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JAMES MORGAN HART 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ENGUSH 
 
The English Graduate Record 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 NOVEMBER— DECEMBER, 1905 
 
 A Study of Shakspere's Stage . • h^ g. paul 97 
 04,01 iJTi Bpi'it . ■cJ!^ — t-~r--T~^fe.^.,,„.,,--..,^g^^ 
 
 Franklin and Defoe . . : 114 
 
 Mens Imniortalis - . . william ellory Leonard 116 
 
 Mr. Poel's Lecture b. w. stair iij 
 
 Registration in English 118 
 
 Changes in Instructors- 121 
 
 The Men's English Graduate ciub 122 
 
 Miscellaneous Notes . ... .... j 123 
 
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 The English Graduate Record 
 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 Vol. I. No. 6. 
 
 A A STUDY OF SHAKSPERE'S STAGE. 
 
 Regarding some features of the Elizabethan stage, such 
 as the absence of any front or drop curtain, critics are 
 pretty well agreed; but I doubt seriously whether it is 
 possible with the data now at our command to determine 
 the exact construction and arrangement of the stage. 
 Theater building was for England a new art, stimulated 
 by the wonderful popularity of the drama. We should, 
 therefore, expect rapid changes and improvements. More- 
 over, in considering the stage directions, we must remem- 
 ber that it is hardly probable that all theaters were con- 
 structed after the sarne model, a consideration that many 
 writers seem entirely to overlook. Such a state of affairs 
 must make us examine carefully the directions given. 
 The "curtain," for exafnple, is a very Protean term. 
 
 Remembering these provisos, we may perhaps assume 
 that the stage was built in some such manner as the fol- 
 lowing: A large platform, exposed on three sides to the 
 audience, extended into the pit. There was no front cur- 
 tain to be dropped at the end of each act. The stage, 
 which was usually strewn with rushes,* might be either 
 movable or immovable. In the houses used both for plays 
 and for bull fights and bear baitings the stage was, of 
 course, movable, to afford on occasion a free arena. In 
 
 * Second Henry IV., V., v., i. 
 
 97 
 
most of the theaters, about two-thirds of the way back oi 
 the stage, stood two pillars, one on each side, supporting 
 what was technically known as "the heavens," a smal 
 hood of tile and lead, which afforded the actors a partia 
 protection from the weather. On either side of the rea: 
 of the stage was a door leading back to the dressing oi 
 tiring rooms. Above these doors extended the balcony 
 Some critics have held that the front of the stage, that is 
 the part projecting beyond the pillars into the pit, wai 
 used to designate an outdoor scene, and that the bad 
 stage, that is, back of these pillars, was the conventional 
 place for representing an indoor scene. That such was 
 the invariable rule is easily disproved by the many in- 
 stances of knocking at the door of the tiring room, as il 
 it were the entrance to a house or the gate of a city, anc 
 by the conversations carried on between those withoui 
 and those within. But, in some instances, probably, the 
 front of the stage did represent an exterior, and some 
 part of the back an, interior. 
 
 I have purposely left this last statement somewhat in- 
 definite; for regarding the arrangement of the back oJ 
 the stage there exists no general agreement. Some critic; 
 believe that between these pillars hung curtains, to be 
 parted or closed as occasion demanded. Behind these 
 closed curtains preparations could be made for the nexl 
 scene, while without a stage was left clear for some Wil 
 Kemp to play his part as a clown. Such an arrangemeni 
 is possessed of obvious disadvantages. Since the stage 
 was open on three sides to the audience, the drawing oi 
 the curtain would cut off the view of the back of the stage 
 only for those directly in front. The sides of this reai 
 stage would be left exposed to the audience unless we 
 imagine two additional curtains. 
 
 Another possible arrangement, one liable to less objec- 
 
 98 
 
tion, is this: At the back of the stage, beneath the bal- 
 cony, was a room open on the side towards the audience. 
 This room was generally concealed by curtains, which 
 could be drawn apart on occasion, and was flanked on 
 either side by a stage door. Such an arrangement per- 
 mits a complete concealment of the back of the stage ; it 
 affords a better representation of a cave or a tomb ; and 
 it dispenses with the back arras which the advocates of 
 the first arrangement commonly add to facilitate the 
 staging of such passages as the casket scene in The Mer- 
 chant of Venice. 
 
 Whether the balcony extended across the entire back of 
 the stage, we cannot determine with certainly. Judging 
 from the number of actors frequently shown in the bal- 
 cony and from some exterior evidence, such as the pic- 
 ture from the title page of William Alabaster's Latin 
 tragedy Roxana, London, 1632, I should be inclined to 
 say that it did. Probably, too, it jutted out a little over 
 the stage. That it could be, and on occasion was, shut 
 off by a curtain, is shown by a passage in Henry VIII.* 
 In The Taming of the Shrew Shakspere introduced Sly 
 as an audience and seated him in the balcony. Later, 
 when it is needed for the purposes of the play, Sly disap- 
 pears, an instance which strengthens the generally ac- 
 cepted theory that when the balcony was not required for 
 the performance of the play it might be used by the 
 audience. This part of the stage served a variety of pur- 
 poses: frequently it represented the walls of a city;t 
 sometimes the second story of a dwelling;! the pulpit 
 from which Brutus and Antony address the Roman mob ; 
 or the hill from which Pindarus reports the progress of 
 the battle. 
 
 * v., ii., 34. t Third Henry, VI., vii., 17 sq. 
 
 X Richard II., III., ii. 
 
