Christmas Day ; but the sanitary authority or authorities may pay to him at the expiration of every calendar month such proportion as they may think fit on account of the salary or remuneration to which he may become entitled at the termination of the quarter. Given under our seal of office, this eleventh day of November, in the year one thousand eigtt hundred and seventy-two. James Stahbfeld, President, John Lambert, Secretary. The actual working of the Public Health Act of 1872 is that there are three classes MED (371) HED of medical officers of health appointed — 1. Medical officers of health to combined sani- tary districts, such as Kent, Shrewsbury, Gloucester, North Devon, &c. ; these devote their whole time to the office, although some few hold other appointments — such as analyst, coroner, &o. — which do not interfere with their duties. 2. Medical officers of health who are not restricted in any way, but are given either a fair salary or an annual sum, which though perhaps inadequate, is yet indirectly suffi- ciently remunerative. 3. Union medical offi- cers and the like, to whom is given a paltry annual fee, or, as in some places, a stated sum for each report, a report not to be sent in unless required by .the sanitary authority, (!) What are, or rather should be, the qualifica- tions of a medical officer of health ? First, he must be amedicalman— that is legally essential; then he must be a man of capacity, of good education, and of sound common sense, riding no dangerous hobby-horse to death. A know- ledge of the mode of propagation of aU con- tagious diseases, with their pathology, and an acquaintance with practical chemistry, mi- croscopy, and the chief sanitary statutes are essential . These things may be easily acquired by any man of average abilities, and no one can possibly be an efficient officer without a sound knowledge of them all. In addition to the foregoing, it is desirable, although not essential, that a knowledge of the following branches of science should be acquired : geology, engineering (especially the practical parts relating to sewers and drains, the taking of levels, the measurement of heights, and the best methods of conveying and storing water), meteorology, and the kiadred sciences. There is nothing more instructive and use- ful to medical officers of health than an ac- quaintance with the history of the different epidemics of ancient times, and of the middle ages, as compared with our own. It is, how- ever, possible that the man best qualified as to knowledge, may by infirmities, either of body or of temper, make a very indifferent officer, since it is a post requiring a knowledge of the world, a robust body, and sound judg- ment, as well as the special acquirements mentioned above. Previous experience was only obtained in a few instances in the first appointments under the Public Health Act, 1872; but, of all things, experience would be a necessary qualification for future high- class appointments. And here, again, sanitary authorities may be misled by the specious testimonials of medical officers belonging to the third, the roi-fairUant class, who most assuredly will be tempted to play upon the name of medical officer of health, \^ch they may have borne for many years without at the same time having had any practical experience whatever in its duties. A health officer" cannot well take any other post, or engage in private practice, if his dis- trict is very large or populous ; on the other hand, if he has leisure, and is duly qualified, there are certain offices, such as analyst and coroner, which are of a kindred nature, and which would harmonise with his duties. Much has 'been said against medical officers of health as public analysts. It must depend upon individual qualifications and amount of time whether such a union is desirable or not. The adulteration of food has always been taught at the same time and in the same manuals as sanitary science, and the Adulteration Act is carried out by sanitary authorities and sanitary officials ; so that it has evi- dently been considered a part and portion of hygiSne. Boutine Work of Medical Officer of Health. —It has been well said, one of the SiBt things that should be done is a house-to-house in- spection by the subordinates, as described under House-to-House Inspection. Such a course equally applies to rural and urban districts ; and the medical officer should also accompany from time to time his inspector, and gain a knowledge personally of the dis- trict. In strictly urban districts, the work will often be somewhat of a special character ; there will be manufactories, lodging-houses, butcheries, dairies, and other places which will require the continual care of- the sanitary authorities. Public buildings should be nar- rowly watched. There are many things that are neglected by sanitary officials because they have never been thought of ; for instance, the dressing-rooms, &o., of theatres (see Theatees) and other places. The water-supply of every large town should be analysed by the ammonia process at least once a modth, and for such analysis the health officer should be paid. He should have an office in some convenient part of the town, where the inspectors can confer with him, and to which official corre- spondence can be addressed. His attendance at this office would be probably regulated by a bylaw, but whether that be so or not, for his own convenience it should be regular. Every month, by analysing the rain falling in different parts of the town, he can estimate the sulphuric acid in the air, which will give the measure approximatively of impurity through smoke of the atmosphere. See Kain. In case there should be an outbreak of fever, it will be his duty to personally isolate every case which cannot be removed to hos- pital ; and at such times he may require assist- ance, which should be given to him, A record StER (372) MER of each death and of each contagious case of sickness should be transmitted to the office daily. (5ee Births, Deaths, akd Sickness Eetdens.) The returns of death are easily obtained ; the returns of sickness will be by no means perfect, but an officer must make the best of his resources. In large rural combined districts a central office can only in some cases be established. Each union is so distinct in itself that one office is seldom of any practical value ; a room in the workhouse is generally easy to get, and may be used when required. The routine is very much the same as in urban authorities. The medical officer meets the inspector at different places, obtains returns of deaths and sickness about once a fortnight, receives the notices the inspector sends him of'contagious disease, overcrowding, &c., and attends the sanitary meetings in all combined rural sani- tary authorities. It is most convenient that each rural sanitary authority should have a B^ecialmontMymeeting; then, if well arranged, , the health officer can generally attend each in turn. Parochial committees (from their local knowledge) are also sometimes of use in meeting the health officer. On inspecting a parish, the officer of health should place him- self in communication with the clergyman, guardians, and medical men, if there be any, and inquire (a) into the water-supply ; (b) into the drainage ; (o) into the health of the in- habitants and past sanitary history of the place ; and ( Potatoes \ 0-58 J 20 to 28 ... 31 to 42 Notes to the Tables. 1. Milk from a pointer bitch fed on ox - flesh and bones, collected for twelve days during the fourth and fifth weeks of lactation. 2. From a setter, on fourteenth and fifteenth days of special feeding. Tide infra, 11. 3. After fifteen days' feeding with clover without , salt. 4. Analysis of the mixed ash of 300 samples (Ann. Chem. Phys., [4,] viii. 320) contained in addition -323 SO3, -277 COj, and 006 SiOj. Total ash = 7-28. 5. (1.) Milk of specific gravity, 103242, taken four MIL (384) MIL and a half months after birth of foal. ~ Food, clover ; DO salt. (2.) Solid matter and albuminoids Arom milk; specific gravity, 1029-68. From another mare; three and a half months' lactation, same food. 6. Woman at twenty -eight; fifteen days after bearing, and after four days' mixed diet, with 30 grammes of salt daily. Vide 24. 7. Same woman, three days subsequently, with same diet without salt. Vide 24. 8. Kitten, nineteen days old; removed from mother twenty-four hours before killing by means of ether. This plan was adopted with all the suckling animals, so that little milk was left undigested in them. 9. Puppy, four days old. 10. Kabbit, two weeks old. 11. Same bitch as No. 2; during fourth and fifth weeks of lactation. (1.) On the fourth and fifth days, feeding on a mixed diet, poor in potash and rich in soda. ' (2 and 3.) On the fourth and fifth subsequent days, the food during the five days being rich in potash and poor in soda. (4.) On the fourth and fifth days, of same diet as (1). 12. Prom two cats fed on ox-fiesh and blood. 13. Specific gravity, 10'24. From three sheep in pasture ; no salt. 14. Sheep on clover-hay ; no salt. 15. Marchaud's analysis. Vide 4. 16. From two cows in a herd receiving salt equal to 1 9 grammes daily per head. 17. Cow from same herd, after three months' stall- feeding and fourteen days without salt. 18. From the same cow (after seventeen), at inter- vals of three days' fed on clover-hay ; no salt. It is noticeable that the highest contents in potash con-e- spond with the lowest in soda, and vice versd. During the clover-feeding the yield fell from 7—8 litres to 5—6 litres daily. 19 and 20 are from the fourteen days' yield of two cows, giving respectively the least and most milk of nine cows of approximatively the same age, weight, and period of lactation, and receiving the same food, including 12 grammes of salt daily. 10. gave 63'27 litres,' and 20 gave 214 7 litres in th^ same time. They show that the greater the secretion of milk, the less soda and the more potash is contained in it. The intermediate numbers are only approximately in this order. 21. Specific gravity, 1028-42. Mare fed on clover and oats. 22. Specific gravity, 1026-28; solid matter, 118-44; albuminoids, 12-027. "Woman, at thirty-five, after suckling a foster-child eleven months. 23. Specific gravity, 1032 -42 ; ten to twelve days after bearing. 24. Vide 6. The milk collected on seven con- secutive days from the eleventh after confinement. The fijst four days on a mixed diet with 30 grammes of salt daily, the last three days on same diet without salt. Specific gravity, 1029-79 to 1027*26, decreasing gradually during the last four days. 25. From same woman eleven months after bear- ing. Specific gravity, 1027*28; solid matter, 09*27; albuminoids, 9-016. 26. Dragendorff (Pharm. Zeits. f. Russ., iv. 171). 27. Kitten removed from mother one hour after birth. The general composition of milk— that is, the amount of water, milk - Bolids, caseine, fat, and ash — has received of late much atten- tion ; on this account we reproduce here some old analyses made in France by MM. Cheval- lier and Henry, Hailden, Lecanu, Simon, Doy^re, and Poggiale. Composition in 100 Paets. Mean .... Maximum Minimum Water. Milk- Solids. Milk. Solids not Eat. Caseine. Fat. Milk- Sagar. Ash. 86-67 84-80 87-60 1333 14-30 12-40 9-88 9-92 9-65 4-88 7-20 3-00 3-45 4-38 2-75 4-44 9-95 2-80 0-66 0-75 0-60 MM. Bussy and Boudet obtained the I samples of milk collected in the environs of following from an examination of eight | Montes : — Composition in 100 Pabts. Mean .... Maximum Minimum -Water. MUk-Solids. Milk-Solids not Fat. Fat. 86-93 84-17 88-50 13-07 15-83 11-50 9-30 10-01 8-65 3-77 5-82 2-85 Examination of Nine Samples of Milk received from a Paris Daikt. Composition in 100 Pabts. Mean Maximum Minimum ■Water. Milk-Solids. Caseine and Ash. Solids 1,^1. not Fat. -*"'- Milk-- Sugar. 87-22 86-62 88-03 12-78 13-38 11-02 3-47 4-50 2-22 8-91 8-86 7-90 3-87 •4-52 3-12 5-43 5-84 5-10 Mil. (38s) aiiii Thirty-Five Samples of Milk collected from Seventeen different Shops in Paris (1856). Composition in 100 Pakts. Water. MUk- Solids. Solids not Pat. Caseine and Ash. lat. Milk- sugar. Mean Maximum Minimum 86'42 83-88 88-24 13-58 16-12 11-76 9-58 11-05 9-10 4-14 0-05 1-14 4-000 5-068 2-658 5 043 6-010 4-525 The following statement shows the general results obtained by all these analyses : — Mean of 100 Parts of Milk. So. Water' , Milk- SoUdB. Solids not Fat. Caeeiue and Fab MUk- Susar. 1 2 3 4 86-67 86-93 87-22 86-42 13-33 13-07 12-78 13-68 9-88 9-30 8-9 9-68 6-54 5-67 3-47 4-14 3-45 3-77 3 87 4-00 4-44 4-44 6-43 6-43 Maximum of 100 Parts of Milk. No. Water. Mt.k-1 Solldi. Solida not Fat. Camlne and Ash. Fat. MUk- Susar. 1 : 2 3 4 87-60 88-60 88-08 88-24 14-30 15-83 13-38 It- 12 10-26 10-44 9-32 10-43 7-95 7-95 4-60 8-05 4-038 6-082 4-062 6-887 6-96 6-95 5-84 6-10 ■ Minimum qf 100 Parts of Milk. Water. Milk- Solids. Solids not Fat. Caseine and Ash. Fat. Mllk- Sngar. 1 2 '3 4 84-80 84-17 86-62 83-88 12-40 11-60 11-93 11-76 9-32 9-41 8-9 9 1 3-00 3-00 2-22 114 2-075 2-085 .')-012 2-668 2-80 2-80 6 10 4-62 These analyses are extremely interesting, for at the time they were made the methods of analyses were fanlty in the extreme. In par- ticular, it was the custom to evaporate large quantities of milk — from 50 to 100 cubic centimetres — to dryness, necessitating a pro- longed drying in the 'water-bath, and inevi- table decomposition and loss ; yet, notwith- standing, in only three cases do the solids not fat fall below the standard of 9 per cent. ; and aa there is no evidence of the method employed, nor of the genuineness of the samples, such a result only confirms the more modern researches. The following is the mean of several an- alyses of average-quality country milk, after ■Wanklyn : — Composition in 100 Parts 52/ WeigM. ■JTater . Fat . Gaseine . Milk-sugar Ash. 87-45 3-08 4-14 4-62 0-71 10000 MUk ofAldemey Cow. Commosifion pet 100 Parts by Weight. (After WiMKLTK.) ■VTater Pat . Caseine . Milk-sugar Ash 87-34 3-22 4-61 4-13 0-70 100-00 Mr. F. N. Maonamara of Calcutta published a short time since an interesting analysis of the milk of the little Bengali cow. — (Chemical News, May 30, 1873.) His results show how constant the composition of milk is, whether obtained from the much-prized and well-fed Alderney, or the poor, ill-nourished Bengali cow. " The folio-wing," says Mr. Macnamara, "is the ordinary food of a Bengali cow; but the animal in the Bengali's hut plays very much the part of the Irishman's pig, and, -with its master, has occasionally to manage as best it can : About 12 lbs. of rice-straw, 2J lbs. of oilcake, 1 lb. of husks of rice, some- times a little vei-y poor grazing, the water in which the family rice has been boiled, and about 35 lbs. of water." '3 Sif ^ No. t 3a,: Hi « Oaseine. Sugar. Eat. Salts. lbs. P. cent. P. cent. P. cent. P. cent. P. cent 1 1 «+ 16-1-i 6-60 3-98 4-98 0-76 2 2 6 12-82 4-30 4-40 3-60 0-70 3 s+ 5 15-28 6-76 410 4-10 0-84 4 6 4 11-90 4-30 4-S7 2-62 0-78 5 6 10 12-84 4-30 4-10 3-20 70 6 7 6 11-68 5-40 3-86 1-90 0-82 7 10 4 11-92 4-20 4-37 S-00 0-68 8« 15-90 7-76 3-40 4 10 0-90 The great and cardinal point brought out by hundreds of analyses, both at home and abroad, is that the solids not fat vary in milk only to a small amount, and are indeed a fairly constant quantity. On the other hand, the cream or fat is extremely variable, but seldom below a certain standard. Husson found that rnilV from cows suffering from the cattle plague contained less lactine but more nitrogenous matter; blood and aggregated granules were also present. In the foot-and-mouth disease, pus-cellsand blood * This cow is two months in-calf, and is milked only about once in two or three days. 2b MIL (386) MIL are often seen, and the specific gravity is altered.* Milk from diseased animals decomposes very rapidly. The following statement shows the com- position of the milk of woman and different animals : — Composition in 100 Farts (Patsn). Woman.f Goat. Sheep. Abs. Mare. Nitrogenous and insoluble salts 335 4'50 8'00 1'70 1'62 , Butter . . 3-34 410 6-50 140 0-20 Lactine and sol- uble salts . S-TV 5-80 4-60 6-40 875 . 89 54 85-60 8100 SO '50 89 33 Water 100-00 100-00 10000 10000 10000 Mare's milk in Tartary is made to ferment, and drunk, under the name of Koumiss, as a sort of milk -wine. For some recent analyses of this substance the reader is referred to the article KOUMISS. Fropi a considerable number of experiments, Messrs. Deyeux and Parmenter class the six kinds of milk which they have examined in the following order as regards the relative quantity of materials they contain : — Caseine. Batter, Sugar of Milk; Goat. Sheep. Woman. Ass. Sheep. Cow. Ass. Woman. Cow. Goat. Mare. Mare. Abs. Woman. Cow. Cow. Woman. Ass. Goat, Goat. Mare. Mare. Sheep. Sheep. Effects of bad Milk. — It ia important that cows giving Ttiillr should not be driven or harassed, for strong excitement may often have an unfavourable influence on the secre- tion of the mammary gland. Payen quotes a case in which the milk of a woman, the subject of nervous attacks, became in less than two hours after each paroxysm mucila- ginous like the white of egei Poisonous herbs fed on by the cow contaminate its milk ; and that the food does influence its flavour, &c., is apparent from the fact that its colour may be modified by mixing saffron or madder with the food, that its odour is affect;^ by eating plants of the cabbage and onion tribes, and * The author has Tecentlyinve.stigatedthe milk of cattle suflfering from foot-and-mouth disease.— (Chem. News, vol. xyxii. No. 834.) Some of the samples, when taken within the first three days of the malady, exhibited! a very large number of flattened, highly refractive bodies, measuring from ,Hj to tb^h of an inch in length. Such milk was fatal to kittens, pro- ducing intestinal inflammation and death.' . t A recent analysis of woman's milk, by Bniner (Jour, de Pharmacie et de Chimie, Avril 1876), gives the following figures :— 9000 Water Fat . Caseine . Sugar Soluble salts 173 0-83 1-41 ; 100-00 that its taste may be altered by the cow feed- ing on wormwood, turnips, or the decaying autumnal leaves. [Quite recently, indeed, very decided e-ridenoe that milk may become poisonous under certain circumstances has been furnished, for through- out the month of June 1875 the inhabitants of the Eione Borgo in Bome suffered from an epidemic of gastro-intestinal irritation. This epidemic was condusively proved to arise from the use of goats' milk, the goats ha-ving browsed on the Golchicum autumnaZe. Pro- fessor Balti succeeded in isolating colchicine from the milk. A fungus, either the Oidium Lactis or Peni- cilli/um, first noticed by Fuchs (1861), some- times appears in milk, and^ from such milk poisonous symptoms have, according to Ness' ler, occurred. Other moulds in milk have ap- parently caused attacks of diarrhcea, some of which were of a serious character. Whether the milk obtained from animals suffering from the foot-and-mouth disease gives rise in man to any disorders is still a disputed point ; it would appear, however, that it frequently has been taken without any ill effects being induced. Milk con- taminated with pus, &c., has caused aphthae on the mucous membrane of the lips and gums. It has been recently proved that milk may be the means of conveying the poisons of enteric and of scarlet fever. An outbreak of typhoid fever which occurred in London, 1870, was distinctly traced to the milk consumed. {See Medical Times and Gazette, November 1870.) It appears that the milk acquired its noxious properties by being mixed with polluted water before distribution to the consumer. The scarlet-fever poison has also been conveyed into the milk from the throat discharges or cuticle of persons affected with scarlet fever, who were employed in the dairy when ill or convalescent. See Fbveb, Scarlet ) Fevbh, T-STHns, &c. Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc vessels, as it speedily dissolves a portion of these metals, and becomes poisonous. ' Adulterations. — The adulterations usually enumerated are water, starch , dextrine or gum, annatto, chalk, and emulsion of seeds. Of these the first is the only one commonly met with. It is, practically speaking, a thing of extreme rarity to find milk adulterated with any foreign substance except water. There are, of course, other frauds practised, which, though not strictly speaking adulterations,* can be dealt with under the Act, such as skimming the milk, or first skimming and then watering. * Eorax is not unfrequently added in small quan- tities to milk for the purpose of preserving it. miL (387) MIL The detection of the adulterations in milk ia extremely easy to any one possessing the requisite knowledge and apparatus. The best method is' to make a complete analysis of the mUk. Such an analysis cannot fail to show any deviation from the normal composi- tion, whether this has been effected by the addition of water, the removal of fat, or the practice of the rarer adlilterations. To Mr Wanklyn belongs the credit of per- fecting milk-analysis, of rendering it a simple, accurate, and speedy process, instead of, as heretofore, a ijedious, uncertain, and cumber- some one, hardly to be intrusted to the hands of any one not well versed in chemical mani- pulation. A correct estimation can be now made of the water, caseine, milh-sugar, fat, and ash of a great number of milks by Mr. Wanklyn's process, or its numerous modifications, in the course of a single morning's work. For milk-analysis the apparatus required is as follows: — 1. An accurate balance, which should be capable of weighing at least 50 grammes, and sufficiently delicate to indicate half a milli- gramme. 2. Platinum, glass, or porcelain dishes. Mr. Wanklyn uses platinum of the size and shape shown in fig. 61. The advantage of Mg. 61. platinum is that it cools very quickly, and therefore there is no loss of time in waiting for the dish to cool before weighing. The disadvantages are the expense and want of constancy in weight. A platinum nulk-dish requires to be reweighed after every half- dozen operations. Dr. Redwood employs small porcelain dishes of IJ oz. (42'53 grammes) capacity. The weight of each dish is carefully marked by means of a writing diamond on the outer rim, and each is furnished with a Uttle glass stirrer. Mr. Eimmington prefers hemispherical glass evaporating dishes of 3 oz. (85'06 grammes) capacity. The advantages of porcelain dishes are cheapness and constancy in weight. The dis- advantages of glass dishes are that the ash cannot be determined in them, and hence another set of vessels, eltlier platinum or porcelain, is required. 3.' A ■water-bath with holes of a proper size to carry the dishes. Mr. Wanklyn uses a square one ; Dr. fled wood prefers an enamelled cast-iron bowl of a diameter of 9 inches and depth of 4 inches, provided with a copper cover'tumed over at the rim, but not other- wise fastened. This bath is supported on a cylinder of sheet iron, with holes round the upper and lower edges of it for the admission of air and escape of prodtlcts of combustion. In this furnace the ring-burner is placed, and the heat can be regulated to a nicety. 4. A pipette discharging 5 cubic centi- metres, or if grain measures be preferred, a pipette discharging 100 to 300 grain measures. If, however, the milk is weighed, which perhaps after aU is best, no pipette will be required. 5. The apparatus described under Watbe- Analtsis; tliis last is not absolutely neces- sary, but only convenient. The actual analysis* consists in first weigh- ing or measuring a certain quantity of milk into one of the little dishes (whether porce- lain, glass, or platinum), and the most con- venient quantity to take in grammes is 5 grammes, in grains is 100 grains. The dish or dishes are placed in the water-bath and eva- porated at 100° C. (212° F.) for three hours, at the end of which time they are weighed. The weight of the empty, clean dish, minus the weight with the dried mUk, gives the milk- solids, and a simple calculation giyes the per- centage. During this drying it is well to break the pellet from time to time with either a glass or a platinum stirrer. If Mr Wanklyn's process is now accurately copied, the little dish is put upon a triangle of wire covered over with tobacco-pipe, and ignited, the result- ing dish containing the ash weighed, and cal- culated out as before. This necessitates a separate evaporation of, about 10 or 15 cubic centimetres in a separate dish in order to extract the fat. Many analysts, however, simply take the fat, water, and milk-solids. * A good plan adopted by many analysts Is to first take the specific gravity of the milk; fortbiv purpose a Westphall's balance is very ccnrenient. See ijFEOIFlC CraAVlTT. MIL (388) IIIL and neglect the determination of ash, which is njQatly unnecessary. In order to determine the fat, it is extracted with ether. Mr. Wanklyn evaporates down for about an hour 10 cubic centimetres of milk, -moistens with alcohol, then pours upon this milk methylated ether, boils it very oarefuUy over warm water, and pours it through a filter, which operation is repeated at least three times, and the little rim of fat left in the filter is dissolved by cutting that portion of the paper off, digesting it in ether, and adding it to the filtrate. The ethereal solution of fat is then evaporated to dryness, and the fat weighed. JIhe majority of an- alysts operate in a somewhat different way — viz. , by treating the dry residue with suc- cessive portions of ether, which is carefully poured from the dish into a beaker, and then when the milk is exhausted, they weigh the milk-solids and estimate the fat by the loss. By this process filtering is unnecessary, and the ether may be recovered; for after each operation the impure ether may be put in a bottle, and then when sufficient is collected, may be purified by distillation. It is not easy to thoroughly exhaust the mUk of its fat, and hence some employ sand and powdered glass BO as to break the caseous envelopes and divide the mUk. Others extract under pressure, by placing the milk and ether in a tube, and regulating the pressure by. the aid of the thumb, partially or entirely closing the orifice. Ether may thus be prevented from boiling at its usual low temperature. In such a case as this, it is not necessary to feel anxious about obtaining the very last percentage of fat : it is better to employ the process most used, especially as, should an analysis be disputed, the milk may be transmitted elsewhere ; and it is certain, if every one followed to the minutest detail a given' process, there would be no discrepancy in analyses. From the mUk-solids exhausted by ether, the milk-sugar may be extracted by first treat- ing it with strong alcohol, and then adding to it a little boiling water. The weak alcoholic solutionis to be evaported to dryness, weighed, igaited gently, and the residue on ignition sub- tracted from the total weight before ignition. The difference is the milk-sugar. It may also be estimated in the ordinary way by copper solution. See SCOAB, EsHMATlON OP. The caseine may be washed off the filter- paper, dried in a little platinum dish, and weighed ; then burnt up, and the ash weighed. The ash, minus ash and caseine, gives the case- ine ; or the caseine may be more quickly esti- mated by putting 5 cubic centimetres of milk into a half-litre flask, diluting up to the mark with distilled water, and submitting 5 cubic centimetres of this to distillation by the ammonia process, as described under "WATBH-Alf ALYSIS. The yield of albuminoid ammonia from 100 cubic centimetres of genuine milk is '26 grammes. Every one part of caseine gives '065 of ammonia. Calculation of Results. — The following is from Mr Wanklyn's treatise on " Milk- Analy- sis:"— "Proilem, 1. — Given the percentage of ' solids not fat ' (— a) in a specimen of sophis- ticated milk {i.e., milk either watered or skimmed, or both) ; required the number of grammes of genuine mUk which was employed to form 100 grammes of it. "Answer. — Multiply the percentage of ' solids not fat ' by 100, and divide by 9-3, or 100 „ * 9-3 " Problem 2. — Given the percentage of ' solids not fat ' (= a), also the percentage of fat (= 6), in a specimen of sophisticated milk ; required the number of grammes of fat which have been removed by skimming from the genuine milk which was employed to from 100 grammes of it. Answer. — — a — 6. 9-3 " In translating fat into cream, the rule is that a removal of "2 gramme of fat equals a removal of 1 gramme of cream. This rule is directly founded on experiment. I do not, however, claim a high degree of accuracy for the measurement of the cream. ' ' Finally, a slight refinement may be noticed. If a specimen of sophisticated milk has been produced by both skimming and watering, it will be obvious, on consideration, that the ex- traneous water employed in manufacturing 100 grammes of it is equal to the difference between 100 and the quantity of genuine milk employed to make 100 grammes of sophisti- cated milk, together with a quantity of water equal to the fat removed by skimming. Extraneous) _■,„„_ 125 „. §2 water | - 1"" " 9-3 " + 9-3 a—i. 100 100 + 3-2 9-3 a-b." It is then evident that a definite opinion as to the genuineness or not of the milk can generally be given without estimation of case- ins or milk- sugar. For practical purposes, dry- ing the milk up, extracting the fat, and esti- mation of the ash, will be sufficient ; for the analyst will then have— iotaJ solids, solids not fat, fat, and ash. An extremely useful method of estimating the fat in milk is one originally proposed by M. Marohand and subsequently modified by HIL (389) MIL Horsley and others. The procesa is neither accurate enough for scientific investigation nor for the purposes of a prosecution, but it enables an analyst to rapidly come to a con- clusion whether a more elaborate analysis is necessary or not, especially if he haa taken the specific gravity of the milk. The method essentially consists in shaking up a known weight or volume of the milk with ether, precipitating the fat from the ether by the addition of alcohol, gently warming, allow- ing it to stand a little time in a graduated tube, and reading off the .number of divisions or lines of fat. Milk, when it has undergone some amount of decomposition, is sometimes transmitted for analysis. The first and ordinary change when milk is kept is lactic fermentation, the elemen- tary constituents of the milk-sugar rearrang- ing themselves to form lactic acid. The lactic acid deprives the caseine of its alkali, and therefore renders it insoluble. At the same time a small quantity of ethylic alcohol is formed, which in ordinary analysis would be lost. If a milk in which there is much lactic acid be evaporated down, the results may be far from accurate, as this acid chars the milk-solids, and hence the estimate of the latter is generally too low. In taking the ash, there is also found to be loss of hydro- chloric acid. All these difficulties are how- ever obviated, either by determining the acidity of the milk by titration, and then adding the proper amount of soda to neu- tralise the acid, or by neutralising the mUk with a weighed portion of freshly-ignited eodic carbonate; of course corrections must be made for the loss of hydrogen on neu- tralising the acid (CeHeOs+NaHO = CsHb NaOa-l-HsO; or, 2C3H603-l-NaaC03 = 2C3H5 XaOs-t-HaOH-COa), and secondly, for the sodium carbonate introduced into the milk- ■ ash. When the milk has undergone further decomposition, there is a development of butyric acid, butylic alcohol, and other bodies, and it is so changed that it is impos- .sible to pretend to state by analysis its original composition. Milk, Condensed — Milk, by evaporation in a suitable manner, and hermetically sealing in tins, can both be preserved a,nd condensed, "The English Condensed Milk Company" have been especially successful in preparing a really good condensed milk. The following is an analysis of one of their tins : — Water . 2510 Pat . 11-73 Caseine . 16 17 Milk-sugar . 1624 Cane-sugar 29-46 Ash 2-30 100-00 The cane-sugai- is an addition, and is said to be white and of good quality, the amount in- troduced being limited to the minimum com- patible with the preservation of the product for an indefinite time. Letheby gives the following : — Composition of various Samples of Condensed Milk per 100 Parts. Swiss. VlYiS, Swiss. Sasain, Prassia KeiuptoQ, Bavaria. Caseine . Butter . Sugar Salts 18-10 12-26 44-25 2-41 15-96 12-03 46-92 2 67 14-24 12-63 61-83 2-48 14-SO 13 65 60-21 2-43 Total solids . Water . 72 02 22-98 77-58 22-42 81-18 18-82 81-19 18-81 100 00 100-00 100-00 100-00 The following is Wanklyn's analysis : — Composition of Condensed Milk* per 100 Parts by Weight. Water . ... 6112 rat .... 12-11 Caseine ... . . 13-64 Milk-sugar ... . 20-36 Ash . . . . 2-77 100-00 Analysis of Anglo-Swiss Company's milk, from " Food, -Air, and Water," Oct. 1872 :— Compositi on per 100 Parts, Caseine . 18-52 Patty matter . 10-80 Sugar o| milk 18-50 - Cane-sugar 27-11 Ash 2-12 Phosphoric acid 0-649 Water . 24-30 Condensed milk may be analysed by tho process described in our article on Mile. The estimation of the fat -will, however, require great care. Condensed milk has been largely employed as a food for infants, who take it readily on account of the large quantity of sugar it eon- tains. Milk, Preserving— Many methods are at present employed for the purpose qf preserv- ing milk, but it will not be necessary for us to describe them here. The "concentrated milk " is prepared by evaporating the water of the milk in open pans, and the "condensed milk " by evaporation in closed vacuum pans. See Milk, Condensed. MUk may be preserved in stout bottles, weU corked and wired down, by heating them in this state to the boiling-point in a water-bath, by which means the oxygen of the small quan- < Of th^ English Condensed Milk Company. MIL (390) lOiUt tity of enclosed air becomes absorbed. It must be afterwards stored in a cool situation. Milk thus treated will retain its properties for years. Under Bethel's patent the milk or cream is scalded, and, when cold, strongly charged with carbonic acid gas by means of a soda-water machine, and the corks are wired down in the usual manner. The bottle should be kept inverted in a cobl place. An addition to every pint of milk of 10 or 12 grains of car- bonate or bicarbonate of soda will preserve milk for eight or ten days in temperate wea- ther. According to D'Arcot, -jj^ part of the bicarbonate is sufficient for the process. niillet {Panicilm mUiaceu/m) — A native of the East Indies, but extensively cultivated in other parts of the world. There are many varieties .of millet, ,and in some parts they con- stitute the principal food of the inhabitants. The nutritive power is generally considered to be about equal to that of rice. The following table shows the composition of three varieties of millet-meal freed from bran : — Water NitrogeDous \ substances j Dextrine Sugar Fat Starch Silica p Pemtewn mlttacewn, ConuBoQ Millet 12-22 9-27 913 1-80 7-43 59-04 Oil PenittUaria apieata, a kj^id of Millet much used In India under the name of Bajla. Borghum mtt- gore, Dhurra of the Arabs, Joar of Indi^ 11-8 10-13 -4-62 71-75 11-95 8-64 S-82 1-46 3-9 70-23* The leaves of the plant dried at 100°, yield 10-186 per cent, of ash, the stem 2 '510, and the grains 3 '273. The stem contains 3 '38 of nitrogen, and the giain 1'41. The composition of the ash is as follows (A. Pavesi and E. EOTONDI, Gaz. Chim. ItaUana, iv. 192-195) :— StalK. Leaves. Grain. Potasli Soda . Lime .... Magnesia . Phosplioric acid . 89-163 1-803 6-312 6-489 a -238 8-344 1-802 10-079 2-220 1-616 10-436 1-065 6-372 8-471 20-838 Dr. James Watson records the result of an experiment made with miUet (which is so ex- tensively used by the Chinese as an article of diet), to show its eSect on European constitu- tions. A sailor who had been guilty of several serious offences was sentenced to solitary con- finement for forty-nine days in the consulate * Wiih husks. jail. Permission was obtained by Dr. Watson to feed him solely on millet and water, on his promising to change the food at once if the man lost weight, or seemed in any way to suffer from his restricted diet. He entered prison on the 3d of April, when he weighed 146 lb. 8 oz., and he left it on the 22d May, weighing 147 lb. 14 oz. Throughout the con- finement he never weighed so little as on the day it commenced, and this in spite of the depressing effects of solitude and the monotony of his food. He ate about 3^ lbs. of millet daily, and when he left prison he looked, as he said he felt, perfectly well. ' The experi- ment shows that the grain which has been chosen by the people as their principal food is capable of maintaining for a considerable length of time perfect health under very de- pressing circumstances. — (Lancet, November 9, 1872.) See Dhubba. Mineral VTaters— The tables on pp. 391, 392, give the composition of the principal mineral waters. Mines— The condition of those who la- boured in mines was until recently extremely unsatisfactory. Very young children were employed, women of all ages worked in some of them — often in a state of nudity, and mixed without any distinction with men — ventilation was faulty, and the safety-lamp had not been invented. Successive commis- sions and inquiries led to the Mines Begula- tion Act in 1860, and another Act was passed — viz. , the Metalliferous Mines Begulation Act — in 1872. These Acts, by preventing the em- ployment of very young children, and by other wise measures, have done much to ameliorate the condition of mines and those who work in them. Mines are, -without doubt, unhealthy. The chief causes of this unhealthiness are firiit and foremost the impure air, then the excessive toil, the danger of explosions and accidents, the dampness of the ground and atmosphere in many cases, the constrained postures that the men are obliged to work in, and the poisonous copper, arsenical, or other metallic dust in certain mines. It is pretty certain that the rate of mor- tality amongst miners is closely connected with the quality of the ventUation. Mr. Simon states that, trith the exception of the well-ventilated mines of Durham and Nor- thumberland, the 300,000 miners in England break down prematurely from bronchitis and pneumonia, caused by the atmosphere in which they live. This atmosphere is not alone deteriorated by the emanations of the miners, but by the combustion of the lamps, dust, and by blasting operations. mm (390 • TVTTTT " JO IBIoj, OfflWOOTliO o: owes 00 in CO QO(N O COOS OOiOOOOOOOOeD(N«OXC3 iob;^;*b«b^=oc. ■aani'Biaaiiisi '3 . A3 . g - -s s •■ 2 3 .S1.&&30 3 . »>t-0Op-( OM^* « « cold 143° cold •BOjIIg . . .ma . : IT* • -b . . . .- O OSCOCC -i ri rH .^ -nanniug -spn'Eciipja^ 'zjiMoqoanv Of 0»Ob-(M10 o b-O Tt ■i'S'Ba'3 i §1 i ■S '3 ° S i2 S-S & ^■§S I BEIT (393) HOR The effects on the air of the mine by blasting may be judged by the following extract : — " If we put together all the substances thrown into the air of the 1200 cubic feet space, we have, as air and impurities to- gether — Grammes. Oxygen 9048 957 Nitrogen 337267 Carbonic acid . . . 1200 '44 Carbonic oxide , . , 3-188 Hydrogen .... 0-07186 Sulphuretted hydrogen . . 0-69869 Sulphate of potash . . 144-760 Carbonate of potash , . 43-311 Hyposulphite of potash . 11-189 Sulphide of potassium . . 7'296 Sulphocyanide of potassium . 1-049 Nitrate of potassium . , 12-751 Carbon .... 2494 Sulphur 0-466 1^ carbonate of ammonia . 9 790 Organic matter ... Sand Sulphurous acid, or sulphite of ammonia Arsenious acid . ' ' All these substances actually are breathed by the miners ; aU except carbonic oxide, hydrogen, sulphocyanide, and arsenic have been actually found in the air. These four have been proved to enter it, and would be found if sought. We know assuredly that they exist, and search is therefore voluntaiy. Every gas, with the exception of the first two, is injurious."— (Angus Smith "On Air and Eaiu.") The same observer has described and figured the particles of dust found in mines. It appears to consist of various minute bits of coal or metal, at times of crystals of saltpetre, sulphate of potash, &c. &c. This dust actually gets do-wn into the lungs and induces pulmon- ary affections, in many of which the lung is found after death thoroughly infiltrated with carbonaceous or metallic dust. The following table gives the average annual deaths per 1000 from pulmonary disease during the years 1860 -62:— Between the Ageot ? SletaJ- Uiners In Ooruwall. Metal- Minei-a in Yorkshire Metal- Miners in Wales. Males, ex- clueive of Miners, in Yorkshire. 15 and 25 25 and 35 35 and 45 45 and 55 56 and 65 65 and 75 3-77 4-15 7-89 19-75 43-29 45-04 3-40 6-40 11-76 £3-18 41-47 63-69 3-02 ■ 4-19 10-62 14-71 35-31 48-31 3-97 6-15 3-52 5-21 7-22 17-44 The number of- accidents in mines does not appear to have shown any increase, at all events, in the years-1871 and 1872. In 1870, out of 12,339 violent deaths in the whole of England, 1108, and in 1871, out of 12,678 violent deaths, 1030, were connected with mines. The details are as follows : — AcciDBHTS in Coal and Metal Mines during the Years 1870-71. Cool Mines. te. Mines.' im. 1871. 1850 isn. Fall of coal, stone, ■wood, 4c. 437 430 54 40 Crushed 19 49 19 12 Fall in pit or shaft, Ac. 76 84 16 31 Broken rope 4 ... Explosion of fire-damp 196 149 Choke-damp 15 19 Machinery in mines . 18 13 3 3 Explosion of steam-boiler 3 2 Killed by waggon, "i tramway, &c. . . j 78 89 5 3 Killed by tub 57 56 Blasting 41 15 9 13 Drown'ed 9 15 2 Manner not stated, or^ otherwise than the > 6 2 1 above causes . , .J 999 921 109 109 Nothing in the Public Health Act is to be construed to extend to mines, so as to interfere or obstruct their efficient working ; nor to the smelting of ores and minerals, nor to the cal- cining, puddling, and rolling of iron and other metals, nor to the conversion of pig-iron into wrought iron, so as to obstruct or interfere with any of such processes respectively. —(P. H., s. 334.) Mites, Cheese—See Acabus Sibo. Molasses — A dark-coloured -viscid liquid which drains off during the preparation of raw sugar. The beetroot - sugar molasses has a very disagreeable taste, and is therefore not used as cane-sugar molasses is. See Sugar, Tkeacle, &c. Monkshood, 'Wolfsbane, or Blue Rocket — The roots, seeds, and leaves are highly poisonous, owing to the presence of the alkaloid aconitina. See Aconite, &c. Morphia, Morphine (Ci7HxgN03)— An important alkaloid, discovered by Sertumer in 1804, existing, chiefly in combination with meconic acid and partly with sulphuric acid, in all varieties of opium. The following method is an excellent one to separate the alkaloid in a crude state from opium, for the purpose of estimation or other- wise : 15 parts of opium are treated with 25 parts of boiling water until complete disaggre- gation has taken place ; 60 parts of boiling alcohol are then added, and the whole digested for a little time ; the liquid is then filtered through linen, and the residue treated with 10 parts of water and 60 parts of alcohol, after which it is extracted -with 50 parts of boiling absolute alcohol. The united liquids are cooled, filtered, concentrated mOB (394) MOB to one-third, and again filtered. The mor- phine is now precipitated by 10 parts of ammonia, and the mixture eraporated over Bvdphurio acid. — (M. EoussiLE.) Morphine, when pure, is in the form of short, rectangular, prismatic crystals. 1 part of morphia is soluble in 4166 parts of water, in 7725 of ether, in 6650 of chloroform, and in 133 of amylic alcohol. Benzole is the best solvent of morphia — ^in this menstruum it is freely soluble : it also dissolves in the fixed alkalies and alkaline earths, but is sparingly soluble in ammonia. An alcoho^c solution of morphia turns a ray of polarised light to the left. With acid, morphia yields salts, which are well-defined compounds, and of which the acetate and the hydroohlorate are largely used in medicine. Morphia is the chief active ingredient in opium, and the symptoms referable to poison- ing by opium and morphia are not clinically distinguishable. . The best method to separate it from the contents of the stomach or the tissues is a modification of Stas's process, in which benzole is substituted for ether. Tests. — For the important tests of svMima- tion, amount of ammonia evolved, and changes of colour with nitric acid, see article Alka- loids. The following are three additional very characteristic and conclusive tests : — 1. A small portion of the solid substance strikes a rich indigo blue when touched with a neutral solution of permuriate of iron. 2. When morphia, in small quantity, is added to a solution of iodic acid in cold starch, iodine is immediately set free, as shown by the production of a blue colour. 3. If a crystal of morphia be touched with a drop of sulphuric acid, there is no change ; but the addition of a drop of a solution of bichromate of potash produces first a rich brown, rapidly passing into green. See Alka.- LOIDB, Ofidm, &c. mortgage — All local sanitary authorities have power to mortgage any fund, rate, or rates applicable to the purposes of the Public Health Act, 1875, in order to raise money for sanitary purposes. They have also similar powers with regard to the mortgage of sewage land and plant.— (P. H., s. '233, 235.) Every mortgage under the Public Health Act is to be by deed, sealed with the seal of the authority, &c., and according to the fol- lowing forms, or one to the like effect. — (P. H., B. 236.) roBu H. Form of Mortgage of Sates. By virtue of the Public Health Act, 1876, we, the , being the local authority under that Act for the district of , in consideration of the sum of paid to the treasurer of the said dis- trict hy A. B. of for the purposes of the said Act, do grant and assign unto the said A. B., his executors, administrators, and assigns, such pro- portion of the rates arising or accruing by virtue of the said Act from Ithe rates mortgaged] as the said sum of doth or shall bear to the whole sum which is or shall be borrowed on the credit of the said rates, to hold to the said A. B., bis executors, administrators, and assigns, from the day of the date hereof until the said sum of with interest at the rate of per centum per annum for the same, shall be fully paid and satisfied : And it is hereby declared, that the said principal sum shall be repaid on the day of at {^lace of payment]. Dated this day of one thousand eight hundred and [To be sealed with the common seal of the local authority.] A mortgagee may transfer his mortgage, and such transfers are to be made according to the following "form, or to the like effect :— FOEM I. Farm Of Transfer of Mortgage. I, A. B. oi •* ■ , in consideration of the sum of . paid to me by C. D. of , do hereby transfer to the said C. D., his executors, administra- tors, and assigns, a certain mortgage, bearing date the day of and made by the local authority under the Public Health Act, 1875, for the disti-ict of for securing the sum of and interest thereon at per centum per annum [or if such transfer ie iy endorsement on the mort- gage, insert, instead of the words immediately fol- lowing the word "assigns," the within security], and all my right, estate, and interest In and to the money thereby secured, and in and to the rates thereby assigned. In witness whereof I have here- unto set my hand, and seal this day of one thousand eight hundred and A. B. (L.S,) All mortgages are to be registered at the office of the local authority within fourteen days after the date of the mortgage. The register shall contaiS the number and date of the mortgage, and the names and descriptions of the parties thereto. This register is to be open to public inspection, without fee. The refusal to allow this inspection by the cus- todian entails liability to a penalty of £5 or less. The transfer of mortgages must ^Iso be registered within thirty days of such transfer, if executed within the United Kingdom, or if executed elsewhere, within thirty days after its arrival in the United Kingdom. The regis- tration fee is 5s., payable to the clerk. The local authority is not responsible to the trans- feree until the registration has taken place. For neglect or refusal to register a transfer the clerk is liable to a penalty of £20 or less. —(P. H., s. 238.) In cases where the principal or interest on a mortgage is six months overdue, and after SCOR (39S) Mon demand in writing, an applioaiion may be made (providing the sums due to the applicant, or to two or more persons making joint appli- cation, amount at least to £1000) to a court of summary jurisdiction for the appointment of a receiver ; and the court may appoint in writ- ing a. receiver, who will collect and receive the whole or a competent part of the rates liable to the payment of principal or interest in respect of which the application is made, until the sums due, with the costs of the ap- plication and collection, are fuUy paid. — (P. H., s. 239.) See Loaks, Rates, Rent-Chahge. Mortuary, Public— Every town should be provided with a building of this descrip- tion, for the reception of bodies waiting either identification or judicial inquiry. Every facil- ity should be given for the ingress and egress of the public, and in cases where the body is unknown, all the clothes worn by the de- ceased should be exposed. So many difficul- ties are at present put in the way should any one desire to view the body of a person whose name and condition may be unknown, that few care to do it ; and hence it is we yearly consign to the grave so many persons whose family we are ignorant of, and whose station in life we can only guess. Crime goes un- punished, and mysterious disappearances take place to which no clue can be discovered. These remarks wUl not appear forced when we inform the reader that the bodies of from 350 to 400 murdered persons are received annually by the Morgue in Paris, and that half the identifications are due to chance ; and since the new Morgue has been opened — ^wMch is provided with greater conveniences for the public — the identifications have increased from scarcely three in every four bodies to eight in every nine. This building has greatly assisted the police in the. detection of crime. Many of the identifications were made through the clothes of the deceased being conspicuously exposed, and the importance of preserving any articles of attire worn by an unrecognised body cannot be too strongly insisted upon. The necessity of having the mortuary in the most public parts of the town, cannot fail, from the foregoing remarks, to strike the reader ; and the nearer it is to the police station — for obvious reasons— the better. In erecting mortuaries, the three grand re- quisites axe— space, thorough ventilation, and a good supply of water. In the building of the new Morgue in PariSj the following points were ordered to be at- tended to by the Council of Public Health (1857) : The exposing-room was to be placed in the centre of the building, and provided with twelve marble tables ; above these tables, taps, with constant water-supply, were to be arranged, and an opening at the lowest part of the , table to allow the water to run off. The room itself was to be square, and the roof to be either sloping or to consist of a dome with an outlet at top for foul air, and a little gas lighted to facilitate its expulsion. The pubUo not to enter the room, but to gaze upon the bodies through a sheet of glass over which a movable curtain is suspended. The room for the public to contain two doors, one of entrance and one of exit ; the doors to be large enough to admit a vehicle. On each side of the exposing-room a dead-room was to be built, containing ten tables for the bodies when they first arrive and for those recognised. A large trough for washing clothes was to be fitted up, sufficient space to wash bodies on the ground allowed. A supply of hot and cold water, a drying- chamber, and a room to contain the clothes of the unrecognised dead for from six to eight months, were also ordered. And behind the exposure-room, an autopsy-room, with every convenience for performing post-Ttiortem ex- aminations, was to be erected. These were the principal points contained in the Coun- cil of Health's plan for a new mortuary ; many matters of detail we have necessarily omitted. It is satisfactory to notice that many of the more energetic of the London vestries are on the point of erecting mortuaries, which are to be fitted up with the different appliances requisite for the performance of a post-mortem, examination, and are to contain air-tight coffins having glass Kds for the convenience of viewing the bodies. The following are the regulations at present existing with regard to mortuary-houses : — Any local authority may, and if required by the Local Government Board shall, pro- vide and fit up a proper place for the recep- tion of dead bodies before interment (in the Act called a mortuary), and may make bylaws with respect to the management and charges for use of the same ; they may also provide for the decent and economical interment, at charges to be fixed by such bylaws, of any dead body which may be received into a mor- tuary.— (P. H., s. 141.) Any local authority may provide and main- tain a proper place (otherwise than at a work- house or at a mortuary) for the reception of dead bodies during the time required to con- duct any post-mortem examination ordered by the coroner or other constituted authority, and may make regulations with respect to the management of such place ; and where any such place has been provided, any coroner or other constituted authority may order the 3I0S (396) inrs removal of tlie body to and from such place for carrying out such post-mortem examina- tion, such costs of removal to be paid in the same manner and out of the same fund as the costs and fees for post-mortem examinations when ordered by the coroner.— (P. H., a, 143.) With regard to the removal of dead bodies to mortuariea under the order of a justice of the peace, see Inpeotiotjs Diseases. JUloseUe—See Wesbs. Moss, Iceland— /%e Lichens. Museums— 5ee Libbaeies. Mushrooms— Edible fimgi. The foUow- ng are the species usually eaten in England: The Agaricus campestris, common field or garden mushroom, used to make ketchup, and eaten either raw, stewed, or broiled ; the Morchella esciUenta, ormorelle, used to flavour soups or gravies ; and the Ttiber cibarimm, or common truffle. The Agaricus campestris is a native of most of the temperate regions of both hemispheres, and springs up spontaneously in our pastures during the months of September and October, and it is cultivated in beds, from which it can be obtained all the year round. Mushrooms are somewhat difficult of digestion, and con- sequently scarcely suitable for the invalid; and in some persons the harmless varieties produce all the poisonous symptoms which noxious mushrooms induce. Dr. Taylor in- stances a case of a woman dying in twenty- four hours from eating ordinary mushrooms ; but usually they only produce in those who are extremely susceptible to their action vomiting, purging, and colic. ' The Morchella esculenta — common morelle — is kept, as a rule, in a dry state and sold at Italian warehouses ; it is imported from the Continent. The Tuber cibarium, or common truffle, is a subterraneous fungus f oilnd in light , dry soils, and especially in the downs of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Kent. The larger varieties come from France. Since they do not appear above the surface, there is nothing to indicate their presence ; but their odour enables them to be scented out by dogs trained for the purpose in England, and by pigs in France. They are very firm and tough, and more indi- gestible than the ordinary mushroom. From the ordinary mushroom ketchup is prepared; it consists of the juice flavoured with salt and aromatios. The analyses of Payen of the three varieties mentioned give the following results :— Composition ofEUhle Fungi (Payer). MiiBh- rooma. Moi^lle. ■Wlito Truffles. Bln/:k Truffles. Nitrogenous "" matter and traces of sul- phur . . .^ I'atty matter . Cellulose, dex-^ trine, sac- harl ne matter,man* nite, and other non- nitrogenous principles .^ Salts (ph03-N phates and chlorides of the alkalies, lime and magnesia), silica. . .) Water . . . 4-680 0-396 3 -ISO 0-45S 91-010 4-40 0-56 3-63 1-36 90-00 •9-958 0-442 15-158 2-102 73-340 8-775 0-560 16-565 2-07O 72-000 100-000 100-00 100 000 lOO-OOO Serious consequences frequently arise from people eating by mistake poisonous mush- rosms. The effects produced, by these are very uncertain. Sometimes they act as a narcotic, at other times as an irritant, and the symptoms may occur immediately or not before the lapse of some hours after the meal. It has been noticed that usually when the effect produced is narcotic — drowsiness, giddiness, dimness of sight, and debility — the symptoms appear shortly after eating the poisonous fungi ; but when irrita- tion of the bowels is induced, the vomiting, purging, &c., which ensues is delayed for some time. The same fungi has been found to act upon the members of the same family in one case as a narcotic and in another as an irritant. In most instances recovery takes place, especially if there be early vomiting, but fatal cases are not unfrequent. Antidotes. — Vomiting should be immedi- ately induced by the administration of an emetic, and tickling the fauces with the finger or ib feather, after which a strong cathartic should be given, -with J to 1 fluid drachm Of ether in a glassful of water or weak brandy. M. Chansarl strongly recommends as an antidote a solution of | drachm of tannin in 1\ pint of water, or a deci^ction of J oz. of powdered galls or of 1 oz. of po.wdered cinchona bark in a like quantity of water. The following general characters given by Professor Bentley may enable us to distin- guish the edible species :— Edible Mushrooms. 1. Grow in dry, airy places. 2. Generally white or brownish. 3. Have a compact, brittle flesh. MTTS (397) MT7S 4. Do not change colour by the action of the air when cut. 6. Juice watery. 6. Odour agreeable. ' 7. Taste neither bitter, acrid, nor astringent. Poisonous Mushrooms. 1. Grow in clusters in woods and dark damp places. 2." Usually with bright colours. 3. Flesh tough, soft, and watery. 4. Acquire a brown, green, or blue tint when cut and exposed to the air. 5. Juice often milky. 6. Odour commonly powerful and disagreeable. 7. Have an acrid, astringent, acid, salt, or bitter taste. - Writing on this subject, an experienced mycologist (the Rev. J. Berkeley) says : " No general rule can be given for the determina- tion of the question whether fungi are or are not poisonous. Colour is quite indecisive, and some of the most dangerous fungi, and amongst them the Agwncus Phalloides, are void of any unpleasant smell when fresh, though the most wholesome may he extremely offensive when old. Experience is the only safe test, and no one should try species in- cautiously with whoSe character he is not thoroughly acquainted." The late Professor L. C Blcharda, the emi- nent botanist, although no one was better act[uainted with the distinctions of fungi than himself, would never eat any mushroom that had not been raised in gardens or beds. Mussel {Mytilus edulia) — Many fatal cases of poisoning have occurred through eating mussels, and often in people who had been accustomed to take this shellfish habitually. Dr. Christison refers to an instance which occurred at Leith in! 1827, in which no fewer than thirty people were severely affected and two died after partaking of a dish of mussels. As is the case with other kinds of shellfish, some people appear more sensitive to the deleterious action of this fish than others, and it has not yet been ascertained to what the poisonous effects are to be attributed. Cow/position of Mussel (Paten). L Nitrogenous matter 11-72 Fatty matter . ... 2-42 Saline matter 2-73 Non-nitrogenous matter and loss . 7-.^9 Water . ... 7674 Mustard — The flour or finely - powdered seeds of the Sinapis nigra, or black mustard ; or the seeds similarly treated of the Sinapis alba, or white mustard ; or the flour of both these varieties mixed. ■White mustard seeds are of a yellow colour, elliptical, smooth, a little larger than those of black mustard, and of a sharp biting taste. The seeds of black mustard are dark bro-wn in colour, very small, inodorous, and some- times covered with a whitish coating. White mustard seeds contain a fixed oil from about 36 per cent., a non-volatile acrid substance, and sulphosinapisin, which is an organic sulphur compound capable of crystal- lisation, and supposed to be the sulphocyan- ate of a peculiar alkaloid called sinapine (CisHasNOs). Black mustard seeds contain myronate of potash (CjoHigKNSjOio) '2 per cent., and a substance, called myrosine, of an albuminous nature. Both these are absent in white mustard seeds. Black mustard yields a volatile oil on being moistened with water. It does not contain it ready formed, but it is produced by the action of the myrosine on the myronate of potash, which latter substance breaks up in the pre- sence of water into the oil of mustard, glucose, and sulphuric acid, with some free sulphur and an insoluble organic substance derived from the myrosine. The volatile oil thus obtained has a specific gra-rity of 1015 ; it has the properties and composition of sulpho- cyanide of allyl (C3H5CNS), is freely soluble in alcohol and ether, sparingly so 'in water, and blisters the skin when applied to it. The fixed oil contained in both species of mustard contains erucic acid (C22H42O2). Neither black nor white mustard contains starch. Manufacture. — The seeds are first crushed between rollers, then pounded in large mortars. The resulting powder is then passed through sieves. The portion in the first sieve-is called the dressings, that which passes through is the impureflour of mustard. The impure flour, on being passed through a second sieve, yields the pure flour of mustard and a second quantity of dressings. The dressings are submitted to pressure for the sake of the fixed oil they contain, which is utilised -with rape and other oils. Structure of the Seed. — The white mustard seed is made up of the husk and the seed proper. The husk consists of three membranes : — 1. The outer membrane is composed of two Idnds of large transparent cells, which Dr. HassaU thus describes : " Those of the first kind are of an hexagonal figure, and united by their edges so as to form a distinct mem- brane, the centre of each cell being perforated ; the cells of the second kind occupy the aper- tures which exist in the previously-described cells, and they are themselves traversed by a somewhat funnel-shaped tube which appears to terminate on the surface of the seed. Im- mersed in water, these cells swell up to several times their original volume, occasion the rupture of the hexagonal cells, and become themselves much wrinkled or corrugated, the MtTS (398) uus extremity of the tubes in some eases being seen protruding from the proximate termina- tion of the cells. It is possible, however, that what are here described as two different kinds of ceHs really form distinct parts of the same cells." It is from these cells the thick mucilage obtained by digesting mustard seeds in water is derived. 2. The second layer, or middle tissue, con- sists of very minute, angular, coloured cells. 3. The inner or. third layer of the husk con- sists of a single layer of angular cells. The seed proper consists entirely of very minute oil-bearing cells. The black mustard in its structural com- position only differs from the white in not containing the large perforated cells of the husk, the outer membranes consisting of two or three layers of large, transparent, hexagonal cells, the other structures being similar to those already described. Adulterations. —Mustard is largely adulter- ated. The following substances are gene- rally enumerated as having been fraudulently mixed with mustard : 'Wheat-flour, turmeric, SinapisArvensis, Cayenne pepper, ginger, gam- boge, potato-starch, pea-flour, radish and rape seed, linseed-meal, yellow ochre, chromate of lead, plaster-of -Paris, and clay. Of these, certainly the most common are wheat-starch and turmeric. The organic adulterations may all be de- tected by the microscope, but valuable infor- mation wUl also be afforded by a chemical examination. The analyst should in all cases estimate (1) the total sulphur ; (2) the amount of fat or oil ; (.S) the ash ; (4) the soluble ash ; (5) test for starch ; (6) for turmeric ; (7) test for gamboge. The microscopical examination should pre- cede all other methods. Tlie mustard must be examined both by ordinary and polarised light, and tested whilst under the field of the microscope by appropriate reagents, such as iodine, &c, I. The Total Sulphur. — By weighiftg out about a gramme of the dried mustard, and treating for spme time with fuming nitric acid, aided at first by a gentle heat, the organic sulphur compounds are oxidised. The result- ing liquid filters with ease, especially if heated, and the sulphates are precipitated in the usual manner with a solution of chloride of barium, the precipitate thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed. Sulphate of baryta, multiplied by •13734, = sulphur. Next, a sufficient quan- tity of the seeds must be burned at a low tem- perature, the ash dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the sulphates of the ash precipitated by chloride of barium, and the difference be- tween the sulphates of the ash and the total sulphates estimated — a necessary precaution, since very frequently mineral sulphates are fraudulently added to mustard. The author found that white mustard seeds, ground by himself, gave as the mean of sixteen experiments 1'8631 per cent, of total sulphur — the lowest determination being 1 '2 per cent. , the highest 2°5 per cent. The mean quan- tity of sulphur in the ash being '3483 per cent. Black mustard, oxidised in a simUar man- ner, gave 1 per cent, of total sulphur, while the ash gave "22 per cent. Thus black mus- tard contains less sulphur than white mus- tard. Many of the adulterants of mustard contain little or no sulphur — e.g., rice — while, on the other hand, the seeds of most of the Gruciferce contain it in considerable quantity ; in other words, a deficiency or great excess of sulphur is indicative of adulteration, but a normal quantity is no certain sign of purity. 2. The Amount of Fat. —This is particularly useful when wheat-starch is the adulterating agent. Mustard exhausted by benzole or ether gives up a quantity ranging from 33'9 to 36 "7 of oil, whilst wheat-flour does not contain more than 1'2 to 2"1 per cent, of oil; hence a large admixture of wheat-flour neces- sarily produces deficiency of ethereal extract. The best method to take the oil is to place a small quantity, carefully weighed — e.g., a gramme — in a tube closed at one end, and treat it with about 50 cubic centimetres of ether, corking the tube, and allowing to stand over night. The ether in the morning is poured off and fresh ether added, boiling it up with successive portions several times by immers- ing the tube in hot water, whilst the boiling- point is raised by causing a certain safe amount of pressure with the thumb adapted to the open part of the tube. In this way the whole of the oil may be extracted from mustard, the ether evaporated, and the residue dried anil weighed. Some analysts use the following formula in order to determine the amount of mustard in an admixture which the microscope has shown to mainly or entirely consist of wheat-flour and mustard : — X = amount of mustard, 3/ = of oil found. 33-9 it 1-2 (100 100 36-7 100 100 2 (100 -!c) 1^)-, 100 Such calculations are rough guides, but should not be implicitly relied upon. 3 and 4. The Ash.—fThe ash is best taken by weighing 1 or 2 grammes into a platinum MUT (399) MUT dish and burning at a low temperature. The total aah of dried mustard averages 5 per cent. ; the highest number the author has obtained is 5 '3 per cent., the lowest 5 '088 per cent. The ash of mustard in its natural state is from 4 to 45 per cent. Of this ash 1"2 at least is soluble in water; in other words, the ash of mustard consists of 30 parts per cent, soluble, 70 parts insoluble in water. The value of taking the percentage of ash is great ; for if it be above 5 '5 per cent. , mineral matter is certainly present ; if below 4 per cent., it indicates some organic adulterant, such as wheat-flour, which possesses a very small amount of saline matter. The great fallacy in the determination of ashes is incom- plete ignition. A true ash does not lose weight when reignited, nor does it contain any appre- ciable quantity of carbon. 5. Starch. — Mustard, if pure, contains no starch ; hence if treated with iodine, and no blue coloration is produced, this negative result excludes a great variety of adultera- tions. By the use of a volumetric solution of starch a very good idea of the amouiit of admixture may be formed. The method to be employed is very similar to nessleris- ing. Two glass cylinders are taken, one con- taining a known quantity of the mustard to be examined, diffused through water ; to this is added a little iodine, and the blue colour which is produced exactly imitated by the addition of the same quantity of iodine to an equal column of water in the other cylinder, and running in the standard starch solution from a burette until the same or a similar tint is produced. 6. Turmeric. — Turmeric may be readily re- cognised by the microscope, but there are also some very good special chemical tests. One of these is based upon the fact that the seeds of the black and white mustard yield a yellow colouring matter, soluble in spirits of wine, devoid of fluorescence ; while, on the contrary, turmeric is strongly fluorescent : hence an alcoholic solution of mustard, if fluorescent, is certain to be adulterated. The alcoholic solution may be placed in u test-tube and held vertically in water con- tained in a glass blackened internally. If the observer now slightly inclines the top from the window and looks from above, outside the test-tube, the least bit of green fluorescence will be readily observed. — (Stokes.) A still easier method is that of passing a little castor oU through adulterated mustard on a filter. The oU, if turmeric be present, shows a very distinct green colour. The above test will detect a mere trace of turmeric. Another excellent method is to mix a little mustard with two or three tiines its volume of methylic alcohol, to filter the liquid, and evaporate to dryness in a, porcelain capsule containing a small piece of filtering - paper about the size of a sixpence. When the eva- poration is completed, the paper is mois- tened with a strong solution of boric acid and dried. If turmeric be present, the paper takes a reddish colour ; if it then be treated with a solution of potash or soda, there is a play of colours, among which green and purple predominate. A still further .confirmation may be obtained by adding a drop of hydrochloric acid, which produces a red orange-green colour, turned by excess of an alkali to green and blue.— (Allen.) 7. Gamboge. — The same process as the last will detect gamboge. The little bit of filter- paper treated with caustic soda turns a bright red ; with hydrochloric acid, a yellow colour is produced. All mineral adulterations will be found in the ash. The oil or essence of mustard is not unfre- quently adulterated. If pure, it should be of the specific gravity already mentioned, and its boiling-point be 298° F. (112° C.) One part of oil of mustard mixed with four parts of water and sixteen of alcohol gives a clear solution. The pure essence takes a very light yellow when mixed with fifteen to twenty times its volume of concentrated sulphuric acid ; but if the essence is mixed with others, a red colour is formed, more or less strong, according to the extent of adulteration. The adulterations which have been actually discovered in the essence appear to be alcohol, sulphide of carbon, petroleum oil, castor oil, and essence of cloves. TSlntton—See Meat. Mutual Aid Societies (syn. Friendly Soci^ties)^~The largest of these societies are the " Manchester Unity of Oddfellows " and the *' Antjient Order of Forester.^ ; " but there are many others established for the same purpose— viz., of supporting their members when sick, and providing medical attendance. Of late years, in large towns, numerous clubs have amalgamated together, forming large societies, united for no other purpose than that of employing one medical man, who de- votes his whole time to the care of the mem- bers and their families. All clubs, amalgamated societies, &c., which keep a record of their sick may be utilised by sanitary authorities in giving notice of epi- demic disease, &c., among their members ; this they would do the more readily, as it is the MYO (400) NIC interest of the clubs to keep their members healthy. Friendly societies were subjected to slight control in 1793, and other Acta were passed in 1855, 1858, and 1860. Mycosis Endocardii— Af ungoid disease of the valves of the heart,, described by Winge of Christiania, 1869. See Baotbkia; Bao- ' TEEOID, OBIGIN OS DISEASE. N. Nessler Test.— The most delicate test for ammonia or its salts known. It is an aqueous solution of iodide of potas- sium, saturated with biniodide of mercury, and rendered powerfully alkaline with potash. It is prepared as follows : 35 grammes of iodide of 'potassium are dissolved in a small quantity of distilled water ; a saturated solu- tion of bichloride of mercury is now added, little by little ; a red precipitate appears, which almost immediately is dissolved. In continuing to add, a point is at Tast reached, ■when the precipitate commences to be in- soluble. Sufficient corrosive sublimate has then been added. ' The liquid is now filtered, and to the filtrate 120 grammes of caustic soda (or 160 grammes of -potash) are added in strong aqueous solution. The liquid is then diluted so as to measure a litre. Lastly, 5 cubic centi- metres of a saturated solution of bichloride of mercury are added. This makes the Nessler solution clear rapidly, and also imparts to it sensitiveness cf reaction. The liquid now deposits a sediment if allowed to stand, and the clear liquid should be decanted off into a stock-bottle well corked and of large size. From this stock-bottle a little can be put in a smaller one for immediate use, as frequent opening spoils it by rendering it turbid. If the Nessler reagent be added to a liquid containing a very minute quantity of am- monia, a light yellow, a dark yellow, or a brown coloration is produced, according to the quantity of ammonia present, If there is a larger quantity of ammonia, there is a pre- cipitate formed. This precipitate has the composition of HgjNIHaO. It is hydrargo- ammonium iodide, or ammonium in wldoh four atoms of hydrogen are displaced by two of mer- cury. By multiplying the weight of the pre- cipitate by '03041 — viz., ji/s— the weight of the ammonia is obtained. It is, however, by the oolorimetric method that ammonia is usually measured for health purposes. {See Water. ) By this method " the Nessler teat is capable of indicating less than -^^^ milligramme of ammonia dissolved in 100 cubic centimetres of distilled water — ^being one part of ammonia in 20,000,000 parts of water. And ammonia admits of concentration, xjir milligramme of ammonia dissolved in two litres of water would for the moat part paaa into the first 100 cubic centimetres of distillate, if the two litres of water were distilled. " In this way, therefore, ammonia may be detected when the quantity is ^^5 milligramme in two litres of water, or 1 part of ammonia in 200,000,000 parts of water. And even this statement, surprising though it may seem, is an under-statement of the delicacy of the test." — (Water- Analysis, by Wanklyn and Chapman.) Niootina, Nicotine (CJ0H14N2) (syn. Nicotia) — A volatile base discovered by Eeiman and Posselt, and found in the leaves, root, and seeds of the tobacco plant. It is a colourless, volatile, liquid alkaloid, with an acrid odour and an acrid burning taste. The vapour has the odour of tobacco, and is ex- tremely irritating. It restores the blue colour of reddened litmus, and renders turmeric brown. It boils and undergoes decomposition at 482° F., but does not solidify at 14° F. The peculiarity of this alkaloid is that it is soluble in water and ether. In many of its reactions it resembles ammonia. It is an energetic poison, almost equalling in activity hydrocyanic acid, for a single drop will kill a large-sized dog. Two cases of poisoning by nicotine are alone on record. Count BocarmS especially prepared it for the purpose of poisoning his wife's brother, Gustavo Fougnies ; and it was also used for a suicidal purpose by an English chemist, and proved fatal in less than five minutes. Good Virginia and Kentucky tobacco dried at 212° F. contains from 6 to 7 per cent, of nicotina, Havana tobacco (cigars) less than 2 per cent.— (SoHLOESiNG.) " Nicotine is present in some cigars in the proportion of about 4 per cent., but thp smoke derived .from them containa none. Small quantities of sulphide and cyanide of am- NIT (401) NIT monium were found in the smoke. Snuff yielded from '04 to '06 per cent, of nicotina." —(Ann. d'Hyg., 1873, i. p. 436. Quoted by Taylor.) Dr. Bmil Heubel of Kiew, a noted univer- sity in Kussian Poland,' after some exhaustive researches into this subject, arrives at the following conclusions (Oentralblatt, October 5, 1872) {*— 1. I^icotine is certainly contained in tobacco smoke. 2. It exists in the smote, for the most part, as a salt of the alkaloid. 3. In the working of tobacco smoke, both upon the human and brute organisms, an essential share in the effect is taken by the nicotine ingredient of the smoke. Tests. — A solution of nicotina inhydrochloric acid afiords with chloride of gold a reddish- yellow, curdy precipitate ; with chloride of platinum, a crystalline yellow precipitate ; and if heated with hydrochloric acid, a violet colour is produced. But the most characteristic precipitate is that which nicotine produces with corrosive sublimate. Even so small a portion as -^j^ grains of nicotine will yield white crystals, if treated with an aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate. The only other alkaloid with which this reagent pro- duces a crystalline precipitate is strychnine, but the forms of the crystals are "entirely different. The amount of ammonia evolved, &c., as described in article Alkaloids, will also distinguish nicotine from other substances of similar appearance. See Alkaloids, To- bacco. Nitre (Nitrate of Potassa)—Se&ForrAaaA. Nitro - Benzole {Essence of Merhane) (CgHgNOa)— This substance is prepared, by treating benzole with strong fuming nitric acid with heat. After the violence of the reaction is over, the liquid is diluted with water, and the'heavy oily fluid which separates is collected, washed,, and dried; It is of a yellowish colour ; smells of bitter almonds ; is insoluble in water, and is little affected by reagents. It boils at 415° F. ; specific gravity, 1209. Nitro-benzole has some antiseptic proper-, ties ; a piece of lean meat suspended in its, vapour was preserved perfectly fresh for oyer eight days. This substance is largely employed as a substitute for the essential oil of bitter almonds in perfumery and confectionery, and has now taken its place among narcotic poisons. * Drs. Vohl and Eulenberg (Ticrteljahrssohrift fur Gei'ichtl. Med., 1871, xiv. p. 249) have arrived at different conclusions. The results of their investiga- tions aie given in article on Iobaooo. See Caspee, Vierteljahrsschrift, b. xvi. p. 1 ; Guy's Hospital Reports, October 1864, p. 192; and Ann. d'Hyg., 1873, i. p. 444. According to Letheby, its poisonous pro- perties depend on aniline, which it is capable of being converted into by the animal organism. For tests, &c., see Aniline. Nitrogett — An elementary gaseous sub- stance discovered by Eutherford in 1722, and found to be a constituent of the atmosphere by Lavoisier, 1755. Its relative weight is 14, and its observed specific gravity is '9713. It forms four-fifths of the bulk of the atmo- sphere ; is an essential component of animal substances, of gluten, of the alkaloids, of ammonia, and of various vegetable and com- mercial products. Nitrogen is a colourless, tasteless, inodor- ous gas, which as yet has resisted aU efforts to liquefy it. It is neither a supporter of com- bustion nor a combustible body itself. In fact, alone and uncombined, it appears a very inert substance, yet in combination it plays an extremely important and active part in the universe. Nitrogen in food, in some form or other, is absolutely necessary to life, the quantity required by man being, according to Dr. Paxkes, 316 grains daily. The functions of nitrogenous matters are to construct and repair tissue, but it is probable that they have other duties to perform of an assimila- tive, respiratory, and force-producing quality. Nitrogen, Estimation of. — The estimation of nitrogen is frequently required by the hygienist or analyst. The nitrogen in a great variety of organic liquids — such as tea, milk, beer, wine, vine, sewage, &c. — may be readily estimated by the processes given under Am- monia, Watek- Analysis, &o. For solids the best process is most decidedly that of Dumas. A combustion-tube about 70 centimetres Ipng, and sealed at one end, is taken. First, a layer of bicarbonate of soda 12*15 centiinetres long is introduced, then a layer of oxide'of copper 4 centimetres long; this is followed by an intimate mixture of an accurately - weighed portion of the sub- stance ("3 to '6 grammes) with oxide of copper, then a layer of pure oxide, and lastly a layer of copper turnings about 15 centi- metres long. A delivery-tube is attached to this,, and the end is inserted in an inverted graduated cylinder filled two -thirds with mercury, one-third with strong solution of potash. The operation is conducted as fol- lows : First, all air is expeUed by heating the posterior end of the tube containing the bicarbonate. Wlen it is found all bubbles are absorbed by a solution of potash, the 2c NIT (462) NOT cylinder filled, as before described, is placed over the delivery-tube, and the actual opera- tion commenced by heating the anterior end of the tube first, and then going gradually back- ward until the whole tube is red-hot. The nitrogen in the cylinder after the operation is finished is ultimately measured over water, with corrections for temperature, pressure, and tehsion of aqueous vapour. There are many other processes ; the above are the most convenient. Nitrous Oxide {Protoxide of Nitrogen, LoAigTiing-Gas, Nitrogmii protoxydum) (NgO =44) — Theoretic specific gravity, 1'5238; ob- served specific gravity, 1'527. Nitrous oxide is a transparent colourless gas with a faint sweetish smell. 100 volumes of water at 32° dissolve 130 of the gas ; at 59°, 77 volumes ; and at 75° only 60 volumes. It boils at aibout - 126°, and may be frozen into a transparent solid at about - 150°. It sup- ports the combustion of many bodies with a brilEancy resembling that which they exhibit when burning in oxygen, and may be dis- tinguished from this gas by its considerable solubility in water. Its most remarkable property is its action on the system when inspired. Soon after its discovery. Sir Hum- phrey Davy proved that when mixed with air it might be breathed without danger to life. A few deep inspirations were usually succeeded by a pleasing state of excitement, attended often with an irresistible propensity to uncontrollable laughter, which soon sub- sided, without being followed by depression or languor. Sir H. Davy, in one of his early experiments, inhaled with safety 5 gallons ; and it is said that from 4 to 12 gallons might be breathed without danger. Like chloroform or ether, it produces temporary insensibility to pain, and is now extensively employed as an ansesthetic in dental surgery. When affections of the heart, lun^B, or brain are present, it should never be employ«d. For such operations as the drawing of teeth, &o., nitrous oxide is a use- ful and a comparatively safe ana^sthetic ; but experience has shown that the keeping of an individual under its influence for any time is attended with danger, hence it is seldom em- ployed for producing insensibility during the more important hospital operations. Considering how extensively it is used, the deaths resulting from its employment are com- paratively few. The first case that attracted any particular attention was that of a lady at Exeter, who inhaled about 6 gallons of nitrous oxide in order to annul pain during the extraction of a molar tooth. Shortly after, insensibility came on, the face became livid, the features began to swell, the tongue protruded, and in spite of every effort to restore her, she breathed two or three times, and then the pulse stopped. Dr. Johnson has pointed out that the con- vulsions produced by this gas are analogous, if not identical, with those of epilepsy ; and. according to the recent experiments of MM. Joylet and Blanch (Archives de Physiologie, Juillet 1873), this gas when breatbed operates fataBy by producing pure asphyxia. The in- sensibility which is a result of breathing the gas, is, in their view, owing to the non-oxy- genation of the blood. It is dissolved in the blood, and circulated with it, the blood not having the power to separate the combined oxygen from it. According to these physiolo- gists, the anesthetic state produced by this gas is owing to temporary asphyxia, which, in proportion to its duration and the time for which air is out off, may end in recovery or death. There is not only a circulation of un- aerated blood, but this liquid containing the nitrous oxide in solution may produce some direct effect on the nerve-centres. — (Tatiok.) In the second report of the joint committee of the Odontological Society on the action of nitrous gas (October 1872) it is stated : "As to the mode of death, it is certain that the respiration stops in fatal cases in dogs before the heart «eases to beat. The gas acts upon the nervous centres, controlling the respiratory act ; hence the value of artificial respiration and electricity, should death be impending." Notices— The Public Health Act contains very full and explicit directions as to the serv- ing and delivery of notices. Notices, orders, and other such documents under the Public Health Act may be in writ- ing or print, or partly in writing and partly in print ; and if the same require authentication by the local authority, the signature thereof by the clerk to the local authority or their sur- veyor or inspector of nuisances shall be sufd- oient authentication. — (P. H., s. 266.) Notices, orders, and any other documents required or authorised to be served under the said Act may be served by delivering the same to or at the residence of the person to whom they are respectively addressed, or where addressed to the owner or occupier of pre- mises, by delivering the same or a true copy thereof to some person on the premises, or if there is no person on the premises who can be so served, by fixing the same on some con- spicuous part of the premises ; they may also be served by post by a prepaid letter, and if served by post, shall be deemed to have been served at the time when the letter containing the same would "be delivered in the ordinary NOX (403) NTJI course of post, and in proving sucji aei;vioe it shall be snfficient to prove that the notice, order, or other document was properly ad- dressed and put into the post. Any notice required to be given to the owner or occupier of any premises may he addressed by the description of the "owner" or " occupier " of the premises (naming them) in respect of which the notice is given, with- out further name or description. — (P. H., s. 267.) There has hitherto been some practical in- convenience in the absence of precise direc- tions as to whom the notice should be served on in the matter of ordinary nuisances. The following is a summary of the action which may be taken by the local authority or their oflBoers in this matter : — Enforcing the Drainage ofSoilses. — Notice is to be given to the owner or occupier, but in case of the failure of either to comply, and the authority having to do the work, the es- pense falls on the ovmer. — (P. H., s. 23.) Insufficient Privy Accommodation. — The same procedure as under the 23d section. — (P. H., 3. 36, 37.) The Gleandng and Whitewashing of Souses. — Notice to the owner or occupier. The person on whom the notice is served is liable to a penalty if it is not complied with. — (P. H., s. 46.) Tlie Removal of Manure or Filth, die. , in an Urban District. — Notice to be served on the person to whom the manure belongs, or to the occupier of the premises whereon it exists. If the urban authority have to remove it them- selves, the expense of removal falls upon the owner of the manure, &o., or the occupier of the premises, or where there is no occupier, the owner of the premises. — (P. H., s. 49.) In the case of nuisances, notice is to be served upon the person causing or permitting the nuisance to remain, or if he cannot be found, on the owner or occupier of the pre- mises on which the nuisance arises ; but if the nuisance arises from the want or defective construction of any structural convenience, or where there is no occupier, notice is to be served on the owner.— (P. H., b. 94.) In the case of houses, dec., requirijig disinfec- tion, notice is to be given to the owner or occupier ; and in case of non-comphance, the person on whom the notice is served is liable to penalties, and the expenses of the authority doing the necessary works fall upon that person (with certain exceptions in case of poverty).— (P. H., a. 120.) See DlsiHTBOliON. Section 160 of the Public Health Act enacts that alterations under the 69th, 70th, and 71st sections, directions under the 73d section, and orders under the 74th section, of the Towns Improvement Clauses Act, may at the option of the urban authority be served on owners instead of occupiers, or on owners as well as occupiers. For forms of notices for the abatement of nuisances and for the construction of sewers, see NniSAMCES, Seweks ; see also Obdeks. Noxious Trades — See Nuisances ; TbADES, InJUBIOUS ; TEADES, OrjENSIVE, &c. Nuisance Inspector— 5ee Inspectob of NUISANOES. Nuisances— The following are the defini- tions of nuisances by eminent legal authori- ties. Blackstone says : "Nuisance, nocumen- tum, or annoyance, signifies anything which workethi hurt, inconvenience, or damage. And nuisances are of two kinds— j)u5Mc or common nuisances, which affect the public, and are an annoyance to all the king's sub- jects — for which reason we must refer them to the class of public wrongs or crimes and misdemeanours; ani private nuisances, which are the objects of our present consideration, and may be defined, anything done to the hurt or annoyance of the lands, tenements, or hereditaments of another." ' ' Common nui- sances are a species of offences against the public order and economical regimen of the State ; being either the doing of a thing to the annoyance of all the king's subjects, or the neglecting to do a thing which the common good requires. Common nuisances are all those kinds of nuisances (such as offensive trades and manufactures) which, when in- jurious to a private man, are actionable, and when detrimental to the public, punishable by public prosecution, and subject to fine according to the quantity of the misdemean- our ; and particularly the keeping of hogs in any city or market-town is indictable as a public nuisance " — (Blackstone.) According to Lord Mansfield, to constitute a nuisance it is enough that the matter com- plained of renders the enjoyment of life and property uncomfortable. There is, however, a difference between a nuisance at common law and a nuisance under the Sanitary Acts, for a nuisance under the Sanitary Acta must he one whichis injurious to health. See Great 'Westem Railway Company V. Bishop, 41 L. J. M. C, 120; 1. E., 7. It is, of. course, obvious that this interpre- tation renders action extremely difficult under the Sanitary Acts, as in a great majority of nuisances what is or is not injurious to health is a mere matter of bpiuiou. There are, however, certain things distinctly specified as nuisances in the Public Health Act, such as accumulations of filth, foul ditches, dirty premises, &c. NUI (4^4) NXTI The following are the chief provisions of the Public Health Act relative to nuisances : — Definition of Nuiaaneea.—'i.. Any premises in such a state as to be a nuisance or in- iurious to health : 2. Any pool, ditch, gutter, watercourse, privy, urinal, cesspool, drain, or ashpit so foul as t,o be a nuisance or injurious to health : 3. Any animal so kept as to be a nuisance or injurious to health : 4. Any accumulation or deposit which is a nuisance or ii^urious to health : 5. Any house or part of a house so over- crowded as to be dangerous or injurious to the health of the inmates, whether or not members of the same family : 6. Any factory, workshop, or workplace (not already under the operation of any general Act for the regulation of factories or bakehouses) not kept iu a. cleanly state, or not ventilated in sUch a manner as to render harmless as far as practicable any gases, vapours, dust, or other impuri- ties generated in the course of the work carried on therein that are a nuisance or injurious to health, or so overcrowded while work is carried on as to be danger- ous or injurious to the health of those employed therein : 7. Any fireplace or furnace which does not as far as practicable consume the smoke arising from the combustible used in such fireplace or furnace, and is used for work- ing engines by steam, or iu any mill, fac- tory, dyehouse, brewery, bakehouse, or gaswork, or in any manufacturing or trade process whatsoever ; and Any chimney (not being the chimney of a private dwelling-house) sending forth black smpke in such quantity as to be a nuisance, shall be deemed to be nuisances liable to be dealt with summarily under the Public Health Act: Provided — First. That a penalty shall not be imposed on any person in respect of any accumula- tion or deposit necessary for the effectual carrying on any business or manufacture if it be proved to the satisfaction of the court that the accumulation or deposit has not been kept longer than is necessary for the purposes of the business or manu- facture, and that the best available means have been taken for preventing injury thereby to the pttblio health ; Secondly. That where a person is summoned before any court in respect of a nuisance arising from a fireplace or furnace which does not consume the smoke arising from the combustible used in such fireplace o furnace, the court may hold that no nuis- ance is created within the meaning of this Act, and dismiss the' complaint, if it is satisfied that such fireplace or furnace is constructed in such manner as to consume as far as practicable, haying regard to the nature of the manufacture or trade, aU smoke arising therefrom, and that such fireplace or furnace has been carefully attended to by the person having the charge thereof. — (P. H., s. 91.) The Duty of the Local Authority to inspect, &a. — It shall be the duty of every local author- ity to cause to be made from time to time inspection of their district, with a view to ascertain what nuisances exist calling for abatement under the powers of the Public Healtli Act, and to enforce the provisions of the stlid Act'in order to abate the same; also to enforce the provisions of any Act in force within their. district requiring fireplaces and furnaces to consume their own smoke. — (P. H., s. 92.) Information of Ifuisances. — Information of any nuisance under the said Act in the district of any local authority may be given to such local authority by any person aggrieved there- by, or by any two inhabitant householders of such district, or by any officer of such au- thority, or by the relieving officer, or by ajiy constable or officer of the police force of such district.— (P. H., s. 93.) On the receipt of any information respecting the existence of a nuisance, the local author- ity shall^ if satisfied of the existence of a nuisance, serve a notice on the person by whose act, default, or sufferance the nuisance arises or continues, or, if such person cannot be found, on the owner or occupier of the pre- mises on which the niiisance arises, requiring him to abate the same within » time to be specified in the notice, and to execute such works anddo such things as may be necessary for that purpose ; Provided — First. That where the nuisance arises from the want or defective construction of any structural convenience, or where there is no occupier of the premises, notice under this section shall be served on the owner; Secondly. That where the person causing the nuisance cannot be found, and it is clear that the nuisance does not arise or continue by the act, default, or sufferance of the owner or occupier of the premises, the local authority may themselves abate the same without further order.— (P. H., s. 94.) Procedwre on Failure to comply with Notice. — If the person on whom a notice to abate a nuisance has been served makes default in NtJI (40s) NXJI complying with any of the requisitions thereof within the time specified, or if the nuisance, although abated since, the service of the notice is, in- the opinion of the local authority, likely to recur on the same premises, the local author- ity shall cause a complaint relating to such nuisance to be made before a justice, and such justice shall thereupon issue a summons re- quiring the person on whom the notice was served to appear before a court of summary jurisdiction.— (P. H., s. 95.) Power of the Court to make an Order dealing with the Nuisamce. — If the court is satisfied that the alleged nuisance exists, or that al- though abated it is likely to recur on the same premises, the court shall make an order on such person requiring him to comply with all or any of the requisitions of the notice, or otherwise to abate the nuisance within a time specified in the order, and to do any works necessary for that purpose ; or an order pro- hibiting the recurrence of the nuisance and directing the execution of any works necessary to prevent the recurrence. The court may by their order impose a penalty of £5 or less on the person on whom the order is made, and shall also givp direc- tions as to the payment of all costs incurred up to the time of the hearing or making the order for abatement or prohibition of the nuisance.— (P. H., s. 96.) Penalty for not obeying Order. — Any person not obeying an order to comply with the re- quisitions of the local authority or otherwise to abate the nuisance, shall, if he fails to satisfy the court that he has used all due diligence to carry out such order, be liable to a penalty not exceeding ten shillings per day during his default ; and any person knowingly and wilfuUy acting contrary to an order of prohibition shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty shillings per day during such contrary action ; moreover, the local authority may enter the premises to which any order relates, and abate the nuisance, and do what- ever may be necessary in execution of such order, and recover in a summary manner the expenses incurred by them from the person on whom the order is made. — (P. H., s. 98). Appeal against Orders. — Any person may appeal against an order. — (P. H., s. 99.) See Appeals. Order map be addressed to the Local Author- ity in certain Ca^es. — Whenever it appears to the satisfaction of the court of summary jurisdiction that the person by whose act or default the nuisance arises, or the owner or occupier of the premises is not known or cannot be found, then such order may be ad- dressed to and executed by the local author- ity.— (P. H., s. 100.) There are large powers with regard to the entry of premises in which nuisances either exist or are supposed to exist. See Eniky, POWEKS OF. Power of Complaint by Private Individuals. — Complaint may be made to a justice of the existence of a nuisance under this Act on any premises within the district of any local authority by any person aggrieved thereby, or by any inhabitant of such district, or by any owner of premises within such district, and thereupon the like proceedings shall be had with the like incidents and consequences as to making of orders, penalties for disobedience of orders, appeal, and otherwise, as in the case of a complaint relating to a nuisance made to a justice by the local authority : Provided that the court may, if it thinks fit, adjourn the hearing or further hearing of the summons for an examination of the premises where the nuisance is alleged to exist, and may authorise the entry into such premises of any constable or other person for the purposes of such examination : Provided also, that the court may authorise any constable or other person to do all necessary acts for executing an order made under this section, and to recover the ex- penses from the person on whom the order is made in a summary manner. Any constable or other person authorised under this section shall have the like powers and be subject to the like restrictions as if he were an officer of the local authority authorised under tiiis Act, to enter any premises and do any acta thereon. — (P. Bf., s. 105.) Poiver of Police to proceed in certain Oases. —Where it is proved to the satisfaction of the Local Government Board that a local authority have made default in doing their duty in relation to the abatement of nuisances under this Act, the Local Government Eoard may authorise aniy officer of police acting within the district of the defaulting authority to institute any proceeding which the default- ing authority might institute with respect to the abatement of nuisances, and such officer may recover any expenses incurred by him, and not paid by the person proceeded against, from the defaulting authority : But such officer of police shall not be at liberty to enter any house or part of a house used as the dwelling of any person without such person's consent, or without the warrant of a justice, for the purpose of carrying into effect this enactment. — (P. H., s. 106.) Costs and Expenses of executing the Provi- sions relating to Nuisances. — ^All reasonable costs and expenses incurred in making a com- plaint, or giving notice, or in obtaining any order of the court or any justice in relation to NUI { 406 ) NUI a nuisance under the Public Health Act, or in carrying the same into effect, shall be deemed to be money paid for the use and at the re- quest of the person on whom tjje order is made; or if the order be made on the local authority, or if no order is made, but the nuisance is proved to have existed when the complaint was made or'the notice given, then of the person by whose act or default the nuisance was caused ; and in case of nuisances caused by the act or default of the owner of premises, such costs and expenses may be re- covered from any person who is for the time being owner of such premises : Provided that such costs and expenses shall not exceed in the whole one year's rackrent of the premises. Such costs and expenses, and any penalties incurred in relation to any such nuisance, may be recovered in a summary manner or in any county or superior court ; and the court shall have power to divide costs, expenses, and penalties between the persons by whose act or default the nuisance arises as to it may seem just. Any costs and expenses recoverable under this section by a local authority from an owner of premises may be recovered from the occu- pier for the time being of such premises ; and the owner shall allow such occupier to deduct any moneys which he pays under this enact- ment out of the rent from time to time be- coming due in respect of the said premises, as if the same had been actually paid to such owner as part of such rent : Provided, that no such occupier shall be required to pay any further sum than the amount of rent for the time being due from him, or which, after demand of such costs or expenses from such occupier, and after notice not to pay his landlord any rent without first deducting the amount of such costs or ex- penses, becomes payable by such occupier, unless he refuses, on application to him by the local authority, truly to disclose the amount of his rent and the name and address of the person to whom such rent is payable, but the burden of proof that the sum de- manded from any such occupier is greater than the rent due by him at the time of such notice, or which has since accrued, shall lie on such occupier : Provided also, that nothing herein con- tained shall affect any contract between any owner or occupier of any house, building, or other property whereby it is or may be agreed that the occupier shall pay or discharge all rates, dues, and sums of money payable in respect of such house, building, or other pro- perty, or to affect any contract whatsoever be- tween landlord and tenant. — (P. H., s. 104.) For the closing of houses unfit for habita- tion on account of a nuisance, see Habita- tions. Power of Sale of Manure, &e. — Any matter or thing removed by the local authority in abating a nuisance may be sold by public auction;— (P. H., s. 101.) Nuisance caused by Drains, Privies, &c. — All drains, water-closets, earth-closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools are to be supervised by thfe local authority, whose duty it is to pro- vide that they are to be so constructed and kept as not to be a nuisance or injurious to health. — (P. H., s. 40.) On the written application of any person to a local authority stating that any one of the structures mentioned is a nuisance or injurious to health (but not other- wise), the local authority may by writing em- power their surveyor or inspector of nuisances, after twenty-four hours' written notice to the occupier, or in case of emergency without notice, to enter such premises, with or with- out assistants, and cause the ground to be opened, and examine any of the said struc- tures. If all is found in good condition, the ground is to be closed, the damage made as good as can be, and the expenses of the works defrayed by the local authority. But if any of the said structures appear to be in a bad con- dition, or to require alteration or amendment, notice must be given by the local authority to the owner or occupier to do within a rea- sonable specified time the necessary works. Penalty for neglect, 10s. a day during default. The local authority may execute the works, and may recover the expenses from the owner in a summary manner, or declare them "pri- vate improvement expenses." — (P. H., s. 41.) Nuisances without the District. — Where a nuisance under the Public Health Act within the district of a local authority appears to be wholly or. partially caused by some act or default committed or taking place without their district, the local authority may take or cause to be taken against any person in re- spect of such act or default any proceedings by this Act authorised as if such act or default were committed or took place wholly within their district, so, however, that summary pro- ceedings shall in no case be taken otherwise than before a court having jurisdiction in the district where the act or default is alleged to be committed or take place. This section extends to the metropolis.— (P. H., s. 108.) Proceedings in certain Gases against Nui- sances. — Where any nuisance under the Public Health Act appears to be wholly or partially . caused by the acts or defaults of two or more persons, it shall be lawful for the local authority or other complainant to institute, proceedings against any one of such persons, or to include all or any two or more of such NTJI (407) Ntri persons in one proceeding ; and any one or more of such persons may be ordered to abate such nuisance, so far as the same appears to the court having cognisance of the case to be caused by his or their acts or defaults, or^may be prohibited from continuing any acts or defaults which, in the opinion of auoh court, contributes to such nuisance, or may be fined or otherwise punished, notwithstanding that the acts dt defaults of any one of such persons would not separately have caused a nuisance, and the costs may be distributed as to such court may appear fair and reasonable. Proceedings against several persons included in one complaint shall not abate by reason of the death of any among the persons so in- cluded, but aU such proceedings may be carried on as if the deceased person had not been originally so included. Whenever in any proceeding under the pro- visions of the Public Health Act relating to nuisances, whether written or otherwise, it becomes necessary to mention or refer to the owner or occupier of any premises, it shall be sufficient to designate him as the " owner " or " occupier " of such premises, without name or further description. Nothing in this section shall prevent per- sons proceeded against from recovering contri- bution in any case in which they would now be entitled to contribution by law. Nuisances in Shvps, dec. — For the purpose of the provisions of this Act relating to nui- sances, any ship or vessel lying in any river, harbour, or other water within the district of a local authority shall be subject to the juris- diction of that authority in the same manner as if it were a house within such district ; and any ship or vessel lying in any river, harbour, or other water not within the district of a local authority shall be deemed to be within the district of such local authority as may be prescribed by the Local Government Board, and where no local authority has been pre- scribed, then of the local authority whose dis- trict nearest adjoins the place where such ship or vessel is lying. The master or other officer in charge of any such ship or vessel shall be deemed for the purpose of the said provisions to be the occupier of such ship or vessel. This section shall not apply to any ship or vessel belonging to her Majesty or to any foreign government. — (P. H., b. 116.) The Provisions of the Public Health Act do not affect other Remedies. — The provisions of this Act relating to nuisances shall be deemed to be in addition to and not to abridge or affect any right, remedy, or proceeding under any other provisions of this Act or tinder any other Act, or at common law : Provided that no person shall be punished for the same offence both under the provisions of this Act relating to nuisances, and under any other law or enactment. — (P. H., s. 111.) The following are the proper forms of notices, orders, &c., relative to the ahate- ment or prohibition of nuisances : — SCHEDULE IV. ^ FOBM A. Form of Notice requiring Abatement of Nuisance. To [person causing the miisance, or owner or occu- pier of the premises whereon the nuisance exists, as the case maybe]. Take notice that under the proTisions of the Public Health Act, 1875, the [dcscrifte the local authoi-ity], being satisfied of the existence of a nuisance at [describe premises or place where the nuisance exists], arising from [describe the cause of nuisance, for in- stance, want of a privy or drain; or for further instance, a ditch or drain so foul as to be a Duisance or injurious' to health ; or for further instance, swine kept so as to be a nuisance or injurious to health], do hai'eby require you within from the service of this notice to abate the same, and for that purpose to [state any things required to be done or work to be executed]. If you make default in complying with the requisi- tions of this notice, or if the said nuisance, though abated, is likely to recur, a summons will be issued requiring your attendance to answer a complaint which will be made to a court of summary jurisdic- tion for enforcing the abatement of the nuisance, and prohibiting a recurrence thereof, and for recovering the costs and penalties that may be incurred thereby. Dated this day of IS . Signature of officer \ of local authority J Form B. Form of Summons, Summons. To the owner or occupier of [describe premises], situated at [insert such a description as may be suffi- cient to identify the prejnises], or to A. B. of County of , -j You are required to appear be- efore , Esquire, one or OB the case may \ » i i 6fl.]- J of her Majesty^s justices of the peace acting in and for the county [or other jurisdic- tion] stated in the margin, [or as the case may be,] by , that in or on certain premises situated at , in the district under the Public Health Actj 1875, of [Scribe the local authonty] the follow- ing nuisance then existed [desctihtng if] ; and that the said nuisance was caused by the act or default of the owner [or occupier] of the said premises [or was caused by J.. B.] [If the nuisance have been removed, say, the following nuisance existed on or about [the day the nuisa/nce was axcertadned to exist], and that the said nuisance was caused, [dBc.,] and although the same is now removed, the same or the like nuisance is likely to recur on the same premises.] And whereas , the owner [or occupier] within the meaning of the said Public Health Act, 1875, [or the said A. B.,] hath this day appeared before us [(or me) describing the court], to answer the matter of the said complaint [or in ca^e the party , charged do not appear, say, and whereas it bath been this day proved to our (or my) satisfaction that a true copy of a summons requiring the owner [or occupier] of the said premises for the said A. B.] to appear this day before us [or me] hath been duly served according to the said Act.] Now on proof here had before us [or me] that the nuisance so complained of doth exist on the said premises, and that th6 same is caused by the act or defiiult of the owner [or occupier] of the said pre- mises [or by the said A. B.], we [or I], in pursuance of the said Act, do order the said owner [or occupier, or A. B.] within [speci/yiAeiiTne] from the service of this order or a true copy thereof according to the said Act [here ^ecijy the works to be done, as, for in- stance, to cleanse, whitewash, purify, and disinfect the said dwelling-house ; or, for fu/rther instance, to construct a privy or drain, t&c; or, for J\erther insta/nce, to cleanse or to cover or to fill up the said cesspool, iSc], so that the same shall no longer be a nuisance or injurious to health as aforesaid. [And if it appea/r to the court that the nuisance is Ukely to recur on the premises, say, [And we] [or I] being satisfied that, notwithstanding the said cause or causes of nuisances may be removed under this order, the same is or are likely to recur, do therefore prohibit the said owner [or occupier, or A. B.] from [here insert the matter of tJie prohibition, as, for instance,] from using the said house or building for human habitation until the same, in our [or my] judgment, is rendered fit for that purpose.] Jn case the nuisance were removed before complaint, say, Now, on proof here had before us that at or recently before the time of making the said complaint, to wit, on as aforesaid, the cause of nuisance complained of did exist on the said pre- mises, but that the same hath since been removed, yet, notwithstanding such removal, we [or I] being satisfied that it is likely that the same or the like nuisance will retiur on the same premises, do hereby prohibit [order ofproJtdbition] ', and if this order of Prohibition be iniiriDged, then we [w I] [order on local authority to do works]. G-iven under the hands and seals of us, [or the hand and seal of me, desci'ibing the court]. This day of 13 . FOBM D. Form of Order for Abatement of Nuisance by Local Authority. To the town council, t£c., as the case may be. Coimty, Ac, I Wherkas [recite complaint ofrmisance to wit. j- (js ^-^ lastfiyrm]. And whereas it hath been now proved to our [or my] satisfaction that such nuisance exists, but that no owner or occupier of the premises, or person causing the nuisance, is known or can be found [as the case may be] ; Now we [or I], in pursuance of the said Act, do order the said [local authority, naming it,] forthwith to [here specify the works to be done]. Given, tion separates, forming a distinct stratum at the bottom of the vessel. When only a very little alcohol is present, the pieces merely change their form, and exhibit the action of the solvent on their angles or edges, which become more or less obtuse or rounded." M. Beral's test for alcohol is very delicate, and is as follows : " Twelve drops of the oil are placed on a perfectly dry watch glass, and a piece of potassium, about the size of a pin's head, set in the middle of it. If the small fragment of metal retains its integrity for twelve or Kg. 63. fifteen minutes, no alcohol is present ; but if it disappears after the lapse of five minutes, the oil contains at least 4 per cent, of alcohol ; and if it disappears in less than one minute, it contains not less than 25 per cent, of alcohol." The mixture of an inferior oil with one more costly may often be detected by pouring a drop or two on a pi6ce of porous paper or cloth, and shaking it in the air; the difference of odour at the beginning and the end of eva- poration will often show the adulteration. The index of refraction in a single drop of oil is also useful, as suggested by Dr. WoUaston. A mixture of a heavy oil with a light oil may be detected by agitating the subjected oil with water, when the two will separate and form distinct strata. The table on p. 414 is from Mr. Cooley's " Cyclopaedia ;" it may be of use in distinguish- ing various oils. Olive {Oleo Iluropcea)—A native of the south of Europe. Tlie fruit in the ripe state is black, and furnishes the oil. Those im- ported into this country have been gathered green and soaked first in strong lye, and then in fresh water, to remove their rough bitter taste before being preserved in a solution of salt. The olive is remarkable for yielding a fixed oil from the pericarp instead of from the OIL (414) OIL o n o a •^ 00 to o^ St M e Si o TS S e D .; 3 "S as n g .Sra ■3 a a -Sa .a i,,ja-°' ;3;H''S'3 s a s a sg 2 iMOQ D2 ■3 s n g C3 s o.S ■i S « 1^0^ ft^ M3 «§! -si MH B'= g ri a PI o u M a s o W) BO e8 Bt E3 =5 « ^ fl ^ 0_ CD S ■3'3'^S ga a ^ °° o o 5 a.& M MfflOO ^S=f:§is| Si-Si -^ 8 W -g O 1 2 -5 5 g'Sfe'^ §. efaS " 3 o a " 13 1-^ g^ . g'1'5 p-a "3 43 o. ■Six" "So -S » gag, as a a .a _L- ■« S 4) K Sag.s£S OtsHB Sol- a-S^ S3 ^ gl -Is-^ag -ti ft a r-H e3 0< i ® a : ^^5 a ^ ONI (415) OPH Onion [Allium Cepa)— Though differing so much from the asparagus, the onion, like it, belongs to the lily tribe of plants. It contains an acrid volatile oil, which possesses irritant and excitant properties. The onion is diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient, and stimulant. Dr. Cullen says onions are acrid and stimu- lating, and possess little nutrient power. In bilious constitutions they generally produce flatulence, thirst, headache, and I febrile symptoms ; but where the temperament is phlegmatic, they are of infinite service, by stimulating the system and promoting the ex- cretions, particularly expectoration and urine. Ophthalmia, Purulent (syn. Contagious, Military, Egyptian, &o.) — This may be shortly defined as a contagious inflammation of the oonjunotivEe of the eyes, attended with purulent discharge, and extremely dangerous to sight. This disease of the eyes has been the scourge of soldiers in unhealthy camps and crowded barracks ; of children in workhouses and pauper schools; and of people living in dirty, badly-Ut, and impure dwellings. Parkes, treating of it in a military point of view, says: "The disease, as we now see it, is one of the legacies which Napoleon left to the world. His system of making war with little intermission, rapid movements, abandonment of the good old custom of winter quarters, and intermixture of regiments from several nations, seems to have given a great spread to the disease; and though the subsequent years of peace have greatly lessened it, it has prevailed more or less ever since in the French, Prus- sian, Austrian, Bavarian, Hanoverian, Italian, Spanish, Belgian, Swedish, and Russian armies, as well as in our own. It has also been evidently propagated among the civil population by the armies, and is one more heritage with which glorious war has cursed the nations." The terrible effects of ophthalmia cannot be better exemplified than in the history of the cruise of the slave-ship Le Eoideur. In the year 1819 the French ship Le Koideur sailed with a ca/rgo of 160 negroes from Bonny, on the coast of Africa, to Guadaloupe. Her crew consisted of twenty-two men, so that the whole number of human beings on board, in- cluding the officers, was about 188. No epidemic had been perceived among the natives, and at the time of sailing the crew enjoyed perfect health, nor was there any sign of disease among the wretched prisoners. The slaves were crammed down into the hold, and the air soon became very foul. Water, too, was scarce; they were at first allowed 8 oz. a day, which about the thirteenth or fourteenth day was reduced* to half a wine-glass. The ophthalmia began in the eyes of the poor negroes. The lids became red and inflamed, and therefore the surgeon advised that they should breathe in succession the purer air of the deck; accordingly they were brought up alternately, but were soon confined again to the hold on account of many of them committing suicide by jumping into the sea. The disease was of a most virulent kind. It spread rapidly among the Africans, and from thence to t*he crew. A notable fact, showing that ophthalmia is propagated by material particles, is that the first man of the crew attacked was a sailor who kept near the hatch communicating with the hold. The next day a landsman was taken ill, and in three days more the captain and almost all the rest of the crew were infected. The number of victims daily increased ; and at last only one of their number remained free, and was thus able to steer the ship, so that they were in the greatest alarm lest he too should be seized with blindness and that they should be left to the mercy of the waves, like the Spanish ship Leon, the crew of which, to a man, lost their eyesight and were never heard of. They, however, reached Guadaloupe on the 21st of June. Thirty-nine of the negroes had entirely lost their sight (thirty -six of whom had been thrown into the sea because they were unsaleable), twelve had lost an eye, and fourteen were blinded to a greater or less degree. Twelve of the crew, including the surgeon, were totally blind,_five were blind of one eye, and four were partially injured. The steerer of the vessel caught ophthalmia three days after the vessel arrived in port. Of late years considerable attention has been directed to this subject on account of its ex- tensive prevalence in certain of the metropoli- tan workhouses and pauper schools. One of the most important facts to grasp is that purulent ophthalmia does not readily spread among a community of healthy persons, there is nearly always a preliminary condition of the lining membrane of the lids. " This antecedent condition is not one of mere ill-health or debUity either inherited or acquired, but it is something definite, mani- fested by the development in the lining mem- brane of the eyelids of certain little bodies which are not unlike grains of boiled sago, and which are commonly called after this resem- blance."— (Beudenell Caeter.) The existence of the " sago grains " remained unknown until 1848, when they were first dis- covered by Dr. Loifier, a, Prussian surgeon. In Dr. Loffler's regiment many men were attacked by ophthalmia and disabled. Dr. Lofiler, in order to treat the disease from the OPH {416) OPH commencement, caused the whole regiment to be paraded daily forinspeetion, and he examined the inside of the eyelids of every man. In a large proportion of the apparently healthy men he fonnd these sago grains, and at first did not know what they signified ; he soon, however, recognised their importance, in finding that the men with granular lids were sooner or later attacked with ophthalmia, while those with healthy lids remained exempt. The inquiry thus begun was taken up by other surgeons, especially Drs. Frank Marston and Welch, who confirmed Dr. Loffler's con- clusions, that the sago grains are. a necessai'y antecedent of an epidemic of contagious ophthalmia; and they also established the fact, that when a large number of persons are crowded together and breathe impure air, and live,' generally speaking, amongst insanitary . conditions, they become the subjects of these sago grains ; " so that the presence or absence of sago grains affords a delicate test of the sanitary state of a school, regiment, or any similar community." Stromeyer (Maximen der KriegsheUfcimst, p. 49) has also met with this condition of the eye amongst many of the domestic animals^ more especially pigs, and has shown that they exist in proportion to the dirty condition in which these animals are kept. " In a regiment the proneness to the development of sago grains is found to decrease as life advances— that is, to be much greater in young soldiers than in old ones, and, by a parity of reasoning, it is assumed to be greater in a community of children than in a community of adults. In any individual, and therefore in any community, the sago grains may disappear without producing mischief. But, as a matter of fact, sources of irritation to the eyes abound in the world, and when these sources of irritation act upon eyelids in which sago grains are already present, they often excite the contagious form of ophthal- mia."— (Bkudenell Cabtee.) The exact nature of these vesicles has been of late years carefully investigated, and it is now generally considered that they are really the enlarged closed follicles of Krause ; these follicles are situated directly beneath the epithelium, and are not apparent in a normal state of the oon- junctiva,but become swollen and enlarged when this membrane is in an irritable condition. They are, therefore, analogous to the enlarged glands met with in scrofulous and feeble children. The mode of propagation of this disease is without doubt through the discharge, and so completely is this proved that ophthalmic sur- geons, on one eye of the patient being affected, hermetically seal up the other, which, if pro- perly done, will then escape the infection. " The secretion passes along the tear-passages into the nostrils, and is driven out with the expired air at every breath. Besides the chances of direct contact that must exist when a child with ophthalmia is perpetually send- ing into the atmosphere what I may describe as a spray of contagious particles, "-{Beude- NELL Oabtbb.) The period of contagion also appears ex- tremely protracted. Until the eyes of a child are perfectly well, " they remain in a state in which any chance irritation — the. entrance of a particle of dust, or of an insect, or even some temporary disturbance of the health — may reproduce a secretion of the most active character."— (Brudeneli, Cakteb.) Again, according to Warlomont, a man once affected has no safety ; so that any one who has once had the disease may have a relapse from the most trivial causes, and is therefore a source of danger, and should be watched. Preuention 0/ the Disease. — The disease is always due to deficient hygienic arrange- ments. Whenever it appears, whether in an army, a school, or any place where control is possible, every person's eyes should be inspected daily ; and if the sago-grain appearance be detected, the individual should be at once separated from the healthy. An insufficient supply of water and towels is often the cause of the disease spreading among a community ; hence in all cases lavatories should be large, and be supplied with plenty of basins and towels. In an epidemic of ophthalmia, each affected person, and indeed every healthy person, should be furnished with a separate towel, and any towel used by an affected person should be plunged into a disinfectant fluid. In certain schools visited by ophthalmia the infected towels were actually hung on the rail of the bed, a practice to be condemned. The eyes will require frequent bathing, and for this purpose a supply of clean, white, soft rags should be provided, to be burnt directly after use. In pauper schools a liberal supply of meat has been often found to diminish greatly the number of cases. In metropolitan schools, or in large towns, while proper sani- tary remedial measures are taken for the healthy, the diseased may be at once placed in an eye-hospital, which of course thoroughly separates them from the ophthalmia centre. In some cases the pillow-case has been a medium of infection. The patients should have a fresh pillow-case daily, and the bed- clothes should be changed frequently. The attendants, in bathing the eyes of patients, should be provided with shades to protect their own eyes from contagion. Stromeyer greatly reduced the disease in OPI (417) OPI the Hanoverian army simply by ventilation. Tke contagious particles, instead of lodging on the furniture, clothes, eyelids, beard, &o., of the men, are swept away and diluted by the currents of air. In this disease, disinfection of the air by chemicals must be avoided, as by irritating the eyes it is likely to do more harm than good. The effects of the different varieties of con- tagious ophthalmia are thickening and dis- tortion of the eyelids, impairment of efficiency or entire disablement, and too often complete loss of sight. Opium — The juice inspissated by sponta-< neous evaporation, obtained by incision from the unripe capsules of the poppy {Papaver somniferum, Linn.), grown in Asia Minor. Opium appears in the form of irregular lumps, weighing from 4 02. to 2 lbs., envel- oped in the remains of poppy seeds, and gener- ally covered with the chaffy fruits of a species of rumex. When fresh, plastic ; tearing with an irregular, slightly moist, chestnut-brown surface ; shining when rubbed smobth with the finger ; having a most peculiar odour and a nauseous bitter taste. Opium contains a peculiar acid, meconic acid (C7H4O7), and the following alkaloids: MorpJda (,0i7Hi9NO3), todeia (CigHsiNOa-h HjO), papaverina (C20H21NO4), theiaia or paramorphia (CigHjiNOs), narcotine (C22 H23NO7), narceia (OjsHjgNOg), meconine or' opianyl (CmHidOJ, opiamine and porphyrox- ine. The following are the constituents of 100 parts of ordinary Smyrna opium (Muldek) : Com2)0sUi(m o/lOO Parts of Weight. Morphia .... . 10-842 Codeia . 0-678 Narcotine 6-808 Narceia .... 6-662 Meconia 0-804 MecoDic acid 6-154 Kesin . 3-.'i82 Gummy matter 26-242 Mucus . . . . 19-086 Fatty matter 2-166 Caoutcliouc . 6-012 Water 9-846 Matter undetermined, and loss 2-118 Opium is perhaps more extensively used than any other drug; and indeed so highly is it valued as a medicine, that it has been called the "gift of God to man." It is, however, somewhat uncertain in its action, some people being able to take enormous quantities with- out apparent injury. The smallest fatal dose of the crude opium on record is that related by Dr. Sharkey, in which a man aged thirty-two died shortly after taking 4 grains of crude opium ; and as small a quantity as 2 drachms of the tincture has been known to destroy life. On the other hand. Dr. Garrod mentions the ease of a young man who took 60 grains of Smyrna opium night and morning, and fre- quently, in addition to this, 1 to 1^ fluid ounces of laudanum during the day. In 1866 he also had a man about thirty-five years of age under his care who positively asserted that he had taken 72 grains of acetate of morphia in one day, and also that he had swallowed as much as a pint of laudanum. Opium, excessively useful as a medicinal agent .when discreetly used, and often a valu- able stimulant to the mental faculties, be- comes most dangerous when habitually em- ployed; the digestive organs become impaired, the energy of the mind is lessened, memory is destroyed, a state of fatuity and abject misery is induced. ' Opium-eating, unfortunately, appears to be on the increase in all parts of the world, more being now consumed in China than ever. In many of the Western States of America the practice has become so notoriously common, that in 1872 the Legislature of Kentucky passed a bill by which any person who through the excessive use|Of opium is incapa- citated from managing himself or his affairs, may upon t^e affidavit of two citizens be confined in an asylum, and subjected to the same restraint as lunatics and habitual drunk- ards. We hear on all sides that of late years opium-eating and laudanum-taking have been greatly on the increase in this country, and the employment of this drug as a soporific for infants and young children has become so general amongst the poor and dissipated as to call for the interference of the Legislature. Becent customhouse returns show that 2.50,000 lbs. in weight of opium are annually imported into this country, and it is computed that not more than one-third at most of the drug is used for medicinal purposes. Dr. Chevers states that opium eating and smoking are very prevalent in many parts of India, and that it is extensively employed for the destruction of female children. To this end it is either introduced into the infant's mouth, or the mother's nipples are anointed with it. Drugging older children to keep them quiet is also common enough. Adulterations.— Opiwm is mixed vrith many impurities, such as leaves, bullets, stones, fruits, &c. These can generally be detected by making a decoction of the suspected drug, and then straining. The amount of water present may be estimated by drying at 212° F., and observing the loss. A decoction of opium, when cold, should not give a blue precipitate on the addition 9f tincture of iodine. The following substances are occasionally 2b OBA (418) ORD added : Extract of lettuce, laotucarium, mucilage of gum tragacanth, dried leaves, starch, water, clay, sand, gravel, and other bodies, in order to increase the weight. The quality of opium is best determined by a simple assay of the amount of morphia con- tained in it ; this should amount to at least 6 or 8 parts per 100. The assay is made as follows: Opium, 4 parts, quicklime, 1 part, made into a milk with water q.s., are boiled together, and the solution filtered whilst hot. Dilute hydrochloric acid then added, to satu- ration, and the morphia precipitated by the addition of ammonia, any excess of the latter being expelled by heat. The , precipitate is then collected, dried, and weighed. If 100 grains have been operated on, the given weight will represent the percentage richness of the sample in morphia. The tests, &c., for discovering opium have been fully described under Mokphia. Antidotes. — Evacuants should at once be employed, and strong coffee administered. If the patient is vmable to swallow, and a , stomach-pump is at hand, the stomach should be emptied, and coffee can then be injected by the same instrument. Every effort should be made to rouse the patient, and as a last resource artificial respiration and galvanism should be used. .See MoKPHlA, Meoonio Acid, &c. Orange — The common sweet orange is the fruit of the Citrus Aurantium. The Seville or bitter orange is produced by Citrus vulgaris or BigaracUa. The orange is an agreeable and refreshing frtiit, and probably one of the most useful of all the sub-acid fruits. Orange-juice differs from that of lemons chiefly in containing less citric acid and more sugar. In their general properties the two are nearly identical. See LsMON-JniOE, &c. Orders— The general powers of the Local Government Board with regard to local government orders have been condensed in article LoOAi Government Boabd. In this article provisional orders will be alone treated of. Provisional orders are orders of the Local Government Board, which are of no force until confirmed by Parliament ; so that they are virtually Acts of Parliament, 'and if passed through both Houses, a provisional order is part and portion of the law of the land. The matters dealt with by provisional orders are changes in or actual repeal of Local Improve- ment Acta, alterations of area, the union of districts for the appointment of a health officer in case of opposition to such a course, the amalgamating of two or more districts for certain purposes, and other matters con- sidered in this work under their respective headings. The following enactments are in force with regard to provisional orders : — 1. The Local Government Board shall not make any provisional order under the Public Health Act unless public notice of the purport of the proposed order has been jsreviously given by advertisement in two successive weeks in some local newspaper circulating in the district to which such provisional order relates. 2. Before making any such provisional order, the Local Government Board shall consider any objections which may be made thereto by any persons affected thereby, and in oases where the subject- matter is one to which a local inquiry is applicable, shall cause to be made a local inquiry, of which public notice shall be given in manner aforesaid, and at which all persons interested shall be permitted to attend and make objections. 3. The Local Government Board may sub- mit .to Parliament for confirmation any provisional order made by it in pursuance of the Public Health Act, but any such order shall be of no force whatever unless and until it is confirmed by Parliament. 4. If, while the Bill confirming any such order is pending in either House of Parliament, a petition is presented against any order comprised therein, the Bill, so far aa it relates to such order, may be referred to a select committee, and the petitioner shall be allowed to appear and oppose as in the case of private bills. 5. Any Act confirming any provisional order made in pursuance of any of the Sanitary Acts, or of the Public Health Act, and any Order in Council made in pursuance of any of the Sanitary Acts, may be re- pealed, altered, or amended by any pro- visional order made by the Local Govern- ment Board, and duly confirmed by Parliament. 6. The Local Government Board may re- voke, either wholly or partially, any provisional order made by them before the same is confirmed by Parliament, but such revocation shall not be made whilst the Bill confirming the order is pending ■in either House of Parliament. 7. The making of a provisional order shall be primd facie evidence that all the re- quirements of the Public Health Act in respect of proceedings required to be taken previously to the makiilg of such provisional order have been complied with. 8. Every Act confirming any such pro- OBD (419: OVE visional order shall be deemed to be a public general Act— (P. H., ri. 297.) The reasonable costs of any local authority in respect of provisional orders made in pursuance of tbe Public Health Act, and of the inquiry preliminaly thereto, as sanc- tioned by the Local Government Board, ■whether in promoting or opposing the same, shall be deemed to be expenses properly in- curred for purposes of the said Act by the local authority interested in or affected by ^uch provisional orders, and such costs shall be paid accordingly ; and if thought expe- dient by the Local Government Board, the local authority may contract a loan for the purpose of defraying such costs. — (P. H., b. 298.) For the consideration of orders of justices, and the " forms " referring to nuisances, see NniBANOia. For the form of the justice's order for the admission of the officers of the local author- ity, see Bntkt, Powees of. For the form of justice's order for the execution of works, see Sewers. Orders, Provisional— &e Obders. Orpiment, Yellow— Native sulphide of arsenic. See Arsenic. Orris (Orris-Boot) — The dried rhizome of Iris Florentina pallida and Oermanica. It is used to impart a violet odour to oils, tooth- powder, snuffs, spirits, &c. It has also been used in the adulteration of jellies, jams, &c. Osmazome — The flavouring matter of meat. It may be obtained in the following manner : Mince and digest lean meat in water, with occasional pressure. The filtered infusion is generally evaporated' nearly to dryness, and then treated with alcohol ; the alcoholic tincture is lastly evaporated. The product has a brownish - yellow colour, is soluble in water, and its aqueous solution is precipitated bj' infusion of galls and the mineral astringent salts. Liebig's extract is rich in osmazome. Overcrowding— Overcrowding is at least of two kinds— too many people living and sleeping in one habitation, and too many dwellings in a given area. "Now, over- - crowding may present itself in more than one aspect— as too many houses, huts, or tents, too many streets, or lanes, or courts, on a given area ; as too many persons in one house ; as too many people serving in a shop or ware- house, or toiling in a workroom or manu- factory; as too many sleepers in one dormitory; as too many prisoners thrust in one place of detention ; as top many sick persons in one hospital, or ward of a hospital,— aad in aU these oases health and life are sacrificed. These cases of overcrowding may be arranged in three dis- tinct categories. First of all, we may group together, as forming one class, the cases of the shop, warehouse, workroom, factory, or dor- mitory, in which men are assembled in undue numbers, but, as a rule, exposed to no other un- wholesome influences than those that emanate from their own bodies (the case of the dor- mitory), or from these in conjunction with the heat, dust and chemical effluvia which are given out in the course of certain processes of manufacture. Then we have the case of the overcrowded dwelling, of which the inmates are exposed not only to the poisonous products of respiration in sitting-rooms and bedrooms, but also to such noxious effluvia as may arise out of a damp soil or defective drainage. And lastly, we have the case of the hospital, in which infectious forms of disease originate and spread among the subjects of accidental injuries or of operations." — (Dr Gdt, PubUo Health, Part I.) All forms of overcrowding influence the rate of mortality. Overcrowding, by vitiating the air, facilitating the spread of contagious diseases and the transference from one body to another of germs and parasites, is in the highest degree unfavourable to the health of man, and indeed also to animals. The death-rate in towns is directly in relation to the density of population. For example. Dr. Gairdner gives the following table (Public Health in Eolation to Food and "Water) : — Fopulation to 1 Sqnare jttUo in Districts tuJieQ in Euglaud. Deaths per 1000 per Anuum. 66 . 15 106 . 16 144 17 149 18 182 19 202 . 20 220 21 324 . 23 485 . 23 1216 . 24 1262 2S 2864 . . . 26 2900 . f 27 • I and upwards Overcrowding exists more or less in all dis- tricts, both urban and rural. It is, of course, greatest in large manufacturing cities, where not alone each house may accommodate six or seven times the number of j)eople its construc- tion and cubic space should allow, but the houses themselves are also built closely to- gether. The extent of overcrowding in some parts of the metropolis may be gathered from the following table, taken from " the Eeport of the Lancet Sanitary Commission on the Dwellings of the Poor. No. IL Sohc— Lancet, May 16, 1874:"— OVE (420) OVE No. of No. of No. of Inhabitants Inhabitants Name of Localitj. in 1871. Inhabited • Houses. Acres. per Acre in each House (roughly). • (roughly). The entire metropolis 3,254,260 411,767 75,362 43 8 ■Westminster district 51,181 4,554 216. 237. 11 St. James's Square aub-diatriot 10,472 1,384 84 125 .8 Golden Square „ 12,860 1,111 54 238 1 11 St. Anne's, Solio, „ 17,562 1,337 54 325 13. Berwick Street ,, 10,287 722 24 428 14 St. Giles's, South, 19,109 1,214 64 298 15 Sp'italfields „ 15,848 1,431 52 304 11. In rural districts it is generally individual houses, and more especially the houses of the agricultural and mining labourer, which are overcrowded. The writer of this article in his own district has frequently had to deal with cases in which the solitary bedroom of a cot- tage was shared by a large family, with the addition of lodgers. , Instances of a family — husband, wife, grandmother, and ten children from nineteen years to two or three years of age — having only one sleeping-room are not uncommon. The remedy for this state of things is often worse than the disease. The offenders may be turned out into the>road, and find nowhere to go to except the work- house, for, as a fact, in many places houses are scarce and difficult to get. The only real cure would appear to be increased facilities for the building of cottages. Mr. Liddle, medical officer of health for Wlitechapel, expresses his opinion that the best plan for remedying overcrowding in densely-populated localities is for the Metropolitan Board of "Works to obtain powers for the compulsory purchase of lands and houses which are unfit for habitation, and sell the ground either to private individuals or public companies, for the purpose of erecting suitable houses for the use of the working classes. And Dr. Bond, medical officer of heal& to the county of Glouoeater, proposes that sanitary authorities should be given the power to build cottages for the poor. The diseases produced from overcrowding are consumption, continued fevers, general impairment of the health, a putrid eondition of the body followed by death, mania, boils, erysipelas, pyaemia; malignant ulcer, hospital gangrene, an augmented liability to the spread and reception of infectious diseases — e.g., typhus and ophthalmia— as well as of skin and parasitic affections. Of these, consumption is the disease more particularly produced by men breathing viti- ated air for a long period of time in their workshops and houses. ,1 Dr. Guy questioned 320 men working in rooms of different sizes, and instituted com- parisons between men occupying narrower and wider spaces, or working on different floors more or less freely communicating with one another. * * All the comparisons led to the same result — the establishment of the same vital truth— that consumption (inferred from the existence of the leading symptom, haemop- tysis) and colds (doubtless comprising attacks of consumption) were uniformly rife wherever the cubic space was smallest, or the air most close, hot, and foul. I will content myself with two instructive comparisons. Forty men worked in five rooms with 303 cubic feet of air per man ; other forty in other five rooms with 789. Of the forty in the smaller rooms, five had had haemoptysis, and six were subject to severe colds. Of the forty in the larger rooms, not one had spat blood, and one only was subject to severe colds. "My second comparison throws the 320 men into three groups of nearly equal size, all com- prising more than a hundred. The first group worked in rooms affording to each man less than 500 cubic feet of air, the second had from 500 to 600, the third more than 600. Reduc- ing all these groups to the standard of 10,000, I found that of the first group 1250 would have spat blood'; of the second, 4.35 ; of the third, 396 ; while 1250 of the first group, 348 of the second, and 198 of the third respec- tively would have been subject to severe colds."— (Dr. W. A. Gur, Public Health, Part I.) The deficient cubic space of the accommo- dation provided for the Foot Guards, in com- parison with that of the Household Cavalry, was so disastrous to the health of the men, that in the interval from 1830 to 1836, while ■ the rate of mortality was 145 per 10,000 for the Household Cavalry, it was 216 per lO.OOO for the Foot Guards,' and of this large mor- tality in the Foot Guards 204 per 10,000 was due to consumption. The same writer, Dr. Guy, says: "I have OWN (421) OXF at hand notes of cubic spaces rising by easy stages, from the 8 of St. Martin's Bound House and the 40 of the Black Hole, through the 30 to 60 of Marlborough House, Peckham, formerly the Union "Workhouse,, and busy fever-factory of the city of London ; the 52 cubic feet of the most crowded rooms in Church Lane, St. Giles's, the scene of a great mortality from fever and cholera ; the ■ 84 cubic feet of a village hovel in Dorsetshire, •where a very fatal fever prevailed ; the 100 cubic feet of the Parish House, near Launces- ton, a haunt of cholera ; the 136 cubic feet of the Drouet establishment for pauper children at Tooting, where in' the epidemic of 1849 the cholera slew 170 children in three weeks ; the 150 cubic feet of the Wood Street Comp- ter, another notorious haunt of jail fever; the 170 cubic feet of the Cambridge Town Bride- well, smitten with jail fever in 1774 ; up to the 202 cubic feet of a London printing-ofSce, where I found the deaths from consumption following as fast on each other as deaths from some contagious fever might do ; and the 228 of certain sick- wards of Christchurch Work- house, where in 1848 gangrene of the mouth prevailed. " In all overcrowded localities every observer must be struck with the pallid ansemic look of the population generally, showing that, ii'respective of any particular disease, it pro- duces a general want of vigour and ton^. With regard to acute cases of overcrowding in emigrant-ships, prisons, camps, &o., in- stances in history are sufficiently numerous — e.g., the Black Hole of Calcutta and the state of our prisons two centuries ago. In 1847, at the time of the Irish famine fever, there were an immense number of emi- grauts from Ireland to the United States, and fearful overcrowding of the ships. In ten vessels arriving at Montreal, July 1847, there were 4427 Irish passengers, of whom 804 died on the passage and 847 arrived sick. The Emigration Commissioners now require 15 superficial feet and a height of 6 feet for each emigrant, so that although this space is very inadequate, yet it is not likely such cases will arise now, at least in England. The most recent case of a fatally-overcrowded ship is' that of the Leibnitz, which left Hamburg with German emigrants for New York. The ship had a cargo of wool and hides, and car- ried 544 passengers. They experienced every horror that can arise from insufficient space and light, bad food and iU - treatment, and 108 died out of,the whole number. In the year 1782, from "An Account of a singular Disease which prevailed among some Poor Children maintained by the Parish of St. James's, in Westminster," it would appear that intense pollution of the air from over- crowding produces occasionally a kind of mania, accompanied with colic, convulsions, and pains in the limbs. The Action 0/ the Medical Officer of Bealth in Cases of Overcrowding. — The medical ofScer of health will usually act from information either from the inspector of nuisances or other person. It is then his duty to go down and inspect the premises, and examine the rooms, cubic space, and ventilation. He is then to take such steps as are authorised by the statutes, and "as the circumstances of the case may justify and require." So it is, practically speaking, left to him to use his judgment ; and in cases where there is only one family, and this consisting of little children, apparently healthy, it may not be advisable to move in the matter — in fact, every case must be dealt with on its merits. The 91st section of the Public Health Act, 1875, defines ' ' any house or part of a house so overcrowded as to be dangerous or injurious to the health of the inmates, whether or not members of the samefamihi, to be a nuisance." This being the case, the procedure for the abatement of overcrowding is exactly the same as in ordinary nuisances. See Nuisances. Where two convictions against the provi- sions of any Act relating to the overcrowding of a house have taken place within three months (whether the persons convicted were or were not the same), a court of summary jurisdiction may. On the application of the local authority of the district in which the house is situated, direct the closing of the house for such period as the court may deem necessary. — (P. H., s. 109.) Owner — The term "owner" isihus defined for the purposes of the Public Heajth Act, 1875 : "'Owner' means the person for the time being receiving the rackrent of the lands or premises in connection with which the word is used, whether on his own account or as agent or trustee for any other person, or who would so receive the same if such lauds or premises were let at a rackrent." The proper person to serve notice on, whether owner or occupier, in cases of nui- sance, and the proper person to levy a rate on, will be found fully considered in articles Notices, Nuisances, Kates. For obstruction of owner by occupier, in the case of the former carrying into effect any of the provisions of the Public Health Act, see Obsibuotion. Oxalic AioH—See Acid, Oxalic. Oxford and Cambridge, Rating of— See Kates, OXF ' ( 422 ) ozo Oxford, Iiocal Board of— See Local BOAED or OXFOBD. OKyurU Vermioularis — iS'ee 'Wobms, Round. Oysters [Ostrea edulis, Linn.)— Oysters are nutritious and easy of digestion, especially ■when eaten raw, the process of cooking coagu- lating and hardening them. The following shows their composition : — Composition of Oystere (Payen). Mean of Two Analyses. Nitrogenous matter . 14-010 Fatty matter . . 1-615 Saline matter .... 2-695 Non-nitrogenous matter and loss 1-395 Water . 80-385 100 000 Ozone and Antozone— Ozone (from ozo, I smell) is a peculiar variety of oxygen, distin- guished from ordinary oxygen by its greater weight, its peculiar and somewhat chlorous smell, its intensely active oxidising powers, and the ease with which it passes into com- mon oxygen. It is indeed a condensed form of the latter gas, containing three atoms of oxy- gen instead of two, the formula for ordinary oxygen being Oj, for ozone O3. It then neces- sarily follows that ozone is half as heavy again as oxygen ; its atomic weight is therefore 24, that of oxygen being 16. Thehistory of ozone is as follows : In 1785, Tan Marum observed the production of a peculiar smell when elec- tric sparks were passed through oxygen, and considering electricity a material substance, he called this odour " the smell of electricity." In 1840, Schonbein of Basle, in decomposing water by the Voltaic pile, discovered the new agent, which he called " ozone." He pointed out several ways of producing it, invented a test for its presence, and investigated its pro- perties. He, however, up to the time of his death never held a correct theory in regard to its nature. In 1856 the first book wholly devoted to ozone was written by M. Scontet- ten of Metz ; and researches by Marignac, Dedalline, Becquerel, Fremy, Andrews and Tait, Loret, Brodie, C. Fox, and others, in still more recent times, have elucidated its true nature. Dr. Cornelius Fox, in his work on ozone and antozone, has collected very completely all that is known respecting these two bodies, and ha; himself added many new facts. Antozone is nothing more nor less than peroxide of hydrogen. The sources of ozone, according to Dr. Fox, are — " The oxidation of metals, the decom- position of rocks, the germination of seeds, the growth of plants ; the falling of dew, rain, hail, and snow ; the Qpllision betwSeii air-cur- rents of different degrees of humidity, pro- ceeding from opposite quarters, with one another, or with the earth; the evaporation which is continually proceeding from saline fluids, such as oceans, seas, and lakes; the dashing and splashing, the smashing and crashing, of the restless waves on the rooky coast, — are all concerned in the simultaneous development of electricity and ozone." The chemist is able to generate it in many ways — . 1. By mixing very gradually 3 parts of strong sulphuric acid and 2 of permanganate of pot- ash. (Instead of this. Dr. Lender (Deutsche Klinik, Nov. 19, 1873) employs a mixture of ' peroxide of manganese, permanganate of pot- ash, and oxalic acid. This mixture in contact with water disengages abundance of ozone. ) 2. By the induction-tube of Siemens. This consists of two tubes, one inside the other. The inner side of the inner and the outer side of the outer tube are coated with tinfoil, and these coatings are connected with the' termi- nals of an induction-coil Dry air or oxygen streams between the tubes, and passes out ozonised. 3. It may be generated by half immersing a stick of phosphorus in tepid water in a wide- mouthed bottle. 4. It is liberated in the electrolysis of water, the burning of hydrogen at a jet, and in other analogous reaction, 5. By moistening barium dioxide with sul- phuric acid, ozone p disengaged, and the evo- lution proceeds for a considerable time. Ozone has never been isolated. By the use of Siemens' induction-tube, oxygen contain- ,ing 20 volumes per cent, of ozone has been obtained ; but though such a mixture can be produced, it has hitherto been found impos- sible to separate the ozone from the oxygen. Ozone is entirely converted into oxygen at 276° F. It is one of the most powerful oxi- dising agents known, oxidising silver, mercury, iodine, and many other substances immedi- - ately. It is therefore considered with reason to be a powerful disinfectant. In certain cases ozone acts as a reducing agent— e.p'., peroxide of hydrogen and ozone reduce one another, producing water and oxygen. It is also a powerful bleaching agent. Ozone is frequently present in the atmo- sphere. It varies in amount according to height, locality, temperature, electricity, ke. " It is more abundant on the sea-coast than inland, in the west than in the east of Great Britain, in elevated than in low situations, with south-west than with north-east winds, in the country than in towns, and on the windward than on the leeward sides of towns. From the observations made by the observers ozo (423) ozo of tlie Scottish Meteorological Society, ozone is most abundant from February to June, ■when the average amount is 6, and least from July to January, when the average is 5'7. The maximum, 6 '2, is reaciied in May, and the minimum, 5'3, in November.. Thus the maximum period occurs when evaporation is greatest, and the minimum when the conden- sation of aqueous vapour is greatest — a result in accordance with the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Berigny and M. Houzeau. It thus appears it is most abundant where electricity is produced, and least so, or entirely wanting, where electricity is in least quantity, and where there is much decaying vegetable and animal matter." — (Buohan's Meteorology.) Speaking generally, an ozonised air is a healthy and stimulating air, likely to destroy mephitic vapours, bad odours, and low germs. " As the most powerful known disinfectant, it most readily unites with the gases which arise from decaying vegetable and animal matter, and by depriving them of their noxious qualities is a great purifier of the air." It has been proposed by Dr. Fox to use it on a large scale for this purpose. For example, he says — "Ozone should be diffused through fever- wards, sick-rooms, the crowded localities of the poor, or wherever the active power of the air is reduced and poisons are generated. Its employment is especially demanded in our hospitals, situated as they mostly are in densely-populated districts, where the atmo- sphere is nearly always polluted by rebreathed air, decomposing substances and their pro- ducts, and where no mere ventilation can be fully effective. If practicable, it would be highly advantageous to direct streams of sea- air, or air artificially ozonised, into the fever and cholera nests of our towns. Ozone may be easily disseminated through public build- ings, theatres, and other confined atmospheres, where numbers of people are accustomed to assemble, in order to maintain the purity of the air." Lender also (GosoHEN's Deutsche KKnik, 1872-73) has lately come forward as an ardent champion of the medical application and effi- cacy of ozone, which he recommends both as ozonised air and water in tuberculosis, rheu- matism, asthma, &c. ; but it is argued by the opponents of the ozone treatment, that it is impossible to convey into the blood a body of such unstable composition, and that inhaling ozone would result in breathing oxygen only. It would, however, appear from the observa- tions of Lehone (Berl. Chem. Ges., 1873, 1226) and Houzeau (Ann. Chim. Phys., [4,] xxvii. 16), that it is more stable than generally believed, for after working with ozone, its peculiar odour adhered tort-heir hands and garments for some time. Lender is putting his belief to a practical test, for he has established an ozone manufac- tory, and he sells ozone inhalations at 7^d. per cubic foot, or £1 per cubic metre. Oxygen containing, about 10 per cent, of ozone kills small animals very rapidly. Small birds will die in such a mixture in less than two minutes. Respiration is rendered slower, the pulse gets weaker, and the blood is ren- dered venous. This latter is a remarkable phenomenon, the very reverse of what theo- retically might have been expected. This is considered by Dewar and M'Kendrick to be caused by the high specific gi'avity of ozone, which exceeds that of carbonic acid, and there- fore retards the diffusion of the latter out of the blood. Ozone also produces a very powerful irritant action on mucous membranes. — (Dewar and M'Kendkiok, E. Soc. Ed. Proc, Session 1873, 1874.) The exact influence ozone exerts on health and disease is still unknown. Some observers are inclined to ascribe the greatest importance to this agent, others even doubt its veiy exist- ence. Sohonbein observed at Berlin, during an epidemic of influenza, a considerable quan- tity of ozone ; and Dr. Pietra-Santa has also shown that when influenza prevails, the ozone- papers show lively reactions. Billard WoU, Bceckel, and Strambis agree that the cholera in Strasbourg, Berlin, and Milan coincided with the absence of ozone, and that it reappeared on the decline of the disease. Others have attempted to trace a connection between fevers, chest diseases, and other maladies, and the presence or absence of ozone. These facts have, however, been disputed, and the whole question requires many thou- sands of accurate observations before it can be settled definitely. The observation of ozone is usually made by the aid of iodised litmus and papers coated over with a composition of iodide of potassium and starch. Schonbein's proportions are 1 part of pure iodide of potassium, 10 parts of starch, and 200 of water. Lowe's is 1 part of iodide to 5 of starch. Moffat's is 1 to 2.J. The best arrowroot should be used for starch. It should be dissolved in cold water and filtered, so that a clear solution is obtained. The iodide is dissolved in another portion of water, and gradually added. The paper, cut in slips and previously soaked in distilled water, is placed in the mixed iodide and starch for several hours ; and lastly, slowly dried in a cool dark ozo (424) PAP place, the slips being hung horizontally. Schonbein's papers require 'moistening with water after exposure before the trial is taken. The following sources of error in the old ex- periments must be avoided :— ' 'Errors associated with the old Ozonometric Method. , 't -i J! , . , c Employed in the 1. Impurity of chemicals, I ^^^^^^^^^ 2. Impuntyofpaper, \ of the tests. 3. Formation of the iodate of potash. 4. Non-union with the starch of the whole of the liberated iodine. 5. Changes in the force of the wind. 6. Bleaching and fading of coloured tests from — a. Formation of the iodate of potash. b. Excess of moisture in the air. c. A high temperature of the-air. d. A great velocity of the air. e. A long exposure to the air. /. Sulphurous acid in thb air. g. True antozone in the air. 7. Light. 8. Ozonometers faulty In construction. 9. Differences of aspect and elevation,'' — (Fox, Ozone and Antozone.) The iodised litmus papers are to be used when ozone is to be estimated to the exclusion of ail other bodies. A great variety of in- formation on this subject, and directions of a most explicit character as to the observing of ozone, are given in Dr. Fox's work. See AlK, OZONOMETEB, &0. Ozonometer— This word is derived from the Greek oeo, I smell, and metron, a measure. The papers referred to in ozone (see Ozone) are ozonometers. The word is more generally applied to a box the bottom of which is out, and in which are hung properly - prepared papers. There are various modifications of this apparatus — the above is the simplest. , P. PancreaSgor Sweetbread— A compound sacculated gland which secretes a fluid called the pancreatic juice. This secretion contains three ferments — one converts starch into sugar, another changes albuminoids into albu- minose or pejjtones, and a third breaks up the large gi'anules, crystals, and globules of oil and fat into myriads of minute particles of from ^t; to xTTOTT "^ "■^ ^'''^ '" diameter ; and so the fat is emulsified and converted into a milky liquid, which mixes freely with water and passes through the tissues of the intes- tines into the lacteals. The secretion, even though it be rendered acid, still acts upon fat. During twenty-four hours about 1 lb. is secreted. — (EOTHERFOim.) The secretion commences when food is intro- duced into the stomach. The flow is at first very slow ; it gradually becomes faster, and attains its maximum in about four hours after food has been introduced into the stomach ; by about the seventh hour it has entirely dis- appeared. The following, according to Bidder and Schmidt, is the composition of the pan- creatic fluid : — Water . , . Organic matter (pancreatine) Chloride sodium Free soda Phosphate of soda Sulphate of soda Sulphate of potassa . Combinations l^iTgLsia (Oxide of iron 00-38 7-36 0-32 46 0-10 0-02 64 0-05 g-02 1000 00 Pancreatine is a nitrogenous organic sub- stance of the nature of ptyalin or diastase. It is coagulable by heat and nitric acid, and by sulphate of magnesia in excess. Unlike albu- men, it can be redissolved. For consideration of this organ as an article of diet, see Sweet- bread. Faper-Hangings,' VTall-Fapers, &c. — The more common colours used for wall- papers are as follows ; — Blacks. — Frankfort ivory and blue black. Blues. — Prussian blue, verditer, and facr titious ultramarine. Browns. — Umber (raw and burnt) and mix- tures. ' Greys. — Prussian blue and blue black, with Spanish white. GVecjM. ^Brunswick green, Soheele's green, Sohweinfurt green, and green verditer; also mixtures of blues and yellows. Beds. — Decoctions of Braail wood (chiefly), brightened with alum or solution of tin, the red ochres, and sometimes red lake. Viokts. — Decoction of logwood and alum, also blues tempered with bright red. Yellows. — Chrome - yellow decoction of French berries or of weld, terra di Siena, and the ochres. Whites. — Whitelead, sulphate of baryta, plaster-of-Paris, and whiting, and mixtures of them. Of all the above, the greens are the only colours liable to injure health. See Aksbnio. FAR (425) PAR Messrs.- Wilkinson & Son of London have recently introduced some patent washable paper-hangings, which may be cleansed when soiled by washing, and which have the advan- tage of becoming as hard as stone when hung. Medically, these papers are of interest, inas- mnch as they are said not to absorb the con- tagion of infectious disorders ; so that a sick- room may bethoroughly cleansed by the simple application of soap - and - water, without the necessity of stripping the paper off the walls. —(Lancet, vol. ii. 1872.5 Paradise, Grains of —See Oabdamom. Faraffine — A substance discovered by Eeichenbach in coal tar. It is obtained from wood tar, coal, Eangoon petroleum, and peat. It is a white, hard, translucent body, melting at about 110° F. Chlorine, sulphuric acid, andnitric acid below 212°, F. , exert no influence on it; hence its name,jpara,;^^, from its want of aflSnity. It is used for making candles, and is useful to the microscopist in embedding tissues, in order to cut fine sections. Paraffine oil is a mineral oil obtained from the distillation of cannel coal. Boghead coal, &c., at a temperature considerably lower than that employed in the manufacture of gas. It is of a light amber colour ; specific gravity, '823. Point of temporary ignition, 150" F. ; odour slight. This oil and others similar are now largely employed for illuminating purposes. The great objection to their use is the' frequent accidents resulting from the fracture of the lamp. Many railway carriages are lit by par- affine oil. In the event of a collision, the reser- voir above may be fractured, and the lighted oil run down on the passengers. Water will not extinguish it, and the only way to pro- ceed in case of accident, is to throw over the lighted oil u, mat or garment to exclude the air. Parasites — Human parasites are both animal and vegetable : the former include Entozoa — animals living in the interior of the human body; and ^ciosoo — those which infest the exterior. The vegetable parasites are the Entophyta and Epiphyta—i\iQ ioTm&r existing in the interior, and the latter on the exterior, of the body. The following arrangement shows the principal parasites. It is slightly altered from a table given in Aitken's "Science and Practice of Medicine." The more impor- tant parasites which infest food are described under their respective headings. Tadlb of Human Parasitks. I. Entozoa^ Acephalocystis endogena, livei'. „ multifida, brain. Anchylostomum seu Sclerostoma duodenale, intes- tines. Anthorayia canicularis, intestines Ascaris alata, ,, ,, lumbricoides, ,, ,, mystax, „ Bilharzia seu Bi^toma h£ematobia, portal and venous system. Bothriocephalus cordatus, intestines. ,, latus, ,, Cysticercus cellulosse seu telaa cellulosBe (C. of Taenia solium), musdes. ,, of Tsenia marginata (C. tennicollis), i«i- testines. Dactylius aculeatus, urinary bladder. Diplosoma crenatus, ,, Distoma seu Distomum crassum, duodenum. „ hepaticum seu Fasciola he^a,tica.,gaU-bladder. „ heterophyes, intestine. „ lanceolatum, hepatic duct. ,, oculi human! seu ophthalmobium, capsule oy a'ystalline. Diti-achyceras rudus, intestines. Echinococcus hominis (hydatid of Tgenia Echinococ- > cus), liver, spleen, and omentum. Filaria bronchialis seu trachealis, bronchial glands. ,, seu dracunculus Mediuensis, skin andareolar tissue. „ sanguinis hominis, blood. „ oculi seu Lentis, eye. Hexathrydium pinguicola, ovary. , , venarum, venous system. Monostoma Lentis, crystalline. CEstrus hominis, intestines. Oxyuris vermiculai-is, ,, Pentastoma constrictum, intestines and liver. ,, denticulatum, intestines. Polystoma pinguicola, ovary. „ sanguicola seu venarum, venous system. Spiroptera hominis, urinary bladder. Sti-ongylus seu Eustrongylus bronchialis, bronchial tubes. „ seu Eustrongylus gigas (Ascaris renalis), Tcidney and intestines. Taenia acantbotrias, intestines. ,, elliptica, ,, ,, flavopuncta, ,, ,, lophosoma, ,, ,, mediocanetlata ,, ,, nana, intestines and liver. „ solium, xTitestines. T^trastoma renale, Tcidney. Trichina spiralis, muscles. Trichocephaius dispar, iTiiestines. II. Ectozoa. Demodex seu Acanis foUiculorum, sebacetms sub- stance of cutaneous follicles. Pediculus capitis (head louse). ,, corporis seu vestimenti (body louse). , , palpebrarum (brow louse). ,, pubis, Phthirius inguinalis (crab louse). ,, tabescentium, pMheiriasis (lousy disease). Pulex penetrans (chigoe), sJeinj cdlvlar tissue. Sarcoptes seu Acarus scabiei (itch insect), scabies. III. Entophyta and Epiphyta. Achorion Lebertii {TricopKyton tonsurans), Tinea tonsurans, Schbnleinii, Tineafavosa. PAR (426) PAU Chionyphe Carteri (fungus of mycetoma), deep tissues, bones of hands and feet Leptothrix.buGcalis (alga of the mouth), Microspqron Audonini, Tinea decalvans. ,, fxaf\ix, Tinea ve:ni£olor. ,, mentagi'ophytes, follicles of liavr in sycosis or mentagra. Oidium albicans (thi-ush fungus), moulh, mucous and cutaneous surfaces. Puccinia favi. Tinea favosa. Sarcina ventriculi, stomctdl. Torula cerevisiffl (Cryptococcus cerevisiae, yeast plant), stomacli, bladder, (£c. Trichophyton sporuloides. Tinea Folonica. Parish Infection — The "parish infec- tion " of the English Bills of Mortality, now known to have been typhus fev^r. See Fbveb, Typhus. Paroxysmal Fever- LAKJOTIS.- ■See Fevbbs, Ma- Parsnip — The root of Pastinaca sativa, used as a table regetable. It is a native of Britain, but is also found in many parts of Europe and the north of Asia. Composition of Parsnip (Lethebt). Nitrogenous matter , . . 1*1 Starch ... 96 Sugar . . ■ , . 6'8 Fat . . ,0-5 Salts . . ■ . .1-0 Water . . 820 Pasteur's Fluid— Pasteur's fluid is com. posed of 10 grammes of crystallised sugar, '5 grammes of ammonium tartrate, "1 of well-burnt yeast ash, and 100 cubic centimetres of dis- tilled water. It should be quite clear. Pauperism is a subject closely allied to public health. To trace its causes, to diminish its increase, must be the urgent endeavour of all sanitarians. The following tables show its extent in the United Kingdom up to 1873:— TABLE I.— Number of Resistbred Paupers and their Dependents (exclusive of Casual Poor) in Eeoeipt of Belief in Parishes in Scotland, on the 14th of May in each Year. 100-0 Nmnljer May.) of Paupers. Dependents, Total. Years. Parishes. 1858 883 79,199) 78,601J (Cannot be speci- 1859 883 fled,) 1860 883 77,306 36,903 114,209 1861 883 78,433 38,680 117,113 1862 881 78,724 40,204 118,928 1863 884 78,717 41,567 12l),284 1864 884 78,632 42,023 120,705 1865 884 77,895 43,499 121,394 1866 885 76,229 43,379 119,608 1867 885 76,737 44,432 121,169 1868 887 80,032 48,944 128,976 1869 887 80,334 48,005 128,339 1870 , 887 79,290 46,897 126,187 1871 887 77,759 46,811 123,670 1872 887 / 74,752 42,869 117,611 TABLE II.— Number of Paupers in Receipt of Relief in Unions in Ireland at the Close of the First Week of January in each Year. In Blind and Years Deaf and (First Week of January). Adult Able-bodied.* All other Paupers. Total. Outdoor. Asylums and Extern Hospitals, Total, 1858 11,198 38,110 49,308 1,274 -) r 50,582 1859 9,167 34,432 43,599 1,267 (Not spe- cified.) 44,866 1860 8,975 34,243 43,218 1.711 \ \ 44,929 1861 10,422 36,930 47,352 3,331 4,373 . 50,683 L 59,541 1862 12,680 42,488 55,168 1863 13,674 46,364 60,038 5,809 381 66,228 1864 12,559 47,308 59,867 7,752 516 68,135 1865 11,387 48,111 59,498 9,182 537 69,217 1866 9,795 44,640 54,435 10,163 459 65,057 1867 10,243 44,687 54,930 13,291 429 68,650 1868 9,997 46,666 56,663 16,830 432 72,925 1869 9,994 46,940 56,934 17,320 491 74,745 1870 9,004 44,683 53,687 19,729 505 73,921 1871 8,073 42,742 50,815 23,382 495 74,692 1872 7,462 41,276 48,738 26,056 549 75,343 1873 7,778 42,078 49,856 29,232 56a 79,649 * Exclusive of any who are temporarily disabled by sickness. PAV (427) PEA TABLE III. — NuMBEE of Paupers (exclusive of Vagrants) in Receipt of Eelibp in the several Unions a.nd Parishes under Boards of Guardians, in England and 'Wales, on the 1st of January in each Year. If !1^ ■■ 1 Adult Able-bodied. All other Paupers (exclusive of, Vagrants).. Total. Indoor. Outdoor. Total. Indoor. Outdoor. Total. Indoor. Outdoor. Total. 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 629* 642* 646* 646t 649t 653t 655t 655t 655t 655t 655t 655+ 649t 648 647§ 647 23,281 20,098 18,882 23,402 ?6,578 26,501 23,663 23,400 22,290 23,399 28,646 29,826 30,389, 29,320 25,035 22,053 .143,323 117,320 117,879 127,124 141,068 226,99,8 163,08V 146,736 127,030 134,909 156,984 153,336 163,700 160,519 128,718 105,644 166,604 137,418 136,761 150,526 167,646 253,499 186,750 170,136 149,320 158,308 185,630 183,162 194,089 189,839 153,753 127,697 1Q3,200 103,207 100,144 107,559 116,613 119,686 114,144 114,719 115,696 121,230 130,077 133,245 134,935 135,969 129,198 132,118 638,382 619,845 614,115 632,338 661,907 769,429 708,395 686,578 655,328 679,286 719,116 723,142 750,367 756,118 724,713 630,557 741,582 723,052 714,259 739,897 778,520 889,125 822,539 801,297 771,024 800,516 849,193 856,387 885,302 892,087 853,911 762,675 126,481 123,305 119,026 130,961 143,191 146,197 137,807 138,119 137,986 144,629 158,723 163,071 165,324 165,289 154,233 154,171 781,705 737,165 731,994 759,462 802,975 996,427 871,482 833,314 782,358 814,195 876,100 876,478 914,067 916,637 853,431 736,201 908,186 860,470 851,020 890,423 946,166 1,142,624 1,009,289 971,433 920,344 958,824 1,034,823 1,039,549 1,079,391 1,081,926 1,007,664 890,372 Population in 1851 of 629 unions and parishes, .1' 642 646 1861 649 » 653 665 649 1871 647 16,628,399 17,463,827 17,670,935 19,814,000 19,875,000 19,886,000 20,063,000 22,701,137 Paving — The advantages attendant upon the paving of towns, &o., are so obvious that it is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon-them. Paving prevents the soil becoming impregnated vrith organic detritus. In the wet seasons it carries the rain, &c. , away from our houses, preventing the formation of puddles and the accumulation of mud ; and in the hot summer months it lessens the quantity of irritating, injurious dust in the air, and prevents, espe- cially when laid down in the basements, &c., of our houses, the rise of the ground-air and damp. Its disadvantages are that it prevents the rain from permeating the earth and so washing it, and the consequence is that in old towns we find the well-water undrinkable; and in such pavings as asphalte, &c., the sur- face of the ground in the streets is rendered practically air-tight, and hence all subterra- nean gases and vapours find vent in our houses, where no such resistance is encountered. In paving basements, &c., the whole floor superficies should be covered first with proper concrete 6 inches in depth, and then the fiags (stones) bedded on a layer of cement upon this concrete. It is important to say that the subsoil should be drained as much as possible, and the surroundingwalls guarded by external areas, or the water may find its way through them and cover the concrete. Mr. Eassie says that he has seen cellars which have been duly protected by areas from the wetness of the environing soil, and yet, from the absence of ground drains, the piers which supported the flags were found sur- rounded with water. The only cure for damp fiags is to take them up, excavate underneath, put in a bed of concrete, and lay them in cement upon that, or upon piers or sleeper walls. For regulations as to the paving of streets, &c., see SiBEETs. Peach (Amygdalus Persica) — A native of Persia and the north of India, but now culti- vated in all temperate climes with great suc- cess, especially in the United States. The following table shows the very small quantity of saccharine matter it contains in comparison with other kinds of edible fruits : — PEA (428) PEN Composition of Peaches (Febsenius). LnrKe aimllar Dutcb. -Variety. Soluble Matter-^ Sugar .... 1-580 1-565 Free acid (reduced to equi- ■ valent in malic acid) . 0-612 0-734 Albuminous substances . 0-4631 6-313 f 11-058 Pectous substances . Ash . . ■ . . 0-422 0-913' Insoluble Matter — - Seeds .... 4-629 6-764 Skins -. . . .1 Pectose . . . . f 0-091 2-420 [Ash from insollMe matter induded in weights given} rO-042] [0-163] Water ,. 34-990 76646 Fear (Pyrus commmm-is)— This fruit, like tlie apple, is indigenous to this country, but the wild pear is a very insignificant fruit. Its composition is as follows :— Composition of Fear [FreSENIUSj JJo. 1. No. 5. Soluble Matter j- Sugar . . 7-000 7-940 Free acid (reduced to equi- valent in malic acid) . 0-071 trace Albuminous substances 0-28) 0-237 Pectous substances, &c. . 3 281 4-409 Ash 0-285 0-284 Insoluble Matter — Seeds .... Skins 0-3901 3-420; 3-618 Pectose .... 1340 0-606 [Ash from insoMble matter included in weights given] [0-060] 83-960 [0-049] Water . ... 83-007 100 000 100-000 Peas — The garden-pea is derived from the Pisum sativum, a native of the south of JSurope, but long known in England. The field-pea gro-wn by the farmer to feed cattle -with is from the Pisum arvense. Peas require a good deal of boiling to render them digest- ible ; but when old, no amount of boiling will soften them — indeed, they only become harder. There is a kind of pea called the sugar-pea, the pods of which are gathered young, and cooked and eaten with the seeds in them in the same way as French beans. The following is, according to Parkes, the composition of peas {Pisu,m sativwm): — Water 14-600 Legumine, albumen, and gluten like substances 22-300 Cellulose 4-900 Starch, dextrine, and sugar 62-600 Fat . . . , 2-090 Chlorophyll , 1-200 Salts . . 2-400 Potash . 0-860 Soda 0-160 Lime . 0-100 Magnesia 0-180 Iron 0-023 Phosphoric acid . 0-860 Sulphuric acid 0-077 Chloride of potDSSium 0-067 Chloride of sodium 0-044 Chlorine r 0-000 101-261 Composition of Dried Peas (Payen). Nitrogenous mattey ... 21 Starch ... .61 Cellulose ... I Fatty matter . : Mineral matter .... WateiJ . . .... Pea-flour resembles very closely bean-flour ; the chief diflEerenoe consists in the size of the starch corpuscles, which are much smaller in pea than ia bean flour (see fig. 64). PEA FLOUR, DRV. Fig. 64. Pea-flour is employed as an adulterant with a variety of substances, notably pepper, flour, &c. The following shows the composition of some of the Indian peas : — Pimm. Bativum, Indian Pea. Cajaniii Indi- ciM, a, Pea coUeclDhoUin India. • 11-79 27-96 1-47 66-36 2-48 Nitrogenous substances... Fat 2218 1-95 Starch 62-13 Mineral matters 311 Penalties — All penalties, forfeitures, costs, and expenses directed to be recovered in a summary manner, or not otherwise pro- vided for, may be prosecuted and recovered under the " Summary Jurisdiction Acts " before a court of summary jurisdiction (P. H., s. 251) ; but proceedings forthe recovery of penalties are only to be taken by the person aggrieved, or by the local' authority of the district, except the consent in writing of the Attorney-Gr6neral.be obtained. But this re- striction does not apply to the proceedings of a local authority with regard to nuisances, offensive trades, houses, &o., without their PEN (429) PEN district, in cases in wUcli the local authority are authorised to take proceedings "with re- spect to any act or default. — (P. H., 0. 253.) Unless otherwise provided for, the penalty is thus applied : One-half goes to the informer, and the remainder to the local authority of the district in which the offence was com- mitted ; but , if the local authority be the informer, they are entitled to the whole of the penalty recovered. All penalties and sums recovered by a local authority are paid to the treasurer, and carried to the account of the fund applicable to the general purposes of the Public Health Act. (The justices or court have power to reduce penalties imposed by 6 Geo. IV. u. 78. — P. H., Part III.) The following is a list of various penalties which may be imposed under the PubUc Health Act, 1875 :— Building or re-erecting a house in an urban district without proper drains,' &o., £50 or less. —(P. H. , 3. 25. ) For building or re-erect- ing a house in any district without proper sanitary conveniences (privies, &o.), £20 or less.— (P. H., s. 35.) Unauthorised building over sewers and under streets in an urban district, £5 penalty, and 40s. per day during continuance of of- fence.— (P. H., s. 26.) Burial. — For obstructing a justice's order with regard to the burial of a person who has died from an infectious disease, &c., £5 or less. —(P. H., 8. 142.) Bylaws. —Penalties may be imposed by local authorities for the contravention of by- laws — such penalties are not to exceed £5 ; and for continuing offences further penalties of sums not exceeding 40s. a day. — (P. H., b. 183.) Penalty for injury or defacement of any board, &c., on which a notice or bylaw of a local authority is inscribed by the authority of the Local Government Board, or of the local authority, £5 or less. — (P. H., s. 306.) Cellars. — Unauthorised occupation of, 20s. per day.— (P. H., s. 73.) Cleansing and Whitewashing, &c. —Failure to comply with notice to cleanse and whitewash a Iiouse, 10s. per day. — (P. H., s. 46.) Contracts. — AH contracts are to specify some pecuniary penalty. — (P. H., s. 174.) Officers or servants being concerned or inter- ested in contracts, accepting fees, are liable to a penalty of £50, recoverable with full costs , of suit. Disinfectien. — Failure to comply with notice to disinfect and cleanse articles and premises, not less than Is., and not more than 10s. per day. Expenses of local authority doing the work may also be recovered. —(P. H., s.' 120.) Failure to disinfect public conveyances after conveying) infected persons, £5 or less. — (P. H., s. 127.) For letting infected houses with- out proper disinfection, £20 or less. — (P. H., s. 128.) ' Drains, &c. — Unauthorised connection of a drain with a sewer, £20 or less. — (P. H., s. 21.) For neglecting to comply with notice for the construction of privies, &c., for factories, £20 or less, and .40s. per day. — (P. H., s. 38.) For non-compliance with notice for the construction of drains, privies, &c., 10s. per day.— (P. H., s. 41.) Epidemic Disease^. — For violation or ob- struction of the regulations of the Local Government Board with regard to epidemic diseases, £5 or less.— (P. H., s. 140.) Exposure of infected persons or things, £5 or less.— (P. H., s. 126.) Houses cr iJooms.- Making false statements with regard to infectious diseases for the pur- poses of letting, £20 or less, or imprisonment for one month, with or without hard labour, — (P. H., s. 129.) Lodging-Souses. — ^Receiving lodgers in un- registered houses ; failure to make a report ; failure to give notice of infectious disease, £5 or less, and 40s. per day during continuance of offence. S Refusal or neglect to affix or renew notice of regulation in common lodging-house, £5 or less, andlOs. a day during continuance of offence after conviction. — (P. H., s. 79.) For neglecting the limewashing and cleansing of lodging-houses according to the Act, 40s. or less.— (P. H., s. 82.) Manure. — ^Failure to comply with a notice of urban authority to periodically remove manure, &c., 20s. a day. — (P. H., s. 50.) Meat. — For exposing for sale or having in possession unsound meat and other articles of food specified in the Act, £20 or less for each carcase, or piece of meat, or fish, &c., or three months' imprisonment, with or without the option of a fine. — (P. H., s. 117.) For obstruc- tion of officer inspecting the food, £5 or less. -(P. H., s. 118.) Mortgage of Bate. — Refusal of custodian of register to permit inspection, £5 or less. Ne- glect or refusal of clerk to register transfer of mortgage, £20 or less. Nuisance. — The court may impose a penalty of £5 or less with regard to nuisances generally. —(P. H., s. 98.) For want of diligence in carrying out the order to'abate nuisances, lOs. per day ; for contravention of order, if wilful, 20s. per day during such contrary action, besides the expenses of the local authority in abating the nuisance. — (P. H., s. 98.) For nuisances from pigs, pigsties, and the contents of cesspools, &c., overflowing, 40s.- or less, and 5s. per day during continuance of offence.— (P. H.,s. 47.) PEN (430) PEN Obstruction. — For wilful obstruction of member of, or person authorised by, local authority, £5 or less.— (P. H., s. 306.) Obstruction of owner by occupier in carrying out any of the provisions of the Act, £5 per day, commencing twenty-four hours after non- oomplifince with the justice's order. — (P. H., s. 306.) Offices. — Certain offices are not to be held by the same person. Penalty for offence, £100, re- coverable with full costs of suit. — (P. H. , s. 192. ) Order of Justices. — Refusal to obey order for admission of local authority, £5 or less — (P. H., 5. 103.) Bates. — Refusal of officer in custody of rate- books, valuation lists for the relief of the poor, &c., to permit inspection, £5 or less. — (P.H., s. 212.) Refusal of person to permit inspection of rate, £5 or less.— (P. H., s. 219.) Scavenging. — Obstructing the contractor or local authority in scavenging the streets, or in the removal of refuse, £5 or less. — (P. H., s. 42.) Neglect of local authority to scavenge after undertaking to do so, 5s. per day. — (P. H., s. 43.) Streets. —'Wilful unauthorised displacement or injury of pavement stones, injury to fences, &c., of streets vested in urban authority, £5 or less, and a further penalty of 5s. or less for every square foot of pavement injured, &c. Compensation may also be awarded by the court for injury to trees. — (P. H., s. 149.) For building or bringing forward buildings beyond the general line of the houses in the street in an urban district, 40s. per day after written notice. — (P. H., a. 156.) Trade, Offensive. — Unauthorised establish- ment df, in an urban district, £50, and 40s. per day during continuance of offence. — (P. H., s. 112.)' Nuisance arising from offensive trade is punishable by a penalty — ^for first offence, not less than 40s., and not exceeding £5 ; for second or any subsequent offence, double the amount of the last penalty which has been imposed, but in no case to exceed £200 (P. H., B. 114.) Water. — Pollution of by gas, £200; and when offence is continued at the end of twenty-four hours' notice, £20 per day.— (P. H., s. 68.) For injuring water-meters, 40s. or less, and the damage sustained may also be recovered. — (P..H., 8. 60.) Works. — For wilful damage of works or property belonging to a local authority, in cases where no other penalty is provided, £5 or less. —(P. H., s. 307.) Fenta^aph— This is an instrument for taking exact copies of plans, maps, designs. &c., which it will reduce, enlarge, or copy sam^ size, no matter how crooked or complex the outlines may be. Pentagraphs range in price from £3, 3s. to £10, 10s., and the impor- tance of getting a really good, instrument can- not be too strongly insisted upon. To medical officers of health, inspectors of nuisances, &c., si pentagraph is invaluable ; for by its aid the plan of a parish or village may be readily copied from the Ordnance maps. Fentastomata— Pentastomata are para- sites which have been found in the liver of man. The Pentastoma den- ticulatum has been shown by Leuckart to be the larvae of the Pentastoma tcenoides, and has been found in the liver and small intes- tines. The Pentastoma constrictum has been found in one or two in- stances. The accompanying dia- grams (from Aitken) illustrate the appearance of the parasite. a and 6 (fig. 65) are of the natural size. Fig. 66 represents the same specimens some- what magnified. Fig. 66. Fig. 67 represents" the anterior aspect of the flattened head-end of the parasite. " The dotted lines from a and i> point to two pairs of hooks or claws, one pair on each side of a pit or mouth c. The points of the claws indicated by a are seen nearly in profile ; those at b are directed more towards the observer. These claws appear to be implanted in socket-like hollows or depressions, sur- rounded by much loose integument. These socket-like hollows appear to be elevated on the summit of the mass of tissues which lies underneath the folds of integuments sur- rounding the base of the hooks. These parts are regarded as the feet of the parasite, and the hooks are the foot-claws. The pit PEP (431) PEP or mouth (indicated by the dotted line to c) is of an oval shape, the long axis of the oval lying in the direction of the length of the worm. The less or outer margin of the pit is marked by a well-defined thin line. There Big. 67. are no spines nor hooks on the integument of the 'elongated body." — (Aitken.) The Pmtastoma comtrictum is unknown in this country. In the recorded cases it appears to have caused death by inducing peritonitis. Pepper — Black pepper is the dried imma- ture fruit of Piper nigrum, one of the Piper- acece, or Pepperworts. White pepper is the same berry decorti- cated,, or deprived of its outer and black husk or covering. The Pepperworts are a well-defined natural order, confined to the hottest parts of the world, and delighting in low places, valleys, and the banks of rivers. Although neither the number of its genera nor of its species is great, yet the whole order is remarkable for a variety of "active and useful plants — e.g., the aromatic black and long peppers, the astrin- gent matico, the intoxicating Macropiper me- thysticum, the different' varieties of cubebs useful in the treatment of inflamed mucous membranes, and several other plants possess- ing medicinal properties,* belong to the natu- ral order of Piperacece. Black pepper itself is a ojimbing plant, attaining the'height of from 8 to 12 feet ; the berries— or, botanicaUy speaking, " drupes " — areiat first green, then red, and, if left still longer ungathered, turn to black ; but before this latter change takes place the berries are gathered by hand and dried in the sun— the result being an entire change of appearance ; instead of a red, smooth berry — a black or reddish-black peppercorn, with the cortex contracted and shrivelled in such a manner as to forin a veined network, is obtained. The plant is cultivated in various portions of the equatorial regions of the earth, the zone of cultivation being confined to the isotherms of 82°. It would not, however, be strictly cor- rect to say that this high mean annual tem- perature is essential, or even necessary ; for the fact is that it is produced principally in the cooler valleys,* where th6 mean annual temperature does not perhaps exceed 70° F. The black pepper imported into this country principally comes from the islands of Malacca, Java, Borneo, and Sumatra. The commercial varieties are at least five — ^viz., Malabar, Pen- ang, Sumatra, Trang, and TeUicherry, names indicating the localities from whence they are derived. The differences which these varieties of pepper present to the eye are evident enough when the several samples are at hand for comparison, but it takes a, very practised obsei-ver to identify a solitary sample; and if samples of each of the kinds named were mixed together, it is doubtful whether an adept even could separate the berries again, identifying each sort with any corVeotness. The merchant indeed relies more upon the weight than the appearance ; he takes a handful of peppercorns, and by long practice can tell in a moment whether it is a light or a heavy sample. ChevaJlier has determined the weight of what is technically called heavy, half-heavy, and light pepper. A litre of the first weighed 530 grammes ; of the second, 512 grammes ; of the third, 470 grammes. That there is considerable differ- ence in weight in the dififerent berries is certain, * The Artanthe eucalyptJfolia, used in Brazil in case of colic ; Piper partheniuini, used in menstrual disturbances ; Chavica Betle and Siriboa cause sali- vation and decrease the function of the skin. Beside these, AcrocarpicUum hispidulum, Coccobryon ca- pense, Artanthe adunca, Chavicaadunca, and others possess active and useful properties. PEP {432) PEP for the author carefully weighed 100 berries of each kind, with the following result : — Grammes. 100 peppercorns of Penang weighed (6-2498 100 ,„ Malabar „ "-'"" 100 ,, Sumatra ,, 100 „ Ti-ang „ 100 ,, Telliclierry „ 1 <6 160536 6 1476 (4 6736 ^4-6076 If, then, quality is to be judged of by weight, Penang and Malabar may be bracketed to- gether as standing first, Sumatra holding the second place, and Trang and TeUioherry bracketed together in the third. The general opinion of the trade is that Malabar is really the heaviest, and possibly the samples of Penang which the author possesses are unusually fine. The whole of the ground peppers of commerce are mixtures of differei;it kinds of pepper; there is no such thing to be found in the shops as a pure ground Malabar or a pure ground Penang. The principal varieties mixed for household purposes and retailed are Malabar, Penang, and Sumatra: the first of these is the dearest. The usual mixture, according to Chevallier,* is — 33 per cent, of Malabar to give weight, S3 per cent, of Penang to give strength, and 33 per cent, of Sumatra to give colour. The pepper thus mixed is either ground by th e aid of large millstones, or in an apparatus perfectly analogous to a, cofEee-mill. The latter mode is far preferable to the former, as the friction of the stones develops consider- able heat, and dissipates some of the aromatic principles. Pepper thus damaged by the heat of the mechanical operations is technically known as " burnt." The chemistry of black pepper is still in a very imperfect state. Pelletier has recognised and separated piperine (O17H19NO3), a volatile oil (CioHib), gum, bassorine, starch, an acrid resin, malic and tartaric acids, salts, extrac- tive, and woody fibre ; but there is no .quanti- tative analysis of the whole of the known constituents. The following is a quantitative analysis of white pepper by Lucii : — White Pepper (IroX). Acrid resin Volatile oil . Extractive gum and salt Starch \ . Albumen "Woody fibre . Water and loss In the last analysis the piperine is included in the resin {?). ♦ DnPoivre, par A. Chevallier (Annales d'HygiSne Publique, July 1876). , The resin is soluble in alcohol and ether, and is very acrid. The specific gravity of the volatile oil is '9932. It has the odour and taste of pepper. Piperine (O17H19NO3, Steeokee). — This substance is isomeric with morphia, and pos- sesses feeble basic properties. White pepper easily yields it when treated with alcohol, which extracts a resinous matter with the piperine, from which the latter may be freed by digestion in a solution of potash. The piperine that remains undissolved is recrys- taUised from alcohol, and furnishes colourless prisms, which are fusible at 212° P., good pep- per yielding about I'o per cent, of the alkaloid. It is soluble (slightly) in cold water, and has an acrid taste. Sulphuric acid dissolves it. The hydroohlorate is its most stable salt. Nitric acid acts powerfully on piperine, de- veloping an odour of bitter almonds, whilst a brown resin rises to the surface. On evapo- rating-the solution to dryness, a brown residue is left, whiph, when treated with potash, yields a magnificent blood-red liquid, and on distilling this mixture, it furnishes piperidine (CsHuN), which is a powerfully alkaline base. The writer has made some observations * on (1) the hygroscopic moisture ; (2) the ash, its percentage and composition ; (3j the nitrates in pepper ; (4) the alcoholic ; and (5) the aqueous extract. 1. The . Hygroscopic Moisture.-^'Sias was determined by weighing about 1 gramme of the very finely powdered substance and drying in a water-bath in the usual way. "Without doubt pepper dried at this heat retains a con- siderable quantity of water, but the very strong odour which all aromatic substances evolve at 100° C sufficiently shows that vola- tile principles are, during the whole evapora- tion, given off ; it therefore is very question- able whether it is advisable to dry at a higher heat than 100° C. The percentage of moisture is as follows :— Penang TelUcherry Sumatra Malabar Trang . 9-631 12-008 10-103 10-648 11-664 The highest percentage, then, is 12'9, the lowest 9-5, the mean of the whole 10-95. 2. The Ash. — In the determination of the ash, about 2 grammes were placed in a large platinum dish and burnt down at a low red heat, until it was of an equally grey colour and ceased to lose weight ; it was then weighed • Chemical News, October 1874. Etude Chindique sur les Poivi-es du Commerce, par le Dr. A. Wynter Blyth (Annales d'Hygifene Publique, July 1876). PEP (433) PEP Per cent. Per cent. 4-189 3-843 6-770 6-346 4 316 3-334 6-195 4-674 4-775 4-211 8-308 7-164 1-120 0-788 as quickly as possible, the result expressed as total ash ; the ash was then dissolved in boil- ing -water, the solution filtered, evaporated down, gently ignited, and the result expressed as soluble ash. Fepner dried at lOOi C. Ti Soluble Ab'. Per cent. Pcnang . 2-212 Tellichei-i-y . 3-380 Sumatra . 2-626 Malabar . 3-463 Trang . 2-638 Long pepper 4-472 White pepper 0-658 In all inquiries of this kind the extreme numbers are those -which have the most value — the least amount of ash, the greatest amount of ash ever found in genuine samples. No-w the smallest percentage of ash derived from a ground black pepper taken in its undried state that the author can give is 3 '3 per cent. ; the greatest amount is 5 '3 per cent. , and invariably a little more than half of this ash is soluble. It is useful to compare -with these numbers those obtained by Dr. Eassall, and published in " Food, Water, and Air." Whole Blach Pepper (Hassaii). Sample 8 . . Ash 4-03 per cent. 10 11 12 13 4-83 , 3-90 4-61 4-01 3-67 Thus the greatest percentage of ash given by Dr. Hassall is 4'33 per cent., the lowest 3'9, the mean of the eleven numbers derived from the two sets of independent observations gives us the ash of a genuine black pepper, 4"17 per cent., and the conclusion is inevitable that in no case should a ground black pepper, as sold, give an ash of 5^ per cent. That the ground black peppers of commerce do give very high percentages of ash, and are therefore much adulterated, is evident from the fact, that in sixteen samples of ground black pepper exam- ined by Dr. Hassall, only one was under 5 per cent., the percentages of the other fifteen being distributed as follows : — One gave between 5 and 6 per cent, of ash. Three ,, 6 and 7 ■Three ,, 7 and 8 Seven „ 9 and 10 One „ 11 and 12 Now, if these peppers were properly burnt, as without doubt they were, fifteen out of the six- teen were adulterated. "With regard to the composition of the ash of black pepper, the following is an analysis of the ash of Tellicherry pepper : — 100 Grammes a-5 0.2 P Gentlemen, &o. 10-84 18-67 27-11 19-27 15-06 6-03 3-01 29-51 56-62 39 1 to 5-00 166 835 Tradesmen 8-46 24-34 26-98 20-11 12 70 6-3.5 1-06 32-80 59-78 38 1 to 2-60 189 491 7-25 23-69 26-24 22-79 13-34 6-26 0-43 30-94 57-18 m 1 to 2-29 «318 5,308 ' ' Again, the class of gentry presentaa smaller proportional number of deaths under thirty and forty than either of the other classes. It is also well worthy of observation that the percentage proportion of deaths from consumption under thirty and forty is higher in the class of trades- men than in that of the artisan and labourer, although the ratio of cases of consumption is greater in the latter class. This is doubtless accounted for by the fact already established, that the strong exertion which a considerable portion of the labouring class employed within doors use in their occupations, and the large number employed out of doors, has the effect of retarding the attack of pulmonary consump- tion. The tradesman, it will be seen, occupies the intermediate place between the indoor and outdoor labourer, between the artisan using little exertion and the artisan using much exertion. , . . Another point attracts atten- tion — viz., the great proportion of deaths from consumption occurring in the class of gentry fromfiiteen to twenty years of age. Doesnotthis show that the liability to the disease is greater in this class than in the two others, and does it not tend to strengthen the position that the excess of the deaths from consumption in the other classes is due to the unfavourable circumstances in which they are placed ? "The ratio of deaths from consumption in the class of gentry, low as it is, would have been still lower if the medical men, who are in- cluded in it, were omitted. The number of cases of pulmonary consumption occurring in mem- bers of that profession is very remarkable, and it is a subject of regret with the author that they were not made a separate class." — {Op. cit.) An interesting paper was read at the Statis- tical Society in 1841, by Major Tulloch, in which the diseases of the lungs amongst naval and military men were compared. It appears that the chest attacks were twice as numerous in the naval as in the military force, but the mortality only half as great. This pecu- liarity would appear to arise from the naval affections being less deadly, and indeed, on reference to the table, it will be seen there is more consumption in the army than in the navy, and what was true then is almost equally true now : — Table IX. Naval Fokce. MlUTABY FOBCB. Out of an Aggi-fl. gate Strength of 65,709. Out Of an Aggre- gate Strength of] Inflammation of lungs and pleurisy Spitting of blood.... Consumption Calnn-lis Attacked. } 1,742 147 285 11,237 } 103 Died. 54 3 165 12 3 Allaeked. 1667 171 417 6586 112 (Died." 71 7 272 62 Astlinia and diffi- culty of breathing 3 13,614 177 8953 406 AnnualratioperlOOO of mean strength } 243 3-2 144 6-5 In the sixth report of the medical officer of the Privy Council it is stated, "In pmpor- tion as the people of a district are attracted to any collective indoor occupation, in such pro- portion, other things being equal, the district death-rate by lung diseases will be increased." For the bad ventilation, which as a, rule belongs to the place of employment, tends to develop among the workpeople a large excess of phthisis, and probably some excess of other fatal lung diseases ; and probably in aU Eng- land there is no exception to the rule, that in every district which has a large indoor in- dustry the increased mortality of the work- people is such as to colour the death return of the whole district with a marked excess of lung disease. The mortuary statistics recently laid before Parliament place this matter in a singularly striking light. In those returns, for instance, it may be seen that whUe about PHT (446) PHT 100 deaths by phthisis and other lung diseases are occurring in various agricultural districts of England among men aged from fifteen to fifty- five, there occur in similar masses of population in Coventry 163 such deaths ; in Blackburn and Skipton, 167 ; in Congleton and Bradford, 168 ; in Leicester, 171 ; in Leek, 182 ; in , Macclesfield, 184 ; in Bolton, 190 ; in Not- tingham, 192; in Rochdale, 193; in Derby, 198 ; in Salford aiid Ashton-uuder-Lyne, 203 ; in Leeds, 218 ; in Preston, 220 ; and in Man- chester, 263. The same sort of evidence comes out even more strongly when (as in the an- nexed table) the statistics are limited to the decennial of adolescence, and are so given that, with regard to districts where only one sex pursues indoor industry, the death-rates of the sexes may be compared. There, for in- stance, it is se6n (and no one who knows the ■circumstances under which girls are employed in lace-making and straw-plaiting can wonder at the fact) that among the adolescent popu- lation of Berkhampstead, Newport Pagnell, Towoester, and Leighton Buzzard, the female victims of lung disease are mdre than twice as numerous as the male. And there, again, in the death-rates of Leek, Congleton, and Macclesfield, the same sort of sad testimony is borne (but not exclusively by the female population) as to the atrocious sanitary cir- cumstances under which much of our silk industry is conducted. TABLE X. Distvict. Nature of principal Industry in the District. Death-Rate by Phthisis and other Lung Dis- eases at between 15 and 25 Years of Age, per 100,000 of each Class referred to. Hale. Pemale. Berkhampstead . . ) Leighton Buzzard . . / Newport Pagnell . . 1 Towcester . . . ( Yeovil- . . . .| Leek 1 Congleton . . . . V Macclesfield . . . } Standard Northern District Extensive female employment in ( straw-plaiting . . . ,\ Extensive female employment In ( lace-making . . . ;[ Extensive female, with some male, { employment in glove-making . ) Extensive employment -— more fe-J male than male — in silk- work . ( Agriculture 219 319 301 239 280 437 566 593 531 578 554 617 577 409 856 790 890 333 With. regard to dusty occupations, &o., H. C. Lombard (Eecherches Anatomiques sur rEmphysSme-Pulmonaire) showed that in 1000 deaths from consumption the following causes contributed in the relative proportions named in the following enumeration : — Occupations with vegetable and mineral emanations . . . 176 Occupations with various dusts . 145 Sedentary life ... 140 Workshop life . . . 138 Hot and dry air . . . 127 Stooping posture .... 122 Sudden movements of the arms 116 Muscular exercise and active life 89 Exercise of the voice . 75 Living in the open air . . . 78 Animal emanations .... 60 Occupations with watery vapour . 68 The order of the respective fatality of " dusts " he found to be as follows : (1) mineral ; (2) animal ; (3) vegetable. Influence of Season, Climate, " Some writera, eapecially Hecker, have been at great paina to chronicle the disastrous com- motions of the earth and atmosphere, the famines, the fearful earthquakes, which oc- curred simultaneously with the plague — how mountains like Tsincheon fell in, leaving a hideous chasm — how meteors appeared, and plagues of locuata came with the wind, and dying, polluted the air ; but it ia doubtful whether all or any of theae phenomena, apart from the diatreas and mental depression they would occasion, had any share whatever in even acting as predisposing causes. It spread by contagion, and contagion only; its origin is as mystic as the origin of all created things. Of the active nature of this contagion the following paaaages from Hecker will give a striking idea : — Every spot which the sick had touched, their breath, their clothes, spread the contagion ; and as in all other places, the attendants and friends, who were either blind to their danger or heroically de- spised it, fell a sacrifice to their sympathy. Even the eyes of the patient were considered as sources of contagion which had the power of acting at a dis- tance, either on account of their unwonted lustre or the distortion which they always suffer in plague, or in conformity with an ancient notion, accord- ing to which the sight was considered as the hearer of a demoniacal excitement. The pestilential breath of the sick who expecto- rated blood caused a terrible contagion far and near ; for even the vicinity of those who had fallen ill of plague was certain death, so that parents abandoned their infected children, and all the ties of kindred were dissolved.* The mortality of the black death was, with- out doubt, dreadful ; it desolated Asia, Europe, and Africa, and the people yet pre- serve the remembrance of it in gloomy tra- ditions. It began in Europe in Ji^uary 1348, and visited Greece,' Italy, Germany, Prance, &c,, and reached England in August of the same year, appearing first in Dorset, * "Et fuittantsacontagiositatisspecialitaqus fUit cum sputo ijangulnis quod non solum morando, Bed etiam inspiciendo unu9 recipiebat ab alio ; intantum quod gentes moriebnntur sine servitoribus, et sepelie- bantur sine saoerdotibus, pater nou visitabat filium, nee lllius patreu), charitas erat mortua, spes pro- strata," PLA (449) PLA spreading through Devon and Somerset, and throughout the whole country. At that era there were no bills of mortality nor trust- worthy records of population anywhere, so that its ravages can only be estimated ap- proximatively. Hecker assumes that Europe lost no less than 25,000,000 of its inhabitants. He gives the following estimate of the mor- tality in different cities : — In]?lorence there died of the black plague » . . . . 60,000 In Venice 100,000 In Marseilles, in one month . 16,000 In Siena . ... 70,000 In Paris . . 50,000 In St. Denis .... 14,000 In Avignon . . 60,000 In Strasbourg . 16,000 In Lubecls . . . 9,000 In Basle . . . 14,000 In Erfm-t, at least . 16,000 In Weimar. . . . 6,000 In Limbui^ , . . 2,500 In London, at least . 100,000 In Norwich . . 61,000 To which may be added — Pranciscan Friars in Germany . 124,4-34 Minorites in Italy . . . 30,000 It is a noticeable fact, that in all attacks of the plague, a disease among domestic animals of a similar nature has appeared ; it is pro- bable that it is communicable to animals. "Boccaccio himself saw two hogs on the rags of a person who had died of plague, after staggering about for a short time, fall down dead, as if they had taken poison. In other places multitudes of dogs, cats, fowls, and other animals, fell victims to the conta- gion ; and it is to be presumed that'other epizootics among animals likewise took place, although the ignorant writers of the four- teenth century are silent on this point." — (Heokee.) "The moral effects of the black death were extraordinary and characteristic at once of the manners, barbarity, and ignorance of the age. The panic was universal. Merchants poured their riches into the monasteries to the horror of the monks, who feared contagion with the money-bags; the Flagellants revived and marched in long processions through the towns of Eiirope until they attained political significance, and were crushed by the rulers and persecuted by the people ; the fears of instant death banished all the social and kindly relations, and curdled the mUk of human kindness. The contagion of the plague appears to have frequently been conveyed by drinking water from the very inefficiently-prptected wells; hence there arose a cry that the wells were poisoned, and suspicion fell upon the Jews, who were almost everywhere racked and tor- tured, burnt and massacred. In the plagues of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries more accurate statistics as to the mortality can be obtained. London had then its weekly bills of mortality, which although imperfect, yet have considerable value. Mr. Marshall has compiled from these and other sources tables which give a good idea of the fatality of the disease. From them we glean the important fact that besides the recognised plague years, the plague, as a disease, appears at that period to have been seldom absent from the country; and in manyj years not alluded to by historians as seasons of pesti- lence, there are entries varying from less than 1000 to more than 4000 deaths from plague in the year. It appears to have been most prevalent in the warm weather and autumn, less in the spring, and least of all in the winter; in fact, it was an exotic plant, requiring warmth, and really foreign to our clime. The epidemics always reached their climax in summer, and decreased when the cold weather set in. There was from 1593 to 1665 about one outbreak in every fifteen years —i.e., five serious epidemics of pestilence. In London, according to Sir "William Petty, the plague usually killed one -fifth of the inhabitants. The figures for the five great plague years are as follows: 1593, 11,503; 1603, 36,269; 1625, 35,417; 1636, 10,400; 1665, 68,596. This last figure belongs to the year of what is commonly called The Plague of London — The Great Plague. In this last, and indeed in most of the others, there were no phenomena of earthquakes, meteors, famines, &c. ; it was indeed so much a season of great prosperity, that foreign writers were in the habit of ascribing the pestilence to the gluttonous habits of the English people. The first two cases began in 1664 in a family at Westminster, whence the disease was carried into London ; but the December frosts delayed its spreading. On the break up of winter, however, it gained ground ; the authorities became alarmed, and infected houses were shut up and marked with a red cross (X) inscribed with " The Lord 'have mercy upon us ;" but the plague still increased. " Nor will this surprise us if we imagine the frantic and successful efforts that must have been made by the non-infected to escape, and the temptation to servants and nurses to ap- propriate and remove the property of the dying and dead. Indeed, Dr. Hodges accuses the nurses of strangling their patients, and secretly conveying the pestilential taint from sores of the infected to those who were well ; and he justifies his accusations ' of these abandoned miscreants ' — the Gamps and Prigs of the seventeenth century — by two instances : the one, of a nurse who, ' as she was leaving 2F FLA (450) PLA the house of a family, all dead, loaded with her robheiies, fell down dead under her burden in the streets;' the other, of a ' worthy citizen,' who beihg considered dying by his nurse, was beforehand stripped by her, but recovering again, he came a second time into the world naked." — (Dr. Gdt, Public Health, Part I. p. 90.) In August and September the disease at- tained its maximum. Three, four, and five thousand died weekly, and one week in the middle of September the death-roll reached the astonishing figure of 8000. The moral influence in London showed itself by a thousand extravagances; and the near expectation of death gave rise to acts of atrocity, cowardice, madness, and heroism. The aspect of the streets at the time of the plague is described by various writers as something terrible. " Some of the infected ran about staggering like drunken men, and fell down dead in the streets, or they lay there comatose and half dead; some lay vomiting, as if they had drunk poison ; and others fell dead in the market in the act of buying provisions." The plague spared " no order, age, or sex." The divine was taken in the very exercise of his priestly office, and the physician while ad- ministering his own antidote ; and though the soldiers retreated and encamped out of the feity,'t'h6 contagion followed and vanquished them. Many in their old age, others in their prime, mosifw^en and still more children, feri&%a ;'* >Sbnd it was not uncommon to see an inheritance'pass. successively to three or four hefr^ili' sfS iflan^ days." There were not sexlbriS efioii'gh'to btiry^Lthe dead, the bells fteased tolHtfg„the IjuryiBg-places were full, so mit the de8d-;jvfere thrown 'into large .pits dugiiF-fra^i' ^i*iid''in heaps, HMrty or forty togith^t ; aftd*lfos#whoaftendedthefunerals 6f their friendi bsie evening were often carried the nfext to tKfei^ <^n long hoitie.' " H rapidly deeliiiMifter September, and in December the city 'ftg6Jri>filled ; ahd«the whole malignity (seasing,' the 'dity'returtied to itself ^as after the great fire; •" a new city ^uAdenly arose out of the ashes of the'old, mficll better able to stand the like flames another time." But it was by no means confined to London, for the continual exodusof infected fieople, mer- chandise, clothing, &c., boilv^ygd the infection into the country, and even into remotehamlets. The plague has not been seen in England for two centuries, but it prevails occasionally in Egypt and the East. It broke out at Copenhagen in 1712, at Marseilles in 1720, at Moscow in 1771. It has appeared in the present century at the Kussian ports in the Black Sea. In 1813 it broke out in Malta and Gozo, killing between 4000 and 6000 people. Later still it invaded in 1816, Noja (Calabria); in 1818, Corfu; in 1819, Silesia; and lastly, in 1828-29, it devastated the Bussia'n army in Bulgaria ; whilst there is- reason to believe there have been yet more recently at Odessa cases of true Oriental plague. , In many of these places the disease was new to the oldest physician 'living. It had not been seen in Moscow for 150 years, nor in Malta for 137, so that we dare not say that England is per- fectly safe from future infectfon. Given a tropical summer, a cargo of plague-stricken passengers, and an unhealthy badly-managed port, the plague may yet be revived. The symptoms of the Oriental plague, as seen in modem times, are identical in all essential points with those of the black death and the plague of the seventeenth century. It has been well described by Dr. Eussel. In the most destructive forms the vital forces appear to be suddenly annihilated by a, most intense and malignant blood-poisoning, and death is remarkably rapid, without external eruption, of buboes, carbuncles, or spots. In such cases the body has no time to show the "tokens" before death. In the great majority of cases the disease is preceded by lassitude, loss of strength, anxiety, and afterwards by vomiting. The oharacteristio swellings in the armpit and groin follow, petechias and carbuncles appear, delirium succeeds, and too frequently death. The carbuncle is not of constant occur- rence ; Dr. Eussel found it in 490 cases out of 2700. The body is generally covered with them, the only parts exempt being the scalp, the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet. The disease has most resemblance in its course to typhus fever. Pathology shows rather the effects of the poison on the tissues and organs, as shown by enlargement and congestion of the spleen, kidneys, &o., than anything especially charac- teristic. There are numerous hsemorrhagio effusions, and dissection shows that buboes always result from enlargement and suppura- tion of the lymphatic glands. It is probable that all the fluids and secretions of the plague- stricken body are contagious. In case plague be reported as existing in any port with which we have commercial relations, it will be the duty of the port sanitary authori- ties to use every effort, by a strict inspection of vessels, to prevent the introduction of this disease. The prevention of its propagation would be similar to that recommended in our artiples on typhus, cholera, &c., consisting of quarattine of infected vessels, strict isoktion in proper hospitals, disinfection of the cloth- ing, excreta, pus from the buboes, &c., speedy burial, and general sanitary measures. See Choleba; Disinfection; Fevee, Typhds,&c. PLA (4SI) FNE Plaice (Platessa vulgaris)-~A. fish common on the English and Dutch coasts. It is com- paratively easy of digestion, but is very watery, containing only 22 per cent, of solid matter, 18 of which is nitrogenous, hence it requires fat to increase its nutritive value. I Plantations — M. Chevreul, in his work on the hygitee of cities, considers that the judicious distribution of trees and plantations around a town is of some importance in sani- tation, by purifying the air and gettihg rid of organic matters. It has, however,' long been the custom to plant belts of tre6s so situated as to break the force of the cold winds, and thus shelter exposed houses, which indirectly preserves health by rendering habitations warmer. Trees planted along pubUo walks, although they entail more expense in the repair of roads, are doubtless useful, and of sanitary importance, by the fsioility they afford for shelter in wet or shade in hot weather. They thus diminish the danger of sunstroke and some other' diseases. In an urban district a court of summary jurisdiction may award compensation to be paid to the local author- ity by a person injuring trees. Playthings — ^The bright green, yellow, and red colours coating playthings are often composed of such virulent poisons as ceruse, vermilion, arsenical greens, orpiment, salts of copper, &c. Several cases of poisoning from childien sucking such toys are recorded by ChevaUier (Annal. d'Hygifene, tom. xli., 2d series, 1874) and other observers. As harm- less colours could be substituted for those in use, this should certainly be done. It is pos- sible that sucking the paiut off toys may be the cause of a considerable amount of sickness amongst children which has hitherto escaped detection in this country. Plum — A name applied to several varieties of the Prunus domesticus (linn.) or wild plum. This is supposed to be a native of Asia Minor, but it has long been naturalised in England. Among the cultivated varieties those best known are the damson, greengage, French plum, magnum bonum or mogul, Mirabelle, Orleans, and prune. The following table shows the composition of many of these kinds : — Mirabelle Common Yellow. Greengage. Black- blue Middle- sized PJums. Dark Biaok- red Plums. Mussel Plums. Tellow Green, Middle Size. Large Green, very Sweet. Common. Italian; very Sweet. Soluble matter — Sugar ... Free acid (reduced tol equivalent in malic V acid) . . ./ Albuminous substances Pectous substances, &c. Ash . Insoluble matter— Seeds .... Skins, &c. . Pectose [Ash from irisolvble\ matter included in > weights given} . . ) "Water 3-584 0-582 0-197 5-772 0-570 5-780 0-179 1-080 [0-082] 82-256 2-960 0-960 0-477 10-475 0-318 3-250 0-680 0-010 [0-039]. 