 99 
 
The passing of actors back and forth between the bal- 
 cony and the main stage was of frequent occurrence. Of 
 course this change was usually made by the actors disap- 
 pearing for a moment and then reappearing through one 
 of the rear doors. In Titus Andronicus occur no less 
 than a dozen directions for such a change of position. In 
 King Johnf Arthur leaps from the wall and is later found 
 dead from the injuries of the fall. After Cleopatra and 
 her maids have taken refuge in the "monument," as 
 Shakspere calls it, Antony's guard lift their dying master 
 up to his mistress,* an instance which enables us to form, 
 perhaps, juster views of its distance from the stage. 
 Whether the dumb show in A Mid-summ'er Nighfs 
 Dream, Hamlet, and Pericles was presented here or not 
 we cannot be positive. Taking every thing into consid- 
 eration, I am inclined to believe this the most probable 
 place. _ 
 
 Though we may not be sure of the exact location of 
 the curtain, instances of Shakspere's uses of this division 
 of the stage are so numerous and so obvious as scarcely 
 to need recalling. Hid behind the arras, Polonius meets 
 his death ; Lear sought shelter from the storm in a hovel ; 
 the valiant Sir John Falstaff often found here a conve- 
 nient retreat ; back of the arras are discovered " Ferdi- 
 nand and Miranda playing at chess." The numerous 
 caves, such as the one in Timon and that in Cymbeline, 
 were probably represented by this curtained room. Prob- 
 ably, too, though we have pretty good evidence that some 
 sort of a tent was occasionally erected on the Shaksperian 
 stage, the audience was willing to accept a scene when 
 the curtains were half parted, as the disclosure of a view 
 into a tent, such a one, for example, as that of Brutus, 
 
 * IV., iii., 109. t IV., IS, 37- 
 
 100 
 
from which the actors pass back and forth in the fourth 
 act of Julius Caesar. 
 
 " This hawthorne-break shall be our tyring-house," di- 
 rected Peter Quince, actor by royal appointment. To 
 the tiring rooms of the Elizabethan theater two doors 
 opened from the opposite sides of the rear of the stage. 
 Frequent direction is given for two actors or two oppos- 
 ing parties to enter simultaneously from these opposite 
 doors. Such an arrangement is most frequently em- 
 ployed in the historical plays where, for example, the 
 English forces enter at one door and the French at the 
 other. Now and then a conversation is carried on be- 
 tween one actor behind the closed door and another out- 
 side, that is, .on the stage.* Many noises, such as the 
 sounds of battle, the cry of a pack of hounds, and distant 
 shouting, so common in the modern theater, were in 
 vogue in the Elizabethan times and issued from this re- 
 gion back of the visible stage. 
 
 In the floor of the stage was a trap. Though it has 
 been generally assumed that this trap was placed well 
 towards the front, the nine or ten instances I have found 
 do not substantiate such a belief. On the contrary, by 
 their easy classification into scenes dealing with the inter- 
 ment of the dead, or as representing the supernatural, 
 these illustrations emphasize the advisability of placing 
 the trap as far as possible from the audience. We see a 
 second advantage in locating the trap well towards the 
 rear : there must have been some connection between the 
 rooms back of the stage and this cellerage, as when the 
 Ghost in Hamlet is heard from different places. Natur- 
 ally this distance was not lengthened unnecessarily. 
 
 As the Elizabethan play houses were not illuminated. 
 
 * Comedy of Errors, III., i. 
 
 I«I 
 
since the performances were usually held in the afternoon, 
 special references to lights are fairly numerous. The old 
 custom of employing a torch-bearer was frequently used 
 to indicate an out-door scene at night. Now and then, 
 to aid in designating the time, the actors are directed to 
 enter dressed for the night and bearing candles. 
 
 The statement commonly accepted that the Shaksperian 
 stage was pretty bare in comparison with its modern suc- 
 cessor, is quite true. It was not, however, so bare as is 
 generally believed; and the absence of stage furniture 
 was not due to a lack of ingenuity on the part of the 
 stage carpenter. To prove that Shakspere occasionally 
 made use of spectacular effects, we may cite the fifth act 
 of Cymbaline* where Jupiter descends in thunder and 
 y lightning, seated on the back of an eagle. A few lines 
 
 farther on we are told that he ascends, and the marble 
 pavement closes. Again, I can see no reason for refusing 
 to take literally Maria's direction to Sir Toby,t " get into 
 the box-tree, for Malvolio is coming." Benedick saysrj 
 " I will hide myself in this arbor " ; and later the direc- 
 tions plainly indicate that he speaks, from that retreat. 
 Several passages call for a bank upon which one or more 
 of the characters may rest. Here we may notice, too, the 
 significant passage in Richard III where Richmond and 
 Richard successively enter and pitch their tents on the 
 opposite sides of the stage. § 
 
 Such, in general, are the larger features of the staging. 
 Before we consider some of these more in detail, we may 
 well notice what the plays tell us about actors and acting. 
 Whoever has spent four hours watching a modern pro- 
 duction of Hamlet will appreciate the difference in the 
 
 * IV., iv., 91. t Twelfth Night, II., v., 15. 
 
 t Much Ado, II., iii., 45. § IV., iii. 
 
 102 
 
time consumed by such a performance and " the two hours 
 traffic of our stage." In Henry VIII, also, the prologue 
 promises, 
 
 "I'll undertake to see away their shilling 
 Richly in two short hours," 
 
 a passage which incidentally alludes to the price of 
 admission. 
 