80-841 3-405 0-870 0-401 11-074 0-398 2-852 1-035 0-245 [0-037] 79-720 1-996 1-270 0-400 2-313 0-496 4-190 0-509 [0-041] 88-751 2-252 1-331 0-426 5-851 0-553 3-329 1-020 [0-063] 85-238 5-793 0-952 0-785 3-646 0-734 3-540 ( 1-990 .0-630 [0-094] 81-930 6-730 0-841 0-S32 4-105 0-590 3-124 0-972 1-534 [0-068] 81-272 lOO-OOO 99-971 100-000 99-925 100-000 100-000 100-000 Pneumonia — Pneumonia is an inflam- mation of the lungs, and when the pleura is affected as well, it is then called pleuro-pneu- monia. The disease is usually divided into (1) acute or croupous pneumonia; (2) catarrhal pneu- moilia ; and (3) chronic or interstitial pneu- monia, to which a fourth form may be added — viz., that kind of pneumonia so often seen as a complication of zymotic diseases. Inflammation of the lunga may be produced by a variety of causes. The catarrhal kind appears first to be a bronchitis, and then by extension to invade the lung tissue ; it is in its essence a secondary form. The chronic or interstitial form is that produced by external irritants, such as the breathing of dust, and is elsewhere described as fibroid phthisis [see Phthisis); whilst the fourth kind of pneu- monia appears to arise from the blood being loaded with effete products. This kind has been noticed in scarlatina, in typhus, typhoid, PNE (452) PKTE and rheumatic fevers, in glanders, in farcy, in septicsemia, in erysipelas, and is not uncom- mon in diseases of the kidney. Acute or crowpous pneumonia is entirely different from any of these. Instead of being a secondary form, it would appear well estab- lished by its definite course, by the rapid defervescence when the exudation is poured into the lung, by the occurrence of albumen in the urine, and by the fact that the mother has communicated pneumonia to the f cetus (F. Wbeer, Path. Anat. des Neugeb. nnd Saug- linge), that it is a blood disease, that some poison is taken into the blood, and that it cul- minates in the pulmonary tissues, the pulmon- ary air-cells beingin this case the seat of election, just as in typhoid fever the bowel, in hydro- phobia the spinal cord, and in smallpox the skin, are the organs to which in some mysterious way the poison determines and fructifies in. It is computed that 3 per cent, of all dis- eases are pneumonic. In Continental and our ■own cities about 8 per cent, of the deaths are due to pneumonia. Zlemssen gives the deaths in European population as 1'5 per lOCO, in- cluding all ages and both sexes. The admissions in the hospitals and deaths annually per 1000 strength in the army, for thirteen years, 1859-71, are given by Professor Parkes as follows ■: — Admlaatons. Deatfafl.;! Average £"25 641 Highest in thirteen years 7-13 741 Lowest „ 3-49 423 The ratio of deaths from pneumonia in Eng- land, according to the Kegistrar-General's returns for the eighteen years, 1854-71, to 1,000,000 persons living is as follows : 1854, 1280; 1855, 1406; 1856, 1204; 1857, 1230; 1858, 1374; 1859, 1257; 1860, 1287; 1861, 1152; 1862, 1179; 1863, 1189; 1864, 1189; 1865; 1083; 1866, 1198; 1867, 995; 1868, 927 ; 1869, 1163 ; 1870, 1065 ; 1871, 1008. Symptoms. — The symptoms of an ordinary case of croupous pneumonia are as follows : The patient experiences for two or three days a general feeling of mcdaiee, during which no physical signs can be detected. Marked rigors supervene ; the respiration is difficult and hur- ried, from 30 to 50 in a minute ; the pulse frequent, from 100 to 120 per minute. The countenance becomes dusky from the inter- ference with the respiration, and there is a peculiar short ringing cough, with expectora- tion of viscid sputa, in which may often be found fibrinous casts of the minute bronchi. The temperature of the skin is high, oscillat- ing between 103° and 104° F. for five or six days, and then, towards the end of the sixth, seventh, or eighth days, suddenly falling to the normal temperature, the mean duration of cases of pneumonia being a little over nine days. The m/yrbid anatomy of croupous pneu- monia shows that there are at least four stages — in the first of which the lilng is drier than nsual, and intensely injected; in the second, the lung is gorged with venous blood, pits on pressure, and is heavier than the nor- mal lung ; in the third {red softening), serum has been poured out into the gorged lung tissue ; in the fourth, there is a new product, an active growth of new cells, and the air- cavities are filled with these cells, as well as by small firm plugs of coagulable fibrine. In this stage the lung is firm, heavy, rigid, friable, and condensed, • hence it has been termed hepatised. The whole of these stages may be detected during life by auscultation and attention to the symptoms. Infectious Pneumonia.— Wheiter all cases of acute or croupous pneumonia (with or without pleurisy) are infectious, admits of doubt, but that there is an infectious pneu- monia the writer is convinced. Laennec in 1814 noticed a pneumonia occurring among the conscripts, and he re- marked that it was probably due to delete- rious miasms suspended in the air, which entered the circulation and operated particu- larly on the lungs. — (De I'Auscultation Med.) Dr. Parkes also remarks, "Considering that the pleuro-pneUmonia of cattle is propagated through the pus and epithelium-cells of the sputa passing into the air-cells of other cattle, that even in man there is evidence of a pneu- monia or phthisical disease being contagicms, the floating of these cells in the air is worthy of all attention.'* Greissinger also has observed that in malari- ous districts pneumonia is apt to assume an epidemic form.— (Infections Krankheiten.) Dr. Aitken remarks that it is a disease of general and universal prevalence, and some- times appears as if it were epidemic. — (Practice of Medicine.) It is also a noticeable fact that Grisolle asserted a discoverable cause (that is, in the nature of a chill) could only be affirmed in one-fourth of his cases, Ziemssen in one-tenth of his, and Dr. 'WUson Fox could only trace any connection between exposure to cold and the disease in ten out of fifty-three cases. Nor is it a disease predominating in winter, but as severe or nearly so in spring and autumn. — (Pythogenio Pneumonia, by Drs. Grimshaw and MooiSE, Dublin Journal of Medical Science, May 1875.) It may be well to add to these scattered notices from different medical writers brief notes of cases in which the infectious character of pneumonia was fully shown, and on which the author's opinion of its infectious nature rests. Two outbreaks of pneumonia occurred in POI (453) POIi the AkerhuB Prison, Christiania — one in 1847, another in 1866, In the last epidemic no less than sixty-two cases occurred in six months amongst 360 prisoners. Professor W. Boeck attributed the outbreak chiefly to overcrowd- ing. — (Norsk. Mag. for Laegevidenskaben, vol. xxii. p. 345.) Thoresen' of Eidsvold records an epidemic of croupous pneumonia almost confined to a single row of cottages. The epidemic lasted a month. — {Op.cit., 3d series, vol. i.p. 65,1871.) An epidemic of plenro-pneumonia broke out in 1860 in the Mediterranean fleet. Its infec- tious character was very evident, and Dr. Bry- son, who has recorded it, pointed out several characters common to it and the pleuro-pneu- monia of cattle. — (Lancet, January 9, 1862.) ; Five cases of pneumonia almost simul- taneously occurred in March 1874 at a school at East Sheen, Mortlake. The time of attack coincided with a large escape of sewer gas into the school, and the boy first attacked slept in one of the rooms most exposed to the efflu- vium. — (Sewer-Gas Pneumonia, Irish Hosp. Gaz., November 1, 1874.) Mr Alfred Mayo, Mildenhall, Suffolk, in a private letter to the author, gives a series of cases in which the infectious character of the malady was well marked. The first case was a bricklayer about thirty-five years of age, who was taken ill with pleuro-pneumonia. His mother, who nursed him, very shortly after- wards took the same disease and died. A neighbour, a healthy young woman over thirty, who came in to nurse the last patient, was also taken similarly ill, and died with all the physical and other signs and symptoms well developed; and lastly^ her child contracted the disease, but eventually recovered. There were other cases in the neighbourhood at the same time, and all of them were remarkable for their fatality. Dr. Christian Bndd of North Tawton has for more than twenty years believed in the infectious nature of acute or croupous pneu- monia, and among many remarkable instances which he related to the author, the following two are selected. A farmer at Bow was affected with acute pneumonia, and was nursed by his niece. She jn her turn contracted the disease, and going home, carried it to her husband. An old man suffering from pneumonia leant his head during a great portion of his fatal Ulness on the shoulder of a relative. The latter was very shortly afterwards affected with the same ailment.* * Dr. Richard Budd of Barnstaple has communi- cated to the author the following remarkable cases : ,1. A clergyman, after attending a public meeting, became affected with acute pneumonia. 2. The nurse in attendance became ill of the same disease about Mr. Mitchell of Dolton gave to the author a list of cases which occurred in his own practice during a most severe epidemic of pneumonia which swept over the eouth- westem counties during the autumn and viinier of 1874, and the spring of 1875. A farmer became ill on April 16th. Mr. Mitchell was sent for on the 18th, but the patieiit died about midnight. The servant- woman contracted the same disease a week afterwards, and gave it to her married sister with whom she was staying. Another man became ill of pneumonia in April, and died after ten days' illness. His wife contracted the disease, her first symptoms appearing immediately after his death. About the same date, a farmer's daughter, a mUe from the house of the former patient, became ill of pneumonia, and five other cases followed, all in the same parish (pop. 470), consisting of a small village and- a few scattered houses. The cases already quoted are fair evidence of its infectious nature, and it is, we believe, the duty of the health authorities of the country to recognise acute or croupous pneu- monia as an infectious disease, and to take the proper precautions, by isolating patients thus affected, and by insisting upon disinfection of the sputa and excreta. Poison — "A poison is a substance which when absorbed into the blood is capable of seriously affecting health or destroying life." To the consideration of the principal poisons we have devoted separate articles, and for the laws regulating their sale the reader is referred to Phabmaoy Act. Police — The powers of the police in cer- tain cases to deal with nuisances are detailed in article NuiSANOES. Pollen — The pollen of grasses, more par- ticularly Anthoxantum odorata and some others, produces in many persons summer catarrh or hay fever. Mr Blackley has per- formed several experiments on himself with various kinds of poUen, experiments the more valuable because the operator was himself a sufferer from hay fever. "The pollen of a number of the grasses a week afterwards. 3. The clergyman's sister, tak- ing the place of the nurse, was in her turn also seized with pneumonia. 4. A brother of the clergyman, who now anderfcook the duty of nurse, was in a vei-y short time laid up with the same malady. The nurse and sister died, the two brothers recovered. Dr. Budd concludes his communication as follows : "Since that time I have witnessed innumerable instances of the occurrence of this disorder in several members of the same family in succession, and I am thoroughly convinced that it spreads by infection, as the facts 1 have observed admit of no other explanation." POP (454) POP was first tried, and in every one of these trials this gave distinct and unmistalcable evidence of its power to disturb the healthy action of the respiratory mucous membrane. When a small portion of pollen, just suffi- cient to tinge the tip of the finger yellow, was applied to the mucous membrane of the nose, some of the symptoms of hay fever were invariably developed, the severity and continuance of which were dependent upon the quantity and upon the number of times it was used. In an experiment made with the pollen of Lalium Italicvm, the first^sensation produced was that of a very slight degree of anaesthesia of the spot to which this had been applied. This was followed by a feel- ing of heat, which gradually diffused itself over the whole cavity of the nostril, and was accompanied by a slight itching of the part. After some three or four minutes a discharge of serum came on, and continued at intervals for a couple of hours. The mucous membrane appeared to swell, and eventually became so tumid that the passage of air through the nos- tril was very much impeded."— (Experimental Researches on the Causes and Nature of Oatar- rhus ^stivus (Hay Fever or Hay Asthma), by C. H. Blaoklet.^M.R.O.S. London, 1873.) The pollen of Secale cereale is shown by the same author to produce very severe local and even constitutional symptoms. One drop of 1-per-cent. decoction of the pollen of gladiolus applied to the eye produced a catarrhal ophthal- mia. Inoculation by the skin of the pollen of Loliwm Italicum produced pain and swelling. Mr. Blackley has also estimated the amount of pollen in the air by exposing slips of glass moistened with a mixture of proof - spirit, water, and glycerine, to which a minute quantity of carbolic acid was added. He also determined the amount of pollen at different altitudes by flying kites to which prepared slips of glass were attached, and by these means has discovered the interesting fact that there is more pollen in the upper than in the lower regions of the air. In one experiment, a breeze had been blowing for twelve hours from the sea, and a kite with a glass attached to it was elevated to the height of 1000 feet, a similar glass was also exposed at the margin of the water. After three hours' exposure, the kite-glass showed 80 pollen grains, the one near the water none whatever. Mr Blackley considers the action of pollen as partly mechanical and partly chemical. The most severe symptoms seem to follow only upon the bursting of the external coat of the poUen grain and the escape of the granular contents. Between May and August in 1866 and 1867, according to Mr. Blackley's tables, the maximum of pollen in the air was reached on June 28th, when a rural slip of glass ex- hibited 880 grains; an urban, 105 grains of pollen. The severity of Mr Blackley's Symp- toms invariably coincided with the maximum of the pollen-dust. In Scinde the pollen of the elephant's grass {Typhi! elephantina), in New Zealand that of the Typha angustifolia, is employed to make a species of bread. It is a singular circum- stance that countries so far apart as Scinde and New Zealand should have adopted the same unusual kind of diet. Poppy {Papaver sommf&rum) — 5ee Opium, Morphia, jco. Population — The finally - revised results of the eighth decennial census show that the population of England and Wales has in- creased at the rate of 13 '19 per cent, since the census of 1861 ; the total population of England and Wales being in that year 20,066,224, while in 1871 it had increased to 22,712,266 persons. This is the largest de- cennial increase, relatively as well as actually, that has taken place since 1831-41. Begard being had to disturbing elements, it is ap- parent, as a broad general deduction from the facts, that the population of England. and Wales at the census of 1871 was greater by 590,186 persons than it would have been had the increase between 1861 and 1871 been dependent solely upon the balance between the natural growth oi> excess of births over deaths and the recorded emigration. During the ten years the births exceeded the deaths by 2,705,598, from which deducting 649,742 per- sons of English origin reported to the Emigra- tion Commissioners as having sailed from this country within the decennium, there is a'resi- due of 2,055,856, which would have approxi- mately represented the difference between the enumerated population in 1861 and 1871, supposing there had been no emigration. On an average of the ten years the annual excess of births was 270,560, the annual number of emigrants 64,974 ; and to account for the actual population discovered in 1871, it is obvious that the influx of Scotchmen, Irishmen, or foreigners, or of Englishmen returned to their native land, must have averaged about 59,019 per annuiu. Population of the United Kingdom. United Kingdom . . . 81,628,338 England 51,495,131 Wales 1,217,135 Scotland . . . 8,360,018 Ireland 6,411,416 Isle of Man and Channel Islands 144,638 A provisional return shows the number of the army, navy, and merchant seamen absent from the kingdom in April 1871 to have been about 229,000. POP (455) POP The enumerated population of the TJuited Kingdom, like that of its capital city, is Tari- ously defined for fiscal, statistical, and other purposes, and may therefore be required to represent either of the following :— Population, 18?1. United Kingdom: iTicluding islands in British seas, and army, navy, and merchant seamen ahroad . 31,857,338 ITnited Kingdom : including islands in Sritish seas, but exduding army, navy, and merchant sea- men abroad 31,628,338 United Kingdom : excluding islands in British seas, and army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad . 31,483,700 The present population of the kingdom [ex- clusive of the army, navy, and merchant sea- men abroad) represents an increase since 1861 of 2,557,406 persons, which is equivalent to a rate of &*8 per cent, in the ten years, and to a daily addition of 700 to the' population. During the last decade England has added 2,646,042, or 13 per cent., to her population, and Scotland 297,724, or 9'7per cent. ; while Ireland counts 387,551, or 6'7 per cent., fewer inhabitants than she had in 1861. Population of England and Wales. — As the first census was taken in 1801, no exact ac- count of the population in the earlier periods can be obtained ; but various estimates of the population were framed in those times by contemporary writers ; and series of returns of baptisms and burials have been preserved in many parishes since 1571, After collating the various sources of information, the fol- lowing estimates have been framed, founded ou data which justify the belief that they represent approximately the population of England and Wales in the middle of each of three centuries : — Middle of the EBtimiited Population of Increase of Yoara. Englajid and Wales. Population. 1651 . . 6,46(1,672 1751 . . * 6,335.840 868,268 1851 . . 18,109,410 11,773,570 Thus, according to the estimates, the people of England and Wales amounted to more than six millions in 1751, and to more than eiffhteen millions in 1851; they having in- creased nearly twelve millions in the hundred years ; while the increase of the numbers in the preceding century (1651-1751) was less than one million : and the numbers can scarcely be wrong either way more than half a million.* A comparison of the excess of baptisms over btlrials in 1801-10 shows that the excess of baptisms over burials must be raised nearly one-third part for the births of children who are not baptized to make it equal to the in- crease of population. The population of England and Wales enumerated on April 3, 1871, was 22,712,266 persons. Starting with the first census, in 1801, our numbers have gone on increasing in the following manner :t — _ .1. 1^ 1 X ! Ijl 1801 8,892,636 1811 10,164,256 1,271,720 14 30 i8oi-ii 1821 12,000,236 1,835,980 18 06 1811-21 1831 13,896,797 1,896,661 16-80 1821-31 1841 16,914,148 2,017,351 14-52 1831-41 1851 17,927,609 2,013,461 12-66 1841-51 1861 20,066,224 2,138,615 11-93 1861-61 1871 22,712,266 2,646,042 13-19 1861-71 * See Davenant's -Works, vol. ii. p. 175-185, ed. 1771 : and the Tables of Baptisms, Burials, and Mar- riages in the Census Beports, 1811-41. The annual rate of increase in the seventy years of this century was 1-35 per cent., the actual aggregate increase being 13,819,730, or 155 per cent. The population of 1801 doubled its. numbers in 1851; at the rate of increase prevailing in the last ten years, the populati jn would double itself in fifty-six years, while the period of doubling deduced from the annual rates reigning during this century is fifty-two years. Males and Females. — The boys bom in England are in the proportion of 104,811 to 100,000 girls; but they experience a higher rate of mortality, and, according to the new English Life Table, the rates are so finely adjusted that the numbers are reduced in the end very nearly to an equilibrium, the men and women living, of all ages, being in the proportion of 100,029 to 100,000. Such would be the state of things if there were no emigration, or if the men and women emigrated in pairs. That has not hitherto been the case ; and at the census, 11,653,332 females, and 11,058,934 males were enumerated. There was an excess of 594,398 women at home ; the men of the correspond- ing ages being on the Continent, in the colonies, or in foreign lands, unless their numbers have been reduced by higher rates of mortality than prevail in England. t The Registrar-General estimates the population of the United Kingdom in the middle of this year (1874) at 32,412,010. The population of Ireland (5,300,485) is only 84,000 more than in 1801 ; that of Scotland (3,462,916) is 212,000 more than double ; and that of England and Wales (23.643,609) is about 5^ millions more than double the population than in 1801. The following is the present estimated popu- lation of our largest towns : London, H,4riO,7ol ; Liverpool, 510,640 ; Glasgow, 608,109 ; Manchester, 355,339, and Salford, 133,06J ; Birmingham, 360,892 ; Dublin, 314,666; Leeds, 278,798 : Sheffield, 261.029 ; Edinburgh, 211,691 ; Bristol, 192.889 ; Bradford, 123,056; Newcastle-upon-Tyne, ' 135,437 ; Hull, 130,996 ; Portsmouth, 120,436 ; Brighton (with sub- urbs), 109,319; Leicester, li,6,2o2; Sunderland, 104,378. POP (456) POP To 100,000 women, of all ages, in England, there are 94,900 men, of all ages, at home ; the proportion of men to women at home is leas than it was at any previous census since 1811, owing probably to the increase of the army abroad. The disparity in the numbers of the two sexes at home was greatest in 1801 and 1811, daring the war ; this was due to the men abroad in the several services. To complete this view of the proportions of the two sexes living at home, their ages must be taken into account. There is an excess of boys over girls living under the ages of fifteen; and by the Life Table an excess of men is pro- vided all through the middle period of life ; but that surplus is overdrawn by emigration, so that the women exceed the men in number to a considerable extent in the early and middle, and still more in the advanced ages, when their longevity comes into play. ■ The excess of the emigration of males over females accounts for the present difference in the proportion of the sexes. Families. — The number of families was 5,049,016 in 1871, as compared with 4,491,624 in 1861; and the proportion of persons to a family was 4 '50 and 4 '47 in the two periods. The proportion of persons to a family varied from 4'69 in 1801 to 4'83 in 1851, the year of the Great Exhibition. If the inmates of public institutions, the persons on board ships, boats, and barges, and those without houses, are excluded from the calculation, the proportion of persons to a family in 1871 will be reduced to 4 '41, as compared with 4^8 in 1861. Decennial Rate>pt | Increase per Cent. 1851. 1861. 1871. 1861-61. 1861-71, London 2,362,236 2,803,989 3,254,260 18-7 16-1 Portsmouth 72,096 94,799 113,669 31-5 19-8 Korwich 68,713 74,891 80,386 9-0 7-3 Bristol 137,328 164,093 182,552 12-2 18-5 "Wolverhampton 49,985 60,860 68,291 21-8 12-2 Birmingham 232,841 296,076 343,787 27-2 16-1 Leicester . 60,584 68,056 95,220 12-3 40-0 Nottingham 57,407 74,693 86,621 301 160 Liverpool . 375,955 443,938 493,405 18-1, 11-1 Manchester 303,382 338,722 351,189 11-6 3-7 Salford 85,108 102,449 124.801 20-4 21-8 Oldham 62,820 72,333 82;629 36-9 14-2 Bradford . 103,778 106,218 145,830 2-4 37-3 Leeds . 172,270 207,165 259,212 20-3 25-1 Sheffield . 135,310 185,172 239,946 36-9 29-6 Hull . 84,690 97,661 121,892 16-3 24-8 Sunderland * 63,897 78,211 98,242 26-1 25-6 Newcastle-on-Tyne 87,784 109,108 128,443 24-3, 17-7 Total of 18 towns . 4,506,184 5,368,434 6,270,275 19-1 16-8 Urban and Sural Populations. — Now, adopting a broad principle of classification based on the registration districts and .sub- districts, the Begistrar-Geneyal throws the population into two groups, one inhabiting the districts and sub-districts which include the chief towns, the other occupying the remain- der of the country, and dwelling therefore in the small towns and country parishes. Taking the first of these groups as representing the bulk of the urban population, it comprises in round numbers nine millions in 1851, eleven millions in 1861, and thirteen mUlious in 1871; * The boundaries of this municipal borough have been extended since 1861. the rate of increase in this group between 1851 and 1861 was 19 per cent., and 18 per cent, between 1861 and 1871. In the rest of the country, assumed to be for the most part rural, the population increased 4 per cent, between 1851 and 1861, and 7 per cent, be- tween 1861 and .1871. The urban districts have in the last ten years grown more than twice as fast as the country districts ; in the previous decade the growth of the towns was more than four times aa fast as that of the rural population — a result probably accounted for by some of the rural districts having gradually assumed the character of towns. In point of fact, a correct estimate of th6 extent to which the large towns have drawn\ipon the POP (457) POP population of the rural districts, cannot be arrived at without taking into account the growth of suburban' neighbourhoods conse- quent upon the increasing value of property in town centres for purely business purposes, the gradual displacement of the people from the denser parts as a result of improved sanitation, and the development of railways, which every year adds to the number of those who resort to suburban or to country homes after their day's business ip towns is over. Certain cities and towns, either from their magnitude or their importance on other grounds, have been selected by the Eegistrar- General for the publication of weekly rates of mortality in comparison with those of the metropolis and of other British and foreign cities. Those cities and towns, eighteen in number, with London at their head, comprise a total population of 6,270,275— less than a third, but more than a fourth, part of the en- tire English population. "Within their muni- cipal limits, the population ehhmerated at the three last censuses, with , the intervening rates of increase, will be found stated in the table on p. 456. As regards most of the above tabulated large towns in which a diminished rate of growth is evidenced, it would be found that the surrounding neighbourhoods have received the overflow from the municipal areas, and ex- hibit in many cases a complete transformation from suburban, or even rural, to purely urban localities. This view of the matter receives support from what is observable in relation to the following group of towns, secondary in magnitude or importance to the eighteen above referred to. Population. Population, 1861. 1871. 1861. 1871. Croydon, Surrey 30,240 55,652 Stockport, Cheshire 54,681 53,014 Rochester & Chatham, Kent' . . . 1 40,798 44,536 Macclesfield, Cheshire Chester, Cheshire . 36,101 31,110 35,450 35,257 Brighton, Sussex . .77,693 90,011 Birkenhead, Cheshire 37,796. 45,418 Southampton, Hants 46,960 53,741 Burnley,* Lancashire 28,700 40,858 Keading, Berks 25,045 32,324 Bolton, Lancashire . 70,395 82,853 ' Bury, Lancashire . 37,563 38,596 Oxford, Oxon . 27,560 31,404 Wigan, Lancashire . 37,658 39,110 Northampton, North- ampton Cambridge, Camb. . 1 32,813 26,361 41,168 30,078 Warrington, Lane. . Ashton - under - Lyne, Lancashire . 26,431 I 34,886 32,144 31,984 Kochdale, Lancashire 38,114 44,559 West Ham, Essex . 38,331 62,919 Blackburn, Lancashire 63,126 76,339 Ipswich, Suffolk . 37,950 42,947 Preston, Lancashire 82,985 85,427 Yarmouth, Norfolk 34,810 41,819 St. Helen's, Lancashire 18,396 45,134 Exeter, Devon , . 33,738 34,650 Huddersfield, York 60,944 70,253 Plymouth, Devon . 62,599 68,758 Halifax,* York 37,014 65,510 Devonport and Bast •64,783 64,034 Middlesborough,*York 18,992 39,563 Stonehouse, Devon York, York . 40,433 43,796 Bath, Somerset 52,528 52,557 South Shields, Durh. 35,239 45,336 Cheltenham, Glo'ster 39,693 41,923 Gateshead, Durham 33,587 48,627 WestBromwioh, Staff. 41,795 47,918 Tynemouth, Northum- 34,021 38,941 ■Walsall, Stafford . 37,760 46,447 berland Hanley, Stafford . 31,953 39,976 Carlisle, Cumberland 29,417 31,049 Dudley, "Worcester . 44,951 43,782 Worcester, Wore. . 31,227 33,226 Cardiff, Glamorgan . 32,954 39,536 Aston Manor, AVarw. 16,337 33,948 Merthyr Tydfil, Glam. 49,794 51,949 Coventry, Warwick Derby, Derby . 40,936 43,091 37,670 49,810 Swansea, Glamorgan 40,802 51,702 Total . 1,971,091 2,333,703 Houseless Population. — On the morning of the 3d April 1871 there were found through- out the country 1921 males and 437 females * The boundaries of these municipal boroughs have been extended since 1861. who had slept the preceding night in barns and sheds, and 4325 males and 3700 females whose sleeping-places were caravans and tents, or under the open canopy of heaven. The num- bers living out of houses vary with the seasons. In winter they shrink into such dwellings as POP (458) POP are available to them, and in summer they swarm out into the lanes, commons, and fields. The ascertained houseless class amounted to 29,348 persons in 1841, in 1851 to 15,764, in 1861 to 11,444, and in 1871 to 10,383. The census in 1841 was taken in June ,' on the three subsec[uent occasions it was taken in March and April. The class appears, therefore, to be undergoing a gradual reduction. Maritime Population. — 66,187 persons were enumerated on board 10,726 sea-going vessels lying in harbours, creeks, and rivers, in the last census, and have been included with the iwpulation of the several parishes contiguous to which the vessels were lying. . These vessels include 96 of her Majesty's ships, with 13,454 persons on board; 9193 British sea^ going vessels, with 40,188 peri^^ns; and 1437 foreign and colonial vessels, with 12,545 per- sons on board. There were also 10,976 person^ enumerated in barges and boats on inland waters, as com- pared with 11,915 persons so enumerated in 1861, and 12,562 in 1851.— (Digest of EngUsli Census. Jambs Lewis. London, 1873.) European Statistics.— The following tables, extracted from the Kegistrar-Gteneral's report for 1871, show the population of the more important European countries ; — ITALY (inclusive of Venbtia). -^Population, Numbers, and Peopoktions per 1000 of Makeiages, Births, and Deaths, in the Years 1863 to 1871. ISAKS. NUMBBRS. PaopoaTioNS per 1000 to Population. Births. Deaths. Population, 81st Dec. Mar- riages. Persons Married. Mar- riages. Persons Married. Births. Deaths. Exclusive of Still- born. 1863 24,680,974 201,225 402,450 964,137 760,164 817 16-34 39-06 30-78 1864 24,882,633 189,759 379,518 938,795 737,136 8-02 16-04 37-73 •29-62 1865 25,097,182 226,458 452,916 961,234 746,685 9-23 18-46 38-30 29-75 1866 25,344,192 142,024» 284,048 980,200 733,190 5-37 10-74 38-67 28-93 1867 25,404,723 25,527,915 170,456 340,912 927,396 866,865 6-72 13-44 36-51 34-12 1868 182,743 365,486 900,416 777,223 7-16 14-32 35-27 30-45 1869 25,766,217 205,287 410,574 952,134 713,832 7-97 15-94 36-95 27-70 1870t 25,944,543 188,986 377,972 951,495 773,169 7-28 14-57 36-67 29-80 1871 ... ... * The decrease of marriages in 1866 may be attributed to the law which then came into operation^ remov- ing the civil registration from the parochial authorities to the communes ; there had been a marked increase in the previous year, resulting from a wish to evade the law about to come into operation. Doubt- less many of the marriages solemnised in the churches daring 1866 escaped registration. t The figures of 1870 were supplied by Signor L. Bodio, chief of the Statistical Department in Italy. SPAIN.- - Population, Kumbers, and Proportions per 1000 of Marriages, Births, and Deaths in the Eleven Years 1861 to 1871. Tears. Numbers. Proportions per 1000 to Population. Estimated Population. Mar- riages. Persons Manied. Births. Deaths. Mar- riages. Persons Married. Births. Deaths, 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 15,879,868 16,065,124 16,210,263 16,340,323 16,423,793 16,.579,090 16,716,151 16,853,212 16,883,986 16,935,613 ■130,731 128,696 124,176 126,303 128,917 131,981 118,409 111,684 137,120 108,543 261,462 257,392 248,352 252,606 257,834 263,962 236,818 223,368 274,240 211,086 624,096 615,919 606,800 629,546 622,050 618,981 624,212 579,464 602,287 599,786 417,764 430,663 461,661 499,486 538,580 463,684 487,151 548,690 550,6ti0 509,669 8-23 8-01 7-66 7-73 7-85 7-96 7-08 6-63 8-12 6-23 16-46 16-02 15-32 15-46 15-70 15-92 14-16 13-26 16-24 12-46 39-30 38-33 37-43 38-53 37-87 37-34 37-34 34-38 35-67 35-42 26-31 26-81 28-48 30-57 32-79 27-97 29-14 32-56 32-61 30-09 Note. — The population enumerated at the census of 1860 was 15,678,536. The estimated population for the years subsequent to 1861 has been deduced from the excess of births over deaths in each year. This method of estimating the population is sanctioned by the Junta G-sneral do Estadistica at Madrid. The decline of registered maiTiages iu 1870 is believed to be due to the introduction of civil registration, which occurred during that year. FOB (459) POE, Estimated Population of England, Fbanob, AusTHiA, and of Prussia, in the middle of each of the Nineteen Years 1853 to 1871. Years. England and Wales. France. Austria. Prussia. 1853 1854 1855 1856 1667 18,404,368 18,616,310 18,829,000 19,042,412 19,256,616 36,225,000 35,910,496 35,974,930 36,039,364 36,164,398 31,328,874 31,493,683 31,200,676 31,425,385 32,053,235 17,065,143 17,183,544 17,202,831 17,328,639 17,479,512 1868 1869 1860 1861 1862 19,471,291 19,686,701 19,902,713 20,119,314 20,371,013 36,236,322 36,331,642 36,622,404 37,386,313 37,621,486 32,361,506 32,760,697 33,108,629 33,399,946 33,719,823 17,739,913 17,983,484 18,106,757 18,491,220 18,711,806 1863 1864 1866 1866 1867 20,625,856 20,883,889 21,145,151 21,409,684 21,677,628 37,657,134 37,793,278 37,929,918 38,067,064 38,204,696 23,078,057 23,317,544 20,876,643 20,835,008 20,986,636 18,950,278 19,254,649 19,465,146 19,543,540 23,971,337 1868 1869 1870 1871 21,948,713 22,223,299 2-!,501,316 22,782,812 38,342,818 36,855,478 36,985,212 21,186,021 20,217,631 20,356,498 24,148,516 24,380,506 24,635,893 24,643,874 Pork—See Meat. Fortidge—See Oats, &o. Porter— 5'ee Alooholio Beverages, Beer, Hops, Malt, &o. Port Sanitary Authority — Ports. — The Local Government Board may by provisional order permanently constitute any local authority whose district or part of whose district forms part of or abuts on any part of a port in England, or the waters of such port, or any conservators, commissioners, or other persons having authority in or over such port or any part thereof (which local authority, conservators, commissioners, or other persons are in the Public Health Act referred to as a "riparian authority"), the port sanitary authority of the whole of such port or of any part thereof. The Local Government Board may also by provisional order pei'manently constitute a jjort sanitary authority for the whole or any part of a port, by combining any two or more riparian authorities having jurisdiction within such port, or any part thereof, and may pre- scribe the mode of their joint action ; or by forming a joint board consisting of representa- tive member's of any two or more riparian authorities, in the same manner as is by the said Act provided with respect to the forma- tion of a united district. The Local Government Board may also by provisional order permanently constitute a port sanitary authority for any two or more ports, by forming a joint board consisting of members of all or any of the riparian authori- ties having jurisdiction within such ports, or any part thereof. The Local 'Government- Board may, if it thinks fit, temporarily constitute by order any such authority, until a provisional order for its permanent constitution is confirmed by Parliament, and may from time to time renew any such last-mentioned order, and may by any such order make any such provi- sions as it is empowered to make by provi- sional order. Any ordej constituting a port sanitary autho- rity may assign to such authority any powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obliga- tions under the Public Health Act, and direct the mode in which the expenses of such autho- rity are to be paid ; and where such order con- stitutes a joint board the port sanitary autho- rity, it may contain regulations with respect to any matters for which regulations may be made by a provisional order forming a united district under the said Act.— (P. H., s. 287.) The order of the Local Government Board constituting a port sanitary authority gives jurisdiction over all waters within the limits of such port, and also over the whole or such portions of the district of any riparian author- ity specified in the order. — (P. H., s. 288.) A port sanitary authority may, -with the sanction of the Local Government Board, delegate the exercise of their powers to any riparian authority within or bordering on their district.— (P. H., s. 289.) The mayor, aldermen, and commons of the city of London are the port sanitary authority of the port of London.— (P. H., „. 291.) For the provisions 'with regard to the expenses of port sanitary authorities, see Expenses. A great many port sanitary authorities have now been constituted in England, but suffi- cient time has not yet elapsed to pronounce any judgment as to the amount or the effi- ciency of the work done. The whole of the Irish coast has also been divided into districts, and placed under the control of port nuisance authorities. — (Second Annual Report of Local Government Board for Ireland, 1873-74.) A very serious responsibility rests upon every port in the . kingdom. Each vessel arriving from abroad requires to be most narrowly examined, for the history of the past shows that cholera and other diseases have again and again been imported ; and from want of effective regulations, persons actually and evidently labouring under disease have been allowed to land and infect a whole nation. The duty of every medical officer of health connected -with a port is to insist upon a proper hospital being erected or adapted, as the case may be, so that on the arrival of an POR (460) POT infected Tesael the sick may immediately be isolated. In large ports he should be pro- vided with a sufficient staff to enable a thorough inspection of every vessel coming to our shores to be efficiently carried out, and he should therefore have a small steamer or other means of locomotion at his disposal. It well admits of argument whether the appointment of medical officers of health to ports ought not to be taken out of the hands of local au- thorities, as the importation of cholera is a national calamity, and therefore the neces- sary precaution should not be left to the un- equal and sometimes unintelligent action of local authorities. Fort Wine— See Wine. Post - Mortem Examinations — Any local authority may provide and maintain a proper place (otherwise than at a workhouse or at a mortuary) for the reception of dead bodies, for the purpose of undergoing author- ised post-mortem examinations. — (P. H., s. 143.) See Mortuaet. Potassium (K= 39 '1) —A metallic element discovered b^ Sir H. Davy in 1807. Specific gravity, -865 ; fusing-point, 144-5° F. (62-5 C.) This remarkable substance is a bluish-white metal, which at the common temperature of the air is so soft that it can easily be out by a knife, but at 32° F. it is crystalline and brittle. It has a most powerful affinity for oxygei(, rapidly tarnishing in air, and decomposing water, with the production of flame, when thrown upon it. The salts of potassium are very numerous. They are all soluble in water, and most of them are colourless. They may be recognised in a pure state by the violet hue they impart to the blowpipe flame when heated in platinum wire, by giving no precipitate either with sul- phuretted hydrogen or with sulphide of am- monium, and by. giving a yellow crystalline precipitate with bichloride of platinum, and a white crystalline precipitate with tartaric acid, when the latter is added in excess to mode- rately strong neutral or alkaline solutions. We can only here notice a few of the salts of potassium. Potassium, Arseniate of (KH2ASO4), is pre- pared with arsenious acid and nitrate of potash. It forms large crystals, which are soluble in about 4J parts of water, and in- soluble in alcohol. It is employed mediciniiUy, and also to form a resist paste in calico-print- ing and in the manufacture of cobalt blue. See Aksenio. Potassium, Oa/rbonate of (K2CO3), often con. tains an undue quantity of water, as well as ailicic acid, sulphates, and chlorides. The water may be detected by the loss of weight the salt suffers when heated ; the silica, by adding to it hydrochloric acid in excess, evaporating to dryness, and igniting the residuum by which the contamination is ren- dered insoluble. The sulphates and chlorides maybe detected by adding nitric acid in excess, and testing the liquid with nitrate of silver and chloride of barium. If the former pro- duces a white precipitate, a chloride is present; and if the latter does the same, the contamina- tion is a sulphate. Potassimm, Chromate o/fKjCrOJ, prepared from chrome ore, a natural octahedral chro- mate of iron found in various parts of Europe and America, and the bichromate of potassium (KjCrjO?), prepared from the above, have been extolled by Dr. Angus Smith as being powerful antiseptics, but their price is too great to allow of their being largely employed. Potassium, Cyanide of (KCN or KCy), is a highly poisonous salt, extensively used in photography and gilding. Accidents from its employment are not uncommon. It has a local chemical action upon the skin, and if this be abraded or wounded, it may be absorbed, and produce serious effects. The symptoms pro- duced by the salt are the same as those pro- duced by prussic acid — 2J grains being equal to 50 drops of medicinal prussic acid. It has been found as an impurity in reduced iron. It may be detected by the tests pre- viously given for potassium, and it gives a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, which, when dried and heated, possesses all the pro- perties of cyanide of silver. If a solution of proto-sulphate of iron is added to a solution of the cyanide of potassium, and after agita- tion the mixture is treated with diluted sul- phuric acid, Prussian blue will be pro- duced. Potassium, Nitrate of. — Saltpetre (KNO3). Specific gravity, 1 '925 to 1 975. The salt occurs as an efflorescence on the soil in the East Indies and elsewhere ; it is also produced artificially on the Continent by exposing nitrogenous matters mixed with a calcareous earth to the atmosphere. A nitrate of calcium is slowly formed, lixiviated out and decomposed by wood ashes, the main result being that carbonate of lime is pre- cipitated, and nitrate of potash remains in solution, from which it is recovered by evaporation and crystallisation. Nitrate of potash is a dimorphous salt, its usual form being that of six-sided striated prisms, but also occurring in microscopic rhom- bohedra. It is soluble in about three and a half times its weight of cold water, and a third of its weight of boiling water ; it is insoluble in alcohol. It fuses without decomposition POT (461) POT at 642-2° F. (339° C), and may be cast into moulds [sal prunelle). If heated to redness, part of the oxygen is expelled, and a deliques- cent mass of potassio nitrite is formed; by a yet stronger heat, nitrogen mixed with oxygen escapes, potash and peroxide of potash remain- ing. Commercial nitre generally contains chlo- rides, sulphates, or calcareous salts ; the first may be detected by its Solution giving a cloudy white precipitate with nitrate of silver, the second by chlorides of barium or calcium giving a white precipitate, and the third by oxalate of ammonium giving a white precipi- tate. In a hygienic point of view saltpetre is most valuable for its disinfectant and anti- septic properties ; but it is employed in the arts for a variety of purposes, such as manu- facture of fireworks, gunpowder, and nitric acid. This salt has on several occasions de- stroyed life, but only- when taken in large doses. An ounce has proved fatal. Potash, Permanganate of (KMn04), is made by mixing together certain quantities of chlo- rate of potash, peroxide of manganese, caustic potash, and a small quantity of water, and aftprwards evaporating, &c. This is a valuable disinfectant, but it possesses no antisepitic properties. Put into the foulest waters, it destroys almost instantaneously all disagree- able smell, and will quickly deodorise the most offensive substance. In sick-rooms, &c., where impurities cannot be removed with sufficient speed, permanganate of potash is invaluable. See Disineeotahts. Other important salts of potassium are bromide of potassium (KB) {see Bkomine), iodide of potassium (KI) (see Iodime), and the ferro and ferri cyanides of potassium. These latter are important tests for laotr, &o., which see. Potato — The potato consists of the tuber — which forms an exuberant growth of a por- tion of the underground stem of — the Sola- num tuherosum, a plant belonging to the order Solanacem, an order which furnishes some of the most poisonous narcotic products encoun- tered, such as the belladonna, stramonium, henbane, and tobacco plants. Composition of the Potato (Patkn). Nitrogenous matter . . . . 2-50 Starch .... 2000 Cellulose 1-04 Sugar and gummy matter . . 1-09 ratty matter O-ll Pectates, citrates, phosphates, and silicates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda . . . . 1'26 Water .... . HOP 100 00 Boussingault gives the average composition of the tubers of the potato as follows : — Koist. Pry. . 75-9 ..: 2-3 9-6 0-2 C-8 0-4 17 20-2 ' 83-8 10 41 Water Albumen Oily matter Eibre Starch Salts 1000 100 Mineral Constituents in 100 Parts of Ash of Potato. Way. Frombarg. ' Potash . . . 46-60 60-23 Soda - 3-7 Magnesia . .8-70 4-4 Lime .... 4-64 0-83 Phosphoric acid . 1320 lO'lO Sulphuric • . . 4-66 14-67 Chloride of potassium ... 11-76 Chloride of sodium . 3-43 Carbonic acid fi-om the incineration of organic acids, such as citrate, malate, tartrate, &c. . 13-30 Oxide of iron Silicate of alumina 1-95 The composition of the ash is remarkable for the great disproportion which exists be- tween the potash and soda salts. The amount of potash is indeed very large, and this dis- proportion perhaps affords an explanation of the fact that all who use the potato instinc- tively add salt to it. Potatoes are deficient in fat, and they do not contain more than 2J per cent, of nitro- genous matter, so that, dietetioally speaking, the potato is a carbo-hydrate or starch food, and requires the addition of meat and fat to render it a perfect article of food. The potato has great antiscorbutic pro- perties, so much so that the addition of pota- toes to the diet has been found sufficient to arrest the prevalence of scurvy in prisons where it had before existed. Potatoes may be preserved for a considerable time by thoroughly desiccating them in an oVen or by steam heat. For this purpose the roots, either raw or three parts dressed, are generally first cut into dice of above f inch square to facilitate the operation. Under a patent granted to Mr. Downes Edwards, August 1840, the boiled potatoes are mashed and granulated by forcing them through a perforated plate before drying them. The granulated product, beaten up with a little hot milk or hot water, forms an excellent extemporaneous dish of mashed potatoes. — (COOLET.) Parkes recommends that slices of potato be packed in sugar, and afeo gives the following methods for determining the amount of solids, starch, and the quality : — "The solids can be determined by taking the specific gravity and multiplying it by a factor taken from the subjoined table, the result is the percentage of solids. POT (46Z) POT I Spociflc Gravity tptween 1061-1068 , 1069-1074 . 1076-1082 , 1083-1104 , 1105-1109 , 1110-1114 , 1116-1119 , 1120-1129 , Factor. 16 IS 20 22 24 26 27 28 " If the starch alone is to be determined, de- duct seven from the factor and multiply the specific gravity hy the number thus obtained ; the result ia the percentage of starch. ' ' If the specific gravity of the potato is below 1068, the vjuality is very bad ; ' between 1068- 1082, the quality ia very inferior; between 1082-1105, the quality is rather poor ; above 1105, the quality is very good ; above 1110, the quality is best." A poisonous principle, termed solanine, is said to become developed in the buds and shoots of potatoes that are allowed to grow out on keeping ; but no case is recorded, not- withstanding the universal consumption, of poisonous effects arising from the use of such potatoes. "With regard to the cooking of potatoes, the best general method is, without doubt, either to bake or steam them in their skins. Dr. Letheby asserts that when potatoes are peeled and then boiled, the loss in cooking is 14'per cent.; but if cooked without peeling, it is only 3 per cent. The Potato Disease. — In the United States in 1843 a disastrous disease appeared among the potato crops ; in 1844 it had reached Canada, and before the end of 1855 it had shown itself in most European countries. Since th(at date this disease appears to have been on the increase, and it resists all efforts to eradicate it. It usually ap- pears in July, August, September, and Oc- tober, but a few crops have been attacked in May. A mild and moist atmosphere ap- pears to favour the spread of this malady, and no soil is exempt from its attacks, though sloping well-drained soils are always the least affected. An abundance of manure, especi- ally if directly applied, often corresponds with the maximum intensity of the plague ; an'd again, the potatoes only lightly covered by the soil have frequently been those most violently attacked. No variety has been able to resist this disease, though one or two have in a measure succeeded in escaping its influ- ence. It comniences in the leaves of the plant, and thence extends from the stem to the tubers. On .the surface of the latter brown spots make their appearan(je, penetrate the substance, and eventually lead to decay. The disease is caused by a minute fungus called Peronospora infestans. The life-history, alarge portion of which has long been known by the researches of Montague, Berkeley, De Bary, and others, has recently been completed by the discoveries and investigations of Worth- ington G, Smith. Fig. 68, reduced from a cut in the "Gardeners' Chronicle " (July 17, 1875) to one of Mr. Smith's original papers, will give an idea of the nature and method of reproduction of the fungus. It represents a very fine and successful section of the leaf of a diseased potato highly magnified. A A are the minute hairs always present; B B are the individual cells of the leaf. The former are structures belonging entirely to the healthy plant, whilst the threads and bodies shown at C, D, E, F, and G belong to the fungus, the parasite which preys upon the plant. The fine thread at C is a continuation of the spawn or mycelium living inside, and at the expense of the assimilated material of the leaf. Emerging into the air, the thread ramifies at the tips of the branches and bears fruit, D D. These fruits are termed simple spores, or conidia, because of their dust-like appearance. The conidia are capable of germi- nating and reproducing the species just in the same way as a seed. A second method of reproduction of the peronospora is shown in the " swarm-spores " E F. These, when moistened artificially, or in nature by dew or rain, set free fifteen or sixteen bodies known as "zoospores," so named because they ex- hibit every phenomenon of animal and sper- matozoa-like life. They are furnished with two lash - like tails, and move about for half an hour with great rapidity. The zoo- spores falling upon any portion of the plant, have an extraordinary power of instantly corroding and boring through the cellular epidermis. When movement ceases, the tails (cilia) disappear, the zoospores burst at one end, and protrude a tube which develops into mycelium, producing, as before, the perfect plant. These two asexual methods of repro- duction have long been known, but as in both of them the structures are far top delicate to withstand the frosts of winter, it was difficult to account for its winter life until Mr. Smith showed that the third mode of reproduc- tion, already made out in similar species of peronospora, was also to be found in the potato plant. The third form is a true sexual method, perfectly analogous toj the reproduction of the higher flowering plants. This third method is the production of egg- shaped bodies, about is^nr of an inch in diameter, known as " oospores." The oospores are ijroducod by the conjugation of two bodies — the one, the male, known as the antberidium {see H, fig. 68), and analogous to the anther of a flower ; and the other the POT (463) POT oogonium (J), the female, analogons to the ovary of a flower. The antheiidium and oogonium have been seen in contact, and a fertilising tube from the former has been observed entering the oogonium. After fer- tilisation the oogonium develops into the oospore analogous to the matured seed. This third method only appears to take place in the rotten and decayed parts of the plant. The oospores are not transparent anduuendur- ing, but dense in substance, of a dark brown colour, and covered externally with reticula- tions or warts. " They are produced from the mycelium by the contact of the antheri- dium and the oogonium in the substance, of the decaying plant. They are Washed into the earth, and thete they rest till a certain set of conditions makes them germinate in the year following their production, just as a seed'falls and rests in the autumn, and starts again into life during the following spring." — (W. G. Smith.) Although we nowpossess the last link in the chain, and know probably the entire history of the fungus, the remedy is not so clear; for the parasite in the living plant can hardly be reached by any destructive agencies without destroying the potato, since the life of the fungus is passed within the very tissues itself. There is one thing, however, evident — viz., that destruction by fire of all diseased haulms would without doubt check the disease very effectually; that it would extinguish it alto- gether is doubtful, for it is certain that the potato plant is not the only one affected with the peronospora, and if therefore the whole of POT (464) PBI the diseased potato plants in the world were destroyed, in the next season the' fungus might again invade the crops from other sol- anaceous plants. Potato, Sweet— ;%e Batata. Poultry — Poultry usually contains too much nitrogenous matter and too little fat to be very nourishing. The duck and the goose, which possess more fat, contain certain flavour- ing matters which are not easy of digestion. No bird nor bird's egg is known to be poison- ous, but some birds ar^ rendered poisonous by the food which tkey have eaten. The pheasant, for instance, which feeds on the buds of the Galmia latifolia, in North America, is deemed poisonous during the winter and spring; and birds in this country which have fed on poisoned grain have produced serious symptoms in those who have eaten them.' A medical officer of health, &c., may inspect, and if necessary seize, poultry. See Food, In- spection OF. Poverty— jSee Paupbbism. Powers of Sanitary Authorities- See Sanitaet Authokities. Preserves — Preserved fruits — jams, jellies, &c. — frequently contain copper, and in some cases this metal has been found to be present in large quantities. It is derived either from the copper vessels in which the preserves are often prepared, or has been added to improve the colour of the article. See Copper. Prevention of Disease — See Epi- demic, &c. Prices — The prices of the principal pro- visions have greatly increased since 1852. The following table clearly shows this : — The AvEEAOE Pbices of Consols, of Wheat, of Meat, and of Potatoes in each of the , Twenty Years 1852-1871. Tears. 1852 . 1853 . 1854 . 1855 . 1856 . 1857 . 1858 . 1859 . 1860 . 1861 . 1862 . 1863 . 1864 . 1865 . 1866 . 1867 . 1868 . 1869 . 1870 . 1871 . Av^l•age Average Price of Price of Wheat per Consols Quarter in (for England Money). and Wales. £ s. d. 99j 40 10 97| 52 11 91i 72 6 90| 74 8 93 69 2 911 56 5 97 44 3 95 48 10 94 53 3 92 55 4 93 55 5 92 44 8 90 40 2 89 41 9 871 49 11 93 64 5 94 63 9 931 48 2 928 46 10 93 66 10 Average Prices of Meat per lb. at the Metropolitan Meat-Market (by the Carcase). Eangeof jj Prices. Mutton. Eangeof jj Prices. '"=""• d. ii 51 51 5| 5l 5| 6 64 Si 5} 6i 7 6| 6 Si 6l 7 Best Potatoes per Ton at Waterside Market, gouthwark. Eange of j, Prices. '"'">"■ 79-103 116-145 107-131 94-107 78- 93 108-134 104-136 79-109 120-145 114-134 125-149 90-111 64- 86 75-101 69-109 115-161 111-164 75-124 90-119 65- 89 s. d. 91 130 6 119 100 6 85 6 120 8 120 94 132 6 124 137 100 6 75 88 89 138 1.S7 6 104 77 Prison Diets — See Dietabieb. Privies — It would be well for sanitary authorities to select, in every case, properly- designed plans of privies, and to enforce by- laws ordering that no privy be erected which is constructed imperfectly or built in an im- proper place, A very useful plan and speci- fication, which may be modified to suit -par- ticular circumstances, are given on pp. 465, 466. There is no privy yet constructed that will give satisfactory results with dirty and care- less people ; but when an owner provides his houses with fit accommodation, there is an obligation then on the tenant to keep it pro- PE.I (46s) PRI perly attended to. The ordinary privy, lyith I cases be superseded by either earth-closets, or an open cesspit at th'e back of it, should in all | if a cesspit is preferred, it nmat ie properly' Kg. 69i> Jig. 70. ventilated, and have walls perfectly water- tight. The forms of privies are innxunerable : the simplest is perhaps a galvanised zinc pan. Fig. 72 either furnished with handles or on wheels, and pat close, up to an ordinary seat : this is emptied when necessary. 2G PRI (466) PRO Specification. — The privy and dust-bin to be built of 4ilf-in. brickwork, la well-ground mortar, of ap- proved quality. Two rows of 4^ and 3 in, bond timber to be built in at back of privy for securing ventilating-shafts. The ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4i in,, inside measurement, of best red deal boards 1 in. 'thick, closely put together, with strong white-lead paint, and well nailed and carefully seamed to the 4^ and 3 in. bond timber. These shafts to have coats of boiled tar both inside and out. The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-in. red deal boards, with two strong ledges or battens across them ; to be hung with three strong band hinges to the sides of the ventilating-shafts, and the making. up piece between the same. A circular orifice to be made in centre of lid, between the battens,, 10 in. wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled tar both inside and out. A 4^ and 3 in. frame, of red deal, to be securely fixed on top of the dust-bin as a seat for the lid. A lid over the privy seat to be hinged on 'at the baok, with a child's seat over centre of large one. The larger seat to be provided with an earthenware circular rim beneath. The earth compartment to be without lid, and pro- vided with a pint scope for each occupant to throw in a pint of the stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat into the galvanised iron pail, the contents of which must be scattered over the garden, or put in the dust-bin, before the pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be furnished where there are young children. The dust-bin may be placed at side of the privy if required. The fioor of dust-bin to be at the ground- leve], slightly inclined outwards, and paved with brick.* (Figs. 69-72.) The chief provisions as to privies and closets are as follows : — It is not lavfful newly to erect any house, or to rebuild any house pulled down to or below the ground-floor, without a sufficient water- closet, earth-closet, or privy, and an ashpit, furnished with proper doors and coverings. Penalty for contravention, £20 or less.— {P. H. , s. 35.) If a house within the district of a local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor or inspector of nui- sances to be without a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy, and an ashpit, furnished with proper doors and coverings, the local authority shall, by written notice, require the owner or occupier of the house, within a reasonable time therein specified, to provide a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy, and an ashpit, furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as the case may require. If such notice is not complied with, the local authority may, at the expiration of the time specified in the notice, do the work re- quired, and may recover in a summary man- * The above forms can be obtained of Enight & Co., 90 Fleet Street, London. ner from the owner the expenses incurred by them in so doing, or may by order declare the same to be private improvement expenses: provided that where a water-closet, earth- closet, or privy has been and is used in com- mon by the inmates of two or more houses, or if in the opinion of the local authority a water-closet, earth-closet, or privy, may be so used, they need not require the same to be provided for each house. — (P. H., s. 36.) Any enactment in force within the district of any local authority requiring the construc- tion of a water-closet shall be deemed to be satisfied by the construction, with the ap- proval of the local authority, of an earth-closet. Any local authority may, as respects any house in which any earth-closet is in use with their approval, dispense with the supply of water required by any contract or enactment to be furnished to any water-closet in such house, on such terms as may be agreed on between such authority and the person pro- viding or required to provide such supply of water. Any local authority may themselves under- take or contract with any person to undertake a supply of dry earth or other deodorising substance to any house within their district for the purpose of any earth-closet. The term " earth-closet" is to include any place for the reception and deodorisation of faecal matter constructed to the satisfaction of the local authority — (P. H., a. 37.) See also Closets, Faotoeies, Ndisanoes, Public Neoessabies, Soatekgino. Prostitution— The prevention of this terrible evil has baffled the united efforts of the legislator, the philanthropist, and the hygienist. Prostitutes have existed from the most ancient times down to our own, and so long as human nature is the same as it is now will continue to exist. The only practical means of in any way controlling this vice within bounds is to render clandestine prosti- tution impossible, to register public,- and to give prostitutes every facility of reforming their manner of life, as well as by periodical inspection to be able to isolate and cure those who are affected by venereal disease, and thus prevent its propagation. It is difficult to know the number of prosti- tutes, except in those few places where the Contagious Diseases Acts are in force. In London, for example, only the more notorious and open prostitutes are known to the police ; and it is evident that clandestine prostitution, which is known to exist to a considerable amount, wiU always render official returns inaccurate. The following table, however, gives some idea of London prostitution : — PRO (467) PRO TABLE I.— Metkopolitait Police. Abstract Eetum of the Number of Beothbls and PEOSTiTtjTES in each DiTiaion.— (From Acton's work on "Prostitution.") Number of Bbothbls ano Places Number of Prostitutes i^^k Police DlSIEIOTS. Where Prosti- tutes are kept. ■OTiere Prosti- tutes lodge. Where Prosti- tutes resort. houses and oth s known to t e as Brothels s of accommod ot Prostitutes. Total. Well dressed living in Bro- thels. Well dressed, living in Private Lodgings. In "Low Neigh- bour- hoods. Total. A Coffee placf Polie plac tion ■Whitehall B ■Westminster... 141 2 18 161 167 310 477 St. James's 106 1 21 128 227 10 237 D Marylebone 7 3 15 - 25 128 162 290 E TTnl^inm 1 1 171 8 1 11 21 191 23 io 1 371 2 136 427 517 430 Covent Garden G Finsbury 86 35 13 134 29 235 264 H ■Whitechapel... 126 2 11 139 623 623 K L Stepney. 350 149 9 34 16 21 . 375 204 133 144 799 228 932 372 Lambeth M South war|£ 19 23 19 61 14 314 328 N Islington 127 15 142 247 186 433 P Camberwell.... 43 1 4 48 65 65 E Greenwich 125 6 12 143 144 415 559 S Hampstead 5 5 128 45 173 T Kensington 193 i 4 198 236 110 346 V Wandsworth... 12 12 33 85 118 w Clapham 27 1 28 23 53 76 X Paddington.... 23 1 6 30 61 50 111 y Highgate 51 5 16 72 68 96 164 Total 2 1756 132 229 2119 11 2155 4349 6515 An attempt was made as early as 1352 to regulate prostitution in London. " Adam Francis, mercer, and Lord Mayor of London, 1352, procured an Act of Parliament that no known whore should wear any hood or attire on her head except raised or striped cloth of divers colours " (Fuller's Pisgah Sight, p. 253 ; Stow quoted, p. 553); but the "Contagious Diseases Acts" ia the only earnest attempt ever made by our Legislature to control the evil (see Contasious Diseases Act), thus partially following the example set for some time on the Continent, where prostitution is recognised and regulated by the State. In France the prostitutes are divided into several distinct classes: (1) Prostitutes who are shut up in les maisons de tolirance, and under the direction of a woman to whom they are subject ; and (2) those who are free, and who give an account of their conduct to the administrative sanitary authorities. As to the girls of the second category, a special card ia given, having on it the sanitary visits to which they are subjected. These girls are called filles-en-carte, in opposition to the others, who are only classed by the number of the house in which they live, and who are called filles d, numero. The carte with' which the former are furnished we append. 185 ( Here are entered her name, age, general appearance, l residence, &u. 18 . First ■ FortulKht. Signatope of MedicLlomceT. Second Foitniglit. ' Signatnie of Medical Officer. Jan. Peb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Deo. On the reverse of this carte are printed the following — ■ Obligations and Restrictions i-mposed on Public Women. Public women, en carte, are called upon to present themselves at the dispensarj for examination, once at least every fifteen days. PRO (468) FRO They are called upon" to exhibit this card on every request of police oflBcers and agents. They are forbidden to practise the calling during daylight, or to walk in the thoroug"hfares until at least half an hour after the public lamps are lighted, or at any season of the year before seven o'clock, or after eleven p M. They must be simply and decently clad, so as not to attract attention by the richness, striking colours, or extravagant fashion of their dress. They must wear some kind of cap or bonnet, and not present themselves bareheaded. They are strictly forbidden to address men accom- panied by females or children, or to address loud or anxious solicitations to any person. They may not under any pretence whatever ex- hibit themselves at their windows, which must be kept constantly closed and provided with curtains. They are strictly forbidden to take up a station on the foot-pavement, to form, or walk together in groups, or to and fro in a narrow space, or to allow themselves to be attended or followed by men. The neighbourhood of churches and chapels, within a radius of twenty-&ve yards, the arcades, and ap- proaches of the Palais Royal, the Tuileries, the Luxemberg, and the Jardin des Plantes are inter- dicted. The Champs Elys^es, the Terrace of the Invalides, the exterior of the Boulevards, the quays, the bridges, and the more unfrequented and obscure localities, are alike forbidden. They are especially forbidden to frequent public establishments or private houses where clandestine prostitution might be facilitated ; or to attend tables . d'hote, reside in boarding-houses, or exercise the calling beyond the quarter of the town they reside in. They are likewise strictly prohibited from sharing lodgings with a kept woman or other girl, or to reside in furnished lodging^ at all without a permit. Public women must abstain when at home from anything which can give ground for complaints by . their neighbours or the passers-by. Those who may infringe the above regulations, resist the agents of authority, or give false names or addresses, will incur penalties proportioned to the gravity of the case. Les maisons de toUrance are licensed by the police. The women in charge of them are obliged to register within twenty.four hours every prostitute that presents herself there as a candidate for admission. Likewise when a prostitute quits such a house, the mistress of the house is obliged to make a declaration to the authorities within twenty -four hours after her departure. These regulations are rigorously enforced. The brothel-keepers have a book, divided into two parts ; the one des- tined for the registration of the prostitutes under her care, the other for the registration of occasional visitors who only go to the house at certain hours. Each page of the first division is divided into four columns; the first contains the name and age of the woman, the second the date of her entry into the house, the third indicates the day on which the sanitary visit is made, and the last is re- served to enter the day of her departure. Belgian Begulations. — The Belgian regula- tions greatly resemble those in force in France, but there are some peculiarities which we now proceed to notice. All prostitutes in thjs country are divided into (1) filles de maisons toleries, called mimh-oties ; and (2) filles ipojrses, corresponding to the French fiUe-en- carte. They are not allowed to promenade the streets after sunset. Women under twenty-one may not be inscribed; and the medical visitation au speculum takes place twice a week by the divisional surgeons, and by the superintending officer whenever he pleases. All the iparses and third-class filles de maisons are seen at the dispensary, and the first and second classes of the latter order at their domiciles. The Sparses may secure this privilege by payment of an extra franc per visit. The tariff of duties payable by houses and women is as follows ; — Eveiy Ist-class maison de passe, £1 per month. .. M „ „ 10s. » 3d „ ,1 4a. „ Every first-class maison de dibauche pays £2, 8s. to £3 monthly, according to the num- ber of its authorised occupants — from six to ten — and 2s. extra for each additional person. Every such second-class house pays 16s. to £1, 6s., for from three to seven women, and Is. extra for each additional female. Every such third-class house pays 6s. to 13a. for from two to seven women, and Is. extra for each additional inmate. livery lst-c]&ss fiUe iparse pays on each inspection4d. ,. 2d „ „ „ 3d. ., sa „ >, „ lid. Upon punctuality for four successive visits these payments are returned; for inexacti- tude they are doubled. All women who on examination are dis- covered to be diseased, or to present any sus- picious appearance, are sent to hospital, and medical men are strictly enjoined to treat diseased prostitutes at their own houses. The consequence of these regulations is that syphilis has almost disappeared from the Brussels hospitals. The following regulations, which are also in fores. May be of interest : — ■ " Every girl or woman who shall be pointed out as giving herself up clandestinely to a life of prostitution shall be summoned to the police office, to make her statement and produce any justification of her conduct she may wish. The acousp,tion and report, with her justifica- tion, shall be brought before the council, and her registration as a public prostitute will PRO (469) PRO take place, if approved of by the council. In this case the decision shall be announced to the girl within twenty-four hours, through the oflScer of police charged with this duty. " Every girl not registered who shall be de- tected furtively practising prostitution shall be immediately arrested and brought before the police officer, then to be interrogated. From thence she is to be sent to the dispen- sary to be examined by the surgeon. The next step is for the police to draw up a report on the circumstances giving rise to the arrest, which report comes before the council. ' ' Each room, according to the police instruc- tions, is to contain a bottle holding a solution of caustic soda, say 1 oz. of liquor sodse to 1 pint of distilled water ; also a bottle con- taining sweet oil : both bottles to be legibly labeUed." The following table, showing the number of prostitutes in Brussels in 1868, we take from Mr. Acton's work : — TABLE II. — Movement of Pbostitution in the City of Brussels from January 1 to December 1, 1868 (Acton). Registered Prostitutes present, '1st Becember 1868. ■Women sent to Hospital as Venereal since the iBt January, Approximative Number of Clandestine Prostitutes. Number of Beds given up for Treatment. Observations, In Houses. Iso- lated. ; Total. Regi- stered, Clande- stine. Residing in CaKs and Public- Houses reputed to harbour Prosti- tutes. Residing in Lodgings. Arrested as Prosti- tutes since the 1st of January, Regis- tered 3! Women, Clandes- tine Prosti- tutes. 83 18 23 192 275 18 23 149 3 1 226*. 2 100 40 40 150 170 43 37 Schaerbeek.f St Fosse-ten Eoode.t 124 192 316 153 228 180 150 170 43 37 Prussian Regulations. — In Berlin it has been found necessary to revive the maisoris de tolerance^ which were formerly suppressed. These are governed by very stringent regula- tions, similar to those in force in France and Belgium. In 1869,t there were in Berlin 13,538 females strongly suspected of prostitu- tion, and who were therefore under the cen- sorship, of the police. In 1868 the number of registered prostitutes subjected to regular sanitary control was 1639. Of these an ave- rage of 225 present themselves daily for medi- cal examination, and the reports prove that 2^ per cent, of these are found to be infected with syphilis. The subjoined police form shows the method of dealing with women who, though not actually enrolled in the police lists of prosti- * Makes 64 per cent, in eleven months. ■ t These are suburbs of Brussels. . X Population of Berlin, 1867, was 702,000. tutes, behave in such a manner as to subject themselves to grave suspicion ; — Bbrlik, ISth August 18Q8. This day appeared, known by nobody, from , age , residing at She was informed that she was strongly suspected of an immoral way of living. She was forbidden— 1. To entice m^e persons to her lodgings through words, winks, signs, or any other announcement (for instance, showing a lamp or light) either from the window or from the door, 2. To makeherself conspicuous, or to entice men through words, speech, or signs in public places, in the street, in squares, or in the theatre, or any other public buildings. 3. To enter the lodgings of people suspected of being procurers, or who have been already punished for this misdemeanour, 4. To go about in the neighbourhood of barracks, military buildings, the Pai-k of Invalids, and any other places much frequented.by soldiers. 5. To take lodgings in the neighbourhood of churches, schools, and royal buildings, as well as to enter ground-floor habitations. PRO (470) PRO 6. To go into the boxes of the first range in any theatre except the pit of the Koyal Theatre and the *' Erollsche Local.'* This ordinance will be enforced by a punishment of up to four weeks' police imprisonment, pronounced according to the Instructions of Oorernment, dated 23d October 1807, and the ordinance of the 26th December 1808. Public women in Berlin are medically ex- amined once a week. In Austria public women are not licensed, but the police have the power of entering their dwellings, accompanied by one of the police physicians, and if they are diseased, compelling them to go into hospital. Mr. "Wilde says, speaking of prostitution in Vienna, "the lowest calculation allows the number of public females in the papital to be 15,000." In Stockholm there are no regulations whatever, and according to Bayard Taylor, it is the most licentious city in Europe. At Copenhagen they have established regis- tration, but there are no regular licences. They have only attempted to take care promptly of those affected with syphilis, and there are no special houses. Infected women are to present themselves at the police o£Sce within fifteen days after contracting the disease. They are recompensed for this compliance by being cured secretly and without cost. If they do not attend when affected, the law is put vigorously in force. They have even gone farther than this, and have forced men, when aSected, to be taken care of in a hospital, unless they give some guarantee that they will keep to their own houses, and not propa- gate the disease. Spain, which was the first to legislate on prostitution, has abandoned it for two cen- turies, since Philip IV. suppressed all the rnaisons de toUranee, and imprisoned the prostitutes. Therefore at the present day the police do not interfere, unless the bad women in the public promenades become excessive or the hospitals contain too large a number of venereal cases. It is not a matter of astonishment in such a. state of things to see outrages on decency multiply ; and in a single year (1843), 843 were noticed, a figure which is far from representing the actual number. These indecencies were pun- ished in a very light manner, so that there is very little chance of seeing them diminish. In Holland, since 1856, the municipal au- thority has strictly enforced the regulations to which prostitutes are liable, and the police surveillance is very severe. The following rules from the Hamburg regulations are peculiar :— "Places other than authorised brothels, where meetings between men and women take place for purposes of cohabitation (so- called dbsteigequarUire), will not in future be tolerated if — " 1. The keepers, male or female, have not been duly registered. "2. At least one registered girl does not live there. "3. Any but registered girls are omitted, no keeper, either of this or another sort, to allow other girls or women to meet men at his house, under penalty of heavy punishment or withdrawal of concession (licence). It is ordered that the girls may claim (calculate) for one visit in an extra room, which visit does not last over half an hour — " 1st class, no more than $1 = 4s. 7d.; aind for every hour further, also |1 per hour. "2d class, one-half. " No consideration is hereby taken of any further claims in consequence of demands (requests) made to them by their visitors. " Girls are strictly forbidden to undress in the guest-room. "This tariff to be posted in all rooms, also where girls live, and is to be shown at the request of each guest. " A public girl who gives herself (abandons herself) in an,unnatural manner to men, will be punished with the heaviest (severest) punishments promulgated in these regula- tions." Dance music is forbidden in brothels, and cards are not allowed. The girls are medically examined twice a week, and are taxed at 8, 6, or 4 marks* each per month, according to the class of the keeper or girls. To girls who have to suckle children^ this tax may be remitted, according to circumstances. The prices to be charged for refreshments at brotheU in Hamburg are regulated by the police. The keeper of a licensed house must defray the cost of curing any person whose contamination by venereal disease in his house can be established. The population of Ham- burg in 1867 was 225,074 souls, including 1311 military ; and the number of registered prostitutes is 1076, of whom about 120 are usually In hospital. There is nothing else in the Hamburg regulations which calla for special remark. EegardingNaples, Acton says, "The stews or lordelU of the capital are fully recognised, if not licensed, by the police, and undergo inspection at intervals by underpaid Govern- ment of&cials, who derive additions to their income from the contributions of the class whom it is their supposed duty to supervise. There are also in Naples great numbers of quasi-clandestine prostitutes, chiefly Sicilians, who are supported through the activity of the » 12s, 3d., 9s. 2d., and 6s. Id. PRU (471) PUB ruffani, or pimps, who operate in the fre- quented quarters of the town, and pester Englishmen especially with their offers of service. The low prostitution of the town, ministering for the most part to the desires of the military and marine, is gathered to- gether in- the suburb outside the Porta Capuana." It has been impossible for us here to enter into any discussion as to the merits of the regulations we have briefly cited, and those who desire to pursue the subject we would refer to the writings of Acton, Pareut-Duch4- telet, Fait, Von Lippert, Duchesne, &c. See Contagious Diseases Aot, Venebeal Diseases. Prussian Blue— Employed as a colour- ing matter in tea, confectionery, &c. See Tea, Confeotionert, &o. Frussic Acid— See Aom, Pnussio. Psorospermia— Small, transparent, oval or kidney-shaped little bodies, found in the flesh of oxen, sheep, and pigs. They lie within the sarcolemma, and appear often not to irritate the musqle. No injurious effects have been produced on man by eating these bodies, but in sheep and pigs they produce decided illness. See Meat. Ftyalin — A peculiar organic principle found in the secretions of the submaxillary and sublingual glands. It is very prone to putrpfaction, and somewhat resembles sodio albuminate. It is characterised by its power of converting starch into dextrine and into sugar. Mialhe has termed this substance animal dias- tase, and according to him 1 part of ptyalin is capable of converting' 8000 pai'ts of insoluble starch into sugar. It .has been computed that 116 grains of ptyalin are on an average daily secreted by an adult. See Saliva. Public Institutions — Excluding bar- racks and her Maj esty 's ships, which can hardly be classed as "public institutions " in the ordi- nary acceptation of the term, the following is a comparison of the returns for 1871 with those of 1861 :— Nitmberof Institutions Total Dumber oF Occupants, includiuf; Offlcers, &c. 1861. 1871. 1861. 1871. Workhouses Hospitals Lunatic asylums.. Prisons Reformatory and industrial schools Other institutions 721 167 144 179 282 730 407 166 149 113 559 131,440 13,200 29,198 29,969 27,167 164,967 36,66>i 46,731 ' ■ 32,174 11,748 38,635 The following tables exhibit the number of persons who have died at public institutions in England (see Hospitals, &o.) : — Deaths registered in the principal Public Institdtions of England in the Tear 1871. Divisions AND Registration Counties. o If "(3 ii Workhouses. Hospitals. LONATIO ASVLDMS. 1| 11 Deaths. II Deaths. si IS a § M Deaths. 1 to a 1 1 i a 1^ a 3 & England 1135 46,536 707 28,753 16,622 12,131 346 13,706 8902 4804 82 4097 2314 1783 LONDON.— Deaths in Poblio Institutions in the 52 or 53 "Weeks of the 13 Years 1859-71. Total deaths in public) institutions . .J In workhouses . lu prisons . In military and naval 1 asylums . . . / 18S9. I860. 1661 1 1162. 186S. 1864. 1665. 1366. 1667. 1666. 1869. 1870. isn. 9638 9550 18,276 11,813 (S3 weoks) 11,112 12,731 12,116 13,064 12,002 (53 veeka) 12,326 12,298 12,300 14,665 6228 40 307 6161 41 272 5767 46 261 6401 63 307 6187 64 289 7055 125 315 6715 99 278 7088 95 195 6829 90 147 6789 76 176 7068 83 165 6833 78 86 6675 76 81 In general hospitals . In hospitals for spe- 1 2927 431 3039 413 3234 835 3167 690 8169 827 3668 982 3364 1O02 3813 1167 3291 929 3714 933 3480 849 3614 981 3796 3320 In lying-in hospitals- Women Children In military and naval 1 36 51 187 34 67 173 38 68 223 85 40 236 11 37 203 24 48 215 26 42 176 22 60 146 . 31 61 177 15 46 163 13 41 170 31 40 200 16 37 218 In hospitals and asy- \ lums for foreigners . J In lunatic asylums . 46 381 47 313 58 276 74 310 61 264 82 327 n 353 96. 382 100 367 79 336 93 336 102 335 99 347 PUB '( 472 ) PUS Public Necessariea— Any wrbam autho- rity may, if they think fit, provide and main- tain, in proper and convenient situations, urinals, vrater-closets, earth-olosets, privies, and ashpits, and other similar conveniences for public accommodation. Public Pleasure-Grounds— Anyi(7-5a7i authority may purchase or take on lease, lay out, plant,improve, and maintain, lands for the purpose of being used as public walks or pleasure-grounds, and may support or contri- bute to the support of public walks or pleasure- grounds provided by any person whomso- ever. They may also make bylaws for the regu- lation of any such public walk or pleasure- ground, and may by such bylaws provide for the removal from such public wdlk or pleasure- ground of any person infringing any such by- law by any officer of the urban authority or constable. — {P. H., o. 164.) Public -Works Zioans CommisBioners —See Loans. Puerperal Diseases— The disease entered in the Eegistrar-General's returns as puerperal fever, really includes almost any fatal disease at the time of childbirth ; for it is the custom of medical men to -return cases of ursemic poisoning, puerperal convulsions, inflammation of the womb, and peritoneum, &c. , as puerperal fever. Indeed it is a great question whether most cases of this fever are not really malig- nant forms of other zymotio diseases, such as smallpox, scarlet fever, typhoid, diphtheria. and others. All epidemics — whether of chol- era, typhus, and smallpox in our times, or of plague, sweating sickness, and other pes- tilences of the past — have been attended with deaths from childbirth and abortions ; and it will be found on reference to the Registrar's returns, that, generally speaking, years of most fatality from fevers of the zymotic class are always most fatal to lying-in women. The puerxieral state would appear to be peculiarly susceptible of contagion, and too often the system at once sinks under the annihilating influence of the poison. In such cases the patient exhibits no character by which the disease can be identified — there is neither eruption, nor-can-a-eharacteristic line of tem- perature be traced by the physician on the chart ; convulsions and insensibility are alone present, symptoms belonging to many diseases. The following are the proportions to 100,000 births of cases of puerperal fever during the ten years 1862-71 : 1862, 132 ; 1863, 159 ; 1864, 200 ; 1865, 178 ; 1866, 162 ; 1867, 139 ; 1868, 152; 1869, 152; 1870, 188; 1871, 183. The mean annual number of the actual deaths from puerperal fever from 1854-71 is 1145, but during the last ten years about 1200 have annually died from this cause. To these the deaths from childbirth should be added. This heading of course includes many causes of death, such as exhaustion, rupture of the uterus, hsemorrhage, inflammation, and also puerperal fever, for there' can be no doubt a few cases of the latter are returned as deaths from childbirth. The connection between zymotic diseases and deaths in the puerperal state wiU be seen in the following table : — 20 yeaj-B, 1860-69. 10 years, 1860-68. 10 years, 1860-69. 1860-54. 6 years, 1866-69. 6 years, 1860-64. 6 years, 1866-69. Zymotic diseases . Puerperal fever . Childbirth . 5086-2 54-9 112-8 5136-7 54-6 113-8 5035-6 55-2 111-9 5234-1 64 122-6 5039-5 55-2 105-0 4899-3 54-2 113-4 5171-8 56-2 110-4 ■Vyiiatever the infection of puerperal fever may be, there can be no doubt of its great malignancy. No medical man, midwife, nurse, or other person who has had aught to do with a woman ill of real puerperal fever, should approach, even for a moment, a lying-in woman until several weeks have elapsed since the infection, and their clothes and bodies have been, completely and thoroughly disinfected. If any one wilfully or thought- lessly neglects proper precautions, such a one, in the writer's opinion, is morally and legally guilty of a very great crime ; and it would be the duty of a health officer, in such a case, to advise his sanitary authority to prosecute the offender. Puerperal Fever — See Puebpebal Di- seases. Pulses — A group of farinaceous seeds, in eluding beans, peas, and lentils, characterised by containing a large proportion of nitrogenous matter. All the important constituents of this group have been treated of under their respective headings. Pumps— All existing pumps used for the graPuitous supply of water are vested in the local authority, by whom they are to be kept in order and plentifully supplied with pure and wholesome water. See Watek. Pustule, Malignant {Chorion) — "Dr. PITS (473) PUT ■William Budd first called the attention of English medical men to this disease, with •which physicians on the Continent had for some time been familiar. He showed that it had long been present in this country as an epizootic, and yearly had been fatal to our live stock. The various names by which the disease is known are the "joint murrain," the " black quarter," the " quarter evil," and the " blood." In France it is called " charbon," "quartier," and "sang;" and in Germany the " milzbrand." The disease is at first local. It begins in cattle, as in man, at the point where the con- tagion is first implanted vrith a vesicle, and if this vesicle is early destroyed the beast is saved ; but this is seldom done, for the vesicle escapes notice until too late. The disease is communicable to man in the following ways : — 1. By inoculation, as in the case of butchers, farmers, skinners, &c. 2. By means of the skin or hair of diseased beasts. Trousseau, for example, relates that in two factories for working up horse-hair imported from Buenos Ayres, in which only six or eight bands were employed, no less than twenty persons died of charbon in ten years. Dr. Budd, by this and many other oases, shows that the virus when dried may retain its powers for a considerable period of time. 3. Instances have occurred by which it would appear to have been caused by eating the flesh of the diseased animals, and also by using the milk or even butter of affected cows. 4. Insects which have been in contact with the bodies or carcases of diseased cattle may communicate the infection to man; and it would appear from published cases that this may be effected not alone by insects with piercing probosces, but by other flies implant- ing the poison on the akin by their soiled wings or feet— c.jr., there is an interesting case related by Dr. J. Kogers in the " Lancet "' of July 12, 1873, in which a lady died in seven days from charbon communicated to her by a large blue-bottle fly which settled on her chin. The symptoms of this disease in man are shortly as follows : There is generally a his- tory of infection either from the sting of an infected insect, the scratch of an infected knife, or otherwise. Some little irritation at the seat of inoculation is succeeded by a red spot ; this in from twelve to fifteen hours be- comes a vesicle, which, at first small, grows larger, then bursts. In about twenty-four hours from tbe commencement, a small, hard, circumscribed, lentil-shaped nucleus may be seen at the seat of the vesicle, in the centre of an Inflamed areola, on which form a num- ber of vesicles similar to the first one. At first isolated, then confluent, they contain lymph of a most virulent and contagious nature ; the part affected swells considerably, and rapidly becomes hard, black, and gangren- ous.* "The death of the tissue is so entire that the part creaks when cjit with a knife ; no pain attends the incisions. Crops of second- ary vesicles form round an erysipelatous-like areola, chains of lymphatics become inflamed, the breath fetid, and death follows amid all the indications of septic poisoning." — (BuDD.) There are, however, non-fatal cases, in which the dead parts are separated from the livmg by suppuration. . To prevent the propagation of the disease, every animal affected with it, which is not seen in the very earliest stage, should be destroyed, and at once buried in lime. The only way to cure the disease in man or animals is to recognise it when an insignificant pimple, and destroy it with caustic, such as potassa fusa, nitric acid, or chloride of anti- mony. There would appear to be a kind of carbun- cle analogous to malignant pustule (possibly identical with it) produced by eating the flesh of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia. The late Dr. Livingstone noticed that in South Africa eating such meat invariably pro- duced the disease, and the virus was neither destroyed by boiling nor by roasting. It is also certain that the mortality from the disease returned as carbuncle in the death returns has some connection with the lung disease of cattle. Pleuro-pneumonia was im- ported into this country from Holland in 1842, and in the five years preceding that time the mortality in England from carbuncle was scarcely 1 in 10,000 of the deaths. From 1842 to 1846 there is no record of the disease ; but in the five years from 1846 to 1851 the mor- tality rose to 2'6 per 10,000 of the deaths, and in the next five years it amounted to 6*2 per 10,000, and in the succeeding five years to 5"4. This point is certainly worthy of farther investigation. Putrefaction — This term comprehends certain chemical changes which spontaneously take place in dead animal matter, during which offensive gases are evolved. Organic bodies are for the most part made up of highly com- * On the 14th of April 1864, Dr. Eaimbert was called to a carter who had contracted charbon from cattle suffering from splenic fever. The pustule was removed and microscopically examined ; it was dis- covered to be a perfect felt of bacteria, and rabbits fed with it contracted splenic fever and communi- cated charbon to other animals.— (Revue d«s Deux Moudes, Noremberl5,'1864.) PUT (474) PUT plex combinations of the following elements : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, Bulpbnr, phoBpboraa, &o. Immediately life ceasea, a general metaraorpbosis and decomposition of these combinations take pUce, and they are successively reduced to definite and simple compounds. This process ih in principle identi- cal ■with fermentation ; in detail, however, it is slightly different. For the complete decom- position of an animal substance the presence of warmth, air, and moisture is requisite ; and this change can only be prevented by reduction of temperature, exclusion of atmospheric air, and the abstraction of moisture. Thus on the acrid, dry, sandy deserts of Egypt bodies of dead animals are reduced to a fine powder and buried ; and deep in the frozen snows of Siberia antedHuvian elephants have been discovered in an edible condition. Putrefaction is said to be rapid at 10° C. (50° F.) Tinder water, but in the air the same rapidity is not attained till 25° C. (77° F.) Animal matters much more readily putrefy than vegetable matters. The products of the decomposition of these , two substances are shown in the following statement taken from M. Crirardin's " Le;ona de Chimie," tome ii. : — Products of the Decomposition of Animal Matters. Carbonic acid. Carburetted hydrogen. Nitrogen in large quantity. Sulphuretted hydrogen. Phosphoretted hydrogen. Ammonia. Water. Acetic acid. Earthy residue considerable, containing carbon, salts of ammonia, &c. Products of the Decomposition of Vegetable Matters. Gai-bonic acid. Nitrogen, traces. Water. Acetic acid. Oily substances. Black residue, in which carbon predominates. This process does not begin to manifest it- self in the dead body until after the cessation of cadaveric rigidity, and generally about the third day. The abdomen and chest, face, neck, and legs, are the parts of the body which first show signs of decomposition having begun, the arms being attacked last. Putrefaction takes place with variable rapidity, and bodies have been found in an advanced state of de- composition in the short period of sixteen hours after death, while in other cases the process has been greatly protracted. Schroder (Liebig's Annal., oix. 35, and oxvii, 273) has shown that any organic liquid may be prevented from fermenting or putrefying if it be heated under pressure to about 266° F. (130° C), then transferred to a flask and boiled, the mouth of the flask being plugged whilst boiling with a pellet of cotton wool. In this way he preserved, during a hot sum- mer, various liquids, including freshly-boiled wort, blood, white of egg, whey, urine, broth, and milk ; but when afterwards the plug of cotton was withdrawn, the liquids began to undergo decomposition. He supposes that the spores of some organism must find access to the substance in order to set up the pro- cess of decomposition. By a temperature of 260° any such spores which the liquid itself might contain are effectually destroyed, and as the air is filtered thrbugh the cotton before it reaches the interior of the flasks, none of these organic germs can afterwards obtain access to the body under experiment. Putrid emanations have from the earliest times been believed to be capable of producing injurious effects on the human system. In the Bible we read of the great care taken to disinfect or clean vessels in which any putrid matter may have been, and in Rome measures were adopted for the efficient cleansing of the sewers and streets of that city. " The praetor took care that all sewers should be cleansed and repaired for the health of the citizens, because uncleansed or unrepaired sewers threaten a pestilential atmosphere, and are dangerous."— (Digesta Just., lib. 43, tit, 23.) It was also forbidden to throw refuse on the roads.— (lb., tit. 9.) Galen believed that dead bodies left on battle-fields, &c., occasioned pestilential fevers ; and St. Augustine relates that a quantity of drowned locusts which had been cast upon the shore by the sea, and which there putrefied, occasioned a cruel and disastrous plague. In more modem times Forestus was eyewitness to a plague caused by the accumulation of dead bodies ; and he also speaks of a malignant fever which ap- peared at Egmont in Northern Holland, and which arose from the putrefaction of the body of a large whale left on the bank. A similar case is recorded by Ambrose Par6, which occurred on the Tuscan shores, and a pestilential fever which ravaged Venice in the time of the former authority is ascribed by himtohavebeen produced by the putrefaction on that part of the Adriatic of a small species of fish; an observation repeated by Jean Wolf in his relation of the malignant epidemic fever which happened at Cork Island in 1731, where they slew annually more than 120,000 beasts for the use of the fleet. Rogers does not hesitate to class among the most active causes of infection the emanations from large slaughter-houses, and those arising from refuse matter left to putrefy in the streets; while the eminently practical observations of the sagacious Pringle clearly indicate at every step the pernicious effects which are produced by PUT (475) PUT the putrefaction of animal substances. The works of Ambrose' Pare offer facts not less conclusive on the danger of putrescent exhala- tions. "We read there that in Agenois there prevailed in 1562 a pestilential fever which ravaged a circle of ten leagues, and which was caused by putrid animal vapour arising from a pit in the Chateau de Pem, into which had been thrown, many months before, several dead bodies. .In excavating beneath the Paris church of St. Eustache, it was found necessary to place a number of the bodies in a sort of cellar which was situated under the church, and which for some time had not been opened. Some children attending the church were at- tacked by an illness, and the same symptoms presented themselves in many adults — viz., laboured respiration, the mind confused, pal- pitation of the heart, and in some cases con- vulsive movements of the arms and legs. The Abbe Hosier relates that in the year 1760 some persons living at Marseilles opened, in a place where in 1720 a large number of bodies had been buried, trenches for the purpose of planting trees. Scarcely had they taken out more than a few spadefuls of earth, when three of the workmen were immediately suf- focated, and could not be revived ! Both Hamazzeni and Haguenot relate cases in which persons descending into vaults, &c., have lost their lives. These fatal effects they ascribe to putrid emanations, but they were probably due to the presence of carbonic acid gas in the air. Many instances in which gravediggers have been attacked by serious symptoms after exhuming a body are on record, and t^ere can be no doubt that putrid emanations occasionally have caused death. Putrid vapours, although dissolved in water, are none the less hurtful ; and we know of more than one instance of the general sickness of a family being traced to the presence of the body of a rat or bird in a state of decomposi- tion in the cistern. In one case a man feU into a cesspool, and although he only remained in it for a few moments, death ensued in less than twenty-four hours. Indeed, there can be no reasonable doubt of the extreme danger of putrid substances, when confined in small places, such as dissecting-rooms, cess- pools, &c. When putrid matters are intro- duced into the circulatory system, fatal effects immediately follow. — (Gaspakd. ) The blood becomes very thin, due, according to Audral Gavarret, to diminution of fibrine and increase of free alkali. Biecke imagines that putrid vapours act by making a strong impression on the organs of sense ; but it is probable that they are absorbed, for it has often been noticed that for some days after attending a post-mortem examination, all the secretions I of the operator are charged with the charac- teristic odour. From the foregoing remarks it will be appa- rent that a medical ofScer of health would be justified in condemning as a nuisance putres- cent carcases exposed near the public highway. For instance, bodies of horses hung up near kennels as food for the dogs, &c. Many authorities have contended that putrid emanations are harmless, and in sup- port of this view Paxent-Duch&telet draws attention to the fact that the rate of mor- tality amongst knackers, nightmen, grave- diggers, sewer -men, &c., is not above the ave- rage. Thackrah states that sewer-men are not subject to any particular complaint, and are not short - lived. From an inquiry recently instituted, it would appear that the London sewer-men are not as a class unhealthy, and that those employed in Liverpool also enjoy good health. From Pareut-Duch^telet's observations we leam that there are some men so affected by the air of sewers that they can never work in them, but those who remain suffer at iirst only from a little ophthalmia and lumbago, which usually soon pass off. The air of sewers has, however, been found to greatly aggravate venereal diseases; and those who persist in working with the disease on them inevitably perish. Labourers employed in removing putrid fish to be used as manure suffer no inconvenience, and emanations from the ordinary stable-manure heaps act, Parent- Duch&telet is persuaded, as air-purifiers. Another fact cited to support the view that vapours arising from decaying animal matters, &c., are inoffensive, is that in 1844 4000 dead horses were left for twelve days exposed to excessive heat on the battle-field of Paris without any injurious effects following, either to the inhabitants of the surrounding district or to the rag-dealers, knackers, &c., who prowled about the ground ; and it is worthy of note that when the odour given off by the river Thames was highly offensive, the death- rate of London was remarkably low. Begarding the general effect of putrid emanations nothing very definite can be~ de- clared, all depending on the mode of putrefac- tion, nature of emanation, degree of concen- tration, and the amount of resistance the individual organism is capable of offering to their attacks. Evidence is certainly adverse to the belief that putrefying organic matter is capable of originating epidemics, and in the words of a recent writer we may say, " with- out attempting to examine this matter care- fully, the result here would seem to be, that whilst the decomposition of organised beings after death produces gases and vapours that PUT (476) aXTA are opposed to health, these gases or vapours are incapable of originating, although they may be capable of feeding, some of those dis- eases, such as cholera or plague,' ■which have been observed at all timee to come from a ■warmer climate. There must, ho^wever, be some first origin of these diseases, and ■we cannot prove that the first origin might not. take place in our climate, although it seems probable that it'requires a warmer sun and a richer vegetation than is to bfe found in the north. This, however, is sufficiently made out, that when these diseases do come amongst us, they take root ■with most effect in those places ■where decomposing animal matter is found. If we were to suppose a seed of disease planted iii a rich fertile soil of decomposing matter, we should give a pretty fair descrip- tion of the fostering effect. of impurity on disease. It would, in fact, appear as if the putrid matter itself took the disease and transferred it to the living." FutridJ Emanations — See Futbefao- TION. Putrid Malignant Fever (Huxham, 1739)— See Fevek, Typhus. Q. Quarantine — This name is derived from the period of forty days, which was the ancient quarantine. It probably, as Hecker remarks, had A medical origin, " for the fortieth day, according to the most ancient notions, has always been regarded as the last of ardent diseases, and the limit of separation between these and those which are chronic . It was the custom to subject lying - in women for forty days to a more exact superintendence. There was a good deal also said in medical works of forty days' epochs in the formation of the fcetns, not to mention that the alchy- mists expected more durable revolutions in forty days, which period they called the philosophical month. This period being gene- rally held to prevail in natural processes, it appeared reasonable to assume, and legally to establish it, as that required for the develop- ment of latent principles of contagion, since public regulations cannot dispense with de- cisions of this kind, even though they should not be wholly justified by the nature of the case. Great stress has also been laid on theological and legal grounds, which were certainly of greater weight in the fifteenth century than in modem times, such as the forty days' duration of the Flood ; the forty days' sojourn of Moses on Mount Sinai; our Saviour's fast for the same length of time in the wilderness ; lastly, what is called the Saxon term, which lasts for forty days," &o. — (Heokeh, The Black Death.) It would be tedious to enumerate the various regulations and restrictions, all more or less vexatious, which the Governments of Spain, Portugal, Greece, and Turkey still enforce in the matter of quarantine. It ia. felt both at home and abroad that some restrictions are absolutely necessary to prevent contagion being imported from one country to another, but the great difficulty is to obtain this protection so as scarcely to impede trade, and only really to interfere with individual liberty. The anxiety of the European Governments to obtain some really good regulations is evinced from the fact that since 1866 no less than four International Sani- tary Conferences have been held ; the last one ' was in 1873 at Vienna, at which a resolution was carried by a large majority, in favour of aljolishing quarantine regulations in Europe on rivers, but it was decided to continue the system by sea. In England we enforce a kind of quarantine only in cases of ships coming from infected ports ; in such a case a port sanitary authority has considerable power. The systematic inspection of vessels— allow- ing those among the crew and passengers who are well to go on shore, but enforcing the removal of the sick to a special hospital — is perhaps the only really practical measure that can be enforced in ordinary cases. If, however, there should be a serious outbreak among the crew or passengers, then removal of the whole to a proper place of detention while the ship is fumigated, disinfected, and unloaded, submitting the passengers to a strict isolation and surveillance for a number of days, based upon known periods of incuba- tion, would be, if carried out, good measures. Every case should be judged by a port sani- tary authority according to its merits. The foUo^wing are some of the regulations which may be put in force : — By an order in Council, July 29, 1871, it is lawful for a sanitary authority, having reason aui (477) avi to believe that any ship arriving in its district comes from a, place infected with cholera, to visit and examine the ship before it enters the port. Art. 3 provides that the Inaster of a cholera- infected ship, or one that has even been ex- posed to the infection of cholera, is to moor, anchor, or place her in such position as from time to time the sanitary authority shall direct. Art. 4 provides that no person shall land from any such ship until after the examina- tion. Art. 5 provides for the proper examination of all persons on board by a legally-qualiiied medical practitioner, and permits those not Buffering from cholera to land immediately. Another order in Council, August 3, 1874, empowers any customhouse officer, or other person having authority from the Commis- sioners or Board of Customs, at any time before the nuisance authority shall visit and examine the ship, to detain the ship. "No person shall, after such detention, land from the ship, and the officer shall forth- with give notice of the detention, and of the cause thereof, to the proper nuisance (local) authority; and the detention shall cease aa soon as the nuisance authority shall visit and examine the ship, or at the expiration of twelve hours after notice shall have been given to such nuisance authority." By another order in Council, August 5, 1871, a master of a vessel in which cholera has existed is not allowed to bring his vessel into port until he has destroyed the infected clothes and bedding. The Local Government Board have now very extensive powers with regard to regula- tions respecting vessels when any part of England is threatened with any infectious disease, and therefore they may, if they think fit, enforce quarantine where necessary. The main Act, however, regulating quarantine is the 6th of Geo. IV, u. 78, and vessels having on board any person affected with a danger- ous or infectious disorder are to be deemed within its provisions. — (P. H., Schedule V. Part III.) There is also power under the Public Hei\lth Act for the justices to miti- gate, if they think right, the penalties im- posed under 6 Geo. IV. u. 78. See Choleea, iNPECTions Diseases, &c. Quinine (CaoHjjN'aOa) — Found principally in the bark of Cinchona officinalis, and in . good Oalisaya bark, more especially in that from Bolivia. In this article the tests for the purity of quinine, and the effects produced upon the workmen employed in its manufacture, can alone be considered, its medicinal properties not falling within the scope of this work. The assay of cinchona barks for the purpose of ascertaining the percentage of quinine pre- sent may be thus conducted : "One hundred grains of the bark are reduced to powder, and thoroughly exhausted by maceration and percolation, with water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. To this solution subaee- tate of lead is added until all the colouring matter is removed, care being taken to keep the fluid acid. The precipitate is removed by filtration, and to the filtrate caustic potash, enough to redissolve the precipitate which is at first formed, is added, and the solution then well shaken with successive quantities of ether, until a drop of the ether evaporated to dryness yields no perceptible residue. The ethereal solutions are then evaporated to dry- ness, and the residue, which consists of nearly pure quinine, and should be readily soluble in diliite sulphuric acid, is weighed, and in this case should not be less than two grains." For pale and red barks chloroform should be sub- stituted for ether in the process. Sulphate of quinine is often found adul- terated with sulphates of cinchonine, quini- dine, and cinchonidine, salicine, sugar of milk, cane-sugar, mannite, starch, and stearic acid ; and with the following inorganic sub- stances ; sulphate of lime, chalk, magnesia, and boracic acid. These latter, except boracic acid, may be easily detected by their not dis- solving in alcohol, by heating the suspected salt on a piece of platinum foil, where it leaves an ash, the nature of which can be as- certained by the ordinary tests. Cinchonine, cinchonidine, and quinine can be separated by their different solubilities in water, alcohol, and ether. Salicine may be detected by the blood-red colour produced by sulphuric- acid ; the sugars, by the solution of the salt after the precipitation of the alkaloids by means of an alkali being sweet, and by Trommer's test ; starch, by its striking blue with iodine ; and boracic acid, if present, by its giving to its alcoholic solution the property of imparting a green tinge to flame. The British Pharmacopoeia gives the follow- ing quantitative test : 10 grains with 10 min- ims of diluted sulphuric acid and half a fluid ounce of water form a perfect solution, from which ammonia throws down a -perfect pre- cipitate. This redissolves on agitation of the whole with half a fluid oxince of pure ether, without the production of any crystalline matter floating on the lower of the two strata into which the agitated fluid separates on rest. Crystals, if present, consist of quinidine, which is very slightly soluble in ether. The upper stratum of fluid, if entirely removed by ain (478) KAB a pipette and evaporated, leaves a wliite residue, which when dried in the air without heat weighs 8 "5 grains. Solutions of qumine or its salts in acidulated water exhihit the following reactions : — Ammonia, potassa and the alkaline carbon- ates give white pulverulent precipitates, sol- uble in ammonia in excess. If recently-pre- pared chlorine be added to it, and then ammonia, an emerald-green colour is deve- loped. If a concentrated solution of ferro- cyahide of potassium be added after the chlorine instead of ammonia, a dark red colour is produced. If caustic potassa be used instead of ammonia, the solution acquires a sulphur-yellow colour. " The best test, however, for quinine is the formation of its iodosulphate, the so-called herapathite. For this purpose the quinine is dissolved in ten parts of proof -spirit acidulated with one-twentieth part of sulphuric acid, and to this solution an alcoholic solution of iodine is carefully added, and the liquid in the mean- while stirred with a glass rod. There appears either immediately or after some minutes a black precipitate of iodosulphate of quinine, which if redissolved in boiling proof-spirit forms in cooling the beautiful crystals of herapathite. A hundred parts of this hera- pathite, if dried on a water-bath, represent 56 '.