 To about a fourth of Shakspere's thirty odd plays are 
 joined prologues, with manifestly no fixed rule for their 
 use. Speaking broadly, the prologue was the forerunner 
 of the synopsis of the drama found on the modern theater 
 program, apprising the audience of the plot. Sometimes 
 the first speech of the drama supplies the place of the 
 prologue;* occasionally the closing speech serves as an 
 epilogue. t Generally the speaker of the prologue was 
 clad in black, though he sometimes assumes a fantastic 
 costume.J Now and then the dramatist seems dissat- 
 isfied with a single prologue, and even goes so far as to 
 prefix a speech for the chorus to each of the separate acts. 
 Probably the greatest diversity in the use of the prologue 
 is that found in Pericles, where the speaker represents 
 Gower. In addition to entering at the beginning of each 
 act and at the end of the play, he also appears before a 
 scene in the middle of one of the acts. Generally the 
 epilogue begged excuse and favor for the play. The cus- 
 tom of bringing on a dancer in the epilogue finds a good 
 illustration in the Second Part of Henry IV, where the 
 actor assures the audience that when his legs are tired, he 
 will bid them good-night. Last of all, the actors knelt 
 down and offered a prayer for the reigning sovereign.§ 
 
 That boys should act the parts of women and girls, nat- 
 
 * Troilus and Cressida. t Timon. 
 
 t Second Henry VI. § Epilogue, Second Henry IV. 
 
 103 
 
I urally suggests itself as the first and greatest difference 
 
 between the actors of the age of Elizabeth and those of 
 
 to-day. I, for one, cannot help feeling that we owe many 
 
 of Shakspere most charming dramas, such as Twelfth 
 
 Night, to this acting of women's parts by boys. We note 
 
 a touch of humor, a little grim, perhaps, when Cleopatra 
 
 complains that* 
 
 "Antony 
 
 -- — Shall be brought drunken forth ; and I shall see 
 
 Some squeaking Cleopatra boy my greatness." 
 
 One is interested in trying to form some idea of the 
 number of supernumeraries employed as citizens, sol- 
 diers, and courtiers. Some of the more spectacular 
 scenes, such as the coronation of Anne Bullin, fill the 
 stage with a crowd of at least twenty-five or thirty people. 
 To the modern theater-goer this may seem a small num- 
 ber ; but it is sufficiently large to induce one to take with 
 a grain of allowance Shakspere's apology ,t 
 
 " Oh for the pity, we shall much disgrase 
 With four or five most vile and ragged foils, 
 y Right ill-disposed in broil rediculous. 
 
 The name of Agincourt." "" 
 
 Whether many of the parts were written to fit the per- 
 sonal appearance or disposition of the actors of the com- 
 pany, we cannot determine. We do know that some parts 
 were inserted to give place and prominence to certain 
 actors, sometimes almost at the expense of the integral 
 unity of the play itself. Shakspere probably created Peter 
 in Romeo and Juliet to afford a suitable part for Will 
 Kemp, a popular jester of the time. Be this adaptation 
 of parts to suit the characters as it may, we have definite 
 pictures of some of the Shaksperian creations. Sir An- 
 
 * v., ii., 220 t Henry V., Prologue to Act IV. 
 
 104 
 
drew Aguecheek's 'legs are very slim, and his hair very 
 straight, "like flax," Sir Toby says. Helena and Hermia 
 are as opposite in stature as in disposition. But in this 
 connection one instinctively thinks of Sir John, who, if 
 shorn of his bulk, would loose the greater part of his 
 interest. 
 
 We have noted above how the stage was exposed on 
 three sides to an audience that crowded close to the 
 actors. Naturally such a throng, reenforced by the dan- 
 dies on the stage, forced the dramatist to rely less upon 
 pictorial representation and more on declamation. Some- 
 times an entrance had to be cleared for the prologue 
 before the play could begin. You will recall how Hamlet, 
 when he instructs the players, places almost his entire 
 emphasis on the declamation. 
 
 One marked feature of modern stagedom was especially 
 emphasized in the Shaksperian drama — the marriage of 
 music with the actor's art. We may rejoice that Shaks- 
 pere lived when England was undergoing a remarkable 
 outburst of song. To this national love of music, per- 
 haps, we owe some twenty songs scattered through his 
 plays. In some instances the song was written for a 
 single voice; but frequently it was arranged for several. 
 Amiens sings the first stanza of Under the Greenwood 
 Tree, and all the foresters join in the second. Twelfth 
 Night affords us one of the best illustrations of this ming- 
 ling of music with the drama. The musicians play for 
 Orsino ; the clown sings ; Sir Toby, Feste, and Sir An- 
 drew sing a catch; again, music for the Duke. Subse- 
 quently the clown sings three more songs. 
 
 Still more numerous and varied are the directions for 
 instrumental music. In Elizabethan times the orchestra 
 played soft music while Bassanio was making his choice 
 of caskets, very much as it does to-day. The passing of 
 
 105 
 
time between acts was indicated by music. The various 
 directions for " Trumpet," " Flourish," " Tucket," " Sen- 
 net," " Alarum," " Short Alarum," and " Sound for Re- 
 treat " are rather confusing. Perhaps it is sufficient to 
 note that such variations exist, most of them intended 
 for the trumpet or cornet. A sennet usually indicated 
 the arrival of a king, and a tucket a call to arms. Horns 
 and trumpets, drums, tabors and pipes, lutes and haut- 
 boys, in a word, nearly all the musical instruments com- 
 mon to the time were used in the presentation of these 
 dramas. 
 
 The greater use of music and of dancing in the Shaks- 
 perian plays than in the so-called legitimate drama of 
 to-day may be due in part to the fact that the drama was 
 not then so sharply divided as it is at present. We should 
 assign to the vaudeville and musical stage many things 
 included in the Shaksperian plays. In at least a dozen 
 dramas are given directions for a dance, varying from 
 the simple jig of the clown to some very elaborate pres- 
 entations. In these dances good use was made of the 
 orchestra. Space is lacking to describe in detail the 
 mask of the Amazons in Timon of Athens, or the dance 
 during the vision of Queen Catherine with its very elab- 
 orate details, or the robust performance of the salters, 
 none of whom jumped less than twelve feet, as given in 
 the Winter's Tale. Judging from the description, we 
 must believe this last named dance was a pretty rough 
 affair. 
 
 No doubt the jumping of the salters brought generous 
 applause from the audience, for the Englishman always 
 has and probably always will, glory in feats of strength 
 and skill. We know that such contests as the wrestling 
 match in As You Like It were far from child's play ; and 
 that when Macbeth cries, " Lay on Macduff," he chal- 
 
 io6 
 
lenges his rival to a duel where the blows were hard and 
 fast, and skilfully given. 
 
 As we should naturally expect, the numerous dramas 
 of blood have influenced Shakspere, especially in his 
 earlier work. Then, too, the historical plays are inher- 
 ently a record of lives risked and lost in the battle for 
 supremacy. The wounding of men and their entrance 
 wounded is so common as to require little more than 
 simple mention. Such a spectacle as the blinding of 
 Glocester, however it may have affected the Elizabethans, 
 seems to most of us too revolting for representation on 
 the stage. We do not know with what degree of realism 
 were represented such acts as Aaron's chopping off Titus 
 Andronicus's hand. Few of us should care to see acted 
 such passages as the following :* 
 
 " Come, brother, take a head. 
 And in this hand the other will I bear. 
 Bear thou my hand, sweet wench, between thy teeth." 
 
 In the disposition of the dead bodies Shakspere had to 
 solve a problem unknown to the modern dramatist, who' 
 may drop a curtain almost at will. In those times the 
 bodies had to be carried away, and the dramatist was 
 forced to give some reason for the removal. Shakspere's 
 greatest triumph over this difficulty is the impressive 
 death march in Hamlet. The Danish Prince lugs the 
 body of the murdered Polonius from the stage, declaring 
 that he intends to hide it beneath the stairway. The dis- 
 posal of Percy Hotspur's body seems to me especially in- 
 genious and illustrates how well Shakspere made the most 
 of his material. Hotspur is lying dead on the battle field, 
 when Sir John enters, shoulders the corpse, and starts off,, 
 
 * III., i., 201. 
 
 107 
 
declaring that he will have proof that he has slain the 
 rebel leader. 
 
 But if the manager of this comparatively crude theater 
 paid nothing for a drop-curtain and little for stage-set- 
 ting, he spent a goodly sum for costumes. Gorgeous and 
 splendid as many of these costumes were, however, they 
 were chosen with little regard for their fitness to repro- 
 duce the dress of the age or nation represented. Though 
 it is true that the tawny Moor who came as Portia's 
 suitor was striking enough in his suit of white, such inci- 
 dents are the exception. The Roman mob in Julius 
 Caesar is as thoroughly English in its dress as in its dis- 
 position. Repeated references are made both in this 
 play and in Coriolanus to the mobile vulgus casting up 
 their caps. 
 
 Several references, however, both in the text and in the 
 stage directions, indicate that while the stage-managers 
 gave practically no attention to historical accuracy, they 
 did pay considerable to the reproduction of appropriate 
 contemporary costumes. In support of this statement we 
 may cite Biondello's description of Petruchio, who is 
 coming to claim his bride;* the reapers, mentioned in 
 the Temp est, -^ who enter properly habited; Henry the 
 Eighth, appearing as a shepherd ;$ the gorgeous corona- 
 tion of Anne BuUin; and the dance in Merry Wives,^ 
 where FalstafiE is punished. 
 
 For scenes of mourning the actors were clad in black. 
 Hamlet's " inky coat " is inseparable in our conception 
 of him. When Cleon shows Pericles the supposed tomb 
 of Marianna, the stricken father " makes lamentation and 
 puts on sack-cloth."|| The followers of a great house 
 
 * The Taming of the Shrew, III., ii., 42. t IV., i., 134. 
 
 1 1., iv., 62 § Merry Wives, V., i., 57. || V., 4, 23. 
 
 108 
 
were designated, just as in the world beyond stagedom, 
 by their master's livery. Richard enters " with his serv- 
 ing men in blue coats " ;* and a little later his enemy Win- 
 chester follows with " his serving men in tawny suits." 
 In a number of other instances Shakspere has prescribed 
 the color of the garments. Sometimes the costumes are 
 "marvellously ill favored." Glocester and Buckingham 
 come on the stage in " rotten armor."t 
 
 It is interesting to mark how Shakspere makes re- 
 peated references to the different articles of dress and 
 sometimes uses them to strengthen the plot of the drama. 
 Henry V exchanges gloves with Williams, who later on 
 recognizing his own in Fluellen's cap, promptly boxes 
 the Welshman's ear; and serious trouble is averted only 
 by Henry's confession of the circumstances of the ex- 
 change. But by far the best illustration is that of the 
 handkerchief in Othello, an instance showing most won- 
 derfully what good use Shakspere could make of his ma- 
 terial. One finds a surprisingly large number of refer- 
 ences to the little accessories of dress, illustrating how 
 well Shakspere provides for what is technically known 
 as stage business. 
 
 The absence of scenery on the Elizabethan stage must 
 have compelled Shakspere to rely largely upon costumes 
 for his spectacular effects. Henry VIII calls for a 
 greater display of costumes than does any other of the 
 dramas rightly or wrongly ascribed to Shakspere. Such 
 scenes as the baptism of Elizabeth and, more especially, 
 the coronation of Anne, required a considerable number 
 of actors and supernumeraries and afforded a chance for 
 the most elaborate costuming the management could 
 afford. 
 
 The use of things visible on the stage has a great value 
 
 * First Henry VI., I., iii., i sq. ^Richard III., III., v., i. 
 
 109 
 
in holding the audience. Whatever other purpose the 
 conventional " valuable papers " may serve, they are the 
 visible incarnation of the prize for which the villain and 
 the hero are contending. It is quite true that these arti- 
 cles are often mentioned in the original stories ; but such 
 an admission does not necessarily invalidate the statement 
 that Shakspere introduced them because he felt that they 
 were good dramatic material. 
 