^ parts of pure quinine." Quinine is distinguished from both cincho- nine and quinidine by its comparatively free solubility in ether ; the last of these being very sparingly soluble, and the other wholly insoluble in that menstruum. According to Chevallier, the workmen em- ployed in the manufacture of sulphate of quinine are subject to a skin disease, and no means for preventing 'this has yet been dis- covered. It appears to attack not only the workmen actually engaged in the preparation, but also those employed in or near the factory, and the sober are as liable to it as the intem- perate. M. Zimmer, a quinine manufacturer of Frankfort, has observed that the men em- ployed in the powdering of the cinchona bark are subject to a particular kind of fever, which he terms cinchona fever. Both statements, however, that men working at this industry are subject to a fever and to a skin disease, have been denied by several writers. Quinine destroys vibrionio life, and is a weak disinfectant. Quinoa {Chenopodmm Quinoa). — This plant belongs to the order Chenopodiacece, and although scarcely known in this country, it forms the principal food of the inhabitants of Chili and Peru, on the high tablelands of which countries it grows at an elevation of 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mr. Johnson has described two varieties, the sweet and bitter, both of which are very nutritious, approaching, as will be seen by the following analysis, oatmeal in chemical com- position. The starch grains are said to be the smallest known, and the meal can only be made into cakes. Analysis of Quinoa (Toelcker.) QTiinoa Seeds, dried at !12« F. . Quinoa, F Nitrogenous matter 22-86 19 Starch 66-80 60 Patty matter 5-H 6 Vegetable fibre . 9-63 ... Ash . 5-05 Water 16 Quorum — A quorum of an urban sanitary authority is 'one-third of the full number of members, but in no case is a larger quor-um than seven members required. No act of a rural sanitary authority is valid unless three members are present and agree. If three members are present, and they do not con- cur on any particular question, the question is not settled. — (OonsoL Order, 1847, article 38.) The quorum of a committee or joint board consists of such number of members as is pre- scribed by the authority appointing- such com- mittee or joint board, but if no number is prescribed it consists of three members. R. Rabbit — The Lepus cuniculua (Linn.) of the Cuvian order Sodmtia. The rabbit when young is a light and wholesome article of food ; it is easily digested, but its nutritive value is impaired by its containing a large quantity of water and too little fat. In March 1873, at the suggestion of the " Lancet," Mr. H. 0. BartJett undertook an analysis of the flesh of the rabbit. He purchased for 3s. 6d. three Ostend rabbits, weighing 1 lb. 7 oz. 139 grains, 1 lb. 9 oz. 349 grains, and 1 lb. 12 oz. 266 graina (avoirdupois) respectively. KAC (479) KAI Tlie ends of the tibiae and metatarsal bones were snipped off as containing no practi- cal amount of flesh, and the eyes being but seldom eaten were also extracted. " These por- tions of bone, fur, skin, and eyes are there- fore," says.Mr. Bartlett, "a complete loss, and weigh, as will be seen, more than three-quar- ters of an ounce per rabbit. The flesh was then carefully dissected from the bones and cartilages, and comprised muscular flesh, in- cluding a small quantity of adipose tissue, liver, and heart, the kidneys and surround- ing fat being removed previous to ship- ment." The following shows the result of the analysis (Lancet, March 29, 1873) :— Composition of Babbit's Flesh (Babtlbtt). Rabbit No. 1. G-i-ains. Babbit No. 2. Grains, Kabbit No; 3. Grains, Average. G-rains, Percent- age, Grains, Water .... Fibrine and syntonine Gelatine Fat Albumen Alcoholic extract, including salts Watery extract, „ Calcium phosphates . 5,982 1,143 302 240 276 106 102 16 6,623 A,247 335 272 305 119 108 19 7,315 1,393 350 345 340 135 125 25 6,640' 1,261 329 286 307 120 112 20 73-17 . 13-90 3-63 3-15 3-38 1-32 1-23 0-22 Edible portion . . ... Additional gelatine from stewing bones . Bones, &c., dissected out and stewed Shank-bones, fur, and eyes thrown away . 8,167 215 1,501 318 9,028 232 1,674 352 10,029 251 1,854 382 9,075 233 } 2,027 100-00 2 06 f 17-88 \ waste 10,201 11,286 12,516 11,335 The meat of rabbit resembles veal more than any other butcher's meat {see Veal), and the extracts are identical with the ordinary " Extractum carnis Liebig." English rabbits, especially those fed for the market, contain a larger quantity of fat than do the Ostend; but since bacon, &c., can usually be purchased at about the same price as rabbits, the paucity of fat is not a matter of much importance. Baokrent — " Eaokrent" meajis rent which is not less than two-thirds of the full net annual value of the property out of which the rent arises ; and the full net annual value is taken to be the rent at which the property might reasonably be expected to let from year to year, free from p,ll usual tenant's ra-tes and taxes, and tithe commutation rentcharge (if any), and deducting therefrom the probable average aimual cost of the repairs, insurance, and other expenses (if any) necessary to main- tain the same in a state to command such rent.— (P. H., s. 4.) Iladish {Baphanus sativus)—The radish is a native of China, but it has for many years been cultivated in this country. Eaten, as it generally is, raw, it is very indigestible, and should be avoided by the delicate. In com- position it resembles the carrot. Railway Stations, Railways-^ The hygienic and general arrangements of railway stations should earnestly engage the attention of all sanitary bodies. It must be remem- bered that it is here that the first importation of disease may take place; hence the necessity, when serious epidemics are expected — e.g., cholera — to obtain early information from the railway officials of any persons taken ill in the train. Many, nay, most of the waiting-rooms at the smaller stations — especially those for ladies — are nothing more nor less than centres for the propagation of typhoid fever. At one end there is a door directly leading to a water- closet, -vrithout the intervention of a lobby; and there is generally a most unpleasant efflu-via, owing to the trap being neither ven- tilated nor the pan disinfected. The water- closets attached to waiting-rooms should be a separate building, connected with the station by a covered way ; with either cross ventila- tion, or the roof of the covered way simply- supported by pillars. Every station should be visited at least once a quarter by the sanitary officials. Besides the deficiencies in the waiting-room closets, there are the urinals, which, through negligence of the company's servants, are fre- quently foul ; although it must be said that the male lavatories are, generally speaking, better placed than, and not so objectionable as, the others. KAI (480) KAI Railway stations are also fertile producers of colds and coughs. The rooms are frequently insufficiently warmed in the winter months ; and the system of ventilation being one of open doors and windows, cold draughts are unavoidable; and such draughts cause the more injury, since the very persons who have to wait the longest are those who have used the utmost personal exertion to catch a train, and just missing, sit down reeking with per- spiration. The companies are liberal in their ex- penditure in the larger stations, but it has been in most cases an expenditure without the requisite knowledge of sanitary construc- tion, the convenience of the officials and the general 'architecture having been thought of before health, which — so long as the public do not die on the platform — little concerns the railway companies. With regard to railways, accidents appear to increase ; and it is only by a sound and care- ful legislation — enforcing a useful, practical, and uniform system of signalling, pushing on of traffic, and management on every line through- out the United Kingdom— that the bulk of accidents will be prevented. In 1870 the deaths connected with railways were 861 ; in 1871, 1042. Whilst it is to be remembered that a part of this increase is due to the annual extension of railways, the fact is also not to be lost sight of, that at least 90 per cent, of the deaths are preventable by common care on the part of individuals, and better regulations on the part of companies. The details of these accidents were as follows : — isro. isn. Kun over on the line"" , 539 700 Fall from carriage or engine . 40 40 Collision 24 24 Carriage off rail, &c. ... 5 11 Explosion of boiler, &c. . . 1 1 Machinery of locomotive engine ... 1 Crushed 131 175 Fallof heavy substances on . SO 12 Pall of earth .... 2 ... Fall from railway bridge . . 1 ... Other deaths, manner not stated, or otherwise than the above causes 08 78 Bain — In the different manuals relating to public health, it appears to have been over- looked that an indirect but valuable knowledge of the sanitary condition of a place may be obtained by analysing the rain falling there. The cold rain falling from the distant cloud condenses the emanations from man and animals, the acid emitted from manufactories, and the various impurities from other sources, and washes them down to earth. An analysis of the ail is tedious, requires special practice and much time. It is, then, our opiiiion, that for health purposes, indirect methods of ascer- taining the purity of air are best ; it is indeed a question whether if an.analysis of the rain, combined with estimation of the carbonic acid of a place, is not superior in a hygienic point of vi^w to a correct determination of oxygen and nitrogen. Health officers who wish to follow out this can readily get the assistance of observers of the rainfall, a great number of whom are in every county in England and Wales ; their addresses can be obtained by con- sulting Symoris' "British Rainfall." The rain should be collected in a clean glass bottle, furnished with a large glass funnel. The quan- tity collected should at least be a gallon; something can, however, be done by taking great care with 1500 or 2000 cubic centimetres (1^ or 2 litres). The analysis of the rain-water is conducted on precisely the same principles as Watbr- Analtsis, which see. The main differences between rain and common water are, generally speaking, the very small residue, the high ammonia, the smajl amount of chlorides and sulphates, con- tained in the former. The most important of all these are the free and albuminoid ammonia and the sulphuric acid ; the amount of the latter Angus Smith calls "a measure of the sewage of the air." In his valuable work on Air and Rain many useful tables will be found, from which the following are extracted: — Table I. — Ammonia. ADunonia. Farts per Miliion. Rain obtained from — Valentia, Ireland Scotland, sea-coast country places (west) ,, inland ,, sea-coast, average . „ sea-coast (east) England, inland , „ sea-coast (west) German specimens London, 1869 Scotland, towns (Glasgow not in- cluded) ' St. Helens Buncorn England, towns Liverpool Manchester, 1869 „ 1869-70, „ 1870 Glasgow . ; average 0-180 484 0632 0-738 0-992 • I -070 1-900 1-910 3 460 3-820 4-660 4-630 6-160 6-3S0 6-360 6-469 6-678 9-100 Table II. — Averages. Albuminoid Ammonia. Albuminoid Ainnioula, Fazts per Millicm. Rain obtained from — Ireland, Valentia .... 0-034 Scotland, inland country places . 0*039 „ sea-coast country (west) 0*105 „ „ ■ „ average Oil's „ „ „ (east) 0*106 England, inland . . , , 0*109 German specimens . . . 122 HAI (481) BAI Table II. — Continued. Albuminoid Aramonia. Farts per Million. Rain obtained -firom — Liverpool 0*159 Buncorn 190 London 1869 . . • . . . ' 0-205 Scotland; towns (Gllasgow not included) 0*212 England 214 Manchester, 1869 and 1870, average 0'251 „ 1870 .... 0-285 Glasgow 0-300 England, sea-coast country place (west) 0-400 Table III. — Averages. Sulphurie Acid (Sulphates). . Sulphuric Acid / (Sulpliat«s]. Graina per Parts per Gallon. jUilliou. Eain obtained from — Scotland, inland country > places . . . . 01444 2-06 Ireland, Valentia . . 0-1911 2-73 Scotland, sea-coast coun- try places (west) . . 0-2529 3-61 England, inland country places 0-3865 5 52 Scotland, sea-coast country, average of east and west 0'3947 5-64 England, sea-coast (west) country . . . 0-4116 6-88 Scotland, sea- coast coun- try places (east) . . 0-5366 7-66 ■Waterloo, Liverpool . 8004 11-43 . German specimens . 1-1481 16-40 ■ Scotland, towns (Glasgow not included) . 1-1558 1650 London, 1869 . . . 1-4345 20 -49 Birkenhead, near Liverpool 1-6210 23-16 Buncorn .... 1-6587 28-62 Darmstadt, Germany . 2 0417 29-17 St Helens . . . 2-3232 83-19 ' England, towns . 2-8088 3427 Liverpool . . . 2-7714 39-59 Manchester, 1869 . . 2-9183 41-66 Newcastle-on-Tyne . . 3-1111 44-44 Manchester, average of 1869 and 1870 . 3-1378 44-82 Manchester, 1870 . 3-3693 47-99 Glasgow .... 4-9139 7019 Near an alkali-work . 5-1310 73-30 Table IV.— Averages. HydrooUerio Acid (Chlorides). Hydrochloric Acid (Chlorides). Grains per Parts per Gallou. Million. Eain obtained from — Darmstadt. . . . 0-0681 0-97 - London, specimen for 1869 0872 1-25 German specimens . 0919 1 -31 Birkenhead, Liverpool . 0-2217 8-17 Scotland, inland country places .... 0-2857 3-37 Near an alkali-work . t 02330 3-40 England, inland country places .... 0-2795 399 Manchester, 1870 . . 0-4055 6-79 average of 1869 and 1870 . . . 0-4086 683 Scotland, towns (Glasgow not included) . . ,0-4102 5 -86 Manchester, 1869 . 0-4118 5-88 Newcastle-on-Tyne . 0-5678 811 Bneland, towns . . . 0-6093 8-70 Glasgow . . . . 0-6282 897 St. Helens. . . . 0-6670 9-53 Liverpool .... 07110 10-16 Scotland, sea-coast country places (west) 0-8600 12-28 average of east and west , . ' 08819 12-69 Table IV. — Continued. Hrdrochlorio Acid (Chlorides Grains per Parts per Gallon. Million, Eain obtained from— Buncorn 1-8022 25-74 Waterloo, near Liver- pool 2-6650 36-60 Ireland, -Valentia 3-4067 " 48-67 England, sea - coast country place (west. only one) . 3-9308 6615 Early in 1874, through the kiudnesS of different rain observers, the author -was able to analyse most of the rainfall of North Devon. The result is here appended merely to show the value to health officers of this method of investigation.. Table V. %^li %Ai iW ^i ' m I'ii m Welcomb . . 00-1287 0-10 0-075 3-15 Meshaw . . . 00-0181 2-60 065 0-45 Rose Ash . . 11-4448 8-60 0-085 0-90 South Molton . 101520 0-60 0-040 1-56 Bideford . . 01-0870 0-15 7-000 2-30 Torrington . . 11-4488 2-00 0-070 0-60 Barnstaple . . 06 1804 0-15 12-080 0-65 Ilfi-aoombe . . 06-4655 0-15 0-080 3-22 ■Welcomb is on the sea-coast. The rain was collected from a very clean glass conservatory roof belonging to a residence situated at a considerable height. There are no houses near. It shows a very piire rain as to organic matter. The chlorides are high, from the proximity of the sea. Meshaw and Rose Ash are country places, the rest are towns; of these Bideford and Barnstaple show a very high figure for organic matter. The sulphuric acid in. none of them is very high. See Climate, Rainfall, Eain- Gauge, Water, Analysis of. Rainfall — Of aU atmospheric phenomena rain is the most uncertain, both as regards frequency and the amount which falls in a given time. In many parts of the world rain rarely or ever falls, whilst in others it rains almost every day. The " rainless" regions of the earth, as. they have been termed, are the coast of Peru, the great valley of the rivers Columbia and Colorado in North America, the Sahara in Africa, and the desert of Gobi in Asia. In ChUoe and Patagonia rain is con- stant. In calculating the rainfall by mean's of" the rain-gauge, it has been found that less rain is collected if the gauge be high above the ground than if it be level with it. Professor Phillips found the rainfall at York for twelve months, during the year 1833-34, to be 14 "96 inches 2 H BAI (482) KAI at 213 feet from the ground, 19'85 inches at 44 feet, and 2571 inches on the ground. An extensive series of observations has been conducted by Colonel Ward, with the view of ascertaining the quantity of raia collected at different. heights from the ground. The following is the relative rainfall at different times for the four years 1864-67 : on a level with the ground, 1'07 inch ; at a height of 2 inches, 1-05; 6 inches, I'Ol; 1 foot, 1; 2 feet, '99 ; 3 feet, -98 ; 5 feet, -96 ; 10 feet, -95; and 20 feet, '94. Observations at Castleton give at 1 foot, 1 inch ; at 5 feet, '96 ; and for 20 feet, '90. B. Chrimes's observations at Eotherham, during 1866-67, give the follow- ing amounts : at 1 foot, 1 inch ; 5 feet, "94 ; 10 feet; '91; 15 feet, '90; 20 feet, '89; and 25 feet, -88. Wherever the experiment has been tried the quantity of rain collected has always been greatest at the lowest levels. According to Sergeant Arnold of the Army Hospital Corps, this is merely the effect of wind ; and he says that when the upper rain-gauge is inclined at a certain angle with the wind, there is as much rain above as below. The following exhibits the average annual rainfall in different parts of the world : Burmah, Southera . Barbadoea Cherrapongee . Ceylon Ohina, with south-west monsoon Canada, Lower .... „ Upper. Gibraltar, mean of seventy years „ greatest amount „ lowest amount Ouiana, British India— Calcutta Madras . Bombay . Benpal Presidency — Binapore . Berhampore Benares G-hazeepore Azimghur . Agra . Delhi . Meerut Punjab Madras Presidenctf- Bellary Bangalore . Trichlnopoly Secunderabad Bombay Presideiwy- Belgaum . Poonah Neemuch . Eamptee . Jamaica, In the plains Malabar coast . Malta Montreal . Trinidad . Inches. 180-0 to 220 66 to 58 600-0 880 to 70 90-0 86-0 to 40 81-6 82-8 . 75-8 15-1 100-0 66-8 ; 60-0 727 , 31-1 49-3 87-4 • 41-4 1 400 27-9 25-1 18 66-6 21-7 25 80-6 34-6 61 -5 27-6 S4-1 41-8 60 to fO 130-0 to 160 32-0 86 to 44 60 to 70 The rainfall in different parts of England in the year 1873 will be seen from the following :— iQOhea. AUenheads 43-36 Barnstaple .... 37-94 (Jockermouth 86-10 CarliBle 2290 Guernsey 36-23 Gloucester 26-18 Hull -. 25-99 Helston 41-60 Llandudno 30-57 ' London, Camden Town . . 24-93 North Shields .... 26-17 Nottingham 26-81 Norwich 22 36 Oxford 20-97 Osborne 29-09 Royal Observatory . . . 22-33 Truro 89-85 Taunton 27 31 Worthing . . . . . 23 68 The average mean rainfall of England and Wales Mr. Symons estimates to be 32 inches. As every inch of rain falling on an acre of space supplies 22,622 gallons of water, "we arrive at the immense total of 27,019,632 millions of gallons of water, which on an average of years falls on the surface at the feet of the population, exclusive of the deposition of dew, which forms no very small nor unimportant item in the water economy of the country."— (Bailbt Dknton.) See Eain-Gauqe. . Bain-Qauge — This is an instrument for estimating in inches the rainfall in any particular part. If we say the rainfall is an inch, we mean that rain has fallen 1 inch in depth on any given area — say, a square inch of surface. It is quite possible to use for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of rain falling in a locality almost any kind of open vessel, and then to measure the rain thus collected in a common druggist*s ounce measure, an ounce being equal to 1'733 cubic inches. Such a method is of course not of great accuracy, and it is far preferable to use a regular gauge, the most simple form of which, known as Flem- ing's, is a metallic cylinder, from the bottom of which is a glass tube divided into inches and parts of an inch. This tube runs up ex- ternally at the side, and simple inspection of the gauge indicates the amount of rain falling. At the top of the cylinder is a funnel to pre- vent evaporation, and there is a stopcock at the bottom in order to empty it when f uU. The best forms of gauges are, however, those made of metal, and with which a glass measure divided into fractions of an inch are supplied. The rain collected is poured into the measure, and the amount read off and entered. Other varieties of gauges are furnished with floats, the height of the float marking the amount of liquid, and others are self -registering ; but whatever form of gauge is selected, it is of some importance that the diameter be neither BAI (483) BAI too small nor too large. Gauges 1 or 2 inches in diameter register too little, and on the other hand there is no practical advantage in u, diameter of 8 inches being exceeded. It may be safely said that auy diameter between 4 and 8 inches will give equally good results, cceteris pa/ribu8. The following are suggestions for securing uniformity of practice among rainfall ob- servers, drawn up by G. J. Symons, Esq., F.R.B.S. :— 1. Site. — A rain-gauge should not be set on a slope or terrace, but on a level piece of ground, at a dis- tance from Bhrubs, trees, walls, and buUdings— at the very least as many feet from their base as they are in height. Tall-growing flowers, vegetables, and bushes must be kept away from the gauges. If a thoroughly clear site cannot be obtained, shelter is most endurable from north-west, north, and east ; less so from south, south-east, and west, and not at all fronl ^uth-west or north-east. 2. Old Gauges. — Old-established gauges should not be moved, nor their registration discontinued, until at least two years after a new one has been in operation, otherwise the continuity of the register will be irreparably destroyed. Both the old and the new ones must be registered at the same time, and the results recorded for comparison, 3. Level. — The funnel of a rain-gauge must be set quite level, and so firmly fixed that it will remain bo in spite of any gale of wind or ordinary circum- stances. Its correctness in this respect should be tested from time to time. 4. Height — The funnel of gauges newly placed should be 1 foot above grass. Information respect- ing height above sea-level may be obtained ftom G. J. Symons, Esq., 64 Camden Square, N.W. London. 5. Bust. — If the funnel of a japanned gauge be- comes so oxidised as to retain the rain in its pores, or threatens to become rusty, it should have a coat of gas tar or japan black, or a ^esh funnel of zinc or copper should be provided. 6. Moat-Gauges. — If the measuring-rod is detached from the fioat, it should never be left in the gauge ; if it is attached to the float, it should be pegged or tied down, and only allowed to rise to its proper position at the time of reading. To allow for the weight of the float and rod, these gauges are gene- rally so constructed as to show only when a small amount of water is left in them. Care must always be taken to set the rod to the zero or 0. 7. Can and Bottle Gauges.— T!he measuring-glass should always be held npright. The reading is to be taken midway between the two apparent surfaces of the water. 8. Time of Beading. —"Nine a.m. daily ; if taken only monthly, then 9 a.m. on 1st. 9. Date of Entry. — The amount measured at 9 a, m. on any day is to be set against the previous one ; because the amount registered at9A.M. of, say, 17th, contains the fall during fifteen hours of the 16th and only nine hours of the 17th. (This rule has been approved by the meteorological societies of England and Scotland, cannot be altered, and is particularly commended to the notice of observers.) 10. Mode of Entry.— If less than one-tenth (10) has fallen, the cipher must always be prefixed ; thus, if the measure is full up to the seventh line, it must be entered as "07— that is, no inches, no tenths, and seven-hundredtbs. For the sake of clearness, it has been found necessary to lay down an invariable rule that there shall always be two figures to the right of the decimal point. If there be only one figure, as in the case of one-tenth of an inch (usually written -l), a cipher must be added, making it '10. Neglect of this rule causes much inconvenience. All columns should be cast twice— once up and once down— so as to avoid the same error being made twice. When there is no rain, a line should be drawn rather than ciphers inserted:. 11. Caution.-^he amount should always be writ- ten down before the water is thrown away. 12. Small Quantities. — The unit of measurement being -01, observers whose gauges are sufl&ciently delicate to show less than that, are, if the amount is under -005, to throw it away ; if it is "005 to -010 in- clusive, they are not to enter it as -Ql. 13. Absence.— Every observer should train some one as an assistant ; but where this is not possible, instructions should be given that the gauge should be emptied at 9 a.m. on the 1st of the month, and the water bottled, labelled, and tightly corked, to await the observer's return. 14. Heavy Bains.— 'When very heavy rains occur, it is desirable to measure immediately on their ter- mination ; and it will be found a safe plan, after measuring, to return the water to the gauge, so that the naorning registration will not be interfered with. Of course, if there is the slightest doubt as to the gauge holding all that falls, it must be emptied, the amount heing previously written down. 15. Snow. —In snow three methods may be adopted. It is well to try them all. (1.) Melt what is caught in the funnel by adding to the snow a previously- ascertained quantity of warm water, and then deduct- ing this quantity from the total measurement, enter the residue as rain. (2.) Select a place where the snow has not drifted, invert the funnel, and turning it round, lift and melt what is enclosed. (3.) Mea- sure with a rule the average depth of snow, and take one-twelfth as the equivalent of water. Some ob- servers use in snowy weather a cylinder of the same diameter as the rain-gauge, and of considerable depth. If the wind is at all rough, all the snow is blown out of a fiat-funnelled rain-gauge. 16. Overfiow. — It would seem needless to caution observers on this head, but as a recent foreign table contains six instances on one day in which gauges were allowed to run over, it is evidently necessary that British observers should be on the alert. It is not desirable to purchase any new gauge of which the capacity is less than 4 inches. 17. Second Gauges. — It is often desirable that observers should have two gauges, and that one of them should be capable of >. holding 8 inches of rain. One of the gauges should be registered daily, the other weekly or monthly, as preferred, but always on the 1st of each month. By this means a thorough check is kept on. accidental errors in the entries, which is not the case if loth are read daily. 18. Dew and Fog. — Small amounts of water are at times deposited in rain-gauges by fog and dew. They should be added to the amount of rainfall, be- cause (1) they " tend to water the earth and nourish the streams;" and not for that reason only, but (2) RAI (484) RAT because in many cases the rain-gauges can only be visited monthly, and it would then obviously be im- possible to separate the yield of 9now, rain, &c., therefore, ,for the sake of unifoi'mity, all must be taken together! 19. Doubtful Entries. — Whenever there is the least doubt respecting the accuracy of any observa- tion, the entry should be marked with a (?), and the reason stated for its being placed there. Raisins — Dried grapes. Eaisins are anti- septic, cooling, nutritious, and slightly laxa- tive — the latter to a greater extent than the firesh fruit. See Grapes, &o. Raspberry— The fruit of Suhus Idceus, a small shrub of the natural order Rosacea. It is a native of Great Britain and of most parts of the world, but it has only been cultivated in gardens during the last one or two cen- turies. The fruit is cooling, antiscorbutic, agreeable, and mildly aperitive. On the Continent it is largely eaten at dessert. The following statement exhibits the com- position of raspberries : — . Composition of Raspberries (Feesenitts). Cultivated. Wild Ked. Bed. While. Soluble Matter— Sugar . . . 3-697 4708 3-703 Pree acid (reduced to equivalent in malic aoid) ' . 1980 1-356 I'llS Albuminous sub- stances . . 0-546 0-544 0'665 Fectous substances, Ac. . . 1-107 1-746 1-397 Ash . . . 0-270 0-481 0-380 Insoluble Matter — ilinU'c. : il^-^^" *■"« *-«2o Pectose. . . 0-180 0-602 0-040 [Ashfrominsoluble matter included in weights given] (O-134'l [0-296] [0-081] Water . . . 83-860 86-567 88180 100000 100000 100000 Rat — The rat usually seen in this country is the Mus Decumanus (Linn. ), a prolific and destructive species of Bodentia. It is a native of Asia ; but since its introduction into this country, it has spread all over the islands, and the old British species of this animal {Mus Battus, Linn.) is now but rarely met •with. Certain species of the rat and its cotigeners have been from very ancient times used as food. The Romans used to eat grey mice seasoned with chestnuts ; and Buflon relates that the natives of Martinique eat small rodents, especially the musk rat. According to W. Boer, the sweet rat, which without doubt owes its flavour to tuberculosis, is excellent fricasseed. The climbing rat is one of the principal foods of Cuba and Jamaica, and the Brazilian rat is consumed in Aus- tralia. The Chinese have a great liking for rats. They place large-mouthed bottles in the holes and rat-runs, in which the animals make their home and breed. In this way the Chinese obtain the young ones, which are esteemed a great delicacy. They possess a dish made up of bats, the edible snail, rats, old dried fish, and rotten eggs. Nor is the eating of rats confined tc^ the less civilised nations enumerated. They were freely consumed at the siege of Paris, and there exists at this day in Belgium a " rato- phagic " society. Bata may cause great mischief about a house. They will gnaw through lead pipes, and burrow into the sides of ill-constructed drains, and thus may cause escapes of sewer gas or sewage, either into the house or into the well or cistern, and contaminate the water-supply. The sewer rat is also in the habit of cleansing himself,, whenever soiled, by swimming in water, which may thus be fouled irrespective of rat-runs. The best method to stop up a rat-hole appears to be a mixture of broken glass and tair, as the rat never soils his body -with any- thing water will not remove. Bats should never be poisoned, since be- sides the danger arising from having poisonous substances scattered over the house, the poisoned rats often die beneath the floor, or between walls, &o., and their putrefying bodies have frequently produced the most serious effects. Cases are on record of rats, overcome by poison, falling into the water- butt, and there remaining, contaminating the fluid long before their presence was suspected. When rats are found in a house, the best and simplest plan is to take up the floors, get a dog which, is a good ratter to kill all that can be found, and stop up the rat-runs in the manner just described. Old brick drains, both in and outside the house, should be opened up, disinfected, and filled with con- crete, since they only harbour rats and other vermin. It will be found in the end that this course vrill be the cheapest and most efficacious, and it should be remembered that the earlier these measures are taken' the less expensive will be the work, and the more certain the results. Rates — The general powers of urban au- thorities with regard to rates are as follows: — Every urban authority, before proceeding to make a general district rate or private im- provement rate under the Public Health Act, must have an estimate prepared of the money required for the purposes in respect of which the rate is to be made, showing— RAT (48s) RAT 1. The several sums required for each of such purposes ; and 2. The rateable value of the property assessable ; and 3. The amount of rate which for those pur- poses it is necessary to make on each pound of such valtie ; and the estimate so made shall forthwith, after being approved of by the urban autho- rity, be entered in the rate-book, and be kept at their office, open to public inspection during office hours thereat ; but it shall not be deemed part of the rate, nor in any respect affect the validity of the same.— (P. H., s. 218.) Any person interested in or assessed to any rate may inspect the same, and any estimate made previously thereto, and may take copies of or extracts therefrom without fee or re- ward ; the custodian refusing or not permit- ting such inspection, &c. , is liable to a penalty of five pounds or less.— (P. H., s. 219.) Where the name of any owner or occupier liable to be rated under the Public Health Act is not known to the urban authority it is suffi- cient to assess and designate him in the rate as "the owner" or " the occupier " of the premises in respect of which the assessment is made, without further description.— (P. H., s. 220.)] An urban authority may from time to time amend any rate made in pursuance of the said Act, by inserting therein the name of any person claiming and entitled to have his name inserted, or by inserting the name of any person who ought to have been assessed, or by strilcing out the name of any person who ought not to have been assessed, or by raising or reducing the sum at which any person has been assessed, if it appears to the authority that he has been underrated or overrated, or by making any other alteration which will make the rate conformable to the provisions of the Act ; and no such amendment shall be held to avoid the rate. Provided, that any person who may feel himself aggrieved by any such amendment shall have the same right of appeal therefrom as he would have had if the matter of amend- ment had appeared on the rate originally made, and with respect to him an amended rate shall be considered to have been made at the time when he first received notice of the amendment ; and an amended rate shall not be payable by any person the amount of whose rate is increased by the amendment, or whose name is thereby newly inserted, until seven days after such notice has been given to him. —(P. H., s. 221.) All rates made or collected under the Public Health Act are to be published in the same manner as poor-rates, and shall commence and be payable at such time or times, and shall be made in such manner and form, and be collected by such persons, and either to- gether or separately, or with any other rate or tax, as the urban authority may from time to time appoint : provided that no publication shall be required of any private improvement rate.— (P. H., s. 222.) The production -of the books purporting to contain any rate or assessment made under the Act is, without other evidence whatever, to be received as primd facie evidence of the making and validity of the rates mentioned therein.— (P. H., s. 223.) An urban authority may reduce or remit the payment of any rate on account of the poverty of any person liable to the payment. — (P. H., s. 225.) They may also make any deduction they think just from the rate in cases where pre- mises were sufficiently drained before the laying down of a new sewer by them. — (P. H., s. 224.) None of the rating powers of the Public Health Act aSect any contract between land- lord and tenant.— (P. H., s. 226.) , Limits imposed by local Acts do not affect or apply to rates under the Public Health Act.— (P. H., s. 227.) ' Nothing in the Public Health Act inter- feres or alters any liability under any local Act under which the Commissioners of Oxford and Cambridge act with respect to the con- tribution of the universities to paving, light- ing, cleansing, and expenses. Any differences on this matter between the universities and the urban authority are to be settled by arbi- tration. All rates, contributions, and sums of money which may become payable under the Public Health Act by the said universities respec- tively, and their respective halls and colleges, may be recovered from them in the same manner in all respects as rates, &c., may now be recovered from them by virtue of any such local Act.— (P. H., s. 228.) Nothing in the Public Health Act is to affect the making or levying of any special district rates, or the discharge of sums bor- rowed on the credit of the same, or any remedy for their recovery under any provision of the Local Government Acts in force at the time of the iiassing of the Public Health Act. If any person assessed for any rate made under the Public Health Act by any urban authority fails to pay the same when due and for the space of fourteen days after the same- has been lawfully demanded in writing, or if any person quits or is about to quit any pre- mises without payment of any such rate then due from him in respect of such premises, and refuses to pay the same after lawful de- mand thereof in writing, any justice may RAT : ( 486 ) RAT Bummon the defaulter to appear before a court of summary jurisdiction to show cause why the rate in arrear should not be paid ; and if the defaulter fails to appear, or if no sufficient cause for nonpayment is shown, the court may make an order for payment of the same, and, in default of compliance with such order, may by warrant cause the same to be levied by distress of the goods and chattels of the defaulter. The costs of the levy of arrears of any rate may be included in the warrant for such levy, -(P. H., B. 256.) Bates may be appealed against.— (P. H., >i. 269.) See Appeals. Bate, General District. — For the purpose of defraying any expenses chargeable on the dis- trict fund which that fund is insufficient to meet, the urban authority shall from time to time, as occasion may require, make by writ- ing under their common seal, and levy in addition to any other rate leviable by them under the Public Health Act, a rate or rates to be called "general district rates." Any such rate may be made and levied either prospectively in order to raise money for the payment of future charges and ex- penses, or retrospectively in order to raise money for the payment of charges and expenses incurred at any time within six mouths before the making of the rate: in culculating.the period of six months during which the rate may ba made retrospectively, the time during which any appeal or other proceeding relating to such rate is pending shall be excluded. Public notice of intention to make any such rate, and of the time when it is intended to make the same, and of the place where a statement of the proposed rate is deposited for inspection, shall be given by the urban authority in the week immediately before the day on which the rate is intended to be made, and at least seven ('ays previously thereto ; but in case of proceedings to levy or recover any rate it shall not be necessary to prove that such notice was given. — (P. H., s. 210.) "With respect to the assessment and levying of general district rates the following provi- sions are to have effect, viz. — 1. General district rates shall be made and levied on the occupier of all kinds of property for the time being by law assessable to any rate for the relief of the poor, and shall be assessed on the full net annual value of such property, ascertained by the valuation list for the time being in force, or, if there is none, by the rate for the relief of the poor made next before the making of the assessment under the Public Health Act, subject to the following exceptions, regulations, &o., viz. — a. The owner, instead of the occupier, may at the option of the urban authority be rated in cases — Where the rateable value of any premises liable to assessment under the Act does not exceed the sum of ten pounds; or Where any premises so liable are let to weekly or monthly tenants ; or Where any premises so liable are let in separate apartments, or where the rents become payable or are collected at any shorter period than quarterly ; provided, that in cases where the owner is rated instead of the occupier he shall be assessed on such reduced estimate as the urban authority deem reasonable of the net annual value, not being less than two- thirds nor more than four-fifths of the net annual value. And where such reduced estimate is in re- spect of tenements whether occupied or unoccupied, then such assessment may be made on one-half of the amount at which «uch tenements would be liable to be rated if the same were occupied and the rate were levied on the occupiers. 6. The owner of any tithes, or of any tithe commutation rentcharge, or the occupier of any land used as arable, meadow, or pasture ground only, or as woodlands, market-gardens, or nursery-grounds, and the occupier of any land covered with water, or used only as a canal or towing-path for the same, or as a rail- way constructed under the powers of any Act of Parliament for public conveyance, shall be assessed in respect of the same in the propor- tion of one-fourth part only of such net annual value thereof. c. If within any urban district or part of such district any kind of property is ex- empted from rating by any local Act in respect of all or any of the purposes for which general district rates may be made under the Act, the same kind of property shall, in respect of the same purposes, and to the same extent within the parts to which the exemption applies (but not further or otherwise), be exempt from assessment to any general district rates unless the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise direct. 2. If at the time of making any general dis- trict rate any premises in respect, of which the rate may be made are unoccupied, such premises are to be included in the rate, but the rate is not to be charged while they con- tinue to be unoccupied ; and if any such premises are afterwards occupied during any part of the period for which the rate was made, and before the same-has been fully paid the name of the incoming tenant shall be inserted in the rate, and thereupon so much of the rate as at the commencement of his tenancy may RAT (487) RAT be in proportion to the remainder of the said period shall be collected, recovered, and paid ID the same manner in all respects as if the premises, had been occupied at the time when the rate was made. 3. Jf any owner or occupier assessed or liable to any such rate ceases to be owner or occupier of the premises in respect whereof he is so assessed or liable, before the end of the period for which the rate was made, and before the same is fully paid off, he shall be liable to pay only such part of the rate as may be in proportion to the time during which he continues to be such owner or occupier ; and in every such case if any person afterwards become owner or odcupier of the premises during part of the said period, he shall pay such part of the rate as may be in proportion to the time during which he continues to be such owner or occupier, and the same shall be recovered from him in the same manner as if he had been originally assessed or liable. 4. The urban authority may divide their district, or any street therein, into parts, for all or any of the purposes of the Public Health Act, and from time to time abolish or alter any such divisions, and may make a separate assessment on any such part for all or any of the purposes for which the same is formed; and every such part, as far a? relates to the purposes in respect of which such separate assessment is made, shall be exempt from any other assessment under the Act : provided that if any expenses are incurred or to be in- curred in respect of two or more parts in common, the same shall be apportioned be- tween them in a fair and equitable manner. —(P. H., s. 211.) For the purpose of assessing general district rates any person appointed by the urban authority may inspect, take copies of, or make extracts from, any valuation list or rate for the relief of the poor within the district, or any book relating to the same. Any custodian of such book or rate refusing to 'admit inspection is liable to a penalty of £5 or less.-(P. H., s. 212.) Bate, Highway— See Highways. Rate, Private Improvement. — Whenever" an urban authority have incurred or become liable to any expenses which by the Public Health Act are or by such authority may be declared to be private improvement expenses, such authority may, if they think fit, make and levy on the occupier of the premises in respect of which the expenses have been incurred, in addition to all other rates, a rate or rates to be called private improvement rates, of such amount as will be sufficient to discharge such expenses, together with interest thereon at a rate not exceeding five pounds per centum per annum, in such period not exceeding thirty years as the urban authority may in each case determine. Provided that whenever any premises in respect of which any private improvement rate is made become unoccupied before the expiration of the period for which the rate was made, or before the same is fully paid off, such rate shall become a charge on and be paid by the owner for the time being of the premises so long as the same continue to be unoccupied. — (P. H., s. 213.) Where the occupier by whom any private improvement rate is paid holds the premises in respect of which the rate is made at a rent not less than the rackrent, he shall be entitled to deduct three-fourths of the amount paid by him on account of such rate from the rent payable by him to his landlord; and if he hold at a rent less than the rackrent, he shall be en- titled to deduct from the rent so payable by him such proportion of three-fourths of the rate as his rent bears to the rackrent ; and if the landlord from whose rent any deduction is so made is himself liable to the payment of rent for the premises in respect of which the deduction is made, and holds the same for a term of which less than twenty years is un- expired (but not otherwise), he may deduct from the rent so payable by him such propor- tion of the sum deducted from the rent pay- able to him as the rent payable by him bears to the rent payable to him, and so in succes- sion with respect to every landlord (holding for a term of which less than twenty years is unexpired) of the same premises, both receiving and liable to pay rent in respect thereof. Provided that nothing in this section shall be construed to entitle any person to deduct from the rent payable by him more than the whole sum deducted from the rent payable to him.— (P. H., B. 214.) At any time before the expiration of the period for which any private improvement rate is made, the owner or occupier of the premises assessed thereto may redeem the same, by paying to the urban authority the expenses in respect of which the rate was made, or such part thereof as may not have been defrayed by sums already levied in re- spect of the same. Provided that money paid in redemption of any private improvement rate shall not be applied by the urban authority otherwise than in defraying expenses incurred by them in works of private improvement, or in dis- charging the principal of any moneys bor- rowed by them to meet those expenses, whether by means of a sinking fund or other- wise.— (P. H., ». 215.) BAT (488) KEN Rations {ratio, a proportion)— The daily allowaucea of necessaries, especially food, to a soldier or sailor. The following table exhibits the provisional amount of different articles of, food furnished by different Governments to the soldier in the field. See also DIEIABIES, &c. : United States Army. Austrian Army. British Army in Crimea. British Army in India. French Army. Prussian Army. Eussian Army in Crimea. Flour . 18 oi. or 2oz. 80Z. Commeal 20 oz. or ... "... White bread . 18 oz. or 26 oz. 24 oz. or 16 oz. or 28 -5 oz. or 28 oz. or Dark bread . 16 oz. 16 oz. 16 oz. 18-5 oz. 15 oz. Eye bread 16 oz. Fresh beef . 20 oz. or 54 oz. 5Jqz. or 16 oz. or 16 oz. or 7 oz.' 80Z. 16 oz. or Salt beef 20 oz. or 16 oz. or 16 oz. or {'ol'}. 54 oz. or 16 oz. or Bait pork or bacon 12 oz. 5ioz. 16 oz. 16 oz. 4 oz. 16 oz. Potatoes 16 oz. ... 48 oz. or Eioe 1'6 oz. 2 oz. or 4 oz.'* 3 o'z.'* 3 oz. or Barley . 4 oz. 2oz. 4 oz. or Peas 2 '4 oz. or 4 oz. 8 oz. or Beans . 2-4 oz. 4 oz. ... 8 oz. or Oatmeal 16 oz. 4 oz. Oats, unhtisked . ... Desiccated vegetables ... 2 oz. 2oz.' Cabbage or sourorout 1 oz. ... loi'oz. 3-5 gils Coffee, green . 1*6 oz. or 1 oz. Coffee, roasted 1''28 oz. or ... 25oz. 1-43 oz. or i oz. Dried fruits . ... 4 oz. Butter . 14 oz.t Tea 2ioz. 0-5'^ 43 oz. 1-5 ^'U Brandy i oz. ... Eum "Wine 80Z. 16 'oz.t Beer 16 oz. 32 oz.t 33 oz.' Tobacco 1 oz. lioz.t Sugar -. 2'i oz. 2oz. 1 oz. Vinegar . 0-32 gill 1-75 "iiU Lime-juice 1 oz. ... ... y quantity unknown Mustard 3-86 gr. Horse-radish . ... 3-86 gr. Pepper . 0^4 oz. 0-31 oz. Salt . 0-6 oz. ioz. 0-62 oz. 1 oz. 4 oz. 1 oz. 0-75 oz. Candles . . . | 16 oz. to 100 rations Soap . . A 64 oz. to 100 rations .... ■Wood . 48 oz. Becruit— /Sice HtmiInb, Militabt. Bed-Iiead^&e Lead. B«fuae, Disposal of— See Soatehqing. Relapsing Fever— See Fevee, Eelaps- INO. Rennet, or Runnet (prepared calf's maw) — This consists of the fourth or "true-digest- ing stomach of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and useless membrane ; washed ; treated with either brine or dry salt for a few hours, and then hung up to dry. When well prepared, the dried "veils" somewhat re- semble parchment in appearance. Eennet is * Or other vegetables, t In exceptional cases. employed to curdle milk, the gastric juice contained in it bringing about this change. The stomachs of aU sucking quadrupeds pos- sess the same properties. Rentcharge — The provisions with regard to rentcharges under the Public Health Act are as follows : — • Where any person has advanced money for any expenses which by the Public Health Act are, or by the local authority may be declared to be private improvement expenses, the local authority, on being satisfied by the report of their surveyor or otherwise that the money, advanced by such person has been duly ex- pended, may issue a grant in the following form (Form K) to such person of a yearly REN (489) KES rentcharge issuable out of the premises, in respect whereof such advance has been made, or out of such part thereof, to be specified in such grant, as the local authority may think proper and sufficient : — • Form E. Form of Rentcharge. By virtue of the Public Health Act, 1875, the local authority under that Act for the district of do hereby declare and absolutely order that the in- heritance of the [dwelling-house^ shop, lands, and premises, as the case may be}, situated in street,, in the parish of , within the said dis- trict, and now in the occupation of , shall be absolutely charged with the sum of pounds, ' paid by of for the improvement by drainage and water-supply {as the case maT/ 6e], of the same dwelling-house, shop, lands, and premises [as tJie case may 6e], together with interest for the same from the date hereof at pounds per centum per annum, until full payment thereof; and also all costs incurred by the said , his executors, administrators, or assigns, under this security, shall be fully paid and satisfied : And we hereby further declare that the said principal and interest moneys shall be paid and payable by the owner or occupier of the said premises to the said , his executors, administrators, and assigns, in manner following; (that is to say,) the interest on such principal sum of pounds, or on so much thereof as shall from time to time remain due and p'ayable under this order, shall be paid and pay- able by equal half-yearly payments whilst payable on the day of and the day of in every year, the first payment thereof to be made on the day of next, and such principal sum of pounds shall be paid and payable by equal annual instalments on the day of in each of the next succeed- ing years, towards the discharge of the same principal sum, until the whole shall be fully satisfied and discharged. Such rentcharge shall be pei'sonal estate, and shall begin to accrue from the day of completion of the "works on which the money advanced has been expended, and shall be pay- able by. equal half-yearly payments during a term not exceeding thirty years, in such man- ner that the whole of the sum advanced, with the costs of preparing the said grant, together with interest thereon respectively, at a rate not exceeding six pounds per centum per annum on the sum from time to time remain- ing unpaid, shall be repaid at the end of the said term. The provisions of the Public Health Act with respect to deduction from the rent of a pro- portion of private improvement rates, and with respect to redemption of private improve- ment rates, apply, mutatis mutandis^ to rent- charges granted under this section. — (P. H., a. 240.) See Rates. Rentcharges and transfers issued in pursu- ance of the Public Health Act are to be registered in the same manner respectively as mortgages and transfers are required to be registered under the provisions of the Act. — (P. H., d. 24L) See Mortgage, Rates. Reservoirs — A reservoir is a place for storing water, by retaining the excess of rain- fall in times of flood and letting it off by degrees in times of drought. The simplest and most common form is a natural cavity bounded on each side by an embankment. It is situated on the valley line of the catch- ment basin, and therefore on the natural channel ;~ but such a site is not always to be obtained, and the engineer will have to choose the best he can. The three principal things influencing his selection being the elevation, the configuration of the ground, and the ma- terials. The elevation of the site must neither be too high nor too low. If it is too high, there will not be a sufficient gathering-ground; if too low, there will not be sufficiejut fall for the pipes, conduits, &c. The material of which a reservoir is con- structed should be impervious to water, or if pervious, capable of easy removal, so as to leave a water-tight foundation. The nature of this foundation is ascertained by borings and trial- pits. The best material for the foundation is clay, the next, compact unfis- sured rock. If through want of care the foundation contains an outcrop of porous rock, the impounded water will of course be conducted away. The size of the reservoir must be deter- mined by the demand for water and the ex- tent to which the supply fluctuates. Experi- ence has shown that 120 days' demand is the least storage-room that has proved suffi- cient in the climate of Britain, and even this in several instances has proved insufficient. Some engineers advise that in every case a reservoir should contain six months' demand. Adopting the lower estimate, a town of 5000 inhabitants would require a reservoir holding at least 1,800,000 gallons. "From data respecting various existing reservoirs and gathering-grounds given by Mr. Eeardmore (Hydraulic Tables), it appears that the storage-room varies from one-third to one- half of the available annual rainfall. " The best rule for estimating the available capacity required in a store-reservoir would probably be one founded upon a calculation taking into account the supply as well as the demand. For example, 180 days of tlie excess ofths daily demand above the least daily supply, as ascertained by gauging and computation. * ' In order that a reservoir of the capacity pre- scribed by the preceding rule may be efficient, it is essential that the least available annual rain- B,ES (490) HES faU of tte gathering-ground should be sufB- cient to supply a year's demand for water. "To enable the gathering-ground to supply a demand for water corresponding to the average available annual rainfall, the greatest total deficiency of available rainfall below such average, whether confined to one year or extending over a series of years, must be ascertained, and an addition equal to such deficiency made to the reservoir-room ; but it is in general safer as well as less expensive to extend the gathering-ground, so that the least annual supply may be sufficient for the de- mand."— (Rankine, Civil Engineering.) Upon the strength of the embankments of a reservoir the security of life and property often depend, so that its design, construction, and maintenance are of the first importance. The cross-section of the embankment is a trapezium, with the side next the water at a slope of about 3 to 1, and the outer slope, or that furthest from the water, at an -inclina- tion regulated by the stability of the material, such as IJ to 1, or 2 to 1. The height of the top varies from 3 .to 10 feet above the highest water-level. The inner slope is usually pro- tected by a pitchingof dressed stone, and the outer by a covering of grass sods. The embankment must be water-tight-; this is effected by making the core' of clay-puddle. No trees or shrubs should grow on an em- bankment, as their roots pierce it and make openings for the penetration of water. The top of the embankment is most conveniently made a kind of roadway, with a proper con- vexity, so that the water may run off it. The outlet from a reservoir should be a train of cast-iron pipes carried through the embank- ment in a culvert; the culvert must be founded on the solid rock. It is constructed either of brick or dressed stone built in cement; the outside is coated with clay- puddle, and it makes a water-tight joint trith the clay-puddle wall of the embankment. In the best-constructed reservoirs a tower stands on the inner end of the culvert, to contain outlet pipes for draining water from different levels, with valves, &o., for opening and shut- ting them. This tower is usually joined to the top of the embankment by a bridge. Strong gratings should be provided in front of the outlets, to prevent the access of stones or other matter that might injure the sluices or- clog the pipes. The other appendages to stone reservoirs are waste-weirs and waste-sluices. The waste- weir is a weir capable of discharging from the reservoir the greatest flood discharge of the streams which supply it, without causing the water-level to rise to a dangerous height. This weir is built of ashlar or square hammered masonry; the water is discharged into an open or covered channel, by which it reaches the natural watercourse. In some cases, in- stead of the waste-weir, a waste-pit is used, (For other details, works on engineeriflg must be oonsulte(^.) For the storage of small quan- tities of water, see Tanks; Water, &o., The Public Health Act enacts that at least two months before commencing to construct, under the provisions of the Act, any reservoir (other than a service reservoir or tank which will hold not more than 100,000 gallons), the local authority are to give notice of the in- tended work by advertisement in one or more of the local newspapers circulated within the district where the reservoir is to be constructed. If any person affected by the intended work objects to it, and serves notice of such objec- tion on the local authority at any time within the said two months, the work is not to be commenced without the sanction of the Local Government Eoard. The Local Government Board, on the application of the local au- thority, may appoint an inspector to inquire on the spot into the matter and report, and on reception of the report, may make an order allowing or disallowing, with such mbdi- fications as they may deem necessary, the intended work. — (P. H., s. 55.) Resolutions— The rules as to the reaolu- tioiis of owners and ratepayers are laid down with considerable minuteness in the 3d Sche- dule of the Public Health Act as follows : — SCHEDULE m. Rules as to Resolutions of Owners and Ratepayers. 1. Tor the purpose of passing a resolution of owners and ratepayers under this Act, a meeting shall be summoned on the requisition of any twenty rate- payers or owners, or of any twenty ratepayers and owners, resident in the district or place with respect to which the resolution is to be passed. 2. The summoning officer of such meeting shall be— In boroughs, the mayor. ' In Improvement Act districts, the chairman of the Improvement' Commissioners. In local government districts, the chairman of the local board. In places situated in any rural district or districts and having known and defined boundaries, the churchwardens or one of them having juris- diction coextensive with the place ; or if there are no churchwardens, the overseers or one of them having the like jurisdiction ; or if there is none of the officers respectively above enumerated, or if such officer in any case neglects, is unable, or refuses to performrthe duties hereby imposed on him, by any person appointed by the Local Government Board. Where the boundaries of a place are settled by order of the Local Government Boai-d, the board shall by such order appoint the summoning officer. If any summoning officer appointed by the Local HES (491 ) RES Government Board dies, becomes incapable, or re- fuses or neglects-to act, the Local Government Board may appoint another officer la his room. S. Ratepayers or ownei's making a requisition for the summoning of such meeting shall, If required, give security in a bond, with two sufficient sureties, ' for repaym.ent to the summoning ofi&cer, in the event of the resolution not being passed, of the cosis in- curred in relation to such meeting or any poll taken in pursuance of any demand made thereat ; the amount of the security to be given J)y such sureties, and their sufficiency, and the amount of such costs, to be settled by agreement between the summoning officer and such ratepayers or owners, or, in case of dispute, by a court of summary jurisdiction, 4. The summoning officer shall, on such requisi- tion as aforesaid, fix a time and place for holding such meeting, and shall forthwith give notice thereof— By advei-tisement in some one or more of the newspapers circulated in the district or place. By causing such notice to be affixed to the princi- pal doors of every church and (!hapel in the place to which notices are usually affixed. 5. The summoning officer shall be the chairman of the meeting, unless he is unable or unwilling to pre- side; in which case the meeting on assembling shall choose one of its number as chairman, who may, with the consent of a majority of the persons pre- sent, adjoui'n the same from time to time. 6. The chairman shall propose to the meeting the resolution, and the meeting shall decide for oragainst its adoption : provided, that if any owner or rate- payer demands that such question be decided by a poll of owners and ratepayers, such poll shall be taken by voting papers in the Form in Schedule IV. to the Act. roRM 0. Form of Voting Paper for Poll taken under Schedule III. Voting Paper- 1^0. ( .) At a meeting held on the day of , at , in the county of , it was agi'eed that the following resolution should be proposed to the owners and ratepayers of (Set out the resolution.) Tu favour of. Againat Number of Votes, Aa Bate- payer. Do you vote in favour of or against the adoption of this resolu- tion? (Signed)- or the mark of_ Witness to the mark- er proxy for_ I>irecHons to the Voter. The voter must write his initials under the head- ing " in favour" or " against,'' accordingashe votes for or against the resolution, and must subscribe his name and address at full length. If the voter cannot write he must make his mark instead of initials, but such mai'k must be attested by a witness, and such witness must write the initials of the voter against his mark. If a proxy votes he must in like manner write his initials, subscribe his own name and address, and add after his signature the words "as proxy for,'* with the name of the body of persons for whom he is proxy. This paper will be collected on the of , betweeh the hours of and The poll is to he taken in the same way and v^ith the same incidents and conditions as" to the qualifications of electors and scale of voting, as to notice to be given by the return- ing officer, delivery, filling up, and collection of voting papers, as to the counting of votes, as to penalties for neglect or refusal to comply with the provisions of the Act, and in all respects whatsoever as is provided by the rules for the election of local boards in Schedule II. to the Public Health Act. {See Local Boaeds. ) Except that in districts or places where there is no register of owners and proxies under the said Act, uny owner or proxy shall be entitled to have a voting paper delivered to him, if, at least fourteen days before the last day appointed for delivery of the voting papers, he sends a claim in writing to the summoning officer con- taining the particulars required by Schedule II. to the said Act, to be contained in claims to be entered on the register of owners and proxies, and except that the provisions with respect to certain specified days of the month shall not apply. Por the purposes of such poll the summoning officer shall be the returning officer, and shall have the powers and perform the duties of a returning officer under Schedule II. to the Public Health Act, so far as the same are applicable to a poll under this schedule. If no poll is demanded, or the demand for a poll is withdrawn by the persons making the same, a decla- ration by the chairman shall, in the absence of proof to the contrary, be sufficient evidence of the decision of such meeting. 7. A copy, under the hand of the summoning officer, of every resolution so passed, shall be forwarded by him to the Local Government Board ; and it shall be his duty to publish a copy thereof by advertisement for three successive weeks in some one or more of the newspapers circulated in the district er place, and by causing a copy thereof to be affixed to the principal doors of every church and chapel in the place to which notices are usually affixed. 8. Where in pui'suance of a resolution passed in manner provided by this schedule any place is con- stituted a local government district, all costs incurred by the summoning officer in relation to the meeting, and any poll taken in pursuance of any demand made thereat, s^jall be a first charge on the general district rates leviable within such district; in the case of a resolution so passed by owners or ratepayers in any urban district, such costs shall be paid out of BES (492) KHE the fund or rate applicable by the urban authority to the general purposes of the Public Health Act. Respiration, Effect of on Air—See AlK, OVEEOEOWDINU, VENTILATION, &0. Ilevalenta— This preparation, so largely advertised, was found, when examined by Dr. Hassall, to contain the following ingredients. Three saQiples were analysed : one consisted of a mixture of the red or Arabian lentil and harley-flour ; the second, of the same ingredi- ents mixed with sugar ; and the third sample consisted of the Arabian lentil and barley- flour, with the addition of saline matter, chiefly salt ; it also possessed a peculiar taste, as though flavoured with celery seed. Rheumatism — This disease essentially consists of a peculiar inflammatory action in the fibrous tissues, more especially of the joints, sheaths of the muscles, tendons, &o. It is ordinarily divided into two kinds— oc«te and chronic. The acute form is attended with high fever and swelling of the joints, and it often attacks the pericardium or covering of the heart. The chronic has various forms, sometimes attacking one or two joints, at- tended with slight fever ; in other instances, only one or several muscles are affected. It is then often known under other names, such as pleurodynia when the intercostal muscles of the chest, and lumbago when the muscles of the back, are selected as the seat of the disease. It appears now to be generally acknowledged that in rheumatism there is some abnormal state of the blood and nervous system, and this blood circulating in the fibrous tissues induces it special kind of inflammation, so that the swelling, &c., of the joints is merely the local expression of a general disease. Eheumatism is not contagious, its exact nature may be confidently asserted to be still unknown. It does not, however, belong to the scope of this work to enter into the dis- cordant views of pathologists as to its real nature, nor to deal with the question of tieatment, but rather to seek for the causes and effects of rheumatism. Eheumatism is not an extremely fatal disease, even in its acute form, at the time of the aiftack; but, on the other hand, if the effects of rheumatism were taken into ac- count, it is probable that instead of occupying about the thirty-fourth place in diseases, arranged according to their fatality, it would rank tenth or eleventh. For, putting on one side the atheromatous affection and degenera- tion of the vessels which arise from rheumatic affections, there is one disease that annually kills the human race at the rate of 1000 deaths to every million living — viz., disease of the heart — and most certainly at least two- thirds of this disease are due, either directly or remotely, to rheumatism or its ally gout. The annual and direct mortality from rheumatism, as estimated from the returns for the five years 1867-71, shows a mean of 2605, so that it may be said to kill about 2600 yearly. If the twenty years 1850-69 are taken, they show an annual rate per million lives of 107 '2; and if these twenty years be divided into two equal periods of ten years, "we obtain the numbers 103 '1 and 111 '3; or if the twenty is divided into four periods of five years each, the numbers are 101-8, 104-4, 106, and 106-6. This small variation alone shows that it is not contagious, but an endemic disease in- fluenced by weather, &c. Eheumatism is a great cause of invaliding in the army, as is shown by the following extract from the Army Medical Report for 1871 :— Annual Eatio per 1000 Strength. 1* '^ .A If o '1 SB sis p1^ t 11 ( Admitted . 43*2 37^10 S,S-30 .'?7'00 39-3 94-7 fi2-3 45-7 Eheumatism (Died . 0-09 0-08 0-16 It is, however, yet more prevalent in the navy. This is most probably from the, more frequent exposure to wet and cold. The following table shows the comparative prevalence of this disease per 1000 in the years 1870 and 1871 :— nheumatlBm. stations. lero. len. Home .... 63-3 63-7 Mediterranean . 66 80 -r North America and West Indies .... YO-6 09-6 South-east coast of Am'erica V9 1 90-5 Pacific .... 81-9 91-4 EHI (493) RIC jUieomatiflm. Slations. 1870. 1871. ■West coast of Africa and Cape of Good Hope . 95 -a 100-0 East Indies . 72-2 62-9 China 79-3 70-3 Australia . 70-5 68-2 Irregular , 73-5 68-4 Men are less liable to be attacked than ■women, and children less liable than either. Out of seventy-three cases given by Chomel, two only -were attacked under fifteen years, thirty-five for the first time between fifteen and thirty, twenty-two from thirty to forty, seven cases from forty -five to .sixty, and seven cases after sixty. There can be no doubt that occupations involving exposure to wet and cold are con- ducive to rheumatism, and it is a fact that railway ofdcials, agricultural labourers, cab- drivers, &c., are as a class more subject to this disease than those who are not exposed to weather- At the same time, it must be remembered that it is not in the coldest climates that rheumatism is most prevalent, but rather in those which are remarkable for damp and variable weather. "And thus," says Sir A. TuUoch, "we find in the mild and equable climate of the Mediterranean or the Mauritius the propor- tion of rheumatic affections even greater than in the inclement regions of Nova Scotia and Canada ; and though some of the provinces of the Cape of Good Hope have occasionally been without rain for several years, yet rheumatism is more frequent in that com- mand than in the "West Indies, where the condition of the atmosphere is as remarkably the reverse." With regard to ihe prevention of the disease, it is to be hoped that proper drainage of the ground, and strict care that no house or cottage has damp foundations, may do much in the future to decrease rheumatism, • the acute form of which is so essentially a disease of the bread-winner. In our English winters, attention to clothing cannot be too much insisted upon. All persons subject to rheu- matism in any form should wear flannels in the winter, and clothe lightly in the summer, instead of following the practice so common with many of the English people, of wearing almost the same underclothing in both the hot and the cold season, a course dictated neither by common sense nor by comfort. The author is also convinced that where rheumatism is prevalent beer and cider should be avoided. Rhizopoda — The amoebae forms are often detected in i^ater, but whether they indicate the presence of putrescent organic matter is not at present certainly known, Ehrenberg has also discovered them in air, and he has found that if dried they will retain their vitality for months and even years. See Air, "Watek, &c. Rhubarb — The species usually grown for alimentary purposes are the Jtheum RhaponU- cum and Sheum kybridum. The kind known to gardeners as true Turkey rhubarb, and which also yields an excellent edible product is the Sheum pcUmatum. It is a very useful fruit in a dietetic point of ■view, but since it contains oxalate of lime, it should be avoided by persons suffering from the oxalate of lime diathesis.— (Pavt.) Rhubarb leaves are often used for mixing with tobacco, an adulteration which may be distinguished by the microscope, the chief difference of structure being in the fine stria- tion observed in the rhubarb cells, the hairs of the leaf, the shape and course of the mid- rib and veins, and the gland-like bodies scat- tered throughout the lamina. See Tobacco. Tiirkey rhubarb is often adulterated with wheat-flour, turmeric (see Flodk, Tchmekic, &o.), and English rhubarb. The flour and tur- meric may be discovered by the microscope ; turmeric also may be detected by boracic acid, which reddens it. In English rhubarb, starch is generally iu large, oxalate of lime in small, quantities only. The proportions of these ingredients are reversed in the Chinese varie- ties. Rice — The seed of the Oryza sativa de- nuded of the husk and inner cuticle. Eice, when associated with meat, fat, and salts, is a valuable article of diet ; alone, it is too pure a starch to sufSce. Bice resembles the potato, but attempts made to substitute it in diets for potatoes have not been followed with satisfactory re- sults. The experiment was recently tried in some of our unions, and the most serious con- sequences followed. In one of these nine or ten deaths from scurvy and allied diseases occurred in a single fortnight. The proportion of gluten in rice-flour is about 6'3 per cent., and it rarely exceeds 7. (Letheby) ; and it cannot be made into bread unless it is mixed with wfa eaten flour. The following analyses exhibit its composi- tion : — Composition of Bice (Letheby). Kitrogenous matter . Carbo-hydrates Patty matter Saline matter . ... "Water 6-3 79-5 7 5 13 100 B.IC (494) KIV Composition of Dried Sice (PatehJ. Nitrogenous matter Starch Dextrine, &c. . Fatty matter . Cellulose . Mineral matter 7-85 88 '65 1-00 0-80 110 0-90 100-00 The following is the compDsition of the ash of rice : — ■ Potash . 18-48 Soda 10 -67 Lime 1-2T Magnesia 11-69 Oxide of iron . 0-45 Phosphoric acid . 53-36 Chlorine . 0-27 Silica 3-35 99-64 An oil may be obtained from the embryo of rice. It has a density of '924 at 15° C, and at 5° 0. acq;iiires a, butylaceoxis consistence. It contains a large quantity of oleic acid, and much albuminous matter. — (A. Pavesi and £. BOTONDI, Gazzetta Chimica Italiana, iv. 192-195.) The structure of the busk of the grain of nee cannot easily be determined, and it should be examined after it has been immersed in glycerine for some time. The outer surface of the seed is thrown up into ridges arranged both transversely and longitudiaally, and de- scribing between them square spaces. The ridges are formed in part of silica in the form of granules ; here and there are openings of somewhlat irregular form, and which are the mouths of stomata. The substance of the busk is made up of narrow and rather short fibres. Some of these are arranged longitu- dinally, others transversely. They are brittle, and their edges rough. That they aie really fibres is shown by their being hollow, as is seen in transverse sections. Beneath the fib- rous membrane is a thin layer of angular cells. — (Hasball.) The starch corpuscles them- selves are very small, and scarcely average more than '0003 of an inch in diameter. Their shape is angular, with a central depression {gee fig. 73). When the seed is enclosed in its paleae or husk, it is known by the name of paddy. The cultivation of rice is attended -with considerable danger both to the actual workers in the fields and those living in the immediate neighbourhood of them. The land is for some time inundated, and the labourers in rice-fields have to stand for hours in stagnant water ; and the emanations arising from the land when it is half dry are most deleterious. So large, indeed, was the mortality from this cause in Sardinia, that Charles Emmanuel endeavoured to abolish aU the rice planta- tions in hia kingdoms. His beneficent pro- ject was, however, strongly opposed, not only by the owners, but also by the poorer classes, and be was compelled to abandon it. It is said that rice plantations in Europe have pro- duced more injurious effects than those which exist in Eastern countries, but we have not sufficient evidence before us to decide this , RICE- Sis W INCH Fig. 73. point. In France, however, we know that labourers in rice plantations become pale and emaciated, and are subject to intermittent fevers, dropsy, scurvy, and other diseases, few living over forty years of age. Kioe-flour is often used for the purpose of adulterating oatmeal, mustard, pepper, cay- enne, curry powder, ginger, mixed spice, liquorice, &c, Hiirers, Streams, Pollution of, Ac- It is noticeable that the first acknowledged Sanitary Act in the statute-book was in point of fact a Rivers Pollution Bill, for in the year 1388 an Act was passed imposing the very high penalty (considering the value of money at that time) of £20 upon persons casting animal filth and refuse into rivers. It may easily be premised that if, at a time when the country was sparsely populated, when towns were small, and when commercial industry was but feebly developed, legislation was required, it urgently needs it now, when for centuries, from the great centres of com- merce down to the single cottage on the river's brink, each in its sphere has done its utmost to render river-water lindrinkable by man, poisonous to fish, hurtful to animals, and offensive to the senses. The propagation of cholera along polluted streams, the com- RIV (495) BIV plaints of individuals and of the press — com- plaints arising from witnessing the whole- sale destrnction of fish, and from the evidence of the senses— are a tev; of the many influ- ences which have directed public attention BO earnestly to the subject of river pollu- tion. From numerous successive reports of the two Eoyal Commissions, appointed respectively in 1865 and 1868, the magnitude of the evil, the polluting agencies, and the remedies may be appreciated ; but the interests involved are so immense, that although there have been one or two attempts to pass temporary or permanent Acts in order to prevent river pollution, it yet remains a subject for future legislation. The substances polluting rivers may be divided into two great classes— viz., (1) organic ; (2) inorganic. The organic are such as sewage, and the effluent drainage-waters from cotton, woollen, silk, flax, jute, print, dye, bleach, alkali, chemical, soap, starch, sugar, and other works, besides tanneries, paper-mills, distilleries, &o. These all agree (however various may be the composition of the fluids) in holding in suspen- sion and solution matters principally organic, and more or less putrescent ; and the remedy for this class of polluting substances appears to be, not to permit them to be discharged into a stream until they have first been submitted to the operations of intermittent filtration and sewage irrigation. These two last remedies are of course only applicable to impurities of animal and vegetable origin. The details of this process will be found in article Sewage. The inorganic polluting substances are those arising from mining operations and metal manufactures. From the first a large amount of worthless rubbish is derived, and is "tipped" into the nearest stream, with the effect of choking up its bed, and in the course of time diverting its course to the injury of riparian proprietors ; but this is not the only injury to the stream. In the case of lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, tin, and baryta mines, a directly poisonous ingredient is added to the water, some part of which is dissolved, the remainder being in suspension, and after floods, the fine metal-bearing dust is deposited upon the herbage,' with the result of poison- ing the cattle ; add to this, that in mining operations a large amount of washing of the ore is required, and that the washing water is usually taken from, and then added, laden with earthy detritus, to the nearest stream. The pollution caused by metallurgical operations and metal manufactures does not appear, with one or two exceptions, very serious. The pollution from nickel-works, iron- works, and rolling-mills, from cutlery, from brass-fonndries, and from German silver and electroplate works, is pronounced by the Commissioners to be comparatively unimp'or- tant ; whilst' the drainage from galvanising is far more serious, not merely on account of the large volumes of offensive liquors dis- charged from the works, but also "by the reckless manner in which these pernicious liquids are in many cases flushed out into sewers or rivers." The effluent waters are extremely acid and corrosive, so much so that they dissolve the cement and loosen the brickwork of sewers. The remedies proposed with regard to pollu- tion from mines and metal manufactories are naturally rather preventive than curative, most of the mineral matters being in' sus- pension. If the effluent water be allowed to rest undisturbed in pits for a longer or shorter time, according to the nature of the sus- pended substances, a fine mud will fall to the bottom, and the water, comparatively pure, may then be allowed to flow into the stream; whilst in the case of metal manufactories, the refuse liquid frequently admits of profitable treatment, and mstead of permitting it to go forth as waste, may be utilised by the manu- facturer. But whether the corrosive acid liquors of some metal trades may be utilised or not, certain it is that on no account should they be allowed to enter sewers or rivers. The Commissioners recommend the follow- ing standards of purity for general adoption, but they wish in the case of mines to make an exception with regard to standards d and e : — (a.) Any liquid which has not been subjected to * perfect rest in subsidence ponds of sufficient size for a period of at least six hours, or which having been so subjected to subsidence, contains in stispension more than 1 part by weight of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts by weight of the liquid, or which not having been so subjected to subsidence, contains in suspension more than 3 parts by weight of dry mine- ral matter, or 1 part by weight of dry organic matter, in 100,000 parts by weight of the liquid. ' (&.) Any liquid containing in solution more than 2 parts by weight of organic carbon, or -3 parts by weight of organic nitrogen, in 100,000 parts by weight. (c.) Any liquid which exhibits by daylight a dis- tinct colour when a stratum of 1 inch deep is placed in a white porcelain or earthenw£^re vessel. (d.) Any liquid which contains in solution in 100,000 parts by weight more than 2 parts by weight of any metal except calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. (e.) Any liquid which in 100,000 parts by weight contains, whether in solution or suspension, in chemical combination or otherwise, more than '05 part by weight of metallic arsenic. (f.) Any liquid which, after acidification with BIV (496) BIV sulphuric acid, contains in 100,000 parts by weight more than 1 part by weight of free chlorine, (j7.) Any liquid which contains in 100,000 parts by weight more than 1 part by weight of sulphur, in the condition either of sulphuretted hydrogen or a sol- uble sulphuret, (h.) Any liquid possessing an addity greater than that which is produced by adding 2 parts by weight of r«al muriatic acid to 1000 parts by weight of dis- tilled water. (i.) Any liquid possessing an alkalinity greater than that produced by adding 1 part by weight of dry caustic soda to 1000 parts by weight of distilled water. (.;'.) Any liquid exhibiting a film of petroleum or hydro-carbon oil upon its surface, or containing in suspension in 100,000 parts more than '05 part of such oil; Notwithstanding the general assent of the late Baron Liebig and other' excellent chemists, the general opinion appears to be that the recommendations require consider- able modification. In particular, the volume and ratio that effluent matters bear to the volume and ratio of the river appear to have been quite over- looked. . In all future legislation it must be remembered, if any standard of impurity is adopted, that a million of grains of any polluting substance thrown into a large wide river may do no harm whatever ; while, on the other hand, the same amount in a small brook will kill all the fish, and be a great nuisance. Again, care must be taken that the manu- facturer, by simply pumping into his refuse liquids water from the stream, may not be able to evade the law by diluting a very im- pure liquid down to the legal standard. In prohibiting metals, it is obvious that not alone arsenic, but also lead, copper, chromium, &o., should be dealt with as strictly as arsenic. Mr. Crookes proposed, " I would therefore say that no person should send into a river ■water which is less pure than the water of the river at the place at which it goes in. ... If the river contained 100 grains per gallon of impurity, and if I turn into it water containing 90 grains per gallon of impurity, although that is a very impure liquid, I am doing the river good rather than harm." This proposal has certainly the merit of uni- formity, is simple and capable of adoption, although it would evidently press extremely hard upon manufacturers at the heads of streams. Dr. Lyon Playf air has also suggested provisions against any discharge into a stream which will raise its sum total of impurities beyond a certain amount. He thus takes the stream as the standard, and not the refuse water. This, again, is a suggestion which is capable of being worked out in detail. Besides other evident and valid objections to the re- commendations, the terms " organic carbon " and "organic nitrogen " have been with rea- son objected to, as applying to a method of analysis used by one of the Commissioners alone, and a method generally condemned by other chemists as faulty and inaccurate. As it may hereafter probably fall to the medi- cal officer of health to investigate the state of the streams in his district, it may be well here to give the amount of solid residue in a few of our rivers, and also a short notice of those substances which have been found to be most noxious to fish, referring the reader to article Watee, Analysis op, for further information. The following table is compiled from the original paper of Drs. Adams and Penny,* detailing the effect of mixing chemical agents with water on the life of the minnow and gold- fish. The results of the experiments are of great interest, and cannot fail to be of use to any one who has to investigate real or sup- posed pollution. In the tabular results the experiments on the minnow are here alone represented, the fractions indicating the least amount which the experimenters found de- stroyed life. Thus, sulphate of copper tiftiJ^x, means that 1 part of sulphate of copper dis- solved in 100,000 parts of water. was fatal to a minnow. It must be remembered that the latter is a very delicate fish, and extremely susceptible of impurities. On that account it was certainly one of the best fishes which could possibly have been selected for the purpose of experiment. Acids. Sulphuric . irnftcff Citric . innn Nitric . rnitan Tannic ITtiXSO Muriatic Tzrintf Gallic Sulphurous . 'Z^tS Carbolic 71(805 Acetic . X Arsenious . 2^^ Jtetall c Salts. Sulphate of copper TUBlTini Chloride of tin . TCITIJIJ Chloride of lime. tiVtt Oxy muriate of tin TOfiOO Do., saturated so- Carbonate of soda lution Tsfttni Carbonate of pot- Nitrate of lead . TDotF ash, impure . iVr,T Sulphate of alum Tnoitu Bicarbonate of Sulphate of iron . iBonij potash 3iAia Special C hemicals. Chlorine, satur- Lime . tAs ated solution . Timt Caustic potash ^zhis Iodine TshsTS Ammonia . vh Bromine STonn Drysa IterieS. Galls , T^frs Madder TlJ^B Garancine . TI?l7U Catechu BsVo Sumach Miscdl meous. Pcunclry cake . A Bisulphideofcarboa ^ Furnace cinders . 7V Sulphide of am- Heavy pitch oil . '8'B^ITO monia iJo Light pitch oil . BsilTV. Sulphuretted hy- drogen ilo * Pourth Report, Bivers Pollution Commissioners. ROA (497) RUM Bleach liquor Spent galls . Waste Discharges. • Tho \ Colour house wash- Or arranging the agents destructive of the life of delicate fishes into three classes, we find the most detrimental are — 1. Sulphate of copper, the mineral acids, the sulphates of alum and iron, iodine, bromine, caustic potash, the chloride and oxymuriate of tin, the heavy and light pitch oils, chloride . of lime (saturated solution), and carbolic acid. These all destroy minnow life when existing in very small proportions, varying from 1 in 100,000 parts of jrater to 1 in 10,000 parts. 2. The next destructive are such as garan- cine, madder, sumach, catechu, acetic acid, citric acid; arsenious acid, gallic acid. These are all fatal when existing in the proportion of from 1 to 7000 of water, to from 1 to 3500. 3. The least destructive but yet poitonous agents are tartaric acid, salts of soda and potash, hydrate of lime, ammonia, bisulphide of carbon, sulphide of ammonium, sulphu- retted hydrogen,f oundry-cake, furnace cinders, bleach liquor, and spent galls. These different substances are fatal to minnow life, when ex- isting in water in proportions varying from 1 in 2000 to 1 in 80. The substances which are powerfully pollut- ing and yet have little influence on fish life, except in large quantities and in a state of decomposition, are blood and urine. Large quantities of linseed and olive oils also did not appear to have any appreciable effect on the fish submitted to experiment. In all probability there will be legislation on the subject of rivers shortly, and it is likely that on local authorities will be cast some duties and powers of supervising the streams in their district. The following enactment gives power to local authorities when necessary to proceed in cases of stream pollution : — Any local authority, with the sanction of the Attomey-Gteneral, may, either in their own name or in the name of any otherperson, with the consent of such person, take such proceedings by indictment, bill in Chancery, action, or otherwise, as they may deem advis- able for the pui-pose of protecting any water- course within their jurisdiction from pollutions arising from sewage either within or without their district ; and the costs of and incidental to any such proceedings, including any costs that may be awarded to the defendant, shall be deemed to be expenses properly incurred by such authority in the execution of the PubUo Health Act. — (P. H., d. 69.) See Sewage, "Watek. Xtoads— 5ee Highways. Robur— This is a strong spirit flavoured with tea ; the constituents are alcohol, sugar, tannin, ash, water, and extractive matter. The ash contains manganese derived from the tea. Roofs— See Habitations. Rooms— fee Disinfeotion, Habitations, OVEBOEOWDING, VENTILATION, &0. Rosemary— The flowering tops of Bos- marinus officinalis. The oil possesses some antiseptic properties. Rowing^- £ee Heart Disease. Rudesheimer — A German red wine. See ■Wine. Rue— Theleaf of theJjMiaflrr'OBeoJCTis. The oil of rue contains slight antiseptic properties. Eue has been criminally employed for procuring abortion. It is antispasmodic, diuretic, stimulant, nervine, and emmena- gogue. Rum — An ardent spirit obtained by dis- tillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar-boilers.(syrup-soum), the drainings of the sugar-pots and hogsheads (molasses), the washings of the boilers and other vessels, together with su£5cient recent cane juice or wort prepared by mashing th« crushed cane to impart the necessary flavour. Like other spirits, rum is colourless when it leaves the still, and is tinged with partially burnt sugar, &c., to suit the taste of the consumer. Kum is greatly improved by keeping, wherebyit acquires a fine, mellow, soft flavour. As imported into this country, it has an average strength of 20 under proof. The best comes from Jamaica; and it is usual there to put a few slices of pine-apple into the best qualities of this spirit, hence the term piM-apple rum. The flavour of rum is due to a volatile oil and butyric acid. From a knowledge of this fact has proceeded the manufacture of a butyric compound (essence of rum), by the aid of which the dealer is enabled to manufacture a fictitious nun from malt or molasses spirit. The following statement shows the charac- teristics of rum : — Sum. Specific gravity . . 0-874 to 0926 Alcohol per cent. . . 60000 to 77'000 Solids per cent. . . 1000 Ash per cent. . . 0100 Acidity per ounce reckoned as tartaric acid , . O'SOO Sugar per cent. . . 000 The late Dr. Edward Smith spoke of rum as being a true restorative, sustaining and in- creasing the vital powers ; and he considered the old-fashioned combination of rum-and- milk a most powerful restorative. 2i RYE (498) sa:? For the general effects of spirits, &o., see Alcohol, Alcoholic Bevebages, Alcohol- ism, &c. Adulterations. — A •flavouring hag been pre- pared to imitate that of the pine, and is now extensively employed in this country, not only to convert ordinary rum, hut even ordinary spirit, into " pine-apple- rum." This flavour- ing may be prepared by distilling butter with BulphuiSa acid and alcohol, or by combining amylic or potato ether with butyric acid, and then dissolving it in alcohol. Other adulterations which have been dis- covered in rum are water, cayenne pepper, Coceulus Indicus, sugar, lead, &c. For methods of detecting these adultera- tions, see Alooholometby, Beee, Beandt, Gin, &c. Xlye — The seed of the Secale cereale, a gramineous plant which is cultivated exten- sively on the Continent, and forms the chief food of northern nations, and though now rarely used here, was once a common article of diet amongst ourselves. The ordinary food of the lower orders throughout Holland, Ger- many, &c., is a dark-looking, sour-tasting bread made from this grain. Rye resembles wheat more nearly than any of the other cereals, but ft is slightly less nutritious, smaller in size, and darker in colour. Eye- flour is less rich in nitrogenous principles than wheat-flour, but it contains more sugar. The " soluble gluten " of rye-flour maybe obtained in the following manner : Wash its paste fre- quently in water until it breaks up and be- comes diffused throughout the liquid, the bran only being left behind ; the milky liquid (after having deposited the starch and after the separation of the albumen) may be eva- porated, when the residue will consist of sugar- oil and the so-termed " soluble gluten," which may be dissolved out by means of alcohol. The nitrogenous matter of rye consists of fibrine, gluten, and albumen. Rye taken by those unaccustomed to its use causes diarrhcea, but custom soon overcomes this effect. Eye- bread contains less vegetable fibrine and more caseine and albumen than wheaten bread, and a peculiar odorous substance. Composition of Bye-iTedl (Letheby). Nitrogenous matter . . . S'O Oarbo-hydrates ... 73 "2 Fatty matter 2-0 Saline matter I'S Water . ■ . . . . 150 100-0 Composition of Dried Eye (Paten). 12-50 64-65 Nitrogenous matter Starch . Dextrine, &c. . ■Patty flatter . Cellulose Mineral matter 14-90 2-25 3-10 2-60 100-00 Composition of the Ash of Bye. Potash . Soda Lime Magnesia Oxide of iron . Phosphoric acid Sulphuric acid Silica 101-35 The testa of rye differs from the testa of wheat in having the cells of the &st and second coats smaller and much more delicately beaded. Those of the third coat are also smaller, and of a somewhat different form. The smaller starch grains are much smaller than the cor- responding ones in rice, and several of the larger granules of rye-starch are furnished with a three or four-rayed hilum. Examined with the polariscope they exhibit a very strongly-marked cross. None of the cereals are so liable to become ergotised— i.e., become the seat of growth of a parasitic fungus— as rye. The affected grain becomes considerably larger, and may attain upwards of four times its ordinary size ; hence it can readily be sifted froln the unaffected grain, and care should be taken that ifis so separated, or serious consequences may arise. See Begot. Eoasted rye is occasionally used as a sub- stitute for coffee, and it is also employed in the adulteration of chicory, annatto, liquorice, &c. It furnishes an excellent malt for the distillation of spirit, and is much xised in the making of hollands. s. Saccharomeier — An instrument exactly similar in .principle to the lactometer and hydrometer, but it is weighted and graduated expressly for saccharine solutions, and is of considerable and extensive technical use in as- certaining the richness of malt worts. Safiton— The prepared stigmata or stigmas of the Crocus sativus or saffron crocus. The ' stigma, and part of the style of the flowerj form a thin filament broad at one end and tripartite, of an orange-red colour. Dried carefully, it forms the hay saffron, and when SAG (499) SAI packed and pressed into parcels, calce saffron. Saffron, moistened and pressed upon white paper, leaves an orange-coloured stain, and yields to water and alcohol an orange-red colouriog ' matter called polycroite, changed into blue by oil of vitriol. It also contains a volatile oil. When pressed between folds of white filtering-paper, it yields no stain. Good saffron does not give upon incineration more than "1 per cent, of ash. Adulterations. — The adulterations of saffron are numerous. Some traders steep it in water, or put it in damp places, in order to increase its weight. Saffron thus treated acquires a peculiar odour, rapidly becomes mouldy, and more readily stains the fingers than good saffron. Another adulteration undertaken for the same purpose is the addition of oil, easily detected by the greasy stains left when the stigmas are pressed on paper. Under the name of Persian saffron, Hagar (Pharm. Central Halle, 1870, No. 40, p. 364) has described oily cakes, containing scarcely any stigmatas, but chiefiy consisting of petals impregnated with a thick fixed oil, supposed to be olive oil coloured with curcuma. This species of fraud may be recognised by its appearance, its chemical properties, and by the fact that it yields to petroleum its colouring matter, which tme saffron does not. Spanish saffron is frequently adul- terated with honey in order to increase its weight. This may be detected by treating the mass with water, and then estimating and detecting the sugar in. the usual way. But far the most frequent method of sophisticating saffron is tlie substitution of the stigmata, the petals, or the leaves of other plants. The flowers, of Cdrtkamus tinclorius (natural order, Compositw), the corollas of the I/yperia crocea (natural order, Scrophular- iacew), the flowers of Calendula arvensis (natural order, Compositm)^ of arnica, of saponaria, and of f uminella, the young shoots of carex (probably Garex pulicaris or C, capillaris), variously treated so as to imitate saffron, have been found. To complete the list of the above adultera- tions must be added the debris from, the wood of oampeche, and of Rhus Cdtinus, ingeniously mixed and twisted together and impregnated- with syrup, calcareous earth, chalk, glucose, and glycerine. Sago — The fseoula (starch) from the stem of Sagus Icevis, S. Bumphii, and perhaps of other species of palms. The sago is obtained from the central or medullary part, commonly called pith, of the stems of several species of palm. When the tree is sufficiently mature it is cut down near the root . and split perpendicularly. The medullary matter is extracted, reduced to powder, mix«d with water, and strained through a sieve. Froirl the strained liouid the starch is deposited, and after washing with water and drying, forms the sago flour or meal of commerce. Granulated sago is pre- pared from sago-flour by mixing it with water into a paste and then granulating. The starch of sago examined with the microscope is seen to consist of granules of considerable size and elongated form, being usufl.IIy rounded at the larger end, and owing to the mutual pressure of the particles truncate at the other extre- mity. Sometimes the fuoette is single, when the granules are more or less muUer-shaped ; in others there is a double f ucette. The hilum when perfect is circular, but it is often cracked, when it appears as a cross-slit or star. Sur- rounding the hilum a few indistinct rings may usually' be perceived. In some of the granules examined with the polariscope the particles usually exhibit a black cross, the hUum being the centre. In the granulated sago the starch granules are much larger and less regular, effects due to the heat employed in its preparation.— (Hassall. ) See fig. 74. Big. 74. Sago is principally adulterated with potato- starch, this admixture may readily be detected by the microscope. See Siakch, &c. Sainfoin (Bhinanthus major and minor, yellow rattle ; natural OTder, Scrophulariacem) — This has been found in bread ; it probably gets accidentally mixed with wheat. Bread containing sainfoin is described as having a bluish-black colour, a moist sticky feeling, and a disagreeable sweet taste ; it is not known to I be injurious. SAL (Soo) SAL Salicine (028HisO]4 = 286)— Fusing-point, 218° F. (120° C.) Salieine is contained in the bark of most of the willows, and confers upon them their peculiar bitterness. It may be obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold aqueous infusion of willow bark. .It forms white silky needles and plates; is soluble in 5J parts of water at 60°, and in much less at 212° ; is insoluble in ether, but readily dis- solves in alcohol. Heated in close tubes, it gives off acid vapours ; when strongly heated, it is wholly dissipated ; when kindled, burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky charcoal. Its solution is almost neutral to test-paper. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes it to agglutinate into resin - like lumps, with the accession of an intense blood-red colour. An aqueous solution mixed with some hydro- chloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid, boiled for a short time, suddenly becomes turbid, and deposits saliritine under the form of a granular crystalline precipitate, which is its most char- acteristic reaction. Salicylic Acid(HC7H:503)-This substance presents itself in the form of needle-shaped crystals, sparingly soluble in water, devoid of odour, and free from unpleasant taste. Its only source until recently was the oil of winter- green {Gaultlieria procumhens), which consists almost entirely of salicylate of methyl; but lately it has been discovered that it may be produced artificially from carbolic acid by the actioQ of carbonic acid on the former in the presence of caustic soda at a high temperature. Half of the carbolic acid passes over, and the other half becomes converted into salicylate of sodium, which upon decomposition by an acid yields salicylic acid. Although the acid itself is so sparingly soluble in water, it forms salts with soda, potash, &c., of great solubility. So far as is known it is not poisonous. From the experiments of Eolbe, Kiersch, and Godef- froy, it would appear that its disinfectant and antiseptic powers are great. According to Dr. Godeffroy (Pharmaceutical Journal, May 1, 1875), it is three times more powerful than carbolic acid in preventing fermentation ; for 1 gramme of salicylic acid is capable of hindering the fermentative action of 18 grammes of yeast entirely; 36 grammes, fourteen hours; 72 grammes, one hour. And the same quantity of carbolic acid is capable of hindering the fermentative action of 5 gi-ammes of yeast entirely ; 17 grammes, twelve hours ; 10 grammes, one hour. The antiseptic and disinfectant properties of salicylic acid appear to be confined to the acid itself, and, so far as is at present known, are not shared by its salts, ^ Saliva— A slightly alkaline, thin, glairy liquid secreted from the parotid, sublingual, and submaxillary glands. The parotid secre- tion is the most watery, and the sublingual least so, while the.consistence of the secretion from the submaxillary gland is intermediate between the two. Ptyalin is contained in these two latter secretions. Human saliva has a specific gravity of 1005, and the follow- .ing is given as its composition : — Water 995-16, Organic matter . . .1*34 Sulpho-cyanide of potash . . 0'06 Phosphate, soda, lime, magnesia • 98 Chloride of sodium .... 0'84 Mixture of epithelium . , . 1-62 1000-00 As much as from 1 to 3 lbs. of saliva are secreted in the twenty-four hours. Its func- tions are to assist articulation, mastication, and deglutition. It assists the sense of taste, and it also carries oxygen to the stomach'; but its greatest action is the conversion of starch, first into dextrine and then into grape-sugar. This metamorphosis is accomplished by means of the ptyalin. One part of ptyalin -will, ac- cording to Mialhe, convert 8000 parts of in- soluble starch into soluble glucose. This is probably an exaggeration, but we know that 1 part of the ferment will con-vert 2000 parts of starchinto sugar. Gastric juice is said to interfere with this conversion. Saliva has no action on fat or fibrine or albuminous bodies. An artificial saliva may be prepared from seeds which have sprouted or fermented, in which the diastase is abundant. Slsc Ptyalin. Salmon — The Salmo sala/r (Linn.) is a well-known, soft-finned, abdominal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern seas. In the summer months, during the breeding season, it ascends these rivers against all obstacles and deposits its spawn. The flesh of salmon ap- proaches meat in redness, and in sustaining properties resembles it more closely than any other fish. Fatty matter is found incorpo- rated with the muscular fibres, and there is also a layer of superficial fat beneath the skin; this is particularly abundant in the abdominal or thinner part of the fish. Salmon is not adapted to the delicate or dyspeptic, since it is rich, oily, and difficult of digestion. Pickled, salted, or smoked, it is excessively indigestible, and should only be taken by those possessing very strong assimi- lating powers. Composition nf Salmon, Nitrogenous matter . . , 16-1 I'at 6-6 Saline matter 1-4 Water 77-0 100-0 Salt— 5cc Sodium. SAL (501) SAN Saltinir Provisions, &c.— The process of salting articles of food renders tliem hard and dii&cult of digestion, food which has been so treated should therefore be avoided by the dyspeptic. An exception must, how- ever, be made in the case of bacon, which is usually more digestible than pork or other pig-meat. For salt beef, see Meat. Saltpetre — Nitrate of potassium. See POTASSIDM. Sanitary Authorities and Sanitary Districts— The whole of "England (except the metropolis) and Ireland is divided into urban and rural sanitary districts, governed respectively by urban and ' rural sanitary authorities. In Mngland, an urban district and urian authority aire, according to the Public Health Act, sect. 6, as follows : — Urban Diatricb, Borough constituted such either before or after the passiDg of tliis Act. Improvement Act district, con- stituted such before the pass- ing of the Public Health Act, 1872, and having no part of its area situated within a borough or Local Government district. — Local Government district con- stituted such either before or after the passing of this Act, having no part of its area situated within a borough and not coincident in area with a borough or Improvement Act district. Urban Authority. The Mayor, Alder- men, and Bur- gesses acting by the Council. The Improvement Commissioners. The Local Board. Provided that — 1. Any borough, the whole of which is in- cluded in andrforms part of a Local Govern- ment district or Improvement Act district, and any Improvement Act district which is included in and forms part of a Local Govern- ment district and any Local Government dis- trict which is included in and forms part of an Improvement Act district, shall for the purposes of this Act be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included, or of which it forms part; and' the Improve- ment Commissioners or local board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban authority therein ; and 2. Wbere an Improvement Act district is coincident in area with a Local Government district, the Improvement Commissioners, and not a local board, shall be the urban autho- rity therein ; and 3. Where any part of an Improvement Act district is situated within a borough or Local Government district, or where any part of a Local Government district is situated within a borough, the remaining part of such Im- provement Act district or of such Local Go- vernment district so partly situated within a borough shall for the purposes of this Act continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would bave been subject to if this Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order other- wise directs. For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Bland- ford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and New- port, Isle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs. The borough of Cambridge is to lie deemed to be an Improvement Act district, the borough of Oxford is to be included in the Local Government district of Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of Folkestone. An English rural- sanitary district and authority are thus defined (P. H., s. 9) : — The area of any union which is not coinci- dent in area with an urban district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of such district : provided that — 1. An ex-officio guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority, unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for the union. 