 Of all such ocular aids for the spectator the letter is 
 perhaps the most common. Shakspere has left us hardly 
 a play that does not make use of this device. In the rep- 
 resentation of these letters the seal was, for stage reasons, 
 made rather prominent. Instances of other important 
 papers are numerous. On the whole I should say that 
 Shakspere has introduced them oftener himself than he 
 has taken them from his sources. Much of what has just 
 been said of the use of letters is equally applicable to the 
 employment of rings and jewels of various kinds, chains, 
 bracelets, and other ornaments. The stage business was 
 further aided by the custom of giving money for services 
 rendered and in sign of friendship. This practice aids the 
 business both by the act of giving and receiving and by 
 the many responses the bestowal may elicit. Viola, re- 
 jecting the proffered reward, says, " My master, not my- 
 self, lacks recompense." Feste, considering that whence 
 two coins have come may follow a third, continues his 
 admirable fooling. Eating and drinking scenes, numer- 
 ous in Shakspere, aid in furnishing stage business. 
 Sometimes the scene gives us the air of free life " under 
 the greenwood tree " ; or the feeling that the land is en- 
 chanted, as when Ariel, by flapping his wings, causes the 
 banquet to disappear ;* or it may thrill us with Macbeth's 
 terror on beholding the blood-stained Banquo seated in 
 
 * Tempest, III., iii., i8. 
 
 IIO 
 
the midst of the revelry. Comedy and tragedy alike are 
 furthered by this stage business. Petruchio throws the 
 meat about the room ; and Timon bids his guests uncover 
 the dishes of warm water. 
 
 Whether the introduction of animals upon the stage 
 adds anything to the verasimilitude of the scene, we may 
 perhaps question ; though all would agree that " the grisly 
 beast that lion height by name " adds mightily to the 
 humor. We have mentioned before the spectacle of Jove 
 descending on the back of an eagle. Dogs were some- 
 times introduced on the Elizabethan stage. In the Tem- 
 pest occur these curious directions :* "A noise of hunters 
 heard. Enter divers Spirits in shapes of dogs and hounds 
 and hunt them [Stephano and his companions] about." 
 Antigones, in abandoning Perdita to her fate, does so 
 because, as the folio puts it,t " He is persued by a bears, f 
 
 In this study of stage effects I have been unable to 
 determine how realistic were the representations of 
 storms. In the Tempest the directions read: J "A tem- 
 pestuous noise of thunder and lightning heard." For rep- 
 resenting thunder, Ben Jonson tells us, it was customary 
 to use a drum. Possibly the lightning was some kind of 
 fireworks, which the Elizabethans used so frequently that 
 we wonder how the inflammable play-houses ever escaped 
 destruction. Sometimes characters came on the stage in 
 wet garments. In Much Ado Borachio says:§ "Stand 
 thee close under this pent-house, for it drizzles rain." 
 
 The property room was, in all probability, a much more 
 important place than most writers would lead us to be- 
 lieve. It was not so large or well-furnished as its modern 
 successor, except, perhaps, in one or two lines ; but none 
 the less it was stored with so many different requisites as 
 
 * L, i., 48. t Winter's Tale, III., iii., 58. 
 
 tlV., i., 254. ?III., iii., no. 
 
 Ill 
 
to make difficult any description. Of all its equipment 
 we should probably say that the place was best supplied 
 with arms and armor. Staves and clubs are the conven- 
 tional weapons of the mob. Lances, pikes, halberds, 
 cross-bows, all tell of an age that is almost past ; while the 
 lime-stock, used on the stage, and the ordnance, fired 
 without, show us a more modern phase of life. Proper- 
 ties for representing the home, too, were fairly numer- 
 ous. Chairs, beds, tables, chests, trunks, and boxes are 
 frequently mentioned. Nor must we forget the clothes 
 hamper — it must have been a huge affair — ^that concealed 
 Sir John. The four or five directions for the striking of 
 the clock are distributed without regard to anachronism. 
 Brutus and Richard III. alike hear the sounding of the 
 hour. Probably no fire was kindled on the stage though 
 logs and splits were frequently introduced. We might 
 increase this list of properties almost indefinitely. 
 
 In summary, then, we may say that as the stage was 
 so exposed to the public, Shakspere depended more on 
 declamation and less on stage-pictures than does his 
 modern successor. Next, that the peculiar construction 
 of th-e stage presented certain advantages and certain diffi- 
 culties ; and that in utilizing the one and in minimiz- 
 ing the effects of the other, Shakspere showed a re- 
 ^markable craftsmanship. Third, that we find in these 
 plays a marked emphasis of some of the vaudeville 
 sources of the drama. Great attention was given to cos- 
 tuming ; and while the dress of other ages was not repro- 
 duced, contemporary English costumes were represented 
 with a fair degree of fidelity. Again that Shakspere paid 
 a notable attention to his stage business. Lastly, the num- 
 ber of properties was greater than is perhaps generally 
 recognized. H. G. Paul. 
 
 University of Illinois. 
 
 112 
 
His anticipation of the wave theory of light, his observa- 
 tions of storms and whirl-winds, his experiments in the 
 production of cold by evaporation, his ingenuity in con- 
 structing ' magic squares,' his interest in nautical matters, 
 in scientific agriculture, and in paleontology, his contribu- 
 tions to the study of medicine and hygiene, would alone 
 suffice to prove him to have been one of the most wide- 
 awake mortals that ever lived ; and his pioneer discoveries 
 in electricity afford that solid basis of knowledge and 
 achievement in at least one department of inquiry which 
 seems the necessary foundation of abiding greatness. . . . 
 