2. An elective guardian of any parish be- longing to such um"on, and forming or being wholly included within an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case • in which guardians of such union act or vote as mem- bers of the rural authority. 3. Where part of a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such paiish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the due representa- tion of the part of the parish situated within the rural district ; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same manner as if no part of such parish formed part of or was situated in an urban district. \ SAN (502) SAW "Where the number of elective guardians ■who are not by this section disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority is less than five, the Local Govern- ment Board may from time to time by order nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qua- lify them as elective guardians for the union ; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote as members of the rural autho- rity, but not farther or otherwise. Subject to the provisions of this Act,' all statutes, orders, and legal provisions appli- cable tO' any boardof guardians shall apply to them in their capacity of rural authority under this Act for purposes of this Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority act. In Ireland, urban sanita/ry districts are — The city of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts. And urban authorities are — In the city of Dublin, the Bight Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting by the town counciL In towns corporate, the town council. In towns exceeding 6080, having commis- sioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV. ; or having municipal commissioners under 3 & 4 Vict. c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 & 18 Vict c. 103), the said commissioners, munici- pal or town commissioners, respectively. In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or township com- missioners.— (37 & 38 Vict. 0. 93, s. 3.) The Irish rural sanitary districts and autho- rities are exactly analogous to the English. In Scotland sanitary powers are exercised by town coimcils, police commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a Board of Supervision, but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to them. Under the English Public Health Act there may also be formed united districts ; for example — Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any contributory places in any rural district or districts, to be formed into a united district for aU or any of the purxioses following, 1. The procuring a common supply of water; or 2. The making a main sewer or carrying into effect a system of sewerage for the use of all such districts or contributory places ; or 3. For any other purposes of this Act ; the Local Government Board may, by pro- visional order, form such districts or contri- butory places into a united district. All costs, charges, and expenses of and in- cidental to the formation of a united district are, in the event of the united district being formed, to be a first charge on the rates leviable in the imited district in pursuance of P. H., a. 279. Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality ; and should the union . be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united district is governed by a> joint board consisting of such ex-officio, and of such number of elective, members as the provisional order determines. The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a sanitary authority. The rules applicable to meetings of a joint board will be found in article Committees. The joint board is a body corporate, having a name — de- termined by the provisional order — a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed. With the exception of these special objects, the component districts continue as before to exercise independent powers. Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of any com- ponent district the exercise of any of its powers, or the performance of any of its duties;— (P. H., s. 281.) Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution and mainten- ance of works (see WOKKs), for the prevention of epidemic diseases (see Efldekio), as well as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health {see Medical OFnoEE of Health.) Districts when once formed are not fixed and invariable, the Local Govern- ment Board having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas. 1. The Local Government Board, by pro- visional order, may dissolve any Local Govern- ment district, and may merge any such dis- trict in some other district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a Local Govern- ment or a rural district immediately adjoining a Local Government district to be included in such last-mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a Local Government district im- SAN ( 503 ) SAN mediately adjoining a rural district to be in- cluded in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area shall, for the pur- . poses of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining part (if any) of such Local Government district or rural district affected by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if such order had not been made unless and until the. Local Govern- ment, Board by provisional order otherwise directs. 2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an Improvement Act district, or having an area coextensive with such district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve such district, and transfer to the council of the borough all or any of the jurisdiction and powers of the Improvement Commissioners of such district remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act. 3. The Local Government Board may hy order dissolve any special drainage district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act, in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised, and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated ; but in the oases where a loan has been raised, the Local Government Board can only do this hj provisional order. —(P. H., s. 270.) Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by the Local Government Board after local inquiry. — (P. H., s. 278.) Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act, 1848, or where a district has. been formed subject to the juris- diction of a joint 'sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act, 1867, such districts or district may be dissolved by pro- visional order, and the Local Government Board may constitute it a united district subject to the jurisdiction of a joint board. — (P. H., ». 323.) For expenses of joint board, see Expenses. The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural district to be a Local Government district. See LooAl BOAKDS. The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a rural authority with urban powers, as follows : — > "The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the assessment of whose heredita- ments amounts at the least to one-tenth of the net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein, by order, to be published in. the ' London Gazette ' or in such other manner as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabili- ties, and obligations of xin urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in which such powers, rights, dutieSjliabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be exercised and attach : provided that an order of the Local Government Board made on the application of one-tenth of the persons rated to the relief of the poor in any contri- butory place shall not invest the rural autho- rity with any new powers beyond the Unfits of such contributory place." — ^(P. H., s. 276.) Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities. — In England, urban sanitary authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health Act, 1875 ; and in addition, they have to carry out the Bakehouse Regula- tion Act, and the Artisans' and Labourers' Dwellings Act. They also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-houses Acts, and the Labouring Classes' Lodging-Houses Acts ; but where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The powers of any local Act for sanitary purposes (exceijt a Eiver Conser- vancy Act) are transferred to the urban au- thority. The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse Eegnlation Act. The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish sanitary authorities are similar. The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given without distinction to urban and rural sanitary autho- rities. The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acta which apply to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical offi- cers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c. Speaking generally, all sanitary authorities have ample i^owers for health purposes. They can carry out, and it is their duty to do so, works of drainage, sewerage, and water-sup- ply. In towns they have the control of the streets and houses, both private and public ; in all places they have ample powers to re- SAN (S04) SAP press every species of nuisance which is at all likely to injvire health, and on the outbreak of infectious disease they are ' given many facilities to prevent its spread. Provision is made by the Public Health Act to meet the case of an authority which neglects to do its duty. In such a case the Local Govern- ment Board has compulsory powers, and may compel the due performance of whatever is required. See Local Government Boabd, LOAN^, &0. Sanitary Ziegislation— The following are the dates of the chief sanitary laws : — First sanitary law in tlie statute-book impos- ing a penalty of £20 upon persons casting filth and refuse into ditches (12 Bichard II.) 138S Repealed in 1856. An Act to Prohibit Slaughtering of Cattle in Boroughs (4 4 6 Henry Vll.) . . . 1489 Repealed 1856. The Statute of Sewers, authorising the issue of Commissions of Sewers. The duties of the Commissions were (within the parti- cular district) overlooking sea banks and walls, cleansing rivers, public streams, and ditches (23 Henry VIII. c. 5) . . . 1532 Quarantine Act (6 Geo. IV. c. 78) . . 1825 Lighting and Watching Act (3 & i Will IT. c. 90) 1833 Municipal Coi-porations Act (6 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76) 1835 An Act under which the Registrar-General of Births, Beaths, and Marriages was ap- pointed (6 4 7 Will. IV. c. 76) . . . 1836 Vaccination Act (3 4 4 Vict. c. 29) . . 1840 „ (4 4 6 Vict. 0. 32) . . 1841 Nuisance Removal and Diseases Prevention Act (9 & 10 Vict. c. 96) . . . 1846 It was to expire in 1848. Towns Improvement Clauses Act (10 4 11 Vict. c. 34) 1S47 The Public Health Act (11 & 12 Vict, c, 63) . 1848 Generally considered as the groundwork of our sanitaiy legislation. Establishment of General Board of Health . 1848 The Second Nuisance Removal and Diseases Prevention ^ct, in substitution of the fii'st, which was to expire (11 4 12 Vict, c, 128) 1848 Amended in 1S49. Reconstruction of General Board of Health . 1854 Repeal of Nuisance Removal Acts of 1848 and 1849, and substitution of Consolidated Nuisance Removal Act (IS 4 19 Vict. c. 121) 1855 Diseases Prevention Act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 116) 1855 General Board of Health expires . . 1858 Its powers vested in the Privy Council (21 4 22 Vict. c. 97) 1868 Local Government Act (21 4 22 Vict. c. 98) 1868 Nuisance Removal Amendment Act (23 4 24 Vict. c. 77) 1860 Local Government Amendment Act (24 4 25 Vict. c. 61) 1881 Local Government Amendment Act (26 & 27 Vict. c. 17) 1868 Nuisance Removal Amendment Act (26 4 27 Vict, c, 117) 1863 Sewage Utilisation Act, applying to England, Scotland, and Ireland (28 4 29 Vict. c. 76) First Sanitary Act (29 4 30 Vict. c. 90) Public Health (Scotland) Act (80 4 31 Vict. c. 101) . . . . ■ . Sewage ITtilisation Act (30 <& 31 Vict. c. 113) Second Sanitary Act (31 4 82 Vict. c. 116) Sanitary Loans Act (32 4 33 Vict. c. 100) Third Sanitary Act (33 4 34 Vict. c. 63) Public Health (England) Act (35 4 36 Vict, c. 79 Registration of Births and Deaths Act (37 & 38 Vict. 0. 88) ' Public Health Amendment Act (Sanitary Laws Amendment Act) (37 4 38 Vict. c. 89) Public Health (Ireland) Act (37 & 38 Vict. Public Health (England) Act ( c. 66) I Vict. 1865 1866 1867 1867 1868 1869 1870 1872 1874 1874 1874 1876 There are also a number of subsidiary and special Acts bearing on, and more or less inti- mately connected with, public health, such as the Burial, Highway, Factory, Labourers' and Artisans' Dwellings, Sale of Food and Drugs, Pharinacy, Alkali, Smoke, Public Works, Loan, and Local Authorities Loan Acts, re- ferences to all of which will be found under their respective headings. Sanitation— iSiee HygiIx^e. Santonine (CigHigOa, Heldt)— The crys- talline and characteristic principle of several varieties of Artemisia. It consists of pris- matic or tabular crystals, tasteless, inodorous, fusible, volatilisable ; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water ; soluble in cold alcohol and ether ; freely soluble in hot alcohol. Tannic acid and the chloriodide of potassium and mercury do not precipitate solutions of santonine. Sulphuric acid has no effect on it. The crystals acquire a brilliant yellow colour on exposure to sun- light without undergoing any change of form. Santonine is a very useful anthelmintic, and is much used in the treatment of the round worm especially. It has a peculiar action on the brain, causing objects to appear yellow or green. Several most lamentable accidents have occurred lately from dispensers mistaking strychnine crystals for santonine. Saponification— The dead body some- times becomes converted into a substance called adipocere. This process of conversion is termed saponification. Fourcroy first ob- served and described adipocere {adeps, fat; cera, wax), and so named this substance from its properties being intermediate between those of wax and fat. Chevi-eul made an examination of it, and found it to be a real ammoniacal soaj), with some extraneous colouring matter, a bitter substance, and an SAB (SOS) SATJ odoriferous principle. He also detected in some specimens lime, potash, and salt. It is highly probable that the fibrine undergoes slow changes perfectly analogous to that of the caseine in cheese, so admirably investi- gated by Blondeau, and detailed in the article on cheese. See Cheese. The composition of adipocere is not con- stant, and it is liable to vary according to the nature of the medium to \rhich the body has been exposed. Neither pure fat nor pure fibrine, when kept apart, will become saponified ; for the formation of adipocere it is indispensable that the animal fat should be in contact with sub- stances containing nitrogen. Every part of the body may undergo this transformation, ^nd when the change is com- plete the body maintains its condition for many years. This process takes place most readily — (1.) In the bodies of young persons, the fat being chiefly external and very abun- dant. (2.) In those adults whose bodies abound in fat. (3. ) In bodies exposed to the soil of water-closets. (4. ) In those immersed in water, but somewhat less rapidly in stag- nant than in running water. (5.) Readily in humid and fatty soils, especially in grave- yards, where numerous bodies have been piled in contact with each other, those situated at the lowest level becoming soonest saponified. —(Taylor.) The period required for sa- ponification varies greatly. A body floating in water has been found converted into this adipocerous state in a little more than five weeks, but four or five years may elapse be- fore the process is completed, all depending on the conditions under which the body is placed. Sardines — The pilchard, (Clupea pilchar- dis) is the sardine of commerce. The fish are preserved in oil in hermetically- sealed tin boxes. The process is conducted on a large scale on the coast of Brittany. The fish are first washed in sea-water, then their heads are taken oft and the intestines removed ; they are then again washed, dried, and next immersed for a brief period in boiling oil; and lastly placed in tin boxes, which are exposed to a steam heat, and hermetically sealed. Sardines are characterised by fatty matter incorporated with the flesh, and are conse- quently highly nutritious. Sprats and other small fish are frequently substituted for or mixed with sardines. Sauerkraut — The leaves of white cab- bages, deprived of their stalk and midrib, cut into small pieces, and packed in a tub or vat in alternate layers of salt. They are then pressed and allowed to remain untE lactic fer- mentation is set up and the mass becomes sour. Sauerkraut is used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe extensively, instead of fresh vegetables, in winter. Sausages — Diseased and unwholesome meat is frequently, especially in large towns, employed for the manufacture of sausages ; and quantities of putrid and diseased pork, beef, &c., are weekly seized in London "on the way to the sausage-maker." Nor is this all, for many of the more enterprising of the manufacturers add horse-flesh, which practice cannot be too strongly condemned ; although it must be allowed that good healthy horse- flesh is certainly preferable to diseased pork or decomposed beef. Mr. Bichardson, officer of the local board of health of Newton Heath, near Manchester, in his evidence some years ago before the Com- mittee of Adulteration, said : " We have in Newton five knackers' yards, and there is only one in Manchester. The reason is, that they have so much toleration in Newton ; and it has been a source of great profit to them, be- cause they have the selling of the best portions of the horse-flesh to mix with potted meats. I can say for a fact that the tongvies of horses particularly, and the best portions (such as the hind quarters of horses), are generally sold to mix with collared brawn — or pigs' heads, as they are called with us — and for sausages and polonies. I understand also, from those who have been in the habit of making them, that horse-flesh materially assists the making of sausages ; it is a hard fibrine, and it mixes better, and it keeps them hard, and they last longer in the shop window before they are sold, because otherwise the sausages run to water and become soft and pulpy. I believe horse-flesh also materially assists German sausages ; it keeps them hard." Sausages bought in large towns in the usual way can never be defended upon, and it is sur- prising, considering the cheapness of sausage- making machines, and the ease with which they can be prepared, that such articles are not more generally manufactured at home. Sausages, and more particularly the large sausages of Germany, frequently become poisonous from the development of a peculiar substance, the nature of which is at present unknown. Many believe it to be a rancid fiitty acid produced during decomposition of the meat; others, that acrid pyrogenous acids are produced during the drying and smoking of the sausages ; and some, again, that a poisonous organic alkaloid is developed during the decay of these articles.* Liebig ascribes the efltects to an animal ferment ; and M. Vanden Corput, one of the latest observers. * This is not improbable, see note, p. 365. SAV (So6) SCA telU us that the poisonous effects of sausages are due to a fungus of the nature of a sarcina, or what he calls Sarcina botulina. Subsequent observations have to a slight extent confirmed this view, since it is always noticed that in sausages so affected a peculiar mouldiness .is present, and the poisonous property is usually observed in April, when these oryptogamio organisms are most active. — (Lethbbt, Chemi- cal News, February 1869, and " Food.") Dr. Taylor, however, carefully examined a slice of a sausage which had caused the death of a child, and did not detect a poisonous principle of any kind ; but he does not state whether fungi were looked for. — {Principles of Jurisprudence, vol. i. p. 3il.) With regard to the symptoms of sausage- poisoning, in sixty-six cases which occurred at Kingsland (British and Foreign Medical Re- view, January 1860, p. 197), the symptoms were those of a narcotic irritant poison. One man died comatose, but the post-mortem in- spection only showed inflammation of the lower end of the small intestine and distention of the gall-bladder. Nothing of a poisonous nature could be discovered in the food or the body. The disease in question has been more often observed in Germany than in England. Four hundred cases of sausage-poisoning are stated to have occurred in Wurtemburg alone during the last fifty years, and of these 150 have been fatal. A writer in a popular journal, speaking on sausages, recently affirmed that in London the best sausages were obtained from shops the proprietors of which did not object to selling to their customers sausage-meat; and that sausages obtained from those places where a request for a small quantity of such meat was met with a refusal were invariably bad. A pea sausage was largely used by the Germans in the Franco-Prussian war. It was made by mixing pea-flour and fat pork with a little salt ; and contained in 100 parts, 16 '2 of water, 7 '19 of salts, 12 '297 of albuminates, 33-65 of fat, and 30-663 of carbo-hydrates. It is ready cooked, but can be made into a soup. Savin — The fresh and dried tops of Juni- perus Sabina, collected in spring from plants cultivated in Britain, These tops owe their activity to the volatile oil (CxoHje), specific gravity, "915; besides which, a resin, gallic acid, and the ordinary ingredients of young tops are present. The fresh tops consist of the. young branches enveloped in minute imbricated appressed leaves, in four rows of a dark green colour, strong and peculiar dis- agreeable odour and taste. The tops can be detected when in coarse powder by means of the microscope, as the woody fibres exhibit the circular pores which characterise the gymnosperms. This substance is used as a popular abortive, and has on several occasions proved fatal. It acts by producing violent pain in the abdomen, vomiting, and strangury. After death the gullet, stomach, and intestines, with the kidneys, have jbeen found much inflamed or congested. It acts as an abortive by giving a violent shock to the system, under which the uterus may expel its contents. The means relied upon for the detection of savin are the odour evolved when the powder is distilled or boiled with water, and the microscopic characters. Scammony — The gum - resin emitted from the cat root of Convolvulus Scammonia (Linn.), or Aleppo scammony plant. It occurs in masses irregular in shape and size, of a _blackish-green colour, covered with a fine powder, porous, brittle, with a shining frac- ture. It is easily triturated, and forms an emulsion with water. It has a musty odour, and makes a lather when rubbed on the sur- face with water. The taste is nauseous and acrid after a few minutes. Hydrochloric acid dropped upon it emits no bubbles, nor does the powder digested in water at a heat of 170° F. become blue when iodide of potash and dilute nitric acid are simultaneously added. Out of 100 grains, 78 should be soluble in ether. The tincture of pure scammony is not turned green by nitric acid. Scammony consists chiefly of a resin, some- times in the form of a glucoside, sometimes in part as a resinous acid; the latter is soluble in ammonia. Scammony resin is soluble in alcohol and ether, but precipitated froni its solution on the addition of water. With water or saliva, scammony yields a mUky fluid. It readily takes fire and burns with a yellowish' flame. The following are the results of three analyses of the same number of samples of scammony by Dr. Christison : — Pure Scammony. 9 Old. Old. Moist. Besin . 81 -S 83-0 77-0 Gum 60 8 eo Starch (feoula) 1-0 Lignin and sand 3-6 3 2 1)0 ■Water . 7-7 7-2 12-6 100-0 101-4 100-6 There are three principal varieties or qualities of scammony known in the market — viz., virgin (specific gravity, 1"21), seconds (speciflo gravity, 1-460 to 1-463), and thirds (specific gravity, 1-465 to I'SOO). The virgin scammony is the only kind which ought to be used in medicine. Tlie powder of the virgin scammony examined with a i - inch object- SCA (507) SCA glas3 is observed to consist of numerous angular and resinous fragments of a greyish- brown colour, and of variable size, which are blackish or even quite black. These are best seen when the powdered scammony is- viewed as an opaque object. In the residue left after the removal of the resin by sulphuric ether, considerable quantities of vegetable tissue, cellular tissue, woody fibre, fragments of spiral vessels, and stellate cells may fre- quently be detected by the microscope. Adulterations. — Scammony is largely adul- terated in the country of its production, and again on its arrival in England. The follow- ing substances are generally used for this pur- pose : chalk, starch, guaiacum, jalap, colo- phony, dextrine, gum tragacanth, bassorine, sand, and sulphate of lime. Detection of Adulterations.— Jalap resin is insoluble in ether and oil of turpentine; digested in a watch-glass with oil of vitriol, a crimson-coloured solution is obtained. Guaiacum. — A piece of paper moistened with the tincture becomes blue when exposed to nitrous acid fumes. Starch may be detected by the microscope and by the iodine test. Corrosive sublimate with almond soap produces a blue colour, and if a solution of ammonia be mixed with any substance containing guaiacum, a very frothy liquid is the result. Besin is dissolved by turpentine, which has a very slight action upon seammony. Sul- phuric acid dropped upon resin immediately reddens it, whereas dropped upon scammony this red colouration is only .produced after some minutes. The odour also of resin is very perceptible when scammony adulterated with it is triturated in a mortar. Dextrine and starch may be detected by the microscope and the addition of iodine. The inorganic adulterations will' be easily detected by an examination of the ash. Scarlet Fever— See Feveb, Soaklet. Scavenging, Removal of Refuse— A proper disposal of refuse is as necessary in the case of an isolated country-house as in that of an urban dwelling. In the former case, where there is a garden there can be no difficulty about the matter, nor should there be any nuisance. The refuse— such as potato-parings, cabbage-stalks, ashes, and other solid debris- is used upon the garden, and in the meantime stored for use at a distance from the house in a water-tight, covered, ventilated receptacle, the grand rule to be kept in mind being that household refuse must Be kept dry, and must be stored in small quantities only. The place for storing refuse is usually called an ashpit. A proper ashpit for an ordinary house should not be too large : it should have a proper sloping cover, fitting tightly, so as not to ad- mit any rain ; the bottom should be so con- structed as to be perfectly dry, and there should be a small ventilating-pipe communi- cating with the interior. The most difficult cases with regard to the disposal of refuse are villages where a house, and often a whole block of houses, have no back door nor any yard whatever, and. the rest of the village so well provided in this respect that the appointment of a scavenger for the whole place is out of the question. In such a case the owner or owners should contrive to get a place where a common ashpit could be built for the whole, and the occupiers by sub- scribing a small sum could have this periodi- cally emptied. This voluntary action failing, the sanitary authority have power to build a proper receptacle, and make bylaws, casting upon the occupier the duty of removing his refuse at certain intervals. Another difficult case, which as it has actu- ally occurred in the, author's district, and as there may be others analogous to it, it may be of use to mention, is that of a small fishing hamlet situated close to the sea, whilst be- hind and on all sides arise precipitous rocks. Few of the houses in the place alluded to had any yards at the back whatever. The refuse itself was extremely offensive, consisting of the debris of fish. Removal by horses and carts was out of the question, and as it was a most romantic spot, visited by thousands, it was important that a good system of scaveng- ing should be adopted. The difficulties were met by the erection of public ash-receptades and the appointment of a scavenger, who by means of donkeys conveyed the refuse half a mile from the place to be utilised on the land. In houses with deficient back premises most of the offensive refuse, especially that of a vegetable nature, can be thrown on the back of the kitchen fire, and allowed to smoulder harmlessly away ; but these simple remedies dirty and careless people are slow to adopt. It may be laid down that in all rural vil- lages or places under the jurisdiction of rural authorities, there are at least two cases in which either a scavenger should be appointed, or at all events arrangements made for the removal of refuse by any of the legal provi- sions given at the end of this article — 1. Where any general nuisance arises from a want of facility for the removal of refuse. 2. In places sparsbly populated during the winter, but which are in summer places of fashionable resort. On the other hand, in places where there is every facility for the occupier to deal with SCA (So8) SCA his refuse, it is better to oast upon him the burden of dealing with it; but even in that case, villages of any size will require strict supervision by the local authority, and arrange- ments must be made for the cleansing of the streets, the removal of matters from the gratJ ings which might choke the drains, and fre- quent inspection of the traps. As for towns, scavenging of a public nature is one of those essential things so obvious as to need scarcely any notice. The urban authority should see that the ashpits are properly con- structed, and that in those cases where, from past unhappy errors of construction, there are no other means of removing all kinds of refuse, including excretal matter, than by hand, the pails, buckets, or boxes are so made that when placed in the street awaiting the arrival of the scavenger no nuisance arises. Scavenging of an offensive nature — such as the emptying of cesspools, the cleansing of privies, the removal of manure— shbuld not be allowed to be effected except between the hours of 10 P.M. and 6 A-M. Ordinary re- moval of dust and daily refuse should be per- mitted at any time except between 9 A.M. and 10 p.m. The place where street-sweepings, dust, &c., are deposited should be carefully selected by the local authority. Dust-carts, &c., should have a bell attached to them, and those who have anything which requires removal should put a card in the window with the letter D upon it. The scavengers should be paid by the local authority; nor should they be allowed, as they frequently are, to extort money in addi- tion to their wages from those who require their services. It is not lawful to erect or rebuild a house without an ashpit furnished with proper doors and coverings. Penalty for default, £20 or less. — {f. H., ti. 35.) And if a house appears to be without a proper ashpit, the local authority is to give notice to the owner or occupier to provide the same. In default the authority may do the work, recovering the expenses summarily.— (P. H., s. 36.) Provision is also made that houses used or intended to be used as a factory shall have a proper ashpit in which to deposit refuse. Penalty for neglect of notice £20, and 40s. per day during default.— (P. H., s. 38.) Every local authority may, and when re- quired by order of the Local Government Board shall, themselves undertake or contract for — The removal of house refuse from premises ; The cleansing of earth-closets, privies, ash- pits, and cesspools ; either for the whole or any part of their district : moreover, every urban authority and any rural authority invested by the Local Government Board with the requisite powers may, and when required by order of the said board shall, themselves undertake or contract for the proper cleansing of streets, and may also themselves undertake or con- tract for the proper watering of streets for the whole or any part of their district. All matters thus collected by the local authority or contractor may be sold or other- wise disposed of, and any profits thus made by an urban authority shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate applicable by them for the general purposes of the Public Health Act ; and any profit thus made by a rural authority in respect of any contributory place shall be carried to the account of the fund or rate out of which expenses thus in- curred by that authority in such contributory place are defrayed. If any person removes or obstructs the local authority or contractor in removing any mat- ters thus authorised to be removed by the local authority, he shall for each offence be liable to a penalty not exceeding .^ve pounds : provided that the occupier of a house within the district shall not be liable to such penalty in respect of any such matters which are pro- duced on his own premises and are intended to be removed for sale or for his own use, and are in the meantime kept so as not to he a nuisance. — (P. H., s. 42.) Where the local authority do not themselves undertake or contract for — The cleansing of footways and pavements adjoining any premises. The removal of house refuse from any pre- mises. The cleansing of earth-closets, privies, ash- pits, and cesspools belonging to any pre- mises, they may make bylaws imposing the duty of such cleansing or removal, at such intervals ■ as they think fit, on the occupier of any such premises. An urban authority may also make bylaws for the prevention of nuisances arising from snow, filth, ashes, and rubbish, and for the prevention of the keeping of animals on any premises so as to be injurious to the public health.— (P. H., s. 44.) Any urban authority may, if they see fit, provide in proper and convenient situations receptacles for the temporary deposit and col- lection of dust, ashes, and rubbish ; they may also provide fit buildings and places for the deposit of any matters collected by them in pursuance of the Public Health Act.— (P. H., s, 45.) If a local authority who have themselves SCE (S09) SCH undertaken or contracted fertile removal of house refuse from premises, or the cleansing of earth-closets, privies, ashpits, and cesspools faU, without reasonable excuse, after notice in ■writing from the occupier of any house within their district requiring them to remove any house refuse or to cleanse any earth-closet or privy, belonging to such house or used by the occupiers thereof, to cause the same to be removed or cleansed, as the case may be, with- in seven days, the local authority shall be liable to pay to the occupier of such house a penalty not exceeding five shillings for every day during which such default continues after the expiration of the said period. — (P. H., a. 43.) See Sewage, Disposal of ; Slops, &c. Scents— 5ee Peeedmes. Schools, School Hygiene— The hygi- ene of schools is naturally subdivided into (1) the school itself as regards site, construction, &c. ; and (2) the effect of school inflnences upon the children. 1. Site, Construction, (dc— In the ■m&iieT ot site, space is of the first importance ; but, on the other hand, schools are essential in the most crowded parts of our cities, where suit- able positions are difficult to obtain, and the enormous sum required to purchase ground of necessity frequently limits the space on which the school stands to a narrow strip. Here there only appears one remedy— that is, to build schools for poor children in suburban sites, and run free trains or coaches to them. The most important part of a school is the schoolroom. The Privy Council have laid down certain rules as to minimum of Space and the sanitary conditions of schoolrooms ; for ex- ample, no school is entitled to receive any annual grant from this source unless it is held "in a building certified to be healthy, pro- perly lighted, drained, and veutilated.'supplied with offices, and containing in the principal schoolroom at least 80 cubical feet of internal space for each child in average attendance.'* On this point Dr Smith very properly remarks, "It is stated, and will not be denied, that a school cannot be properly 'worked, nor the children assembled in class, with a less amount of floor space ; but it seems to me quite below what is desirable. I find that a boy's seat and desk require 4 square feet ; and space in a class, at least 3 square feet per boy. But so far as space, is concerned, the worst parts of most schools are the galleries or raised tiers of seats in which the infants are placed, as closely packed as flower-pots in a green- house." The recent legislation on education, and the compulsory construction of new schools, with the enlargement of others, have greatly altered the aspects of the question. All public schools are now bound to have suffi- cient space, and properly constructed school- rooms and offices. It is a question whether the actual cubic space, even in the best con- structed schools, is sufficient, for it requires a. perfect system of ventilation to keep the air sweet and pure. There are few schools in this country in which the air during class- time is not unpleasantly stuffy and disagree- able ; and in a recent paper on school hygifene Pig. 15. (Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of 1 Health, Massachusetts), we find that in | America the same defect is noticed, with some few exceptions. The principles on SCH (Sio) SCH whioli schools should be ventUated are con- sidered under Ventilation. Pig. 75 will, however, show the excellent system devised by Mr. Mott, by which a constant current of warm air is maintained, and the products of respiration, &o., are rapidly carried away up the shaft shown in the figure, while at the same time there is no perceptible draught. School Offices. — The offices consist of (1) the staircase; (2) the cloak-room; (3) the latrines; (4) the lavatory. The staircase should be spacious, well ventilated, and the banisters provided with ob.stacles at equal distances to prevent the children from sliding down the rail. The cloak-room is a very important appen- dage. In some schools the clothes are put in an indiscriminate heap into a basket, or into a dark closet. The result of heaping together a mass of foul garments may easily be imagined. Zymotic disease is propagated, vermin engendered, and the clothes acquire a disagreeable odour. It is of the greatest importance that every school should have a proper place in which clothes may be separ- ately hung up and orderly arranged. The latrines. It is a false economy to be niggardly in expense with regard .to the latrines. As'each child, as a matter of fact, either from necessity or more often as an excuse, pays a visit during each school-time to the closet, this part of the establishment should be as perfect as possible. Water-closets do not appear to answer. The earth system for schools ip probably the best, as the requisite attention can always be given. In any town, however, where the Liernur system of sewage removal may hereafter be in operation, the pneumatic privies will leave nothing to be desired. See Sewage. The lavatory. There certainly should be a lavatory to every school, even to day-schools. This should, of course, have a plentiful supply of water for washing and drinking purposes, and especial care should be taken that the water is pure. Many of the poorer children reaUy require to be taught practical cleanli- ness, which at their own homes is almost impossible. The play-ground should have no unhealthy surroundings. It should be as ample as pos- sible, and every facility given to gymnastic: exercises, especially those of a light character. No gymnastic exercises, such as marching or drilling, should be allowed in the school- room, as clouds of dust are necessarily raised, which cannot fail to be injurious. The hours of study in all elementary schools should not be too long. The experience of the half-time system, which is a name given to a method of schooling provided by law for children employed in factories and workshops, and which secures to such children half the number of hours spent by children not at manual work in public schools, shows that these half-time scholars learn quite as Uuch as the children who are in the same schools twice as many hours a day, and every prac- tical teacher must know that a child who is in school six hours seldom really studies more . than half that time. There cannot be a doubt that four hours a day is ample in elementary schools. More advanced and older scholars might study six without injury. All lessons should be learned in school, none taken out to be studied at home on any consideration. 2. School-Life, Influences o/.— School-life is not without its evils. Even apart from those general insanitary conditions found in many schoolrooms, there are special influ- ences which appear to exhaust themselves on the osseous and nervous systems principally. The third question of the State Board of Health bears upon this point, the question and summary of the answers were as fol- lows : — " Question III. Is the injury most apt to fall on the osseous, the respiratory, the diges- tive, or the nervous system ? ■ " Answered substantially as folio s: — ' On the osseous system,' by ... 1 * On the osseous system, between fifth and ' eighth year,' by 1 * On the osseous system, before puberty/ by 1 * On the respiratory system,' by . .- . 2 ' On the respiratory system in boys,' by . 1 * On the respiratory system after fifteenth year,' by ....-., 1 ' On the digestive system,' by . . 1 ' On the digestive system in boys,' by . 1 ' On the nervous system,' by . . .95 * On the nervous system before fifteentli year,' by 1 ' On the nervous system after puberty,' by. 1 * On osseous and nervous systems,' by . 3 'On osseous, respiratory, and nervous,' by 2 ' On respiratory and nervous,' by . .14 * On digestive and nervous,' by . . .15 'On neither system,' by . 4 'Uncertain,' by .... 7" One of the most interesting answers was that of Dr. Buchanan, who says : — My attention has been directed for several years to the effects of position in schools upon the spinal column. I was first induced to notice it in our high- school girls, from the fact that they could be pointed out from grammar-school girls of the same age by their awkward attitude and swinging step, and I was led to trace it to some cause satisfactory with theory. 1 found in the high-school that the desk was placed so far from the seat, in order that they might have room between seat and desk to stand during recita- tion, that they could not rest their books upon the desk without leaning forward to' study, which fully accounted for the stooping and rounding of the spine and shoulders in six months after leaving the grammar school — ^which they did on an average at the age of twelve and a half years. SCH (S") SCH After a contention of a. year against the objec- tions of teachers and some of .the committee, I suc- ceeded in having the desk placed near enough to the seat to allow the pupil to rest the book ^^ith ease while sitting erect ; and in another six months the effect was apparent in all classes, as one could select by the difference of form those who were admitted before and after the change. I hav« also investigated the cause of so much awkwai-dness of position of the pupils while in □ D Fig. 76. their seats in the primary schools, where but little care is taken in t)ie making of small seats. In our ■chools they are but little better than a smooth board, and support only a very small surface (over the tuberosity of the ischium) on either side, and an inch or two of the thigh. This small surface soon grows painful, and then the children fall into all sorts of shapes to relieve thepressure over so small a surface, I then noted some of the common attitudes of the children after they had been in their seats for half SCH (512) SCH an hour or more, and had a measure taken of their legs under the knee (which was done by an instru- ment constructed for the purpose, so that the whole school could be measured as fast as the figu'res could well be made), and this compared with the height of the chair. Now, in order to prove the ' effect upon the muscles, and also to show the curvature of the spine, a boy of twelve years old, well develope(3, was selected and photographed, without clothing, in several of these attitudes, thus showing every shade of pressure, and the effects upon the muscles — not those under pressure, but more particularly those of the cavities, as the abdomen and thorax, and the various curva- tures of the spine. Awell-arranged skeleton was also photographed, and, to our surprise, the same positions gave the same curvatures as in the boy (see fig. 76). I then had the same positions photographed in a chair of a different seat and back, and we obtained quite a different result. And we are now putting them into a new primary school, with the hope of giving the school a more comfortable seat and a more ■uniform attitude, as it admits and ensures a pressure over a surface at least four or six times as large as can be obtained in a common seat, and a movable desk to rest the book while studying. I should have said that the relative height of the chair for the boy (in taking his picture) was the Sam? as those in school, as near as could be. I do not intend to represent a permanent distor- tion of the spine ; but thesp various attitudes do produce them so long as these attitudes are main- tained, and your own eyes will convince you that the glance at the shoulder is proof enough. There is a general impression (which may be -well founded or not) that deformities of the vertebral column, formerly rare, are now on the increase ; this is most certainly due in a measure to ill-constructed seats. It is generally admitted that the best form of seat is one which is suitable to the size of the sobolar, and v?hich has a properly-shaped back so as to support the spinal column. The long forms and desks, and the arrangement in classes according to lability, is the worst system possible; there should be separate tables, one for each scholar, according to his stature and size. rigs. 77 and 78 will show some of the forma used in America; both the seat and Fig. 77. table are fixtures, and proportioned to the stature of the child. The height of the table experimentally by M. le Dr. Guillaume, who gives the following table (Annales d'Hygiene, 1874) :- Jig. 78. and benches at which the different-sized children should' sit has been determined Height of Pupils. Height of Table. Height of Seat. Height of Back of Seat. Feet. 3-0 to 3-3 3-3 „ 3-6 3-6 „ 39 3-9 „ 4'2 4-2 „ 4'5 4-5 „ 4-8 4 8 „ 5-1 5-1 „ 5-4 Inches. 13-5 14:7 15-8 17-0 18-1 19-2 20-4 21-6 Inches. 7 '5 8-5 9'5 10-3 11-2 12-2 13-1 141 Inches, 9 '8 ■10-8 11-9 12-9 14-0 150 161 17'2- According, then, to this scheme, tables and benches of eight different sizes would be re- quired. It would appear from the inquiries of the Massaohusetta State Board of Health in SCE (S13) SOU America, and from observations in our own country, that school-life has a serious influ- ence on the sight. " In Winchester, U.S., twenty-four children from a primary school (ages from five to ten), as many from a grammar school (ages from ten to fourteen), and as many from a high school (ages from fourteen to eighteen), sexes equally divided, were taken in separate squads to a well-lighted haU, where their eyesight was tested with the test-types of Dr. H. W. Williams, and in such a way that one child could not ' prompt ' another, and with the following result : — Primary 12 boys 1 slightly defective. 12 girls 1 short-sighted. Grammar., ..12 boys 1 very defective. 12 girls 1 short-sighted. High 12 boys 2 very defective. 12 girls 1 short-sighted, 1 defective. " The teachers had been asked to send no child whose sight was known to be defective. "In Wakefield twenty-four children were similarly tested in each of seven schools, the sexes being very nearly equally divided. Besults as follows :— Primary (7^ years)— 2 very slightly defective, 1 , slightly, 2 markedly. First Intermediate (9 years)— 3 very slightly defec- tive, 2 slightly, 1 decidedly, 1 very. Second Intermediate (10 Jears)— 1 very slightly defective, 2 slightly, 1 decidedly. First G-rammar (118 years)— 6 very slightly defec- tive, 1 slightly, 1 decidedly. Second Grammar (12J years)— 3 very slightly de- fective, 2 slightly. Advanced Grammar' (14! years)— 6 very slightly defective, 1 slightly, 1 decidedly, 6 very. High (16J years) — i very slightly defective, 1 slightly, 3 very. " The nine whose sight was very defective were all females. The advanced grammar and the high school rooms are marked ' large and finely lighted on N., S., and W.'"— (Fifth Beport, Massachusetts Board of Health.) How much of this defective sight is con- genital, and how much to be ascribed to straining the eyes in bending over desks and deciphering minute letters, it is impossible to say. It teaches us that great care is neces- sary to ensure the proper lighting of the desks. The light should come from behind and from the left hand ; and if artificial light is used, attention must be given to see that it is thrown down from above as much as possible, and that the source of light be not so near as to heat the eyes and head. Large clear type should be insisted upon for all school-books, and maps, slates, &b., should be of the largest convenient size. All schools, public and private, should be regularly inspected by every medical officer of health, and the result of these inspections should make a prominent feature in his annual report. The author in his own dis- trict has found schools the great centres of the propagation of diseases such as whoop- ing-cough, measles, scarlet fever, &c.; so that, practically speaking, there is no single place more important to visit regularly than a school. In inspecting, the ventilation, the superficial area, the cleanliness of the children, their number, whether they have all been vaccinated, whether any child has come from an infected house, and the state of the privies and lavatories, s&ould be particularly noticed. The regular daily inspection of the closets and drains should be insisted upon in all schools. In examining the children themselves it will be useful to look particularly for diseases of the skin and hair. It has been proposed lately by several per- sons to utilise the schools in obtaining accu- rate information as to sickness in a district, since whenever a child is absent from school the master is obliged to enter the faot, and it certainly would not be much extra trouble if the cause of the non-attendance were also chronicled. " What we want," says Dr. Far- quhar, iu a very practical paper on the sub- ject published in the " Lancet," November 22, 1873, "now is— first, a yearly return of the permanently-disabled children, and the causes which prevent their attendance at school; secondly, a weekly return of temporarily-sick children borne on the school register, and the diseases that prevent their attendance at school." The utility of such returns is unquestion- able. Scurvy — This disease essentially consists in a profound alteration of the blood, caused by abstinence from a proper vegetable diet. History. — Scurvy is noticed by Pliny as having occurred in the Koman army com- manded by Germanicus, and it must have prevailed in the most ancient times, with its associates famine and scarcity. For the most complete accounts of its preva- lence and fatality we must refer to histories of the middle ages and modem times. It especially afflicted nations in their pro- gress from barbarism to civilisation, when the arts of war usurped the practice of horticul- ture, and its causes, effects, and prevention began to be studied as soon as the possession of the compass rendered possible the under- taking of long voyages. History shows us that it is a disease of land as well as of the sea. Witness in 1260 the de- struction of the army of Louis IX. from scurvy , the disablement of the English garrison at Oswego in 1756 ; and other instances, such as the besieged towns of Thorn, Breda, KocheUe, 2k sex; (SI4) SOU Stetting, and Gibraltar in 1780, and the Crimean war of our own times. As an example of the terrible destruction of this disease in our navy, Dr. Guy cites the following instances : — " Bourvy alone has sufficed to place a well- manned vessel at the mercy of the winds and waves. Witness Anson's own ship, the Cen- turion, in 1742, when the crew were so weak- ened by it that had the ship been compelled to keep the sea a very few days longer it could not have been brought to anchor at Juan Fer- nandez, but must have gone adrift in the Pacific, the survivors perishing miserably, as happened to a gpiinish ship under the like circumstances. ,0r take the figures that ex- press the mortality in Anson's fleet. Out of 961 men 626 deaths in nine months, or very nearly 2 out of 3 ! And this was no rare or exceptional occurrence, for such things had happened in earlier, and did happen in later, times. Thus Sir Eichard Hawkins, the great navigator of the age of Elizabeth and her suc- cessor, said that in the course of twenty years ' he had known of 10,000 seamen having per- ished by scurvy alone.' Even so late as 1780, Sir Gilbert Blane found that a fleet manned with between 7000 and 8000 seamen had in one year lost 1 in every 7. Fortunately for us, this high mortality was not limited to our own ships. A Portuguese historian, cited by Sir Gilbert Blane, speaking of the favour- able case of an exploring expedition, says that , ' if the dead who had been thrown overboard between the coast of Guinea and the Cape of Good Hope, and between that cape and Mozambique, could havehad tombstones placed for them, each on the spot where he sank, the whole way would have appeared one continued cemetery.' "—(Dr. Gut's Lectures on Public Health. London, 1874.) The expedition of Sir Francis Wheeler, the sickness in Admiral Hozier's fleet, 1726, and Che state of our own armies in the American war, are practical instances of the disastrous influence of scurvy as a cause of inefficiency from disease of our fleets and armies. But even in those times, as Dr. Guy re- marks, "when other sanitary matters were neglected, or imperfectly carried out, there were not wanting striking examples of single ships and whole fleets maintained in perfect health and complete efficiency by fresh meat, vegetables, and fruit." Dr. Guy instances as examples— 1. A ship under Fletcher, v/hiah. was ordered three times up the Ganges, then fcetid from dead bodies, and each time the men preserved perfect health, which Fletcher attributed to the use of tea and sugar, 2. The fleet of Admiral Hawke in 1747, con- sisting of 14,000 men, who were pent up in their'ships for six or seven months, and yet on the day of his victorious engagement there were not twepty sick sailors in the whole fleet — a result entirely attributed to the fact that the ships had been well supplied with fresh meat and greens. Symptoms of Scurvy.ScTiivj is popularly believed to be a sort of scab or scurf on the skin I this is erroneous. It essentially consists in a. profound alteration of the whole system. In well-marked cases there are blotches all over the body, called in the eld Bills of Mortality "the purples." These blotches are really effusions of blood beneath the skin ; the gums become spongy and bleed at the slightest touch, and often break out into ulcers. There is great anaemia and prostration of strength; sometimes old wounds break out afresh, and fractures become disunited. Death often occurs suddenly from some abrupt exer- tion. The disease is frequently complicated with dropsy, dysentery, and other affections. Fathology.— The pathology of the disease points very conclusively (as the main seat of the ajfection) to the blood, which is so pro- foundly altered that it escapes through the walls of its natural channels. "It often lies," says Lind, "in large con- crete masses on the periosteum, while the bellies of the muscles of the legs and thighs seem quite stuffed with it, often an inch in thickness." Patches of ecchymoses have been found under the pericardium covering the heart, and under the arachnoid membrane covering the brain, and in other parts. The epiphyses of the joints in extreme cases have separated, as well as the cartilages of the ribs, and old fractures have become disunited. "The effusions of blood occur most fre- quently in the skin, the subcutaneous cellular tissue, between the muscles of the lower ex- tremities and of the jaws, in the peritoneal coat, and in the muscular and mucous coats of the intestinal canal. The general paleness of the tissues shows that there is great de- ficiency of red particles in the blood ; and the tendency to swoon so constant in scurvy, is undoubtedly owing in some measure to this deficiency, though it is evident that diminished proportion of red particles which is common to many diseases is not the only, nor the most important, change in scurvy." — (Budd.) Chatin and Bouvier have discovered that the albumen of the blood is in some way altered in constitution, for it does not coagu- late under a temperature of 74° C, or 165 '2° F.— that is, from 5° to 8° F. above the normal standard— so that the albumen is increased in solubility. The cohesion of the fibrine they SCTT (SIS) sou also noticed was so much lessened that they were unable to isolate it thoroughly from the red corpuscles ; hence the agglutinated blood, the viscid and thickened crassamentum of the early writers. Scurvy at the Present Time. — Scnrvy'can hardly be said to exist at the present time either in our army or navy. In the last report of the health of the navy it appears that out of a total force of 47,260 only four cases of scurvy occurred within the year. — (Statistical Eeport of the Navy, 1871.) ' It is still to be found to a considerable extent in the merchant service, partly from the wilful and almost criminal carelessness of captains and owners, and partly from the bad quality of the lime-juice supplied. The Mer- chant Shipping Act (17 & 18 Vict. o. 104) provided that whenever a crew shall have been consuming salt provisions for ten days, lime- juice or lemon-juice and sugar shall be served out at the rate of half an ounce each per day ; but no provision was made to ascertain the quality of this juice. Mr. Harry Leach, in his , report on the hygienic condition of the mer- cantile marine, 1867, says : — " "We are prepared to maintain from the following table (and other statistics from which these have been taken) that'the-want of good lime or lemon juice was distinctly the cause of scurvy in the vessels below mentioned. Name of No of HfLnds Oasos ■ Biflult of examina- Ship. (all'told). of Scurvy, tion of Lime-Jilioe. Hermine . 17 5 Sulphuric acid. Merrie England 29 10 Stinking. Stirling Castle . S2 6 Very weak. Hoang-Ho 21 6 Acetic acid. Blanche Moore 85' 8 Musty and nauseous St. Andrew's Castle 19 7 Citric acid. Tamerlane 21 4 Nauseous. Marlborough 2a 8 Tery weak. Galloway . 29 fi Short allowance. Tamar -17 2 Very weak. Trench Empire 27 7or8 Citric acid. Eaglet 14 3 Thick and nasty. Geelong . 11 9 Taken irregularly. Thorndcan. 35 2. Spoiled. (Short sup ply of provisions.; Taken from ships that, with others, have arrived in the port of London during the past two years with cases of scurvy. "Of direct causes, this is undoubtedly first and foremost ; but of indirect causes we have a few words to say. Dirt, bad provisions, and any form of disease to which sailors, in com- mon with other men, are subject, wUl predis- pose to scurvy. This cannot and should not be denied, but it affords to parsimonious cap- tains a very large peg whereon to hang sundry invectives as to the cry latsly made about the continued prevalence of this disease in the mercantile marine. Such captains, with par- donable ignorance, consider scurvy a form of venereal disease, give the wretched subject thereof mercury, and bring him into port salivated as well as scorbutic." The same writer says : — ' ' During the past thirteen years, it is found that 1230 cases of scurvy are recorded in the books of the Dreadnought Hospital Ship. By an analysis of these figures, we find that, after a decrease in the numbers admitted in 1855, the annual total varies but little until the year 1865, when the admissions rose to 102, or 20 per cent, over most of the previous ten years. The same result obtains in the- year just past, 101 having been entered. From returns of the Liverpool hospitals, gleaned 1863, we learn that fifty cases were admitted during that year ; and, by the courtesy, of Mr. Reginald Harrison, we fiiid that the numbers admitted into these institutions during last year rose to 116. By the kindness of Dr. Fowler, surgeon to the Civil Hospital in the island of St. Helena, we are informed that from 1860 to 1865, both inclusive, 178 cases of scurvy were admitted there, and that twice or thrice that number were treated as out- patients. "In summing up statistics of scurvy for the past year (1867), we find that a total of 235 accredited cases were admitted into British hospitals, giving no account of those who con- valesced in Sailors' Homes or elsewhere. To this we may add, that seven sailors were left at St. Helena, from a ship recently arrived in the Thames ; that a vessel put into Falmou,th onthe29thult.,withno less than sixteen severe oases of scurvy on board, and that between twenty and thirty cases have arrived in this port during the present month. It would be well (as a supplementary aid to the prevention of scurvy by inspection of lime-juice) that the dues levied for the St. Helena Hospital should be abolished. It was stated to us some weeks ago by a very old inhabitant of that island, that this fact alone caused many sliips to pass without calling for needful supplies of anti- scorbutic material. I would, however, re- mark tHat, if the system proposed by the Sea- men's Hospital Society were put in force, no such aid to the prevention of this ' disease would be required, inasmuch as every ship would then be supplied with a, sufficiency of good lime-juice." That it has decreased'since this report was ■written, 'to a certain extent, appears, however, from the folio-wing statistics of the admis- sions of cases of scurvy into the Seamen's Hospital : — Iul865, from British vessels, 101; foreign do. 1 Iniseu „ „ 96 „ 5 Inl867 „ „ 90 „ 4 InlSliS „ ,, 64 „ 10 SEA (516) SEN In 1869, from liritish vessels, 31 ; foreign do. 9 In 1870 „ ,, 30 „ 21 In 1871 „ „ 24 „ 16« Deaths from scurry are classed in' the Registrar-General's reports with purpura, and as it is to be feared that deaths returned as purpura include various congenital heart affec- tions, the figures are deprived somewhat of their value. . In the twenty-five years from 1847 to 1871 the number of deaths from purpura and scurvy amounted to 8761, or about 350 yearly. The proportional number of deaths from scurvy in the ten years 1862-71 to 1,000,000 persons living was as follows : 1862, 18 ; 1863, 20 ; 1864, 19; 1865, 20; 1866, 22; 1867, 22; 1868, 22 ; 1869, 19 ; 1870, 21 ; 1871, 24; And in the eight preceding years the' numbers were respectively, 15, 17, 12, 13, 18, 18, 18, and 20. Prevention of Scurvy. — The prevention of scurvy is so easy that it appears wonderful the disease should still exist. It may be summed up shortly as follows: A proper mixed diet of fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat, or where that is impossible, the drink- ing daily of a certain quantity of lime-juice. The important discovery that lime-juice pre- vents scurvy was probably due to John ■Woodfall. "At what period the truth dawned upon men's minds we do not know, but certainly as early as 1617 John Wood- fall, master in surgery, knew that lemon-juice was the best of all remedies for the scurvy, and commended it accordingly ; but, strange to say, this ilnportant fact was forgotten or overlooked for more than a hundred years. About 1770 Lind revived and diffused a know- ledge of it ; but nearly another quarter of a century was. to elapse before our navy was supplied with it. This important step was taken in 1796." Of vegetable acids experience has shown citric and tartaric to be the best preventives. Next to these comes acetic, then malic, and lowest in the list lactic; indeed, as regards the last, it is questionable whether lactic acid has any influence on scurvy whatever. These acids are efficacious if given pure, but still more so in their natural combinations, as in lime-juice and most fresh vegetables. When ' the vegetables are dried they appear to lose the antiscorbutic virtues to a considerable extent; whether this is due to a deoomposi- * The disgraceful fact must, however, be recorded, that two British vessels this year (1876) arrived at San Francisco, the crews decimated by scurvy. The brigantine Cecilia also arrived in London with two cases of the disease on board, and the. captain was prosecuted and fined, it being distinctly proved that there was an insufficient supply of lime-juice. There have been one or two other similar cases. tion or destruction .of the organic acids in the process of drying is not known. It is impor- tant also toremember that dried peas and beans are absolutely useless, while dried potatoes are of considerable value. The practical details, then, of keeping men free from scurvy, whether on land or sea, is to see that, where they can be obtained, fruits and fresh vegetables be used at each meal. In war it is better to utilise any plant that is not injurious rather than have no vege- tables at all. The cruciferse are, however, so common all over the world that the army surgeons would in most places find a proper supply. Failing this, or in conjunction with vegetables, each soldier or sailor should drink an ounce daily of lemon-juice, which should be swallowed as soon as distributed, and on no account should the men be allowed to carry it off to their tents or cabins. Vinegar should be an essential part of the rations, and it is a good plan to issue little packets of the citrates or tartrates of potash, with instruc-. tions for use. Sea- Weeds— 5ce Algj), &c. Semola— A preparation of wheaten flour, deprived, by washing in water, of a great quantity of its starch, and containing 48 per cent, of nitrogenous or albuminoid principles. It is intended as a food for infants, weakly children, and invalids. Semolina {Simoule)—" The large hard grains of wheat-flour retained in the bolting- machine after the fine flour has passed through its meshes." With the simoule the fine white Parisian bread called "gruau" is baked. See Bread, Flouk, &o. Senna — The leaves of various species of senna. The commercial varieties are Alexandrian, Indian, Aleppo, and Tripoli senna. Alezandi-ian senna should be composed of Cangia lenitiva and G. ohovata, Indian senna should consist entirely of leaves derived from C. elongata. Aleppo senna should consist entirely of leaves derived from 0. obovata. The leaflets of all these varieties of senna are of a greenish colour, with a faint peculiar odour and a characteristic taste, and they are all unequally oblique at the base. C. lanceola are lanceolate, about an inch in length ; C. obovata a little shorter, and ovate ; and 0, elongata about 2 inches long, lanceolate and acute. Vses. — Senna is a well-known and much used drug, seldom employed for any other purpose than as an aperient or cathartic. Adulterations. — Senna is vei-y extensively SEW (517) SEW adulterated, the sophistications almost entirely consisting of the admixture of various leaves, which may be easily detected, providing a person is thoroughly acquainted with the botanical structure of the leaves of senna itself. Descriptions should not be entirely relied upon, but actual specimens of the different varieties of senna kept at hand for comparison. The following leaves have beeu found fraudulently mixed with senna: Leaves of Colutea wrhorescens, Solenostemma Argel, Coriaria myrtifolia, Glohula/ria Alyssum, Tephrosia Apollinea, Vaccimum Vitis idcea, and Oaasia brevisse. Sewer, Sewage, Drains, Drainage, &c. — It will be convenient to treat in one article the various matters belonging to drainage and sewage. In this article, therefore, first sewage, next sewers and drains, and lastly the legal pro- visions and enactments relating to them, will be considered. It will be convenient here to accept the definition of the British Association Commit- tee, and apply the term sewage to " all refuse of human habitations affecting the health of the country." 1. Composition of Sewage. — " Sewageis a very complex liquid ; a large proportion of its most offensive matters is of course human excre- ment discharged from- water-closets and privies, and also urine thrown down gully- holes. But mixed with this there is the water from kitchens, containing vegetable, animal, and other refuse ; and that from wash-houses, containing soap and the animal matters from soiled linen. There is also the drainage from stables and cowhouses, and that from slaughter-houses, containing animal and vegetable offal. In cases where privies and cesspools are used instead of water- closets, or these are not connected with the sewers, there is still a large proportion of human refuse, in the form of chamber slops and urine. In fact, sewage cannot be looked upon as composed solely of human excrement diluted with water, but as water diluted with a vast variety of matters, some held in sus- pension, some in solution." — (First Beport of Bivers Pollution Commissioners.) It will thus be seen that the composition must be variable — variable not only in different places, but also at different hours of the day. For example, the total combined nitrogen in Lon- don sewage alone varies from 3 to over 11 per 100,000 parts, and in all the samples given in the above-quoted report, the varia- tion was from 2371 to 24-325 parts. The average composition of sewage, speaking generally, however, is as follows: — 100,000 parts of sewage contains — 72-20 total solids in solution. 44 '69 suspended matters. Of the 72-20 dissolved solids there are — 4-696 parts of organic carbon. 2-205 ,, organic nitrogen. 7-728 „ , combined nitrogen. 6 '703 „ ammonia. 10-660 ,, chlorine. Of the 44-69 in suspension — 24-18 are mineral, 20 '51 organic. The following tables will also elucidate farther the composition of sewage : — Composition of Sbwek Waters CWay). Grains per Gallon. 1. 2. 3. 4. Organic matters (soluble) 19-40 41-03 12-30 I 9-26 ,, „ (suspended) 39-10 17-00 24-37 Lime .... 10-13 14-71 12-52 11-25 Magnesia 1-42 1-82 1-59 1-35 Soda .... 4-01 2-40 2-41 1-89 Potash .... 3-66 3-57 3-31 1-09 Chloride of sodium 26-40 22-61 34-30 5-58 Sulphuric acid 5-34 5-31 6-40 3-43 Phosphoric acid 2-63 5-76 2-48 0-64 Carbonic acid . 9-01 8 92 11-76 ) cji,. „ ( Oxide of iron ) Sil««' i Oxide of zinc/ • 6-20 13-55 6-46 y 4-77 Ammonia 7-48 8-43 7-88 134-78 14511 125-78 39-20 SEW (Si8) SEW London Seweb Water (Letheby). GrainB per Gallon. -..■y Night Storm S U go. Sewage. Sewage. Soluble matters 56 74 65-09 70-26 Organic matters 15-08 7-42 14-75 Nitrogen . ... 6'44 6-]9 7-26 Mineral matters 40-66 . 67-67 65-71 Phosphoric acid 0-85 0-69 103 Potash 1-21 1-15 1-61 Su-'pended matters . 38-15 13-89 81-88 Organic matters 16-11 -7-48 17-66 Nitrogen . 0-78 0-29 0-67 Mineral matters 22-04 0-51 14-33 Phosphoric acid 0-89 0-64 0-98 Potash 8-08 0-04 0-18 2. Disposal of Sewage, — ^Whether collected in cesspools, privies, earth-closets, or con- ducted in sewers, some method of disposal must be adopted or great evils necessarily follow. In all methods of hand removal, the sewage can and generally is applied directly to the soil — iig., in the north of France, the sewage is received into closed vessels called citemes d engrais, and emptied in fields. In country places in England the greatest care is taken of the middens, the manure from which is applied to the ground without pre- paration, or mixed with straw. In many schools and public establishments the farmer supplies dry earth for closets, and receives in return the same earth after it has been used. But even where hand removal is employed, in some places the whole is wasted, although there would appear every facility to utilise it. Thus at A-vignon, Marseilles, and other Xilaces in the south of France, the faecal matters and urine are collected by the ton- neaux twice a day, and transported to the sea. In most of our own sea-coast towns the sewers empty themselves in the sea; and though this, when perfectly carried out, may get rid of sewage without nuisance, yet there is a direct loss to the land of a valuable fertilising agent. The most obvious means of getting rid of sew.ige is the nearest watercourse; and in times when sewers were ill 'constructed, and towns not so large as they are now, the evil, though appreciable, was not excessive ; but at the present day, virith well-constructed impervious sewers, in the case of large towns situated along the banks of a river, which each pollutes in turn, and in so doing poisons the principal water-supply for its inhabitants, the system can no longer be permitted or recommended. " The effect of this conversion of the rivers into common sewers is most injurious; all complain, even those who while suffering from the inconvenience and annoyance which such a state of things entails, add to the nuisance by themselves folio-wing the general example, while they whose property happens to lie on the stream, even many miles below the towns, are sufferers in a variety of ways. Are they farmers ? — Their cattle cannot drink of the stream passing through their meadows. Are they dwellers on or near the bank of the river? — They are driven from home by the stench which renders the place unbearable. Are they compelled by duty to remain on the spot ? — They are subject to perpetual annoy- ance, and, as alleged, in many cases to ill health. Have they property ?— Its value is often diminished; a house remains tenant- less; land is unsaleable except at a reduced price."— (First Beport of Elvers Pollution Commissioners, 1§70.) In many places the old midden system still prevails, but this need only be mentioned to be condemned. The different varieties of the system are thus summarised in the twelfth report of the medical ofScer to the Privy Council ; — "1. The midden system of old type— in all the old parts of almost all towns. "2. Middens of large size, and permitting much accumulatioii, but compulsorUy sup- plied with some means of keeping the contents dry (covers, drains, or both), and for prevent- ing leakage into the earth — Preston, Leeds, Birmingham. "3. The same (though smaller), with the addition of special constructions aiming at the effectual covering of excrement by ashes^ "By sloping bottom — Nottingham, Stam- ford. "By hinged seats or steps — Manchester, Salford. "By ashpit and shoot— Manchester. " 4. The same arrangement, with the midden reduced to «• mere space under the seat- Hull." The Pail or Tub System {Fosses Mobiks),viVii Fosses Mobiles, has for its object the collection of dejecta in a state of purity, without mixture with water, in a clean and odourless condition. 1. Sea,t. — This consists simply of a soil-pan of stoneware or faience, without woodwork, the soil-pan merely projecting from the top of the descent pipe. Its borders are furnished with a groove filled with water or sand, into which the raised rim of the lid fits. 2. Connecting Pi^c— This pipe is straight, without a siphon, and joins the descent pipe at a very acute angle, 22°, and is about 4 inches in diameter inside. It is, like the next, made of stoneware, glazed inside. 3. Descent Pipe. —This is ftom 6 to 8 inches in internal diameter'; it is vertical, and is composed of a series of pipes connected with each other by dry sand joints, without SEW (S19) SEW cement, fixed to the wall by iron bands. It rests at the ground-floor level on a strong flagstone. Its prolongation, through and below this stone, consists of a sliding pipe of wrought copper capable of being lengthened or' shortened, and solidly fixed to the stone by a cast-iron connector. A sort of circular shallow dish {icuelle), which can be hung under this last part of the descent pipe, serves at a given moment to shut its lower orifice. 4. Tub {Tonneau).— The excremental mat- ters coming down the descent pipe fall into a tub of from 2 to 3 hectolitres (44 to 66 gallons), in a hole in the top of which the lower part of the pipe fits tightly. A cover fitted with a spring serves to shut and lute the tub when it is fuU. Placed on a stand furnished with wheels, the tub is easily managed. When filled, it is immediately replaced by another similar contrivance. If the tub is under- ground, the rails (on which the stand moves) should be placed on an incline, so that the removal and replacement may be easily effected. The underground chamber must be isolated, and the entrance to it placed out- side the building. The thorough tarring of the interior of the tub not only preserves the staves, but also partly neutralises the effect of the raephitic gases which the exoremeutal matters disengage. •5. Ventilation-Pipe.- — To prevent the smells and gases which are given off from the mouth of the tub from spreading themselves (in the house) by means of the opening in the privy seat, at the upper extremity of the descent pipe is fixed a ventilation-pipe, which rises above the coping of the roof, and the action of which is increased by means of a vane, or any other contrivance producing the same effect. " The expenses of this apparatus are said to be relatively small, and are, besides, amply com- pensated for by the returns from the sale of the manure." — (Conseil superieur d'HygiSne Pub- Ilque. Bapports addresses k M. le Ministre de rinterieure, vol. ii., Eruxelles; quoted by Corfield.) The German system of movable receptacles {Atfuhrtonnen) is in principle identical with the above. Boxes are used in some places, either pre- liared or unprepared. In Nottingham a little earth or ashes is put in the bottom of the box to prevent the con- tents adhering. The scavenging is done by night, and the refuse taken away by canal barges and sold as manure. In Leeds boxes are used without any pre- paration. Tubs or pails are much used in Eochdale and Edinburgh. In the former town they are made of disused paraffine ca^ks, each cask being cutin two. Tight-fitting lids are supplied. The paUs cost about 3s. 4d. each. They are changed twice or three times a week, and are unattended with nuisance. In Edinburgh there is literally no accommodation in many large houses, hence the custom of simply placing pails full of excrement, urine, &c. , outside the houses for removal by the scavenger. At Edinburgh and Glasgow there are closets supplied with movable metal pails, which are removed daily. These closets are roofed in, and are ranged in double rows, with a passage between them for the scavenger. The Eureka System. — A box containing some disinfectant or deodorising mixture in this system was placed under the privy seat, with instructions that no slops were to be put into it, left for a few days, then, covered with a tightly-fitting lid, removed and a fresh one put in its place. The full box was carried off to a manure manufacture; the manufactory was a nuisance to the neighbourhood, and the manure unprofitable. It is certain, however, that it had not a fair trial. The Goux System. — In this system the pails are lined with an absorbent material. " All kinds of vegetable and animal fibrous matters, useless for other purposes, are used as absor- bents, and are to be mixed in such proportions as may be most convenient, together with a small percentage of sulphate of iron or sul- phate of lime." This absorbent material is pressed and hol- lowed so as to leave a cavity by means of a mould. Ordinary midden- closets can easily be converted into closets which admit of the use of this system. The closets on the Goux system require intelligent management. "VVlien that is ob- tained there is no offensive smell nor pollution of the soil. Reginald SmitKs Process. — This is founded on the patents of M. Badin, and has been tried and reported favourably on at the Metropoli- tan Extension "Works, Bishopsgate Street. The apparatus consists of a truncated cone of wire ganze, which is fixed base downwards, in a cylinder of perforated metal. The cylin- der is surrounded by, and nearly fills, a strong water-tight cylinder of galvanised iron, con- nected by a union joint with an air-tight cis- tern. The outer cylinder is about 3 feet high. The space between the cone and the inner cylinder is filled with some porous sub- stance, such as spent tan, saturated with a powerful antiseptic. The excreta, both solid and liquid, fall into the cone. Here the solids are retained, while the liquids filter through the tan, are distributed in their pas- sage, and finally paas into the outer cylinder, SEW (S20) SEW and thence to the tank. The cylinders' miiBt of course be changed when full and the tank emptied. The apparatus is large enough to retain the excreta of a family of six for two months. When full, the cylinders and liquid from the tank are taken to the company's works, the liquid boiled down, mixed with the solid tan, and all taken from the cylinder. The whole is then dried, pulverised, and sold as "human guano." The Dry Sysiem. — The form of earth-closets and the best earth to be used are described under Closets, which see. The system has been extremely successful whenever it has been tried, where a number of people are vnder control. For instance, the camp at Wimbledon adopted the earth system. Kows of closets made of deal boards were placed back to back, with a passage be- tween the rows, to which access was only attainable by an attendant under each row. A long pit was dug in the ground (4J feet deep by 5 feet wide), into which the excre- ment fell. , The weight of the person on the seat causing, by a mechanical arrangement, 14 lb. of dry earth to fall from the receptacle upon the excrement. The public closets were used once a day by 3000 persons. Notwith- standing the immense number in the camp, and the excessive heat, the earth-closet suc- ceeded admirably ; there was absolutely no annoyance of any kind. It has been applied to schools, barracks, and public insti- tutions, both at home and in India ; and where the system has received the necessary attention it has succeeded admirably. Where improper or insufficient earth has been used, or where intrusted to the hands of dirty and negligent people, it has failed. The Water-Cmriage System. — ^Water-closets with any mechanical arrangement, unless per- fectly self-acting, are not suitable to a low- class population — this is the experience of all towns. Certainly one of the best forms of latrines is the trough water-closet. They have been erected in various towns — in Liverpool, West Derby, and other places. Dr. Buchanan thus describes them. A long trough is placed below and behind the seats of a series of closets. At the one end is a communication with a drain leading into the sewer ; this opening is closed by a plug coonected with an iron rod, by which it can be raised or lowered into the drain mouth by the scavenger. Behind the back wall of the water-closet is a small cham- ber, to which the scavenger only has access, and it is from this chamber alone that the plug can be interfered with. The scavenger comes daily, lifts up the plug, lets the con- tents of the inclined trough run into the sewer. washes out the trough with hose which is placed in the chamber for the purpose and which is connected with a hydrant, sweeps it clean, charges the trough with water, lets down the plug into the draiii mouth, and leaves it for twenty-four hours. The closets themselves are cleaned by the users in rota- tion, and an inspector calls every two or three days to see that it is done. If it is not done properlj- the offenders are summoned, and some have been sent to prison for the offence. The ashes and other refuse are put into the street and carted away daily by the scavengers. On the authority of Dr. Buchanan the Liverpool arrangements work admirably, and there is a marked difference between them and the water-closets of the poorer parts of London and other towns. In Leeds, Birkenhead, and Tranmere a self- acting closet, known as the ' ' tumbler, " is much used. Here also is a trough running under the seats ; the water trickles into a swinging basin at the upper end, and this is so con- structed that when full it capsizes and washes out the contents of the trough into the drain. 3. The Vtilisation of Sewage— {1.) Manu- facture into Manure, (a.) Sim^h Filtration. — This is in order to separate the solid from the liquid part. A mass of black semi-solid mud is thus obtained, which, mixed with ashes or street-refuse, sells for manure, while the liquid Sows into the nearest watercourse. But this liquid is just as mucli sewage as before — it is merely deprived of suspended matters. The actual results of the different varieties of simple filtration in several towns are as follows : — AsKby-de-la-Zouch. — The solid matters are separated partly by subsidence and partly by filtering through upright screens. The result is a black rich-looking mould, which is bought at a low price by farmers. It finds a ready sale. Banhury. — The solid matters were separated partly by subsidence in tanks, and filtered. The effluent water caused a nuisance in the river. Ely. — Upward filtration. The solid part is removed in the winter, mixed with town- ashes and road-scrapings, and sells for 2s. 6d. a cubic yard, paying in great measure for the expense of dust removal and labour. Bugby. — Part of sewage used for irrigation, part falls on a series of filtering beds. The black matter in the filters is easily disposed of at half-a-orown a load. In each of the cases a large amount of the sewage is lost, and the effluent water is still most decided sewage. SEW (521) SEW French Process. — In France there ia a rather celebrated manufactory in which the sewage is partly converted into ammonia and partly into poudrette, which appears to mainly con- sist of the dry organic matters, and makes a fair manure. The manufactory consists of two parts — viz., the pumping station at the Depotoir de la Villette ; and the works them- selves, situate in the Forest of Bondy. The sewage is conveyed to Villette by the ionneaux des fosses mobiles, and emptied into large tanks, from which the liquid part of the sewage is pumped and conveyed through a conduit on one side of the embankment of the Canal de I'Ourcq. The solid portion is conveyed in boats to Bondy along the same canal. Captain Liernur's Pneumatic System. — It is asserted of the Lieruur system that it not only removes filth, but that it does so in such a manner that it is impossible for the germs of disease or noxious gases to escape ■ into the atmosphere, and that it also keeps the soil and subsoil water in a pure condition. The system is shortly this. There is a network of 5 -inch cast-iron socket pipes branching into the various streets. These pipes originate from a powerful, air-pump worked by steam, which sucks the sewage to the central manufactory, where it is immedi- ately converted by evaporation into pimdrette. Porous drain pipes are laid ahove the sevrers, so that the subsoil water is kept permanently above the sewer. , The details of the system are as follows, tracing it from the water-closet or privy to the final manufactory : — The water-closets and privies are peculiar ; the former are about the size and shape of an ordinary chamber utensil, placed close under the seat. This basin is supplied automatically with a quaH only of water, and by a suitable mechanism, empties itself, also automatically, into, a siphon below. The pneumatic j)rivy has no mechanism whatever, it is merely a deep funnel ; and the excreta fall into a pocket below, the pocket being one arm of a short bent tube or siphon pipe, which is of course connected with the soil-pipe. Each funnel is ventilated by a 2-inch pipe, lead- ing to the outside of the roof of the house, farnished at the top with a Wolpert's air- sucker. The pocket itself is also ventilated, and the ventUating-pipe has a charcoal filter attached to its upper part. The pipes leading from the water-closet or privies enter a main, which main is connected with a tank; the tank is underneath the pavement, and is a oast-iron horizontal cylinder with spherical ends. The tanks are usually put at the intersections of the streets . There is about oue tank for an area varying from 30 to 50 acres. Each tank has as many mains attached to it as there are streets in the area which it exhausts. The tanks are directly connected with the central manufactory and air-pump. Each of the mains is guarded by a stopcock; the single central pipe from each tank going to the engine is also guarded by a stopcock. The way in which each of these tanks is filled is as follows : The engine maintains during the day a three-quarter vacuum in large reservoirs underneath the floor in the manufactory, and also in the central pipes. Workmen- are en- gaged all day in going from -tank to tank; first the stopcock of the central pipe is opened, and thus a communication being made with the air-pump, a vacuum is caused in the tank; now, any one of the stopcocks of the mains being opened, the whole of the privies and water-closets in that street are emptied at once into the tank by pneumatic action. In this way each tank is treated in succession. "We must also state that the pipes are not horizontal, but consist of a series of downward ' lines, alternated by short vertical ones or risers. From the tanks the sewage is similarly con- veyed to the reservoirs of the manufactory. The sewage is there mixed with a little sul- phuric acid to prevent the formation of ammonia and evaporated down in -vacuo, the ultimate product being a dry powder. Until this stage is reached, the sewage has no con- nection with the external atmosphere ; nui- sance is impossible ; the excreta is removed, and the manurial value of the product is high. Yoelcker's analysis of » sample is as fol- lows : — Moisture 8-64 Organic matter (couLainiug nitrogen, 9-85) .... . 62-05 Oxide of iron and alumina , . 3-29 Fhosplioric acid , . .1-76 Lime ... . 0-86 Chlorine . . . . . . 6-22 Sulphuric acid 6-02 Alkaline salts . . . 8-20 Silica .... . 205 100-00 Talue, £8, lOs. per ton. Liernur's system is in use at Amsterdam, Leyden, Drodrecht, and a few other places. The original cost at Amsterdam appears to have been about £2, 10s. per inhabitant. It is said to have succeeded admirably wherever it has been tried, and even the financial re- sults are good. The waste-water from manu- factories is not allowed to enter into the system. (b.) Precipitation Processes — Precipitation by Lime. — This operation is exceedingly simple, and has been carried out upon an ex- tensive scale at Tottenham, , Blackburn, and SEW (522) SEW Leicester. It oonsiats in mixing with the sewage as it arrives at the works a certain proportion of milk of lime, and agitating it by appropriate machinery. A copious precipi- tate of highly putrescible mud takes place, and the effluent liquid flows oS in a some- what milky condition. But it appears to have failed in purifying the sewage so as to allow it to flow into a river, and also in a commercial sense. Sillar's Process {A B 0). — This is a preci- pitation process by means of alum, blood, clay, &o. The proportions for ordinary sewage is — Parts Alum . 800 Blood. 1 Clay . . • . 1900 Magnesia . 6 Manganate of potash 10 Burnt clay . 23 Chloride of sodium 10 Animal charcoal 15 Vegetable charcoal . 20 Magnesian limestone 2 The ABC process is generally pronounced to be a failure. Holden's Process consists in precipitating and deodorising the sewage by means of lime, common coal-dust, and sulphate of iron. The manure is said to be worthless, and much of the putrescible organic matters pass into solu- tion. A treatment with crude sulphate of altimina and subsequent filtration through coke is carried out at Stroud. The value of the deposit obtained is said to be 30s. a ton, but the effluent water is too impure to be dis- charged into a stream. Blyth's Process was based upon the idea, that on the addition of a salt of magnesia and some superphosphate of lime, the triple phos- phate of magnesia, ammonia, and water would be thrown down in an insoluble condition, but it was overlooked that the salt mentioned is perfectly soluble in a water containing com- mon salt. The Phosphate Process, proposed by Messrs. Forbes & Price, consists in adding to the sewage a solution of native phosphate of alumina. The resulting manure has been estimated by Dr. Voeloker at £7, 7s. per ton. The precipitation is declared to be only a pre- liminary step to irrigation. Hill's Process, as carried on at Wimbledon, precipitates sewage by lime and tar. The effluent water is filtered through charcoal. The expenses of the process are small. WMtbread's Process consists in adding to the sewage a mixture containing two equi- > valents of dicalcic phosphate, one of mono- calcic phosphate, and a little milk of lime. The resulting precipitation was found to be very rapid, and the supernatant fluid clear and inoffensive. Suspended matters were completely removed, and the organic nitrogen nearly so. The manure contains a consider- able amount of lime phosphate and 3 per cent, of ammonia. The effluent fluid contains phos- phoric acid and ammonia, and may be used for irrigation. Carbon Piltration, or Weare's Process. — The sewage is filtered in underground tanks. It passes first through ashes and then through vegetable charcoal, lastly through layers of filtering cloth. The effluent water is still rather impure. General Scott's Processes. — General Scott treated the sewage with a considerable mix- ture of lime and clay, and burnt the precipi- tate in kilns, and thus made a marketable cement. The same gentleman also took out a patent in 1873 for a process which he thus shortly describes: ".Instead of converting into charcoal as heretofore the solid matters deposited from sewage by precipitation with lime, or lime and clay, I subject them to a temperature only sufficiently high to decom- pose their organic matters, and so far scorch or only partially char them, so as to develop in them compounds of «■ tarry nature, but not completely to expel such compounds, as is done in the preparations of charcoal. Sewage deposits thus treated exercise a remarkable effect in destroying the noxious smell of putrescent compounds, and they may be used with'great advantage in deodorising nightsoil and rendering it innocuous." Marsden 4« ^bbon Sugar .... 17-8 18-00 14-280 13-392 Cellulose . . . 9 8 9 09 8 867 9 071 Mucilaginous, resinous, fatty, and albuminous 0-415 0-441 Salts, silica, iron . 04 ... 0-353 0368 Water .... 72-0 72-21 76-080 76-729 Fresh sugar-cane 100-0 100-30 100000 lOO-QOl Principal Analyses of Cane-Juice. ATequin, Feli^ot. Flayge. Ciua^seca. Sugar . . 15-784 20090 20-8000 20094 Various organic matters . 0180 0023 08317 0012 Salts . . 0-236 0-017 raaUiiiiaiitlllM 0-014 ■Water . . 83 840 78-070 78.3325 78 080 100-000 100-000 1000000 100-000 According to Fownes the juice contains cane - sugar, grape - sugar, gum, sulphates, potash, phosphates of lime, phosphates of magnesia, some other salt of the same bases, chlorides, soda, and a peculiar azotised mat- ter. Avequin gives the. following as being the mineral constituents of the brown sugar of commerce: Silica, phosphate and subphos- phate of lime, carbonate of lime, sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium, and the acetates of potash and lime. Pure cane-sugar has a specific gravity of 1'606. The specific gravity of the cane-juice varies, according to Pareira, from 1*067 to I'lOB; Mr. Fownes found it to range from 1-070 to 1-090. The purest white sugar contains about "069 per cent, of hygroscopic moisture, "02 of ash, and 99-92 of sugar. Pure sugar is remarkable in being the heaviest organic compound which does not contain either iodine or metals. At the com- mon temperatures 100 parts of water dissolve 300 parts of sugar. Its solubility in boiling water is usually described as being indefinite. It is probable that no organic solution con- taining an equal percentage of organic matter has so high a specific gravity as a solution of cane-sugar. Sugar is insoluble in ether ; it dissolves freely in weak alcohol, but in abso- lute alcohol it is not soluble. An aqueous solution is thick and syrupy. It acts power- fully on polarised light, rotating it to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars bend it to the left. Under suitable conditions it crystallises very finely in double oblique prisms. In the form of large crystals it is kno-wn as sugar-candy. The ordinary loaf- sugar consists of a congeries of minute trans- parent crystals, and the dazzling whiteness sua (S69) STJG of the purest specimens is produced by the numerous reflections and refractions which the rays of light experience within the mass, from the numberless crystals of which it is composed. Dilute acids alter the aqueous solution, and on their addition, its action on polarised light is inverted, and its power of crystallising destroyed. Albuminous substances have the same effect. Oxide of copper is not in the slightest degree reduced by aqueous solutions of sugar ; when, however, uncrystallisable sugar is present, the reduction of oxide of copper to red suboxide of copper is immediate at the boiling-pointr The loaf-sugar of commerce is, speaking generally, perfectly free from nitrogen, and is also devoid of uncrystallisable sugar. Writing on this point, Mr. Wanklyn says, *'I once burnt up a considerable quantity [of sugar] with oxide of copper, and proved the entire absence of nitrogen gas in the products ; and recently I have submitted it to the action of boiling permanganate of potash in the presence of much caustic potash, and proved the non- prbduotion of ammonia." Structure of Suga/r-Oane, — It consists of nearly cylindrical rods or stems, divided into joints at irregular distances, and it is made up of cellular tissue, woody fibre, vessels, and epidermis. The cellular tissue consists of a large number of cells which enclose the juice. Their length, is generally greater than the breadth, and the membranes which form the walls of the cells are all finely dotted or punc- tated. The woody fibre traverses the cane in a longitudinal direction in distinct bundles, which give to transverse sections a dotted appearance. The vessels follow the same disposition as the woody fibre. There are two kinds— (1) interrupted spiral or dotted vessels; and (2) simple or continuous spiral vessels. The epidermis is composed of elongated crenate cells, and contains stomata. At the distal extremity of each internode of the cane, the ordinary epidermic cells are replaced or overlaid by a kyer of cells having totally different characters. They are usually a little longer than broad, more or less rounded or oval in shape, with their edges marked by short and well-defined lines disposed in a radiate nlanner. These cells resemble some- what the cells found in the stones of fruit, and they form by their union a zone round the cane, polished hard, and of about the third of an inch in depth. — (Hassall. ) Frag- ments of sugar-cane are present in the raw sugars of the shops, and in "bastards," a product of the manufacture of loaf-sugar. ' as an Article of Z)iefc— Sugar alone is insnffioient to support life, but when mixed with other suitable food it evidently contri- butes towards force production in the body, and towards the formation and accumulation of fat. This last action of sugar is illustrated in the change that occurs in the condition of the negro during the sugar-making season in the West Indies. The workpeople grow con- spicuously stouter, and they attribute this increase of fat to the habit that prevails of constantly chewing pieces of the succulent cane whilst they are working amongst it. It sometimes undergoes in the stomach an acid fermentation, and so may occasion distress to the dyspeptic; but usually being of a soluble and diffusible nature, it sits lightly on the stomach. Sugar is generally supposed to injure the teeth, but there is no trustworthy evidence on this point. Sugar contributes to the formation of lactic acid, and supplies material for the mainten- ance of life. Ten grains of lump sugar, accord- ing to Letheby, possesses calorific power suffi- cient to raise 8 "61 inches of water 1° F. ; and it wiU lift 6647 lbs. 1 foot high. Consumption of Sugar.— TIt. Edward Smith found that 98 per cent, of indoor operatives partook of sugar to the extent of 7i oz. per adult weekly; 96 per cent, of Scotch labourers use it, and 80 per cent, of Irish. In Wales also it is commonly used to an average extent of 6 oz. per adult weekly; but there is a marked difference in the rate of consumption in the northern and southern portions of the country. The sugar-mite — the Acarus sacchari — is often found in raw, but never in refined, sugar. This insect cannot, however, exist in a specimen of sugar destitute of nitrogen, and the possibilities of the presence of these insects may be judged of through a deter- mination of the nitrogen (or still better, of albuminoid ammonia) in the sugar. From 100 parts of moist sugar not more than '2 part of albuminoid ammonia may be obtained. — (Wankltn. ) The acarus can usually be de- tected by the unaided sight, if not, the micro- scope may reveal its presence. This insect is fully described in article AOAKUS Sacohaei. Adulterations of Cane-Su^a/r, — Other sugars, water, sand, plaster-of-Paris, chalk, glucose, and, as an accidental impurity, lead. Sporules and filaments of fungus are found in most raw sugars. The ordinary loaf-sugar of commerce is rarely adulterated, and the ash left on in- cinerating it does not exceed '01 per cent, of the sugar. The raw sugar of the shops is a much more genuine article than it is usually supposed to be; but it is not nearly so pure as the "lump" sugar, for it contains a certain proportion SU& (570) SUG of mineral matter derived from the plant ; this, expressed as ash, ranges from '49 to '61 per cent, of the sugar. The detection of admixtures of mineral matter with sugar is therefore very easy j all that is required to be done is to take the ash. The solubility is also a test for sand, plaster, chalk, &o., which remain undissolved when sugar is treated with water. If dissolved beneath the microscope, these sophistications are at once detected. Iodine may be added to determine the presence of starch. The percentage of water may be found by drying thoroughly 100 grains and again weighing. For discovering the presence of other sugars the following may be employed : — Tests, die. — 1. Boiled for a short time in water containing' 2 or 3 per cent, of caustic potassa, the liquid remains colourless ; but it turns brown if starch-sugar is present ; even 2 or 3 per cent, of starch-sugar may be thus detected. 2. A filtered solution of 33 grains of cane or beet sugar in 1 fluid ounce of water, mixed with 3 grains of pure hydrate of potassium, and then agitated with IJ grains of sulphate of copper, in an air-tight bottle, remains clear even after the lapse of several days; but if starch-sugar be present, ii. red precipitate is formed after some time ; and if it is present in considerable quantity, the copper will be wholly converted into oxide within twenty- four hours, the solution turning first blue or green, and then entirely losing its colour. — (B. Kkantz.) 3. A solution of cane-sugar is mixed with a solution of sulphate of copper, and hydrate of potassium added in excess; a blue liquid is obtained, which on being heated is at first but little altered. A small quantity of red powder falls after a time, but the liquid long retains its blue tint. When grape-sugar or fecula-Bugar is thus treated, the first applica- tion of heat throws down a copious greenish precipitate, which rapidly changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark red, leaving nearly a colourless solution. The jtiVj; part of grape-sugar may be thus detected. The proportion of oxide of copper produced forms a good criterion, not only of the purity, but also of the extent of the adul- teration. The specific gravities and crystalline forms offer other means of distinguishing the varieties of sugar. The relative sweetening power of cane-sugar is estimated at 100, that of pure grape-sugar at 60, that of fecula or starch sugar at 30 to 40. Lead may be detected in some refined sugars by passing through the solution a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, when, if the metal is present, the liquid will become more or less darkly coloured or precipitated, according to the amount present j it may also be detected in the ash. Beetroot-Sugar is extracted by pressing out the juice from the ripe roots of the white beet ; these are generally gathered in October. This juice contains about 10 per cent, of sugar, which in the fresh juice is entirely of the crystallisable kind; but it is seldom possible to extract in the crystalline form more than' half the quantity the root con- tains. The crystals of beetroot - sugar are longer and flatter than those furnished by sugar from the cane, but they cannot other- wise be distinguished from the latter. Orape-Sugar (starch-sugar, glucose, dex- trose) (CeHijOsHaO =; 180 + 18; specific gra- vity, 1'400). — This substance, since it has been legal to use sugar as well as malt in the manufacture of beer, is made on a very large scale. It is made from the cheapest starch procurable, which at present happens to be rice starch. The starch is crushed between rollers, and macerated with an alkaline liquid ; by this means the gluten is dissolved out and the liquid thrown away. The next operation is the treatment of the starch with dilute sul- phuric acid; then it is placed in a digester, and submitted to the action of steam at 20 lbs. pressure for about half an hour. After this operation it has become an impure solution of grape-sugar. The liquid is run into a vat neutralised with chalk, the sulphate of lime separated by filtration; and finally the sugar is evaporated in vacuo, and purified with animal charcoal in the usual way. The yield of sugar from the rii^e is about 85 per cent. It is less sweet and soluble than cane-sugar; it requires for its solution 1^ part^ of water, and is in the form of granu- lar warty masses, without distinct crystalline faces. A good sample of glucose contains about 80 per cent, of sugar, and a mere trace of gum and mineral matter. Milk-Sugar (lactin or lactose, CiaHjjOnHjO) —White, translucent, .very hard cylindrical masses, or four -sided prisms. Soluble in about six parts of cold and in two parts of boiling water. Milk contains about 5 per cent, of it. It is not susceptible of vinous fer- mentation, except under the action of dUuto acids, which convert it into grape-sugar. An alkaline solution when boiled with the salts of copper reduces them. Effects of tke Varieties of Sugar on Polamed ii'pAi.— Both cane-sugar and grape-sugar, pro- duce rotation upon a ray of polarised light. The plane of polarisation is rotated to the right by sucrose rather less powerfully than by dextrose. It is remarkable that the un- sua (571) SUG crystalliaable sugar of fraits produces an opposite rotation — ^viz., to the left. Since the degree of rotation is proportionate in columns of equal length to the quantity of sugar pre- sent, it has been proposed to employ this pro- pferty in order to determine the quantity of sugar present in syrups. The following, according to Berthelot, are the rotatory powers of the different varieties of sugar, if equal weights of each are dissolTed in an equal bulk of water ; the quantities of each sugar are calculated for the formulae annexed : — Temperature. V. Cane-sugar Melerzitose Mycose Melitose Grape-sugar Malt-sugar , Fruit-sugar Eucalin Sorbine Milk-sugar . Glucose of milk-sugar Inverted cane-sugar . CijHjsOn C12H22O11 C12H24O12 CgHiaOs CfiHiaOs CgHxaOg CgHjgOg CeHigOg CgHigOg CgHxgOfl CgHigOg right left right left right ») left 73-8° 94-1° 193-0° 102 0'' 57-4'' 172 0° 106-0° 50-0° 46-9° 56-4° 83-3° 28-0° 56° 57° 13-3° 13-9° The specific rotatory power of a sugar or other organic compound is expressed by the number of degrees that the plane of polarisa- tion is rotated to the right or to the left by the pure substance dissolved in water, when a column of the solution 100 millimetres in depth is examined by polarised light in a suit- able apparatus. Sugar, Estimation of {Saccharometry). — There are two principal methods of estimating sugar — viz. (1) a. chemical process ; (2) an optical process. 1. Chemical Processes.— (a.) By reducing the oxide of copper to the suboxide, 10 cubic cen- timetres of the solution of copper (given under ■VoLUMETBio SOLUTIOUS) are measured into a small flask or porcelain dish, and 40 cubic centimetres of water added. This is heated to gentle ebullition, and the solution of sugar, whict has been put into a burette, added in small portions slowly. The red suboxide is thrown down, and the sugar solution must be added until there is not the least blue tinge. The reaction is complete when the supernatant clear fluid neither contains copper nor a brown product of the decomposition of the latter sub- stance. In order to ascertain this, it is well to filter off a little of the fluid while stUl hot. The filtrate should be colourless; it should not reduce the copper solution, nor give a precipi- tate with sulphuretted hydrogen. If the filtrate shows any of these reactions, a second estimation must be made. Another method. is simply to precipitate the suboxide, collect on a weighed filter, wash with boiling water, and weigh ;— 100 parts of anhydrous grape-sugar = 220-5 of oxide of copper, or 198'2 of suboxide of copper. The sugar in the juice of grapes, apples, &c., may be submitted to the process without pre- paration ; fermented liquids are best treated first with acetate of lead solution. Dark vegetable juices must be clarified, first by milk of lime, and then by animal char- coal. Liquids containing cane-sugar, or cane-sugar itself, must be converted into grape-sugar by boiling for two or three hours with dilute sulphuric acid. 100 parts of grape-sugar = 95 of cane-sugar, '475 gramme of cane-sugar decomposing 10 cubic centimetres of the copper solution. Milk-sugar, although re- ducing copper, does so in a different propor- tion, and must therefore first be converted into grape. Starch and dextrine require very protracted boiling with dilute acid to change them into sugar ; the best method most decidedly is to put about -5 gramme into strong tubes, hermeti- cally sealed, and heat for half a day in a bath of saturated common salt. 100 parts of grape- sugar = 90 of starch, '045 gramme of starch reduces 10 cubic centimetres of copper solu- tion. (6.) When sugar is fermented with yeastit un- dergoes alcoholic fermentation, with elimination of carbonic acid. It would be an accurate pro- cess if these were the onlyproducts; butvarious other principles are derived from the sugar, such as glycerine, succinic acid, cellulose, and fats. The carbonic acid maybe estimated and coUeotedby an absorption apparatus. 47 parts of carbonic acid equal 100 parts of anhydrous SUG (572) SUG grape-sugar. It is a process abounding with sources of error. (c.) The specific gravity of saccharine solu- tions, whether taken by an instrument called a saccharometer, or in the ordinary way, fairly indicates the percentage, providing the solu- tions are those of pure sugar. The following tables win be useful for this purpose :— TABLE I. Showing the Peboentage of Sdgak, by 'Weight in Volume of Solution, for all Speoipio Gravities with Fouk Decimals, froih Specific Gravity 1'0040 to Specific Gravity 1'0250, at a Temperature of 63° F. (17-2 C.) Specific Gravity. Percentage. Specific Gravity. Percentage. Specific Gravity. Percentage. Specific Gravity. Percentage. 10040 1-004 1-0093 2-346 1.0146 3-703 1-0199 5-074 1 -029 4 -372 7 •729 10200 -100 2 -054 5 •397 8 •755 1 -126 3 •080 . 6 •423- 9 •780 2 -152 4 -105 7 •448 1-0150 3-806 3 -178 5 •131 8 •474 1 •832 4 -204 6 •155 9 •499 2 •858 5 •230 7 -180 1-0100 2-525 3 •883 6 •266 8 -206 1 -550 4 ■909 7 •282 9 -231 2 •576 5 •9.35 8 ■308 1-0050 1-256 3 •601 6 ■961 9 •334 1 -281 4 •627 7 ■987 1-Q210 5-360 2 ■307 5 •652 8 4^012 1 -386 3 •332 6 •678 9 ■038 2 -412 4 •338 7 •703 1-0160 4-064 3 -438 5 •383 8 •729 1 -090 4 -464 6 ' •408 9 •754 2 -116 5 -490 7 •434 1-0110 2780 3 -141 6 ■517 8 •459 1 •805 4 ■167 7 ■543 9 •485 2 . •831 5 ■193 8 •569 I'ooeo 1-509 3 •856 6 ■219 9 •595 1 -534 4 -882 7 •245 1-0220 5-621 2 -560 5 -908 8 •270 1 -647 3 -585 6 •934 9 •296 2 -673 4 •610 7 •959 1-0170 4-322 3 •699 5 •635 8 •985 1 •347 4 •725 6 -661 9 3-010 2 •374 5 ■751 7 •686 1-0120 3 036 3 •400 6 ■778 8 •711 1 •062 4 •426 7 ■804 9 •737 2 •087 5 •451 8 ■830 1-0070 1-762 3 •113 6 •477 9 ■856 1 -787 4 •138 7 •503 1-0230 5-882 2 -813 5 •164 8 •529 1 ■908 3 -8.38 6 •190 9 •555 2 -934 4 •864 7 •215 1-0180 4-581 3 •961 5 •889 8 -241 1 -607 4 •987 6 •914 9 -266 2 •633 5 6013 7 ■940 1-0130 3-292 3 •659 6 ■039 8 •965 1 -318 4 •685 7 ■065 9 •991 2 -343 5 ■710 8 -092 1-0080 2-016 3 -369 6 -736 9 •118 1 •014 4 -395 7 ■762 1-0240 6144 2 •076 5 -420 8 ■788 1 -170 3 ■092 6 •446 9 ■814 2 •196 4 •118 7 ■472 1-0190 4-840 3 •223 5 •143 8 ■498 •1 ■866 4 •249 6 •168 9 ■523 2 ■892 5 •275 7 •194 1-0140 3-549 3 -918 6 •301 8 ■219 1 ■575 4 ■944 7 •327 9 ■245 2 ■600 5 ■970 8 •354 1-0090 2^270 3 ■626 6 ■996 9 •380 1 ■295' 4 ■652 7 5-0-22 1-0250 6-406 2 •321 5 •677 8 ■048 sua (573) SUL Table II.— Giving the Specific Gravitt of SnGAK Solution for every per cent, by Weight in Volume, from 5 to 35 per cent., at a , Temperature of 63° F. (17 '2 0.) Percentage. Specific Gravity. Percentage. Specific GriTity. 5 1-0196) 21 1-0807 6 10235 22 1-0845 r 10274 23 1-0883 8 10313 24 • 1-0921 9 10351 25 1-0968 10 10389 26 1-0996 11 1-0427 27 11033 12 1-0466 23 1-1071 13 . 1-0503 29 I'llOS 14 ■ 1-0541 30 1-1146 15 10579 31 1-1183 16 10617 32 1-1221 IT 1-0655 33 1-1258 18 1-0693 34 1-1296 19 1-0731 35 1-1333 20 1-0769 2". Optical Processes.— Solutions of the differ- ent kinds of sugar rotate the flame of polarised light. The degree of the rotation depends on — (1) the amount of sugar present in a certain volume of solution ; (2) the length and tem- perature of the column of solution through ■which the light passes ; and (3) the colour of the light. Instruments determining the amount of rotation in saccharine solutions are called p'olarismg saccha/rometers. The two most accurate ones are those of Soleil and Jellett. Soleil's Instrument. — The essential parts of this instrument are, . beginning at the end nearest the eye of the observer, an analys- ing Nicol's prism, two wedge-shaped plates of quartz, sliding by a suitable mechanical arrangement one over the other, and form- ing a plate of varying thickness. Next these is another plate of quartz, having the op- posite r'otating power of the preceding plate; then the tube holding the solution; then a quartz plate, out at right angles to the principal axis of the crystal, and made half of right -banded and half of > left -handed quartz, the line of junction of-the two divid- , ing the field into two equal parts ; and lastly, a polarising Nicol. Through all these differ- ent structures the light has to pass. To use the instrument, the index of the two wedges is placed at zero. If both Nicols are in a proper position, the double plate, in look- ing through the instrument, will be seen bril- liantly coloured, and the colour of the two halves wUl be equal. If now a tube contain- ing the sugar solution to be examined is inter- posed, an inequality in the colour of the two halves will be at once produced, but the equality of tint can be 'again restored by aug- menting or diminishing the thickness of the plate formed by the two wedges. The amount of this may be seen at a glance on a scale afiSxed to the instrument, and this amount is . the measure of the rotating power .of the liquid. Professor Jellett's instrument is more elabo- rate than Soleil's, and of great accuracy. The eye-piece or analyser of the apparatus con- sists of a suitably mounted prism, made from a rhombic prism of Iceland spar. The rhombic prism is cut by two planes perpen- dicular to the longitudinal edges, so as to form a right prism. The prism is next divided by a plane parallel to the edge just produced, and making a small angle with the longer diagonal of the bas§. One of the two parts into which the prism is thus divided is then reversed, so as to place the base uppermost, and the two parts are cemented together. Another distinctive feature in the instrument is that the mechanical rotation of the analyser for the finding of any particular plane is dis- pensed with, this function being transferred to a fluid which has the power of turning the plane of polarisation opposite to that of the solution to be examined. The analysing tube slips into and moves up and down in the com- pensating fluid, so that different thicknesses of the latter fluid can be readily interposed, and measured by a scale affixed to the instru- ment. Sulphate of Potash— ) Himalayan tea 38-6 \] Himalayan tea 35-4 „ Indian- tea . 33-9 A. W. Blyth. Tbe lowest number representing the extract is 31 '3; it may therefore be assumed that the extract in good tea should never be leas than 30 per cent. The following formula is a useful guide to the analyst in determining the amount of spent leaves added to average tea. E re- presents the spent leaves, iJ the percentage of extract : — E = (32 -R) 100 30 A low percentage of extract alone is not conclusive of adulteration; when combined, however, with deficient soluble ash, it is tolerably conclusive. 3. Ash. — About a gramme of the tea is carefully weighed in a platinum dish, and heated to visible redness ; when the ash ceases to diminish in weight the operation is finished. Its total weight should never exceed 8 per cent., it ia mostly from 5 to 6 per cent. The ash after weighing is boiled up in a little water, tbe liquid filtered, evaporated to dry- ness, very gently ignited, and weighed; this gives the soluble ash, which is very important, as, if tbe tea is adulterated with exhausted leaves, there will be a deficiency in soluble ash. If no foreign leaved are present, the fol- lowing formula will be a guide to the probable amount of adulteration : — ■ E = the percentage of exhausted leaves. S = the percentage of soluble ash. ThenE,- (6-2 5)20. The ash may also be titrated by an acid, and the result expressed as alkalinity due to potash. If reference be made to the first part of this article, it will be noticed in the analyses given of the ash bow extremely deficient ex- hausted leaves are in potash ; hence a defi- ciency in potash would confirm other indica- tions of adulteration. The portion' of the ash insoluble in water should be boiled up with successive portions of hydrochloric acid, and the insoluble residue weighed and expressed as silica. No practical advantage is obtained by a more complete analysis of the ash. Its total amount, the ratio of soluble to insoluble ash, the amount of silica, and the alkalinity, are all that the analyst requires. The table on p. 590 is taken, for the most part, from the papers of Mr. Allen (Chemical News, May 1874), and that of Mr. Wigner {Op. cit.) Food analysts consider that the total ash of tea should not exceed 8 per cent, calculated on tbe dried tea, of which at least 3 per cent, should be soluble in water ; but it is the writer's opinion that the analyses quoted sufficiently show that genuine teas very rarely reach even 7 per cent., and that the limit should be at least half a percentage lower — ■ viz., 7*5 per cent. 4. Tannin, Estimation of. — The estimation of tannin is very important, as a tea adulterated with or consisting of exhausted leaves will necessarily be deficient in tannin. Deficiency of tannin alone should not be relied upon, but if coupled with deficient soluble ash and deficient extract, the inference that the leaves are either not tea leaves, or that they are exhausted, is tolerably certain. Different pro- cesses for the estimation of tannin are given in article Taunin ; that which was elaborated by Mr. Allen is certainly one of the most con- venient and best. ' ' The results obtained by this method agree fairly with those recently obtained by Mr. Bell by the gelatine process, as will be seen from the following figures : — Tarmin in genuine Elack Tea, By Gelatine (Bbli). Per cent. Highest amount . Lowest amount . Average of 8 samples . Average of 28 samples [A sample of genuine Indian tea (Bltth) . H-5] 12 00 9-SO 10-97 By Lead (Allen). Per ceut. 11-6 8-5 160 TEA (590) TEA " Even after infusion, tea leaves still retain a sensible quantity of tannin, whioh varies from 1 to 4 per cent. , according to the extent of the previous treatment. The usual amount is about 3 per cent. Taking the tannin in fresh tea at 10 per cent., and in exhausted leaves at 2 per cent., the extent to which a, sample is adulterated would be found approximately by the following equation, in which E is the per- centage of exhausted leaves, and T the per- centage of tajinin foun4 :— • (10 - T) 100 .^=— ^- " Tannin found in genuine specimens of grem, tea varies considerably, 20 per cent. being about the usual amount." — (Chemical News, May 1, 1874.) Ash Ash Total Ash Per cent. Soluble in Water. Per cent. Soluble in Acid. Per cent. Silica. Potash. Authority. Average of 17 ordinary ^ teas from originalcheat. consisting of 2 Indian, j-5-75 3-07 2-25 0-43 1-38 G. W. Wigner. 12 Congous, 2 Gun- powders, and 1 Hyson ) Maximum 6-03 3-35 2-87 0-76 1-88 Minimum 5-53 2-75 1-99 0-15 1-17 '1 Average of 25 special teas 5-95 3-33 2-09 0-53 1-38 "j Mfl.TiTnnTn 7-02 3-88 2-68 1-67 1-96 Minimum 5-17 2-64 1-33 004 1-08 Genuine Indian tea 5-51 2-90 A WyntCT Blyth. Common tea . 5-92 3-55 ... Wanklyn. Paraguay tea. 6-28 4-22 »» Average of 7 teas . 5-75 A. S. WUson. „ 9 teas . 5-66 3-6o ... A. H. Allen. Homeman's p. black 5-30 3-50 J, \ green . 5-60 3-80 „ Ambrosial black . 5-60 3-40 Genuine blk., 2a. 6d. lb. 5-60 309 II »J )» 5-70 3-28 li 602 6-34 6-10 3-26 3-20 3-96 J) )} *1 5-75 3-06 II 3s. lb. . 5-50 3-55 Broken leaf with stalks 5-40 2-80 Caper (4-8 silica) . 11-40 1-50 ... ,, Mix^d, dry, exhausted 1 leaves from various > 4-30 0-52 teas ... j ^ CoSee leaves 1032 8-77 J, Beech . 4-52 2-00 Wanklyn. Bramble 453 1-84 Easpberry 7 '84 1-72 ,f Hawthorn 8'05 3-78 " Willow . 9-34 4-16 Plum . 9-90 5-66 '1 Elder . 10-67 3-19 Gooseberry 13-50 7-83 "> 5. Ammmnia yielded by Aqueous Decoction. — Mr. Wanklyn has extended the ammonia method used in water-analysis to other organic substances,; the nitrogen in tea may in this manner be determined with great ease. Fifty cubic centimetres (= 100 miUigrammes of tea) of the same infusion from which the extract has been determined, are heated up to 150° C. with 10 cubic centimetres of solution of potash (strength 10 per cent.), in the apparatus described and figured under Ammonia. After being kept for a little time at this temperature, 50 cubic centimetres of water are added and more than half distilled over, the free ammonia in the water being estimated as described underWATBR- Analysis. Next, 50 cubic centimetres of the alkaline permanganate used in water-analysis are added, and distilled, the albuminoid ammonia being estimated in the usual way. It will be, how- ever, quite as well and quicker to. estimate the total ammonia at once, by omitting the TEM (591 ) THE preliminary potash, and adding at once the alkaline permanganate. Mr. Wanklyn gives the following figures : — Tree ammonify . Albuminoid Milligranunee 0-28 0-43 So that the total yield from 100 milligrammes of tea should be about '71 mUligrammes. The present writer found in a sample of Indian tea sent by Dr. Shortt of Madras, total ammonia, "81. Besides the above determinations, it is often useful to estimate the gum. The aqueous de- coctipn is evaporated almost to an extract, this extract treated with methylated spirit, filtered, and the gum which is on the filter washed with spirit. The gum is then rinsed off with hot water, evaporated down, and weighed ; the weight represents the gum plus saline matter, it is therefore necessary to ignite, and then the loss represents the gum. Deficient extract, deficient soluble ash, de- ficient ammonia, and deficient tannin are absolutely conclusive of exhausted leaves. If the ash of tea exceed 8 per cent., the tea is . adulterated with sand or other mineral mat- ters. Every tea should yield 30 per cent, of extract, and not more than 8 per cent, of ash, at least 2 '5 per cent, being soluble ash. If it is wished to determine the theine in tea, the dried and pounded leaves may be treated first with sulphuric acid slightly dilu- ted ; the mixture is then heated on the water- bath for some time, the mass diluted with a little water, and mixed with excess of oxide of lead. The mass is then extracted with alcohol of 81 per cent., the alcoholic extract evaporated to dryness, and the residue ex- tracted with ether, which on evaporation leaves the theine in an impure state. By treatment with animal charcoal and re- crystallisations, it may be obtained pure. The gale of Food and Drugs Act contains a special provision as to tea. See Asdlteba- TION, p. 24. Temperature— See. Climate, Thebmo- METEB, &C. Terebene (CioHieJij — This is a modifica- tion of oil of turpentiue ; it may be obtained readily by Deville's process, as follows : Any variety of oil of turpentine is mixed by brisk agitation with one-twentieth of its weight of oil of vitriol in a flask or suitable vessel, which is artificially cooled. After remaining at rest for twenty-four hours, it separates into two layers, the lower being black and acid. The upper layer is decanted, and gently heated ; it becomes converted into a mixture of terebene and colophene, and upon distilla- tion terebene passes over in the first portions. It may be obtained pure by rectification from fresh oil of vitriol. Terebene has powerful disinfectant pro- perties, and would probably repay further study. It is a constituent of one of Dr. Bond's disinfectants. See FEBKAiiUSi. Theatres — Sanitary authorities should most decidedly exercise an active surveillance over the hygienic arrangements of the theatres, especially the ventilation, means of exit in case of fire, the prevention of fire, the actors' dress- ing-rooms, and the latrines. The ventilation of public places of amuse- ment is notoriously faulty. Two houses in London — viz., the " Gaiety " and the "Adelphi" — have done something towards rendering a visit to them less hurt- ful than it previously was ; but dt all the others little or nothing has been attempted. At the Adelphi a very large opening has been made in the ceiling immediately above the chandelier, and eight others round it, con- cealed by ornamental work. Each balcony box is fitted with a large square opening immediately above the door, covered exter- nally with perforated zinc, and the top of the chief entrance to the balcony stalls is fitted with open wirework. A writer in the " Lancet" (Oct. 26, 1872) says, " The temperature at the time of our visit at 9 P.M., with a tolerably full house, was as follows : Stalls, 78° F. (curtain up) ; centre of upper circle, 77° ; upper gallery, 83° ; pit, 85°. These observations were all taken in what appeared to be the warmest situations — i.e., at the back and centre of pit and gallery. The urinals and closets, with both of which the theatre is well provided, are conveniently buUt, very cool, and exceptionally free from smell. " Angus Smith, in his valuable work on "Air and Kain," has given the results of ex- aminations of the air of many of the London theatres as foUows : — Carbonic Acid Perceutage P.M. liy Volum*. Strand Theatre, gallery 10 0-1010 Surrey Theatre, boxes . 10-30 0-1110 ,j jj 12 0-2180 Olympic 11-30 0.0817 „ .... 11-65 0-1014 Victoria Theatre, boxes, . 10 , 01260 Haymarket Theatre, dress circle .... 11-30 [ 0-0T57 Pavilion (Whitechapel) . 10-11 0-1620 City of London 11-15 0-2620 Standard . 11 0-3200 This author adds, " We all avoid an atmo- sphere containing '1 of carbonic acid in crowded rooins ; and the experience of civil- ised men is, that it is not only odious but THE (592) THE unwholesome. When people speak of good ventilation in dwelling-houses, they mean, ■without knowing it, air ■with less than "07 of carbonic acid. We must not conclude that because the quantity of carbonic acid is small, the effect is small ; the conclusion is rather that minute cl^angea in the amount of this acid are indications of occurrences of the highest importance." What is required in most theatres is not alone a better system of ventilation, but also greater facilities for exit in case of fire. An ingenious plan for extinguishing fire has been lately applied to a few theatres, as it might well be to all. The arrangement is the con- necting of the water and gas pipes in such a way that, by turning a particular tap, water rushes at once into the latter pipes, and gushes from the thousand and one gas-jets used to illuminate the front of the house, which is immediately deluged ■with water. Such an arrangement as this may prove valu- able, but it must be remembered that most theatrical fires have their origin behind, and not in front of, the curtain. The very last point which the builder of a theatre thinks of is the actors' and actresses' dressing-rooms, and when the edifice is com- pleted, any room, however confined and in- appropriate, is considered good enough for this purpose. Two or three tolerably decent apartments are pro^vided for the influential people connected with the establishment, but for the others the dressing-rooms are almost always unhealthy, hot, suffocating, and Ul- ventQated. Theine {Caffeine, CsHjoNA, HjO = 194 + 18) — An alkaloid obtained from tea, and identical with caffeine. It is extracted from tea in the same way as from coffee. The best gunpowder tea contains fully 6 per cent, of theine. See CAirHNE, Coffeb, Tea, &o. Theobromine (C^HsNiOj) — This is a peculiar principle discovered by Woskresensky in the seed of the Theobroma Cacao. It closely resembles Capfeine {which see), and can be obtained in a similar manner. It is but sparingly soluble in boiling water, and less BO in alcohol or ether. It has a slightly bitter taste. It may be sublimed at a high temperature, part of it undergoing decomposi- tion during the process. It forms crystallisable salts with some of the acids. Theobromine, when dissolved in ammonia and mixed with nitrate of silver, yields a gelatinous precipi- tate, which, by boiling with a solution of ammonia, becomes converted into a crystalline mass ; if this be dried and heated in a sealed tube with anhydrous methyl iodide, iodide of silver is formed, and caffeine produced. — (Steeokee). Theobromide Silver. Methyl Iodide. CyHyAgNA + CH3I Caffeine. = CsHioNA + Agl. Theobromine appears in the form of a light white crystalline powder. The chief influence theobromine exercises on the system would appear to be the preven- tion of waste of tissue. See Capfeine, Cocoa, Coffee, Tea, &c. ^Thermometer — A thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature* la 1590 Sanctorio of Padua invented an air ther- mometer ; in 1655 this instrument was im- proved by the introduction of wider tubes, having bulbs filled with alcohol. Epmer also about this time introduced mercury into the construction of the instrument, and starting from the melting-point of ice, divided his tube into degrees representing the 100,000th part of the bulb. Fahrenheit, however, al- though not the inventor, must be considered the great improver of the thermometer, and practically his instrument is used at the present day with very few modifications. The best liquids for thermometers are mer- cury and spirits of wine. Mercury is used for all ordinary temperatures varying from 37° up to near its boiling-point, but below 37° spirit thermometers are most convenient. Tests of a good Thermometer. — A good ther- mometer plunged into melting ice indicates 32° F., or 0° C. ; if suspended in the steam of boiling water, at a barometric pressure of 760 millimetres, it should indicate 212° F., or 100° C. (if the barometer stand at any other height, the proper correction must be m^de, every 27 millimetres making a difference of 1° C.) ; and lastly, the exclusion of air from the instrument should be shown by the mercury falling with s metallic click, and filling the tube when the instrument is inverted. It is also important to ascertain if the degrees are uniform, which may. be easily done if it is possible to detach a small cylinder of mercury by a slight jerk, and then make it pass from one portion of the tube to another; if the scale be correctly graduated, the column in every portion will be of the same length. Division of Temperature Scales. — For the comparison of different tbemometers, fixed points indicating the same temperature are necessary. Those which have been adopted are two — viz., the temperature at which water boils, and that at which it freezes — the baro- metric pressure being 760 millimetres (29'9 inches) reduced to 0° C. (32° F.) THE ( 593 ) THE The space between these two points has been divided in different ways. Fahrenheit fixed the zero-point at the greatest cold then known to have occurred in Iceland, and the space between the freezing and boiling point he divided into 180 ; and since his zero-point is 32 of these parts below freezing, the freezing- point of water is 32°, and the boiling-point 212°. Celsius divided the scale between the two fixed points into 100 parts, the zero being the freezing-point. This instrument is called the Centigrade thermometer. Keaumur has divided his thermometer into 80 parts, the freezing-point being zero. On the scale of De Lisle the boiling-point of water is indicated 0°, and the freezing-point by 150°. 1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those of Fahrenheit, multiply them by 9, divide the product by 5, and to the quotient add 32, thus — Cent. ° X 9 -I- 32 = Fahrenheit °- 5 2. To reduce Fahrenheit's degrees to Centi- grade— Fahr. ° - 32 X 6 = Centigrade °. 9 3. To reduce Reaumur's to Fahrenheit's — Riau. ° X 9 H- 32 = Fahrenheit °. 4 4. To convert Fahrenheit's to Reaumur's— Fahr. ° - 32 x 4 = R6aumur °. 9 Self-Registenng Thermometers. — Thermo- meters for registering the highest temperature during the day and the lowest during the night have been devised. They are known as maximum and minimum thermometers. Maieimum Thermometers. — The three vari- eties most commonly employed are Phillips', Rutherford's, and Negretti and Zambra's. Phillips' Maximum Thermometer. — A por- tion of the mercurial column is separated from the bulk of the mercury by an air-bubble. As the temperature rises, the detached portion is pushed upwards ; but on the temperature fall- ing, the portion detached remains, whilst the rest of the mercury recedes. Rutherford's Maximum Thermometer is a thermometer provided with a, steel index. The instrument is hung horizontally, and the index adjusted by a magnet. Negretti and Zamhra's Maximum Thermo- meter. — In this instrument the tube is bent at the part near the bulb, and the bore of the tube is contracted at the angle. It is hung horizontally. With a rising tempera- ' ture, the column is pushed along the scale ; but when the temperature begins to fall, the column of mercury breaks at the angle where the bore is narrowed, thus leaving the mer- cury in the tube at the highest point to which it has been driven. Minimum Thermometers. — The best instru- ment of this class is Rutherford's. Spirit of wjne is used, and in it immersed a steel in- dex. It is hung horizontally. As the tem- perature falls the index is dragged with the fiuid, which readily passes it, and leaves it lying at the lowest point when it rises. The mercurial minimum thermometer of Casella is an exceedingly valuable instrument, but its extreme sensitiveness renders it difBcult to manage. An attempt has been made to com- bine the maximum and minimum in one column, but two instruments are found to answer best. The minimum thermometer is read by not- ing down the degree on the scale at which the end of the index farthest from the bulb is lying. The maximum thermometer is read by noting down the degree at which the end of the index next the bulb is lying, if it is Rutherford's maximum; but in the case of the other two maximum thermometers de- scribed above, the reading is taken from the point on the scale at which the end of the mercury farthest from the bulb is lying. All observations should be taken without touch- ing the instruments. A box, called the louvre-boarded box, has been constructed by Mr. Thomas Stevenson for containing thermometers for meteorologi- cal purposes. It protects them from the action of the direct and reflected rays of the sun, and at the same time allows them to have the benefit of a free circulation of air. The thermometers described are those used for meteorological purposes, but there are various others for chemical and scientific uses. One of the most delicate of these is Breguet's metallic thermometer, founded on the unequal expansion of metals. It consists of three strips of gold, platinum, and silver, which are made by means of a rolling-mill into a ribbon. This is then coiled in a spiral form, the silver forming the internal face of the spiral, the platinum the external. One end of the rib- bon is fixed, the other is attached- to a light needle, free to move round a graduated scale. The degrees are those of the Centigrade, and they are determined by comparison with a standard thermometer. Mathieson's Differential Thermometer- is an extremely useful one for determining the temperature of liquids ; but those which are used in laboratories are for the most part 2 P THE ( 594 ) TOB ordinary thermometers, with the scale marked on the tuhe itself. For the determination of heights by the boiling-point of liquid, "■ very delicate ther- mometer, graduated from 80° C. to 100° C, so that each degree occupies a considerable space in the scale, is fitted to a metallic vessel con- taining water. When an observation is taken the water is boiled up, and the rise of the mercury noted. Such an instrument is called an hypsometer or thermo-barometer. The ordinary clinical thermometer used so extensively by medical men in the present day, is essentially a maximum thermometer. The index consists of a detached column of mercury ; before every observation this must be shaken down to the lower part of the scale. One of the important meteorological appli- cations of the thermometer is the determina- tion of mean daily temperature. As this is merely the average pf that of the entire twenty-four hours, it is evident that the greater the number of the observations the more correct the mean will be; and where, as at Greenwich Observatory, the temperature is recorded every moment by photography, the mean thus obtained is absolute. Such accuracy is seldom attainable by ordinary observers, and the approximate mean may be obtained by taking the mean of the maximum and minimum of the same day. Mr. Glaisher has published the following list of monthly corrections, which can be ap- plied to bring these means nearer the truth. Subtract from the monthly mean of the maximum and minimum. January February March April May June July August September . October November . December . 0-2 0'4 10 1-5 1-7 1-8 1'9 17 1-3 1-0 0-4 0-0 The result is the approximate mean tempera- ture in this country. Other simple formulae are as follows : — If three daily observations are taken — at 7 A.M., 2 P.M., and 9 p.m.— let t, t', and t" denote these hours respectively, then — t + t' + 2 t"_ ^^^^ ^f ^^y._ 4 If the hours are 8 A.M., "3 P.M., and 10 P.M., then 7t + 7f + Wt". 24 -= mean of day. Or take the mean of the maximum and mini- mum and call it i ; if a single observation {t') is made, then 2t + t' 3 If two observations (t' and t") are taken besides the maximiim and minimum, the rule is 2t + f + t" 4 The hours which come nearest the mean are the following : 9 A.M. and 9 P.M., 10 A.M. and 10 P.M., 3 A.M. and 3 P.M., and 4 A.M. and 4 P.M. The mean of four hours at equal intervals gives a result still nearer the true mean. The nearest approach to the mean annual temperature is given by the mean of the month of October. Thyme — Oil of thyme possesses some slight antiseptic properties. Tobacco— The prepared leaf of Nicotina Tabacum (Linn. ), or other species.of the same genus; it belongs to the family of Solan- a-cew, which includes, amongst other me- dicinal plants, hyoscyamus, belladonna, and stramonium. From time immemorial the tobacco plant has been cultivated by the natives of Orinoco, but it was not until after the discovery of America that this weed was introduced into Europe. Hermandez de Toledo brought tobacco into Spain and Portugal, and Jean Kicot in 1659 conferred a like benefit on France, On the return of Sir Francis Drake with the colonists from Virginia in 1586, the practice of smok- ing was introduced into England. The name tobacco was given to this herb by the Spaniards, because it was first seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yucatan in Mexico ; and the generic appel- lation of nicotina ia evidently derived from Nioot. Structwre of the Leaf.— Most of the tobacco leaves of commerce— including the American, German, and Dutch- are without stalks, being attached to the stem by the midrib or large central vein ; and the margins of all tobacco leaves are entire— that is, even and unbroken. The lamina of the leaf is com- posed chiefly of cellular tissue, with veins of woody fibre and vessels, the whole being plentifully clothed with glandular hairs. A character which tobacco leaf possesses, in common with stramonium and hyoscyamus, is that sections of the veins and midribs have a horse-shoe shape ; hence a knowledge of this fact may be frequently applied in the detection of foreign leaves. Composition of Tobacco, — The following are some of the principal analyses which have been made of tobacco : — , lOB (595) TOB FretK Leaves of Totacca (Fossblt and Bbinuanss). Nicotina , Concrete volatile oil Bitter extractive . G-um with malate of linfe Chlorophyll . Albumen and gluten Malic acid Lignin and a trace of starch Salts (sulphate, nitrate, and malate*^ of potash, chloride of potassium, " phosphate and malate of lime, and malate of ammonia) Silica Water . O'Oeo 0-010 2-870 1-740 0-267 1-308 0-510 4-969 0-734 D-0S8 88-280 100-836 "1 For the estimation of nicotina in dried tobaooo, SoMoeaing has given the folio-wing process : Two drachms of tobacco are to be exhausted by ammoniacal ether in a con- tinuous distillatory apparatus, the ammo- niacal gas is to be expelled from the nicotina solution by boiling, and after the evaporation of the ether the amount of nicotina is to be estimated by the quantity of dilated sulphuric acid of knovrn strength required to neutra- lise it. The following tables were drawn up by Dr. Letheby, and they exhibit the composition of many of the more common tobaccoes met with in commerce ; the analyses were per- formed upon umnamifactured tobaooo : — TABLE I.— Showing the Genebai Composition of Six Samples of LftAP Tobacco as Imported. Hygrometric moisture Extractive soluble in cold water Extr.active soluble in boiling ) water / Ligneous matter and insoluble ) salts J ' § .3- ■3 >, gj. C3 ^ 5 s S 3 n f s M &< & 12-0 11-4 13-4 13-2 12-4 10-8 43-2 40-8 60-0 48-4 58-6 49 4-0 2-6 4-4 2-4 2-0 30 40-8 45-2 22-2 360 27-0 37-2 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 100-0 TABLE II.— Showing Geotseal Composition of Extbaotive taken up by Ammoniacal Etheb. 1 S 1 9 a V 1 i s Hygrometric moisture Chlorophyll and fat . Nicotine . . . . 12-0 5-7 1-5 ,11-4 2-2 3-2 13-4 2-7 21 13-2 1-1 2-7 12-4 2-0 1-2 ■ 10-8 3-6 2-0 Total per cent, soluble in ) ether . . . . J 19-2 16-8 18-2 17-0 15-6 16-4 TABLE III.— Showing Composition of the Cold and Hot Aqueoos Extbactive. <9 1 =9 13 1 U ? s M H a Sugar 0-1 0-03 0-4 traces 3-6 none Gum 7-6 8-82 10-1 7-6 7-4 7-8 Acids (chiefly malic and col- ) curing matter . . . . J 4-4 6-58 11-9 3-4 3-4 2-2 Starch 4-0 2-60 4-4 2-4 2-0 30 Colouring matter 31-1 25-37 37-6 37-4 44-2 39-0 47-2 43-40 64-4 50-8 60-6 52-0 TOB (S96) TOB TABLE IT.— Composition of Ash in 100 Parts. 4 1 i f 1- 1 1 I Carbonate of potash . Chloride of potash and a little soda Sulphate of potaah Carbonate of lime Carbonate of magnesia Phosphate of lime . . . ' Phosphate of iron and alumina . Silica (chiefly sand) 0-5 3 2-7 7-4 2-9 1'6 traces 0-5 2-0 0-6 2-0 a-2 2-5 1'9 traces 7-4 4-9 0-4 1-1 5-8 2-6 2-1 , traces 2-3 4-25 0-25 1-60 4-40 1-60 2-40 traces 0-60 30 01 0-9 30 10 1-8 traces 0-8 4-1 0-6 1-3 7 3-3 2-9 traces 3 4 Amount per cent, of ash 18-6 21-6 19-2 15-00 10-6 22-6 TABLE v.— Composition of Tobaooo Stalk in 100 Parts. Havana. TligiiHa. Carbonate of potash 5-2 4-9 Chloride of potassium 0-5 1-5 Sulphate of potash . 0-6 0-8 Sarthy carbonates . 70 8-4 Alkaline phosphates 2-8 2 3 Earthy phosphates . 21 1-4 Iron and alumina . . traces traces Silica 0-8 0-4 Per cent, of ash 18 'S 19-7 Drs. Tohl and Eulenberg have recently (Vrtljhrsschr. f. gerichtl. Med., xiv. p. 249) made some careful and elaborate analyses both of tobacco and tobacco smoke.* They found that commercial tobacco for smoking purposes invariably contained nico- tine, amounting generally to 4 per cent, or more, but that tobacco manufactured for chewiTig purposes, and snuff, contained a mi- nute trace only of this alkaloid. The gaseous products given off during the smoking of good tobacco were found to be oxygen, nitrogen, marsh gas; carbonic oxide, sulphuretted hydro- gen, and hydrocyanic acid, and sometimes sulphocyanic acid (produced at a later stage by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on hydrocyanic acid). The acid and non-basic products formed are formic, acetic, metacetic, butyric, valeric, and carbolic acids ; creosote, and perhaps caprylic and succinic acids also. A solid hydrocarbon (CisHig) and a liquid hydrocarbon of the benzole series were also found. No nicotine could be detected, and thus the experiments of Zeise are confirmed. The basic products of the distillate, besides ammonia, nearly all belonged to the picoline or pyridine series, well known to be produced during the destructive distillation of wood and many other vegetable products. The fol- lowing were found and identified by their analysis, and ^the analysis of their platinum * Br, Emil Hcnbel's experiments show different results. See Niooiiha. salts, and by the determination of their respec- tive boiling-points : Pyridine (C5H5N), picoline (C6Hi.N), Intidine (C7H9N), collidine (CsHuN). In smaller amount — parvoline (CjHisN), cori- dine (CuHijN), rnbidine (C11H17N), and others of higher boiUng - points, such as viridine (CijHigN). Methylamine was not found, and ethylamlne in very small quantity only. It would appear, from experiments made On pigeons, &c., by Drs. Ydhl and Eulenberg, that the effects of tobacco smoking must be referred to pyridine bases, and not to nicotine. Pyridine bases are among the products of the distillation of opium, and these gentlemen are inclined to attribute the effects produced by smoking this drug not to morphia, but to the picoline series of alkaloids. MS^ects of Tobacco Smoking. — M. Decroix recently published in the " Bulletin de I'Asso- ciation Franfaise centre I'Abus du Tabac et des Boissons Alcoholiques " a paper in which he enumerates no less than sixteen diseases — the list commencing with cancer of the tongue and ending with idiocy and premature old age — as resulting from the use of tobacco. Whether there is any foundation for this theory we leave our medical readers to decide. A fact, however, which goes far to show the error of so extreme a view may be deduced from the careful observations of Thackrah, Parent-DuchMelet, and.D'Arcet. We learn from them that workers in tobacco manufac- tories—men who are usually great smokers — are exceptionally healthy, and suffer less from contagious diseases than other workers whose hygienic conditions are similar. Looking im- partially at the little reliable evidence we have on the effects produced by tobacco smok- ing, we may conclude that juvenile smoking is in all cases, and under any circumstances, bad, the effects produced being tobacco amau- rosis, impaired eyesight, thinning of the hair, and other symptoms of excessive draughts on the trophio nerve centres ; that to all consti- TOB (597) TOB tutiona it is hurtful in excess, and to many pernicious iu any quantity however small, inducing dyspepsia, muscular tremors, and nervous palpitation; that it is in many in- stances certainly a selfish indulgence, and one likely to produce hahita of dreamy, listless indolence. But that, on the other hand, to the poor man living and working hard, to the soldier iU - fed during a campaign, to the literary man, the artist, and others whuse occupations demand great mental effort (more especially if the individual possesses a highly excitable, nervous organisation), tohacco is useful, soothing, and comforting. That tobacco in moderation is a brain-destroying agent is sufficiently disproved by the fact that many of our most eminent writers have been votaries of the pipe, and some of the most acute statesmen confirmed smokers. Tobacco in large doses, either in the form of powder or infusion, acts as a violent poison ; the symptoms are f aintness, nausea, vomiting, giddiness, delirium, loss of power in the limbs, general relaxation of the muscular system, trembling, complete prostration of strength, coldness of the surface, with cold, clammy perspiration, convulsive movements, paralysis, and death. — (Tatlob.) Dr. Namias relates an instance of a smuggler being poisoned by reason of his having covered his skin with tobacco leaves with a view to defrauding the revenue. The leaves, mois- tened by the perspiration, produced all the effects of poisoning. A curious case is reported by Mr. Morgan in "Public Health," No. 32, vol. iii., iu which an eighth of a pound of tobacco (shag), placed either by accident or design in a shallow well, poisoned three people who drank the water — viz., a man, aged fifty -five; his nephew, aged four ; and a girl, aged six. The whole three exhibited the most violent and marked symptoms, and one of them, the nephew, died in convulsions evidently produced by tobacco. Notwithstanding that tobacco is a substance so easily accessible, it does not appear often to have been criminally employed, though Taylor believes that probably it is more extensively used to aid the purposes of robbers than is commonly believed, and that there is reason to suppose that porter and other liquors sold in brothels are sometimes drugged either with tobacco, or with snuff prepared from it. The powdered leaves of Indian tobacco (Lobelia inflata) contain an acrid principle which is capable of producing poisonous effects on the brain and spinal marrow, attended with irrita- tion of the stomach and bowels. According to German physiologists, tobacco affects the blood corpuscles in thefoHowing manner : They lose their round shape, and become oval and irregular at their edges ; while instead of naturally attracting each other, and running together in rouleaux, they cohere closely or lie scattered on the field of the microscope. For tests, &c. , see Niootin A. Adulterations. — According to the evidence of Mr. George Phillips, given before the Committee on Adulteration, in cut tobacco, liquorice, gum catechu, salt, saltpetre and various nitrates, yellow ochre, Epsom salts, Glauber salts, green copperas, red sandstone, wheat, oatmeal, malt-combings, chicory, and the following leaves — coltsfoot, rhubarb, chicory, endive, oak, and elm — have been found ; in fancy tobacco, lavender and a wort called magwort have been detected; and in roll tobacco, rhubarb, endive, and dock leaves, sugar, liquorice.'and a dye made of logwood and sulphate of iron, have been met with. The more common adulterations, however, are water, gum,* saccharine matter, and salts of various kinds. The water may be readily de- tected, and the sugar estimated in the usual way. It must be remembered that tobacco contains all these substances, and in variable quantities ; and hence, unless they are pre- sent in large excess, the analyst would not be prepared to state that their presence indi- cated adulteration. Adulteration by means of foreign leaves is, we believe, rare in this country ; but in cases where such fraudulent substitution is suspected, the analyst should make himself thoroughly acquainted with the structure of the leaves we have men- tioned, and the appearance which they present beneath the microscope. Any salts added may be detected in the ash; the tests are given under their respective headings. Cigars sold at fairs, reviews, in the streets, &c., sometimes consist of little else than paper and hay ; their composition is, however, so ap- parent, that none but the most inexperienced would be deceived by them, and since they are usually bought by boys, it is perhaps an advantage that they are not composed of any- thing stronger. Cigars are often steeped in various sac- charine and saline infusions, whereby their weight is increased, and a tobacconist was recently prosecuted for selling cigarettes con- taining Acty their weight of cn/rfc sand. The ordinary adulterations of ^rmff are starches of various kinds, pea-meal, bran, sawdust, malt rootlets, fustic, oxides of iron (for tests, see Iron) and lead (for tests, see * See a recent prosecution instituted by tlie Inland Revenue, detailed in the " Sanitary Record," No. 81, vol. iv. 1876. The Government chemists assert that in a concentrated aqueous extract of tobacco acidu- lated with HOI, the addition of alcohol d.oes not precipitate tobacco gum ; but if gum arable is pre- sent, arabin is immediately thrown down. _ TOR (598) TRA 18' 1871 1872 ■•{ Lead), and ground glass, and according to Mr. Prescott (see his valuable work, "Strong Drink and Tobacco Smoke," London, 1869), the acorn cup of the Valonia oak, growing on the shores of the Mediterranean, which is im- ported for the benefit of tapners. Most of these adulterations may be detected by examining the powder with the microscope, and by tests already given. Consumption. — In France the Government have the monopoly of tobacco, and in 1867 we learn that the imperial manufactories sold no less than 248,652,000 francs' (£10,360,500) worth' of tobacco, and that the net profit which accrued to the revenue from this sale was 177,752,435 francs (£7,406,351, 9s. 2d.) The f oUo'wing statement exhibits the amount and value of the tobacco imported into this country during the years 1870-72 : — Lbs. Valued at Manufactured cigars and snuff . 3,2ii5,215 £488,913 TJiimanufactured . 45,667,887 1,680,140 Manufactured cigars and snuff . . 8,862,237 862,236 Tin manufactured . 73,060,305 2,462,67u Manufactured cigars and snuff . . 8,667,686 1,145,160 Unmanufactured . 46,649,700 1,663,882 Tortoise, Xiand— The land tortoise is eaten by the inhabitants of Italy and the Levant, by th^ natives of the Amazon, South Africa, India, and by the North American Indians. Payen considers its fiesh a whole- some food, and the late Dr. Livingstone found it an agreeable meat. Trades, Injurious— There are a variety of trades the exercise of which infiuences greatly the health of the workmen. Among these influences we do not, of course, include such as are in no degree connected with the nature of the employment— as, for instance, overcrowding in workshops, impure air from defective ventilation, draughty and damp rooms, &c. But there are hurtful conditions directly arising from the nature of certain avocations which may be traced usually to one of two causes (or to both combined)— ■viz., dust and gases, or volatile emanations. Ditsi.— The diseases to which dust in the arts gives rise are, principally and primarily, chest affections. Dr. Hirt gives the follow- ing instructive table showing the relative frequency of phthisis in dusty trades (Die Krankheiten der Arbeiter, Leipzig, 1873) : — Eelative Fbiqdenot of Phthisis amongst Workmen working in Dusty Trades, 1, MetoAUc Biist. In 100 Patlonta. Needlemakers S'llemakers Lithographers Buffering from Flitlirsls. 69 '6 629 48 -J In 100 Patients. Suffering from PhtUsia. Cullender-makers 42-1 (3-rinders 40-4 Moulders . 36-9 ■Watchmakers 36 ■« Typefounders . 84 '9 Engravers 26-3 Dyers 25 Vai'nishers 26^0 Painters , 24-5 Printers . 21-6 Beltmakers 19'T Tinmen . 14-1 Finmakers '12-6 Cutlers . 122 Locksmiths 11^6 PaiTiers . 10-7 ■Workers in copper 9^4 ■Workers in brass 6-0 2. MiTierdlDust Plintcutters 80-0 Grindstone-makers . 40-0 Stonecutters . 86-4 Plasterers 190 Porcelain-workers . 160 Potters .... 147 Carpenters 14 4 Masons 12-9 Biamond-workers 90 Cement-workers 8-10 S. Vegeldble Dust Cigar-workers . 36 9 Weavers . 250 Ropemakers 18 9 Joiners 14 6 Coachmakers . 12-5 Pastrycooks 11 6 Millers 109 Bakers 7-0 Chimney-sweeps 6-5 Charcoal-burners 20 Miners «-8 4. Animal Dust. Brushmakers 49 1 Hairdressers 82 1 TTphdlsterers . 25-9 Skinners 23 2 Turners . 162 Harness-malcers 12^8 Button-makers 16 Ilatters . 16 ^6 01o;:hmakers . 10-0 6. Mixed Dust. "Workers in glass 85 -0 G-laziers .... 17-8 Journeymen 16 '1 6. IToDust. Shoemakers 18 '7 Brewers . 11-2 Coopers 10-1 GHovers .... 10-0 Tanners .... 9-2 Butchers .... 70 It thus appears that mineral and metallic dust are the most active, vegetable and animal the least. Dr. Hirt has given a convenient name to the various lung affections produced by dust- viz., pneumonoconiosis (Tri/cu/iuc, lung ; /cows, dust) — and has divided them into anthracosis, siderosiSf chalicosis, tahaco^, Anthracosis was discovered by Pearson in TBA (599) TBA 1817. It is an affection specially distinguished by carbonaceous sputa, and prevalent amongst those working in dust, either of coal or char- coal. It is essentially a fibroid phthisis, brought on by irritation from carbonaceous dust. Siderosis was first discovered by Zenker. It is a deposit of oxide of iron in the lung, and consequent phthisis. The sputa is frequently red from iron dust. Ghalicosis was first described by Jean Bubbe, and has also been investigated and described by Peacock, Beltz, Feltz, Porcher, and Greenhow. The lungs become diseased by infiltration with a dust which chemical analysis shows to con- sist mainly of silica. Tabacosis was first described by Zenker ; he found, on examining the bodies of two work- men in a tobacco manufactory, the lungs in- filtrated with tobacco dust. When a similar affection comes from inhaling cotton fibres, it has been called It/ssinosis. With regard to metallic dust, it is pretty well established that the finer the dust, the more injurious are its effects. Dr. Hirt gives the following table, showing the affections and mean duration of life among farriers, cutlers, lockmakers, and filecutters : In 100 Patients. Suffering from — a ° S Sis ta 3 P4 ■|, 1 a S d ll ■s|.s' 111 1 tntq Farriers . 107 9-8 0-5 6-6 37-5 24-2 9-8 0-9 55-1 1-854 12-2 12 2 .S-7 .S-2 35-3 27-1 6-3 2-0 ? 2-518 Lockmakers 11 '5 9-2 2-6 5-8 38-2 19-4 10 '3 3-0 491 1-431 Filecutters 62-2 17-4 J 12-2 17 6 ? 7 9 540 1-693 Most of the metallic dust simply acts mechanically, the effects varying in intensity according to the fineness and sharpness of tlie spiculse ; others act both mechanically and as poisons — for example, copper dust and the fumes to which brasiers, turners, and workers in bronze are exposed to. Of trades giving rise to mineral dust more or less injurious we may mention diamond- polishers, grindstone-makers, workers in flint, in marble, in granite, in basalt, in mica, in gneiss, in sulphate of baryta, pumice-stone, and hsematjte. AU these substances give rise to dusts which have induced various lung affections. According to Peacock, the mean age of the grindstone-makera does not exceed twenty-four years, and they nearly all become phthisical . Workers in soft stone, in plaster, in chalk, and in clay suffer little from lung affec- tions, perhaps because the particles are soft and large. It appears remarkable that carpen- ters and masons suffer frotii similar diseases, and their mortality is the same. Plasterers, workers in serpentine, slate-quar- riers,and workers in graphite are fairly healthy. When we come to vegetable dusts, the mortality and liability to phthisis diminish. Thus in 100 patients breathing- Inorganic dust Organic dust . No dust . Charcoal dust . r from Phthisis; Percent. 26-0 17-0 110 1-1 That the mortality from phthisis amongst workmen in charcoal is diminished requires farther investigation. At present it would appear that the dust of carbon exercises a preventive influence. Dr. Hirt gives the mortality of miners as 1-505 per 100 ; of charcoal - burners as 1'330 ; and of chimney-sweeps as 2-291. Workers in tobacco suffer severely at first, and some few are attacked by lung affections. The mean duration of life appears to be from fifty - three to fifty - eight years. — (Annales d'Hygifene, 1874.) Of all the vegetable dusts, cotton fibre appears most hurtful. There is great irrita- tion of the larynx, anaemia, frequent cough, and expectoration of a sputa containing cotton fibres. The mortality is greatest among the women. The manufacture of wadding, of linen and hempen stuffs, also gives rise to dust — less injur- ous, however, than that produced from cotton. The mean duration of life among weavers, according to 336 observations, is 51 to 97. Among those who work in hemp it is still less — viz., from 42 to 45. The mortality and maladies of workers in wood are given in the table at the top of the next page, and present nothing remarkable. The dust of chicory and madder does not appear to have any injurious effect; the coloured woods — sandal, campechy, &o. — on the contrary, cause much irritation. Workers in quinine and cinchona barks suffer from an eruption on the skin, with itching and fever. TE.A (6oo) TRA SufFering from— § s , d. In lOO Patients. 1 ■i 1 . .2 s 'a g li = 3 ■ III ^1 i 5 W r Joiners 14-6 10 1 3-9 60 34 18-4 10'4 2-9 49-8 1-89 Carpenters . . . 14-4 0-5 0-9 0-9 29-2 14-4 17-4 4-3 55 '7 "Wheelwrights . . 12-5 0-2 1-3 5-2 11-6 18-7 9-2 1-3 In the preparation of the two mushrooms Boletus ignarius and fomentarius, the spores affect the mucous merftbranes of the eyes, and nose, and produce epistaxis, ophthalmia, head- ache, and other ailments. The dust of corn, wheat, barley, &o., when in great quantity, produces brohohitic and emphysematous affections. The most frequent disease among millers is pneumonia— viz., 20'3 out of every 100 patients. Their mean duration of life is forty -five years; mortality, 1'726 per cent. Bakers and pastrycooks do not suffer from chest diseases so much as millers ; but, on the other hand, the irregular hours produce other diseases, especially of the digestive and nervous organs. MiUen. Per cent. Per cent. 7-0 10-9 1-9 IS 10-9 r.B 8-4 20-3 In 100 Patients, Phthisis , Emp,hysema Bronchitis Pneumonia 28-2 6O-0 In the weaving of wool for cloth, some of the workmen become subject to a particular vesicular eruption, which causes great irrita- tion, and frequently ulcerates ; others, if en- gaged for a long time in cutting the thread, suffer from a disease of the palm of the hand. Their mean duration of life is from fifty-seven to fifty-nine years ; mortality, 1'5 per 100. The relative frequency of chest diseases of various trades inhaling other animal dust is shown in the following table : — In 100 Patients. Suffering from— g n a o 1 t i R Hi i 1 03 V p 1 ■ tk a 1 1 ^ IS"" p g 1 s S 1 1^ Brushmakers . 49-1 28-0 3-4 12-2 3-7 7-0 1 1-603 Hairdressers . 321 47-8 2-5 25-4 14 '6 10-7 57-9 ^ Saddlers . . . 12-8 7-5 2-5 40-1 22-6 7-6 1-9 5-0 53-5 12-390 Upholsterers . 25-9 11-7 2-7 24-9 277 4 10-3 Farriers . . . 23-2 10-7 4-7 23-3 10-9 12-6 2-5 8-1 50-5 Hatters . . . 13-5 6-7 1-0 53-3 28-7 5-5 5-6 .51-6 2-921 Women engaged in sorting feathers suffer considerably from inhalation of dust. Bone- dust does not appear very injurious, for workmen in the grinding of bones are fairly healthy. Of mixed dust, one of the most dangerous is that which the artisan employed in cutting and polishing glass breathes. Diseases of the chest prevail amongst them in the large pro- portion of 80 per cent. The mean duration of life of the polishers does not exceed forty- two years, Sagpickers are not alone exposed to the mixed dust from the rags, but also to contagion, Papermakers are exposed to simi- lar dust, at all events in the preliminary operations. The mortality is 1-20 per hun- dred. Oases and Volatile Emanations. — With re- gard to gases, it appears certain, from the researches of Baiviston, Lombard, and others, that some produce phthisis, more especially the irrespirable gases, such as chlorine, sul- phurous vapours, nitrous acid, vapours of lime, turpentine, &o. Others, especially the toxic, have no influence in this way, for they are .absorbed by the blood and influence the TRA (6oi) TRA whole economy. To the latter class belong carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, sulphuric anhy- dride, and carbonic disulphide. In the manufacture of straw hats the work- people are exposed to emanations of sulphur- ous acid, which cause arisemia, cough, sneez- " ing, and salivation. In the making of matches with common phosphorus, very deleterious fumes are given off, causing caries of the jaw. See Phosphoeus. Jewellers in various operations — in the quar- tation, refining, &o., of gold or silver— are exposed to nitrous acid vapours. Phthisis prevails among them in the proportion of 18'6, pneumonia in the proportion of 8'4 for every 100 sick. Their mean duration of lite is fifty-three years. Gilders are more unhealthy than jewellers, probably from breathing mercurial fumes. Their mean duration of life does not exceed forty-four years. ^ Bleachers are exposed to chlorine gas, alka- line vapours, smoke, and humidity ; they are not healthy. Their mean duration of life is fifty-eight years. Engine-drivers are exposed to unequal heat and continual commotion ; they often breathe an impure atmosphere, especially in such places as the Metropolitan Eailway, and suffer considerably from rheumatism, disorders of the digestion, &c. The mean duration of the drivers of locomotives on the Friborg-Breslau Une is only thirty-five years. — (Hikt.) Those employed in tbe engine-rooms of steamboats have a mean duration of life of fifty-seven years. — (Ltjbstoeff. ) The nightmen and those engaged in sewers are sometimes overpowered by sulphuretted hydrogen and other noxious vapours ; they also suffer much from disorders of digestion and other ailments, but we have no trust- worthy statistics with regard to the preva- lence of fever amongst them. According to Hirt, their average duration of life is from fifty-five to sixty years, so that it cannot be extremely prejudicial. Tanners, curriers, leather-dressers, catgut- makers, soap and candle makers, and butchers are exposed to putrid emanations, without, however, any sensible effect. The following table gives the relative frequency of diseases in some of the classes mentioned : — In 100 Patients. Suffering from— a § Pi •i "4 |- a oS ^1. a 3 1 OS 1 o 1 m "1 a S 1 1 Tanners .... 9-2 7-4 7-4 7-4 31-9 12-9 16-8 61-2 1-847 Catgut-makers . . 60-62 1-200 Butchers .... 79 6-3 1-1 9-9 42-2 17-6 13-3 0-7 56-5 2-433 Soapmakers . . . 9-3 18-0 5-3 8-9 37 5 14-5 5-3 61-3 1-138 Workers exposed 'to zinc fumes are not unfrequently seized with symptoms of fever, which at the end of three or six hours termi- nates by a profuse sweat and a long-continued sleep. In the grinding of oleaginous grains very disagreeable vapours are given out, but they have little influence on the health. Accord- ing to Dr. Hirt, only 3 per cent, of patients following this employment suffer from phthisis. A large number of workmen in the arts are exposed to the vapours of turpentine— & jr., painters, varnishers, and others. The charac- teristic odour of violets can often be detected in the urine of these men, showing that the turpentine has been absorbed. They fre- quently suffer from colic and derangement of the digestive organs. In the preparation of caoutchouc, especially in its vulcanisation, there are large quantities of vapour given forth, particularly carbonic disulphide; great care is, however, taken in the ventilation of the works, and poisoning is rare. The mean duration of life of caout- chouc - workers is about fifty - seven years ; mortality, 1-393 per cent. The tarry matter given out in the manu- facture of paraffine is not very injurious, but eruptions of the skin are common among the workmen. Their mean duration of life is from sixty to sixty-two years. In order to prevent the injurious effects of dust upon workmen engaged in such trades as TRA (602) TRA dry grinding, &o. , artificial ventilation inducing strong currents of air is absolutely necessary ; and as in these particular trades there is always steam-power, some method either of propdling or extracting air is easily applied. But many of the cases require special treat- ment, especially with regard to noxious gases and vapours ; for example, ammonia in small quantities prevents the bad effects of working in nitrate of silver, and saucers of turpentine distributed about a room greatly mitigate the vapours of common phosphorus. Che- mical means of this kind should, however, be only considered as accessory to good ven- tilation. For observations on miners, see Mines. See also Phosphoeus, &o. It is absolutely certain that the odours from bone manufactories and tanyarda, and a great many other very oSensive trades, cause no injury whatever to the health of either those engaged in them or of those living in the vicinity ; such odours are, nevertheless, nui- sances of a public character. Trades, Offensive— The general super- vision of trades is expressly cast upon urban sanitary authorities by the enactments given at the end of this article. The sections of the Public Health Act re- lative to the establishment and to the regu- lation of trades must be interpreted by sanitary authorities according to the spirit which evi- dently actuates the law on this point, and that is, not ■ to interfere or control manu- facturing industry, on which the wealth of England depends, unnecessarily; but, on the other hand, where there is evident and considerable public annoyance and injury, to take action at once, as authorised by the statutes. As the initiation of proceedings will in nine cases out of ten be taken on the opinion or advice of the medical officer of health, it . is absolutely necessary for such an officer to practically acquaint himself with the details of the different manufacturing industries in his district. These are always best studied in the building itself; for though printed descriptions will give a good idea of the general principles on which an industry is carried out, the details are far more easily learned by witnessing the different processes in operation. The principal ways by which a trade becomes a nuisance are storage of offensive materials, the escape of volatile gases or emanations into the atmosphere, and the im- proper disposal pf fixed refuse, whether liquid or solid. As to the storage of offensive matters— such as raw hides, bones, hoofs, &c. — providing the sheds or storage - places are properly con- structed, and the substances are conveyed from the storage-houses to the manufactory in closed air - tight boxes, carts, or other receptacles, offence is hardly possible; but if there is a nuisance froin neglect of any of these precautions, there can be no excuse on the part of the manufacturer, and he should be made to abate the nuisance immediately. Nuisances and injuries from the escape of volatile gases or emanations into the atmos- phere, may be, for the sake of convenience, divided into— (1) organic vapours; (2) gases partly organic and partly of definite constitu- tion; (3) acid gases. 1. By the term organic vapours is meant gases the greater portion of which are com- posed of highly offensive emanations of un- known chemical composition ; many of them are probably bodies built upon the type of ammonia. Such vapours are evolved in the melting of fats, in the making of size and glue, of manure, in the boiling of oil, in the boiling of bones, in the dressing of tripe, in the manufacture of glucose, and in many other processes carried out on a considerable scale. The general remedy for all these cases is to see that the operations are conducted in closed boilers, and that the organic vapours, deprived of steam, are carried into the furnace fire to bo there consumed. (This is not always possible ; for, instance, in the case of making American cloth inflammable spirit is used, hence if the vapours were passed through a fire an explosion might result.) 2, In a great many operations the gases ara of a very mixed character ; for example, in the distillation of oils and fats, sulphurous acid, acrolein, and other fumes are evolved ; and in the manufacture of superphosphate of lime, tetrafluoride of silicon is mixed with, organic and acid vapour. In some of these cases, the gases have to pass through one or more chambers, scrubbers, or purifiers before they are permitted to mix with the, atmos- phere. Thus iu the latter case, the gases evolved from the treatment with sulphuric acid, of coprolites, crushed bones, and animal refuse, are led by a shaft first to a chamber ■where they meet with -a spray of water which decomposes the- tetrafluoride of silicon, part being precipitated as hydrate of silica, and part dissolved as hydrofluosilioio acid; the gases then pass on to a coke scrubber or con- denser, and lastly through a lime purifier. In the case of the manufacture of coal gas, also, there are very numerous and complex products given off, but no simple means tor its purification, and at the same time fur the TKA (603) TRA economical separation of its commercial pro- ducts, can be devised ; the mixed gases must pass througli numerous condensers, as de- scribed in article Gas. In a very large number of operations, sulphuretted hydrogen is given off mixed with various other emanations ; and if no gas is more offensive, at the same time there is no gas which is so easily decomposed or absorbed. In practice, either hydrated f en'ic oxide or slalced lime is found its cheapest and most convenient absorbent — the furnace fire its cheapest destroyer. 3. The acid gases causing nuisance are, for the most part, muriatic, sulphurous, and nitrous acids. Muriatic acid is evolved from alkali-works, in the extraction of copper from spent pyrites, in tlie manufacture of bottle-glass from silica and common salt, in the glazing of coarse pot- tery, and in brick-burning ; these fumes can be entirely condensed if led into a high and capacious tower containing coke, over which a stream of cold -water is constantly flowing. Sulphurous acid gas is produced in several manufacturing operations, among which that of sulphuric acid holds the first place. Nitrous fumes are produced by refiners treat- ing gold and silver alloys with nitric acid, in vitriol-works, by the makers of tin and iron liquors, of nitro-benzole, of picric acid, and in the manufacture of oxalic acid. Both sulphurous and nitrous fumes may be absorbed by water ; the latter, however, is more efficiently treated by passing it through milk of lime. Dr. Letheby, who has paid some attention to nuisances arising from offensive trades, sum- marises his recommendations thus : — "1. All noxious and offensive operations should be carried on, as far as possible, in air- tight chambers, which can be ventilated by means of fans or by the chimney draught. "2. All condeusable and absorbable gases and vapours should be passed through con- densers and absorbents best suited for their absorption — as water in spray, and scrubbers charged with water, oil of vitriol, or alkaline solutions. "3. When necessary these scrubbers should be supplemented with special purifiers, as hydrated oxide of iron, hydrate of Ume, &c "4. Organic vapours, sulphuretted hydro- gen, and empyreumatic matters should be conveyed to the furnace fire and destroyed. ** 5. All offensive materials should be brought to the works or carried away from them in properly-constructed cai-ts or tanks, which can be closely covered ; and all such material, when stored at the works, should be kept in close tanks in chambers, ventilated when necessary to the scrubbers or furnace fire. "6. The whole of the operations should always be managed with care and attention to details — there being no neglect of the sound condition of every part of the plant or work- ing apparatus." — (Noxious and Offensive Trades, by Dr. Lbthbbt; London, 1875.) The chief points with regard to the liquid and solid refuse from manufactories are to be found in the article EiVBES, Pollution or, which see. The works in France are arranged in three classes, and as such a system gives a synoptical view of the chief causes of complaint, it. is here reproduced. Abeakqement of 'Woeks in Feance, 1867. First Class. Names of MauTifoctui^. Acid, arsenic (manufactui'e of). By means of arseuious acid and nitric acid. When the nitrous pro- ducts are not absorbed , hydrochloric (production of). By the decomposition of the chloride of magnesium, of aluminum, &c. When the acid is not con- densed .... , oxalic (manufacture of). By nitric acid. Without destruction of in- jurious gases , picric. When the injurious gases are not bui'nt , stearic (manufactui'e of). By distillation .sulphuric (manufacture of). By the combustion of sulphur and pyrites . Acids (refining of gold and silver by} Aldehyde (manufacture of) . Archil (manufacture of). In open vessels Blood. Workshops for separating fibrine, albumen, &c. . DepSts of, for the manufac- ture of Prussian blue and other industrial products . Qlacufacture of powder of, for clarifying wines . Bone fat ^manufacture of) Bones f torrefiiction of) for manure. When the gases are not burnt , fresh (depots of, on large scale) Bristles of swine (preparation of). By fermentation Burning of marine plants in per- manent establishments Carbonising of animal matters in general Carriage grease .... Cause of Complaint. Injurious emaua- tions. Do. Fumes. Injurious va- pours. Smelland danger of fire. Injurious emana- tions. Bo. Danger of fire. Smell. Do. Do. Smell; pollution of waters; dan ger from fire. Smell and danger of fire. Smell ; injurious emanations. ' Smelland smoke. Smell. Smell ; danger from fire. TRA (604) TRA Chrysalides (workshop for extract- ing the silk] Coke (manufacture of). In the open air, or in kilns not smoke-consuming Cyanide of potassium and Prus- sian blue (manufacture of). By the direct calcining of ani- mal matters with potash , Bogs (infirmaries for) . "Ether (manufacture and depOts cf) Fat in the naked flame (melting of) or thick oil, for the use of chamois leather dressers and curriers (manufacture of) . varnish (manufacture of) Eatty waters (extraction of the oils contained in) for the manufac- ture of soap and other purposes. In open vessels Felts and patent shades (manu- facture of) ..... Fireworks (manufacture of) . Flesh, debris, and offal (dep5ts of), arising from the slaughter of animals Fulminating mercury (manufac- ture of) . . Glue (manufacture of) . Greaves (manufacture of) . Guano (dep6ts of). When the quantity exceeds 25,000 kilogrammes ' . Gut manufactures (working of fresh intestines for all purposes) Ivoiy black and animal charcoal (distillation of bones or manu- facture of). When the gases are not burnt Lignites (incineration of) Manuree(depdts of) from middens. Animal remains. Not prepared or in uncovered stores — (manufacture of). By means of animal matters . Matches (manufacture of). With detonating and explor sive substances . , quick (manufacture of). With explosive materials Menageries . . Mud and impurities (depSts of), and sewers .... Nightsoil, desiccated, and other manures from animal matters (manufacture of) . . . Nitrate of iron (manufacture of). Whenthe injurious vapours are not absorbed or decomposed Oil, fish (manufacture of) . , neatsfoot) (manufacture of). With employment of matters in putrefaction . Oils and other fatty bodies extract- ed from the remains of animal* matters (extraction of) . (mixed, hot, or boiled). In open vessels of petroleum and other hy- drocarbons (cleaning of tissues, and waste wool by) . Smell, Smoke and dust. Smell. Smell and noise. Danger from fire and explosion. Smell; dangerof fire. Do. Do. Do. do. do. do. Do. do. Danger from fire and explosion. Smell. Danger of fire and explosion. Smell ; pollution of water. Smell and danger of fire. Smell ; injurious emanations. Smell. Smoke; injurious emanations. Smell. Do. Danger of explo- sion and fire. Do. do. Danger from ani- mals. Smell. Smell and pollu- tion of water. Injurious emana- tions. Smell; danger of fire. Do. do. Do. do. Do. do. Danger ot fire. Oils of petroleum, of schist, and of tar and other hydrocarbons employed for lighting, heating, manufacture of colours and var- nishes, the cleaning of cl6ths, and other purposes. Manufacture, distillation, and work on a great scale Very inflammable substances —that is to say, emitting vapours liable to take fire at a temperature of less than 35° C. If the quantity stored is, even temporarily, 105U litres or more Less inflammable substances — that is to say, emitting vapours liable to take fire at a temperature of 35° C. and above. If the quantity stored is, eventemporarily,10,500 litres or more , rfid (manufacture of). By the extraction of greaves and fatty remnants, at a high temperature , resinous (manufacture of) . Olive-oil cakes (preparation of). By sulphuret of carbon , Patent leather (manufacture of) . Pearl ashes. With discharge of fumes outside Phosphorus (manufacture of) Piggeries Potash, arseniate of (manufacture .00. By means of saltpetre. When the vapours are not absorbed Powder and fulminating sub- . stances (manufacture of) . Powders, explosive (manufacture of) Printing ink (manufacture of) . Pyritous and aluminous earths (roasting of) Red, Prussian and English . Besins, gallipot and common resin (work on a large scale for melting and purifying) Retting in quantity, hemp and fiax .... Sabots (workshop for smoking). By the combustion of the horn or other animal matters, in the towns Scalding-houses. For the industrial preparation of animal remains Skinning of animals Slaughter-houses, public Soda, raw, ft'om sea-weed (manu- facture of). In permanent establishments Starch -works. By fermentation . Smell; dangerof fire. Do. do. Do. Do. do. do. do. Danger from fire. Smell and danger of fire. Smoke and smell. Danger of fire. Smell; noise. Injurious emana- tions. Danger of explo- sion and fire. Danger of explo- sion. Smell ; danger of fire. Smoke; injurious emanations. Injurious emana- tions. Smell and danger of fire. Inj^irious emana- tions and pollu- tion of water. Smell and smoke. Smell. Smell ; injurious emanations. Smell and taint- ing cf water. Smell and smoke. smells; injurious emanations, and pollution of water. TKA (60s) TRA Sulphate of ammonia (manufac- ture of). By distillation of animal matters of copper (manufacture of). Erom roasting pyrites ■ of mercury (manufacture of), When the vapours are not absorbed of soda (manufacture of). By the decomposition of com- mon salt by sulphuric acid, without condensation of the hydrochloric acid Sulphuret of carbon (manufactur of) (manufactures in which they employ on a large acale the) Sulphurous minerals (roasting of) Taffeta and glazed or waxed cloth (manufacture of) Tallow, brown (manufacture of) . candles (melting-houses for). Using naked flame Tai-paulings (manufacture of). By using oil . Tars (special processes for the boiling of). From various sources '. and vegetable resins (elabo- ration of). From various sources . Tobacco (calcination of the mid- ribs of) Trlperies annexed to the slaughter- houses Turf (charring of). In open vessels Smell. Injurious emana- tions. Do. Do. Smell ; danger of fire. Danger of fire. Smoke; injurious emanations. Smell ; danger of fire. Do. do. Do. do. Danger of fire. Smell ; daoger from fire. Do. do. Smell and smoke. Smell and pollu- tion of water. Smell and smoke- Second Glass. Names of MonnfBctures. Acid, arsenic (manufacture of). By means of arsenious acid and nitric acid. When the nitrous pro- ducts are absorbed — , hydrochloric (production of). By the decomposition of the chloride of magnesium, of alumiiium, &c. When the acid is con- densed .... ^.oxalic (manufacture of). By sawdust and potash , , pyroligneous (manufacture of). When the gaseous products are not burnt , pyi'oligneous (purification of) , stearic (manufacture of). By saponifying . " , Alcohol (rectification of) Alkaline chlorides, eau de javelle (manufacture of) . . . Animal charcoal from refineries and sugar-works (revivification oO Arseniate of potash (manufacture of). By saltpetre. When the vapours are ab- sorbed .... Cause of Complaiot. Injurious pours. Accidental ema- nations. Vapour. Smoke andsmell. Smell. Smell and danger of fire. Danger of fire. Smell. Injurious emana- tions ; smell. Accidental ema- nations. Artificial fuel or bricks of coal (manufacture of). With fat resin Asphalts and bitumens (working of). By the naked fire . Baryta (decolorising of sulphate of). By hydrochloric acid in open- vessels Bleaching. Of yarns, of cloths, and of pulp for paper by chlorine . Of yarns and woollen fabrics, and silks, by sulphurous acid Bones (torrefication of) for manure When the ga-ses are burnt Carbonisation of woods. In the open air, in permanent establishment, and other- wise than in the forest In close vessels, disengaging into theairthegaseuus pro ducts of distillation . Carpet-beating on a larg^ scale Chamois leather factories Chlorine (manufacture of). On a large scale Cocoons. Treatmentof coloured cocoons Spinning of cocoons (see " Co- coons," Class III.) Coke (manufacture of). In smoke-consuming kilns . Cooperage on a large scale. Working on casks impreg- nated with fatty and putres- cent matters Crockery (manufacture of). With kilns no,t smoke -con- suming . . Currying- works .... Cyanide ofpotassium and Prussian blue (manufacture of). By employing matters pre- viously carbonised in close vessels .... Dairies on a large scale, in the towns Enamelled earths (manufacture of). With kilns not smoke -con- suming .... Engines and waggons (workshops for construction of) , Fatty matters (extraction for the manufacture of soap, and other uses of oils contained in). In close vessels Felt, tarred (manufacture of) ' Forges and boiler-works for great works employing machine ham mers . Furnaces, blast Gases for lighting and firing (manufacture of) : For the public use . Glass-works, crystal-works, and manufactures of mirrors. In kilns not smoke-consuming Hairs and pigs' bristles (prepara- tion of). Smell ; danger of fire. Do. do. Injurious emana- tions. Smell ; injurious emanations. Do. do Smell and danger of fire. Do. do. Smell and smoke. Do. do. Noise and dust. Smell. Pollution of wa- ter. NoisQ, smell, and smoke. Smoke. Smell. Do. Do. Smoke. Noise: smoke. 3mell ; danger of fire. Do. do. Smoke ; noise. Smoke and dust. Smell. Smell, and dan- ger of fire and explosion. Smoke, and dan- ger office,' TEA (606) TBA Without fermeDtation (see also '* Bristles by fermenta- tion," Class I.) ■ Indiarubber (working of). Employing essential oils or sulphuret of carbon . (application of coatings of) . Ivory and- animal black (distilla-- tion of bones or manufacture of). When the gases are burnt Laces and cloths of gold and silver (burning on a great scale of), in the towns . . . ^ . Lamp black (manufacture o1^. By the distillation of oils, tars, bitumens, Ac' Leather, raw, and fresh hides (depots of) . ... Limekilns. Permanent .... Manures (dep&ts oQ from middens. Animal remains. Dried or disinfected, and in covered stores when the quantity exceeds 25, 000 kilo- grammes .... Murexide (manufacture of). In close vessels, by the reac- tion of nitric acid, and of the uric acid of guano - NLtro-benzine, 'aniline, and mat- tersderivedfrombenzole (manu- facture of) Oil, neatsfoot (manufacture of). ■ "When the matters employed are not putrefied Oilcloths for packing cloth, tarred cords, tarx'ed papers, paste- boards, and bituminous tubes (manufacture of). By hot method Oils (burning). When alcohol and essential oils are used (mixing by heat or boiling of). In close vessels of petroleum, of schist, and of tar, light oils, and other hy- drocarbons employedinlighting and heating, and in the manu- facture of colours and varnishes, cleaning stuffs, &c. Very inflammable substances — that is to say, emitting va- pours liable to take fire at a temperature of less than 35° 0. (or 95° Fahr.)on approach of a lighted match. If the quantity above 150 litres does not reach 1050 litres . Less inflammable substances — that is to say, emitting va- pours liable to take fire only at a temperature of 35" 0. and above. If the quantity stored above 1050 litres does not reach 10,500 litres. Onions (drying of), in the towns . Parchment factories Pearl ashes. With combustion and conden- ' sation of the smoke , Plaster (kilns for). Permanent . . . . Smell. gmell ; danger of fire. Danger of fire. Smell. Do. Smoke; smell. Smell and dust. Smoke ; dust. Smell. Injurious emana- tions. Smell, danger of fire, and in- jurious emana- tions. Smell. Smell and danger of fire. Danger of fire and explosion. Smell and danger of fire. Do. do. Do. Smell. Do. Smoke and smell. Smoke and dust. Porcelain (manufacture of) . Potash (manufacture of). By carbonising the residue of molasses .... Protbchloride, or salt of tin (manu- facture of) .... Resinous torches (manufacture of} Retting (on a great scale) of hemp and flax. By the action of acids, of warm water, and of vapour ,: Bogue (dep5t of brine used for salting) .... Sal . ammoniac and sulphate of ammonia (manufacture of). By employing animal matters , extracted from the waters of gasworks (special manufacture of) Salt provisions (establishments for) and smoking.of fish . Salted fish (depdts of) Sardines (preparation of pre- served), in the towns Sausages (manufactures on a great scale of) . Silk hats or other preparations, by means of a finish (manufac- ture of) . . , ' . Skins or fur of hare.s and rabbits (cleaning of) ... Slaughter-houses .... Starch- works. By the separation of the glu- ten, and without fermenta- tion Stripping of fiax, hemp, and jute on large scale .... Sugar refinery and manufacture . Sulphate of mercury (manufacture of). When the vapours are ab- sorbed . . . . of peroxide of iron (manu- facture of). By sulphate of protoxide of iron and nitric acid (nitro- sulphate of iron) of soda (manufacture of). With complete condensation of the Irydrochloric acid Sulphur (fusion or distillation of) . Tallow candles (smelting-houses for). In the water-bath or by steam Tahneries Tarpaulings (manufacture of). Without boiling in oil . Tars (treatment of) in gas manu- factures and bituminous fluid matters f depots of) . . Tobacco (manufacture of) pipes (manufacture of). With kilns not smoke-con- suming . ■ . Turf (carbonisation of). In close vessels Varnish (manufactures of). With spirits of wine Smoke. Smoke and smell. Injurious emana- tions. Smell andx^anger of fire. Injurious emana- tions and pol- lution of water. Smell. Smell; injurious emanations. Smell. Do. Unpleasant smell. Smell. Do. Danger of fire. Smell. Smell'and danger from the animiUs. Pollution of wa- ter. Dust and smoke. Smoke and smelt. Slight emana- tions. Injurious emana- tions. Do. Injuriousemana- tions ; danger from fire. Smell. Do. Danger of fire. Smell and danger of fire. Do. do, Smoke and dust. Smoke, Smell. Smell and danger of fire. TRA (607) TRA Third Class. Names of Manufactures. Acid, nitric ' , oxalic (manufacture of). By nitric aci'd. With destruction of in- jurious gases . , picric. With destruction of injurious gases ■ . pyroligneous (manufacture of). When the gaseous products are burned .... —^ , sulphuric (manufacture of). Of Nordhausen, by the de- composition of sulphate of iron .... Albumen (manufacture of). From the fresh serum of blood Alcohols other than fi-om wine. Without works for rectifica- tion ... (agricultural distillery) Ammonia (manufacture on a large scale Qf). By the decomposition of am- moniacal salts . Ammoniacal cochineal (manufac- ture of) . . . Archil (manufacture of). In close vessels, and employ- ing ammonia to the exclu- sion of urine Artificial fuel or bricks of coal (manufacture of). With dry resin Asphalts, bitumens, resiD<:, and bituminous solid matters (de- pots of) Cause of Complaint. Injurious emana- tions. Accidental fumes. Injurious va- pours. Smokeand smell. Injurious emana- tions. Bacon (workplaces for smoking) . Bark-beaters in the towns . Bleaching. Lioen threads ' and tissues, hemp and cotton, by the alkaline chlorides (hypo- -chloriUe) .... Breweries Brickworks. With kilns not smoke-con- suming .... Button-makers and other metal embossers by mechanical means Candles and other articles In wax . and stearic acid (manufacture of) . of paraCBne and others of mineral origin (moulding of) . Carbonising wood. In close vessels, with com- bustion of the gaseous pro- ducts of distillation . Ceruse, or whitelead (manufacture of) . Cheeses (depGts of), in the towns Chloride of lime (manufacture of). In works manufacturing at most 3()0 kilogrammes per day , . . . Chromate of potash (manufacture of) ....... Smell. Pollution of wa- ter. Do. Smell. Do. Do. Do. Smell; danger of fire. Smell andsmoke. Noise and dust. Smell ; pollution of water. Smell. Smoke. Noise. Danger of fire. Smell ; danger of fire. Do. do. Smell andsmoke. Injurious emana- tions. Smell. Do. Do. Coal-washing Cocoons (spinning of). - Workshops on a large scale — that is to say, employing at least six winders . '. Coffee (roasting on a large scale" 00 Copper (solution of). By acids Cotton and greased cotton (bleach- ing waste oif) . ■ . . waste (depots of). On a large scale, in the towns. Cowhouses. In towns of more than 5000 inhabitants. Distilleries in general ; spirits, gin, klrschwasser, absinthei and other alcoholic liquors Dyeing of skins i .... Earthenware (manufacture of). With smoke-consuming kilns. With kilns not smoke-con- suming . . ... Enamel (application of) on metals Enamels (manufacturing) . With kilns not smoke-con- suming Enamelled ware (manufacture of). With smoke-consuming kilns Fattening of fowls in the towns (establishments for) , Felt hats (manufacture oQ . Flints (kilns for calcining) . Founding and rolling of lead, zinc, and copper Foundries for the second fusion , of copper, brass, and bronze Gases for lighting and heating (manufacture of). For particulai* use . Gasometers . for particular uses, not adjoining manufacturing works . . . . • , Gelatine for food, and gelatifles derived from fresh skins and dressing, and fresh hides . Gilding and silvering of metals . Glass-works, crystal-works, and manufactories of min'ors. With smoke-consuming kilns Glucose an'd syrups from fecula (manufacture of; . . Gold and silver beaters Goldsmiths' waste (treatment of). By lead ... Guano (depSts of). For sale by retail Gypsum (^kilns,for). Only working one month Herrings (salting of) . Hungary leather tanneries . Leather-dressing establishments . Lime-kilns, " Not working m.ore than one month in the year Litharge (manufacture of) . Manures (depOts of j from middens. Animal remains. Dried or disinfected, and in covered store, when the quantity is less than 2500 kilogi-ammes Pollution of wa- ter. Smell-,* pollution of water. Smell and smoke. Smell ; injurious emanations.' Pollution of wa- , ter. Danger of fire. Smell and drain age of urine. Danger of fire. Smell and pollu- tion of water. Smell. Accidental smoke. Smoke. JLlo. Accidental smoke. Smell. Smell and dust,. Smoke. Noise ; smoke. Smoke. Metallic fumes. Smell ; danger of fire. iSmell. Injilriousemana- tions. Danger of fire. Smell. Noise. Metallic fumes. Smell. Smoke and dust. Smell. Do. Smell. Smoke and dust. Noxious dust. Smell. TRA (608) TRA Massicot (manufacture of) . Mechanical pounding of drugs . Mills for grinding lijne, flintii, and puozzolane .... Mineral charcoal (manufacture of). By pounding the residue of distillation of bituminous schists Morocco leather manufactories .. Kitrate of iron ^manufacture of). When the injurious vapours are absorbed or decom- posed Oak bark (mills for) Oilcloths for packing textures, tarred cords, tarred papers, pasteboards, and bituminous tubes^ (manufacture of). By cold method Oils (purification of]) Oil-works and oil-mills Olives (pickling of) . . . Painted cloths (manufacture of) . Paper (manufacture of) pulp (preparation of). By means of straw and other combustible matteis Pasteboard-makers snuff-boxes (manufacture of) Plates and polished metals . Ferchloride of iron (manufacture of). By solution of peroxide of iron Porcelain (manufacture of). With smoke-consuming kilns Puozzolane. artificial (kilns for) . Quicksilvering of mirrors Rags (depSts of) , Ked-lead (manufacture of) . prussiate of potash Refrigerating preparations. By ammonia .... By ether, or other similar and .combustible liquids , Salt of aoda.(manufacture of). With sulphate of soda . Salting and preparation of meats. ^dep6ts for), in the towns ScaldiQg-houses. Por the preparation of parts of animals proper for food . Sealing-wax (manufacture of) Sheepskins (drying of) . Soapworks Sponges (washing and drying of) . Starch manufactories . Steel (manufacture of) . Sulphate of iron, alumina, and alum (manufacture of). By the washing of. roasted pyrites and aluminous earth of protoxide of iron or green copperas (manufacture on a large scale of). By the action of sulphuric acid on old iron .... Noxious emana- tions. Noise and dust. Bust. Smell and dust. Smell. Injurious emana- tions. Noise and dust. Smell ; danger of five. Do. do. Bo. do. Pollution of wa- ter. Smell. Banger of fire. Pollution of wa- ter. Smell. Smell ; danger of fire. Bo. do. Injurious emana- tions. Accidental smoke. Smoke. Injurious emana- tions. Smell. Injurious emana- tions. Do. Smell. Danger of explo- sion and fii'e. Smoke ; injuri- ous emana- tions. Smell. Do. Do. Danger of fire. Smell and dust. Smell. Smell; pollution of water. tDo. do. Smoke, Smoke and pollu- tion of water. Smoke ; injurious emanations. Sulphur (pulverising and sifting of) Thrashing and washing (spacious workshops for) worsteds, hairs, and waste of woollen and silk threads in the towns . . Thrashing, carding, and bleaching woollens, hairs, and feathers for bedding hides (hammer for) Tileworks. With kilns not smoke- con- suming . . . .' Tinplate (manufacture of) . Tobacco-pipes (manufacture of). With smoke-consuming kilns. Wadding (manufacture of) , Wash-houses for wool . . , . Whalebone (working) . White of zinc (manufacture of). By the combustion of the metal . Wire-drawing works Wood carbon, in the towns (de- p6ts or stores o^ . . . Tards for firewood, in the towns . Dust; danger of fii"e. Noise and dust. Smell and dust. Noise and dis- turbance. Smoke. Bo. Accidental smoke. - Dust and danger of fire. Pollution of wa- ter. Do. Unpleasant em- anations. Metallic fumes. Noise andsmoke. Danger of fire. Injurious emana- tions ; danger of fire.- Any person who, after the passing of the Public Health Act, establishes within the district of an urlan authority, without their consent in writing, any offensive trade— that ia to say, the trade of blood-boiler, or bone- boiler, or fellmonger, or soap-boiler, or tallow- melter, or tripe-boiler, or any other noxious or offensive trade, business, or manufacture — shall be liable to a penalty of £50, or less, in respect of the establishment thereof ; and any person carrying on a business bo established shall be liable to a penalty of 40s. , or less, for every day on which the offence is continued, whether there has or has not been any con- viction in respect of the establishment thereof. — (P- H., 8. 112.) Any urban authority may from time to time make bylaws with respect to any offensive trades established with their consent, either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act, in order to prevent or diminish the noxious or injuriousj effects thereof.— (P. H., ti. 113.) Where any candle-house, melting-house, melting-place, or soap-house, or any slaughter- house, or any building or place for boiling offal or blood, or for boiling, burning, or crushing bones, or any manufaetory, building, or place used for any trade, business, process, or manufacture causing effluvia, is certified to any urban authority by their medical officer of Ijiealth, or by any two legally-qualified medical practitioners, or by any ten in- habitants of the district of such urban autho- TRA (609) TRA rity, to be a nuisance or injurious to the health of any of the inhabitants of the district, such urhtm authority shall direct -complaint to be made before a justice, who may summon the person by or on whose behalf the trade so complained of is carried on to appear before a court pf summary jurisdiction. The court shall inquire into the complaint, and if it appears to the court that the business carried on by the person complained of is a nuisance, or causes any effluvia which is a nuisance or injurious to the health of the inhabitants of the district, and unless it be shown that such person has used the best practicable means for abating such nuisance, or preventing or counteracting such efBuvia, the person so offending (being the owner or occupier of the premises, or being a foreman or other person employed by such owner or occupier) shall be liable to a penalty not ex- ceeding £5 nor less than 40s., and on a second and any subsequent conviction to a penalty double the amount of the penalty imposed for the last preceding conviction, but the highest amoiint of such penalty shall not in any case exceed the sum of £200. Provided, that the court may suspend its final determination on condition that the per- son complained of undertakes to adopt, within a reasonable time, such means as the court may deem to b6 practicable and order to be carried into effect for abating such nuisance, or mitigating or preventing the injurious effects of such effluvia, or if such person gives notice of appeal to the court of quarter sessions in manner provided by the Public Health Act. Any local authority may, if they think fit, on such certificate as is in this section men- tioned, cause to be taken any proceedings in any superior court of law or equity against any person in respect of the matters alleged in such certificate. — (P. H., s. 114.) Training — The object of training is to render the system capable of undergoing some unusual feat of exertion, and to increase the powers of endurance, and the suppleness and activity of the limbs. The weight of the body is reduced, the muscular strength is augmented, and all superfluous fat and water are removed. In the words of a modem writer on this subject, "A concordant action is established between the heart and blood- vessels, so that the strong action of the heart during exercise is met by a more perfect dilatation of the vessels, and there is no blockage of the flow of blood. In the lungs the blood not only passes more freely, but the amount of oxygen is in- creased, and the gradual improvement in breathing-power is well seen when horses are watched during training. This reciprocal action of heart and blood-vessels is the most important point in training ; the nutrition of nerves and muscular fibres improves from constant action, and the abundant supply of food ; the tissue changes are more active, and elimination, especially of carbon, increases. A higher condition of health ensues, and if not carried to excess, ' training ' is simply another word for healthy and vigorous liv- ing." These effects are brought about by the combination of three things — (1) exercise, increasing in severity with the strength and endurance of the man in training; (2) food in which meat predominates ; and (3) regu- larity in the hours for sleep, meals, and exercise. Exercise and regularity of life in inducing a high state of health, require no comment, but the peculiar diet necessary to produce muscular development, is a subject of great interest. It appears pretty well proved that carnivorous men can endure great fatigue for a short time better than herbivorous men. For example: "When the Mokololo go on a foray, as they sometimes do, a month distant, many of the subject tribes who accompany them being grain - eaters perish from sheer fatigue, while the beef -eaters scorn the idea of ever being tired." — (Livingstone, Zambesi.) And again, Sir Francis Head, in his "Jour- neys across the Pampas," 1828, p. 51, says, "I had been riding for three or four months, and had lived on beef and water. I found myself in a condition which I can only describe by saying that I felt no exertion would kill me. . . . This will explain the immense dis- tances which people in South America are said to ride, which I am confident could only be done on beef and water." Professor Haughton, while agreeing that meat is the best diet when we are called upon to exercise sudden bursts of muscular labour continued for short periods, affirms that for long-continued labour it is not so valuable as a farinaceous diet. " It is, however, worthy of remark that the muscular qualities developed by the two kinds of food (flesh and farina- ceous) differ considerably from each other. The hunted deer will outrun the leopard in a fair and open chase, because the work sup- plied to its muscles by the vegetable food is capable of being given out continuously for a long period of time ; but in a sudden rush at a near distance, the leopard will infallibly overtake the deer, because its flesh food stores up in the blood a reserve of force capable of being given out instantaneously in the form of exceedingly rapid muscular action. In 2q TKA (6io) TBA conformity with this principle, we find among ourselves an instinctive preference given to farmaceous and fatty foods, or to nitrogenous foods, according as our occupations require a steady long-continued slow labour, or the exercise of sudden bursts of muscular labour continued for short periods." — (Hatjghion, Address at Oxford, 1868.), In training, the diet is almost exclusively meat, bread, and beer. Beef and mutton are the meats usually taken, and it is important that these be not overcooked. It is not necessary to exclude aU the fat. Stale bread, potatoes, and a little green vegetable are allowed in conjunction. Pickles, sauces, &c., are to be prohibited, and sweets, pastry, and made dishes avoided. Small quantities only of fluids should be taken, and these sipped slowly to allow of absorption and thus satisfy thirst, without introducing a surplus amount into the stomach. Beer, light wines, tea, coffee, cocoa, barley-water, and toast-and- water are the fluids usually recommended. Spirits are rigorously excluded, and water alone is looked upon with some suspicion. The following are a few of the dietaries used in training: — King, in training, is said to have taken for his breakfast two lean mutton chops, some- what underdone, with dry toast or stale bread, and a single cup of tea without sugar ; for dinner, 1 lb. or H lb. of beef or mutton, with toast or stale bread, and very little potato or other vegetable, and half a pint of old ale, or a glass or two of sherry ; for tea, a single cup of unsweetened tea, with an egg and some diy toast; and for supper, half a pint of oatmeal porridge, or half a pint of old ale. " The effect of this," says Letheby, "is to produce only a shortlived state of effective- ness, for, carried a little beyond the appointed time, it leads to disease ; and even after such a training there is often, as in the case of Eeenan, terrible prostration of the system, and a necessity for returning immediately to an ordinary diet." The Oxford System. A DaTfs Training jar the Summer Races. — Kise about 7 A.M. A short walk or run. Breakfast at 8 '30, of meat (beef or mutton, underdone), bread (the crust only recom- mended), or dry toast, and tea (as little 'as possible recommended). Dinner at 2 p.m. , of meat (much the same as for breakfast), bread and no vegetables (a rule, however, not always adhered to), vrith one pint of beer. About 5 a row twice over the course On the river, the speed being increased with the strength of the crew. Supper at 8 "30 or 9, of cold meat and bread, with perhaps a jelly or water-cresses, and one pint of beer. Betire to bed about 10. A Day's Training for the Winter Baces. — Rise about 7 '30 A-M. A short walk or run. Breakfast at 9, as for the summer races. Luncheon about 1, of bread or a sandwich, and half a pint of beer. About 2 row twice over the course. Dinner at 5, of meat, as for summer races ; bread, vegetables, the same rule as for the suminer races ; pudding (rice) or jelly, and half a pint of beer. It is parti- cularly impressed on men in training that as little liquid as possible is to be drunk — water being striptly forbidden. The Cambridge System. A Day's Training for the Summer Races. — Eise at 7 A.M. A run of 100 or 200 yards, as fast as possible. Breakfast at 8 '30, of meat (beef or mutton, underdone), dry toast, tea (two cups, or towards the end of training a cup and a half only), and water-cresses occa- sionally. Dinner about 2, of meat (beef or mutton), bread, vegetables— potatoes, greens — and one pint of beer (some colleges have baked apples, jellies, or rice-puddings). Dessert, oranges, biscuits, or figs, with two glasses of vrine. About 5'30 a row to the starting-post and back. Supper about 8 '30 or 9, of cold meat, bread, vegetables — lettuce or water- cresses — and one pint of beer. Betire to bed at 10. A Day's Training for the Winter Races. — Bise about 7 A. M. Exercise as for the summer races. Breakfast at 8 '30, as for the summer races. Luncheon about 1, of a little cold meat, bread, and half a pint of beer, or a bis- cuit with a glass of sherry — perhaps the yolk of an egg in the sherry. At 2 a row over the course and back. Dinner about 5 or 6, as for the summer races. Betire to bed about 10. Tramways — An urban sanitary authority may construct tramways under a Board of Trade provisional order, or the authority may purchase tramways, and may lease and take tolls in respect of the same ; but the autho- rity is prohibited from working them. — (33 & 34 Vict. u. 78, B. 4, 6-16, &c.) A tramway cannot be constructed without the consent of the urban sanitary authority. The working of tramways is regulated by bylaws, which require the sanction of the fioard of Trade (not of the Local Government Board).— (Ihii., s. 4, 46-48.) In establishing tramways there are various restrictions protecting the interests of road, gas, water, telegraph, and sewer authorities. (Ibid., 3. 26-33.) TRA (6ii) IBA The expenses are to be borne by the gene- ral rate; the money may, however, be bor- rowed (with consent of the Board of Trade) in a similar manner to other sanitary funds. —(Ibid., s. 20, Schedule A.) Transports— 5ee Hospitals; HtgiIIne, Naval, &o. Traps, Trapping— A trap, in a sanitary sense,' is an apparatus affixed to the inlets of drains or sewers, so constructed as to prevent sewer gas from escaping into the air, but at the same time without impeding or obstruct- ing the flow of liquids. All sewers and drains (save and except those on the Liemur principle) require to be properly trapped and ventilated. The forms of traps in use are legion, but they are all on similar principles, and may be arranged into two classes — (1) those that interpose a body of water — an hydraulic seal between the atmo- sphere and the sewer ; (2) those that interpose a solid body, such as a sheet of metal affixed to some mechanical arrangement. The traps of the first class are usually automatic ; the common siphon trap as affixed to a sink may be taken as an illustra- tion (see fig. 121). It is evident that a layer of water will remain in the bend and prevent the gases escaping; but very little knowledge of SINK TRAP. Mg. 121. the laws of fluids and gases is required to see that such an arrangement must, from time to time, get out of order ; for if, on the one hand, the pipe runs f uU, the whole of the water will be sucked by a siphon action out of the trap ; and if, on the other hand, a large quantity of gas is suddenly evolved in the drain or sewer, or a slight elevation of temperature takes place from the admission of hot liquids, the water is very likely to be driven out of the trap. Both these objections may, however, to a very considerable extent be obviated by inserting ventilating-pipes adja- cent to important traps, or in the traps them- Few traps wiU answer for all purposes ; for example, those for drains carrying surface- water, &c., from roads, especially in hilly dis- tricts, where in heavy rains an enormous quantity of debris ia carried down, require to have in connection with them large sludge- boxes, and arrangements to prevent the pipes being silted up. The traps for kitchens, sinks, and yards should for the most part be so constructed as to be easily examined and cleaned, for the proverbial carelessness of domestics frequently renders the best me- chanism useless by stuffing it with solid refuse. As the number of patents taken out for traps yearly is very large, an account of the difierent forms would far exceed the limits of this work ; but as an example of an efficient hydraulic trap, Dean's patent drain trap, manufactured by Mr. J. C. Edwards of Buabon, may be selected. It is made in a variety of forms — circular, square, and rec- tangular — and either double or single. Fig. 122. outletI /NLET SECTION. Fig. 123. Figs. 122 and 123 show a section of a single and double trap. The double trap is generally used to trap externally sink or other house drains (except water-closet soil-pipes), and the single trap is for yard gulleys, cottage drains, &o. Many engineers, however, prefer the single trap for house drains, the trap being placed just outside the outer wall, and the sink or waste pipe discharging on to the top of grating. If , as is often the case, venti- lation is necessary, the pipe next the out- let should be a junction, and a ventilating- pipe should be led therefrom to a suitable place. It is made in two parts, the outer made of stoneware, and .the inner a movable cast-iron receptacle B B, fitting into the bottom of the same, the configuration and construction being such that all solid matter must rest in the receptacle, which can be TBA (612) TRA easily and readily removed, emptied, and cleansed. G H are two dips, and fonn a double trap ; tor if by any great pressure the sewer gas should force under the dip G, JB would immediately rise to the surface) so that it could not force under the seal JS and enter the house. These traps are now very exten- sively used. As an example of a trap on a mechanical principle, and certainly one of the best yet invented, Banner's patent drain trap may be described (see fig. 124). The trap consists of a small air-tight chamber A of cast iron, or other material, fitted with a 4-inchinlet pipe B, which projects severalinchSs into its interior ; the lower end of this inlet, surrounded by an indiarubber band, sprung on and slightly projecting beyond the end of the pipe, is closed and made air-tight by a copper cup C, of peculiar form, being pressed up to it by a suitable weight D mounted upon a lever fulcrumed on an air-tight centre, and hav- ing its outer end bent upwards at a right angle. The weight is suspended by a.link on the raised end of the lever, and is so arranged that when the pan is in the act of tilting C, the centre of gravity of the weight IV is brought nearer the fulcrum, thus reducing the load and allowing the pan C to remain tilted, without at any time unsealing the trap, till it i^ thoroughly flushed, yet retaining sufficient power to completely close the trap again after flushing. A series of holes in the raised end of the lever permits of a proper adjustment of the weight, and a bend in the soil-pipe, just above the trap, breaks the force of the water E I ■1 B ^ 1 \ i I \ J I I Pig. 124. reaching the latter from above. The lower part of the chamber E is formed with sloping sides, terminating in an outlet in connection with the drain. Before fiushing, the cup when full weighs over 15 lbs., while the utmost weight opposed to it on the lever is less than 15 lbs. After flushing, the cup and clean water left in it weigh under 7 lbs., while the weight on the lever after flushing is over 7 lbs. The column of water in the soil-pipe B can- not rise more than 12 inches above the chamber, but the weight on the end of the lever is suffi- cient to maintain m the aoilrpipe a permanent column of several inches of fresh overflow water, besides the clean water left in the bottom of the cup after each thorough flush- ing, till the closet is again used and its con- tents are discharged into the drain, when the copper pan filling again is again tilted and remains down sufficiently long to admit of a thorough flushing [but at no time unseal- ing the end of the inlet pipe, as will be seen from the dotted lines in figure 124, whi^sh shows the pan in its tilted position), after which the trap is brought back by the ac- tion of the weighted • lever to its normal position, when, besides the air-tight valve thus formed, there is a water seal of 3 inches in the cup, and several inches up the soil-pipe. This is a most advantageous form of trap for all low-lying districts, where there is danger, in times of flood or high water, of TRA (613) TBA the drains returniag their contents into the basements, as the greater the pressure of the returning sewage msi^ter towards the chamber below the trap, the more tightly is the copper pan closed against the end o£ the soil-pipe inlet, so that no flood-water, sewage, or sewer Fig. 125. gas can possibly be forced past it into the base- ment or ?Jiy other part of the house. The outer end of the lever being exposed to Tiew, in the event of any foreign substarce causing a stoppage, it can be readily remedied by a domestic. TKE (614) TBI the appearance of the parasite both free in the cyst. When the cup valve is in the position it takes while flashing, the opening is increased from the diameter of the inlet pipe aliove it to 12 inches. Mr. Banner has also devised a very ingeni- ous apparatus for disinfecting a trap {see fig. 125). A is a glass vase holding 1^ gallon of a disinfectant fluid ; this is, in fact, the reser- voir. The hollow tube B is fixed to a lead valve C, which has discs of indiarubber D attached to it above and below ; E E are open- ings into and out of the small chamber A', which admit of its filling or emptying as the indiarubber discs rest upon the lower, or are held up to the upper, side of the small cham- ber A' ; F is an air-hole, and G is the outlet pipe through which the regulated charge of disinfectant passes to the D trap, on the valve being raised by the action of the lever spring fixed on the bracket above the vase A. It is obvious that with the valve in the posi- tion represented, the chamber A' is full of fluid ; but upon raising the valve, the upper discs D D are closely applied to the openings from the reservoir, but leaving the lower openings E E open, the contents of the cham- ber A' are discharged into the trap. But whether the forms of traps described are used or not, this is certain, that the com- mon bell trap is, under the most favourable conditions, extremely inefiScient ; that with the common siphon traps ventilation of the traps, as well as disinfection from time to time, is as a rule necessary, and that all require occasional supervision. See Seweb. TroEB— iSce Penaihes, Plantations. Trichina Spiralis — A minute round worm, enclosed in a more or less transparent capsule, that has been found as a parasite in the muscular system of man and animals. and rig 126. Figs. 126 and 127, after Virchow, represent Fig. 137. The following is Dr Cobbold's description of the parasite : — 1. The Trichina spiralis in its mature state is an extremely minute nematode helminttie ; the male in its fully - developed and sexually - mature condition measuring only ^ of an inch, whilst the perfectly- developed female reaches a length of about i ; body rounded and flliform, usually slightly bent upon itseH rather thicker behind than in front, especially in the males ; head narrow, finely pointed, unarmed, with a simple, central, minute, oral aperture ; pos- terior extremity of the male furnished with a bilobed cf^udal appendage, the cloacal or anal aperture being situated between these divergent appendages ; penis consisting of a single specula cleft above, so as to assume a V-shaped outline. Female shorter than the male, bluntly rounded posteriorly, with the genital outlet placed far forward, at about the end of the first fifth of the long diameter of the body ; eggs measuring from x^^j from pole to pole ; mode of re- production viviparous. 2. The sexually-mature trichina inhabits the intes- tinal canal of numerous warm-blooded animals, espe- cially mammalia (ajso of man), and constantly in great numbers. 3. At the second day after their introduction the intestinal trichina attain their full sexual maturity, lose their spiral figure, and become stretched, whilst they grow rapidly, and their generative organs are developed. . 4. Most females contain from 800 to 500 ova. In six days the female parasites will contain perfectly- developed and free embryos in the interior, aod these, on attaining full size, pass out at the vaginal open ing. The eggs of the female trichina are developed within the uterus of the mother into minute filaria- like embryos, which, from their sixth day, are born without their eggshells. 5. The new-born young soon afterwards commence their wandering. They penetrate the walls of the intestines, and pass directly tlu'ough the abdominal cavity into the muscles of their bearers, where, if the conditions are otherwise favourable, they are de- veloped into the form hitherto known. 6. The direction in which they proceed;is in the course of the intermuscular connective tissue. 7. The majority of the wandering embryos remain in those sheathed muscular groups which are nearest to the cavity of the body, the abdomen, and thorax, especially in those which are smaller and most sup- plied with connective tissue. 8. The embryos penetrate into the interior of the separate muscular bundles, and here already, after fourteen days, acquire the size and organisation of the well-known Trichina s^ralis. 9. Soon after the intrusion of the parasite the infested muscular fibre loses its original structure. TBI (6iS) TUR Tim fibrillsQ collapse into a finely granular substance, whilst the muscular corpuscles change into oyal nucleated cells. 10. The infested muscular bundle retains its ori- ginal sheathing up to the time of the complete development of the young trichinie, but afterwards its sarcolemma thickens, and begins to shrivel at the extremities. IL The spot inhabited by the roUed-up parasites is converted into a spindle-shaped widening, and within this space, under the thickened sarcolemma, the formation of the well-known lemon-shaped or globular cysts commences by a periphic hardening and calcification, One cyst may have from one to three trichinae. 