 " Everywhere we touch him he is the human and there- 
 fore the fascinating Franklin. This statement is, to be 
 sure, an exaggeration — one of the sort at which he would 
 have smiled with depreciating modesty or else, with a 
 malicious twinkle of the eye, would have told an unsavory 
 anecdote with disenchanting results. There were sides 
 of Franklin's character that were not at all attractive. 
 Prof. Smyth calls attention in a paragraph to the ' smudgy 
 trail ' the facetious printer left behind him in the Penn- 
 sylvania Gazette, to the grossness of some of his letters, 
 to the effect of his strong animal instincts upon his con- 
 duct. 
 
 " It is this, combined with his comparative insensibility 
 to poetry and to spiritual religion that puts Franklin, in 
 the final analysis, below such men as Johnson and Wash- 
 ington, to whom he was vastly superior in many intel- 
 lectual respects and who may themselves be justly taxed 
 with aesthetic deficiencies. But when his limitations have 
 been duly considered, it remains true that Franklin, like 
 Defoe, and for much the same reasons, is one of the most 
 fascinating mortals, at least to students who examine 
 minutely every phase of his character by means of his 
 self-revealing writings. Both men had in its fullest de- 
 
velopment what may be called the genius for the prose of 
 life. In both this genius is fused with a sort of plebeian 
 spirit; with the result that they do not greatly appeal to 
 over-sensitive souls. Other souls less squeamish, more 
 robust, more catholic, if you will, take a special delight 
 in watching the eifects of this combination of democratic 
 and aristocratic elements upon the lives and writings of 
 these two great sons of the people, whose masterpieces 
 will not cease to be read until the precious style affected 
 by numerous moderns becomes an eternal possession of 
 the English speaking masses. When that delectable day 
 comes, Robinson Crusoe and Franklin's Autobiography 
 may be banished from whatever substitute the aesthetic 
 world shall have devised for homely book-shelves." 
 
 MENS IMMORTALIS. 
 
 I am the Lord of Heaven and Hell ; I reign 
 King from the blue Void to dim gulfs below ; 
 My counsellors were gathered long ago 
 
 From conquered hosts of pleasure and of pain. 
 
 And when at sanction of their suzerain 
 
 They speak the wisdom only they can know, 
 My just decrees work thrift or overthrow 
 
 Throughout my old and eminent domain. 
 
 I plant the mountain where I laid the plain. 
 
 Create the seas and suns of after-glow, 
 I call the thunder and the wild slant rain, 
 
 I build me shrines for worship or for show — 
 Destroying all, when for my growth and gain 
 I wish new worlds to rise, new winds to blow. 
 William Ellery Leonaed. 
 ii6 
 
J (MR. POEL'S LECTURE. 
 
 Mr. William Poel, director of the Elizabethan Stage 
 Society of London, delivered an illustrated lecture at Co- 
 lumbia November 28, on The Stage of Shakespeare. A 
 large portion of the address was devoted to an exposition 
 and defense of the continuous performance in the repre- 
 sentation of Shakespeare's plays, and as the views of Mr. 
 Poel and his associates on this matter are already familiar 
 to students, it will not be necessary to review that part 
 of the lecture. There were, however, three suggestions 
 made that are not so generally known. 
 
 A number of slides were shown, giving pictures of 
 old English halls with two doors at the end. In these 
 Mr. Poel finds the origin of the two stage doors of the 
 well-known " Swan " picture. He also exhibited a num- 
 ber of pictures of old inn-yard balconies, in whose sup- 
 porting timbers he discovers the suggestion for the two 
 pillars of the " Swan " stage. Finally, the lecturer showed 
 Mr. Bullen's page with excisions made by the Master of 
 the Revels, and asserted that in the growing abuse of 
 this supervision we have the explanation of Shakespeare's 
 early abandonment of play-writing. 
 
 For the first of these hypotheses, it will be sufficient to 
 ask how it explains the existence of three doors, proved 
 for more than one theater. As to the second, it is at least 
 possible that where there were projecting " heavens " to 
 be supported, it might have occurred to any carpenter to 
 employ pillars for that purpose, without making a study 
 of inn-yards. The conjecture as to the cause of Shakes- 
 peare's retirement is interesting enough, but will hardly 
 be regarded as in itself conclusive. B. W. Stair. 
 
 117 
 
REGISTRATION IN ENGLISH. 
 The registration for 1905-06 shows a gratifying in- 
 crease in the number of graduate students enrolled. 
 There are now 114 students taking English as a major as 
 against 88 last year; and 66 taking a minor in English 
 with their major in other departments, as against 36 last 
 year. A list of the major students, with the names of 
 the colleges from which they received their bachelor's de- 
 gree, is appended. 
 
 Mary S. Ayres, Wellesley College. 
 Simeon Bachrach, College of the City of New York. 
 Margaret E. Ball, Mt. Holyoke College. 
 Mary C. Bancker, University of Michigan. 
 Jiose M. Barton, Cornell University. 
 Ernest S. Bates, University of Michigan. 
 Florence Fisher Bates (Mrs.), University of Michigan, 
 Arthur S. Beale, Harvard College. 
 Georgina G. Bennett, Barnard College. 
 G. S. Blakeley, Dartmouth College. 
 Minnie L. Bollert, University of Toronto. 
 John G. Bowman, University of Iowa. 
 Earl L. Bradsher, University of Missouri. 
 Guy M. Carleton, Yale University. 
 Joseph F. Cashman, Adelphi College. 
 Ellen MacR. D. Chater, Vassar College. 
 Jessie T. Coddington, Adelphi College. 
 Helen L. Cohen, Barnard College. 
 Isabella M. Cooper, Barnard College. 
 Annie M. Cordley, Wellesley College. 
 Mary C. Craig, University of Toronto. 
 Leonidas W. Crawford, Trinity College. 
 Frank M. Crouch, Cornell University. 
 Jane F. Culbert, Vassar College. 
 Henry Davidoff, College of the City of New York. 
 Margaret C. Davis, University of Chicago. 
 Elizabeth S. Day, Barnard College. 
 Henry J. Eckstein, Cokimbia College. 
 Mabel E. Engle, Lebanon Valley College. 
 118 
 
Mabel Elting, Barnard College. 
 Helen Erskine, Barnard College. 
 Edwin Fairley, Amherst College. 
 Robert A. Ferrari, Columbia College. 
 Mary L. Forsyth (Mrs.), Barnard College. 
 Moses L. Frazier, Mount Union College. 
 Louis S. Friedland, College of the City of New York. 
 Mary K. Frost (Mrs.), Knox College. 
 Claude Moore Fuess, Amherst College. 
 Charles Galwey, New York University. 
 Louise B. Gere, Wellesley College. 
 Virginia C. Gildersleeve, Barnard College. 
 Theodora Goldsmith, Adelphi College. 
 Joseph J. Gollomb, College of the City of New York. 
 Gerhard E. H. Greef, Columbia College. 
 Felix Grendon, College of the City of New York. 
 Amy L. Gurlitz, Wellesley College. 
 Mary E. Hardin, Elmira College. 
 Abbie S. Hodgetts, Wesleyan University, Nebraska. 
 Georgiana Hodgkins, University of California. 
 Grace Hubbard, Smith College. 
 Emeline K. Hunt, Vassar College. 
 Edward A. Ingraham, Wesleyan University. 
 Mary I. Kavanagh, Vassar College. 
 David Klein, College of the City of New York. 
 Abraham Kovar, College of the City of New York. 
 Edgar R. Kraetzer, Columbia College. 
 Adele Lathrop, University of Nebraska. 
 Russel W. Leary, Rutgers College. 
 Sarah Lewis, University of Minnesota. 
 Lillie D. Loshe, Bryn Mawr College. 
 Emma F. Lowd, Boston University. 
 Curtis Lublin, Columbia College. 
 Edmund DeL. Lucas, University of Wooster. 
 George W. McClelland, University of Pennsylvania. 
 Mary E. Masland, Bryn Mawr College. 
 Will W. Massee, University of Minnesota. 
 Barnette Miller, Columbia University. 
 Julia P. Mitchell, Smith College. 
 Philip Moeller, Columbia College. 
 
 119 
 
Isabelle Mott, Barnard College. 
 Frank W. Murtfeldt, Harvard University. 
 Willard L. Myers, College of the City of New York. 
 Arthur H. Nason, Bowdoin College. 
 Henry Neumann, College of the City of New York. 
 William B. Otis, Iowa College. 
 Mary J. Philp, Syracuse University. 
 Sarah Ruth Quigley, University of Iowa. 
 Mary V. Riblet, Teachers College. 
 Mary Virginia Rice, University of Texas. 
 Alice E. B. Ritter, Adelphi College. 
 Grace D. Robinson, Elmira College. 
 Maria A. Rogers, Smith College. 
 W. Harris Roome, Columbia College. 
 Olive C. Ross, University of Nashville. 
 Max Schellitzer, College of the City of New York. 
 Samuel Schlosberg, College of the City of New York. 
 Grace M. Seaton, Teachers College. 
 --Watson B. Selvage, Cornell University. 
 Frank D. Sicher, Yale University. 
 Benjamin F. Sisk, University of Texas. 
 Ada M. Skinner, Teachers College. 
 Anna H. Smith, Syracuse University. 
 Marguerite Smith, Vassar College. 
 Mary K. Smith, Elmira College. 
 Hilda L. Staber, Barnard College. 
 Bird W. Stair, Purdue University. 
 Stella B. Stearns, University of Minnesota. 
 Harrison R. Steeves, Columbia College. 
 Claude M. Stone, Colgate University. 
 Sarah A. Taintor, Elmira College. 
 John W. Taylor, Columbia College. 
 Joseph L. Tynan, College of the City of New York. 
 Alice J. Walker, Mt. Holyoke College. 
 Jane B. Walker, University of Chicago. 
 Sophie T. Walton (Mrs.), Mt. Holyoke College. 
 Ethel G. Weed, Vassar College. 
 Mabel F. Weeks, Radcliffe College. 
 Thomas J. Whalen, St. Francis Xavier. 
 William P. Wharton, Columbia College. 
 1 20 
 
Maude L. White, Smith College. 
 
 Mabel H. Wiant, Woman's College of Baltimore. 
 
 Emma M. Williams, Wesleyan University. 
 
 Edith H. Wilson, Lake Forest University. 
 
 Alice I. P. Wood, Wellesley College. 
 
 Jacob Zeitlin, Columbia College. 
 
 CHANGES IN INSTRUCTORS. 
 
 Students and instructors both deplore the approaching 
 departure of Professor W. A. Neilson, who has accepted 
 a professorship of English in Harvard University, and 
 will begin his duties there next autumn. His successor. 
 Professor Ashley H. Thorndike, of Northwestern Uni- 
 versity, was gratuated from Wesleyan University in 1893, 
 and received his doctor's degree from Harvard Univer- 
 sity in 1898. From 1895 to 1898 he was instructor in 
 English in Boston University, and from 1898 to 1902 he 
 was assistant professor of English in Western Reserve 
 University. Since 1902 he has been head of the De- 
 partment of English at Northwestern. Professor Thorn- 
 dike is well known among English scholars, both at home 
 and abroad, for his work in the Elizabethan drama, and 
 his studies and his experience have given him an un- 
 usually broad outlook over the field of instruction and re- 
 search in English. Coluihbia is exceedingly fortunate 
 in securing Professor Thorndike and in thus supplying 
 Professor Neilson's place so promptly with a scholar of 
 kindred spirit and equipment. 
 