12. The migration and development of the em- bryos also take place after the transportation of impregnated trichinse into the intestines of a new host. 13 . The further development of the muscle trichina into sexually - mature animals is altogether inde- pendent of the formation of the calcareous shell, and occurs as soon as the former have reached their com- pletion. The male and female individuals are already recognisable as sexually distinct in their larval state. — (Entozoa ; an Introduction to the Study of Hel- minthology, with Reference more particularly to the Internal Parasites of Man, by J, Spencer Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S. London, 1864.) So far as it is at present known, the disease dees not attack sheep, oxen, or horses. According to Virchow and Zenker, the most favourable organism for the development of trichina is the human. When meat affected by this parasite is taken into the human stomach, a period of five or six days elapses without symptoms; but in that period the worms have multiplied prodigiously. They become free, leave their capsules, and produce young, which migrate through the intestines into the muscles. Very serious results have followed the in- gestion of meat afifected with trichinse. In 1863, out of 103 persons who ate sausages made of an aSected pig, at Hettstadt, no less than 83 died from trichinosis (British Medical Journal, January 16, 1864, p. 75), and several similar instances are on record. The symp- toms are often strikingly like those produced by an irritant poison — such as loss of appetite, sickness, pain, general weakness of limbs, diarrhoea, swellings of the eyelids, profuse perspiration, and very frequently peritonitis. There is no known method of treatment likely to be of any service. In searching for trichinse by the microscope the tendinous extremities of muscles should be selected, as there the cysts are most numerous. A small portion of the muscle is out ofE by a pair of scissors, and teased into shreds by needles, thus freeing the cysts, which should then be treated with a drop of hydrochloric acid, which will dissolve the lime and make the cyst transparent. Another way is to put the suspected flesh into a watch - glass and digest it in a liquid composed of one part of liquor potassd3 to eight of water; the muscles become decom- posed, and the capsules, from being unaffected, are seen as minute white specks. Xricocephalus Dispar — This is a round worm (first mentioned by Morgagni) that has been found in the human intestines. Its an- terior extremity is narrow and hair-like, and is buried in the mucous membrane of the in- testine, whUe the remainder of the body moves freely in the cavity. The manner of its intro- duction is unknown. Tripe — Tripe consists of the paunch or first portion of the ruminant stomach of the ox. It is easily digestible, except when very fat. Composition of Tripe (Lethebt). Nitrogenous matter . Pat . . . . . Saline matter Water . . . . Tripe-Boiler— See Trades, Offensive. Trout — There are several varieties — Salmo fm-io (Linn.), S. eriox, S. ferox, S. trutta. All these vai'ieties are in their finest condition from the end of May to late in September. The trout contains about 6 per cent, of fat. It should be cooked as soon after it is caught as is practicable. Turbot — The Rhombus mcadmus (Cuvier), Except the halibut, this is the largest of our flat fish. The following is its composition : Nitrogenous matter, 18*1 per cent. ; fat, 2'9 per cent. ; saline matter, I'O per cent. ; and water, 78 per cent. The Dutch turbot is usually considered the finest. Turmeric {Cuixuma) — The rhizome of Curcuma iinctm-ia. Two species are known in commerce, the round and the long; the first is yellow without, compact and yellowish brown within; the second is of a greyish colour externally, compact and reddish brown within. The following is an analysis of an average sample of 0. longa : — Water . 14-249 Curcumiu 11000 Turmeric 12075 Volatile oU . 1000 Gum ; . . 8113 Starch . 3-627 Extractive 3-388 Woody fibre 46-548 Ash included in above weights [5-463] 100 000 TUB (6i6) UNI The structure of turmeric is very charac- teristic ; the microscope shows a cellular tissue containing large loose yellow cells, with here and there small but very distinct starch granules, similar in shape and size to those in curcuma arrowroot, and some woody fibre and dotted ducts. The yellow granular cells can readily be identified wherever they occur. Turmeric is used very extensively as an adulterant and as a colouring agent. When ground it has not unfrequently been found to be itself adulterated with yellow ochre, car- bonate of soda, and potash. X careful micro- scopical examination of the powder and a determination of the ash will easily detect any foreign admixture. Turnip (Brassica Napus, Lindley) — This vegetable is too-well known to require any de- scription here. The following table showing its composition illustrates its nutritive value, which is low. Turnips require to be well cooked to be rendered easy of digestion. Composition of Turnips (Letheby). ' Nitrogenous matter Starch Sugar , Salt . ■Water. 100 Turpentine, Oil of (CjoHie. Specific gravity of liquid, "864 ; of vapour, 4 "76 ; re- lative weight, 68; boiling-point, 320° = 160° 0.) — An oleo-resin flowing from the trunk of various species of pine. The com- mon turpentine is obtained from the Pinus abies, Venice turpentine from the Larix Jkuropaa, and the Chiam turpentine is derived from the Pistacia Lentiscus, Commercial oil of turpentine consists of a great variety of isomeric hydrocarbons which act differently on polarised light. They have been very carefully studied by Deville and Berthelot (Ann. de Chimie, II. Ixxv. 37, and III. xxvii. and xxix. ) in their chemical aspects, and would well repay investigation as to their disinfectant powers. All the varieties of turpentine preserve organic structures from decay, and are there- fore antiseptic ; but there have been few in- vestigations as to the useful hygienic proper- ties which they may possess. See Tebebsne. Typhoid Fever— &e Feveb, Typhoid. Typho - Bubeoloid — A term used by Boupell in 1831 to denote what we call typhus, in the belief that it was a new disease. See Feveb, Ttphus. Typhus Fever— See Fevee, Typhus. u. tntramarine— This pigment is obtained from the blue mineral azure stone, lazulite or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of which are brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucharia. It is employed for the purpose of colouring confectionery. The ash of sugar articles so coloured is of a bright blue tint, and the colour is fixed in the fire. This colour being somewhat expensive, a substitute is sometimes used, called German or French ultramarine ; this consists of a double silicate of alumina and soda, with sulphuret of soda. See CONPECTIONEKY. ITmber — Employed for the purpose of colouring sugar, confectionery, ha. It con- tains iron, and may be distinguished by test- ing for this metal. See Conpeciiokebt, Ikon, &o. Union, Foor-Ziaw— A union is a group or collection of parishes. They were formed, in the first place, by assistant commissioners. The principles guiding their selection were, that the area should not be inconveniently great, and that the population of the parishes should be extensive enough to warrant the formation of a union. Local Acts had also to be taken into account ; and where these local Acts were in force, the consent of cer- tain persons had to be pbtained. From this and other causes, there was often want of coincidence in area with the county ; and in some cases, where a town was sur- rounded by a country district, the town was placed in one union and the country district in another, although the latter formed a circle or half circle round the town. It is of the greatest importance for sanitary purposes that one area should be available for registration, sanitary and poor-law adminis- tration; and as the union appears to have been already taken as the sanitary unit in UIIB (617) UM country-places, and answers fairly, it would be still more useful if the areas were made to coincide with the counties.* Poor-law unions are, with certain exceptions, rural sanitary districts, and one or more may, by permission of the Local GoTemment Board, combine together for sanitary purposes. The Local Government Board has also the power to compel combination. See Samtabt DiS- TBICIS, &c. TTrban Sanitary Authorities — See Sanitaet Authorities. Urinals— A urinal should be fitted up in all water-closets, otherwise the closet pan is used for the purpose, and the safe underneath becomes filled up with an objectionable and foul-smelling liquid. Fig. 128 represents the best form of urinal ; it is fitted up with a trap underneath, which can, when it is considered desirable, be ven- ,;Fig. 128. tilated by a pipe leading outside, and is in- tended to be fixed above a treadle plate, which when stood upon provides a rush of water into the basin from the pipe at the top, the flushing supply ceasing when the weight of the foot is removed. A disinfecting apparatus can be applied here similar to that which will be found described under the head of Traps and Watee-Closets. These urinals should be constructed of glazed ware, and are best when the basin and trap form one piece, of earthenware. Public urinals should be lined with glazed stoneware tiles, or composed of enamelled slabs of smooth slate. An arrange- ment allowing a small quantity of water to trickle down them constantly will keep them perfectly clean and inodorous. The old stone latrine is to be condemned, and en- amelled iron does not always answer well. * The Act of 1844 gave absolute power to the then Poor-Law Board to separate and to add parishes to unions, so that unions overlapping county boundaries might gradually and cautiously be jevised and re- distributed.. Any KJ-Saw authority may provide and ism.n- iwa. puUic urinals. — (P. H., s. 39.) Urine — The urine appears in all animals to form the principal outlet for the nitrogen of the effete azotised tissues of the system, though the compounds in which it is excreted vary with the kind of animah Urine has a peculiar odour, and a saline bitter taste. Its specific gravity varies with the diet and state of health of the individual, but it usually averages about 1'020. The amount of urine voided in the four - and - twenty hours also varies, but on an average it may be estimated in the adult at from 40 to 50 ozs. Urine, when left to itself, speedily begins to undergo change. In most cases it first exhibits an increase of acidity, and after standing a few days it begins to putrefy, and acquires a power- fully alkaline reaction and an ammoniacal odour, due to the conversion of the urea into ammonium carbonate. Urine will keep good longer in a clean smooth vessel than in one with rough sides, and longer still if protected from the influence of the atmosphere. The follow- ing table shows the composition of an average sample, of healthy human urine : — CompoiUion of Urine (Millbb). Specific gravity, 1-020. In too Parti Wt ter 956-80 of Solid -Mutter. / f'Urea 14-23 83-00 Organic IJric acid . 0-37 0-86 _j mutters, - Alcoholic extract 12-63 29-03 " 29-79. Watery extract . 2-60 6-sn Vesical mucus 0-16 0-37 m" f'Sodio chloride . 7-22 16-73 ^( Phosphoric anhydride 2-12 4-91 ti^ Fixed Sulphuric anhydride 1-79 3-94 s salts, - Lime . 0-21 0-49 s 13-35 Magnesia . 012 0-28 "o Potash 1-93 4-47 03 I^Soda . 0-09 0-12 \ 999 08 100-00 The amount of urine secreted, as already noticed, is greatly influenced by the nature of the food; a meat diet largely increases the quantity. The amount of urea is also aug- mented, and there is an increase in the sul- phates and phosphates. Under the influence of animal food its reaction becomes strongly acid, whilst a vegetable diet renders it alkaline. It is probable, though we have no very satisfactory evidence on the point, that urine may be a carrier of infection ; hence the im- portance of disinfecting, as soon as possible, the urine voided by patients suffering from any infectious disease. In cases of suspected poisoning, the urine as well as the stomach should be sent to the analyst, since many poisons make their appearance in that fluid. See Excreta. VAO (6i8) VAO V. Vaccination — Vaccination is the implant- ing or inserting, by means of one or more pvmctnres, the lymph originally derived from cowpox pustules into the human body, where- by a mild and tractable disease is induced, attended by pustules on the inoculated part and sometimes elsewhere, and whereby the vaccinated individual is to a, considerable degree protected from smallpox. History. — Vaccination was discovered by Br. Jenner, who made his first experi- ment in 1792, and published his results in 1798. The train of thought which led to the discovery was suggested by the popular belief in Gloucestershire, Jenner's native county, that cowpox was a prophylactic against smallpox. The real date of the intro- duction of vaccination in Bngland may be said to be 1796. In 1802 it had made such progress in public estimation that a Parlia- mentary grant was bestowed upon Jenner, followed by a second in 1807, amounting in all to £30,000. The results of vaccination immediately after its introduction were extraordinary. In the ten years ending 1799, the deaths by small- pox in London were 22,863 to the million. In the ten years ending 1819, a vaccinating decade, they were 8045 to the million ; and in the ten years ending 1849, they were still further reduced to 4798. So that vaccination might fairly claim to have reduced the mor- tality from about 23,000 to 5000 in fifty years. Some remarkable figures relative to this point will be found in article Smallpox. We have, however, notwithstanding the supposed constant practice of vaccination, recently ex- perienced (1870 -.71) a serious epidemic of smallpox. The inevitable conclusion demon- strated by this is that vaccination, in point of fact, is imperfectly carried out in the first instance, and that, moreover, revaccination is absolutely neglected, except under the influ- ence of panic. Nevertheless, the following figures of mortality in a smallpox hospital amply show that if vaccination does not entirely procure immunity from the disease, it greatly diminishes the mortality:— Mortality. 1S63. 1864. 1865. 1866. ,1867. 1868. 1870. General .... Unvaccinated . Vaccinated ■17-0 48-0 12 12 '9 360 8-7 13-0 380 7-4 13-0 35-7 7 '3 12-66 36-80 8-29 11-0 34-0 6-2 15-4 38-5 7-9 The objections of anti- vaccinators are mainly two — 1. That vaccination really does not protect from smallpox, because so many vaccinated persons suffer out of proportion to the un- vaccinated. To this the reply is, that the vaccinated now form the great bulk of the community. , In the early days of vaccina- tion, the vaccinated constituted a small por- tion of the community, and people seeing the charmed life, as it were, of those who had subjected themselves to the operation, were forcibly struck by its efficacy ; whereas now, the memory of smallpox ravages having, until recently, almost died away, it is the exceptions which attract attention. 2. The second objection is, that vaccination produces ill-health, and may implant other diseases, such as syphilis. There cannot be a doubt that among the millions who have been vaccinated, both these accidents may have occurred ; but they are so rare aa to be no argument against the actual saving of life, protection from disfigurement, and preserving of sight and hearing, which this inestimable boon to mankind has afforded. The Operation. — The operation itself, as practised, consists in taking on the point of a lancet or other instrument a small drop of the colourless fluid or lymph which exudes from a vaccine pustule upon being pricked, and inserting it in four or more places in the skin covering the insertion of the deltoid muscle. There are, however, endless varieties in the operation. Some insert the point of the in- fected lancet obliquely under the skin ; others take the matter on little bone or ivory points, and after making the puncture, insert the points, there leaving them for a few seconds ; others deposit a drop of the matter on the skin, and then scratch it in with the point of a lancet ; and some, indeed, do not use a cutting instrument at all, but slightly vesicate the akin, and then apply the vaccine to the raw surface. Good results are obtained by all the above processes, with the exception of the last. Each operator uses that in which by practice he is most skilled. VAC (619) VEA The lymph is taken fcom the human subject about the eighth day. Jenner recommended the sixth, the day on Trhich the lymph is most active but less plentiful. It is possible, indeed, that the matter on the sixth day is more protective, and that a reform is needed on this head. In order that a district should be vaccinated thoroughly, it is absolutely necessary that the vaccination should be carried out from " arm to arm," and that vaccine preserved on points, tubes, &c., should only be used on emer- gencies. The number of vaccine pocks is all-important — four or five well-formed separate pocks on the arm are essential for adequate protection. Mr. Simon constructed the following table, baaed upon 6000 cases- of smallpox contracted after vaccination : — Cases of Suallfox classified according to the Vaooination Makks or Cioateices borne by each Patient respectively. Nnmlier of Dentha ClaBsea. jper cent, in each Clius respectlTel^. 1. Stated to have been vaccinated, but having no cicatrix . . Sl| 2, Having one vaccine cicatrix . 7^ 3. Having two vaccine cicatrices . 4^ 4, Having three vaccine cicatrices . 1{ 6. Having four or more vaccine cicatrices .... | Unvaccinated 36J It is important to remember that one mark cannot be called e£Glcient vaccination, and that it is necessary to insist upon over two for thorough protection. Bevaccination. — Eevaccination may be de- fined as a physiological test by which it may be shown whether the human body is liable or not to be attacked with smaUpox. It is established beyond a doubt, that vaccination does not adequately protect the individual more than a certain number of years — the exact time probably varies in different indi- viduals. Whether the primary vaccination influence still exists, and whether an indi- vidual is extremely susceptible of smallpox, may be known by revaccination. In the former case the vaccination will be abortive, or only show an irritant effect ; ,in the latter, the vaccine pocks wUl run their normal course ; so that it is a test, and as such, should be com- pulsorily applied to every individual at the age of sixteen. Dr. Heim of the Wurtemberg army has collected statistics relative to 40,000 vaccina- tions. The subjects were young recruits, from twenty to twenty-one years of age, who had all been vaccinated in infancy ; of these. one - half were successfully vaccinated, the vesicles running the normal course. The inevi- table conclusion is that the 20,000 were sus- ceptible to smallpox. As soon as the 'Wurtem- berg Government ordered revaccination, there was a marked decrease of smallpox in the army ; thus in 1824 there were 619 cases ; in 1835, 250 ; 1836, 159 ; and in 1837, 94. The success and the good results of revaccina- tion are also shown in the records of its prac- tice in the armies of Prussia, Bnssia, Denmark, Bavaria, and in our own. In 1858 an order was issued, by which every recruit on joining his regiment was to be revaccinated. This regulation continues in force, and its results will be found tabulated in the Army Medical Reports. On the outbreak of smallpox, all sanitary bodies and officers should have the district thoroughly vaccinated and revaccinated. It is one of the moral but unwritten duties of every health officer to inspect the arms of every school-going child in his district, and to tabulate the results, in order that both the locality and the Government should know how far the Vaccination Acts are carried out. The principal Act now in force on the sub- ject of vaccination is the 30 & 31 Yict. c. 84, which contains the penalties for breach of its enactments, and provides (sect. 33) for the costs of prosecutions, whUe sect. 38 provides for the expenses incurred in certain other proceedings in respect of vaccination. That Act also contains the provisions for penalties for breach of its regulations. It has been amended by 34 & 35 Vict. c. 98. See Smallpox, Vaccine, &c. Vaccine— The vaccine virus ip a colourless, somewhat viscid, fluid. It mainly consists of the bioplasm of Beale. The highest powers of the microscope show in it no definite forms, but a multitude of minute molecules. Vac- cine is really the infectious matter of cowpox, and cowpox is nothing more than smallpox modified by passing through the body of the cow. Vaccine was originally obtained from the pocks on the body of the cow, but is now taken from the human subject, as an unin- terrupted series of pocks have been assidu- ously kept up and transmitted by vaccinators. Vapour— See Aie, Htgkometee, &c. Vapours, Noxious — See Kuisances; PUTKEE ACTION J TEADES, OFEENSIVE, &C. Veal— This meat is not so digestible as beef or mutton, and its sustaining power is certainly less. The following table shows its composition : — VEG (620) VEN Composition of Veal. Nitrogenous matter . Fat Saline matter Water See Meat. 16 6 15 '3 4 7 63 100-0 Ve§fetables— Vegetables are eaten not so much on account of their nutritive quaUtjes, as for the salts they contain. All the diore important vegetables have been separately considered, and in our articles on Food, Meat, Teaining, &o., we have examined the results produced by a purely vegetable diet. Preserved vegetables are now largely em- ployed, and although their antiscorbutic pro- perties are considerably less than the same articles when fresh, they are valuable where others cannot be obtained. See ScuBTY, &c. Venereal Diseases — Under this generic term we include the various sores and lesions, local and constitutional, arising from impure sexual connection. These affections come mainly under three distinct heads— 1. True syphilis, as evidenced at the seat of inocula- tion by a primary non-suppurating sore, hard and indurated at the base, and after a more or less variable time affecting the system. 2. Soft chancre, a local ulcer, often phage- daenic in character, and often from its ravages even dangerous to life, but not infecting the system with any specific disease, only affect- ing it by its local effects. 3. Gonorrhoea ; an entirely different disease from the two first forms, being an inflammation, a catarrh of the mucous membrane of either the urethra or the vagina. All these kinds are contagious, and propa- gated by contact with the infected discharge or matter. That venereal diseases are propagated to an alarming extent amongst all classes of the community does not admit of a doubt, and that this propagation is nearly always the result of vice is also incontrovertible. Oases, however, occasionally occur where contagion of this kind may affect a great number of most innocent people ; for example, in the town of Brivfi fifteen women contracted sy- philis from being attended by a midwife who was Buffering from a chancre on the finger. The women in their turn infected some of their husbands and their children. — (Annales d'Hygitoe, 1874, i. 42.) It has also been com- municated to infants by the vaccinator in one or two rare instances, and the jurist must allow, however rare or improbable in practice, that any of the venereal infections may be produced by such accidents as using a public latrine, the seat of which is soiled by infec- tious matter, drinking from an infected cup, &c. Of the three chief venereal diseases, pri- mary or true syphilis is most to be dreaded, as it is a chronic disease whose course is not marked by days or weeks, but by years, and is liable to infect the offspring and the most innocent women. Its victims are almost ex- clusively the youth and manhood of the State, and it is therefore a subject of national importance to prevent its extension. Its ravages in the civil population can never be accurately known, as nine-tenths of the cases are contracted, cured, and treated with the greatest secrecy. Its prevalence in the army may be gathered from the following table, divided into two sections— (1) stations under the operation of the Contagious Diseases Act ; (2) stations not under the Act : — Admission or Pkimaet Tbneeeal Soke, per 1000 Strength. 1867. ISES. 1869. 1870. 1871. Stations under the Ad. Devonport and Plymouth . re 66 74 58 50 Portsmouth 116 «6 62 61 41 Chatham and Sheerness , 71 63 41 47 65 Woolwich .... SS 46 sa 43 fiS Aldershot 81 77 63 67 65 Stations not under the Act. London 163 US 144 160 ISO Sheffield . 163 107 146 77 ISB Manchester 177 ua 160 92 70 Edinburgh . 63 46 60 99 69 Dublin IM 1.39 ISO 128 117 Belfast .... 89 56 62 43 6L Prevention of Venereal Diseases. — The only practical means are regular inspection of pros- titutes, the establishment of dispensaries for the gratuitous treatment of syphilitic dis- orders, and early marriages. These questions are dealt with in the articles Contagious Diseases Act, Peostitdtion, &c. Venetian Bed — A species of ochre brought from Italy, and used for colouring anchovies, annatto, cayenne, cheese, cocoa, and tobacco. Venison — Venison differs from ordinary butcher's meat, in containing less fat and being darker in colour. It is very digestible and nutritious. See Meat. Ventilation— We live at the bottom of a vast aerial ocean, five miles in depth, which is in continual movement from the slightest dif- ference of temperature or pressure. In the open air every part of this ocean is of very similar constitution, but as soon as man closes and shuts himself up in houses, which are more or less air-tight boxes, the enclosed air VEN" (621) VEN rapidly gets contaminated (1) by carbonic acid from the breath ; (2) by organic matter from the same cause ; (3) by carbonic acid and other products of combustion ; and (4) by dust, which is always present in greater or less quantity. It is the aim and object of ventilation, to renew the air of a room or other place in order to keep it fairly pure. In order to do this, ventilation should be effectual, and at the same time imperceptible; it should not be influenced by the wind ; the currents of air themselves should be pure, and in cold weather warm, whilst in tropical climates or extremely hot weather the currents of air should be cold. In the methodical examinaticn of ventilation, the observer requires to know — 1. The cubic space. 2. The number of people ordinarily living in the room. 3. The number of openings, their area, and whether they ordinarily act as inlets or out- lets. If there are tubes (and a chimney is a tube), the height of the tube as well as its area is required. 4. The difference of temperature between the external air and the room, and the differ- ence of temperature in the shafts, tubes, &c. (if there are any), in the room. 5. The rate of movement in the inlets and outlets, as determined by calculation or the anemometer. 6. The amount of carbonic acid existing in the room. 7. The amount of moisture in the air. For the accurate determination of ventila- tion all the above observations are necessary ; while for a rough estimate, the sectional area of the openings, the height of the chimney, the amount of carbonic acid, and the differ- ence of temperature are all the data required. The quantity of carbonic acid in the air may be taken as a measure of its impurity [see AiB, &c. ) ; and Dr. Parkes recommends the stan- dard of '6 cubic foot per, 1000 volumes of car- bonic acid as the limit of permitted impurity. The quantity of air required to pass into a room to keep it to this standard per head per hour may be calculated from the following formula : — Let B be the ratio of COj naturally present in the air — viz. , '0004 per cubic foot ; !•', the additional ratio per cubic foot of air of vitia- tion by respiration of one male adult in an hour, the usual ' amount being "6 cubic foot of carbonic acid ; r, the ratio per cubic foot to which it is desired to be reduced ; c, the capa- city of the cubic space ; d, the delivery of fresh air in cubic feet ; v, the entire volume of air, viz. , c + d — B then p ^ u — c/j and V — c = d. The velocity of currents of air is most accu- rately determined by the anemometer. (See Anemometer.) In the absence of such an instrument, the most generally applicable method by calculation is to determine the external and internal temperatures, and the height at which the current enters the room, then the following formula will give the re- quired velocity :— First the difference of pressure must be obtained, h equals the height ; d, the differ- ence of temperature — h y. d i.e., the difference of pressure ; then the velocity = 8 y^ In practice an allowance must be made for friction. If it is required to calculate the size of open- ing, whether for inlets or outlets, the following formula was proposed by Dr. de Chaumont, no correction being made for friction : — h = the height of the heated column of air ; t = temperature ; '002 is the expansion of air for each degree Fahrenheit ; D, the delivery per hour ; 7, total inlet and outlet area in square inches — then D 100 VA (« - «) X -002 ~ There are numerous other formulae, but the foregoing are the most useful. Ventilation is usually divided into natural and artificial. 1. Natural Ventilation is that which is owing to natural causes, and the forces which in this instance cause the renewal of air are — (1) Diffusion. Every gas diffuses inversely as the square root of its density, and this dif- fusion is constantly going on through the chinks and cracks left by imperfect carpentry, and even through ordinary brick and stone walls. (2) External air, currents, winds, die, (3) Unequal atmospheric pressures. The last-named is the cause of all currents of air ; cold air rushes into a warm room because the warm air has become lighter, greater in bulk, and has partly escaped, there- fore the heavier cold air immediately fills its place. Every degree -of Fahrenheit dilates the air xhr P^^** ^^ ^*^ volume. Simple Processes of Ventilation.— In mUd weather, or in summer, open doors and windows are the very best means which can be adopted of thoroughly aerating a room ; and in addition to this qbvious method, there are various cost- less plans, most of which are really practical. VEN (622) VEN Mr. Hinckes Bird directs the lower sasli of tbe window to be raised, and he places a piece of wood at the bottom rail, so as to block it up ; a. space is thus left between the meeting rails at the middle of the window, through which the air goes to the ceiling. Others h9,ve recommended double panes of glass, spaces being left at the bottom of the outside pane, and the top of the inner one — glass louvres, windows made so that when open they slope inwards, slits in the wall, with a picture or board hanging over them, &c. All are upon the same principle — viz., direct com- munication with the open aiir,- and the cold air directed up to the ceiling. The Sheringham valve is another example of the same principle ; the air passes through a perforated brick or iron plate, and is directed upwards by a valve. Mr. Boyle uses for the same purpose a round plate working on a screw; the air impinges on the plate and radiates over the wall. Perforated bricks are also in use, but as they cause direct draughts they should be avoided ; open iron frames, covered with gauze, and supporting a valve, are preferable. A method of ventilation advocated by Mr. Tobin has been receutly-brought before the public very prominently, and some of the leading journals have mentioned it in terms so eulogistic that the public actually consider some great discovery to have been made in the matter; this, however, is not so, it is merely a simple means of conveying cold cur into rooms, and as such vrill be found useful in summer and mild weather. The plan is to introduce the air through horizontal shafts under the floor, and deliver it into the room through perpendicular shafts at different points about 5 feet from the floor ; the cur- rent of fresh air ascends to the ceiling, and then curves down inperceptibly into the room. In fact the principle is exactly the same as that of Mr. Hinckes Bird ; indeed it is ques- tionable whether carrying out Mr. Bird's suggestion would not be quite as effective as tobination, and it certainly is cheaper. With any or all of these simple means of admitting air, there should also be an opening for getting rid of the foul air ; this may be accomplished by a valve in the chimney open- ing over the gas-chaiidelier, or a slit near the cornice having a valve. All the methods mentioned may be practically applied, and the cost is extremely small, but in none of them is the air warmed. \ Special Tubes, Fhies, (kc. — The proposals and inventions in this respect are too numerous to flnd.a place here ; the most practical will only be mentioned. Most houses have to be venti- lated after they are built, but if the ventilation is considered (as it should be) at the time of building, it is a wise thing, as Mr. Eaasie remarks, to provide in the walls of a room a shaft 4 or 6 inches square leading up to the top of the house, the upper orifice of which is covered or valved, so that there be no down draught. A foul-air extraction-shaft can also be led up the chimney, with gratings just below each ceiling. Such a shaft is very efficient. The wind in many systems is taken advan- tage of, as in the system of Mr. Sylvester, who ventilated buildings by establishing large cowls, which, by properly fixed vanes, were constructed so that they always turned to the wind. The air rushing down the cowls, passed through an underground channel into the basement of the house, where it was warmed by a cahrifire; thence it ascended by tubes into the rooms, and ultimately passed out by other tubes in the roof, the openings being covered with cowls turned from the wind. Thus the air in this system is moved both by the pro- pulsive aa well as the aspiratory force of the wind ; it is warmed in its passage, and is con- ducted by pipes to all parts of the house. Van Hecke has modified this plan by the use of a motive power — ^viz., a fan worked by an engine, which drives the air into the base- ments, where it is warmed and distributed as before. A modification of Sylvester's method is also used by Mr. Bitchie. Tig. 129. Dr. Arnott ventilated this Field Lane Bagged School with cowls turned to and from the wind, acting as up shafts and down shafts. Mr. M'Einnell uses a circular tube consisting of two cylinders, one within the other, tlie outer VEN (623) VEN one being the inlet tube, the inner the outlet (see fig. 129). It is well suited for square or round rooms. 2. Artificial Ventilation. — There are two rival systems in use — viz., ventilation by extraction and ventilation by propulsion. Ventilation hy Boctraetion. — The cowls and tubes already mentioned are examples of ventilation by extraction. Mr. Banner's venti- lating cowl acts in the same way, and is a very powerful and useful extractor [see fig. 130). Its action is as follows : The larger end of a funnel-shaped tube A', placed horizontally, is always directed towards the wind, and a current of air passing in there, is pressed for- ward through the annular space between the two cylinders AB, and when.it reaches the end of Fthe inner one B, it expands round it, and in its passage out at the smaller end of A A, a vacuum is created round the point of the inner cylinder B, which, by suction, drwws out its contents into the open air, and thus induces an upward current of air from the shaft or pipe leading from the place to be ventilated. Mr. Banner recommends the thorough ven- tilation of the house, the soil-pipe, and the sewer by means of three separate shafts, the whole three of which can be connected to one cowl, which will effectually extract the foul air, and is not influenced by wind. Another example of ventilation by extrac- tion is the ventilating action of a fire ; the fire heats a current of air equal in height and area to the capacity and height of the chimney, this column of air ascends, and cold VEN (624) VEN air rushea along the floor, under, over, and through the fire, to restore the equilibrium. Now, as a great deal of the heat is wasted by ordinary fireplaces, and as there must be a Fig. 131.— Section of grate (Galton). continual draught of cool air along the floor chilling the feet, open fireplaces are coming into use, which, by means of an air-chamber at Fig. 132.— Elevation showing air and smolce flues (Galtoh). the back, heat fresh air supplied to them from the external atmosphere, and this warm air passes into the room, both ventilating and Fig. 183. — Section of a room showing air dact and flues (Galton). warming it. There are so many modifications of this form of grate that it is impossible to enumerate them here ; but in order to exem- plify the principle, we will describe the Galton ventilating fireplace. This {see fig. 131) has an air-chamber at the back of the grate. The air-chamber is fed with air from without by a special channel. On the back of the grate Fig. 134.— flan of grate and chamber (Galtos). there are iron gills projecting backwards into the chambers. The smoke-flue is of iron, un- connected with the air-chamber, and project- ing into and continuous with the chimney {see fig. 132). The grate itself is constructed so as to give the greatest amount of reflected beat possible, and so as to consume as far as practicable the smoke. The air heated by the air-chamber passes into the room by an open- ing near the ceiling. It is of course warmed by having been in contact with the heated back of the grate. Grates on similar prin- ciples are constructed so as to lead this hot air over the whole house, into any room. The principle is, then, extraction by the chimney, and supply of air to the room by a special channel, heating it on its passage. This sys- tem is certainly the best that can be adopted for private houses. The calorigen or gas-stove of Mr. George is on a somewhat similar plan. The body of the stove is of thin rolled iron, and contains {see fig. 135) a coil D of wrought -iron tubing, open at the top H. This coil is contained in the body of the stove, and is fed with air from without by the pipe G. The products of combustion go up the chimney in the ordinary Fig. 136. way. The fire may be of ordinary coal, or of gas. It is fed with air, either from the room or by special channels, as in fig. 136. VEN (625) VEN In large houses and public buildings, in whicli the method cf heating by hot water or sfceam-pipea is in use, the same pipes may be employed to cause currents of air in suitable ' extraction - shafts. Thisjsystem has been Fig. 136. adopted in the hospitals Lariboisifere and Beaujon, and other public institutions in France, and has been used for some time in England. In all manufactories and places where steam-engines are employed, the heat of the boiler or the steam, or both combined, may be utilised in ventilation. In this way steam- ships may be ventilated by enclosing the steam apparatus in an iron casing, leaving a space between the casing and the heated surfaces. A strong current rushes up" this space, and air to feed it can be directed down every hatchway. In places where gas is used there should be no difficulty in the ventilation ; a single Argand gas-burner at the bottom of an extrac- tion-shaft will cause a most powerful current. General Morin found by experiment that 1 cubic metre of gas would cause the discharge of 1000 cubic metres of air. The way in which several of the French theatres are ventilated is by utilising the central chandelier and every single gas-jet. The entering air is warmed by ailorifires. There are numerous tubes to draw oft the foul air, which unite or empty themselves principally into the central tube surrounding the chandelier; in this way both the pro- ducts of combustion and tiie foul air are drawn off. Fig^ 137 is a reduced section after Eassie of a house ventilated by Dr. Di-ysdale and Hayward's system, in which a jet of gas lit in the common abstraction-shaft will keep it at the proper temperature, so that it will act efficiently. In the sketch given, however, the air enters through a primary inlet ; is filtered through a canvas screen ; is heated by a coil of hot-water pipes in the lobby ; circu- lates through the rooms in the cdurse of the arrows, always leaving a room at the top by special openings into flues which empty them- selves into a foul-air chamber at the top of the house, whence it is extracted by a shaft which in the sketch is represented running downwards to the floor of the kitchen, and then up behind the. fire, round the smoke-flue, Fig. 137. and out at the chimney — a most thorough and effective system. Another general plan of ventilating a house is that of Dr. Ancell Ball. This system, not alone providing for the ven- tilation and warming, but also for the simul- taneous disinfection of a house, is described under article "Warming. In mines, workshops, &c., extraction is often effected by large fans or steam-jets; under such circumstances, mechanical power is cheap and easily applied. Ventilation ly Propulsion. — This is in- variably mechanical ; the air is driven into the proper channels by vanes, bellows, or pumps; It is a system seldom suited for private houses, but may be often applied in factories, vessels, and in any place where there is machinery. In factories and workshops, in addition to the purposes of ventilation, currents of air are often required to blow away or extract dust. Here the principle must never be forgotten, that for dust the openings should be, generally speaking, near the floor ; for foul air, near the ceiling. Summary of Ventilation.— For hospitals it is generally considered that natural ventila- 2e VEE, { 626 ) VIN tion is best, and that the supply should be large ; for factories, workshops, ships, and wherever there is machinery, artificial ventila- tion, whether by extraction or propulsion, is certainly most convenient and economical; and for public buildings, a regular system of ventilation, in which the gas and all the fires assist, or else a mechanical system — such as that of Tan Hecke, of Banner, and others — is absolutely necessary. In private buildings, or single rooms, ven- tilating grates or stoves, or some of the simpler methods of ventilation described, will suffice to keep the air pure ; but every case must be studied upon its merits. For the complete ventilation of a whole house, Drs. Drysdale and Hay ward's systeni, or Dr. Ball's, in which warming is combined with ventila- tion,' is perhaps the best. See Air, Ane- MOMETEK, "WAKMING, &C. Veratrine {Veratria, Veratrina, Sdbadil- line) — An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier and Caventon in the seeds of Asagrwa officinalis (sabadilla), and in the rhizomes of Veratrum album (white hellebore). This alkaloid is ex- oessively poisonous, one-tenth of a grain having produced the most alarming symptoms. It is in the form of a pale brown-coloured nn- crystalline powder, which is very acrid to the taste. It is also remarkable for producing violent sneezing, which lasts for some time. Tests. — The temperature at which it sub- limes, the reactions with sulphuric acid, and the amount of ammonia evolved when dis- tilled with alkaline permanganate, as detailed ander article Alkaloids, will readily identify veratrine. An additional test of some value is the fact that an acetic solution treated with chloride of tin, and evaporated to dryness, becomes of a blood-red colour. Verdigris (Vert-de-gris, Fr.) — This is a mixture of several basic acetates of copper which have a green or blue colour. It is obtained in the wine districts of the south of Europe by the action of refuse grapes, from which the juice has been expressed, on thin sheets of copper. WTien pure, it should dis- solve almost entirely, and without efferves- cence, in dilute sulphuric acid. It is exces- sively poisonous, and the tests, &c., for its detection will be found described under COPPEB. Vermicelli — Wheat rich in gluten is employed for making this preparation, which is largely consumed in Italy, and usually im- ported into this country from Naples or Genoa. The vermicelli is made by kneading the flour into a stiff paste with hot water, and then pressing it through holes or moulds in a metal plate, or else it is stamped so as to give the desired form, and afterwards dried. Vermi- celli is highly nutritious, but it is hardly so eaisy of digestion as many other wheaten pre- parations. See Bkead, Flouk, &c. Vermilion {Bisulphuret of Mercury)— This substance is often employed for the pur- pose of colouring confectionery. Methods for its detection will be found in articles OONFEO- TIONBRT and Mekcdey. Vibriones— ,Sce Bacteria. Vinegar — Dilute acetic acid more or less contaminated with gum, sugar, vegetable matter, &c. The dietetic value of vinegar is hardly yet understood. The acetates become changed in their passage through the body into carbonates, and as such appear in the urine ; it undoubt- edly often assists digestion, and in all proba- bility renders certain articles, such as mussels, oysters, &c., less likely to prove hurtful. It is also of some value as an antiscorbutic. The English law permits 1 part of sulphuric acid to be added to every 1000 parts of vinegar. This is probably unnecessary, for we have very satisfactory evidence to show that well- made vinegar will keep without this addition, which indeed is not allowed on the Continent, and it is to be hoped that the Legislature will soon alter a system which opens the way to the wholesale adulteration of so important an article of food. Vinegar is an agreeable f umi- gant, and has considerable antiseptic powers, which are utilised in the preservation of vege- table and animal substances. As a disinfectant it is untrustworthy, since it supports many low forms of animal and vegetable life. Varieties, t&c. — The strength of vinegar is distinguished by the makers as Nos. 24, 22, 20, 1 8, and 16 ; the specific gravities of these should respectively be 1022, 1020, 1019, 1017, and 1015. The acidity of English vinegar should not be less than 3 per cent. The varieties of vinegar met with in com- merce are wine vinegar, malt vinegar, sugar vinegar, and wood vinegar. The first three are produced by fermentation of alcoholic liquids, the last by destructive distillation of wood, and subsequent separation of the acetic acid. Adulteration of Vinegar. — The chief adul- terations ai e an undue amount of sulphuric acid, tartaric acid, hydrochloric acid, glucose, pyroligneous acid, Iqad, sometimes copper; and in tare instances arsenic has been found, derived from impure sulphuric acid. Examination of Vinegar. — The principal matters required to be estimated are— (1) the VIN (627) VIN acetic acid ; (2) the extract.; (3) the ash; 4) sulphuric, hydrochloric, and tartaric acids. 1. The Acetic Acid can be determined hy distilling it over from a retort into a suitable receiver, and then estimating it by acidimetry, or more conveniently, but less accurately, by adding a standard solution of caustic soda, or carbonate of soda, directly to the vinegar. The former process should always be pre- ferred, as then sulphuric and tartaric acids remain in the retort, and can be estimated separately. The amount of acetic acid found varies from 2 5 to 5 per cent. The Orleans vinegar made from wine ■ contains, according to Guibourt, 6 to 8 per cent, of acetic acid. If the acetic acid exceeds 8 per cent., it is certainly too strong ; if less than 3 per cent., it is too weak. 2. The Extract. — A hundred grammes or 1000 grains are evaporated to dryness over the water-bath in a suitable dish. The extract from the best French wine vinegar varies from 1'7 to 2 30 per cent. It ought not to have a empyreumatic odour, nor a sweet taste. The extract from ordinary commercial malt vine- gar is often less than 1 per cent. If the extract indicates sugar, 50 grammes of the vinegar may be evaporated to the con- sistence of a syrup, heated with alcohol, filtered, decolourised by animal charcoal, and the sugar estimated by Fehling's process. 3. The Ash is determined by igniting the extract. It should be very minute. It may contain carbonates of potash, especially if it be a wine vinegar, but should not contain metals, such as copper, &c., nor should it contain sul- phate of lime. It may be examined in the same way as the ash of wine. See Wine. 4. Fiaied Adds— Sulphuric Add. — In all prosecutions with regard to the adulteration of vinegar with sulphuric acid, the defence set up is that the sulphates found have their origin in the water from which the vinegar is manufactured ; hence it is not sufficient for the analyst to estimate the total sulphuric acid, which may be easily effected by precipi- tation with chloride of barium, but the amount of sulphuric acid existing in the free state must also be known.* At present there is no * A case of alleged adulteration of vinegar was lately heard at the Stone police court. Dr Letheby and Professor Voelcker found no free sulphuric acid, but 112 grains of combined sulphuric acid. to the gallon; "but that was a constituent of the water from which the vinegar was made, and was not in- jurious to health" ! On the other hand, Dr Thudi- chum certified that it was adulterated with sulphuric acid (115 grains to the gallon), and Mr Scott also gave evidence that the specifl.c gravity of the vmegar was 1-0168, and that he found 119 grains of sulphuric acid, 35 of which were free.— (Pharm. Journal, June 6, 1875.) very reliable process for the estimation of free sulphuric acid in vinegar. M. Strohl proposes to take advantage of the insolubility of calcium oxalate in acetic acid and its solubility in dilute mineral acids. He has determined by experiment the amount of calcium oxalate (produced by ammonium oxalate and calcium chloride) necessary to cause a distinct turbidity in a certain volume of vinegar, also the minimum quantities of sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids re- spectively required to produce a transparent solution. If, then, on adding the determined amount of calcium oxalate to a .suspected sample of vinegar, the solution remains trans- parent, there is present not less than a certain minimum quantity of one or more of the above-mentioned mineral acids. — (J. Pharm. Chem., [4,] XX. 172-175.) Thresch's process is a modification of Strohl's, and is said by the author to detect 10 per cent. of H2SO4. Take two beakers, and place in each 2 ozs. of the vinegar ; to one add five or six drops of liquor ammoniae, and then to both ten drops of a solution of ammonium oxalate. The one to which the NH3 was added will remain dis- tinctly turbid ; the other, if it contain more than '100 per cent, of H2SO4, will remain per- fectly clear; with "070 per cent, it will be turbid, but only slightly so when compared with the other. He proposes to estimate the chlorine in the vinegar, then to evaporate down and ignite, and calculate out the loss of chlorine as so much displaced by sulphuric acid. The author gives some experiments which show that it is a fairly accurate method of detecting and estimating free acid ; but it must be re- membered that the great source of error is that chlorideB are more or less volatile, accord- ing to the temperature in ignition.— (Pharm. Journal, No. 262, iii.) M. Witz suggests that advantage may be taken of the fact that methyl aniline under- goes no change of colour in contact with acetic acid, but the least trace of mineral acid changes it to a greenish blue ; hence a process might be easily worked out by means of this reaction to detect and estimate the free acid in vinegar. Tartaric acid may be estimated by evaporat- ing the vinegar to dryness, or nearly so, dilut- ing with water, separating the sulphuric acid by chloride of barium, and then titrating, the result being calculated as tartaric acid. Bydrochlaric acid may be estimated in the usual way by precipitation with nitrate of silver, and collecting and weighing the result- ing chloride. Arsenic, copper, lead, Ac, must be tested VIT (628) VOL for in the way recommended in the different articles treating of those metals. Vitellin— The yolk of egg contains from 16 to 17 per cent, of an albuminoid Bubstanoe called vitellin. Vitellin contains more hydro- gen and oxygen than albumen, it is not pre- cipitated by the salts of lead or copper, and it is coagulated by ether. Volumetric Solutions— Under this title ■we propose to give a few of the volumetric solutions most likely to be useful to the health officer and analyst. The French weights and measures are so universally employed for scientific purposes that the quantities and proportions of sub- stances used in the solutions will be expressed in French weights, but as the cubic centi- metre bears the same relation to the gramme that the grain measure bears to the grain, the one system may be substituted for the other with no difference in the results. In such a case, however, it will be convenient to increase the values one-tenth by moving the decimal points ; for example, 6'3 grammes of oxalic acid in 100 grammes of water, if required in grains, had better be translated 63 grains in 1000 grains of water. Bichromate of Potash, Volvmetnc Solution of, — 14 '75 grammes of bichromate of potash is dissolved ia 1 litre of distilled water. One hundred cubic centimetres contain 1'475 of potassic bichromate, and are capable of con- verting 1'68 grammes of iron from the state of proto-salt to that of per-salt. Copper, Volumetric Solution of. — For sugar estimation 34 '639 grammes of pure crystallised sulph^bte of copper are dissolved in about 200 ciibio centimetres of water ; 173 grammes of crystallised tartrate of soda and potassa are dissolved in 480 cubic centimetres of pure soda solution of 1'14 specific gravity. The first solution is added gradually to the second, and the blue fluid diluted to 1000 cubic centi- metres. Ten cubic centimetres of the solu- tion contain '34639 gramme of sulphate of copper, and = '050 gramme anhydrous grape- sugar, or "045 of starch or dextrine. It may be used to determine the amount of grape-sugar in diabetic urine, in grapes and fruits, alcoholic liquids, and the amount of starch in substances (first converting the starch into grape-sugar by boiling with a dilute acid). Hyposulphite of Soda, Volumetric Solution of. — Twenty-eight grammes of hyposulphite of soda are dissolved in a litre of water. A portion of this fluid is put into a burette and dropped into the volumetric solution of iodine until the brown colour is discharged. The number to produce this effect is noted, and the solution diluted so that a litre is equiva- lent to 12 '7 grains of iodine, and contains 24 '8 grains of the hyposulphite. This solution is employed for the purpose of estimating free iodine, an operation of great importance In chemistry, since it is thus an indirect means of estimating all those sub- stances which, when brought in contact with iodide of potassium, separate from the same a definite quantity of iodine, or when boiled with hydrochloric acid, yield a definite quan- tity of chlorine. Iodine, Volumetric Solution of, — 12 '7 grms. of iodine are dissolved in water, and the solu- tion made exactly up to 1 litre; 100 cubic cen- timetres are then equivalent to '17 gramme of sulphuretted hydrogen, '32 of sulphurous acid, and '495 of arsenious acid. This solution is used for the quantitative determination of the above. It is dropped into the liquid to be tested until free iodine appears, or, in other words, until it ceases to be decolourised. When the solution is added from a burette to a liquid containing free iodine «, decom- position takes place, which may be represented by the formula 2Na3H]jSa04 -(- I2 = Na3S406 + 2K'aI + 2H2O ; and as iodide and tetra- thionate of sodium, the result of the decom- position, are both colourless salts, when the reaction is complete the solution is decol- ourised, and the amount of free iodine may he calculated from the number of centimetres of the hyposulphite solution used. Iron, Volumetric Solution of. — One gramme of pianoiforte wire is dissolved in nitro-muriatic 1 acid, it is then precipitated by ammonia, the resulting peroxide is washed, dissolved in a little hydrochloric acid, and the solution diluted so that 1 cubic centimetre contains 1 milligramme of perchloride of iron, r This solution may be diluted ten or a hundred times, according to circumstances, and is extremely useful in the quantitative colori- metric methods for the determination of iron. For example, supposing we require to esti- mate minute quantities of iron existing in » liquid, the latter is first acidified with hydro- chloric acid, or if the iron exist partially or entirely in the state of protoxide, it must be oxidised "by the action of nitric acid ; then the solution, or 50 cubic centimetres of it, is trans- ferred to a cylinder of glass, and 1 or 2 cubic centimetres of a solution of ferrooyanide of, potash added. This x>roduces a certain colour, which must be exactly imitated by adding the standard iron solution to the same qu.intity of distilled water in another cylinder, and treat- ing it in an exactly similar way. The whole process is analogous to nesslerising, is very easy, and especially suitable to the estima- vox (629) WAE. tion of the minute quantities of iron which are met with in water, the ash of bread, &c. Oxalic Acid, Volumetric Solution of. — Dis- solve 63 grammes of the pure- crystallised acid in 1 litre of distilled water. Fifty cubic centimetres of this solution equals '315 gramme crystallised oxalic acid, "28 gramme of iron. It is used in alkalimetry, in the determina- tion of protoxide of iron, &o. Soda, Volumetric Solution of, — Dissolve 42 grammes of sodium hydrate in a litre of water, pour 25 cubic centimetres into a capa- cious beaker, and find how many cubic centi- metres of the volumetric solution of oxalic acid it takes to neutralise it, then calculate how much water will be required to be added to the ' litre solution of soda so that 50 cubic centimetres of the oxalic acid solution will exactly neutralise 50 cubic centimetres of the alkaline solution. For example, 27 cubic centi- metres of standard acid neutralised 25 cubic centimetres of alkali, therefore multiplying each by 4, we get 108 = 100 ; therefore to every 100 cubic centimetres of the latter 8 cubic centi- metres of water are required to be added. One cubic centimetre of such a solution equals "06 of hydrated acetic acid, "063 of crystallised oxalic acid, "192 of citric acid, "15 of .tartaric acid, "04 of sulphuric anhy- dride, and °049 of sulphuric acid. It is best kept in a similar bottle to that represented by fig. 3, p. 31. Votings, &c. — All questions brought before a sanitary authority are decided by a majority of votes, unless more than a simple majority is required by statute in a particular case. The names of all present are to be recorded, and when a division takes place, the names of the members voting should be recorded. Voting by ballot is certainly not admissible. The chairman of any sanitary authority may rote on all questions, and in case of equality has a second or casting vote. The following form is the voting paper prescribed by the statute in the case of local boards : — FORM N. roEM op Toting Papek at Elections of SIembees OP Local Soaeds. Voting Paper. District of Name and Address of Voter. Number of Votra. Voting Paper. As Owner. As Rate- payer. iDitiAls of the Voter afratast the Namee ofthePeiy sons for whom he Intends to vote. Besl- Quality iName of Names of or Call- the No- the Per- ing of the minator sons no- Persons minated. nomi- the No- nated. minators. dresa ' of such Nomi- ;uatoT. I vote for the persons in the above list against whose names my initials are placed. (Signed). or the mark of - Witness to the mark ^ , proxy for— Directions to the Voter. The voter must write his initials against the name of every person for whom he votes, and must sub- scribe his name and address at full length. If the voter cannot write, he must make his mar}c instead of initials, but such mark must be attested by awitness, and such witness must write the initials of the voter against the name of eveiy person for whom the voter intends to vote. If a proxy votes, he must in like manner write hia initials, subscribe his own name and address, and add after his signature the name of the body of per- sons for whom he is proxy. This paper will be collected on the of between the hours of and For the rest of the voting machinery in the case of local board" elections, see Local Boards. W. "Wards— The Local Government Board may on application, in pursuance of a resolu- tion of owners and ratepayers, divide any dis- trict into wards. See articles LOCAL BOABDS, Besoluiions, &c. Warming — ^Ih cold and temperate cli- mates artificial heat is necessary for tl e comfort and health of man. A house or room at a constant temperature of 50° to 60° F. is both pleasant and healthy, and it is not WAR (630) WAR advisable to attempt to warm habitations to a higher temperature. Artificial heat acts by radiation, convection, and conduction; of these, radiation is at the same time most common and most wasteful. The effect, as is well known, lessens according to the square of the distance : if the heat at 1 foot distant from the fire be said to be 1, then the heat at 4 feet will bo 4^, or sixteen times less ; the heat at 8 feet will be 8^, or sixty-four times less, and so on. Every common open fire- place heats the room mainly by radiation, and , in order to obtain the greatest possible radia- tion, the width of the back of the grate should be one-third of the width of the hearth recess, the depth from the front backwards equal to the width of the back, the sides and back made of nonconducting material, and the chimney throat contracted so as to lessen the draught. A house or room may be heated artificially by (1) open fireplaces ; (2) stoves ; (3) steam, hot air, water, oil, &c. , carried in pipes ; (4) gas. The principles which ought to be, but seldom are, followed are, that there should be no cold draughts perceptible ; that the fuel where open grates are used should be perfectly cofi- sumed ; that the products of combustion should be carried away perfectly ; and that the room should be heated in a fairly equal manner. In large houses and public institutions the passages and lobbies require to be warmed, for if no attention is paid to this matter, directly a door is opened, the cold air rushing in from the lobbies and passages effectually lowers the temperature. Open Fireplaces. — In England long-establish- ed custom and prejudice render open fireplaces the means of heating nine-tenths of the habi- tations, and although ordinary grates of this kind are objectionable, the great improvement and introduction of ventilating fireplaces have remedied many of the defects. Mr. Galton's ventilating fireplace is illustrated and ex- plained under Venmlation. There are many varieties elucidating the same principle, such as the London school-grate, &c. — viz., that of an air-chamber at the back communicating with the external atmosphere, and pouring warm air into the room near the ceiling. Some of these grates may be also used for other purposes; for example, at Charing Cross Hospital one serves the purpose'of a hot- closet as well. All ordinary grates may be fed by air from out- side by a special channel-opening in the hearth, and thus obviate the cold draught to the feet. Smokeless grates economise the coal; one of the most ingenious is that based upon Franklin's idea — viz., a reversible one. The grate is a kind of basket which can be turned ■upside down. When the coals get red-hot and require replenishing, some coal is put on in the usual way, and then the basket lid is shut down and the whole affair turned upside down. The red coals are now at the top, the unburnt at the bottom ; a, slow and effectual combustion is the result. Another effectual smoke-consumer is one in whichbyaihechaniealarrangementthe burning fuel can be raised and coals deposited beneath. There is also another kind, in which the coal is stored in a box beneath the fire bars, and a lifting bottom raises the coal as it is consumed. Stoves. — All sheet-iron stoves when red-hot allow injurious gases, carbonic oxide, &o., to pass through, and hence are to be avoided, unless in rooms amply ventilated ; this porosity may, however, be prevented, accord- ing to Dr Bond, by coating them with a good coating of silicate solution. The stove patterns are legion, and therefore to attempt to notice them is impossible ; the best are undoubtedly those which, like the calongen described and illustrated under Ventilation, act like the ventilating stoves — viz., pour currents of warm air into the room. There is also a stove called the pyropneumatic, the inner part of which is constructed of fireclay lumps, having vertical air-passages communicating with the external air by a special channel, this warmed air escaping into the room from the top of the stove. This is an open stove, and the fire can therefore be seen. Close stoves are useful where a fire is required to be kept alight night and day, or where — as, for instance, in a lobby, picture-gallery, &o.— afire is required to burn many hours without attention. For such purposes the Amott stove, the Belfast stove, or those upon a similar principle, are most convenient. A very useful slow-combustion stove is shown in fig. 138. It consists of a fire- box A, a body C, having an exterior casing and perforated with holes, the space between the casings being filled with powdered terra cotta ; the top D fits in a groove filled with dry sand; the smoke, &c., pass into the flue at E; there is a damper at B. To light the fire, the firebox is nearly filled with small lumps of coal and coke, then some paper and sticks and ti little coal are placed on the top of this, lighted, and the top D replaced. The fire is thus really lighted at the top, and burns gradu- ally dcnvn; it may be extinguished at any time by closing the damper B. Steam, Water, die.. Pipes. — The ease by which every portion of a building can be Fig. 138. WAR ( 631 ) WAR heated by water or steam pipes ia evident, and accordingly it is rapidly supplanting all other systems in ld,rge buildings, such as churches, hospitals, &c. Heating by steam is now, gene- rally speaking, abandoned, and water either at high or low pressure is found in practice most convenient. In the high- pressure system the water is heated to about 300° or 350° F. ; in Perkins' patent no boiler is used, but a portion of the tube passes through the fire; the pipes are about half an inch in diameter, with thick walls of welded iron. In the low- pressure system there is a boiler, and explo- sions have occurred ; there has been intro- duced, however, an improved system by which the boiler is at the back of the fire, and is extremely small, only holding about a quart of water. Under the low - pressure system 5 feet of a 4-inch pipe will warm 1000 cubic feet to 55°, and 12 feet will warm 1000 cubic feet to 65°; but under the high very much less is required, as the heating power is greater —indeed it is said that the heating power is two-thirds more, and therefore two- thirds less piping is required. Gas. — Gas is now applied to heating and cooking ; for the latter purpose it is admirably adapted, being economical and cleanly ; for heating purposes it is either applied in open fireplaces by having a large atmospheric burner or row of burners at the bottom of the grate, which is filled with himps of asbestos ; or in stoves ; or, again, it may be used to heat a small hot-water service of pipes. Undoubtedly the best gas-stove is that on the calorigen principle, described and figured under Ventilation. A method of heating two apartments by one fire, first desoiibed by Dr. Franklin, merits revival. Supposing there are two adjacent rooms with a chimney between, it is quite possible to make a fireplace of cast iron, so arranged that it may turn round on a pivot, so that the fire may be in either room, whilst at the same time the room in which the fire is not seen is heated by the red-hot back. In order to have the full benefit of the arrangement, it is necessary to put two flues (say two common stove-pipes) in the lower ' part of the chimney, and the one that the fire is not under is closed by a valve, which must of course be opened when the fireplace is revolved. "By this means a servant could at any hour in the morning make a fire in the study, which would also warm the bedroom without disturbing the master by going into his cham- ber ; and the master when he rose could with a touch of his foot turn the fireplace on its pivots and bring the fire into his bedroom, and keep it there as long as he wished, and at going out turn it back again into his study. When retiring to rest in the evening he would find his bed-chamber comfortably warmed by the hot back-plate ; and if he wished to have a sight also of the fire he could turn it to- wards him. If it were desired to have hot air introduced into the room in which there was no fire, the back-plate might be made hollow, and an opening made at the bottom for the admission of the cold air into the cavity, and another at the top of the air-box for its emission into the room." — (Bernan's History and Art of Warming.) Dr. Ancell Ball of Spalding is the inventor of a plan fdr simultaneously warming, disin- fecting, and ventilating a house. It appears to be applicable to any class of house, from a small cottage to a large mansion, and by utilising to the utmost every fire, must be without doubt very economical. The details of the plan are as follows : — Cottages. — A five-roomed cottage (of two sitting and three bedrooms) is so arranged that in the partition wall between the two lower rooms an aperture is left, with only one chimney, beneath which is placed in the said aperture a double-faced or Janus little grate, on each side of which is a hot-air chamber, provided with a water-evaporating pan, so that heated moist air, after being diffused into the sitting-rooms, can be conveyed through a hole in each brick up a lofty coach-house into a hay-chamber above, where 140° are obtained. The same kind of air can be conveyed into a lobby in each lower room, or a passage or hall, where it is admitted through openings, which can be plugged with a stopper at night before bed-time, when the said air can be conducted up to the three cottage bedrooms, which will be comfortably warmed before retiring to rest. The Janus grate has two very different-looking faces, the one for the sitting-room looking like an ordinary, cheerful fii'eside, with the front flush with the wall, which does not pro- ject into the room ; whilst the kitchen side face presents a complete range, with three holes in the hot-plate for a large pot with tap, as a substitute for boiler— one for a frying- pan, and a central one for a kettle, &c., which can, by means of a little door above the grate, be conveyed from one room to the other — a very useful and ingenious contrivance. Be- neath the grate a large oven is placed, and the flame is conveyed completely round three sides of it, at the same time imparting heat to the two hot-air chambers, so that the maxi- mum of heat is abstracted before the little smoke that remains passes into the chimney. This is not all, for the two faces abstract so much air that cheap coke is readily consumed in the upper two-thirds of the grate, whilst a grated drawer slides in beneath to consume WAR (632) WAS the best riddled small yet cheaper coals, called "nuts," the anwhe from which ascends through the incandescent coke, where it is consumed, at the same time emitting light and additional heat. The hot ashes are frequently falling upon the top of the oven, which is thus well heated through four of its surfaces. A drawing-room and dining-room can also be heated by a single grate in the same man- ner, the range of course being dispensed with, and another face substituted. A breakfast- room and ofSce can also be heated in a similar manner ; likewise two kitchens, the lesser one being siipplied with a corresponding face. The ventilation is provided for by first ad- mitting the outer cold winter and pure air into the two lobbies of the cottage, by conduct- ing it to the ceiling through the finely-per- forated zinc and muslin, which not only ex- cludes an excess of air, but also divides the cold current so finely that it becomes rapidly heated by the hot, moist air, which it meets in the lobbies, so that when a person opens the inner lobby door to enter the sitting-room, no current of cold air or disagreeable draught is experienced by those sitting there — a cheap comfort which many much higher-rented houses cannot yet boast of. This plan is only adopted in the cold weather, for in the summer-time the windows above the outer doors work on pivots, in order that a full current of air can be commanded in the hotter months. Having thus admitted the outer pure air after first wanning it, the next important thing to be done is to cany off as fast as it is generated in the rooms the impure air pro- ceeding from the breath, from gas, lamps, and perspiration, &c. ; and this is admirably accomplished through a cheap flue formed by an opening in bricks placed one above the other, from a part near to the ceiling to a certain distance up the breast of the chimney, having no communication, however, with the smoke-flue, although warmed by it ; for the said ventilating-flue is formed in and through the brickwork in the breastwork itself; and in orderto prove its successful action a feather is suspended over the entrance, where it is powerfully drawn by the upward current into the chimney, thus emptying a room of impure air quite as cheaply as the House of Commons is by the steam-pumping apparatus, and per- haps, also, quite as agreeably. If there should be an infectious fever in the house, a more powerful up-current can be obtained by placing a lamp or a horizontal wheel worked by four conical cavities at the top, at the commencement of the ventilator. One of the bedrooms is so constructed that it can be immediately converted into a little hospital for the infectious diseases of child- hood, by first admitting pure air into the bed- room, through louvres and other openings in the lower panels of the door, over which a piece of perforated zinc, covered vrith muslin, slides, so that the air is admitted without any objectionable draught. At the bottom of the panels is placed a vessel containing ozone, and there is a bottle of disinfectant provided with a wick, and so arranged that the upper edge of the muslin is continually kept wet with it. The impure air in this case is not extracted by the usual shaft, but by an additional one, commencing in an opening in the partition wall, and terminating in a zinc chimney. An up-cast current is ensured by a small gas or paraffine lamp, which is thus made to both light and ventilate two rooms simultaneously. By the side of the lamp is placed a bottle charged with some disinfectant — [e.g., carbolic acid — which is conveyed by means of the siphon action of a wick to the sides of the heated cone ; by this means the impure air is saturated with a disinfectant before it mixes with the atmosphere. Ballard and Pitt's patent is also an attempt to combine on «, large scale ventilation and warming. The apparatus consists of a series of hollow copper vessels, standing erect, side by side, and a few inches apart, the whole being enclosed in an ornamental wooden cas- ing. These vessels are filled with hot water from a hot-water circulating boiler. The cold air is brought direct from the outside of the house by a suitable channel entering the apparatus at its lowest point ; the cold air in ascending passes over the copper plates, and is discharged warm into the house. This method of warming the air answers well, for it can never be overheated. Of course the apparatus is entirely beyond the reach of small house- holders, but it is well adapted for the houses of the middle and upper classes, Washer-Women— Their laborious work, humid atmosphere, cramped position, and constant contact with acrid irritating liquids expose washer-women to many diseases, the more common of which are rheumatism, colds, amenorrhcea, oedema of the legs, varicose veins, ulcerated legs, and according to Benoiston de Ch&teauneuf, extreme liability to phthisis. It does not appear that they often contract disease from washing the garments, &c,, used by persons suffering from infectious disorders. Eillotson has, however, quoted a case in which a washer-woman, after washing the linen worn by a man suffering from glanders, was seized with the same disease. Halle has attributed to the refuse-water of wash-houses the ulcerated throats and inter- mittent fevers noticed by him to be very preva- WAS (633) ■WAT lent amongst the waslier-women inhabiting the huts on the banks of the "riviire des Gobelins. " See 'Wash-Hodses. VTash-Souses — In all large cities, espe- cially in their more ancient quarters, space is so lamentably deficient that not alone do the poor have to wash their clothes in the soli- tary room in which they live, but they have to exert all their ingenuity to dry their linen after cleansing it ; and thus is seen the curious spectacle of under-garments of every kind and shape hanging from poles pushed out of the ■windows, lines stretched across the narrow streets, or in some cases on the very roof itself. In such towns it is the moral duty of an urban sanitary authority to establish pro- perly-constructed wash-houses, in order to give every facility to those classes who have no conveniences at home to wash and dry their linen, and thus encourage cleanliness. The establishment of public baths and wash- houses is provided for by the 9 & 10 Yict. c. 74 ; 10 & 11 Vict. c. 61 ; 21 & 22 Vict. >;. 98, s. 47 ; and the Public Health Act, 1875, s. 65. See Baths. Water — The true constitution of water was not discovered until the yeai 1781, when Cavendish and James Watt, independently of each other, showed it to be a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. The chemical composi- tion of absolutely pure water is proved, both by analysis and synthesis, to be the combina- tion and condensation of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion by volume of two of the former to one of the latter; b;/ weight, eight df oxygen to one of hydrogen. Its chemical formula is therefore HjO, and its relative weight 9. The specific gravity of water as a vapour (steam) is '622 ; as a liquid, 1000 ; as a solid (ice), -918. A litre of water at 4° C. weighs 1000 grammes ; a cubic inch at 62° F. weighs 252 '456 grains ; 1 cubic foot, 997 ounces avoir- dupois ; and it is convenient also to remember that 1 gallon equals "1604 cubic foot, and 1 cubic foot equals 6'2335 gallons— or, for practical purposes, 1 gallon equals '16 cubic foot, and 1 cubic foot equals 6J gallons. Pure water is a liquid, colourless, trans- parent, and destitute of odour or taste. It freezes at or below 32° F. (0° C), and boils at the ordinary barometric pressure at 212° F. (100° C.) Water contracts regularly on the abstraction of heat until it reaches a temperature of about 39'2° F. (4° 0.) ; it then expands and continues to do so until it freezes. At 39"2° it attains its greatest density, and when it congeals it occupies a space as great as it did at 48 '2° F. ^9° C.) ; but notwithstanding this gradual dilatation its refractive power on light con- tinues to increase regularly, as though it con- tracted. Above 39"2° F. (4° C.) water expands regularly as the temperature rises. Water is the standard with which the specific gravities of liquids and solids are com- Xjared, its maximum density at 39 "2° being taken as 1000. Water absolutely pure is never found naturally; the whitest snow, the clearest rain-water, the most transparent ice, all con- tain air, small quantities of salts, and a little organic matter. It is only by special processes, indeed, that the chemist can obtain it chemi- cally pure ; for Fresenius found by distilling 42*41 grammes of water from a glass flask with great care that it subsequently left on evapo- ration and ignition *0018 gramme of solid residue. Mr. Crookes, in determining the atomic weight of thallium, found it necessary to re- distil water in a special apparatus in vacuo (Chemical News, vol. xxix. No. 741) ; but it may also be obtained pure in small quantities by combining proper volumes of oxygen and hydrogen by the electric spark ; in larger, by transmitting dry pure hydrogen over ignited oxide of copper and collecting the water formed. Water distilled in the usual way, however, answers all the ordinary require- ments of the chemist. The different varieties of natural water may be divided into fresh and salt, the former again being subdivided into rain-water, snow- water, spring - water, river- water, mineral water, &o. Sea-Water. — The composition of the water of the ocean varies somewhat in different parts of the globe. Its main characteristic is its saltness, derived from the large amount of salts it contains, the total saline matter amounting usually to 3^ per cent. The density of sea-water is about 10274. The salts are chiefly chlorides of sodium and magnesium and sulphate of magnesium. The following are analyses of sea-water — the British Channel by Schweitzer, the Medi- terranean by XJsiglio (Ann. de Chimie, III. xxvii. 104) : — • British Cliamiel. Mediterranean. Water . . 963 74372 962-346 Sodic chloride 28-06948 29-424 Fotassic chloride 76552 0-605 Magnesic chloride 3-66668 3-219 Magnesic bromide 002929 Magnesic sulphate 2'2967S Calcic sulphate 1-41662 Calcic carbonate 03301 Iodine . . traces Ammonia . traces Perric oxide . ... 0-003 0-666 2-477 1-367 0-114 Specific gravity 1027-4 1025-8 WAT (634) WAT Sea-water is a great stimulant to the skin^ and gives tone to the nervous system. Many people suffering from skin diseases can neither bathe nor approach the sea without becoming worse ; but its action, speaking gene- rally, is beneficial upon man, and those who live near the coast are healthy. Sea-water, owing to the large proportion of dissolved chlorides in it, is an excellent disinfectant. Waters, Drinking. — The drinking-waters include spring, river, lake, and well water. It is impossible to say, abstractly, which is the most healthy supply. A water free from human or other contamination, not too hard, well aerated, and containing no microscopic life, from whatever source derived, is a goo4 water. Examination of Drinking- Water.— The hy- gienist, in examining drinking-water, has to solve the question whether the water is fit for domestic and other uses. This may easily be determined by several very satisfactory methods. , i Collection of the Samplc^One or more chemically-clean transparent wine-bottles an- swer admirably. They may first be cleansed with caustic soda or potash, then washed with hot water, and finally treated with a little strong sulphuric acid, and again rinsed. Too much care to have the bottle clean can hardly be taken; the corks should fit pro- perly, and be perfectly new and clean. In taking samples from whatever source, the battle should be washed out again, in addition to the cleansing mentioned, with the sample to be examined. In the case of town sup- plies, the water should be allowed to run a little time before filling the vessel, and the same remark applies to pumps. If a sample from the source of a spring is required, it is often impossible to get a satisfactory collec- tion without digging the previous night a small excavation, into which the spring falls in a miniature cataract ; and the placing of a little glass or porcelain spout, over which it flows, will facilitate greatly the subsequent operations. A fairly complete examination of a drinking- water comprises — 1. A physical examination by which (a) its general appearance as to colour, smell, tur- bidity, sediment, &o., and (6) its microscopic characters are determined. 2. A chemical examination by which the (a) amount of suspended matter, (6) total solid residue, (c) chlorine, [d) hardness, (e) nitrates and nitrites, (/) ammonia and organic matter, (g) metals, are all quantitatively determined. It is, however, only in very important cases that the whole process is gone through, a very slight examination sufficing in bad waters to condemn them ; while in the case of doubtful waters, a microscopic examination, with the quantitative determination of (6), (c), and (/) will give certain indications whether the water is a potable one or not. Preliminary Physical and Chemical Exami- nation of a Water. — First, the water should be examined as to clearness by holding a large flask in front of a dark wall, while a strong light falls on it from above ; next, the colour may be noted by filling a flask with distilled water, and placing the two flasks side by side on white paper. The flask may now be shaken up and smelt, to ascertain whether there is any odour, in which warming the water, and the addition of a little caustic potash, will assist ; if this produces any odour, a considerable quan- tity of organic matter is sure to be present. Nitrites may also be tested for by iodide of potassium, acetic acid, and starch paste. For this purpose it is best to take 100 cubic centi- metres of water in a glass cylinder ; if a blue colour is the result, nitrites are present. To another 100 cubic centimetres, some Nessler test {see NesslebJ may be added; if this produce a discolouration or precipitate, am- moniacal salts are present. Another 100 cubic centimetres can be boiled with a few drops of acid, and tested with sulphuretted hydrogen for metals. A good water neither gives a blue colour with the iodide of potash and starch, a brown colour with Nessler, nor a dark colour with sulphuretted hydrogen; it does not contain much suspended matter, nor has it a bad smell. Microscopical Examination of Water. — No examination of a drinking-water is complete unless it has been submitted to microscopical examination ; in fact, by the microscope alone a water may be pronounced pure or the re- verse. The writer has lately paid considerable attention to the connection between chemical analysis and the microscopical characters of a water. The method employed was simply to allow the water to stand from twelve to twenty-four hours in a tall jar or bottle of transparent glass, the mouth of the vessel being covered with filtering-paper ; at the end of that time tJie water was siphoned off, and the sediment, if any, taken up by a pipette and examined under the microscope ; the water thus freed from the matters held in suspension was then analysed in the ordinary way. In every case it was found that the microscopical characters supported the che- mical analysis ; for the best waters, even oJt standing a couple of days, wiU only leave the slightest sediment, which sediment will con- tain no animal or vegetable life, visible at all events with i-inch power. The following table gives a few examples of this : — WAT (63s) WAT SoUd Beaidue. Chlorlna. Free Amoiouia. Albuminoid Animouia. Microscopical aud ilemarks. Grains per Gallon. Grains per GaUou. Parts per MUlion. Parts per MiUiou. Saline. . "Orgaaic a'otal. , River-water from-j near Chilcomp- > ton . J Mill Spring, Chil- 1 compton . . f A hard spring- ^ water from ■ Kingsbridge . ) 23-00 21-00 28-00 25-00 800 11 -oo 48-00 29-00 39:00 1-4 1-0 2 4 00 09 00-04 03-00 0015 00-03 00 05 /After standing 24 hours, a. copious de- posit settled at the bottom of the bottle ; this on examination was found to be prin- cipally composed of debris of vegetable andanimallife. ^0(1- fer vulgaris, Brachi- onus. Glaucoma, An- guillulajluvialis, Ac- tinophrys sol, and other infusorial forms ^ were identified. ■ Entire absence of ani- mal life,and sediment very scanty, f After standing 36 hours, a slight sandy de- posit ; no life ; a little vegetable dfibris. Mr. Jabez Hogg also gives the following analysea of waters by Dr. Dugald Campbell, and his own microscopic observations : — A water gave to analysis — Grains per QoUon. Saline 3-200 Volatilised matter which blackened when heated .... 1-200 NH, Alb., NH, Total 4-400 006 020 The water was brown in colour, and abounded in animal and vegetable organisms, chiefly par- amsecium, trichoda, rotifers, cercomonas, Fro- tococcus fluvialis, confervse, and numerous fragments of decaying mosses aud vegetable matter. Another water from the red sandstone, con- taining 11 '8 grains of solid matter per gallon, and ammonia as follows : — • Grains per Gallon. NH, ■ 0002 • Alb.', NH3 ... . 0001 was found by Mr. Hogg to be perfectly free from all living organisms.- It is impossible to enumerate all the forms which the microscopist may meet with in water, a few of the most common may, how- ever, be mentioned. 1 . Inanimate Substances. — Sand, chalk, clay, marl, and other earthy or mineral matters. Vegetable matters— such as the debris of plants, bits of cotton, linen, &c. Animal matters — such as bits of hair, wool, epithelium, wings and legs of insects, and the debris of fishes. 2. Living Animal and Vegetable Forms. — These are various. Bacteria, rhizopoda, englense, various ciliated free infusoria moving rapidly, algae and diatoms, hydroioa, worms, and fungi, are the principal classes to which the microsopic life of -water is to be re- ferred. The principal living forms in water are easily learned by the aid of diagrams and practical observation, but of course, ih order to identify every animalcule, desmid, or diatom, and to name it accurately, requires an im- mense amount of study in a special direction. The plate illustrating this article (fig. 139) will, be found of use for the sake of reference, as it contains a representation of most of the common species. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 16. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Closterium. Semidesmus obtusus. Spores of a fungus. Conferva floccosa. Englena vii-idis. Diatom vulgare. Pleurosigma angulatum. Navicula viridis. Surirella splendida. Colony of vorticella. Cyclidium glaucoma. Brachionus. Botifer vulgaris. Oxytricha lingua. PeUionella. Glaucoma scintillans. Glaucoma Gibba. Leucophrys striata. Paramaecium aurelia. Paramaecium caudatum. Paramaecium chrysalis. Actinophrys sol (budding). Monura dulcis. Daphnia. Amceba. Chiloden. Cypris. pig.isg. WAT (637) WAT With regard to the interpretation which should he put upon mioroscopio results, the fewer living forms met with, as before said, the purer the water. Cotton fibres, epithelium, potato starch, bairs, and similar structures, although they may be harmless in themselves, are evidences that the water is susceptible of human con- tamination. Conf ervoid growths, algse, and desmids (Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,^ and 8, fig. 139) are met with in running streams of great purity ; and if these are the only structures met with, a water should not be condemned ; but, in the writer's experience, when such forms have been nu- merous, infusorial life is also present. On the other hand, ciliated forms (such as Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 23, fig. 139) are, as a rule, indicative of sewage con- tamination; it is indeed said that waters containing paramaecium are even injurious to animals. 1 AnguUlula fluvialis, a small and active eel-like worm so frequently met with in river- water, is said to be the origin of trichina, but of this there is no proof. Fungi and much decaying vegetable matter are always suspicious. Microscopic results, unless very definite, should be supplemented by chemical analysis. Water, Chemical Examination of. — The ap- paratus required for the entire examination of water are — 1. A balance that will turn with a milligramme when each scale is loaded with SO grammes, and that has room on the pans to take a platinum dish of 100 cubic centimetres capacity. 2. Accurate weights. 3. Measures ; of these, fiasks are convenient : one of 70 cubic centimetres, one of 100 cubic centimetres, one of 50 cubic centimetres, and one of 500 cubic centimetres, will answer the purpose admirably ; they have a mark cut on the neck, and are gauged to hold the exact quantity. 4. Pipettes. 5. One or more burettes. 6. Large retorts, holding at least 1600 cubic centimetres. 7. A large Liebig's condenser. 8. A platinum dish of 100 cubic centimetres capacity. 9. Glass cylinders, holding about 160 cubic centimetres. Colour. — It is sometimes necessary to make a definite statement about the colour of water, and Mr. Falconer King has proposed a method by means of which this may be measured and referred to a standardi The process consists of adding an aqueous solution of caramel of a certain strength from a burette to a. known quantity of distilled water, which may be contained in an ordinary nesslerising cylinder. The standard solution of caramel is made by adding caramel to dis- tilled water until the proper depth of tint has been attained. " The depth of colour which it should possess is ascertained as fol- lows : To 8 oz. of pure water, perfectly free from ammonia, contained in a glass tube, and forming a column 12 inches long, add 10 grains by volume of solution of ammonium chloride, containing 3 "17 grains of the salt in 10,000 grains of water (or "001 grain of am- monia in 1 grain of solution). To this mix- ture, after proper agitation, add 25 grains by volume of ITessler's solution, of the usual strength ; allow this, after' mixing, to repose . for ten minutes at a temperature of 60° F., when the colour produced will equal about 30° in my scale. That is, 300 grains by vol- ume, or 30° (a degree being equal to 10 grains by volume), of caramel solution, if of proper strength, will produce exactly the same depth of colour when added to the same amount of distilled water (8 oz.) in a column 12 inches long." — (Process for the Estimation of Colour in Water, by J. Falconer King, Chemical News, No. 800, 1875.) The rest of the process is exactly similar to nesslerising. Suspended Matters. — The best way of esti- mating matters in suspension is to take the solid residue of the water unfiltered, then filter a portion of the water, and again take the solid residue ; the difference between the two determinations is the suspended matters. Solid Residue. — All natural waters hold various matters in solution, and when the water is driven off by heat, a sediment remains — this is the solid residue. In order to take it, the best way is to evaporate 100 cubic centimetres to dryness in a platinum dish over the water-bath and then weigh ; the result may be expressed in French weights as so much per litre, or in English as grains per gallon, by simply multiplying by 7 and divid- ing by 100 ; for example, 100 cubic centimetres evaporated down gave '0892 of residue ; this by calculation := 62 '44 grains per gallon. A still more convenient way is to evaporate 70 cubic centimetres down, then each milligramme is equal to 1 grain per gallon ; for example, if 70 cubic centimetres had given ■089S of resi- due, the solids per gallon would be 89 '2 gridns. If a quantitative examination of the salts present in water be wanted, a very large bulk will require to be concentrated (say 4 or 5 litres) first in a fiask and lastly over the water-bath. The solid residue obtained by evaporating down 100 cubic centimetres is generally ignited at a dull red heat ; the loss represents volatile and organic matter, but too much stress must not be placed upon any loss which may occur in this manner, as much volatilisation of the chlorides may take place. If, however, there is blackening, it is a sure indication of organic matter. If the solid ■WAT (638) WAT residue is high and inorganic, the sample is a hard water ; if low, it is a soft water. The following are examples of solid resi- due : — Sia- Water. Gralna per Gallon. Atlantic Ocean .... 2688 00 Seltzer Mineral- Waters. Tunbridge Seidlitz . Cheltenham Harrogate River-Waters. Avon ... . , Severn at Newtown . [ . Thames, as supplied to London Khine at Basle Danube near Tlenna Spree at Berlin . . Garonne at Toulouse Irwell, near its source . Mersey, above Warrington , Zake-Waters, Loch Katrine . Bala Lake Bassenthwaite Windermere .... Lake of Geneva The Great Salt Lake 29000 83-00 8-60 1928-00 805'00 940-00 7-77 6-02 21-66 11-86 9 -89 7-98 9-56 5-46 19-85 2-30 318 3 27 4-05 10-64 936-40 Spring and Well Waters. Norwich artesian well, 400 feet deep 2670 Rochdale spring . . . 25-93 Worthing deep well in the chalk 22-71 A spring near Exmouth . . 109-00 Wells near Eingsbridge . . . 61-70 Wells from the red sandstone (Devon) 10-00 Hardness. — "Waters abounding in calcareous and magnesian salts use or destroy much soap before a lather is formed. The explanation of this is that the soap forms insoluble salts with the lime, &c. Such waters are said to be hard, the converse soft. Now it is obvious that the soft waters have a small solid residue ; the hard, a large. A water with 8 or 10 grains of solid residue is a moderately soft water; the lake-waters -with from 2 to 3 grains of residue are extremely soft, whilst those with 50, 60, 70, and 80 grains of saline residue must be hard ; so that any other test except taking the solid residue is reajly superfluous. If, however, the soap test of Dr. Clarke is required to be used, the modification proposed by Messrs. "Wanklyn and Chapman is most convenient and most accurate. A standard solution of pure chloride of calcium is first prepared, the strength being 1 '110 grammes to the litre. Bach cubic centimetre equals 1 milligramme of carbonate of lime. The soap test is made by pounding together two parts of lead plaster and one of carbonate of potash, exhausting them with alcohol of about 90 per cent, (about thirty times as much alcohol as there is lead plaster is used in this operation) ; it is then diluted -with about its own volume of water, and standardised in the following manner: 10 cubic centimetres are put in a bottle with 70 cubic centimetres of water, the standard chloride of calcium solution added until frothing stops ; it is then easy to calculate so as to dilute the soap solution, so as to make 17 cubic centimetres of standard soap solution to exactly neutralise 16 cubic centimetres of the calcium solution, each cubic centimetre of the soap solution will then be equivalent to 1 niilligrarame of carbonate of lime. In order to use the test, 70 cubic centimetres of water are put in a fiask, the soap solution added gradually from a burette, or other convenient graduated instrument. After each addition the fiask should be well shaken, and when a permanent lather is formed, the number of soap cubic centimetres used is noted down, eacli cubic centimetre used being equal to 1 grain of carbonate of lime, or its equivalent, in a gallon of water. In testing the hardness of waters, it is con- venient to take first water previous to boiling and treat it as detailed, this gives the tem- porary hardness ; then boil another 70 cubic centimetres of the water for a little time, again test, this gives the permanent hardness. By a modification of this method the mag- nesia and lime salts may be very readily and quickly estimated, for if ftrst the total hard- ness is taken, and then the lime is precipitated in a fresh portion (say a litre) by oxalic acid, the liquid filtered, and the soap test added, it is evident that any hardness it may possess now must be due to magnesia, for the lime has been removed; if the lumber of cubic centi- metres of soap solution used be now subtracted from those used previous to separation of the lime, we get hardness due to lime. Chlorine.— The importance of determining the amount of chlorine arises from the fact, that as the excreta of man and animals abound in chlorides, if liquid sewage leak into a well, the chlorides must necessarily be increased, nor can there be extensive sewage pollution without high chlorides. There are, however, certain springs of hard water which naturally contain a considerable amount of chlorides ; in such a case, the absence of organic matter and undue nitrates, and the character of the springs in the vicinity, will generally guide the analyst to a correct conclusion. The chlorine in water may be determined gravimetrically by adding a solution of nitrate of silver to the water acidulated with nitric acid, washing first by de- cantation, then transferring the precipitate to a filter, drying, and lastly igniting in a crucible (the whole process is best done in a room only just light enough to carry on the operation). The weight of the resulting chloride of silver, multiplied by '2474, equals the chlorine. The WAT (639) WAT most usual and best way is, however, by a volumetric process. Dissolving "479 gramme of nitrate of silver in a litre of water, we obtain a solution, of which 1 cubic centi- metre equals "1 milligramme of chlorine ; to use it, a small crystal of neutral chromate of potash is dissolved in 100 cubic centimetres of the water to be tested, and the silver solution added drop by drop from a graduated pipette or burette. Now, as the nitrate of silver does not form the red chromate until all the chlorides are exhausted, the chromate of potash acts as an indicator ; for directly enough nitrate of sil- ver has been added, there is a permanent shade of red. A little practice soon hits the exact moment, and this method is of great delicacy ; but as chromates often contain chlorides, it is necessary to ascertain how much standard silver solution is used with a definite weight of the chromate, and make the necessary cor- rection. If it be required to express the amount of chlorine in grains, 70 cubic centi- metres of the water are taken ; the number of cubic centimetres of silver solution then equals tenths of a grain of chlorine in a gallon of water. For instance, 70 cubic centimetres of water used 15 cubic centimetres of silver solu- tion ; chlorine per gallon then equals 1 '5 grains. The following are examples of chlorine in natural water, both pure and polluted :^ Grains per Gallon Sea-water .... . 1330-840 Eivers. Thames at Kew . 0-8)7 Bhlne at Basle 0-105 Severn at Worcester . 2-800 Elbe at Hamburg . 1-SOO Lakes. Bala ... 0-708 Ullswater 0-693 Derwentwater 0-906 The Great Salt Lake . 615-200 Springs and Wdls. Surface wells from the red sand- stone (Devon) .... 1-350 Hard waterfrom wells near Kings- bridge 6-750 A well in a North Devon parish which propagated typhoid fever 8-850 "Wells in the neighbourhood of the last found to be pure . . . 1-250 A well in village east of London CWankltn) .... 15-610 Nitrates and Nitrites, Determination of.— A great many rival processes have been adopted for this purpose. Nitrates may be determined — 1. By conversion of nitric acid into am- monia. 2. By reducing the nitric acid to nitric oxide and retransf orming it into nitric acid. 3. By reducing the nitric acid to nitric oxide and measuring it as such, 4. Determining the amount by the oxidis- ing action of nitric acid in a solution of indigo. The first method, proposed by Schultze and modified by Chapman and Wanklyn, is very convenient and is much employed. It essen- tially consists of converting nitrates and ni- trites into ammonia by means of metallic aluminum acting on a cold alkaline solution. A hundred cubic centimetres of water are introduced into a non-tubulated retort, and 50 to 70 cubic centimetres of a solution of caustic soda, which must be free from nitrates, added; the contents of the retort are then boiled until water distils ammonia free ; it is then allowed to cool, thin sheet aluminum iutroduced into it, the mouth of the retort closed with a cork provided with a small tube containing broken-up tobacco-pipe wet with dilute hydrochloric acid; this tube is con- nected with a second filled with pumice-stone moistened with sulphuric acid. The retort is now left at rest for several hours ; it is then attached to a condenser and distilled, the ammonia estimated by nesslerising or by titration. The present writer, however, prefers to put the water, soda, and aluminum into a fiask with a lateral tube connected with a small Liebig's condenser, the delivery tube of the latter dipping into some distilled water very faintly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and to let the apparatus stand overnight ; the next morning heat is applied, and theammonia distilled over. The proposed modification has this advantage, that no ammonia, i{ the flask is properly corked and the tube carefully fitted to the condenser, can possibly be lost, nor does the apparatus require to be handled until the operation is finished. In the determination of nitrates, &c., by conversion into ammonia, the following table will be useful : — Ammonia NH, Nitrogen. Hitrio Acid. 1 0-824 3-71 2 1-P47 7-41 3 2-471 1112 4 3-294 14-82 5 4-118 18-63 6 4-941 22-24 7 S-765 25-94 8 6-588 29-65 9 7-412 .ii3-35 10 8-235 37 06 11 9060 40-76 12 ■9-900 44-47 13 10-701 48-18 14 11-530 61-88 15 12-353 55-59 16 13176 69 29 17 14-000 63-00 18 14 823 66-71 19 15-647 70 41 20 16-470 74-12 WAT (640) WAT The second method (SoWosing's) — viz., con- version first into nitric oxide, and then into nitric acid — is an excellent one, but too com- plex for general purposes. The third method, first proposed by Walter Crum — viz., the conversion of nitrates, &c., in- to nitric oxide, and measuring as such — has been much employed by Frankland, modified by Sohultze, and still farther perfected by Ziemann. One hundred to 300 cubic centimetres of water are evaporated down to 50 cubic centi- metres, and placed in a fiask (fig. 140). A, the fiask, has an indiarubber stopper having two apertures, through these pass two bent tubes, a, be, efg. The abc tube is drawn to a point and passes through the stopper to a depth of 2 centimetres, the other ends exactly at the underside of the stopper. At c and g are india- rubber connecting tubes, provided with pinch- cocks ; at h the tube turns up, and is covered with a piece of indiarubber tubing to prevent breakage. B is a glass trough filled with soda lye ; C is a measuring tube. The water is first boiled in A to expel air, the tube fg h not being immersed ; after boiling for some time, Fig. 140. the end h is put in the soda lye, the pinch-cock applied at g, and the vapours now escape by d, when about 10 cubic centimetres of water only remain. The lamp is now withdrawn, a pinch- cook applied at c, and c d filled with water ; now the end h is xjlaced under the measuring tube. Solution of protoohloride of iron is poured into a beaker, and concentrated hydro- chloric acid in another beaker is also held in readiness ; the tube c dia then placed in the iron solution, and 15 to 20 cubic centimetres allowed to flow in, which it readily does by opening the stopcock, on account of the vacuum in the flask. The iron is cleared out of the tube by allowing two successive por- tions of hydrochloric acid to flow in. Gentle heat is now applied, and when there is evi- dence of internal pressure, the nitric oxide is allowed to pass over into 0. The volume of nitric oxide must of course be corrected by the barometer and for temperature. One milli- gramme of nitric acid = "41 cubic centimetres of nitric oxide at a pressure of 760 millimetres, and a temperature of 0° 0. The fourth method— viz., the oxidation of indigo— is very convenient, and is sometimes employed. There are various modifications of the process, but Trommsdorf's is perhaps the best; he takes 25 cubic centimetres of the water, and 50 of sulphuric acid, finds approxi- matively by a preliminary experiment the amount of indigo solution necessary to add to produce a green colour. The value of the solution of indigo is first ascertained by experimenting on a solution of nitre of known strength, and then the final assay can be made quickly, so that the error arising from pro- longed action is avoided. If the nitrites alone in water require esti- mation, one of the three following processes maybe used (Ed. Nioholsoh, Chemical News, vol. xxxii. No. 827) :— 1. Volumetric Estimation by Arsenious A cid. — ^To 500 cubic centimetres of water in a stop- pered white bottle add 5 cubic centimetres of potassium iodide solution {^^), and then 5 cubic centimetres of dilute (^) pure sulphuric acid. Allow the reaction an hour for full de- velopment. If the iodine be liberated in very small quantity, or if it be masked by turbidity of the water, add a drachm of benzine or chloroform, and agitate ; the iodine will give WAT (641) WAT it a pink colour, which is quite as sensitiTe as the blue colour given by starch, and disappears more quickly when the iodine is absorbed. The iodine is estimated by neutralising the acid by a slight excess of sodium carbonate, and the centinormal arsenious solution is dropped in until the iodine colour disappeai's. 2. Mr. P. HoUand's Golorimelric Process. — A solution of pure nitrite is prepared con- taining '01 centigramme of nitrous acid in each cubic centimetre, A solution of iodine (about 4 grammes per litre) in potassium iodide is also prepared, and adjusted to such strength that 10 cubic centimetres made up to 200 cubic centimetres with pure water shall produce the same colour as 10 cubic centi- metres of the standard nitrite solution made up to 200 cubic centimetres with water con- taining potassium iodide, and some dilute sulphuric acid. The iodine reaction being developed in a certain quantity of water con- taining nitrites (as in the preceding process), an equal colour is produced in an equal quan- tity of pure water by the addition of the standard iodine solution. Each cubic centi- metre = '01 centigramme of nitrous acid. 3. Mr. Nicholson's Process. — This is founded on the liberation of iodine by a permanganate under the same circumstances as its liberation by nitrous acid. '01 centigramme of active oxygen contained in 1 cubic centimetre of the dilute standard solution of permanganate commonly used ('395 gramme per litre) liberates '159 centigramme of iodine, while "01 centigramme of nitrous acid liberates "40 centigramme of iodine under the same cir- cumstances. The application of this principle to colorimetrio estimation is obvious ; '01 centigramme of active oxygen contained in 1 cubic centimetre of the dilute standard per- manganate solution, in a comparative experi- ment, liberates the same quantity of iodine as •004 centigrammes of nitrous acid. Let the iodine reaction be produced, as in the first pro- cess, in 500 cubic centimetres of the water under examination. When the colour is fully developed, add in the same way potassium iodide, and sulphuric acid to 500 cubic centi- metres of pure water, and then drop in the dilute standard permanganate solution until an equal iodine colour is produced. The development of the colour is immediate. It is evident that by these volumetric pro- cesses, nitrates by reduction to nitrites may also be quantitatively estimated. Estimation of the Ammonia and Organic Matter. — Most potable waters contain a minute quantity of ammonia ; this is expelled by boiling, and if such water is distUled, this free ammonia collects in the first portions of the distillate ; it therefore admits of great con- centration, for the distillate may be again dis- tilled, and so on. In this way the presence of ammonia may be shown by the Messier test, even when it exists in so small a quantity as 1 part in 200,000,000 of water. The presence of organic matter in water may be shown in various ways. The chlorides of silver and gold when boiled with impure water, become re- duced; and a dilute solution of permanganate of potash is decolourised by the oxidation of the organic matter, and subsequent reduction of the permanganate. On this reaction was founded a means of estimating the impurities, which was formerly much used, but now Mr. "Wanklyn's ammonia process has entirely superseded it. The Ammonia Process.— Hj this process the organic matters, which consist of vague inde- finite nitrogenous bodies, are converted into a definite compound — viz., ammonia — and esti- mated and expressed as ammonia. The re- agents required aie — 1. Messier test (see Nessler Test). 