 The course of instruction ofifered by the department 
 will be further enriched next year by the appointment as 
 lecturer of Dr. John W. Cunliffe of McGill University, 
 who will join the university staff in February, 1907, and 
 will give two graduate courses during the entire second 
 half-year. Dr. Cunliffe was a pupil of Professor A. W. 
 
 121 
 
Ward, and was Shakspere Scholar and Berkeley Fellow 
 in English literature at Owens College, Manchester (now 
 the University of Manchester). In 1884 he received his 
 B.A. from the University of London, and subsequently 
 an M.A. in both classical and modern literature. In 1894 
 he received the degree of Doctor of Literature from the 
 same institution, presenting as his thesis " The Influence 
 of Seneca upon Elizabethan Tragedy," a volume which 
 brought him at once to the attention of English scholars 
 throughout the world, and which met with their cordial 
 approval. Since 1898, Dr. Cunliffe has been lecturer on 
 the English language and literature at McGill University. 
 Professor G. R. Carpenter is to be away next year on 
 leave of absence. His graduate course in rhetorical 
 theory and practice will be given by Professor W. T. 
 Brewster of Barnard College. 
 
 THE MEN'S ENGLISH GRADUATE CLUB. 
 
 The subject for discussion in the club November 24 
 was The Teaching of an Appreciation of Literature. The 
 speakers were A. H. Nason, L. W. Crawford, E. S. Bates 
 and Dr. William W. Lawrence. 
 
 On the evening of December 8 Professor Brander 
 Matthews addressed the club upon Persuasion and Con- 
 troversy. Professor Matthews illustrated fully his theme, 
 the central thought of which was as follows: In order 
 to convince the public or an individual of an idea, he 
 said, " nothing is more important than an unassuming 
 manner. If you want to win the public to listen, you must 
 be firm, of course, but you must not be condescending; 
 for there is nothing that human nature resents more 
 quickly than being addressed in words of one syllable. 
 . . . You must remember the potency of little drops of 
 
 122 
 
water and of little grains of sand. . . . Above all must 
 the advocate of a new cause or the assailant of an old 
 abuse respect the opinions of those he is striving to con- 
 vert. He must ever bear in mind that the average man, 
 the unit which is multiplied into the general public, means 
 to do right — that the average man is ever ready honestly 
 to echo the fine phrase of Marcus Aurelius : ' If any one 
 is able to convince me and to show me that I do not think 
 or act right, I will gladly change. For I seek the truth 
 by which no man was ever injured.' " 
 
 Professor George C. D. Odell talked to the club, Janu- 
 ary 19, upon the dramatic poetry of Tennyson and of 
 Browning. By a discussion of Queen Mary, Harold, and 
 Becket, Professor Odell traced the steps by which Tenny- 
 son gained a grasp of dramatic art, progressing from 
 Queen Mary, a pale disconnected play, to the more per- 
 fectly welded play of Becket. Tennyson learned from the 
 failures of Queen Mary and of Harold that all the actions 
 of the drama must finally lead up to and come together 
 in one situation. The acts in Becket are held together by 
 the personality of the leading character. Browning had 
 more to say than Tennyson, but did not know as well the 
 business of the playright. He wrote compelling crises in 
 his plays, but failed in making them seem reasonable be- 
 cause he rushed headlong to them, neglecting the exposi- 
 tion. These ideas were illustrated by an analysis of A 
 Blot in the 'Scutcheon and In a Balcony. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 
 
 Dr. John Erskine is the author of a sonnet entitled 
 More than Hope in December Harper's. 
 
 The Columbian this year becomes not a junior class 
 book, but a book representative of the entire university. 
 
 123 
 
It is good to note that the volume is dedicated to Pro- 
 fessor George C. D. Odell. 
 
 At the meeting of the division of the Modern Language 
 and Literature association, held in New York January 
 20, Professor J. B. Fletcher was elected chairman and 
 Professor W. T. Brewster secretary. 
 
 The address on American Character which Professor 
 Brander Matthews delivered before the Phi Beta Kappa 
 of Columbia last June and which he repeated last Novem- 
 ber at the Charter Day exercises of Rutgers College will 
 be printed in the March number of the Columbia Univer- 
 sity Quarterly. It is also to be published as a booklet this 
 spring by Thomas Y. Crowell & Co. 
 
 Mr. Henry James, writing in the Fortnightly Review, 
 gives a spring impression of Nem York and the Hudson. 
 He finds in this city an unwritten law that almost forbids 
 any " planted object " to gather in a history where it 
 stands; that in fact forbids any accumulation that may 
 not be recorded in the mere bank-book. Then he makes 
 the discovery that New York has " invented " the " mov- 
 ing " university, a term which he applies to Columbia be- 
 cause Columbia changed its site and did not gather in 
 more history in the former location. 
 
 F. A. Cummings, who is now teaching in Hollins In- 
 stitute, Virginia, has begun work in earnest upon a dis- 
 sertation on Henry Timrod, the southern poet. Mr. Cum- 
 mings spent his summer vacation in New York and; after 
 a search that took him in every direction over the metro- 
 polis, succeeded in finding a large batch of important 
 correspondence, the existence of which had been known 
 in the South some ten years ago, but which for a while 
 seemed to be lost. This correspondence, which contains 
 many of Timrod's letters, throws important light upon 
 southern conditions. 
 
 124 
 
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 Syllabi of English Courses 
 
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 Grammar — By Dr. Krapp. 
 
 A, No. 6. — The History of English Literature in the 
 Nineteenth Century — By Professor F. H. 
 Sykes. 
 
 A, No. 8.— Theory and Practice of Teaching English in 
 the Elementary Schools — By Professor 
 F. T. Baker. 
 
 A, No. II. — English Composition — By Professor H. V. 
 Abbott. 
 
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