2. Distilled water, free from ammonia, which may be obtained by redistil- ling ordinary distilled water, or distUling a large quantity of water, and rejecting the first and last portions. 3. Alkaline permanganate. This is made by dissolving 200 gi-ammes |of caustic potash and 8 grammes of crystallised permanganate of potash in 1 litre of water. 4. A standard solution of ammonia containing tJi! of a milligramme of ammonia in 1 cubic cen- timetre of water ('03882 gramme of sulphate of ammonia, or "0315 of chloride of ammonia to the litre). As well as these reagents, the apparatus — retort, condenser, &o. — before mentioned is required. The actual analysis is thus performed: Half a litre of the water to be examined is put in the large retort and adapted to the condenser and 100 cubic centimetres are distilled over into a glass cylinder. Now, this 100 cubic centimetres probably contains ammonia, accordingly IJ cubic centimetres of Nessler are run into it ; if there be the slightest dis- colouration, as seen by holding the cylinder over a sheet of white paper, into another glass cylinder some of the standard solution of ammonia is dropped from the burette, then some distilled water is added, so that the two cylinders have an equal column of water, 1^ cubic centimetres of Nessler run in, and the two cylinders narrowly compared; if the colour of the test is too dark or too light, another cylinder is taken, and so on until they corre- spond, each cubic centimetre of the standard solution equalling "00001 of NH3. This is the free am,monia. Next, 50 cubic centimetres of the permanganate solution are add,ed tdythe retort, and 200 or 250 cubic centimetres dis- tilled over in successive portions, nesslerised, 2s WAX (642) WAT and the ammonia estimated as before; the quantities added together give the albuminoid ammonia. Of course, both the free and the albuminoid ammonia require to be multiplied by 2 to give the quantity in a litre— that is, parts per million. The process described is equally applicable to sewage, wine, milk, urine, or other organic fluid, the only difference being that minute quantities must be taken. In like manner very bad water cannot -conveniently be analysed in bulk; 5, 10; or 25 cubic centi- metres may be taken, and put in half a litre of pure distilled, ammonia free, water, and the process carried out as before. The following are examples of pure, indif- ferent, and bad samples of water from original and other sources :— Free Am- monia. Parts per Million (Mgrms. per Litre). Albuminoid Ammonia. Parts per Million (Mgrms. per Litre). Quality. Name of Authority. Loch Katrine .... West Middlesex County (London) . Surface well, red sandstone (Devon) nf raoombe supply .... Edinburgh water-supply (Colinton, September 1867). A well-water (North'Devon) . Thames (London Bridge) Water from a pump in Edinburgh A well which propagated typhoid fever (North Devon) . Do. (Hartley, Worcestershire) 0-OM 0-010 0-010 0-010 1 0140 0-080 1-020 0-210 j- 0-160 0-150 0-08 0-06 008 0-08 , 0-08 0-12 0-59 0-29 0-12 0-30 Good. )i Indifferent. Bad. j» )» »» Wanklyn. A.WynterBlyth. Wanklyn. A.WynterBlyth. Wanklyn. )» A.WynterBlyth. »» Metals. — To search for metals it is necessary to evaporate down at least a litre to a small bulk, after first adding soda or potash, in order to render it alkaline. The metals to be looked for are lead, copper, iron, manganese, zinc, and arsenic. Arsenic may be detected by Marsh's apparatus. This impurity is ex- tremely uncommon. Manganese, by taking a little of the saline residue on a hot bead of carbonate of soda and submitting it to the blow-pipe flame ; the pink manganate of soda is very characteristic. Iron may be detected by adding a drop of a solution of the mixed ferro and ferrid cyanides ; if iron be present, the result will be a blue colour. The quantity can be estimated by the process described under Voldmeteio Solutions, or by reducing the whole of the iron to the state of protoxide by sulphurous acid, and then estimating it volumetrically. The white precipitate zinc gives in neutral or alkaline solution with sulphuretted hydro- gen is very characteristic, but the result- ing precipitate must be collected and further identified. But the most frequent and most important of all metals to be looked for is lead. Lead gives a dark colour with sulphuretted hydrogen, or if in any quantity, a black precipitate. Copper also acts simi- larly, but the precipitate, if copper, will dis- solve' in cyanide of potassium. Copper also gives a reddish-brown precipitate with potassio ferrocyanide. To estimate small quantities I of load in water, Mr. Wanklyn proposes the following easy method: A standard lead solution, containing '1 milligramme of lead in each cubic centimetre, is prepared. Four hundred cubic centimetres of the water to be examined are directed to be taken, treated with 4 cubic centimetres of saturated sulphur- ous acid and 1 cubic centimetre of dilute sul- phuric acid put into a, retort, and 210 cubic centimetres distilled over; then 100 cubic centimetres are transferred to a glass cylinder, 6 cubic centimetres of sulphuretted hydrogen added, and into another cylinder a small quantity of the standard lead solution run from a burette, the cylinder being filled to the same height as the other with acidulated water. It is then treated with the same quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen as the former. If the colours correspond, the amount of lead in each is equal ; if not, another cylin- der is taken, and a different quantity of stan- dard lead solution run in, and so on until a correct determination is made. The Estimation of Air and Organic Vola- tile Bases. — All water (fontains air. If neces- sary to estimate it, a flask of 400 cubic centi- metres capacity must be taken, with a tightly- fitted perforated cork to which is fitted a tube ; to this again is adapted an indiarubber tube with pinch-cock, which may, when necessary, cut the connection off from a bulb tube, which again is connected with a very long barometer tube terminating in an inverted cylinder .filled ■WAT (643) WAT witli mercury. The water in the bulb is made to boil, and all air expelled from the apparatus ; the flask is then boiled for hours, and the resulting air collected in the mercury tube and ultimately measured. Some waters, especially those much con- taminated by sewage, yield a distillate the alkalinity of which is greater than indicated by the Nessler test. This distillate, if redis- tilled with alkaline permanganate, yields a distillate containing more ammonia than at first ; the difference is due to organic volatile bases. The subject demands farther investi- gation. On the JSxatmnation of SmaU Quantities of Water. — The ordinary chemical examination of water embraces merely four things — viz., solid residue, chlorine, free and albuminoid ammonia — for with these four' data a definite opinion may be given as to its purity and wholesomeness. The four cannot be con- veniently estimated with less than 640 cubic centimetres — ^viz., 600 cubic centimetres for the ammonia, 70 cubic centimetres for chlorine, and 70 cubic centimetres for solid residue ; but of course the chlorides can be estimated by redissolving the solid residue, which re- duces the quantity to 570 cubic centimetres. Bad waters, or even moderately bad, may also be analysed satisfactorily in so small a quantity as 100 cubic centimetres— viz., 70 cubic centimetres for solid residue and chlo- rine, and Ifl to 30 cubic cptimetres for am- monia process. Purification and Softening of Water.— Water may be purified by filtration, sub- sidence, distillation, and the addition of chemical agents. FuU details on filtration will be found in the article Filters.. Dis- tilled water is used for drinking purposes on a large scale in some parts of the world ; as, for instance, some of the sea-coast towns in the rainless districts of Peru, where a com- pany distU sea-water. The navy is also furnished with a proper apparatus for this purpose. Water distilled from the sea has at first a mawkish taste, on account of volatile organic matters ; these may be got rid of by aeration of the water, or redistillatioh. Of all methods for the purification of water, dis- tillation is the most effectual, but, generally speaking, the least practical. Organic matter may briefly be said to be got rid of by aera- tion, jirolonged boiling, filtration or admix- ture with charcoal, the addition of alum, potassium, permanganate, and certain astrin- gents, such as tea, kino, &c. Waters are most easily softened by Dr. Clarke's process, which consists in adding lime to a hard water. Nearly all the calcium carbonate dissolved in the water is thrown down; some organic matter is also de- stroyed. With regard to the action of iron pipes on the purifying of water, see Watek-Supplt. Effects of Impure Water. — Water contami- nated by human sewage cannot but be hurt- ful, although the sewage of healthy persons has, to the author's knowledge, been drunk in a diluted form for a long period without effect ; but the sewage matter from patients suffering under any form of zymotic disease —cholera, typhoid fever, &c. — is most con- tagious and poisonous. There can also be little doubt that some organic substances in water produce diarrhoea, dysentery, and other affections, whilst some waters have contained metallic impurity sufficient to produce ill- ness ; e.g.f a factory at Basle discharged water containing arsenic into a pond, whence the water leaked into the neighbouring springs. — (KOTHand LEX, Militair. Gesundheitspflege. ) The ordinary water-supply of Cheddar was found to contain so large a quantity of lead as to be poisonous. It is tolerably certain that most of the parasites — such as worms, &c. — are sometimes introduced into the body by impure water. Very hard waters, especially those from the limestone rocks, appear to cause goitre ; and In the districts in England possessing the most calcareous waters, calculous affections are frequent. See Lead, Watek-Supplt, &c. Water -Closets — See Closets, Noi- sanoes, Privles, &c. Water, Protection of— There is now ample power to protect water-supply efficiently from pollution in everypart of the British Isles. In Scotland, unwholesome water is declared to be a nuisance by 30 & 31 Vict. c. 101, s. 16 (6), and may be dealt with as such. In Ireland and England — by the Public Health Act, Ireland, 1874, and the Public Health Act, England, 1875 — there are provisions which, if carried out, will prevent to a great extent the drinking of polluted water. On the representation of any person to any local authority that, within their district, the water in any well, tank, or cistern, public or private, or supplied from any public pump, and used, or likely to be used, for drinking or domestic purposes, or for manufacturing drinks for the use of man, is so jioUuted as to be injurious to health, such authority may apply to a court of summary jurisdiction for an order to remedy the same ; and thereupon such court shall summon the occupier of the" premises to which the well, tank, or cistern belongs if it be private, and in the case of a public well, tank, cistern, or pump, any per- son alleged in the application to be interested WAT (644) WAT in the same, and may either dismiss the appli- cation, or may make an order directing the well, tank, cistern, or pump to be permanently or temporarily closed, or the water to be used for certain purposes only, or such other order as may appear to them to be requisite to pre- vent injury to the health of persons drinking the water ; and the court may, if they see fit, cause the water complained of to be analysed at the cost of the local authority applying to them under this section. If the person on whom an order under this section is made fails to comply with the same, the court may, on the application of the local authority, authorise them to do whatever may be necessary in the execution of the order, and any expenses incurred by them may be recovered in a summary manner from the person on whom the order is made. The ex- penses incurred by any rural authority in the execution of this section, and not recovered as aforesaid, shall be special expenses.— (?. H., B. 70.) See also Gas, Sewage, &c. Water - Itights — There is no sanitary law which interferes with any definite' water- right. The Secretary of State, it is true, may alter the course of streams on certain condi- tions by awarding compensation, or sanitary authorities may, by agreement or otherwise, obtain a water-supply; but they have no power, to the injury of private persons or the public, to divert any watercourse or stream flowing in a definite channel without consent of the riparian or other owners. It would appear that there is no right of water except the water flow, whether above the ground or under the ground, in definite channels. " The law respecting the right to water flowing in definite visible channels may be considered as pretty well settled by several modem decisions, and it is very clearly enun- ciated in the judgment of the Court of Ex- chequer in the case of Embrey v. Owen (6 Exchequer Reports, 369) ; but the law, as laid down in those cases, is inapplicable to the case of subterraneous water not flowing in any definite channel, nor indeed at all in the ordi- nary sense, but percolating or oozing through the soil more or less according to the quantity of rain that may chance to fall " (Chasemore V. Richards, 29 L. J. Ex., 81; 3 L. T. (0. S.), 350, Glenn). So that, on the one hand, an owner may appropriate surface-water flowing on his ground in no definite channel (Harrop and another .;. Hirst, 19 L. T. (N. S.), 426; L. R. 4 Exoh., 43 ; 34 L. J. Exoh., 1) ; and on the other, subterranean water may be appro- priated by an owner by sinking a well, even although sinking it may drain his neighbour's well, or injure a neighbouring 'stream; nor would a sanitary authority, or an individual, according to this principle, have any right to complain in the still greater evil of subter- raneous works — such as mines, &c. — draining and depriving a whole village of water, for an owner may drain his land although such drainage is to the detriment of his neighbour (Rawstron v. Taylor, 11 Bxch. Rep., 369 ; 25 L. J. Exch., 23. Popplewell v. Hodgkinson, 20L.J. (N. S.),578). With regard to running streams, each riparian proprietor has a right to use the water in whatever manner he pleases so long as he does not interfere- with the rights of others below him (Embrey v. Owen, 6 Exch. Rep. , 369) ; and by the case of Sutolifte v. Booth (32 L. J. 2 B., 136) it would appear that an artificial stream may acquire all the rights of a natural one. But although an adjacent proprietor has a right to the reason- able use of the water, an action will lie for any unreasonable and unauthorised use, for the right of water is analogous to that of air and light (6 Exoh., 353; 20 L. J. Exch., 212) ; nor may a riparian proprietor interrupt the regular flow (12 Moo. P. C. C, 131 and 156). Water-Supply— It is the duty of every sanitary authority to see that every place under their supervision has a fairly pure and wholesome supply of water. The amount required for towns is as follows : — Gallons per Day per Inliabitant. I«ast. Average. Greatest. Water required for domestic pur- poses 7 10 15 Washing streets, extinguishing fires, supplying fountains, &c. 3 3 3 Trade and manufactures ..77 7 17 20 25 27i Waste about . Total demand An enormous quantity is often used for manufacturing purposes, therefore in some towns this amount is greatly exceeded. For small villages 19 gallons per head daily is generally enough, fcr moderate-sized towns 25, and for manufacturing towns at least 30. In some places there exist springs at such a height and of such copiousness that by simply laying on the pipes the water will by gravita- tion alone be supplied to the top story of every house. This convenient state of things is found in many of the villages and small towns of hilly districts ; but in the great majority of towns a storage reservoir, and very frequently pumping-engines and other expen- sive machinery, are required. Mr. Bailey Denton recommends in rural districts under- ground tanks made of concrete. "The com- monest lime properly slaked and mixed in •WAT (645) WAT due proportion with clean gravel and sand, or with burnt clay ballast, or even sifted chalk itself, if faced with Portland cement, ■will make admirable tanks. Selenitic cement will probably be found on trial to be equally applicable as a water-tight facing, using per- haps twice as much more than Portland cement, which can be done without increase of cost, for it is to be bought at half the price. ... In some parts of the chalk dis- tricts underground tanks have been made by burrowing into the earth and making a chamber or cavern (with an opening at the top for the removal of the soil), which being lined inside with a thin covering of cement, is made perfectly water-tight. Thus the most capacious tanks may be provided for comparatively a few pounds, and districts may be supplied with water which are now destitute of it. This mode of constructing tanks might also be adopted in other geologi- cal formations besides the chalk, when the water-level is low in the earth, with a con- siderable depth of drained subsoil above it, within which to make the cavern tank. I nee^ hardly say that such h receptacle for water can only be adopted where the soil is naturally drained, and where there is no pressure of external subsoil-water. No dwell- ing or set of buildings, of which the roofs are slate or tile, should be without its tank, unless the occupants are otherwise abundantly supplied."— (The Storage of Water, by J. Bailet Denton, C.E., &c.) The same author shows that by careful storage and collection of the rain-water, an ordinary middle-class house, and a cottage in a village, would command respectively 20,280 gallons and 7070 gallons yearly ; that in vil- lages, by supplementing the individual supply with a common tank holding a month's supply, " water may be delivered in the village staeet from these reservoirs at from 20s. to 25s. per person, including purchase of land for the reser- voir, iron pipes, stand pipes, and taps. Assum- ing that the money required be borrowed, and paid off in thirty years by instalments not exceeding in amount 5 per cent, on the outlay, the result would be a charge of Is. to Is. 3d. per person per annum." — {Op. dt.) It would also appear certain that immense subten'anean reservoirs of water exist in the new red sandstone, the chalk, the upper and lower greensand, and other porous geological strata, which only require deep artesian bor- ings to reach them. Of aU the natural waters, those from deep subterranean sources are the purest ; they are well aerated, perfectly free from human con- tamination, and destitute of life. Sut in recommending the sinking of an artesian well, which is a work of considerable magnitude and cost, the ground must be very carefully studied, and the geology of the dis- trict accurately known. As one of the most remarkable artesian wells in existence, and an instance of the practical application of geological knowledge, the Grenelle artesian well may be cited. The boring of this well, its initiation and comple- tion, is entirely due to[M. Mulct ; it took eight years in sinking, but the ultimate success exceeded all expectations. The water im- mediately rose, then as it does to this day, 122 feet above the surface of the ground ; it has a temperature above 81" F. , and its flow is computed to be about 800,000 gallons daily. The depth of the well is no less than 1802 feet. The great success of this undertaking has stimulated in a marked manner artesian ber- ings, and most of those in our own country and the Continent have been successful ; * the most unfortunate one perhaps being the Southampton well, where, after an expendi- ture of £13,000, and reaching a depth of 1317 feet, the work was abandoned. There are two systems of supply— viz., (1) the constant service, in which all the distri- buting pipes are kept charged with water at all times ; (2) the intermittent service. The advantages of the former are great. The pipes being always full, are not liable to rust, and the necessity for cisterns is obviated. With an intermittent supply, on the water * As an example of the benefit of an artesian well in some cases, the following may be cited: "At Bulphan Fen, near Aveley, Essex, is a large tract of grass-land, situated at a low level and liable to be much flooded in the winter season. Its value was formerly little, as in the summer-time it was desti- tute of good water, being wholly dependentTipon the pools and ditches which retained the remains of the winter's rain and floods. This rendered it unfit for stoc]£, as in addition to the small quantity of water remaining, even that was rendered bad by the heat of the weather. The landowners in the neighbour- hood were induced to bore, and being successful in finding springs, the water from which ovei-flowed the surface of the ground, their example was followed by the proprietor of the artesian well under con- sideration, who together with his father suffered much inconvenience from the scarcity of water upon 300 acres of low grass-land at Aveley. A spot was fixed upon at the edge of the uplands, and about the level of high-water mark of the Thames. The work was commenced .^uring the month of August 1835. After carrying the boring successively through allu- vial soil, soft bo^gy ground, and sand into the chaiic, at a depth of 36 feet the anger and rods suddenly dropped 7 feet into a cavity of very soft, almost liquid chalk, from which the water rose to within 1 foot of the surface of the marsh. The water was conducted by a 2-inch pipe inserted 8 inches under the water-level into ditches traversing the land. The water ran white for some days, but ultimately perfectly clear, and continues to run night and day. The temperature is 51° F. winter and summer, and the quantity delivered in twenty-four hours about 30 000 gallons ; it supplies two miles of ditches 10 feet wide, from which it runs into the sea," — (BUR- KELL's Weil-Sinking, London, 18T5.) WAT (646) "WAT being turned off, a powerful suction action takes place at certain portions of the service through private and other taps being opened and drawing off the water. This suction action is liable to draw sewergases, dust, and other im- purities into the pipes; besides this, there is an- other objection — viz., the necessityf or cisterns, which freq;aently get contaminated and dirty. The water is conveyed to the streets and houses in towns by distributing pipes. The capacity of these pipes must be adapted to the gi-eatest hourly demand for water, and to the requisite head in the streets, which head of pressure * ought to be, when the flow is most rapid, equivalent to an elevation of about 20 feet above the adjoining houses in order to supply the upper stories, or to be able in case of necessity to throw a jet to the top of the highest building without the necessity for a fire-engine.' The total length of the distribut- ing pipes required is stated to be about a mile for every 2000 or 3000 inhabitants. The pipes laid along a street are divided into mains and service pipes — the mains being, as the name implies, the chief channels; the ser- vice, branches to supply a single or double row of buildings. It is of some importance in large towns to have two service pipes, one for each side of the street, so that in case of repairs being required, the traffic would not be inter- rupted. The mains and service are now gene- rally of iron, the house pipes of lead. The author has found that water conveyed from a reservoir in closed iron pipes greatly im- proves in its transit ; for example — Ammonia. JUbnmlnoid ParlB psr Ammonia. Milligramme. ,,^,'|F" ■"" The Ilfracombe reservoir water after passing through the flltera . 0-060 0-14 The same water in the service pipes . . 0-030 0-09 The Barnstaple reservoir water after passing through the filters . O-06O O'OO A. A pipe half a mile from reservoir . . 0-040 0-08 B. Half a mile from ^ . 0035 0'U75 (7. Half a mile from B .0-010 06 Whether this progressive diminution of the organic matter takes place also in other pipes besides iron, and whether it is dUe to oxide of iron or to the air in solution, is as yet unknown. The legal pro-visions relating to water-supply are as follows : — All existing public cisterns, pumps, wells, reservoirs, conduits, aqueducts, and works used for the gratuitous supply of water to the inhabitants of the district of any local autho- rity shall vest in and be under the control of such authority, and such authority may cause * The " head of pressure " is the intensity of the pressure in feet of water. the same to he maintained and plentifully supplied with pure and wholesome water, or may substitute, maintain, and plentifully supply with pure and wholesome water other such works equally convenient ; or they may (subject to the provisions of the Act) construct any other such works for supplying water for the gratuitous use of any inhabitants who choose to carry the same away, not for sale, but for their own private use. — (P. H., s. 64.) Any y.rhcm authority may provide their dis- trict or any part thereof, and any rural autho- rity may provide their district or any contribu- tory place therein, or any part of any such con- tributory place, with a supply of water proper and sufficient for public and private purposes, and for those purposes or any of them may — 1. Construct and maintain waterworks, dig wells, and do any other necessary acts. 2. Take on lease or. hire any waterworks, and purchase any waterworks, or any water or right to take or convey water, either within or without their district, and any rights, powers, and privileges of any water company. 3. Contract with any person for a supply of water.— (P. H., s. 51.) Before commencing to construct waterworks within the limits of supply of any water com- pany empowered by Act of Parliament or any order confirmed by Parliament to supply water, the local authority shall give written notice to every water company within whose limits of supply the local authority are desir- ous of supplying water, stating the purposes for which and (as far as may be practicable) the extent to which water is required by the local authority. It shaU not be la-wful for the local authority to construct any waterworks within such limits, if, and so long as, any such company are able and willing to supply water proper and sufficient for all reasonable purposes for which it is required by the said authority ; and any difference as to whether the water which any such company is able and willing to lay on is proper and sufficient for the purposes for which it is required, or whether the puriwses for which it is required are reasonable, or (if and so far as the charges are not regulated by Parliament) as to the terms of supply, are to be settled by arbitration. — (P. H., s. 52.) See Abbitkation. Where a local authority supply water within their district, they shall have the same powers and be subject to the same restrictions for cari-ying water mains within or without their district as they have for carrying sewers within or without their district respectively by the law for the time being in force.— (P. H., s. 54.) A local authority shall provide and keep in any waterworks constructed or purchased by WAT (647) WAT them a supply of pure and wholesome water ; and where a local authority lay any pipes for the supply of any of the inhabitants of their district, the water may he constantly laid on at saoh pressure as will carry the same to the top story of the highest dwelling-house within the district or part of the district supplied. — (P. H., s. 65.) A local authority supplying water to any premises may charge in respect of such supply a water-rate to be assessed on the net annual value of the premises, ascertained in the manner prescribed by the Public Health Act with respect to general rates. They may, moreover, enter into agreements for supplying water on such terms as may be agreed on between them and the persons receiving the supply, and shall have the same powers for recovering water-rents or other payments a6- cruing under such agreements as they have for recovering water-rates. — (P. H., s. 56.) For the purpose of enabling any local authority to supply water the Waterworks Clauses Act, 1863, is incorporated with the Public Health Act, and the following provisions of the Waterworks Clauses Act, 1847 (namely). With respect (where the local authority have not the control of the streets) to ' the breaking up of streets for the purpsse of laying pipes ; and With respect to the communication pipes to be laid by the undertakers ; and With respect to the communication pipes to be laid by the inhabitants ; and With respect to waste or misuse of the water supplied by the undertakers ; and With respect to the provision for guarding against fouling the water of the under- takers ; and With respect to the payment and recovery of the water-rates. Provided — That the provisions with respect to the communication pipes to be laid by the undertakers and the inhabitants respec- tively, shall apply only in districts or parts of districts where the local authority lay any pipes for the supply of any of the inhabitants thereof ; and That any dispute authorised or directed by any of the said incorporated provisions to be settled by an inspector or two justices shall be settled by a court of summary jurisdiction ; and That section forty-four of the Waterworks Clauses Act, 1847, shall for the purposes of the Public Health Act have effect as if the words " with the consent in writing of the owner or reputed owner of any such house, or of the agent of such owner," were omitted therefrom; and any rent for pipes and works paid by an occupier under that section may be deducted by him from any rent from time to time due from him to such owner, -(P. H., s. 57.) A local authority may agree with any person to supply water by measure, and as to the payment to be made in the form of rent or otherwise for every meter provided by them; they shall at all times at their own expense keep all meters and other instru- ments for measuring water let by them for hire to any person in proper order for correctly registering the supply of water, and in default of their so doing, such person shall not be liable to pay rent during such tilne as such default continues. The local authority shall for the purpose aforesaid have access to, and be at liberty to remove, test, inspect, and replace any such meter or other instrument. -(P.H., s. 58.) Where water is supplied by measure by any local authority, the register of the meter or other instrument for measuring water shall be primd facie evidence of the quantity of water consumed ; and if the local authority and tho consumer differ with respect to the quantity consumed, the difference shall be determined on the application of either party, by a court of summary jurisdiction, and such court may order by which of the parties the costs of the proceed- ings before them shall be paid, and its decision shall be final and binding. — (P. H., s. 59.) If any person wilfully or by culpable negli- gence injures or suffers to be injured any meter or fittings belonging to a local authority, or fraudulently alters the index to any meter, or prevents any meter from duly registering the quantity of water supplied, or fraudulently abstracts or uses water of the local authority, he shall (without prejudice to any other right or remedy of the local authority) be liable to a penalty not exceeding forty shillings, and the local authority may in addition thereto recover the amount of any damage sustained. The existence of artificial means, under the control of the consumer, for causing any such alteration, prevention, abstraction, or use shall be evidence that the consumer has frau- dulently effected the same. — (P. H., s. 60.) Any local authority for the time being sup- plying water within their own district may, with the sanction of the Local Government. Board, supply water to the local authority of any adjoining district on such terms as may be agreed on between such authorities, or as, in case of dispute, may be settled by arbitra- tion.— (P. H., B. 61.) See Akbithation. Where on the report of the surveyor of a local authority it appears to such authority that any house within their district is without WAT (648) WEI a proper supply of water, and that such a supply of water can be furnished thereto at a cost not exceeding the water-rate authorised by any local Act in force within the district, or where there is not a.ny local Act so in force, or at such other cost as the Local Goremment Board may, on the application of the local authority, determine under all the circum- stances of the case to be reasonable, the local authority shall giro notice in writing to the owner, requiring him, within a time therein specified, to obtain such supply, and to do all such works as may be necessary for that pur- pose. If such notice is not complied with within the time specified, the local authority may, if they think fit, do such works and obtain such supply, and for that purpose may enter into any contract with any water company supply- ing water within their district, and water- rates may be made and levied on the premises by the authority or company which furnishes tlie supply, and may be recovered as if the owner or occupier of the premises had de- manded a supply of water and were willing to pay water-rates for the same, and the ex- penses incurred by the local authority in doing such works may be recovered in a summary manner from the owner of the premises, or may by order of the local authority be de- clared to be private improvement expenses. — (P. H., s. 62.) Any water company may contract to supply water or may lease their waterworks to any local authority; and the directors of any water company, in pursuance, in the case of a company registered under the Companies Act, 1862, of a special resolution of the members passed in manner provided by that Act, and in case of any other company of a resolution passed by three-fourths in number and value of the members present, either personally or by proxy, specially convened, with notice of the business to be transacted, may sell and transfer to any local authority, on such terms as may be agreed on between the company and the local authority, all the rights, powers, and privileges, and all or any of the water- works and other property of the company ; but subject to all liabilities to which the same are subject at the time of such purchase. — (P. H., s. 63.) For the section of the Public Health Act relative to the alteration of water or gas pipes, see article Gas, p. 250. Districts may be united by a provisional order of the Local Government Board for the purpose of procuring a common supply of water.— (P. H., s. 279.) -See Fiees ; Gas ; ElVEBS, P0LLDTI0N,0P ; SEWAGE; WaIEE, Supply oj ; Wells, &c. Watering of Streets— 5ee Steeets, &o. VTeights and Measures — The General Medical Council of Great Britain resolved (1863) that " the weights used in the British Pharmacopoeia shall be the imperial or avoir- dupois pound, ounce, and grain ; and that the terms ' drachm ' and ' scruple,' as designating specific weights, shall be discontinued ; " and the same system is adapted in the edition of 1867. Weiguts (Ph. B., 1867). Avoirdupois Weight. Pound. Ounces. Drtichuis. 1 = 16 = 266 = 1 = 16 = 1 = The weight of ^r^-^ cubic inch of pure water Troy Graiua. 7000 4.H7-5 27-34375 = 1 Measures of Capacity (Ph. B., 1867). = 8 pints. = 20 fluid ounces, = 8 fluid drachms. = 60 minims. 0-91 grains of water. The gallon holds 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at a temperature of 60° P. Measwes of Length. seconds pendulum. 1 gallon .... 1 pint .... 1 fluid ounce . 1 fluid drachm . 1 minim is the measure of 1 line 1 inch . 12 inches . . = 1 foot. 36 inches . . . = 3 feet = 1 yard. Inches, Length of pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time la the latitude of London, in a vacuum at the level of the sea . 391393 Belation of Measures to Weights, Grains of Water. 1 minim is the measure of . O'^l 1 fluid drachm is the measure of 54-6S 1 fluid ounce ,, ,, 1 oz. or 437 5 1 pint ,, „ 1-25 lbs, or fi.750-0 1 gallon „ „ 10 lbs, or 70,000-0 Metrical System of Weights and Measures. 1 gramme 1 decigramme 1 centigramme 1 milligramme 1 decagramme 1 hectogramme 1 kilogramme = the weight of a cubic centimetre of water, or . . = the tenth part of 1 gramme, or . = the hundredth part of 1 gramme, or . := the thousandth part of 1 gramme, or = 10 grammes, or . = 100 grammes, or = 1000 grammes, or 1-0 0-01 0-001 10-0 100-11 1000 Measures of Capacity. 1 myrialitre = 10 cubic metres, or the measure of 10 milliers of water. 1 kilolitre = 1 cubic metre, or the measure of 1 miUier of water, 1 hectolitre = 100 cubic decimetres, or the mea- sure of 1 quintal of water, 1 decalitre = 10 cubic decimeters, or the measure of 1 myriagramme of water, 1 litre ^ 1 cubic decimetre, or the measure of 1 kilogramme of water. WEL (649) WHO' 1 decilitre = 100 cubic centimetres, or tlie measure of 1 hectogramme of water. 1 centilitre = 10 cubic centimetres, or the measure of 1 decagramme of water. 1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre, or the measure of 1 gramme of water. Measure ofLtnglh, Jtetrpfl. 1 myriaraetre = ID, 1 llcilometre = 1,000 1 hectometre = 101) 1 decametre = 10 1 metre = the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the meridian of the earth. 1 decimetre = the tenth part of 1 metre, or . . O'l 1 centimetre =: the hundredth part of 1 metre, or . O'Ol 1 millimetre = the thousandth part of 1 metre, or 0001 RelaHon of Measures of Capacity of British Phar- macopaeia to Metrical Measures. Litres. Cubic Centimetres. 1 gallon — 4-54848T 1 pint = 0-667936 or 567-936 1 fluid ounce — 0028396 „ 28S9ii 1 fluid drachm — 0003649 „ 3-549 1 minim — 0-000059 „ 0-069 Relation ofMetricai Weights to Weights of British JPhai-macopceia. Gmins. 1 milligramme . . . =. 0-015432 1 centigramme ... — 0-16432 1 decigramme . . . « 1-5432 1 gnimme . . . . = 15-432 1 kilogramme = 2 lbs. 3 oz. 119-8 or 16482-348 Setation of Metrical Measures to Measures of British Pharmacopoeia. Inches. ,, 1 millimetre . . = 0-03937 1 centimetre , . = 0-39371 1 decimetre . . = 3-93708 1 metre . . . _ 39-37079 or 1 yard 3-7 in. Grain Measures. 1 cubic centimetre . . . . = 16-432 1 litre — 1 pint 15 oz. 2 drs. 11 m., or 15432343 To reduu Grammes to Grains. Log, grammes + 1-188432 = log. gi-ains. To reduce Cubic Centimetres to Cubic Inches. Log. cubic centimetres + (—2-7865007) = log. cubic inches. To reduce Millimetres to Inches. Log.^millimetres + (—2-6961663) => log. inches. To convert Grains into Grammes. Log. grains + (—2-8115680) = log. grammes. To convert Cubic Inches into Cubic Centimetres. Log. cubic inches + 1-2144993 == lo^. cubic centimetres. To convert Inches into Millimetres. Log. inches + 1-4048337 — log. millimetres. Wells— See Watee ; "Water, Pbotection OF ; "Wateb-Supplt. Wheat— /See Flouk. Wlielks — These shellBsh, resembling in appearance large periwinkles, are eaten in great quantities by the poorer inhabitants of our larger towns. They are extremely indiges- tible, and occasion with many people intense discomfort. Were they capable of being easily assimilated, they would prove a valu- able food, as they are certainly nutritious. Whey — The liquid portion of milk after the curd has been separated. It holds a little caseine in solution, as well as the sugar and saline matter of the milk. It is seldom em- ployed in this country as a food, but is usually given to the pigs. Its nutritive value is very small. The Swiss credit it with possessing medicinal qualities, and believe it to be particularly valuable for the cure of chronic disorders of the abdominal organs. It is prepared by the addition of various agents to milk, such as rennet, white wine, cream of tartar, tamarinds, alum, &c. See Milk. WTiisky — The term " whisky " is said to be a corruption of the Celtic word usquebaugh, "water of life." It constitutes one of the corn spirits, and is usually made from malted grain. Inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared from barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only of which is malted, or from potatoes mashed with a portion of barley malt, the resulting wash being carelessly fermented and distilled, and purposely suf- fered to burn to impart the peculiar empyreu- matic or smoky flavour so much relished by the lower orders of whisky-drinkers. 1 The following figures will give an idea of the percentage of alcohol, &c., found in whisky : — Specific gravity from -915 to -920. Pel- cent. Alcohol from . . . . 60 to 60 Total extract, about ... 06 Ash per cent trace Acidity per ounce as tartaric acid 0*2 Sugar ... . . 00 ' The adulterations are very similar to those of gin. See Bkandt, Gin, &c. White Hellebore— 5ee Hellebore. Wlbiting — The Gadus melangus (Linn.), a member of the Cod family of fishes. This fish is delicate, tender, and easy of digestion, but possesses little flavour. The following shows its composition : — 18-1 2-9 1 Nitrogenous matter . Fat . Saline matter . Water 7«0 100-0 Whooping-Cough (syn. Booping-Cough, Pertussis) — An infectious disease, mainly of childhood, the most prominent symptom of which is a peculiar convulsive cough, suc- ceeded by a loud, sonorous, characteristic inspiration commonly called the "kink" or "whoop." WHO ( 650 ) ■WIN- Hisim'y. — It is a remarkable fact tliat there is no evidence of a trustworthy character of the existence of whooping-cough earlier than the commencement of the sixteenth century ; if it existed previous to that date, one can hardly imagine how such a very distinct and well-marked complaint could possibly have escaped description : it therefore appears likely that in this instance we have to do with a modern— a new disease. Symptoms and Propagation of the Disease. — After a child or person, susceptible of the disease, has been exposed to the infection of whooping-cough, there is a period of incuba- tion of unknown duration ; ' it is probably from five to six days, but there is an almost insuperable obstacle to any great accuracy on this point, on account of the difficulty of diagnosing the disease in its earliest stage. Its first visible onset is almost invariably marked by slight fever and catarrh, to all appearance differing in no single respect from a common cold. The catarrhal symptoms having lasted a variable time, ihe peculiar cough sets in, and the patient may in the intervals of the paroxysms be in the enjoy- ment of very fair health. The fits of coughing occur at variable intervals, and are generally very distressing to witness. The following is a brief outline of what may be noticed in a moderately severe paroxysm. The sufferer suddenly grasps at something with the violent energy of a person about to be suffocated by drowning, the countenance has a pecu- liar, anxious expression, and a series of rapid expirations succeed each other until the chest is. entirely emptied of air, and the first symptoms of asphyxia commence, as seen by the swollen purple face and the turgid veins ; at last, after some viscid mucus has been expectorated, the spasm relaxes and the breath is drawn shrilly in, causing the peculiar noise caUed the "whoop." These frequent paroxysms not unfreqnently indued convulsions from the intense cerebral conges- tion, and they almost invariably damage — at all events, forthe time — the respiratory appara- tus; indeed, the fatality of whooping-cough is mainly due to complications, such as bron- chitis, pneumonia, &c. Propagation of the Disease.— There is really nothing known as to what the physical nature is of the animal poison producing whooping- cough ; that it is infectious, and capable of striking or infecting susceptible children or persons a considerable way off, is certain. Thus the present writer recently investigated an epidemic of whoopihg-oough in a work- house, and found that at a time when it was not in the neighbourhood, a woman tramping the country came into the "house" with a child, the latter suffering from whooping- cough. Both mother and child were separated for a long time from the rest, until one day some charitable person gave a treat to the inmates, and this child and mother partook of tea at the common table in an open field, the child being on the lap of its mother. In about a week, seven children who were seated at the same table, but not in contact with the child or mother, all simultaneously or nearly so became affected with whooping-cough. It is from seeing such cases as the one just related, that writers on the subject appear to favour the idea that the specific poison is of a volatile nature — a kind of vapour. But if this view were entirely coreot, the poison would hardly be conveyed and retained so long by "fomites," for there are instances on record where it would appear tolerably certain that the disease has been conveyed by persons in their clothes, walking some considerable distance from one place to the other. Looking at the whole of the evidence, the most probable supposition is that the specific poison of whooping-cough consists of material particles of extreme lightness and tenuity, capable of being expelled by the cough for some distance as well as floating in the atmosphere. Pathology and Morbid Anatomy. — The morbid anatomy of the disease has hitherto done little to clear up its mystery, for children, as before said, die mainly from complications. It is therefore difficult to separate those changes induced by the poison itself from those which may be caused by, one may almost say, its mechanical effects. It is, however, probable that the morbific germ mainly determines to the vagus nerve, which is not unfreqnently found either red, or dense in texture, or otherwise morbidly altered. The chief and most constant lesion, however, observed after death is collapse of the lung. Mortality.— The mortality from whooping- cough in most years is between 500 and 600 in every million living persons. The mean number for the fifteen years, 1854-71, was 631 per million, the maximum and minimum being respectively 751 and 416. Ninety-five per cent, of the total deaths from whooping- cough occur in children under five years of age. Prevention of Whooping-Cough. — There are no known means to prevent the propagation of whooping-cough save strict isolation. The infection is of a most intense character, and unless the isolation is practically perfect, it is liable to spread. Disinfectants of any kind are not known to be of practical value. Wind— 5ce Anemometee, Climate, &o. WIKT (651) WIN Wine— TVine has been very accurately de- fined by Dr. Dupr^ to be "the fermented juice of the grape, with such additions only as are essential to the stability or keeping quality of the wine." This definition admits as unadulterated those wines which require the addition of spirit in order to preserve them^as, for instance, those of Spain and Portugal — whilst it excludes, if similarly forti- fied, the wines of Spain, Portugal, and other southern countries which require no such addition. The principal constituents of wine may bo gathered from the table on p. 652, which was drawn up by Dr. Hassall. — (Food and Air, May 1874.) Besides the constituents enumerated in the table, wine contains glycerine, formic, suc- cinic, malic, and other acids, oenanthio ether, colouring matters, and other principles. Natural wines contain from 6 to 12 per cent, of absolute ethylio alcohol by weight (7 "5 to 14'6 by volume). In fortified wines the alcohol varies from 12 to 22 per cent. In all wines traces of other alcohols exist. The adulterations of wine are verynumerous. Ports are fortified with brandy, coloured with jerupiga, elder-berry, and other matters, plastered with gypsum, and mixed with in- ferior wines. Salt of tartar is also often added to give it an appearance of age, alum to in- crease the brilliancy of its colour, and occa- sionally lead is found, which has been probably added to clear it. Sherries are plastered and fortified to a very great extent. Clarets, Madeira, Champagnes, are all sub- ject to very similar adulterations. Analysis of Wine, — The analysis of wine, in order to detect adulterations, or to form an opinion as to its ' quality, should never be imdertaken by any one unless he is thoroughly versed in the jiractical operations of chemistry. A complete analysis of wine embraces the following: — 1. Determination of alcohol. 2. Percentage of solid residue. 3. Estimation of succinic acid and glycerine. 4. Estimation of volatile and fixed acids. 5. Estimation of ethers. 6. Estimation of sugar. 7. Estimation of albuminous matters and ammonia. 8. Estimation of tannin. 9. Estimation and analysis of ash. 1. Determination of Alcohol in Wine. — The percentage of alcohol may be determined by the processes described in article Alooholo- METRY, or by Tabarie's method. The method of Tabarie is an indirect one, and is much used in those laboratories in which a large number of wines are examined, for it possesses the advantages of expedition, and is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. The specific gravity of the wine having been determined, 100 cubic centimetres are taken ^ and the alcohol driven off by evaporation in an open porcelain dish ; distilled water is then added until the original bulk is obtained ; or if still greater accuracy be desired. Balling's modification of the process may be employed, which consists in weighing a certain quantity of wine, driving off the alcohol by evapor.ation, and then bringing the product up to the original weight by distilled water. In either case the percentage of alcohol may be found by the following formula: — D' : Z> = 1000 : X D' is the specific gravity of the dealcohol- ised Uquid ; J) the specific gravity of the wine itself ; and X will be the specific gravity from which, on reference to the tables in arfiole Alooholometky, the percentage of alcohol may be found. With wines containing but little sugar or extractive, the following simpler and easier formula is sufficiently accurate : — D + 1000 - D' = X. The letters in each have the same signifi- cance. 2. Solid Residue. — The solid residue or amount of total solid constituents in wine may be estimated by two methods, the first of which is evaporating 10 or 20 cubic centimetres in a porcelain or platinum dish to dryness, a pro- cess at once tedious, uncertain, and inaccurate, as it has been proved conclusively that decom- IJosition of the organic solids to some extent invariably takes place. The second method, which Duprfi and Thu- dichum and most other chemists prefer, is simply to take the specific gravity of the de- alcoholised wine, and to use the tables given under SoGAE, Estimation OS ; for Balling has shown that the specific gravity of solutions of malt extract is the same as that of solutions of cane-sugar, and if true for malt extract, it may be assumed true also for wine extract. In wines, however, containing much ash, as the mineral constituents of the ash seriously affect specific gravity, for in a given specific gravity they contain about twice as much substance in solution as a sugar solution of the same gravity, it is necessary to subtract from the percentage of extract thus estimated the percentage of ash found in the same wine ; or if the amount of extract without the ash is required, twice the percentage of ash has to be subtracted from the percentage found. Dupr^ and Thudichum give the following examples (p. 633) :— ' WIN (652) WIIT -JBSng-anBO 1-267 0-869 •ppv oianqSmg . :Tt< :cooocciM 1; ill loqoa[v Jo -E^nso jdd ui pgS53.idxa sj9lig;j Ini panoj loiiooiT 1 cot-t-t- 00 cot* ^ 00 : : : : : : .wp . . :csco : : OS CO 1 •0232 •0230 •0272 •0214 •0389 ■0379 |:::l = = : (MOS s.raqqa ni loliooiv So -p -P - -po - - OS -*CO -qsv JO l|.iBa Siquiog nt pray oijoqdsotia: pppo -p -oo CO T-t : p § :2^ : : .pp • ■ - -piov OlJOqdsoqj % *< CD b- in ■* CO m -^ *"r: iH -g* io CO rfi iHpiHOpOp >-< r-i iHb--OOTH01b-i-KMCOb-i-IOS (M 1-10 OSOOOW5 03 OS CO t^ b- iH b* cq CO CO CO M fo N S lOMNCOip -loqooiv rH 00 OS f-l CO CO . doth prevent the said A. B. from [here describe the worles gene- rally, according to circumstances, for instance, thus : constructing and laying down, in connection with the said bouse, a covered drain, so as to communi- cate with a sewer, which the local authority under WOR ( 657 ) TEA the said Act of the district of are entitled to use, such sewer being within one hundred feet of the said premises] : And whereas the said C. D. having been duly summoned to answer the said complaint, and not having shown sufficient cause against the same, and it appearing to me that the said works are necessary for the purpose of en- abling the said A. B. to obey and carry into effect the provisions of the said Act, I do hereby order that the said C. D, do Dpermit the said A, B. to execute the same in the manner required by the said Act. G-iven under my hand and seal, this day of 18 . J. S. (l. s. See Nuisances, Seweh, &c. "Worms— 5ee Bothriocephalus, Para- sites, TAENIA, &c. Y. Yam— This plant forma a large esculent tuber derived from several species of the genus Dioscorea, a group of climbing plants belonging to tropical blimates. It is eaten by the inhabi- tants of Nevr Zealand as well as by those of the East and West Indies and the South Sea Islands, and. holds as important an alimen- tary position in tropical countries as the common potato does in Europe. Parkes gives the following as being its composition : — Com-positim of Yam (Dioscorea sativa). ' Water .... . 74-0 Albuminates 20 Stai'cli . 16 Sugar . . 0-2 Pectine 2-3 Cellulose . 2-2 Tat . . . 0-5 Salts 1-3 TTeastsr-The popular definition of yeast is, that it is the froth or the deposit, according to the character of the fermentation, of fer- menting worts. It is, however, very well known that yeast is in reality a plant, the microscope showing that it consists of a number of vegetable cells, and experiment having proved that under particular condi- tions it develops into a mould or fungus "with aerial fructification. The commercial varie- ties of yeast are principally brewer's yeast, German yeast, and patent yeast. The first is obtained from breweries ; the second consists of spornles only, with little adherent mois- ture, and is imported in bags; whilst the third is made artificially by preparing an infusion of malt and hops, and -then adding a little yeast to the liquid. Yeast may, how- ever, be prepared artificially without the aid of a ferment. For example, Mr Fownes gives the following receipt : Wheat - flour mixed with water into' a thick paste, is to be slightly covered and set aside in a moder- ately warm place. An agreeable vinous odour about ths' seventh day replaces its previous disagreeable sourness, and it is then suitable for use as a ferment. If not required at once, it may be made into thin cakes and dried. Yeast, however produced, and under what- ever name, appears to be the produce of the same fungus. This has received the name of Torula ceremske; but the researches of various mycologists would rather appear to show that "it matters little whether we take yeast, achorion, or penicillium spores, the resultant is the same, and depends much more on the food or nourishment supplied ; whether the pabulum contains more or leas of a saccharine, albuminous, or nitrogenous material, lactic acid, &c., together with light and temperature ; whether we have a mould (green or blue), an achorion, or yeast fungus produced." — (Jabez Hogg.) The yeast plant is chiefly made up of oval cells, about ^^5 of an inch in diameter, filled with granular or nucleated matter. There would appear to be two modifications of yeast — viz., oberhefe (surface yeast), and unterhefe (sediment yeast). The unterhefe is the ferment of the Bavarian beer, and is pro- duced at a low temperature — viz., one not above 45° F. The unterhefe is propagated mainly by spores thrown out from the larger cells. Surface yeast, on the other hand, is propagated by buds or offshoots, and requires for its rapid development a temperature of between 70° and 80° F. The development of surface yeast may be watched under the microscope. On adding the cells to wort, the nucleus increases and nearly fills the parent cell, which becomes ovoid, and ultimately the young cell buds and becomes separated from its parent or con- tinues attached to it ; in about three hours, groups of bodies, by this process, are de- veloped, and as time goes on, if the plant continues under favourable conditions, jointed filaments are produced. These favourable conditions are a saccha- 2 T YEL (658) ZIN rine solution containing an azotised substance (which may be simply obtained through the death and decomposition of pre-existing cells), the maintenance of a suitable temperature, and the absence of any substance destroying the vitality of the cells. The strong mineral acids, the alkalies, metallic salts — such as nitrate of silver, corrosive sublimate, sulphate of copper, &c. — a strong solution of common salt, sul- phurous acid, and most disinfectants, affect the vitality of the yeast plant, and at once check ferinentation when commenced. A number of substances also prevent fermenta- tion taking place, such as black oxide of man- ganese, mercuric oxide, strychnia, quinine, creosote, turpentine, and many essential oils. The presence of 20 per cent, of alcohol or upwards also prevents fermentation, nor can a solution containing more than one-fourth of its weight of sugar be fermented. The changes which take place in u saccha- rine liquid are very interesting, the yeast plant' assimilates sugar, and grows at the expense of the nitrogenised matters in the liquid, chang- ing the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid. Ghemicai Gompositioti of Yeast. — Mitsoher- lioh gives the following analysis of yeast — (1) when in a, condition to excite fermentation ; (2) when partially exhausted : — 1. 2. Carbon . 47-0 47-6 Hydrogen 6-6 7-2 Nitrogen , 10 6-0 Sulphur . 0-6 Oxygen . 85-8 The ash of yeast is .entirely composed of phosphates of potash, soda, lime, and mag- nesia. Adulterations of Yeast. — Dr. Letheby found one sample of German yeast adulterated with 30 per cent, of pipeclay. Payen found in one case 35 per cent, of starch, and others have occasionally identified chalk. The starch is easily detected by the micro- scope and the iodine reaction, whilst any in- organic adulterations must be looked for in the ash, which should, as before said, consist en- tirely of phosphates. Vellow Arsenic (Orpiment) — See Ar- senic. Yellow Fever— &e Fever, Yellow. Yucca {Manihot vtiliasima) — The root of this plant is a good substitute for the potato, and is more digestible than the yam. z. Zea MayB—See Indian-Corn. Zinc (Zn =■ 65. Specific gravity, 6'8 to 7'1 ; fusing-point, 773° = 412° 0.)— Zinc is a metal which has been known from very ancient times. It is found as calamine (zincic car- bonate) in Silesia and in Belgium ; as blende (zincic sulphide) in the Mendip Hills, Somer- setshire ; and as red oidde of zinc in New Jersey. It would appear well established that neither in the distillation of zinc, in the manufacture of the oxide, nor in that of the salts of zinc is there the slightest injury to the workman ; nor has it been proved, although often asserted, that the fumes and dust from zinc-works have injured cattle grazing in the adjacent meadows, or have destroyed vegetation. MM. Petry and Labaye some years ago were requested by the Royal Academy of Medicine, Belgium, to undertake an inquiry into the maladie calaminavre, the alleged injury done to animals and vegetation by zinc fumes ; they carefully examined the carcases of forty beasts, analysed the water in the neighbourhood of the works, and studied the aspect of the vegetation, and came to the con- clusion that there was no ground for com- plaint on any one of these heads. Properties. — Zinc is a bluish- white metal, rather brittle at ordinary temperatures. At a very moderate heat , — between 30 J° and 312° F. (150° and 155-.5° C.)— it maybe lam- inated and wrought with ease ; but at a little higher temperature it again becomes brittle, at a still higher heat it fuses, and at a bright red heat it is volatilised, the fumes taking fire if exposed to air, and being instan- taneously converted into the oxide. Zinc, when exposed to a moist atmosphere, becomes covered with a thin coating of oxide perfectly insoluble in water. This film protects the metal from further change. All the mineral acids attack zinc, as also does »> ZIN (659) ZYM solution of potash. It precipitates most of the basylous metals less oxidisable than itself in the metallic state from their solutions. MM. Payen and Chevallier made several experiments on the action of brandy, wine, vinegar, olive oil, weak soup, strong soup, milk, &o., on zinc, the general result of their investigations being the fact that zinc is very little acted upon by olive oil, milk, or water, but that alcoholic, acetic, saline, and fatty liquids dissolve a notable quantity. M. Schanfele has repeated these experiments with similar results. 'For example, he deter- mined the amount of zinc dissolved in fifteen days by different liquids from out of a gal- vanised iron as well as a zinc vessel. The amounts found in grammes in a litre of the respective liquids were as follows : — The Liquid The Liquid from tlie from tlie Galvanised ZincVeBBel. Iron Vessel Brandy . 0-95 070 Wine 3 95 4-10 Orange-flower water 0-60 0-75 Vinegar . . 31-75 60-75 Patty soup 0-46 1-09 Wealc soup 0'86 1-76 Milk . 6-13 7-00 Salt water 1-75 0-40 Seltzer water . 0-35 0-80 Distilled water . traces traces Ordinary water none traces Olive oil . none none Fses.— Disregarding its great commercial utility, and looking upon it in a sanitary light only, it is very evident that zinc is a inetal wliich will in a great measure displace lead. Lead in cisterns, in pipes conveying water, in pigments, and in vessels used for the carry- ing of water, has been proved to be injurious, and often seriously injurious ; on the other hand, zinc, neither as a metal nor in the shape of oxide, has ever appeared to do any harm whatever, and is capable of replacing lead in all the above uses. It may indeed be stated that, as a carrier of common water, and of milk, zinc is absolutely safe; but acetous liquids, or those liable to become acetous, with others which have been mentioned, act so powerfully on zinc, that its use appears limited in the latter direction, and must not be recommended for vessels employed in the preparation of food. Salts of Zinc— The only salts of zinc of any importance are the chloride and the sulphate. The chloride is a most powerful disinfectant, and is the basis of Burnett's fluid ; it is especially adapted for the preservation of animal bodies, .ind is therefore much used in the dissecting-room. Several oases of poisoning by chloride of zinc are on record ; it is a powerful corrosive and irritant poison, destroying the membrane of the^ mouth, throat, gullet, and stomach. The symptoms begin at once, and the patient may die in a oonjile of hours from the im- mediate effects of the poison, or life may be prolonged for a variable time, and yet death may occur from the secondary effects. Re- covery has, however, taken place from large The stdphate of zi/nc has some disinfectant powers, but there are so many disinfectants superior to it that it is not likely .to be used extensively. It is an irritant poison, and ia large doses has destroyed life. Tests. — The salts of zinc in add solutions give no precipitate with sulphuretted hydro- gen, but in neutral solutions the white sul- phide is thrown down. Sulphide of ammonia gives a white precipitate of sulphide of zinc \ caustic potash and soda precipitate the white oxide ; carbonates of the alkali metals throw down a white zincic carbonate ; and ferrocyanide of potassium also causes a white precipitate. From organic liquids zinc may be detected by placing the liquid in a platinum crucible and inserting a strip bf magnesium; zinc is then deposited in the metallic state. Very minute quantities of zinc may be detected by treating a neutral solution with sulphuretted hydrogen, filtering, dissolving off the filter the supposed sulphide with hot nitric acid, and mixing it with a little nitrate of cobalt. It is now precipitated with car- bonate of soda, collected on a filter, dried, and incinerated in a platinum dish. If zinc is present, a green colour will be produced. This test will detect lin 100,000 parts.— (Bloxam.) Zymotic Diseases — The term ' 'zymotic," first proposed by Dr. Farr, is commonly used merely as a synonym for " preventible," com- prehending all the principal diseases which have prevailed as epidemics or endemics ; in fact, its signification is so loose that it would be advisable to confine the term "zymotic " to infectious or contagious non-parasitic diseases in which there is a multiplication, a zymosis, of the active principle in the body. If this definition be accepted, zymotic diseases would include such diseases as — Smallpox. Cowpox. Chicken-pox, Measles. » Scarlet fever. Dengue. The "strangles horses. Erysipelas. EczEBma epizootica (foot-and-mouth disease of cattle). Typhoid fever. Dysentery, Blndei'pest, of Cholera. Typhus. J Plague. Relapsing fever. Malignant pustule. Puerperal fever. Glanders. Farcy. Diphtheria. ^ Whooping-cough. Cerebro-spinal fever. Syphilis. Pneumonia ? Cancer! ZTX (660) ZYM When sufficient knowledge of these diseases has been acquired, it is probable that they will admit, like different species of plants and animals, of a more or less strict and philo- sophical classification ; even with ottr limited knowledge, several of them show alliances of a striking character. Thus typhus, relapsing fever, and plague are all extremely analogous. The true exanthemata — such as erysipelas, measles, scarlet fever, and dengue— are another natural group. The enanthematous diseases — typhoid, dysentery, and rinderpest — form a third ; whilst the exanthemata are connected with the enanthemata by the foot-and-mouth disease of sheep and oxen, the latter being both enanthematous and exanthematous, eruptions on the teats, body, muzzle, coin- ciding with eruptions in the mouth and intestines when the disease is seen in its most intense form. See Blindness; Choleea; BBYsrPELAS ; Fevek, Eelapsing, Typhoid, Typhus, &c. INDEX. Abattoir, 1. Ablation, 1. Absinthe, 1. Absinthine, 1. Acarus domesticus, 2. farinse, 2. aacchaii, 2. siro, 2. Accidents in mines, 393. Acclimatisation, 141. Accounts, 70. Acid, 3. absinic, 1. acetic, 4. aconitic, 14. aspartic, 69. benzoic, 4. caSeic, 4. * camphoric, 4. carbolic, 4. carbonic, 5, 28, 31. emanations from various industries, 603. fumes from alkali-works, 3. gallic, 13. hydrocyanic, 12. lactic, 11. meconic, 12. oxalic, 12. phenic, 4. prussio, 12. pyroligneous, 13. sulphurous, 13. Acids as disinfectants, 4. influence of on vegeta- tion, 3. Aconite, 14. root, distinction between it and horse-radish, 278. Aconitia, 14. Aconitic acid, 14. Aoouitine, 4B. Act, Adulteration, 15. Alkali, 45. Ai-tisans' and Labourers' Dwellings, 1875, 266. Bakehouse Eegulation, 15, 73, 84. Baths and 'Wash-houses, 15, 84. Coal Mines Eegulation, 390. CommonLodging-Houses, Act, Contagious Diseases, 160, 620. Diseases Prevention, 203. Factory, 215. Gas and "Water "Works Facilities, 249. Gaswork Clauses, 250. Improvement, 310. Infant Life Protection, 314. Labouring Classes' Lodg- ing-Honses, 15. Land Clauses Consolida- tion, 325. Local, 15. Local Authorities' Loan, 340. Local Government, 15. Markets and Fairs Clauses, 357. Merchant Shipping, 305, 332. Metalliferous Mines, 390. Mines Eegulation, 390. Nuisance Keraoval, 16. Petroleum, 436. Pharmacy, 437. Public Health, 16. Public Works Loan, 340. Sale of Food andDrugs,20. Sanitary, 18. Sewage Utilisation, 18. Towns Improvement, 18. Towns Police Clauses, 18. Vaccination, 619. "Waterworks Clauses, 647. Action against the local autho- rity, 330. Actresses, use of white-lead by, 167. Adipocere, 504. Adulteration, 18. Act, 15. Aerated bread, 102. Aerobies, 219. Agarious campestris, 396. Age of children in factories, 216. Ague, 25. Air, 2.5. analysis of, 30. disinfection of, 188. impure, effects of, 29. in water, estimation of, 642. Air meter, 55. of country, 29. of factories, 217. of marshes, 358. of mines, 29. of towns, 29. weight of, 81. Albumen, 34. Albuminose, 34. Albuminuria from bathing, 83. Alcohol, 34. absolute, 35. in disease, 37. Alcoholic amblyopia, 37. beverages, 42. paraplegia, 37. Alcoholism, 36. Alcoholometry, 39. Aldehyde, 44. Ale, 86. Algse, 44. AlkaU Act, 44. Alkalimetry, 45. Alkaloids, 47. solubility of, 49. Allen's process for estimation of tannin, 582. Allspice, pimento, 49. Almonds, 50. Altitude, influence of, 142. Alum, 51. estimation and detection of, 105. Aluminum, 51. Amabele, 51. Aiuasi, 51. Amblyopia, alcoholic, 37. Ambulance, 51. American tent, 285. volante, 51. Ammonia, 52. from the alkaloids, 49. in air, 34. process of water-analysis, 64L tests for, 400. Amygdaline, 50. AmyUc alcohol, 247. An^ysis, 53. Analysts' Society definitions, 18. Anchovies, 53. Anemometer, 54. Anerobies, 219. Aneroid barometer, 75. 662 INDEX. Aniline, 56, 401. Animal diastase, 178. dust, 598. substances, digestibility of, 185. Animals, bylaws relative to, 115. m-kept, 404. Anisette, 338. Annatto, 56. ^ Annual mortality, 561. report of local authority, 109. Annuity certificates under Local Authorities' Loan Act, 340. Anthraoosis, 598. Anthrax, 364. Antidote, 58. Antidotes for acids, 4. Antimony in absinthe, 1. Antiseptics, 58, 187. Antozone, 422. Apoplexy, 379. Appeals, 58. against order, 58, ■ — — against rate, 58. in respect of expenses, 59. respecting validity of vote, 59. Apples, 59. Appointment of medical offi- cer of health, 369. of officers, 410. Apricot, 59. Aqueous vapour, elastic force of, 308. Arbitration, 59. Arbitrators, 60. Areometer, 60. Argal, 583. Armenian bole, 96. Arnott's ventilator, 622. Arrack, 61. Arsenic, 61. detection of, 65. in fly-poison, 239. Arsenite of copper, 103. Arsenites, 67. regulation for sale of, 60. Arseniuretted hydrogen, for- mation of, 65. Artesian wells, 645. Artichoke, 67. Jerusalem, 67. Artificial flowers, manufac- ture of, 62. "pepper, 435. Artocarpus incisa, 106. Ascaris lumbricoides, 67. mystax, 67. Ash, 67. of barley, 73. - — - of coal, composition of, 154. Ashes, bylaws relative to dis- posal of, 115. Ashpits, bylaws relative to, 8. cleansing of, &c., 115. Aspnragin, 69. Asparagus, 69. Aspartic acid, 69. Aspect of bouses, 269. Assamar, 69. Atcherley's test for picric acid, 88. Atmometer, 69. Atropia, 69. Atropine, 48. Audit, 70. Auditor, 70. Australian meat, analyses of, 366. Autopsy, 70. Autumn, influence of, on dis- ease, 374. Autumnal fever, 71. Babt-fakming, 314. Bacon, 71. Bacteroid, origin of disease, 72. Bailey Denton's sewage-meter, 526. views on water - supply, 645. Ball's, Dr. Ancell, system of warming and ventilating, 631. Ballard and Pitt's patent for warming and ventilating, 631. Bankrupts, disqualification of, 343. Banner's patent cowl, 623. patent disinfecting appa- ratus, 613. patent drain trap, 612. Bannocks, 73. Banting's diet, 184. Barges, hygienic condition of, 306. Barley, 73. meal, 74. Barometer, 74. correction for capillarity and temperature, 76, 77. bow to read, 76. management of, 76. reduction to sea-level, 77. Barracks, cubic space allowed, 81. Bartlett's analysis of rabbit's flesh, 479. Baryta, hydrate of, 82. water, 82. Bastards, 82. Bathing, 82. bylaws relative to, 115. — - near a public footway, liability to indictment for, 84. Baths, 82. and 'Wash-houses Act, 15, 84. and wash-bouses, bylaws relative to, 115. mud, 83. salt, 84. Bayard's disinfectant, 190. Scale's staining fluid, 121. > views on living matter, 252. Beans, 84. ash of, 68. Bedding, 85. Beds, disinfection of, 187. Beef, analyses of, 362. Beer, 85. adulteration of, 87. analyses of, 87. Oocculus Indicus in, 149. nutritive value of, 86. Beet, ash of, 68. Beetroot, 89. sugar, 570. Belgian regulations as to prostitution, 468. Beltmakers, 598. Bengali cow, milk of, 385. Berkeley's experiments on yeast, 246. Berlin, prostitution in, 470. Beverages, alcoholic, 42. Bicarbonate of soda, 553. Bichromate of potash, volu- metric solution of, 628. Bilharzia hsematobia, 89. Bioplasm, 252. Bird's, Mr. Hinckes, processes of simple ventilation, 622. Births, deaths, and sickness returns, 89. Biscuits, 90. Bixin, 57. Black Assizes, 91. death, 92, 448, 449. jack, 92. pudding, 92. Blackley's experiments on pol- len, 454. Blacksmiths, diet of, 184. Blasting operations, 393. Bleachers, mean duration of life of, mortality, &c., 601. Blind, education of, 93. Blindness and deaf mutism, 92 Blood, 93. ^ — boiler, 95. hsematozoon of, 234. mineral matters of, 240. stains, tests for, 95. Blyth's method of dealing with sewage, 522. Board of Health, General, 95. Local Government, 349. local, lapse of, 348. Boat-race, Oxford, 274. Boats, 95. bylaws relative to, 115. Body-searcher, 95. Bohemian bole, 96. Boil, 96. Boiling, loss of meat in, 165. Bole, 96. of Bois, 96. Bond on house-to-house visita- tion, 290. Bond's disinfectants, 170, 191, 219. slop-tub, 547. Bone-boiler, 96. Bones, 96. INDEX. 663 Borax, 97. Boroughs, 97. when within the district cf a local board, 347. Borrowing powers of local au- thorities, 339. Bosh butter, 97. Bothriocephalus oordatus, 97. Bran, 98. Brande's method of deter- mining alcoholic strength, 42. Brandy, 99. adulteration of, 99. Brass ague, 27. founders' ague, 27. Braxy in sheep, 363. Bread, 100. • T adulteration of, 104. fruit, 106. inspection of, 243. new and stale, 103. nutritive value of, 102. stufis, composition of, 100. Brewers, 598.' Brick-fields, 106. Bricks, 106. Brighton abattoir, .542. Brine, poisonous, 363. Brittleworts, 178. Bromine, 107. Bronchitis, 378. Brose, 107. Broth, 107. Brucia, 107. Eruoine, 48. Brushmakers, 108, 598. Buckwheat, 108. Buenos Ayres, sanitary state of, 232. Buffalo extract, 108. Building, bylaws relative to, 115. without drainage, pen- alty for, 429. Buildings, 108. Bullfrog, 245. Bant, 109. Burial, 175. grounds, bylalws relative to, 115. '■ grounds, regulations re- specting, 177. penalty for obstructing justice's order with regard to, 429. Burnett's disinfecting fluid, 109. ~ Business, bylaws relative to conduct of, 115. conduct of, 109. of local boards, 342. Butchers, 598. mean duration of life of, mortality, &c., 601. Butter, 109. adulteration of, 110. analysis of, 110. detection of foreign fats inj 111. Butter, microscopical examina- tion of, 112. rancid, 110. Butteriue, 114. Button-makers, 598. Butyric ether, II4. Bylaws, 114. for hop-pickers, 278. for removal of refuse, 508. penalties under, 429. relative to buildings, 108. relative to lodging-houses, 352. Bywash, 115. Cabbages, 115. Caffeine, 115. Cagliari paste, 116. Calcium, chloride of, 116. Calculi, 116. Calorigen, 624. Camphor, 116. monobromated, as an an- tidote for strychnia, 116, 567. Camps, 117. Canada balsam, 117. Canals, 117. Cancer, 118. contagious nature of, 118. of chimney-sweeijs, 128, 577. Candles, products of combus- tion of, 159. Canna arrowroot, 559. Cantharides, 118. poisoning by, 119. Cantharidine, 48. Caoutchouc-makers, 601. Capers, 119. Capsioine, 119. Capsicum, 119. Caramel, 120. Caraway seeds, 120. Carbo-hydrates, 120, 241. function of, 218. Carbon, 120. Carbonate of potash, 460. Carbonic acid, 5, 28, 31. expired, 209. variation of, according to season, 376. Carbuncle, 120, 473. Cardamom seeds, 121. Carmine, 121. Carpenters, 698. Carrageen, 44. Carriers, 601. Carrots, 121. ash of, 68. Carter, Dr. H. V., 353. Caseine, 121. ■ vegetable, 331. Cassava bread, 100. Cassella's air-meter, 55. Catarrhal pneumonia, 451. Catchpits, 123. Catechin, 122. Catechu, 122. black, 122. pale, 122. Catechu tannic acid, 122. Catgut-makers, 601. Cattle plague, 436. Cayenne pepper, 119. Cellars, 122, 429. of Laie, 263. Cellulose, 123. Cement-workers, 598. Cephaelic acid, 320. Cerasine, 123. Cerealin, 123. Cesspits, 123. Cesspools, bylaws relative to, 115. Chalicosis, 598. Chalk, 336. Chancre, 620. Channellings, 536. Charbon, 473. Charcoal, 124. biscuits, 90. burners, 598. vapour, 124. Charlock, 124. Cheese, 124. adulterations of, 12 3. Cherry, 126. laurel water, 126. Chestnuts, 126. Chicory, 126. ■ adulteration of, 127. Chillies, 128. Chimney-sweeps, 128, 577,598. Chimneys, 128. smoky, 128. wilfully setting on fire, 237. Chinese botanical powder, 128. Chloralum, 128. Chloride of lime, 337. of sodium, 553. Chlorides in rain, 481. Chlorine, 129. determination of, 6.38. Chocolate, 149. — - moth, 202. Cholera, Asiatic, bacteria in, 72. history of, 130. nature of, 130. orders of Council relative to, 133. precursors of, 1.32. ■ prevention of, 132. propagation of, 131. English, 134. Chondrus crispus, 44. Chromate of potash, 460. Chronic pneumonia, 451. Churchyards, 134. Cider, 134j Cigars, 597. Cigar-workers, 598. Cinnamon, 134. Circulation, diseases of, 272. Cisterns, 5^0. Citric acid in scurvy, 516. Citron, 135. Clay, 135. Cleanliness as a disinfectant, 188. f64 INDEX. CleanlinesB, personal, 188. Cleansing and whitewashing, 429. Clerk, coudnct of legal pro- ceedings by, 329. Climate, 135. . classification of, 135. Clocks, public, 143. Closets, 143, 466. Clothes as carriers of infec- tion, 147. disinfection of, 189. Clothing, 144. Clotbmakers, 598. Clouds, 147. Clover, red, ash of, 68. Cloves, 148. Coachniakers, 598. Coal, ash of, 153. gas, composition of, 155 gas, manufacture of, 247. Mines Regulation Act, 390. smoke of, 598. Cocculus Indicus, 148. Cocoa, 149. adulteration of, 150. ash of, 150. nutritive value of, 150. Codfish, 150. Codliver oil, 150. Coffee, 150. adulteration of, 152. analysis of, 152. chemical composition of, 151. microscopical structure of, 151. physiological effects of, 151. preparation of, 151. Cohesion figures, 412. Colchicine, 153. Cold, influence of, 142. CoHins' disinfecting powder, 190. Colostrum, 153. Colouring matters, 153. of confectionery, 157. Combe's anemometer, 54. Combustion, products of, 15.3. spontaneous, 236. Committee, 155. duties of, 156. parochial, 156. rural sanitary authority, 155. urban sanitary authority, 155. Common Lodging-HousesActs, 15. Compensation, 157, 411. Condy's disinfecting fluid, 157. Confectionery, 157. Conia, 158. Connection of drains with sewers, 536. CoQSumption, 440. Contagion, 158. Contagious Diseases Act, 159, 160. Contagious diseases, persons suffering from, entering a conveyance, 165.' Contracts, 163, 429. Convalescents, 164, 315. Conveyances, 164. Convicts, diet of, 181. Convolutin, 322. Cooking, 164. Cooper's method of watering streets, 194. Copenhagen, prostitution in, 470. Copper, 166. detection of, 166. in bread, 104. in fruits, 245. in pickles, 447. in preserves, 464. in the human body, 167. sulphate of, 166. sulphate of, adulteration of, 166. ■= vessels, danger of, 167. workers in, 598. Copperas, 167. Coqueluohe, 316. Gome's disinfectant, 190. ' Cottage hospitals, 278. Cottages, 265. of concrete, 270. Cotton, 168. spinners, diet of, 184. Countr^, air of, 29. Coupons under Local Authori- ties' Loan Act, 341. Court of leet, 329. Courts, 168. Cream, 368. Crease's charcoal filter, 235. Creches, 16&. Cremation, 176. Creuothrix polyspora, 169. Creosote, 169. Cretinism, 257. geographical range of, 258. Croup, 169,-185. Croupous pneumonia, 452. Cubic space, 169. Cullender-makers, 598. Cumin seeds, 1 70. Cupralum, 170. Curcuma, 559. Curd, 170. Currants, 170. Curry powder, 171. Cutlers, liability of, to phthisis, 598. Cyanide of potash, 460. Cyclops quadiicornis, 171. Cyder, 134. Cystioeroi, 17J. Cysticercus cellulosse, 172. Cysts in meat, 579. Dammab, 173. Dampness, 173. of foundations as a cause of consumption, 447. Damp-proof courses, 173. DanieU's hygrometer, 307. Daphnia pulex, 173. Darnel, 174. Dates, 174. Daturia, 174. DaugUsh's process of aerating bread, 102. Dead, disposal of, 174. Deaf mutism, 92. Dean's patent drain trap, 611. Death, causes of, 562. mean age at, 562. returns of, 89. Deaths, verification of, 177. Debentures under Local Au- thorities' Loan Act, 340. Defaulting local authority, 351. Dengue, 177. Dep5t d'ambulanoe, 51. Desks for schools, 512. Dew-point, 307, 308. Dextrine, 178. Dhoora, 178. Dhurra, 178. Dialysis, 178. Diamond-cutters, 598. Diarrhoea, 178. variations of, according to season, 378. Diastase, 178. Diatoms, 178. Dickinson's observations on the effects of alcohol, 36. Diet, infants', 311. in training, 610. Dietaries, 179. of the navy, 297. Digestibility of animal sub- stances, 185. Digitaleine, 185. Digitaline, 48, 185. Digitonine, 185. Digitoxine, 18.5. Diphtheria, 185. bacteria in, 72. in horses, 186. Disease, geographical distribu- tion of, 186. Diseased meat, effects of, 3C3. Diseases of meat, 363. Disinfectants, 187. Disinfecting-chambers, 190. compounds, 190, Disinfection, 187. of bedding, 85. of houses, notices respect- ing, 403. of sewage, 529. Distomata, 191. , District fund account, 191 . Improvement Act, 348. local government, 342. local government, of Ox- ford, 348. Districts, sanitary, 501. sanitary united, 502. Ditches, 191. Division hospitals, 285. Dochmius duodenalis, 192. Drainage, 517, 535. of houses, notices respect- ing, 403. ' INDEX. 665 Drains, 192, 517. brick, 536. connection with sewers, 537. house, 536. interference with, when passing under a canal, 117. nuisance from, 429. open, 536. pipe, 536. Drunkards, New York statutes respecting, 39. Drunkenness, 38. as modified by race, 38. Drysdale and Hayward's sys- tem of ventilation and warm- ing, 625. Dumas' method of estimating nitrogen, 401. Dumpy level, 333. Dung, proper keeping of, 356. DuprS's method of analysing wine, 651. Dust, 192, 598. effects of, 193. examination of, 192. nuisance from, 115. Dust-bins, 194. specij&cation of, 466. Ear, affections of, from wash- ing the head in cold water, 1. Earth-closets, 143, 466. disinfection of, 189. system, 520. Echinococcus hominia, 198. Ectozoa, 425. Eel, 198. - Eggs, 199. Egyptian method of embalm- ing, 200. Elder, 200. Election of members for local boards, 344, 345. EUerman's deodorising fluid, 190. Embalming, 200. Embankments of reservoirs, Emetina, 320. [490. Emulsincj 50. Endemic, 200. Energy produced by food, 201. Engine-drivers, 601. England and TiVales, popula- tion of, 45.5. Engravers, 598. Entophyta, 425. Entozoa, 201, 425. Entry, powers of, 201. Ephestia eleteUa, 202. Epidemic, 202. diseases, 429. diseases, prevention of, Epilepsy, 379. [203. Epiphyta, 425. Epizootics, 204. Ergot, 204. Erucio acid, 397. Eruptive diseases, seasonal in- fluence on, 579. Brvil, 205. Erysipelas, 205. Ether, 206. Ethers in wine, 601. Buchlorine, 206. Eudiometer, 33. Euglenae, 206. Evaporation, 206. Evidence, false, 330. Excreta, 207. amount per head, 208. money value of, 208. Excretine, 208. Exercise, 208. Exhumation, 211. evil effects of, 466. Expenses, 212. general, 213. of port sanitary autho- rity, 212. of rural sanitary autho- rity, 213. private improvement, 212. special, 214. under Public Health Act, recovery of, 330. with regard to defaulting local authority, 351. Exposure of infected persons or things, 429. Extract of meat, 366. Faotokt Acts, 215. Factories, air of, 217. ventilation of, 404. Fairs, 217. bylaws relative to, 115. Famine, 217. Farcy, 254. meat, 364. Farinaceous food for infants, 313. Fai-m-labourers, diet of, 164. Farriers, 598. Fat, 217, 240. — =— functions of, 240. Fellmonger, 219. Fermentum oerevisise, 219. Ferralum, 219. Ferrier and Burden Sander- son's experiments on bac- teria, 71. Fever, 219. autumnal, 71. bilious remittent, 220. continued, 220. relapsing, 221. typhoid, 225. typhus,- 228. yellow, 231. Fevers, eruptive, 221. malarious, 221. simple continued, 225. Fibrine, 257. Field, general, hospital, 285. Field's tank, 547, 581. Figs, 232. Filaria dracunculus, 232. sanguinis hominis, 234. Filemakers, 598. Filters, 234. Filth, bylaws relative to, 115. Filtration of sewage, 528. intermittent, 524. Firebricks, 107. Fire-engines, provision for, by urban authority, 235. places consuming their own smoke, 404. places, open, 530. plugs, 237. Fish, 237. boiling of, 106. effects of impure water on, 496. inspection of, 243. Fitzroy barometer, 75. Fleck's process of estimating tannin, 582. Flintcutters, 598. Flounder, 237. Flour, 237. Indian-corn, 310. mite, 2. Flowers, artificial, 62. Flukes, 239. Flummery, 239. Flush tank, 581. Flux, bloody, 239. Fly-poison, 239. Fogs, 239. Foie gras, 339. Fomites, 239. Food, 239. dynamic value of, 194. energy produced by, 201. inspection of, 243. thermotic power of, 241, 242. Foot-and-mouth disease, 364. milk in, 386. Footsoreness, 243. Form of rentcharge, 489. Fortin's barometer, 75. Foundling hospitals, 243. Foundlings, 240. Fousel on, 248. France, population of, 459. Franklin's reversible gi'ate, 631. Eraser's disinfecting apparatus, 190. Freezing mixtures, 244. French bole, 96. regulations as to prosti- tution, 467. Friendly societies, 399. Frijoles, 244. Frogs, 245. Fruit, 245. disinfection of, 243. Fumes from smelting lead ore, 326. Fumigation, 245. Fungi, 245, 396. in bread, 103. Fusel oil, 246. Gjmon's ventilating fireplace, 624. Gamboge, 247. 566 INDEX. Gamboge in mustard, detec- tion of, 399. Gamgee's method of killing animals, 14. method of preserving meat, 367. Gas, 217. and Water Worts Act, 249. coal, composition of, 247. heating by, 630. of marshes, 361. poisoning by, 248. stoves, 624. supply of, 251. testing of, 251. use of in ventilation, 625. works, 247. , Gasaliers, ventilation for, 248. Gaunal's preserving ' liquid, 200. Geissler's alcoholometer, 41. Gelatine, 97, 252. process for estimation of tannin, 581. General district rate, 486. Geographical distribution of disease, 186. George's calorigen, 624. Germs, 252. Germ theory of disease, 253. Ghee, 253. GUders, 601. Gin, 253. adulterations of, 254. Ginger, 254. Glaisher's thermometrio cor- rections, 594. Glanders and farcy, 254. meat of, 364. Glass-workers, 598. Glaziers, 598. Glove-making, 446, 598. Glovers, diet of, 184. Glucose, 256. Gluten, 256. Glutin, 256. Glycerine, 257. estimation of, in wine, 653. jelly, 257. Glycyrrhiza glabra, 338. Glycyrrhizine, 338. Goitre, 257. cause of, 255. geographical range of, 258. Gonprrhcea, 620. Gooseberry, 259. Gorge's method of preserving meat, 367. Grains, 260. Grapes, 260. Grape-sugar, 266, 570. Grasses, poisonous, 260. Grates, 630. Gravatt's Dumpy level, 333. Greengage, analysis of, 45J. Greenway's hospital wards, 285. Grindstone-makers, 598. Groats, 260. Groning's method of aJcoholo- metry, 25. Gruel, 260. Guaiaconic acid, 260. Guaiaoum resin, 260. Guaiaretic acid, 260. Guinea worm, 232. Gum, 261. estimation of, 261. Gunpowder, 261. gases from, 393. Gymnasium, 263. Gymnastic exercises, 263. Habitations, 263. Hackney carriages, 164. bylaws relative to, 115. Haddock, 270. Hsematoxylon, 352. Hsematuria, 89. Hairdressers, 598. Hair-dye, 168. Hamburg powder, 271. Hammer's proeess of estima- tion of tannin, 582. Hardness of waters, 638. Harness-makers, 598. Hashing, 165. Hatters, 598. Haughton's formula for mea- suring work done by walk- ing exercise, 211. Heart disease, 271. cause of, 273i fungoid, 72. geographical distri- bution of, 272; Heart, overstrainingof the,273. Heat, influence of, on human system, 142. Heights, measurement of, 77. Heliantnus tuberosus, 67. HeUebore, 274. Heller's experiments with re- gard to bacteria, 72. Henbane, 275. Herring, 275. Highway rate, 276. Highways, 276. Hill's sewage process, 522. Hocheimer, 276. Hock, 276. Holden's method of dealing with sewage, 522. Holland, prostitution in, 470. Holland's method of estimat- ing nitrates in water, 641. Honey, 277. Hop-pickers, 277. bylaws relative to lodging of, 115. Hop-picking, 277. Hops, ash of, 68. Horse - flesh, nuisance from, 323. Horse-radish, 278. Horses, 278. Horsley's process of analysing milk, 389. Hose-weavers, diet of, 184, Hospital construction, 280. cottage, 288. dietaries, 180. for infectious diseases, 288. ships, 287. Hospitals, 278. cubic space of, 170. ■ separation of fever cases from general cases, 280. Hatel Dieu in 1777, 279. Houses, cleaning, notices re- specting, 403. construction of, 268. country, 264. false statements as to, 429. town, 264. Houseless population, 457. House - to - house inspection, 290. Hughan's sewage process, 522. Humidity, influence on health of, 142. Huts, cubic space of, 170. Hydrometer, 290. Sykes', 39. Hydrophobia^ 290. prevention of, 293. Hygifene, 293. military, 294. naval, 296. private, 294. public, 293. school, 509. Hygrometer, 307. Hygroscopic power of certain fabrics, 145. Hyosoyamia, 309. Hyposulphite of soda, volume- tric solution of, 628. Ice, 309. Ilfracombe, epidemic of diph- theria, 186. mutation, 83. Improvement Act district, 310, 348. Incubation, period of, in vari- ous diseases, 109. Indian-oom, 310. hemp, 311. Industrial Dwellings Com- pany, 265. Infant Life Protection Act, 314. Infants, diet of, 311. mortality of, 313, 380. Infected houses, letting, 305. Infection, 314. carried by clothes, 147. Infectious diseases, 314. notice by lodging-house keepers of, 352. Infectious pneumonia, 452. Influenza, 365. Inspect, duty of local authority to, 404. Inspection, house - to - house, 290. of animals, 366. INDEX. 667 Inspection of meat, 366. Inspector, appointment of, 317. duties of, 318. of nuisances, 316. remuneration of, 318. term of office of, 318. Inspectors of food, 243. . Local GoTerament Board, 319. , Interment, 177. Intermittent supply of water, 647. Intestinal concretions, causes of, 410. liquors. regula- from Indian of of. Intoxicating tion of, 43. Intoxication liemp, 311. Iodine, 319. ■ ■volumetric solution of, 628. Ipecacuanha, 319. lion, 321. moulds, 321. pipes, purification water in, 646. volumetric solution 628. Isinglass, 321. Isolation, 321. Italy, population of, 458. Jail fever, 229. Jalapa, 322. Jalapine, 322. Jamaica pepper, 322. Jatropha, 559. Jellet's polarimeter, 573. Jenner, discovery of vaccina- tion by, 618. Jewellers, mortality of, 600. Joiners' liability to phthisis, 598. Journeymen, 598. Juke's method for consump- tion of smoke, 552. Kangaroo, 323. Kennels, 323. Kidney, 323. King, Dr. Slade, on diphtheria, 186. Kirsohwaaaer, 338. Koumiss, 323. Kreosote, 169. Kummel, 338. Lababraque's disinfectant, 191. Labourers, diet of, 180. Labouring classes' lodgiag- houses, 15. Lace-making, 446. Lactin, 323. Laoto-butyrometer, 324. Lactoscope, 324. Lactose, 323. Laminaria digitata, 44. saccharina, 44. Lamprey, 324. Lancaster, Duchy of, special provision relating to, 325. Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, 325. letting and purchase of, 325. Lard, 326. Lark's method of smoke con- sumption, 552. Larnaud's disinfectant, 191. Lathyrus sativus in bread, 105. Latrines for camps, 117. for hop-pickers, 278. Jenning's patent, 82. Lavatories, school, 510. Lavers, 44. Lead, 326. in agrated water, 328. — — in cosmetics and hair- dyes, 168. pipes, 328. Leather, 329. Leather-dressers, 329. Ledoyen's disinfecting fluid, 19L Leek, 329. Leet, court of, 329. Legal proceedings, 329v Legumine, 331. Lemnian bole, 96. Lemon, 331. — — juice, 331. juice when first supplied to merchant vessels, 298. Lentils, 332. Letting and purchase of lands, 325. Lettuce, 333. Lettuces, ash of, 68. Levelling, 333. -^ staff, 33a Librarians lending infected books, 551. Libraries, 334. Lice, 334. Lichens, 335. Liebig's extractum camis, 366. food for infants, 312. Liernur's pneumatic system, 521. Life, expectation of, 562. mean duration of, §62. probable duration of, 562. Light, 335. Lighting streets, 249. Lights, 336. Lignin, 123. Lime, 336. carbonate of, 336. chloride of, 336. sulphate of, 336. Limes, adulterations of, 331, 332. Lind's wind-guage, 54. Line of buildings, 108. Linen, 338. Linseed, 338. Liqueur, 383. Lithographers, 598. Litmus, 339. Liver, 339. Lobster, 342. Local authorities, 342. Local authorities, borrowing powers of, 339. defaulting, 351. union for- the purpose of preventing epidemic dis- eases, 203. Local authority, obstruction of, 400. board, 349. Government Board, 349. government district, 342, 343. Locksmiths, 398. Locomotives, to consume their smoke, 552. Lodging-houses, 351, 429. Lodgings, 352. Logwood, 352. Long pepper, 453. Louse, 334. Lunatics, diet of, 180. Lupulite, 353. Maooaeoni, 353. Mace, 353. lilackinnell's method of ven- tilation, 622. Madeira, 652. Madura foot, 353. Magnesia, 354. Maize, 310. Malabar pepper, 432. Malaria, 3S8. Malarious fever, 221. ■ yellow fever, 221. Males and females, relative proportion of, 455. Malt, 354. Manganese, chloride of, 355. Manure, ashes as, 69. notices respecting, 409. Manures, 355, 429. Map of sewerage, 538. Maranta arrowroot, 559. Maraschino, 338. Marble, workers in, 598. Marchand's lacto-butyrome- ter, 324. Mare's milk, 323. Margarine, 218. Markets,, 357. and Fairs Clauses Act, 357. bylaws relative to, 115. Marriage, 357. Marsala, 652. Marsden's sewage process, 522. Mstrshes, 358. Marsh's test for arsenic, 66. Masons, 598. Mats, 360. Material of houses, 267. Mathieson's differential ther- mometer, 593. Maximum thermometer, 593. ' Negretti and Zambra's, 593. Measles, 361. baeteria in, 72. in the pig, symptoms of, 172. Measly pork, 172. 668 INDEX. Meat, 361, 429. characteristics of good, 365. cooking of, 165. diseases of, 363. extract of, 366. Meats, preserved, 367. Meconic acid, 367. Medical officer of health, 36S. appointment of, 368. ■ duties of, 368. qualifications of, 369. — — routine work of, 371. Merchant service, 303. rations of, 304. Shipping Act, 305, 332. Mercurialiamns, 373. Mercurial tremors, 373. Mercury, 372. Metallic dust, 598. Metalliferous Mines Act, 390. Metals, estimation of, in water, 642. Meteorological conditions, in- fluence of, on health, 374. on yellow fever, 221. Microphytes, 380. Microscope, 380. Alicroscopical examination of butter, 112. examination of water, 634. Microzymes, 71, 381. Midwives, unskilled, effects of, on infant life, 313. Military hospitals, 285. hygigne, 294. Milk, 381-390. adulterations of, 386. analysis of, 387. ash of, 382. camel's, ash of, 382. cat's, ash of, 382, 383. composition of, 381. condensed, 389. cow's, ash of, 382, 383. determination of richness of, by laotoscope, 324. dog's, ash of, 382, 383. Horsiey's process of ana- lysiug, 388. in foot - and - mouth dis- ease, 386. • — - inspection of, 243. mare's, ash of, 382, 383. i ■ putrid, analysis of, 389. preserving, 389. sheep's, ash of, 382, 383. Millers, 598. MiUet, 390. Mineral dust, 598. matters of food, 240. waters, 390. waters, English, 391. waters, Ge^'many, 392. Miners, 393, 598. Mines, 390. air of, 29. Begulation Act, 390. Minimum thermometer, 593. Mitsoherlich's experiments on fermentation, 219. Mitsoherlich's process for the detection of phosphorus, 439. Mixed dust, 598. Molasses, 393. Monasty's sewage process, 522. Morelle, 396. Morgue (Paris), 395. Morin's anemometer, 55. Morphia, 393. Morphine, 393. Mortality, calculation of, 562- 564. from heart disease, 271. from influenza, 316. from scarlet fever, 223. infant, 313. — — in pubKo institutions, 471. in the army, 295. Mortgage, 394, 429. of rates, 394. Mortuaries, bylaws relative to, 115. management of, 115. Mortuary, public, 395. Moulders, 598. Mouldiness of bread, 104. of the lungs of a duck, 245. Mud baths, 83. ; of towns as manure, 355, Mulder's analysis of tea, 687. Muscardine, 245. Museums, public, bylaws rela- tive to, 115. Mushroom, 396. Mussel, 397. Mustard, 397. Mutual Aid Society, 399. Mycetoma, 353. Mycosis endocardii, 400. Myronate of potash, 397. Myrosine, 397. Nabbonne honey, 277. Natal arrowroot, 559. Natural processes of ventila- tion, 621. Naval hygiene-, 296. Navy, dietaries of, 297. Needlemakera, phthisis a- mongst, 598. Needlewomen, diet of, 184. Nessler test, 400. Nicholson's method of estimat- ing nitrates in water, 641. Nicotine, 400. Nitrate of potash, 460. Nitrates, determination in water, 639. in water, 453. soda, 553. Nitro-benzole, 56, 401. Nitrogen, 28, 34. — — estimation of, 401. excretion of, 210. Nitrous oxide, 402. Nomination, 344. Norwegian nest, 165. Notice, procedure on failure to comply with, 405; Notices, 402. Noyeau, 338. Nuisance, 429. forms of notice respect- ing, 467, 468. — -^ from dung, 355. from manufacture of gas, 248. from various trades, 602- 604. in cellars, 123. • information of, 404. in ships, 467. ■ legal proceedings with regard to, 330. • notice respecting, 403. power of private indivi- dual to complain of, 405. within the district, 406. Nurse, wet, 312. Nutmeg, 405. Nux vomica, 409. Oatmeal, 409. Oats, 409. — '— ash of, 68. Obstruction, 430. of local authority, 410. Occupation, in relation to consumption, influence of, 444, 445. Occupier obstructing owner in sanitary improvements, 410. Ocean-going ships, 303. Officer, 430. of local authority, 109. and servants, bylaws re- lative to duties of, 115. appointment of, 410. Offices, comfortable, 411. school, 410. Oidium albicans, 246. Oil of almonds, 50. of cloves, 148. of juniper, 322. of mustard, adulteration of 399. paraffine, 425. products of, combustion of, 155. Oils, 412. Oleine, 218. Olive, 413. oil, adulteration of, 412. tree wood, ash of, 68. Onion, 415. Operatives, dietaries of, 184. Ophthalmia, 415. Opium, 417. Orange, 418. . Order of justice, 430. of justice for admission of * officer, 202. of the court, penalty for not obeying, 405. Orders, 418. Orellin, 57. Organic matters in air, 34. matters in food, 240. INDEX. 669 Orpiment, 62. Orris, 419. Osmazome, 419. Overcrowding, 419. as a nuisance, 404. in factories, 216. Owner, 421. Oxalic acid, volumetric solu- tion 'Of, 629. Oxford, local government dis- trict of, 348. Oxygen, 28-32. Oysters, 422. Ozone, 28, 422. Ozonometer, 422. Painters, 593. Palmitine, 218. Pancreas, 424. Pancreatine, 424. Paperhangings, 424. Paraffine, 421. workers in, 601. Paraguay tea, 360. Paraplegia, alcoholic, 37. Parasites, 425. detection of, in meat, 365, Parfait amour, 338. Parish infection, 426. Parochial committees, 156. Parsnip, 426. Pasteur's experiments on fer- mentation, 219. fluid, 381, 426. Pastrycooks, 598. Pauperism, 426. Paving, 427. Peabody Trttst, 265. Peach, 427. Pear, 428. Peas, 428. ash of, 68. Penal diet, 182. Penalties, 428. Penang pepper, 432. Pentagraph, 430. Pepper, 431. ' adulterations of, 434. Jamaica, 49. Peppermint, oil of, 435. Pepsin, 435. Peptone, 34. Peranospora infestans, 462. Perfumes, 436. Pericarditis, 379. Permanganate of potash, 461. Perry, 436. Personal liability, protection of officers, &c., from, 330. Petroleum, 436. Act, 436. Pettenkofer and Toit's experi- ments on the excretion of carbonic acid, 209. Pettenkofer's experiments on the permeability of building materials, 270. observations on clothing. 145. Pharmacy Act, 436, 437. Phillips' thermometer, 593. Phosphate sewage process, 522. Phosphoric acid in articles of food, 440. Phosphorus, 438. Phthisis, 440. Pickles, 447. Picric acid in beer, 88. Picrotoxine, 48, 148. detection of, in beer, 88. Pigs, 447. affected by bad hygienic conditions, 416. Pigsties, 447. Pilchard, 505. Pimento berry, 50. essential oil of, 49. Pine-apple, 448. Pinmakers, 598. Piperine, 432. Plague, 378, 448. Plaice, 151. Plantations, 451. Plants, the order in which they are affected by noxious va- pours, 3. Playfair's dietaries, 179. Playthings, 451. Pleuro-pueumonia, 364. Plum, 451. Plumbers, 327. Pneumatic closets, 143. system of sewage dispos- al, 521. Pneumonia, 379, 451, Pneumonoconiosis, 598. Poison, 453. Poisonous honey, 277. sausages, 505. Poisons, sale of, 437, 438. Police, 453. powers of, to proceed in certain cases of nuisances, 40.5. PoUen, 453. Poor-law unions, 616. Population, 454. annual rate of, increase of, 566. density of, and death- rate, 419. Porcelain-workers, 598. Pork, Cysticercus cellulosse in, 171. pies, poisonous, 365. Porphyra laciniata, 44. vulgaris, 44. Port sanitary authority, 459. Porter, 86.- Ports, 459, 652. Post - mortem examinations, 170, 395, 460. Potassium, 460. Potato, 461. disease, 462. starch, 560. in flour, 238. sweet, 82. Potatoes, ash of, 68. Potters, 598. Poultry, 464. Precipitation, processes for sewage, 521. Preserved meat, 366. Preserves, 464. Preserving milk, 589. Prevention of epidemic dis- eases, 203. Prices, 464. Principal towns, population of, 457. Printers, 598. Prison diets, 182, 183. Private hygifene, 294. improvement rate, 487. Privies, 216, 464. bylaws relative to, 115. notices respecting, 403. nuisance from, 406, pneumatic, 521. Prizefighter, diet of, 184. Prostitution, 466. Provisional orders, 418. Prussia, population of, 459. Prussian blue, 471. regiUations as to prosti- tution, 469. Psorospermia, 471. Ptyalin, 471. Public clocks, 143. Health Act, 16. hygifene, 293. institutions, 472. mortuary, 395. necessaries, 472. pleasure-grounds, 472. Works Loan Act, 340. Puerperal diseases, 472. Pulses, 472. Pumps, 472. Punishment diet, 182. Pustule, malignant, 472. Putrefaction, 473. of eggs, 199. Putrid emanations, 474. meat, 365. Fythogenic pneumonia, 452. Quarantine, 476. Quarter evil, 473. Quinine, 477. Quinoa, 478. Quorum, 478. Rabbit, 478. Rabies, 290. Rackrent, 479. Radish, 479. Railways, 479. Rain, 480. faU, 481. guage, 482. water, storage of, in tanks, 580. Raisins, 484. Raspberry, 484, Rat, 48. Ratepayers, resolution of, 491. Rates, 430, 484. general district, 486. highway, 296. mortgage of, 394. 670 INDEX. Biites, private improvement, 487. Rations, 488. British navy, 297. Dutch navy, 302. French navy, 300. ■ merchant service, .302. United States, 300. Realgar, 62. Recruit, age of, 294. Rectified spirit, 3.5. Refuse and rubbish, bylaws relative to, 115. removal of, 507. Regimental hospitals, 285. Relapsing fever, 221. Relieving officers as inspectors of nuisances, 316. Rennet, 488. Rentcharge, 488. Reservoirs, 489. Resolutions, 490. Returning officer, 344. Revaccination, 619. Revalenta, 492. Rheumatic fever, bacteria in, 72. Rheumatism, 492. Rhizopoda, 493. Rhodomenia palmata, 44. Rhubarbi 493. Rice, 493. bread, 100. Richardson's method of era- balment, 200. Rich's process for dealing with sewage, 523. Rinderpest, 364. Ringworm, 246. from grooming horses, 246. Risler Bennett's method of estimation of tannin, 582. Rivers, pollution of, 494. Roads, 275. Robinson's anemometer, 45. Robur, 497. RoomSjWrongf ul lettiDgof,429. Ropemakers, 598. Roquefort cheese, 125. Rue, 497. Rum, 497. Runnet, 488. Rural population, 456. sanitary authorities and districts, 501. Rutherford's thermometer,. 593. Rye, 498. bread, 100. Sacohakometer, 498. Saccharometry, 571. Saddlers, 600. SaflEron. 498. Sago, 499. grains, 415. Sailors, diet of, 184. . Sainfoin, 499. ash of, 68. Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 20. Salicine, 500. Salicylic acid, 500. Saliva, 500. Salmon, 500.. Salt, 553. • baths, 84. diet, a cause of dysentery, 196. — '— meat, analysis of, 363. Salting provisions, 501. Sanitary authority, 501. duties of, 503. expenses of, 212. port, 459. districts, .501. legislation, 504. Santonine, 504. Saponification, 504. Sarcina ventriculi, 246. Sardines, 505. Sauerkraut, 505. Sausages, 505. Savin, 506. Scammony, 506. Scarlatina, seasonal influences on, 379. Scarlet fever, bacteria in, 72. blood of, 94. Scavenging, 430, £06. School life, effects of, on the sight and spine, 511. Schools, 509. and ophthalmia, 416. Schweinfurt green, 62. Scott's sewage process, 522. Scurvy, 513. Seasonal influences, 374, 375. Seasons, influence of, on con- sumption, 447. Sea-water, 633. Semola, 516. Semolina, 516. Senna, 516. Sewage, 517. analysis of, 529. as a cause of disea'ie, 530. disinfection of, 529. disposal of, 539. filtration of, 523. irrigation, 523. meter, Bailey Denton's, 527. utilisation of, 520. value of, 529. Sewers, 517. air of, 478. alteration of, when pass- ing under canals, 117. cleansing of, 533. construction of, 531. cost of, 635. definition of, 531. disinfection of, 5, 189. legal provisions as to, 537, 538. mortality of men engaged in, 600. purchase of, 537. shape of, 631. size of, 531. ventilation of, 533. Shellfish, 541. Sherry, 652. Ships, cholera in, 477. hygifene of, 303. nuisances in, 405, ocean-going, 303. ventilation of, 302. Shoemakers, 598. diet of, 184. Shrimps, 640. Sickness, returns of, 89. Siderosis, 598. Silk-weavers, diet of, 184. Sillar's process of sewage uti- lisation, 522. Sinapine, .397.- Siphon barometer, 75. Sirel's disinfecting compound, 191. Site of hospitals, 280. Skinners, 598. Slaughter-houses, 540. bylaws relative to, 115, legal provisions relative to, 545. licensing of, 545. Slops, 547. Smallpox, 447. bacteria in, 72. relative proportion of, in vaccinated and unvacclnated persons, 619. Smith on the potato disease, 403. Smoke, 551. black, nuisance from, 404. composition of, 1,54. of gunpowder, 261. Smoking, effects of, 596. Smoky chimneys, how to cure, 128. Snow, 552. bylaws relative to re- moval of, 115. measurement of, 483. Snuff, adulteration of, 597. Soap, 552. Soapmakers, 600. Soda, bicarbonate of, 563. nitrate of, 553. volumetriosolution of, 629. Sodium, 653. Soil, influence of, on consump- tion, 447. Soils, 554. analysis of, 554 . clayey, 554. made, 554. sandy, 554. Solanine, 48. Soldier, clothing of, 206. diet of, 184, 295. habitation of, 296. Soot, 555. Sorgho grass, 178. Soup, 555. Souquet's preserving liquid, Sowans, 239. Soy, Indian, 556. Spain, population of, 448. INDEX. 671 Specification of privy and dust- bins, 466. Specific gravity, 558. Spirits, 558. Sprat, 558. Sprouts, ash of, 68. Stagnant water, 187. Starch, 558. in mustard, detection of, 399. " potato, 560. , works, 560. Statistics, 561. Steam, heating by, 630. vessels consuming their own smoke, 552. Stearine, 217. Stewing, 165. Stinks, chemical nature of, 4. Stonecutters, 598. Store reservoirs, 489. Stout, 86. Stoves, 630. Straw, ash of, 68. hat makers, 600. plaiting, 446. Streets, 565, bylaws relative to, 115. disinfection of, 189. lighting of, 249. watering of, 566. Strohl's method of detecting sulphuric acid in vinegar, 627. Strongylus dnodenalis, 192. Strychnia, 48, 566. in beer, 89. Sturgeon, 568. Sugar, 568. adulteration of, 569. beetroot, 570. cane, structure of, 569. estimation of, 571. grape, 570. milk, 570. mite, 4. of mUk, 323. pea, 428. Sulphate of iron, 320. Sulphates in rain, 481. Sulphites as disinfectants, 14. Sulphooyanide of allyl, 397. Sulphosinapisin, 397. Sulphur, 573. Sulphuretted hydrogen, 574. formation of, 575. in gas, mode of testing for, 250. Sumach, 575. Sumatra pepper, 432. Sunstroke, 576. prevention of, 576. Surveyor, 676. Suvern's.deodorant of sewage, 530. Sweating sickness, 576. Sweep, chimney, 576. Sylvester's method of ventila- tion, 622. Symons, G. J., directions for measuring rainfall by, 483. Syphilis, 620. Tabacosis, 599. Tabarie's method of determin- ing alcohol, 651. Tac, 316. Tacca arrowroot, 560. Taenia, 577. ' mediocanellata, 577. solium, 577. ' Tailors, 184. Tallow in lard, 326. Tamarinds, 580. Tank, Kogers Field's tanks, 580. flush, 581. Tanners, 598. Tannic acid, 581. Tannin, 581. estimation of, 589. Tanyards, 583. Tapeworm, 97, 98, 577. Tar, 583. Tartar emetic. 584. salts of, 583. Tartaric acid, determination of, in wine, 653. Taylor's dry closet, 144. Tea, 24, 584. adulteration of, 588. ammonia from, 590. ash of, 589. mats, 360. Tellicherry, 432. Temperature, 136-140. Terebene, 591. in oupralium, 170, Theatres, 591. Theine, 115, .592. Theobromine, 592. Thermometer, 592. dry and wet bulb, 307. Thiers' automatic ship ven- tilator, 302. Thresoh's method of deter- mining sulphuric acid in vinegar, 616. Tinmen, 598. Titchborne's observations on dust, 193. Tobacco, 594. adulterations of, 597. composition of, 598. effects of, 596. in beer, 89. smoke, 401. workers, 599. Tobin's method of ventilation, 622. Tortoise, 598. Tous-les-mois, 559. Towns, air of, 29. Improvement Act clauses, 18. Trades, iniurious, 598. offensive, 430, 602. bylaws relative to, 115. Training, 609. Tramways, bylaws relative to, 115, 610. Trang pepper, 432. Transfer of mortgage, 394. Trapping, 611. Traps, 611. Trees, 451. — order in which they are affected by acid vapours, 3. Trichina, 614. Trichinosis, 615. Tricocephalus dispar, 615. Tripe, 615. Trout, 615. Truffle, 394. Tuber cibarium, 396. Tuberculosis, 440. Turbot, 615. Turmeric, 615. in mustard, detection of, 399. Turners, 698. Turnip, 616. leaves, 68. root, 68. Turpentine, 616. workers in, 601. Typefounders, 598. Typhoid fever, 225. Typho-rubeoloid, 616. . Typhus, 228. Ultramarine, 610. XHva latissima, 44. Umber, 616. Union of districts (united dis- tricts), 582. poor-law, 616. Upholsterers, liability to phthisis of, 598. Urban sanitary district — (England), 501. (Ireland), 502. Urban population, 456. Urinals, 617. for camps, 117. Urine, 617. Vacancies in local boards, 346. Vaccination, 618. Act, 619. Vadcine, 619. Varnishers, liabiUty to phthisis of, 598. Veal, 620. Vegetable diet, effects of, 598. Vegetables, 620. inspection of, 44,3. Venereal disease, 620. Venetian red, 620. Venison, 620. Ventilation, 620. by extraction, 62,3. by propulsion, 625. of cesspools, &c., 123. of ships, 302. Veratrine, 626. Verdigris, 626. Vermicelli, 626. Vermilion, 626. Vermin powder, 267. Vessels, coasting, 305. inspection of, 476. 672 INDEX. Viability of infants, 380. Vibriones, 71. Victor Emmanuel, H.M.S., 207. Villages in rural districts, 263. Vinegar, 265. Virgin honey, 277. . Volatile disinfectants, 187. Volumetric solution, 628. Voting, in case of local board's elections, 343. papers, form of, 491. Waokeneodeb's method of preparing laqtic acid, 12. ■Walking, 210. ■VVall-pajjers, 64, 424. ■Walls, disinfection of, 189. ■Wanklyn's method of water- analysis, 638. War, overcrowding in, 296. ■Wards, 343, 629. hospital, 282-284. Warming, 629. ■Washerwomen, 632. ■Wash-houses, 633. Watching and Lighting Act, 18. "Watchmakers, 598. Water, 633. action of, on lead, 326. analysis of, 637. ■ as a cause of a^e, 26. as a cause of dysentery, 176. as a food, closets, 143. collection of, 534. ■Water contaminated by lead, 327. drinking, 634. flea, 171. gilders, 273. impure, effects of, 643. influence of, on climate, 140. living forms in, 6.35. meter, injury to, 647. microscopical examina- tion of, 634. protection of, 643. purification of, 633. zymotic power of, 71. Watering of streets, 566. Waterworks Clauses Act, 647. « ' construction of, 646. Weights and measures, 648. Weston's pedestrian feat, 260. ■Wheat, ash of, 68. "Whelks, 649. Whey, 649. Whisky, 649. ■Whitelead, manufacture of, 327. Whiting, 649. ■Whooping-cough, 649. Widowhood, effect of, 357. Winds, influence on climate of, 140. Wine, adulterations of, 631. — — analyses of, 561. analysis of ash, 655. ash of, 655. estimation of alhuminoue matters in, 655. Wine, estimation of ethers in, 653. estimation of glycerine and succinic acid in, 653. estimation of malic acid in, 653. estimation of sugar in, 654. estimation of tartaric acid in, 633. general methods of esti- mation of acids in, 653. Witn's method of estimating sulphuric acid in vinegar, 627. Wood, charcoal, 124. products of, combustion of, 155. Wool, 655. Workers in brass, 598. in copper, 598. Works, 656. arrangement of, in France, 603. Worms, round, 67. Yam, 657. Yeast, 657. Yellow fever, 231. Yucca, 658. 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' ' II nous paraft difEclle de dire autant de choses en moins de mots, et d'unir d'une mani^re plus heureuse la clart^ et la concision." — Bulletin International des Sociitis de Secours auxMilitaires Blessis : Oeneve. Published under the sanction of the National Society for Aid to the Sick and Wounded in War. A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION FOR ATTENDANTS ON THE SICK AND "WOUNDED IN WAR. By A. Moppitt, Staff-Assistant Surgeon of the Boyal Victoria Hospital, Netley. With numerous Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth, 5s. *'A well-written volume. Technical language has been avoided as much as possible, and ample explanations are afforded on all matters on the uses and manageibent of. the Field Hospital Hquipment of the British Army,"— (Standard. IMPERFECT DIGESTION : ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. By Abthur Lbabed, M.D., F.R.C.P., Senior Physician to the Great Northern Hospital. Post 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d. SiMh Edition, '' It now constitutes about the best work on the subject." — Lancet. 10 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON.